Encyclopedia Britannica; 
 
 O R, A 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 O F 
 
 ARTS, SCIENCES, 
 
 AND 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; 
 
 Conftrufted on a Plan, 
 
 B Y W H I C H 
 
 THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS 
 Are digefted into the Form of Diftind 
 
 T R E A T I S E S o R SYSTEMS, 
 
 COMPREHENDING 
 
 The History, Theor y, and P r a c t i c e, of each, 
 according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements; 
 
 AND FULL EXPLANATIONS GIFEN OF 7HE 
 
 VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, 
 
 W H E T 1 1 E R R E L A T I N G T O 
 
 Natural and Artificial Objeas, or to Matters Ecclesiastical, 
 Civil, Military, Commercial, ^r. 
 
 Including Elucidations of the moft important Topics relative to Religion, Morals, 
 
 Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life : 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, 6c. 
 
 throughout the World; 
 
 A General History, Ancient and Modern^ of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;^ 
 
 AND 
 
 An Account of the Lives of the moil Eminent Perfons In every Nation, 
 from the earliefl: ages down to the prefent times. 
 
 Comtilei from ibf -icriiings of the hjl Authcrs, infe^'Ctal hrgvas^es ; tbf moji approved Diaionarus, as well of general faence as rf tts farti^ 
 cular branches ; the -Lninlaaions, Journals, a„d Mem ir., 0/ learned SocittUj, both at home and abroad : (he MS. LeSures of 
 Eminent Vrof-jfort on digti e-.t fciences ; and a l arktj of Original Materials, furnifced by an Ext<'nfive Correfpondence. 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES. 
 
 VOL. IV. 
 
 INDOCTl DTSCANT, Er A M B NT M E M I N I S S B PERiri. 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARQU HAR» 
 MDCCXCVIL 
 
<Bnttm in %mmmmil in Ztxmn of tfie m of ipatliament 
 
Encyclopaedia Britannic a. 
 
 C A A 
 
 C 
 
 c, 
 
 Caaba. 
 
 CTHE third letter, and fecond confonant, of the 
 5 alphabet, is pronounced like k before the vowels 
 a, 0, and u; and hke s before i?, /, and j. p is formed, 
 according to Scaliger, from the k of the Greeks, by re- 
 trenching the ilem or upright line; though others de- 
 rive it from the 3 of the Hebrews, which has in effedl 
 the fame form ; allowing only for this, that the He- 
 brews, reading backwards, and the Latins, &c. for- 
 wards, each have turned the letter their own way. 
 However, the C not being the fame as to found with 
 the Hebrew caph, and it being certain the Romans did 
 not borrow their letters immediately from the He- 
 brews or other orientals, but from the Greeks, the de- 
 rivation from the Greek is the more probable. Add, 
 that F. Montfaucon, in his Palasographia, gives us 
 fome forms of the Greek x, which come very near that 
 of our C ; thus, for inftance, c: and Suidas calls the 
 C the Roman kappa. The fecond found of C refem- 
 bles that of the Greek 2 ; and many inltances occur of 
 ancient infcriptions, in which ^ has the fame form with 
 our C. All grammarians agree, that the Romans pro- 
 nounced their QJike our C, and their C like our K. 
 F. Mabillon adds, that Charles the Great was the firll 
 who wrote his name with a C; whereas all his prede- 
 celfors of the fame name wrote it with a K: and the 
 fame diti'"erence is obferved in their coins. 
 
 As an abbreviature, C Hands for Caius, Carolus, Cte- 
 far, condcwno, 8ic. and CC for confuliLus. 
 
 As a numeral, C fignifies loo, CC 200, &c. 
 C, in mufic, placed after the cliff, intimates that the 
 mulic is in common time, which is either quick or flow, 
 as it is joined with allegro or adagio : if alone, it is 
 iifually adagio. If the C be crofled or turned, the 
 "firft requires the air to be played quick, and the lall 
 very quick. 
 
 CAABA, or Caao-ah, properly fignifies a fquare 
 ilone ^building ; but is particularly apphed by the Ma- 
 hometans to the temple of Mecca, built, as they pre- 
 'tend, by Abraham and Iflimael his fon. 
 
 Before the time of Mahomet, this temple was a 
 place of worship for the idolatrous Arabs, and is faid to 
 have contained no lefs than 360 different images, 
 equalling in number the days of the Arabian year. 
 They were all deffroyed by Mahomet, who fandtified 
 the Caaba, and appointed it to be the chief place of 
 worfliip for all true believers. The temple is in length 
 from north to fouth about 24 cubits ; its breadth from 
 tail to weft is 23 ; and its height 27. The door, 
 which is on the eaft fide, ftands about four cubits from 
 the ground ; the floor being level with the bottom of 
 
 Vol. IV. Part. L 
 
 C A A 
 
 the door. In the corner next this door is the hiacljloney Caaba, 
 fo much celebrated among the Mahometans. On the ^ ' " v 
 north fide of the caaba, within a femicircular inclofure 
 50 cubits long, lies the 'white Jione, faid to be the fe- 
 pulchre of Iflimael, which receives the rain-water from 
 the caaba by a fpout formerly of wood, but now of 
 gold. The black ftone, according to the Mahometans, 
 was brought down from heaven by Gabriel at the cre- 
 ation of the world ; and originally of a white colour ; 
 but contracted the blacknefs that now appears on it, 
 from the guilt of thofe fins committed by the fons of 
 men. It is fet in filver, and fixed in the fouth-eall. 
 corner of the caaba, looking towards Bafra, about feven 
 fpans from the ground. This ftone, upon which there 
 is the figure of a human head, is held in the higheft 
 eftimation among the Arabs ; all the pilgrims killing 
 it with great devotion, and fome even calling it the 
 right hand of God. Its blacknefs, which is only fuper- 
 ficial, is probably owing to the kiffes and touches of 
 fo many people. After the Karmatians had taken 
 Mecca, they carried away this precious ftone, and - 
 could by no means be prevailed upon to reftore it ; 
 but finding at laft that they were unable to prevent the 
 concourfe of pilgrims to Mecca, they fent it back of 
 their own accord, after having kept it 22 years. 
 
 The double roof of the caaba is fupported within by 
 three odlagonal pillars of aloes-wood; between which, 
 on a bar of iron, hang fome filver lamps. The outfide 
 is covered with rich black damaik, adorned with an 
 embroidered band of gold, which is changed every 
 year, and was formerly fent by the khalifs, afterwards 
 by the fultans of Egypt, and is now provided by the 
 Turkifti emperors. The caaba, at fome diftance, is al- 
 moft furrounded by a circular inclofure of pillars, join- 
 ed towards the bottom by a low balluftrade, and to- 
 wards the top. by bars of filver. Juft without this inner 
 inclofure, on the fouth, north, and weft fides of the 
 caaba, are three buildings, which are the oratories or 
 places where three of the orthodox fefts affemble to per- 
 form their devotions. Towards the fouth-eaft ftands 
 an edifice which covers the well Zemzen, the treafury, 
 and the cupola of Al Abbas. Fonnerly there was an- 
 other cupola, that went under the name of the hemi- 
 cycle., or cupola of jfudaa; but whether or not any re- 
 mains of that are now to be feen is unknown; nor is it 
 eafy to obtain information in this refpefl, all Chriftiana 
 being denied accefs to this holy place. At a fmall di- 
 ftance from the caaba, on the eaft fide, is the Jlation 
 OY place of Abraham ; where is another ftone much re«- 
 Ipedled by the Mahometans ; and where they pretend 
 A to 
 
CAB [2 
 
 Caaba to fhow the footfteps of the patriarch, telling us he flood 
 I! on it when he built the caaba. Here the fourth feA 
 of Arabs, 'viz. that of Al Shafei, aflemble for religious 
 purpofes. 
 
 The fquare colonnade, or great piazza, that at a 
 confiderable diftance inclofes thefe buildings, confills, 
 according to Al Jannabi, of 448 pillars, and has no 
 lefs than 38 gates. Mr Sale~ compares this piazza to 
 that of the royal exchange at London, but allows it 
 to be much larger. It is covered with fmall domes or 
 cupolas, from the four corners of which rife as many 
 minarets or fteeples, with double galleries, and adorn- 
 ed with gilded fpires and crefcents after the Turkifli 
 manner, as are alfo the cupolas which cover the piazza 
 and other buildings. Between the columns of both in- 
 clofures hang a great number of lamps, which are con- 
 ftantly lighted at night. The firft foundations of this 
 fecond inclofure were laid by Omar the fecond khalif, 
 who built no more than alow wall, to prevent the court 
 of the caaba from being incroached upon by private 
 buildings ; but by the liberality of fucceeding princes, 
 the whole has been raifed to that Hate of magnificence 
 in which it appears at prefent. 
 
 This temple enjoys the privilege of an afylum for all 
 forts of criminals; but it is moll remarkable for the 
 pilgrimages made to it by the devout muflelmans, who 
 pay fo great a veneration to it, that they believe a fingle 
 fight of its facred walls, without any particular aft of 
 devotion, is as meritorious, in the fight of God, as the 
 moll careful difcharge of one's duty, for the fpace of a 
 whole year, in any other temple. 
 
 CAAMINI, in botany, a name given by the Spa- 
 niards and others to the fineft fort of Paraguayan 
 tea. It is the leaf of a fhrub which grows on the 
 mountains of Maracaya, and is ufed in Chili and Pe- 
 ru as the tea is with us. The mountains where this 
 fhrub grows naturally are far from the inhabited parts 
 of Paraguay ; but the people of the place know fo well 
 the value and ufe of it, that they conftantly furnifh 
 themfelves wath great quantities of it from the fpot. 
 They ufed to go out on thefe expeditions many thou- 
 fands together;- leaving their country in the mean time 
 expofed to the infults of their enemies, and many of 
 themfelves perifhing by fatigue. To avoid thefe in- 
 conveniences, they have of late planted thefe trees about 
 their habitations ; but the leaves of thefe cultivated 
 ones have not the fine flavour of thofe that grow 
 •wild. The king of Spain has permitted the Indians 
 of Paraguay to bring to the town of Saintfoy 12,000 
 arobes of the leaves of this tree every year, but they 
 are not able to procure fo much of the wild leaves an- 
 nually : about half the quantity is the utmoft they 
 bring of this : the other half is made up of the leaves 
 of the trees in their own plantations; and this fells at 
 a lower price, and is called pahos.^ The arobe is about 
 25 pound weight ; the general price is four piaftres ; 
 and the money is always divided equally among the 
 people of the colony. 
 
 CAANA, or Kaana, a town in Upper Egypt, 
 feated on the eaftern banks of the river Nile, from 
 . whence they carry corn and pulfe for the fupply of 
 Mecca in Arabia. E. Long. 32. 23. N. Lat. 24. 30. 
 Here are feveral monuments of antiquity yet remaining, 
 adorned with hieroglyphics. 
 
 CAB, an Hebrew dry meafure,. being thsfixth part 
 
 1 CAB 
 
 of a feah or fatum, and the i8th part of an ephah. A Cabals 
 
 cab contained 2 1- pints of our corn-meafure: a quarter 
 
 cab was the meafure of dove's dung, or more proper- , ^ _[ 
 
 ly a fort of chick-peafe called by this name, which 
 
 was fold at Samaria> during the fiege of that city, for 
 
 five Ihekels. 
 
 CABAL, an apt name currently given to the infa- 
 mous miniftry of Charles II. compofed of five perfons, 
 Clifford, Afiiley, Buckingham, Arlington, and L?.i«f 
 derdale ; the firft letters of whofe names, in this or- 
 der, furnilhed the appellation by which they were di- 
 ftinguifhed. 
 
 CABALIST, in Trench commerce, afa£lor or per- 
 fon who is concerned in managing the trade of an- 
 other. 
 
 CABALLARIA, in middle-age writers, lands hel3 
 by the tenure of furnifhing a horfeman, with fuitable 
 equipage, in time of war, or when the lord had occa- 
 fion for him. 
 
 CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spanifh 
 wools, of which there is a pretty confiderable trade at 
 Bayonne in France. 
 
 CABALLINE, denotes fomething belonging to 
 horfes ; thus caballine aloes is fo called, from its being 
 chiefly ufed for purging horfes; and common brim- 
 ftone is called fulphur caballinum for a like reafon. 
 
 CABALLINUM (anc. geog), a town of the ^Edui 
 in Gallia Celtica; now Challon fur Saone, which fee. 
 
 CABALLINUS (anc. geog.), a very clear foun- 
 tain of mount Helicon in Boeotia ; czVa^di Hippocrenchj 
 the Greeks, becaufe opened by Pegafus on flriking the 
 rock with his hoof, and hence called Pegafus. 
 
 CABALLIO, or Cabf.llio (anc. geog.), a town, 
 of the Cavares in GaUia Narbonnenfis, fituated on the 
 Druentia. One of the Latin colonies, in the -Notitise 
 called Civhas Cabellkorum. Now CavalUoti in Pro- 
 vence.. 
 
 CABBAGE, In botany. See Brassica; and A- 
 GRicuLTURE, n° 40, and 169. In the Georgical eflaysj . 
 we find this plant greatly recommended as an excellent 
 food for cattle, producing much dung, and being an 
 excellent fubllitute for hay. The author prefers the ■ 
 Scotch kind, as being moft durable, and preferable oir 
 all other accounts. He alfo recommends tiutumn-fowedf 
 plants in preference to thofe fowed in the fpring; the 
 former producing a much more weighty crop than the 
 latter. The expence of raifing an acre of good cab-'' 
 bages he values at 14/. 15 J. and its prodiace at 34/. 
 
 CABBAGE-Tree, or True- CABSAGE-pALMi See A^ 
 
 RECA.. 
 
 Cabbage-bark Tree. SeeGfeoFFRiEA.. 
 
 CABBALA, according to the Hebrew ftyle, has 
 a very diftindl fignificatiori from that wherein we un- 
 deriland it in our language. The Plebrew cabbala fige 
 nifies tradition; and the Rabbins, who are called Ci7i^- 
 b'aliftsi ft'udy principally the combination of particular 
 words, letters, and numbers, and by this means pretencf 
 to difcover what is to come, and to fee clearly into the 
 fenfe of many difficult palTages of fcripture. There 
 are no fure principles of this knowledge, but it depends 
 upon fome particular traditions of the ancient-s ; for 
 which reafon it is termed cahhala. 
 
 The cabbalifts have abundance of names which they 
 call facred i thefe they make ufe of in invoking of fpi- 
 riti, and imagine they receive great light from them. 
 
 They 
 
CAB 
 
 C % ] 
 
 CAB 
 
 Cabbala They tell us, that the fecrets of the cabbala were dif- 
 J1 covered to Mofes on mount Sinai; and that thefe have 
 ^" ^' , been delivered to them down from father to fon, with- 
 out interruption, and without any ufe of letters ; for 
 to write them down, is what they are by no means 
 permitted to do. This is likewife termed the oral laivy 
 becaufe it paffed from father to fon, in order to dif- 
 tinguifh it from the written laws. 
 
 There is another cabbala, called artificial^ which 
 confifts in fearching for abltrufe and mylterious ligni- 
 fications of a word in Scripture, from whence they bor- 
 row certain explanations, by combining the letters 
 which compofe it : this cabbala is divided into three 
 kinds, the gematrie, the notaricon, and the temura or 
 themurah. The lirfl: whereof confilts in taking the 
 letters of a Hebrew word for ciphers or arithmetical 
 numbers, and explaining every word by the arithmeti- 
 cal value of the letters whereof it is compofed. The 
 fecond fort of cabbala, called notaricon, confilts in ta- 
 king every particular letter of a word for an entire 
 diftion; and the third, called themiira, i. e. change, 
 confilts in making different tranfpofitions or changes 
 of letters, placing one for the other, or one before the 
 other. 
 
 Among the Chriftians, likewife, a certain fort of 
 magic is, by miftake, called cabbala ; which confifts in 
 ufing improperly certain pafTages of Scripture for ma- 
 gic operations, or in forming magic charadlers or fi- 
 gm-es with itars and talifmans. 
 
 Some vifionaries among the Jews believe, that Jefus 
 Chrift wrought his miracles by virtue of the myfteries 
 of the cabbala. 
 
 CABBALISTS, the Jewilh dodors who profefs 
 the ftiidy of the cabbala. 
 
 In the opinion of thefe men, there is not a word, 
 letter, or accent in the law, without fome myfteiy in 
 it. The Jews are divided into two general fe£ls; the 
 karaites, who refufe to receive either tradition or the 
 talmud, or any thing but the pure text of fcripture ; 
 and the rabbiniita, or talmudilts, who, befides this, re- 
 ceive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the 
 talmud. 
 
 The latter are again divided into two other fedts ; 
 pure rabbinilts, who explain the fcripture in its na- 
 tural fenfe, by grarnmar, hiltory, and tradition ; and 
 cabbalifts, who, to difcover hidden myftical fenfes, 
 which they fuppofe God to have couched therein, make 
 ufe of the cabbala, and the myftical methods above 
 mentioned. 
 
 CABECA, or Cabesse, a name given to the fineft 
 filks in the Eliit Indies, as thofe from 15 to 20 per 
 cent, inferior to them are called barina. The Indian 
 workmen endeavour to pafs them off one with the o- 
 ther ; for which reafon, the more experienced Euro- 
 pean m.erchants take care to open the bales, and to 
 examine all the flcaines one after another. The Dutch 
 diftinguiih two forts of cabecas; namely, the moor ca- 
 beca, and the common cabeca. The former is fold at 
 Amfterdam for about 2 1 4- fchellinghen Flemilh, and 
 the other for about 
 
 Cjbfxa de Vide, a fmall fea-port town of Alentejo 
 in Portugal, with good walls, and a ftrong caftle. W. 
 Long. 6. 43. N. Lat. 39. o. 
 
 CABENDA, a fea-port of Congo in Africa, fi- 
 tuated in E. Long. 12. 2. S. Lat. 4» 5. 
 
 CABES, or Gabes, a town of Africa, in the king- 
 dom of Tunis, feated on a river near the gulf of the 
 fame name. E. Long. 10. 55. N. Lat. 33. 4.0. 
 
 CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola, 
 in Africa; having Oacco on the north, Lubolo on the 
 fouth, the Coanza on the north-eaft, and the Reinba 
 on the fouth-weft. It is populous, and well ftored 
 with cattle, &c. and hath a mine of iron on a moun- 
 tain from thence called the iron mountain, which yields 
 great quantities of that metal ; and this the Portuguefe 
 have taught the natives to manufacture. This pro- 
 vince is watered by a river called Rio Longo, and other 
 fmall rivulets, lakes, &c. The trees here are vaftly 
 large ; and they have one fort not unlike our apple-trees, 
 the bark of which being flaftied with a knife, yields an 
 odoriferous refin of the colour and confiftency of wax, 
 and veiy medicinal in its nature, only a little too hot 
 for Europeans, unlefs qualified by fome cooling drug. 
 
 CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long meafure ufed at 
 Goa, and other places of the Eaft Indies belonging to 
 the Portuguefe, to meafure ftuffs, linens, &c. and 
 equal to 4ths of the Paris ell. 
 
 CABIN, a room or apartment in a Ihip where any 
 of the officers ufually refide. There are many of thefe 
 in a large Ihip ; the principal of which is defigned for 
 the captain or commander. In fliips of the line this 
 chamber is furnifhed with an open gallery in the fhip's 
 ftern, as alfo a little gallery on each quarter. The 
 apartments where the inferior officers or common fail- 
 ors fleep and mefs are ufually called Births ; which 
 fee. 
 
 The bed-places built up for the failors at the Ihip's 
 fide in merchantmen are alfo called cabins. 
 
 CABINDA, the chief port of the kingdom of 
 Angoy in Loango in Africa. It is fituated at the 
 mouth of a river of the fame name about five leagues 
 north of Cape Palmerino, on the north fide of the 
 mouth of the river Zaire. The bay is veiy commo- 
 dious for trade, wooding, and watering. 
 
 CABINET, the moft retired place in the fineft 
 part of a building, fet apart for writing, ftudying, or 
 preferving any thuig that is precious. 
 
 A complete apartment confifts of a hall, anti-cham- 
 ber, chamber, and cabinet, with a gallery on one fide. 
 Hence we fay, a cabinet of paintings, curiofities, &c. 
 
 Cabinet, alfo denotes apiece of joiner's workman- 
 fhip, being a kind of prefs or cheft, with feveral doors 
 and drawers. 
 
 There are common cabinets of oak or of chefnut, 
 varnifhed cabinets of China and Japan, cabinets of in- 
 laid work, and fome of ebony, or the like fcarce and 
 precious woods. Formerly the Dutch and German 
 cabinets were much efteemed in France ; but are now 
 quite out of date, as well as the cabinets of ebony 
 which came from Venice. 
 
 Cabinet is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the more feledt: 
 and fecret councils of a prince or adminiftration. Thus 
 we fay, the fecrets, the intrigues of the cabinet. To 
 avoid the inconveniences of a niunerous council, the 
 policy of Italy and pradlice of France firft introduced 
 cabinet councils. King Charles I. is charged with 
 firft eftabliftiing this ufage in Engbnd. Befides his 
 privy council, that prince eredted a kind of cabinet 
 council, or junto, under the denomination of a council 
 of ftate ; compofed of archbiftiop Laud, the earl of 
 A 2 Strafford, 
 
CAB [ 
 
 Cabinet StrafFord, and lord Collington, with the fecretaries of 
 {| ftate. Yet fome pretend to find the fubftance of a 
 cabinet council of much greater antiquity, and even 
 7 * allowed by parliament, who anciently fettled a quo- 
 TOin of perfons moft confided in, without whofe pre- 
 fence no arduous matter was to be determined ; giving 
 them power to aft without confulting the reil of the 
 council. As long fince as the 28th of Henry III. a 
 charter pafled in affirmance of the ancient rights of the 
 kingdom j which provided, that four great men, cho- 
 fen by common confent, who were to be confervators 
 of the kingdom, amon^ other things, {liould fee to the 
 difpofing of monies given by parliament, and appro- 
 priated to particular ufes ; and parliaments were to be 
 fummoned as they fhould advife. But even of thefe 
 £our, any two made a quorum ; and generally the chief 
 juftice of England, and chancellor, were of the num- 
 ber of the confervators. Matth. Par. 28. Hen. III. 
 In the firft of Henry VI. the parllam.ent provides, that 
 the quorum for the privy council be fix, or four at leall; 
 and that in all weighty confiderations, the dukes of 
 Bedford and Glouceller, the king's uncles, fhould be 
 prefent ; which feems to be erecting a cabinet by law. 
 
 CABIRI, a term in the theology of the ancient 
 Pagans, fignifying great and powerful gods ; being a 
 Bame given to the gods of Samothracia. They were 
 alfo worftiipped in other parts of Greece, as Lemnos 
 and Thebes, where the cabiria were celebrated in ho- 
 nour of them ; thefe gods are faid to be, in number, 
 four, viz. Axieros, Axiocerfa, Axiocerfus, andCafmilus. 
 
 CABIRIA, feftivals in honour of the Cabiri, cele- 
 brated in Thebes and Lemnos, but efpecially in Samo- 
 thracia, an ifland confecrated to the Cabiri. All who 
 were initiated into the myfteries of thefe gods, were 
 thought to be fecured thereby from ftorms at fea, and 
 all other dangers. The ceremony of initiation was 
 performed by placing the candidate, crowned with o- 
 live branches, and girded about the loins with a purple 
 ribband, on a kind of throne, about which the prieils, 
 and perfons before initiated, danced. 
 
 CABLE, a thick, large, ftrong rope, commonly of 
 hemp, which ferves to keep a fliip at anchor. 
 
 There is no merchant-fliip, however weak, but has at 
 leaft three cables ; namely, the chief cable, or cable of 
 the {heet-anchor, a common cable, and a fmaller one. 
 
 Cable is alfo faid of ropes, which ferve to raife 
 heavy loads, by the help of cranes, pullies, and other 
 engines. The name of cable is ufually given to fuch 
 as have, at leaft, three inches in circumference ; thofe 
 that are lefs are only called ropes, of different names ac- 
 cording to their ufe. 
 
 Every cable, of whatfoevier thicknefs it be, is com- 
 pofed of three ftrands ; every ftrand of three ropes ; 
 and every rope of three twifts : the twift is made of 
 more or lefs threads, according as the cable is to be 
 thicker or thinner. 
 
 In the manufacture of cables, after the ropes are 
 made, they ufe fticks, which they pafs firft between 
 the ropes of which they make the ftrands, and after- 
 wards between the ftrands of which they make the 
 icable, to the end that they may all twift the better, 
 and be more regularly wound together ; and alfo, to 
 prevent them from entwining or entangling, they hang, 
 • at the end of each ftrand and of each rope, a weight of 
 kad or of ftone. 
 
 4 ] CAB 
 
 The number of threads each cable is corapofed of is Cable 
 always proportioned to its length and thicknefs; and II 
 it is by this number of threads that its weight and va- 
 lue are afcertained: thus, a cable of three inches cir- 
 cumference, or one inch diameter, ought to confift of 
 48 ordinary threads, and to weigh 192 pounds; and 
 on this foundation is calculated the following table, 
 very ufeful for all people engaged in marine commerce, 
 who fit out merchantmen for their own account, or 
 freight them for the account of others. 
 
 ^ table of the number of threads and weight of cables 
 
 
 of different circumferences. 
 
 Circumf. Threads. 
 
 
 3 
 
 inches 48 
 
 192 pounds. 
 
 4 
 
 77 
 
 308 
 
 5 
 
 121 
 
 484 
 
 6 
 
 174 
 
 696 
 
 7 
 
 238 
 
 952 
 
 S 
 
 
 1244 
 
 9 
 
 393 
 
 1572 
 
 10 
 
 485 
 
 1940 
 
 X I 
 
 598 
 
 2392 
 
 12 
 
 699 
 
 2796 
 
 13 
 
 821 
 
 3284 
 
 H 
 
 952 
 
 3808 
 
 15 
 
 1093 
 
 4372 
 
 16 
 
 1244 
 
 4976 
 
 17 
 
 1404 
 
 5616 
 
 18 
 
 1574 
 
 6296 
 
 19 
 
 1754 
 
 7016 
 
 20 
 
 1943 
 
 7772 
 
 Sheet-Anchor Cable, is the greateft cable belonging 
 to a fhip. 
 
 Stream Cable, a hawfer or rope, fomething fmaller 
 than the bowers, and ufed to moor the ftiip in a river, 
 or haven, ftieltered from the wind and fea, &c. 
 
 Serne or Plate the Cable, is to bind it about with 
 ropes, clouts, &c. to keep it from galling in the hawfe. 
 
 To fpFice a Cable, is to make two pieces faft toge- 
 ther, by working the feveral threads of the rope the 
 one into the other. 
 
 Pay more Cable, is to let more out of the fliip. 
 Pay cheap the Cable, is to to hand it out apace. Veer 
 more Cable, is to let more out, &c. 
 
 Cable's Length, a meafure of 120 fathoms, or of 
 the ufual length of the cable. 
 
 CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied to a crofs 
 formed of the two ends of a fliip's cable ; fometimes 
 alfo to a crofs covered over with rounds of rope; more 
 properly called a crofs corded. 
 
 Cabled Flute, in architefture, fuch flutes, as are fil- 
 led up with pieces in the form of a* cable. 
 
 CABO DE IsTRiA, the capital town of the province 
 of Iftria, in the territory of Venice; and the fee of a 
 biftiop. It is feated on a fmall ifland in the gulf of 
 Venice, and is joined to the main land by draw-bridges. 
 E. Long. 14. 22. N. Lat. 45:. 49. 
 
 CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the heads of 
 beafts are borne without any part of the neck, full-faced. . 
 
 CABOLETTO, in commerce, a coin of the repub- 
 lic of Genoa, worth about 3 d. of our money. 
 
 CABOT (Sebaftian), the firft difcoverer of the Goa- 
 tinent of America, was the fon of John Cabot a Ve- 
 netian. He was born at Brlftol in 1477; and was 
 taught by his father arithmetic, geometr)^, and cofmo- 
 
Cabot, 
 
 Ca!;'-a 
 
 CAB [ 
 
 grapliy. Before he was 20 years of age he made fe- 
 veral voyages. The firft of any confequence feems to 
 have been made with his father, who had a commiffion 
 from Henry VII. for the difcovery of a north-weft paf- 
 fage to India. They failed in the fpring of 1497 ; and 
 proceeding to the north-weft they difcovered land, 
 which for that reafon they called Pr'ima'vijla, or Nc-m- 
 foundland. Another fmaller illand they called St John, 
 from its being difcovered .on the feaft of St John Bap- 
 tift ; after which, they failed along the coaft of Ame- 
 rica as far as Cape Florida, and then returned to Eng- 
 land with a good cargo, and three Indians aboard. 
 Stowe and Speed afcribe thefe difcoveries wholly to 
 Sebaftian, without mentioning his father. It is pro- 
 bable that Sebaftian, after his father's death, made fe- 
 ver?4 voyages to thefe parts, as a map of his difcove- 
 ries, drawn by himfelf, was hung up in the privy gar- 
 den at Whitehall. However, hiftory gives but Uttle 
 account of his Hfe for near 20 years; when he went to 
 Spain, where he was made pilot-major, and intrufted 
 with reviewing all proje£ls for difcoveries, which were 
 then very numerous. His great capacity and approved 
 integrity induced many eminent merchants to treat with 
 him about a voyage by the new found ftraits of Ma- 
 gellan to the Moluccas. He therefore failed in 152-5, 
 lirft to the Canaries ; then to the Cape Verd iflands ; 
 thence to St Auguftine and the iflapd of Patos; when 
 fome of his people beginning to be mutinous, and re- 
 fufing to pafs through the ftraits, he laid afide the de- 
 iign of faihng to the Moluccas ; left fome of the prin- 
 cipal mutineers upon a defart ifland; and, failing up 
 the rivers of Plate and Paraguay, difcovered, and buUt 
 forts in, a large traft of fine countiy, that produced 
 gold, filver, and other rich commodities. He thence dif- 
 patched meffengers to Spain for a fupply of provifions, 
 ammunition, goods for trade, and a recruit of men: but 
 his requeft not being readily complied with, after ftay- 
 ing five years in America, he x-eturned home; where 
 he met with a cold reception, the merchants being dif- 
 pleafed at his not having purfued his voyage to the 
 Moluccas, while his treatment of the mutineers had 
 given umbrage at court. Hence he returned to Eng- 
 land; and being introduced to the Duke of Somerfet, 
 then lord protestor, a new office was erefted for him : 
 he was made governor of the myftery and company of 
 the merchant-adventurers for the difcovery of regions, 
 dominions, iflands, and places unknown; a peufion was 
 granted him, by letters-patent, of 1 661. 13 s. 4d. per 
 annum; and he was confulted in all aff"airs relative to 
 trade. In 1522, by his intereft, the court fitted out 
 fome fhips for the difcovery of the northern parts of the 
 world. This produced the firft voyage the Englifti 
 made to Ruffia, and the beginning of that commerce 
 which has ever fince been carried on between the two 
 aations. The Ruffia company was now founded by a 
 charter grauted by Philip and Mary ; and of this com- 
 pany Sebaftian was appointed governor for life. He is 
 faid to be the firft who took notice of the variation of 
 the needle, and who publiftied a map of the world. 
 The exaft time of his death is not known, but he lived 
 to be above 70 years of age. 
 
 CABRA, a town of the kingdom of Tombut in 
 Africa. It is a large town, but without walls ; and is 
 feated on the river Niger, about 1 2 miles from Tom- 
 but. The houfes are built in the ftiage of bells ; and 
 
 5 1 CAB 
 
 the walls are made with ftakes or hurdles, plaftered Cabul, 
 with clay, and covered with reeds after the manner of 
 thatch. This place is very much frequented by negroes * 
 who come here by water to trade. The town is very 
 unhealthy, which is probably owing to its low fitua- 
 tion. The colour of the inhabitants is black, and their 
 religion a fort of Mahometanifm. They have plenty 
 of corn, cattle, milk, and butter; but fait is veiy fcarce. 
 The judge who decides controverfies is appointed by 
 the king of Tombut. E. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 14. 
 21. 
 
 CABUL, or Gaboul, a city of Afia, and capital 
 of the province of Cab uliftan. Itlies in E. Long. 68.15. 
 N. Lat. 33. 30. on the frontiers of Great Bukharia, 
 on the fouth fide of the mountains which divide the 
 territories of the Mogul from that part of Great Tar- 
 tary. It is one of the fineft places in that part of the 
 world; large, rich, and very populous. As it is confi- 
 dered as the key of the great Mogul's dominions on 
 that fide, great care is taken to keep its fortifications, 
 in repair, and a numerous garrifon is maintained for its 
 fecurity. It lies on the road between Samarcand and 
 Labor; and is much frequented by the Tartars, Per- 
 fians, and Indians. The Ufbec Tartars drive there a 
 great trade in flaves and horfes, of which it is faid that 
 no fewer are fold than 60,000 annually. The Perfians 
 bring black cattle and ftieep, which rendei's provifions 
 very cheap. They have alfo wine, and plenty of all 
 forts of eatables. The city ftands on a little river whick 
 falls into the- Indus, and thereby affords a ftiort and 
 fpeedy paflage for all the rich commodities in the 
 country behind it, which, when brought to Cabul, are 
 there exchanged for flaves and horfes, and then con- 
 veyed by merchants of different countries to all parts of 
 the world. The inhabitants are moft of them Indian 
 pagans, though the officers of the Mogul and moft of 
 the garrifon are Mahometans.. 
 
 CABULISTAN, a province of Afia, formerly be- 
 longing to the Great Mogul; but ceded in 1739 to> 
 Kouli Khan, who at that time governed Perfia. It is-. 
 bounded on the north by Bukharia, on the eaft by Cafch- 
 mire, on the weft by Zabuliftan and Candaliar, and on 
 the fouth by Multan. It is 250 miles in length, 240 
 in breadth, and its chief town is Cabul. This country 
 in general is not very fruitful ; but in the vales they 
 have good pafture-lands. The roads are much infefted 
 with banditti; which obliges the natives to have guards 
 for the fecurity of travellers. The religion of the Ca-- 
 buliftans is pagan ; and their extraordinaiy time of de- 
 votion is the full moon in February, and continues for 
 two days. At this time they are clothed in red, make 
 their off'erings, dance to the found of the trumpet, and- 
 makevifits to their friends in mafquerade dreffes. They 
 fay, their god Crufman killed a giant who was his e- 
 nemy, and that he appeared like a little child ; in me- 
 mory of which, they caufe a child to ftioot at the figure 
 of a giant. Thofe of the fame tribe make bonfires, andl 
 feaft together ia a jovial manner. The moral part of 
 their religion confifts in charity ; for which reafon, they 
 dig wells and build houfes for the accommodation of 
 travellers. They have plenty of provifions, mines of iron», 
 myrobolans, aromatic woods, and drugs of many kinds. 
 They carry on a great trade with the neighbouring ; 
 countries; by which means they are very rich, and are 
 fupphed with plenty of all things. 
 
 CABURNS, 
 
■'C<^l>urns, 
 ' Cacalia. 
 
 C A C I 
 
 CABURNS, on (hip-board, are Tmall lines made of 
 fpun yarn, to bind cables, feize tackles, or the like. 
 
 CACALIA, in botany ; a genus of the polygamia 
 "aequalia order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of 
 •plants. The receptacle is naked ; the pappus hairy ; 
 the calyx- cylindrical, oblong, and caliculated, or having 
 a fmall calyx of vei-y fliort fcaies only at the bafe. 
 
 Species. I. The fuaveolens, with a herbaceous italk, is 
 a native of North America. It hath a perennial creep- 
 ■ing root which fends out many ftalks, garni(hed with 
 triangular fpear-fhaped leaves fliarply fawed on their 
 •edges, of a pale green on their under fide, but a deep 
 fhining green above, placed alternately. The ftalks rife 
 ■to the height of feven or eight feet, and are terminated 
 by umbels of white 'flowers, which are fucceeded by ob- 
 long feeds covered with down. It flowers in Auguft, 
 and the feeds ripen in Oftober. The ftalks decay in 
 autumn, and new one rifts in the fpring. This plant 
 'multiplies greatly by its fpreading roots, as alfo by the 
 feeds, which are fpread to a great dittance by the wind, 
 the down which adheres to them being greatly afiifting 
 to their conveyance. Tlie roots which have been caft 
 out of Chelfea garden, being carried by the tide to a 
 great diftance, have fixed themfelves to the banks of 
 the river, and increafed fo much, that in a few years 
 this fpecies may probably appear as a native of Eng- 
 land. 2. The ficoides is a native of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. It rifes with ftrong round ftalks to the height 
 of feven or eight feet, woody at bottom, but foft and 
 fucculent tipward, fending out many irregular branches, 
 garpiflied more than half their length with thick, taper, 
 fucculent leaves, a little comprefled on two fides, end- 
 ing in points, covered with a whitiflr glaucous farina, 
 which comes ofi^ when handled. Thefe, when broken, 
 emit a ftrong odour of turpentine, and are full of a vif- 
 cous juice ; at the extremity of the branches the flowers 
 are produced in fmall umbels ; they are white, tubu- 
 lous, and cut into five parts at the top. The leaves of 
 this plant are pickled by the French, who efteem them 
 much ; and in doing this they have a method of pre- 
 fervmg the white farina upon them, which adds great- 
 ly to the beauty of the pickle when brought to table. 
 ■3. The kleinia, with a compound flirubby ftalk, grows 
 naturally in the Canary illands, but has long been cult i- 
 vated in the Englifh gardens. It rifes with a thick 
 fleftiy ftem divided at certain diftances, as it were, into 
 fo many joints. Each of thefe divifions fwell much 
 larger in the middle than they do at each end ; and the 
 ftalks divide into many irregular branches of the fame 
 ■form, which, toward their extremities, are garnifhed 
 with long, narrow, fpear-fhaped leaves of a glaucous co- 
 lour, ftanding all round the ftalks without order. As 
 they fall off, they leave a fear at the place, which al- 
 ■ways remains on the branches. The flowers are pro- 
 -duced in large clufters at the extremity of the branch- 
 es, which are tubulous, and of a faint carnation colour. 
 They appear in Auguft and September, but continue 
 -great part of Otlober, and are not fucceeded by feeds 
 in this country. There have been ftones and foffils 
 dug up at a very great depth in fome parts of England 
 iiaving very perfeift imprelhons-of this plant iipon them ; 
 from whence Dr Woodward has fuppoftd tjie plants 
 were lodged there at the univerfai -doluge ; and finding 
 the imprelfions of many other plants and ariimals which 
 are natives of thofe iflands, he concludes that the wa- 
 ter flowed hkher from the fouth-welU This plant has 
 
 C A C 
 
 been called the cabha^e-tree, from the refemblance whicli 
 the ftalk of it has to the cabbage: others have intitled 
 it carnatiort'treef from the fliape of the leaves and the 
 colour of the flowers. Befides thefe, there are feven 
 other fpecies, viz. the alpina, with kidney-fliaped 
 leaves ; the glabra, with fmooth leaves ; the atriplici- 
 folia, with heart-ftiaped finuated leaves ;. the papillaris, 
 with a flirubby ftalk guarded on every fide with broken 
 rough footftalks ; the ante-euphorbium,with oblong oval 
 leaves ; the fonchifolia, with lyre-fliaped indented leaves'; 
 and the lutea, with leaves divided into five acute parts. 
 
 Culture. The three fpecies defcribed above are very 
 eafily propagated. The firft will propagate itfelf, as 
 already mentioned, either by roots or feeds. The fe- 
 cond is eafily propagated by cuttings during the fum- 
 mer months: Thefe ftiould be cut from the plants and 
 laid to dry a fortnight, that the wound may be healed 
 over before they are planted. Moft people plunge the 
 pots in which thefe are planted into an hot-bed, to pro- 
 mote their putting out roots ; but if planted in June 
 or July, they will root as well in tlie open air. Even 
 branches broken off" by accident have frequently put 
 out roots when fallen on the ground, without any care. 
 Thefe branches may be kept fix months out of the 
 ground, -and will take root if planted. This fliould have 
 a light fandy earth, and in winter be placed in an airy 
 glafs-cafe, where they may enjoy the fun and air in 
 mild weather, but muft be protected from freft. Du- 
 ring the winter feafon the plants muft have but little 
 water j and in fummer, when they are pilaced in the 
 open air, it fliould not be given to them too often, nor 
 in great quantity. The third is alfo propagated by 
 cuttings, and the plants require the fame culture ; but 
 muft have a dry warm glafs-cafe in winter, and very- 
 little water, being fubje£l to rot with wet. In fummer 
 they muft be placed in the open airin a warm flieltered 
 fituation, and in very dry weather refreflied moderately 
 with water. With this management the plants will flower 
 annually, and grow to the height of eight or ten feet. 
 CACAO. See Theobroma. 
 Cy\CCOONS. See Flf.villea. 
 CACERES, a town of iTpain, in the province of 
 Eftremadura, is feated on the river Saler, and noted 
 for the exceeding fine wool which the flieep bear in the 
 neighbourhood. Between this town and Brocos, there 
 is a wood, where tlie allies defeated the rear-guard of 
 the duke of Berwick, on the 7th of April 1706. E. 
 Long. 6. 47. 1^. Lat. 59. 15. 
 
 CACHALOT, in "iclithyology. See Physeter. 
 CACHAN, or Cash AN, a confiderable town of 
 Perfia in Irac Agemi, where they carry on an exten- 
 -five trade in filks, filver, and gold brocades, and fine 
 earthen ware. It is fituated in a vail plain, 55 miles 
 from Ifaphan, E. Long. 50. i. N. Lat. 34. 10. 
 
 CACHAO, a province of the kingdom ofTonquin 
 in Afia, fitnated in the heart of the kingdom, and fur- 
 rounded by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and in 
 fome places mountainous, abounding with variety of 
 trees, and particularly that of varnifh. Moft of thefe 
 ■provinces carry on fome branch of the filk mannfafture, 
 but this moft of all. It takes its name from the capi- 
 tal, which is alfo the metropolis of the whole kingdont» 
 though in other refpeils hardly comparable to a Chi- 
 nefe one of the third rank. 
 
 Cachao, a city of the province of that name, in the 
 kingdom of Tonquiu in Afia, fituated in E. Long. 
 
 Cacalfa 
 Cacha;». 
 
GAG [ 
 
 Cachao. lo^^ 3i« N. Lat. 22. I o. at about 80 leagues diflance 
 V ' from the fea. It is prodigioufly crowded with people, 
 irtfomuch that the ftreets are hardly paffable, efpecially 
 on market days. Thefe vaft crowds, however, come 
 moftly from the neighbouring villages ; upon which 
 account thefe villages have been allowed their halls in 
 particular parts of the city, where they bring and dif- 
 pofe of their wares. The town itfelf, though the me- 
 tropolis of the whole Tonquinefe kingdom, hath nei- 
 ther walls nor fortifications. The principal ftreets are 
 wide and airy, but the reft of them narrow and ill- 
 paved ; and except the palace royal and arfenal, the to\vn 
 hath little elfe v.'orth notice. The houfes are low and 
 mean, moftly built of wood and clay, and not above one 
 ftoiy high. The m.agazines and vvarehoufes belonging to 
 foreigner's are the only edifices built of brick ; and 
 which, though plain, yet, by reafon of their height 
 and more elegant ftruAure, make a confiderable (how 
 among thofe rows of wooden huts. From the combui- 
 tibility of its edifices, this city fuffers frequent and 
 dreadful conflagrations. Thefe fpread with fuch fur- 
 prifing velocity, that feme thoufands of houfes are of- 
 ten laid in aflies before the fire can be extinguiihed. 
 To prevent thefe fad confequences, every houfe hath, 
 either in its yard or even in its centre, fome lovi' build- 
 ing of brick, in form of an oven, into which the inha- 
 bitants on tlie firft alarm convey their moft valuable 
 goods. Befides this precaution, which every family 
 takes to fecure their goods, the government obliges 
 them to keep a ciftern, or fome other capacious veffel, 
 always full of water on the top of their houfe, to be 
 ready on all occafions of this nature ; as likewife a long 
 pole and bucket, to throw water from the kennel upon 
 the houfes. If thefe two expedients fail of fuppreffing 
 the flames, they immediately cut the ftraps which faf- 
 ten the thatch to the walls, and let it fall in and wafte 
 itfelf on the ground. The king's palace ftands in the 
 centre of the city ; and is furrounded with a ftout wall, 
 within whofe cin&ure are feen a great number of apart- 
 ments two ftories high, whofe fronts and portals have 
 fomething of the grand tafte. Thofe of the king and 
 his wives are embellilhed with variety of carvings and 
 gildings after the Indian manner, and all finely var- 
 nifhed. In the outer court are a vaft number of fump- 
 tuous ftables for the king's horfes and elephants. The 
 appearance of the inner courts can only be conjeftured ; 
 for the avenues are not only fliut to all ttrangers, 
 but even to the king's fubjedts, except thofe of the 
 privy council, and the chief minifters of ftate : yet we 
 are told, that there are ftair-cafes by which people may 
 mount up to the top of the walls, which are about 18 
 or 20 feet high ; from whence they may have a dif- 
 tant view of the royal apartments, and of the fine par- 
 terres and fiih-ponds that are between the cin£ture and 
 them. The front wall hath a large gate well orna- 
 mented, which is never opened but when the king goes 
 in and out j but. at fome diftance.from it on each fide 
 there are two potterns, at which the courtiers and fer- 
 vants may go in and out. This cinfture,. which is of 
 a vaft circumference, is faced with brick within and: 
 without, and the whole ftruAure is terminated by wide 
 fpacious gardens ; which, though ftored with great va- 
 riety of proper ornaments, are deftitute of the gran- 
 deur and elegance obferved in the palaces of European 
 princes. Befides this palace, the ruins of one ftill more 
 magnificent are to be obferved, and are called X/iJ«/wa, 
 
 6 
 
 Cachrys. 
 
 7 ] C A C 
 
 The circumference is fald to have been betwixt fix and Cachao 
 feven miles : fome arches, porticoes, and other orna- 
 ments, are ftill remaining ; from which, and fome of ; 
 its courts paved with marble, it may be concluded to 
 have been as magnificent a ftrufture as any of the eaft- 
 ern parts can ftiow. The arfenal is likewife a large 
 and noble building, well ftored with ammunition and 
 artillery. The Engllfli fattory is fituated on the north 
 fide of the city, fronting the river Song-koy. It is a 
 handfome low-built houfe, with a fpacious dining-room 
 in the centre ; and on each fide are the apartments of 
 the merchants, faftors, and fervants. At each end of 
 the building are fmaller houfes for other ules, as ftore- 
 houfes, kitchen, &c. which form two wings with the 
 fquare in the middle, and parallel with the river, near 
 the bank of which ftands a long flag-ftaff', on which • 
 they commonly difplay the Englifli colours on Sun- - 
 days and all remarkable days. Adjoining to it, on the 
 fouth fide, is the Danlfli factory, which is neither fo- 
 large nor fo handfome. On the fame fide of the river 
 runs a long dike, whofe timber and ftones are fo firmly 
 faftened together, that no paijt of it can be ftirred wltli- 
 out moving the whole. This work was ralfed on thofe 
 banks to prevent the river, during the time of their 
 vaft rains, from overflowing the city ; and it has hi- 
 therto anfwered its end ; for though the town ftands 
 high enough to be in no. danger from land-floods, it 
 might yet have been otherwife frequently damaged, if' 
 not totally laid under water, by the overflowing of that' 
 river. Some curious obfervations have been commu-' 
 nicated to the royal foclety concerning differences be-- 
 tween the tides of thofe feas and thofe of Europe, viz. 
 that on the Tonquinefe coaft ebbs and flows but once' 
 in 24 hours ; that is, that the tide is rifing during the 
 fpace of 12 hours, and can be eafily perceived during' 
 two of the moon's quarters, but can hardly be obfer- 
 ved during the other two. In the fpring tides, which 
 laft 14 days, the waters begin to rife at the rifing of- 
 the moon ; whereas in the low tides, ■ which continue 
 the fame number of days, the tide begins not till that- 
 planet is got below the horizon. Whilft it is pafling 
 through the fix northern figns, the tides are obferved ' 
 to vary greatly, to rife foraetlmes very high, and fome- 
 tlmes to be veiy low ; but when it Is once got Into the 
 fouthern part of the zodiac, they are then found to be 
 more even and regular. 
 
 CACHECTIC, fomething partaking of the nature- 
 of, or belonging to, a cachexy. 
 
 CACHEO, a town of Negroland in Africa, feated 
 on. the river St Domingo. It is fubjeft to the Portu- 
 guefe, who have tjiree forts there, and carry on a great 
 trade in . wax and flaves. W. Long. 14. 55. N. Lat. 
 12. o. 
 
 CACHEXY, in medicine, a vicious ftate of the- 
 humours and whole habit. See (the Index fubjolned. 
 to) Medicine. 
 
 CACHRYS, in botany^: A genus of the digynia 
 order belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 45th order,. , 
 Umbellata. The fruit is fubovate, . angled, - and cork-' 
 or fpongy rinded. 
 
 There are five fpecies, viz^ the trifida, with bipinna-^ 
 ted leaves; the ficula, with double winged leaves ; the. 
 libanotis, with fmooth furrowed feeds ; the linearia, , 
 wath plain channelled fi-uit ; and the hungarica, with a 
 plain, fungous, channelled feed. All thefe are per- 
 
 enaial* 
 
GAG- [8 
 
 Caclrunde ennial plants, rifing pretty high, and bearing large um- 
 
 J' bels of yellow flowers, and may be propagated by feeds 
 ^ which ought to be fown foon after they are ripe ; for 
 
 * if they are kept out of the ground till the next fpring, 
 they often mifcarry. They mull alfo be fown in a 
 (hady border where they are to remain : for the plants, 
 having long top-roots, will not bear tranfplanting fo 
 well as many others. The Hungarians in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Erlaw, and thofe 'i\^io border on Tran- 
 fylvania, Servia, &c. eat the root of the fifth fpecies in 
 a fcarcity of corn for want of other bread. 
 
 CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine, highly ce- 
 lebrated among the Chinefe and Indians, and made of 
 feveral aromatic ingredients, the perfumes, medicinal 
 earth, and .precious Hones: they make the whole into 
 a ftiff pafte, and form out of it feveral figures accord- 
 ing to their fancy, which ai-e dried for ufe : thefe are 
 principally tifed in the Eall Indies, but are fometimes 
 brought over to Portugal. • In China, the principal 
 perfons ufually carry a fmall piece in their mouths, 
 which is a <:ontinued cordial, and gives their breath a 
 very fweet fmell. It is a highly valuable medicine 
 alfo, in all nervous complaints ; and is elteemed a 
 prolonger to Ufe, and a provocative to venery, the two 
 great intentions of moil of the medicines in ufe in the 
 Eall. 
 
 CACOCHYLIA, or CAcbcwyMiA, a vicious ftate 
 of the vital humours, efpecially of the mafs of blood ; 
 arifing either from a diforder of the fecretions or exe- 
 ■cretions, or from external contagion. The word is 
 Greek, compounded of y-xx.®- HI, and ■/C'^'^ juice. 
 
 CACOPHONIA, in grammar and rhetoric, the 
 meeting of two letters, or fyllables, which yield an un- 
 couth and difagreeable found. The word is compound- 
 ed of y-a-y-og evil, and voice. 
 
 Ca COP HON I A, in Medicine, denotes a vice or de- 
 privation of the voice or fpeech ; of which there are 
 two fpecies, aphonia and dyfphonia. 
 
 CACTUS, in botany: A genus of the monagy-nia 
 order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 13th or- 
 der, SucculenU. The calyx is monophyllous ; fupe- 
 rior, or above the receptacle of the fruit imbricated ; 
 the corolla polypetalous ; the fruit an unilocular, poly- 
 fpermous berry\ To this genus Linnaeus has added 
 the cereus and opuntia. There are 24 fpecies, all na- 
 tives of the Well Indies and Mexico. 
 
 The ca£li are plants of a Angular ftm£lure, but e- 
 fpecially the larger kinds of them ; which appear Hke 
 a large, flefliy, green melon, with deep ribs, fet all 
 over with ilrong Iharp thorns ; and, when the plants 
 are cut through the middle, their infide is a foft, pale- 
 green, flelhy fubftance, very full of moillure. The 
 fruit of all the fpecies is frequently eaten by the inha- 
 bitants of the Weft Indies. The fruits are about three 
 quarters of an inch in length, of a taper form, drawing 
 to a point at the bottom toward the plant, but blunt at 
 the top where the empalement of the flower was fitua- 
 ted. The tafte is agreeably acid, which in a hot coun- 
 try mufl render the fruit more grateful. 
 
 The cochineal animals are fupported on a fpecies 
 called caSus cothenillifer. — The flower of the cadlus 
 grandiflora (one of the creeping cereufes) is faid to be 
 as grand and beautiful as any in the vegetable fyllem : 
 It begins to open in the evening about feven o'clock, 
 is in perfedlion about eleven, and fades about four in 
 
 Ko. 61. 
 
 ] 
 
 CAD 
 
 the morning; lb that the fame flower only continues 
 in perfe£lion about fix hours. The calyx when ex- 
 panded is about a foot in diameter, of a fplendid yel- 
 low within, and a dark brown without ; the petals ar^ 
 many, and of a pure white ; and the great number of, 
 recurved llamina, furrounding the ftyle in the centre of 
 the flower, make a grand appearance, to which may 
 be added the fine fcent, which perfumes the air to a 
 confiderable diilance. It flowers in July. 
 
 CACUS, in fabulous hiftory, an Italian (hepherd 
 upon ihount Aventine. As Hercules was driving 
 home the herd of king Geryon whom he had flain, 
 Cacus robbed him of fome of his oxen, which he drew 
 backward into his den lefl; they fliould be difcovered, 
 Hercules at lall finding them out by their lowing, or 
 the robbery being difcovered to him, killed Cacus with 
 his club. He was Vulcan's fon, of prodigious bulk, 
 and half man half fatyr. 
 
 CAD AN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Zats, 
 feated on the northern bank of the river Egra, in E. 
 Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 50. 20. 
 
 CADARI, or Kadari, a feci of Mahometans, who 
 aflert free-will ; attribute the adlions of men to men 
 alone, not to any fecret power determining the will \ 
 and deny all abfolute decrees, and predeltination. The 
 author of this fc£l was Mabed ben Kaled Al Gihoni, 
 who fulfered martyrdom for it. The woi-d comes from 
 the Arabic, -np, cadara, poiver. Ben Aun calls the Ca- 
 darians the Magi, or Manichees of the ]Mulfi.dmen. 
 
 CADE, a cag, caflc, or barrel. A cade of her- 
 rings is a veflel containing the quantity of 500 red her- 
 rings, or 1000 fprats. 
 
 CADE-Lamb, a young lamb weaned, and brought up 
 by hand, in a houfe ; called in the North, pet-lamb. 
 
 Cjdp.-O//, in the Materia Medica, a nanie given to 
 an oil much in ufe in fome parts of France and Ger- 
 many. The phyficians call it oleum cada, or oleum de 
 cada. This is fuppofed by fome to be the piflelasum 
 of the ancients, but improperly ; it is made of the fruit 
 of the oxycedrus, which is called by the people of 
 thefe places cada. 
 
 CADE-Worm in zoology, the maggot or worm of a 
 fly called phryganea. it is ufed as u bait in angling. 
 See Phryganka. 
 
 CADEA, or The league of the house of God, 
 is one of thofe that compofe the republic of the Gri- 
 fons, and the moll powerful and extenfive of them all. 
 It contains the bilhopric of Coire, the great valley of 
 Engadine, and that of Bragail or Pregal. Of the 1 1 
 great, or 2 1 fmall communities, thei-e are but two that 
 fpeak the German language ; that of the rell is called 
 the Rheiic, and is a dialedt of the Italian. The Pro- 
 teflant religion is moil prevalent in this league, which 
 has been allied to the Swifs cantons ever iince the year 
 1498. Coire is the capital town. 
 
 CADENAC, a town of F ranee in Qiierci, on the 
 confines of Rouergue, feated on the river Lot, in E. 
 Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 44. 36. 
 
 CADENCE, or Repose, in mufic, (from the La- 
 tin cadere to fall or defcend) ; the termination of an 
 harmonicial phrafe on a repoie, or on a perfedl chord. 
 See Music, art. 73 — 76, and 132 — 137. 
 
 Cadence, in reading, is a falling of the voice below 
 the key-note at the dole of every period. In reading, 
 whether profe or verfe, a certain tone isalTumed which 
 is called the keynote and in this tone the bulk of the 
 J words 
 
 Cacus 
 II 
 
 Cadence 
 
CAD . [ 
 
 words are foundetl ; but this note is generally lowered 
 
 towards the clofe of every fentence. 
 
 Cadence, in the manege, an equal meafure or pro- 
 portion, obferved by a horfe in all his motions ; fo 
 that his times have an equal regard to one another, 
 the one does not embrace or take in more ground than 
 the other, and the horfe obferves his ground regu- 
 larly. 
 
 CADENE, one of the forts of carpets which the 
 Europeans import from the Levant. They are the 
 worfl fort of all, and are fold by the piece from one to 
 two piaftres per carpet. 
 
 CADENET, a town of France in Provence, and in 
 the Viguirie of Apt. E. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 43. 40. 
 
 CADES, or Kadesh, (anc. geog.) a town in the 
 Wildernefs of Zin, in Arabia Petraea ; the firft en- 
 campment of the Ifraelites, after their departure from 
 Eziongeber ; and from which the Wildernefs of Zin 
 was called Cades ; the burial-place of Miriam, with 
 the rock and water of Meribah in it. Another Cades^ 
 a town of the tribe of Judah, Jofliua xv. 23. Cade/- 
 barnea, called alfo Cades. 
 
 CADESBARNEA, (anc. geog.) a town of the 
 Wildernefs of Paran, on the confines of Canaan, from 
 which the fpics were fent out ; fometiines fimply called 
 Cadesy but diftinA from the Cades in the Wildernefs of 
 Zin. 
 
 CADET, the younger fon of a family, is a term 
 naturalized in our language from the French. At Pa- 
 ris, among the citizens, the cadets have an equal patri- 
 mony with the reft. At Caux, in Normandy, the 
 cuftom, as with us, is to leave all to the eldeft, except 
 a fmall portion to the cadets. In Spain, it is ufual for 
 one of the cadets in great families to take the mother's 
 name. 
 
 Cadet is alfo a military term denoting a young gen- 
 tleman who choofes to carry arms in a marching regi- 
 ment as a private man. His views are, to acquire fome 
 knowledge in the art of war, and to obtain a com- 
 miffion in the army. Cadet differs from volunteer, as 
 the former takes pay, whereas the latter ferves without 
 pay. 
 
 CADI, or Cadhi, a judge of the civil affairs in the 
 Turkifh empire. It is generally taken for the judge of 
 a town ; judges of provinces being diftinguifhed by the 
 appellation of mollas. 
 
 We find numerous complaints of the avarice, inl- 
 <[iiity, and extortion, of the Turkifh cadis ; all juftice 
 is here venal ; the people bribe the cadis, the cadis bribe 
 the moulas, the moulas the cadilefchers, and the cadi- 
 lefchers the mufti. Each cadi has his ferjeants, who 
 are to fummon perfons to appear and anfwer complaints. 
 If the party fummoned fails to appear at the hour ap- 
 pointed, fentence is paffed in favour of his adverfary. 
 It is ufually vain to appeal from the fentences of the 
 cadi, fince the affair is never heard anew, but judg- 
 ment is paffed on the cafe as ftated by the cadi. But 
 the cadis are often cafhiered and punifhed for crying in- 
 juftice with the baftinado and mulfts; the law, howr 
 ever, does not allow them to be put to death. Con- 
 ilantinople has had cadis ever fmce the year 1 390, when 
 Bajazet I. obliged John Paleologus, emperor of the 
 Greeks, to receive cadis into the city to judge all con- 
 troverfies happening between the Greeks and the Turks 
 fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis 
 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 9 ] . CAD 
 
 are alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Mdor^, 
 cadis is the denomination of their higlier order of 
 priefts or doAors, anfwering to the rabbins among the 
 Jews. 
 
 CADIACI, the TurkiHi name of Chalcedon. See 
 Chalcedon. 
 
 C ADILESCHE R, a capital officer of juftice among- 
 the Turks, anfwering to a chief juftice among us. 
 
 It is faid, that this authority was originally confined 
 to the foldiery ; but that, at prefent, it extends itfelf 
 to the determination of all kinds of law-fuits ; yet \% 
 neverthelefs fubjeft to appeals. 
 
 There are but three cadilefchers in all the grand fig- 
 nior's territories : the firft is that of Europe ; the fe- 
 cond, of Natolia ; and the third refides at Grand Cairo. 
 This laft is the moft confiderable : they have their feats 
 in the divan next to the grand vizir. * 
 
 CADILLAC, a town of France in Guienne, and 
 in Bazadois, near the river Garonne, witla a handfome 
 caftle, fituated in W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 44. 37. 
 
 CADIZ, a city and port-tovirn of Andalufia in Spain, 
 fituated on the ifland of Leon, oppofite to Port St 
 Mary on the continent, about 60 miles fouth-weft of 
 Seville, and 40 north-weft of Gibraltar. W. Long. 6. 
 40. N. Lat. 36. 30. 
 
 It occupies the whole furface of the weftern extre- 
 mity of the ifland, which is compofed of two large 
 circular parts, joined together by a very narrow bank 
 of fand, forming altogether the figure of a chain-fhot. 
 At the fouth-eaft end, the ancient bridge of Sua90, 
 th rown over a deep channel or river, affords a commu- 
 nication between the ifland and the continent; a ftrong 
 line of works defends the city from all approaches along 
 the ifthmus ; and, to render them ftill more difficult, 
 all the gardens and little villas on the beach were in 
 1762 cleared away, and a dreary fandy glacis left in 
 their room, fo that now there is fcarce a tree on the 
 whole ifland. 
 
 Except the Calk Ancha^ all the ftreets are narrow, 
 ill-paved, and infufferably ftinking. They are all 
 drawn in ftraight lines, and moft of them interfed each 
 other at right angles. The fwarms of rats that in the 
 nights run about the ftreets are innumerable ; whole 
 droves of them pafs and repafs continually, and thcfe 
 their midnight revels are extremely troublefome to 
 fuch as walk late. The houfes are lofty, with each a 
 veftibule, v^hich being left open till night, ferve paffen- 
 gers to retire to; this cuftom, which prevails through- 
 out Spain, renders thefe places exceedingly offenfive. 
 In the middle of the houfe is a court like a deep well, 
 under which is generally a ciftern, the breeding-place 
 of gnats and mofquitos ; the ground-floors are ware- 
 houfes, the firft ftories compting-houfe or kitchen, and 
 the principal apartment up two pair of ftairs. The 
 roofs are flat, covered with an impenetrable cement, 
 and few are without a mirador or turret for the pur- 
 pofe of commanding a view of the fea. Round the 
 parapet-w»ll at top are placed rows of fquare pillars, 
 meant either for ornament according to fome tradi- 
 tional mode of decoration, or to fix awnings to, that 
 fuch as fit there for the benefit of the fea-breeze may 
 be fheltered fj "om the rays of the fun ; but the molt 
 common ufe made of them, is to faften ropes for dry- 
 ing linen upon. High above all thefe pinnacles, 
 which give Cadiz a moft fingular appearance, ftands 
 ■B the 
 
 0 
 
CAD 
 
 [ 10 ] 
 
 CAD 
 
 •CaJiz. tlic tower of fignals. Here flags are Kung out on the 
 — v — "' £rft fight of a fall, marking the fize of the fliip, the 
 nation it belongs to, and, if a Spanifh Indiaman, the 
 port of the Indies it conies from. The fhips are ac- 
 quainted with the proper fignals to be made, and 
 thefe are repeated by the watchmen of the tower : as 
 painted lifts are in every honfc, perfons concerned in 
 commerce foon learn the marks. 
 
 The city is divided into twenty-four quarters, under 
 the infpeclion of as many commiihoners of police; and 
 its population is reckoned at one hundred and foily 
 thoufand inhabitants, of which twelve thoufand are 
 French, and at leafl as many more Itahans. The 
 fquare of Saint Antonio is large, and tolerably hand- 
 fome, and there are a few fmaller openings of no 
 great note. The pubHc walk, or Alameda, isplcafant 
 in the evening : it is fenced off the coach-road by a 
 marble rail. The fea-air prevents the trees from thri- 
 ving, and destroys all hopes of future fhade. 
 
 From the Alameda, continuing your walk weft- 
 wards, you come to the Campofanto, a large efplanade, 
 the only airing-place for coaches ; it turns round moft 
 part of the well and fouth fides of the ifland, but the 
 buildings are ftraggling and ugly ; the only edifice of 
 any fhow is the new orphan-houfe ; oppofite to it is 
 the fortrefs of St Sebaftian, built on a neck of land 
 running out into the fea. The round tower at the 
 extremity is fuppofed to have faved the city, in the 
 great earthquake of 1755, from being fwept away by 
 the fury of the waves. The building proved fufBcient- 
 ly folid to withftand the fhock, and break the immenfe 
 volume of water that threatened deftrudtion to the 
 whole ifland. In the narrow part of the ifthmus the 
 furge beat over with amazing impetuofity, and bore 
 down all before it ; among the reft, the grandfon of 
 the famous tragic-poet Racine, who ftrove in vain to 
 efcape, by urging his horfe to the utmofl of his fpeed. 
 On St Sebattian's feaft, a kind of wake or fair is 
 held in the fort ; an aftonifhing number of people then 
 palling and repafTmg, on a ftring of wooden bridges 
 laid from rock to rock, makes a very lively moving 
 pifture. 
 
 From hence to the wooden circus where they exhi- 
 bit the buU-feafls, you keep turning to the left clofe 
 above the fea, which on all this fide dafhes over large 
 ledges of rock ; the fhore feems here abfolutely inac- 
 ceflible. On this fhore ftands the cathedral, a work 
 of great expcnce, but carried on with fo little vigour, 
 that it is difficult to guefs at the term of years it will 
 require to bring it to perfeftion. The vaults are exe- 
 cuted with great folidity. The arches, that fpring 
 from the cluftered pilafters to fupport the roof of the 
 church, are very bold ; the minute fculpture beflowed 
 upon them feems fuperfluons, as all the efFeft will be 
 lofl from their great height, and from the fhade that 
 will be thrown upon them by the filling up of the in- 
 terftices. From the fea, the prefent top of the church 
 refembles the carcafe of fome huge monfter caft upon 
 its fide, rearing its gigantic blanched ribs high above 
 the buildings of the city. The outward cafings are to 
 be of white marble, the bars of the windows of bronze. 
 
 Next, croffing before the land-gate and barracks, a 
 fuperb edifice for ftrength, convenience, and cleanli- 
 nefs, you come down to the ramparts that defend the 
 city on the fide of the bay. If the profped to the 
 
 ocean is folemn, that towards the main land is ant- 
 mated in the highefl degree ; the men of war ride in 
 the eaflern bofom of the bay ; lower down the mer- 
 chantmen are fpread far and near ; and clofe to the 
 town an incredible number of barks, of various fhapes 
 and fizcs, cover the furface of the water, fome moored 
 andfbme in motion, carrying goods to and fro. The 
 oppofite fhore of Spain is ftudded with white houfes, 
 and enlivened by the towns of St Mary 's, Port-real, 
 and others, behind which, eaflward, on a ridge of hills, 
 ftands Medina Sidonia, and further back life the moun- 
 tains of Granada. Weftv.ard, Rota doles the hori- 
 zon, near which was anciently the ifland and city of 
 Tarteffus, now covered by the fea, but at low-water 
 fom-; part of the ruins are ftill to be difcerned. la 
 a large baition, jutting out into the bay^ they have 
 built the cuftom-houfe, the fint ftory of which is 
 level with the walk upon the walls. When it was re- 
 folved to ere£t a building fo neceffary to this great em- 
 porium of trade, the marquis di Squillace gave orders 
 that no expence fhould be- fpared, and the moft intelli- 
 gent architefts employed, in order to erett a monument, 
 which by its tafle and magnificence might excite the 
 admiration of pofterity : tiie refult of thefe precautions 
 proved a pie<ce of vile architecture, compoftd of the 
 worft of materisls^ 
 
 The ftir here is prodigious during the laft months of 
 the ftay of the flotSi The packers polTefs the art of prefF- 
 ing goods in great perfection ; but, as they pay the 
 freight according to the cubic palms of each bale, they 
 are apt to fqueeze down the cloths and linens fo very- 
 clofe and hard, as fometimes to render them unfit for ufe. 
 The exportation of French luxuries in drefs is enor- 
 mous ; Lyons ftirnifhes moft of them ; England fends 
 out bale goods ; Brittany and the north, linens. E- 
 very commercial nation has a conful rcfident at Ca- 
 diz ; thofe of England and France are the only onea 
 not allowed to have any concern in trade. 
 
 In 1596, Cadiz was taken, pillaged, and burnt by 
 the Englifh; but in 1702 it was attempted in conjunc- 
 tion with the Dutch, without fuccefs. 
 
 CADIZADELITES, a feft of Mahometans very 
 like the ancient ftoics. They fhun feafts and diverfions, 
 and affeCt an extraordinary gravity in all their adtions } 
 they are continually talking of God, and fome of them- 
 make a jumble of Chriftlanlty and Mahometanifm ; they 
 drink wine, even in the faft of the ramazan; they love 
 and protect the Chriftians; they beHeve that Mahomet 
 is the Holy Ghoft, pradtlfe circumclfion, and juftify it 
 by the example of Jefus Chrift. 
 
 CADMEAN Letters, the ancient Greek or Ionic 
 characters, fuch as they were firft brought by Cadmua 
 from Phoenicia ; whence Herodotus alfo calls them 
 Phcen'tc'tan letters. According to fome writers, Cad- 
 mus was not the inventor, nor even importer of the 
 Greek letters, but only the modeller and reformer 
 thereof ; and it was hence they acquired the appella- 
 tion Cadmean or Phanic'tan letters ; whereas before that 
 time they had been called Pelafgian letters. 
 
 CADMIA. See Calamine. 
 
 CADMUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Thebes, 
 the fon of Agenor king of Phoenicia, and the brother 
 of Phoenix, GiHx, and Europa. He carried into 
 Greece the 16 fimple letters of the Greek alphabet; 
 and there built Thebes, in Ec&otia. The poets fay, 
 2 that 
 
 1! 
 
II 
 
 Caduceuis. 
 
 CAD [ I 
 
 -Cadrnns that he left his native country in fearch of his fifter 
 Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away in the form 
 of a bull ; and that, inquiring of the 13elphic oracle 
 for a fettlement, he was anfwered, that he fhould fol- 
 low the direftion of a cow, and build a city where fhe 
 lay down. Having arrived among the Phocenfes, he 
 was met by a cow, who conduced him through Boeo- 
 tia to the place where , Thebes was afterwards built : 
 tut as he was about to facrifice his guide to Pallas, he 
 fent two of his company to the fountain Dirce for wa- 
 ter ; when they being devoured by a ferpent or dragon, 
 he flew the monfter, and afterwards, by the advice of 
 Pallas, fowed his teeth, when there fprung up a num- 
 ber of armed foldiers, who prepared to revenge the 
 death of the ferpent ; but on his calling a ftone among 
 thefe upilart warriors, they turned their weapons againlt 
 each other with fuch animofity, that only five furvived 
 the combat, and thefe aflilled Cadmus in founding his 
 new city. Afterwards, to recompence his labours, 
 the gods gave him Harmonia, or Hermione, .the 
 daughter of Mars and Venus ; and honoured his nup- 
 tials with prefents and peculiar marks of favour. But 
 at length refigning Thebes to Pentheus, Cadmus and 
 Hermione went to govern the Ecclellenfes : when grown 
 old, they were transformed intoferpents ; or, as others 
 fay, fent to the Elyfian fields, in a chai-iot drawn by 
 ferpents. See Thebes. 
 
 Cadmus of Miletum, a celebrated Greek hillo- 
 rian, was, according to Pliny, the firft of the Greeks 
 who wrote hiftory in profe. He fiourillied about 550 
 before Chrift. 
 
 CADORE, or Pieve de Cadore, a town of Italy, 
 in the temtory of Venice, and capital of a diftridl 
 called Cador'mo ; famous for the birth of Titian the 
 painter. E. Long. 13. 45. N. Lat. 46. 25. 
 
 C ADO RING, a province of Italy, in the territory 
 of Venice ; bounded on the eaft by Friuli Proper, on 
 the fouth and weft by the Bellunefe, and by the bl- 
 ihopric of Brixen on the north. It is a very moun- 
 tainous country, but pretty populous. The only town 
 is Pieve de Cadore. 
 
 CADRITES, a fort of Mahometan friars, who 
 once a-week fpend a great part of the night in turn- 
 ing round, holding each others hand, and repeating 
 inceflantly the word hau which fignifies living, and is 
 one of the attributes of God ; during which one of 
 them plays on a flute. They never cut their hair, nor 
 cover their heads ; and always go barefooted ; they 
 have liberty to quit their convent when they pleafe, 
 and to marry. 
 
 CADS AND, an ifland on the coaft of Dutch 
 Flanders, fituated at the mouth of the Scheld, where- 
 by the Dutch command tlie navigation of that river. 
 
 CADUCEUS, in antiquity, Mercury's rod or 
 fceptre, being a wand entwifted by two ferpents borne 
 by that deity as the enfign of his quahty and office, 
 given him, according to the fable, by Apollo, for his 
 feven-ftringed harp. Wonderful properties are afcribed 
 to this rod by the poets ; as laying men afleep, raifing 
 the dead, &c. 
 
 It was alfo ufed by the ancients as a fymbol of peace 
 and concord : the Romans fent the Carthaginians a 
 Javelin and a caduceus, offering them their choice either 
 of war or peace. Among that people, thofe who de- 
 nounced war were called feclales ; and thofe who went 
 
 I ] C iE L 
 
 to demand peace, cadiiceatoresy becaufe they bore a 
 caduceus in their hand. 
 
 The caduceus found on medals is a common fymbol, 
 fignlfylng good conduct,, peace, and profperity. The 
 rod exprefies power, the two ferpents prudence, and 
 the two wings diligence. 
 
 CADUCI, (from cado to *■ fall") ; tho name of a clafs . 
 in LInnasus's calycina, confifl;ing of plants whofe calyx 
 is a fimple perlanthium, fupporting a fingle flower or 
 fructification, and falling off either before or with the 
 petals. It ftands oppofed to the clajfes perjtjlentes in 
 the fame method, and is exemplified in muttard and 
 ranunculus. 
 
 CADURCI, Cadurcum, Cadurcus, and Cadurx, 
 (anc. geog.), a town of the Cadurci, a people of A- 
 quitania ; fituated between the rivers Oldus, running 
 from the north, and the Tarnis from the fouth, and 
 falling into the Garumna : now Cahors, capital of the 
 territory of the Querci, in Guienne. A part of the 
 Cadurci, to the fouth next the Tarnis, were called E- 
 kuiher'i. 
 
 CADUS, in antiquity, a wine-veflel of a certain 
 capacity, containing 80 amphoras or firkins ; each of 
 which, according to the beft accounts, held nine gal 
 Ions. 
 
 CADUSII (anc. geog.), a people of Media Atro- 
 patene, fituated to the weft in the mountains, and 
 reaching to the Cafpian fea ; between whom and the 
 Medes, perpetual war and enmity continued down to 
 the time of Cyrus. 
 
 CiECILIA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents be- 
 longing to the amphibia clafs. The csecllia has no 
 fcales ; it is fmooth, and moves by means of lateral 
 rugae or prickles. The upper lip is prominent, and 
 furnlflied with two tentacula. It has no tail. There 
 are but two fpecies of this ferpent, viz. i. The tenta- 
 culata, has 135 rugae. It is about a foot long, and "aa 
 inch in circumference, preferving an uniform cylindri- 
 cal lhape from the one end to the other. The teeth 
 ai'e very fmall. It has fuch a refemblance to an eel, 
 that It may eafily be miftaken for one ; but as it has 
 neither fins nor gills, it cannot be claffed with the 
 fiflies. It is a native of America, and its bite is not 
 poifunous. 2. The glutinofa, has 340 rugae or prickles 
 above, and 10 below, the anus. It is of a brownifh 
 colour, with a white line on the fide, and is a native 
 of the Indies. 
 
 CiECUM, or CoECUM, the blind gut. See A- 
 
 NATOMY, 93. 
 
 CiELIUM (anc. geog.), an inland town of Peu- 
 cetia, a divlfion of Apulia ; a place four or five miles 
 above Barium or Bari, and which ftill retains that 
 name. 
 
 CiELIUS MoNS, (Itinerary); a town of Vindelicia, 
 on the right or weft fide of the Ilargus. Now Kel' 
 nmntzy a fmall town of Suabia, on the lUer. 
 
 C^nus MoNS at Rome. See Coelius. 
 
 CiELius ( Aurelianus), an ancient phyfician, and 
 the only one of the feft of the methodifls of whom we 
 have any remains. He was of Sicca, a town of Nu- 
 mldla ; but in what age he lived, cannot be deter- 
 mined : it is probable, however, that he lived before 
 Galen ; fince, though he carefully mentions all the 
 phyficlans before him, he takes no notice of Galen, 
 He had read over veiy diligently the ancieat phyfi- 
 B 2 clans 
 
C M R [ 12 
 
 Caen eians of all fe£ls ; and we are Indebted to him for the 
 !l knowledge of many dogmas which are not to be found 
 ^en^ftrf' ^''^ books de cderibus et tardis pajftonibus. He 
 
 t III _ _ wrote, as he himfelf tells us, feveral other works ; but 
 they are all perifhed. 
 
 CAEN, au handfome and confiderable town of 
 France, capital of Lower Normandy, with a celebrated 
 univerfity, and an academy of literature. It contains 
 60 ftreets, and 1 2 parifhes. It has a caftle with four 
 towers, which were built by the Englifh. The town- 
 ■jioufe is a large building with four great towers. The 
 royal fquare is the handfomeft in all Normandy, and 
 has fine houfes on three fides of it; and in the middle 
 is the ftatue of Louis XlV. in a Roman habit, Hand- 
 ing on a marble pedeftal, and furrounded with an iron 
 balluftrade. It is feated in a pleafant countiy on the 
 river Orne, about eight miles from the fea. William 
 • the conqueror was buried here, in the abbey of St . 
 Stephen, which he founded. W. Long. o. 27. N. 
 Lat. 49. 1 1. 
 
 CjERE, (anc. geog.), a town of Etruria, the royal 
 refidence of Mezentius. Its ancient name was Arg^lla:. 
 In Strabo's time not the leaft veftige of it remained, 
 except the baths called caretana. From this town the 
 Roman cenfor's tables were called c<£rttes tahulie. In 
 thefe were entered the names of fuch as for fome mif- 
 demeanor forfeited their right of fuffrage, or were de- 
 graded from a higher to a lefs honourable tribe. For 
 the people of (;!iere hofpitably receiving thofe Romans 
 who, after the taking of Rome by the Gauls, fled with 
 their gods and the facred fire of Vefta, were, on the 
 Romans recovering themfelves from this difaller, ho- 
 ttoured with the privilege of the city, but without a 
 right of voting. 
 
 C^RITES TABULA. See the preceding article. 
 
 CAERFILLY, a town of Glamorganfhire in South 
 Wales, feated between the rivers Tafi^" and Rumney, 
 in a moorifli ground, among the hills. It is thought 
 the walls, now in ruins, were built by the Romans ; 
 there being often Roman coins dug up there. W. Long. 
 3. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25. 
 
 CAERLEON, a town of Monmouthfhire in Eng- 
 land, and a place of great antiquity. It was a Roman 
 town, as is evident from the many Roman antiquities 
 found here. It is commodioufly iituated on the river 
 Ulk, over which there is a large wooden bridge. The 
 houfe^ are generally built of ftone, and there are the 
 ruins of a caftle ftill to be feen. W Long. 3, o. 
 Lat. 51. 40. 
 
 CAERMARTHEN-sHiRE, a county of Wales, 
 bounded on the north by Severn fea or St George's 
 Channel, Cardiganfhire on the fouth, the fliii-es of 
 Brecknock and Glamorgan on the eaft, and Pembroke- 
 ftiire on the weft. Its greateit length is between 30 
 and 40 miles, and its breadth upwards of 20. The air 
 la wholefome, and the foil lefs rocky and mountainous 
 than moft other parts of Wales, and confequently is 
 proportionally more fertile both in corn and pafture. 
 It has alfo plenty of wood, and is weU fupplied with 
 coal and hmeftone. The moft confidei-able rivers are 
 the Towy, the Cothy, and the Tave ; of which, the firft 
 abounds with excellent falmon. Tlie principal towna 
 are Caermarthen the capital, Kidwely, Lanimdovery, 
 &c. This county abounds with ancient forts, camps, 
 and tumuli or barraws. Near to Caermarthen,. to- 
 
 J C ^ R 
 
 wards the eaft, may be Teen the ruins of Kaftelk Kar- 
 rey, which was fituated on a fteep andrinacceffiblc rock ; 
 and alfo feveral vail caverns, fuppofed to have been cop- 
 per-mines of the Romans. Near this fpot is a foun- 
 tain which ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours like the * 
 fea. 
 
 Caermarthen, a town of Wales, and capital of 
 the county of that name. It is fituated on the river 
 Fowey, over which it has a fine ftone-bridge. It is of 
 great antiquity, being the Maridunum of Ptolemy. It 
 is a populous, thriving, and polite place, many of the 
 neighbouring gentry refiding there in the winter. It 
 is a corporation and county of itfelf, with power to 
 make by-laws. Here were held the courts of chancery 
 and exchequer for South Wales, till the whole was uni- 
 ted to England in the reign of Heniy VIII. Here 
 was born the famous conjurer Merlin ; and near the town 
 . is a wood called Merlin'' s grove, where he is faid to have 
 often retired for contemplation. Many of his pretend- 
 ed prophecies are ftill preferved in the country. The 
 town gives the title of marquis to his grace the duke of 
 Leeds. It fends one member to parliament, and the 
 county another. 
 
 CAERNARVON-SHiRE, a county of Wales, bound- 
 ed on the north and weft by the fea, on the fouth by 
 Merionethfhire, and on the eaft is divided from Den- 
 bighfliire by the river Conway. It is about 40 miles 
 in length, and 20 in breadth ; and fends one member to' 
 parliament for the fliii-e, and another for the borough 
 of Caernarvon. The air is very piercing ; owing partly 
 to the fnow, that lies feven or eight months of the year 
 upon fome of the mountains, which are fo high that 
 they are called the Britijh Alps ; and partly to the 
 great number of lakes, which are faid not to be fewer 
 than 50 or 60. ^^he foil in the valleys on the fide next 
 Ireland is pretty fertile, efpecially in barley ; great 
 numbers of black cattle, fheep, and goats, are fed on the 
 mountains ; and the fea, lakes, and rivers, abound with- 
 variety of fifh. The higheft mountains in the county 
 are thofe called Snotudon hillsy and Pen-maen-maturf 
 which laft hangs over the fea. There is a road cut out 
 of the rock on the fide next the fea, guarded by a wall 
 running along the edge of it on that fide ; but the tra- 
 veller is fometimes in danger of being cruftied by the 
 fall of pieces of the rock from the precipices above. 
 The river Conway, though its courfe from the lake out 
 of which it ifl^ues to its mouth is only 1 2 miles, yet is 
 fo deep, in confequence of the many brooks it receives, 
 that it is navigable by ftiips of good burden for eight 
 miles. Pearls are found in a large black mufcle taken 
 in this river. The principal towns are Bangor, Caer- 
 narvon the capital, and Coaway. In this county is an 
 ancient road laid to have been made by Helena the 
 mother of Conftantine the Great ; and Matthev/ of 
 Weftminfter afferts, that the body of Conftantius the 
 father of the fame Conftantine was found at Caernar-- 
 von in the year 1283, and interred in thepaciih-charch' 
 there by order of Edward I. 
 
 Caernarvon, a town of Wales, and capital of the 
 county of that name. It was built by Edward I. near 
 the fite of the ancient Segontium, after his conqueft of 
 the country in 1282, the fituation being well adapted 
 to overawe his new fubjefts. It had natural requlfites, 
 for ftrength ; being bounded on one fide by the arni' r 
 of the fea called the Menai } by the eftuary of the 
 
 Seiont; 
 
 Caermar» 
 
 then 
 ii 
 
 Caernar- 
 
 / 
 
CMS 
 
 I 13 ] 
 
 c j: s 
 
 ernarvor Sjeiont «n another, exa£lly where it receives the tide 
 CiEfal una ^^"""^ ^^'^^ former ; on a third fide, and a part of ftie 
 J^L ^ fcourth, by a creek of the Menai ; and the remainder 
 hias the appearance of having the infulation completed 
 hij art. Ed ward undertook this great work immedi- 
 attely after his conqiiell of the country in 1282, and 
 ccompleted the fortifications and caftle before 1284; 
 fcor his queen, on April 25th in that year, brought 
 fcbrth M'ithin its walls Edward, firft prince of Wales of 
 tlhe Englifli line. It was built within the fpace of one 
 yrear, by the labour of the peafants, and at the coll of 
 tlhe chieftains of the countiy, on whom the conqueror 
 irmpoied the hateful talk. The external ftate of the 
 wvalLs and caftle, Mr Pennant informs us, are at prefent 
 e?xa£lly as they were in the time of Edwai-d. The 
 walls are defended by nvunbers of round towers, and 
 hiave two pi-incipal gates : the eaft, facing the moun- 
 tcains ; the weft, upon the Menai. The entrance in- 
 tco the cattle is very auguft, beneath a great tower, on 
 tthe front of which appears the ftatue of the founder, 
 with a dagger in his hand, as if menacing his new- 
 aacquired unwilling fubjefts. The gate had four port- 
 c:ullifes, and every requifite of ftrength. The towers 
 aire veiy beautiful. The Eagle tower is remarkably 
 fiine, and has the addition of three flender angular tur- 
 rcets iffuing from the top. Edward II. was born in a 
 liittle dark room in this tower, not twelve feet long 
 nior eight in breadth : fo little did, in thofe days, a 
 rroyal confort confult either pomp or conveniency. 
 TThe gate through which the affeftionate Eleanor en- 
 tcered, to give the Welfh a prince of their own, who 
 czould not fpeak a word of Englifti, is at the fartheft 
 eend, at a vatt height above the outiide ground ; fo 
 crould only be approached by a draw-bridge. The 
 ^uay is a moft beautiful walk along the fide of the Me- 
 mai, and commands a moft agreeable view. 
 
 Caernarvon is deftitute of manufactures, but has a 
 bDrifI< trade with London, Briftol, Liverpool, and Ire 
 hand, for the feveral neceffaries of life. It is the re- 
 fiidence of numbers of genteel families, and contains 
 ffeveral very good houfes. Edward I. beftowed on this 
 tfown its firft royal charter, and made it a free bo- 
 rrough. Among other privileges, none of the burgeffe? 
 ejould be convicled of any crime committed between 
 tthe rivers Conway and Dyfe, unlefs by a jury of their 
 fiown townfmen. It is governed by a mayor, who, by 
 patent,, is created governor of the caftle. It has one 
 ailderman, two bailiffs, a. town-clerk, and two ferjeants 
 ait mace. The reprefentative of the place is eletted by 
 itts burgelTes, and thofe of Conway, Pwllheli, Nefyn, and 
 Crickaeth. The right of voting is in- every one, refi- 
 dient or non-refident, admitted to their freedom. The 
 tcown gives title of earl and marquis to the duke of 
 Chandos, and has a good tide-harboin-. 
 
 CAERWIS, a market-town of FHntftiire in North 
 "Wales, lituated in W. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 53. 20. 
 
 C-£SALPINIA Brasiletto, or Briji;-nvood: a ge- 
 mns of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria 
 G'lafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un- 
 dJer the 33d order, L.ommiacea:. The calyx is quin- 
 qjuefid, with the loweft fegment larger in proportion. 
 IThere are five petals, with the loweft more beautifuh 
 tihan the reft. It is a leguminous plant. Of this^ 
 tiiiere are three fpecies, the moft remarkable of which 
 x£s. the. brafilienfis, commonly called Bni[iktto, It 
 
 grows naturally in the warmeft parts of America, Csefa'plnua 
 from whence the wood is imported for the dyers, who Casfaf. ^ 
 ufe it much. The demand has been fo great, that * 
 none of the large trees are left in any of the Bri- WateCXV. 
 tifli plantations ; fo that Mr Cateft>y owns him- 
 felf ignorant of the dimenfions to which they grow. 
 The largeft remaining are not above two inches in 
 thicknefs, and eight or nine feet in height. The 
 branches are flender and full of fmall prickles ; the leaves- 
 are pinnated ; the lobes growing oppofite to one ano- 
 ther, bro^d at their ends, with one notch. The flowers 
 are white, papilionaceous, with many ftamina and yel- 
 low apices, growing in a pyramidal fpike, at the end of 
 a long flender ftalk : the pods inclofe feveral fmall round 
 feeds. The colour produced from this wood is greatly 
 improved by folution of tin in aqua regia*. The fe- , 
 cond fort is a native of the fame countries witli the firft, making 
 but is of a larger fize. It fends out many weak irregu- and Dyeing^ 
 lar branches, armed with fliort, ftrong, upright thorns. 
 The leaves branch out in the fame manner as the firft ; 
 but the lobes, or fmall leaves, are oval and entire. 
 The flowers are produced in long fpikes like thofe of 
 the former, but are variegated with red. Thefe plants 
 may be propagated from feeds, which fliould be fov/n 
 in fmaU pots filled with light rich earth early in the 
 fpring, and plunged in a bed of tanner's bark. Being 
 tender, they require to be always kept in the ftove, and 
 to be treated in the fame manner as other exotics of 
 that kind. 
 
 C^SALPINUS of Arezzo, profeflbr at Pifa, and 
 afterwards phyfician to pope Clement VIII. one of the 
 capital writers in botany. See Botany, p. 419, 420. 
 
 C-^SAR (Julius), the illuftrious Roman general 
 and hiftorian, was of the family of the Julii, who pre- 
 tended they were defcended from Venus by .^neas. 
 The defcendants of Afcanius fon of iEneas and Creufa, 
 and furnamed 'Julius, lived at Alba till that city was 
 ruined by Tullus Hoftilius king of Rome, who carried 
 them to Rome, where they flourifhed. We do not find 
 that they produced more than two branches. The firit 
 bore the name of Tullus, the other that of defar. The 
 moft ancient of the Caefars were thofe who were in pu- 
 blic employments in the nth year of the firft Punic 
 war. After that time we find there was always fomc 
 of that family who enjoyed public offices in the com- 
 monwealth, till the time of Caius Julius Casfar, the fub- 
 ]tdc of this article. He was born at Rome the 1 2th of 
 the month Quintilis, year of the city 653, and loft his 
 father an. 669. By his valour and eloquence he foon 
 acquired the highett reputation in the field and in the ' 
 fenate. Beloved and refpefted by his fellow-citizens, 
 he enjoyed fucceffively every magifterial and military 
 honour the republic could beftow cDnfulent with its" 
 own free conftitution^ But at length having fubdued 
 Pompey the great rival of his growing pov/er, his 
 boundlefs ambition effaced the glory of his former ac- • 
 tions : for, purfuing his favourite maxim, " that he 
 had rather be the firft man- in a village than the fecond 
 in Rome," he piocured himfelf to be chofen perpetual 
 dictator ; and, not content with this unconftitutional 
 power, his faction had refolved to raife him to the im- 
 perial dignity ; when the friends of the civil liberties 
 of the republic rafhly aflaflinated him in the £ n-te- 
 houfe, where they fhould only have feized him and • , 
 brought him to a legal trial for ufurpation. By this ■ 
 
 impolitic-" 
 
lot 
 
 C ^ S . I 
 
 C'jihr. inipolltic meafure they defeated tbeir own purpofe, in- 
 ^"""v"-— volving the city in confternation and terror, which pro- 
 duced general anarchy, and paved the way to the revo- 
 lution they wanted to prevent ; the monarchial govern- 
 ment being abfolutely founded on the murder of Julius 
 Ciefar. He fell in the 56th year of his age, 43 years 
 before the Chriftian aera. His commentaries contain 
 a hlftory pf his principal voyages, battles, and vi£lo- 
 ries. The London edition in 1 7 1 2, in foho, is pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 The detail of Caefar's tranfaftions (fo far as is con- 
 fiftent with the limits of this work) being given under 
 "the article Rome, we fiiall here only add a portrait of 
 * From thejjijn as drawn by a philofopher*. 
 J'htTro" " ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^P^*^ centuries, the truth may 
 
 fhiques of he publl filed without offence, a philofopher might, in 
 M. Oi hel- the following terras, cenfure Casfar without calum- 
 niating him, and applaud him without exciting his 
 blufiies. 
 
 " Casfar had one predominant paffion : It was the 
 love of glory ; and he pafTed 40 years of his life in feek- 
 ing opportunities to foller and encourage it. His foul, 
 entirely abforbed in ambition, did not open itfelf to 
 other impulfes. He cultivated letters ; but he did not 
 love them with enthuliafm, becaufe he had not leifure 
 to become the firft orator of Rome. He corruptecT the 
 one half of the Roman ladies, but hie heart had no 
 concern in the fiery ardours of his fenfes. In the arms 
 of Cleopatra, he thought of Pompey ; and this fmgu- 
 lar man, who difdained to have a partner in the empire 
 of the world, would have blufhed to have been for one 
 inftant the flave of a woman. 
 
 " We muft not imagine, that Caefar was born a war- 
 rior, as Sophocles and Milton were born poets. For, 
 if nature had made him a citizen of Sybaris, he would 
 have been the moft voluptuous of men. If in our days 
 he had been born in Penfylvania, he would have been 
 the moft inoffenfive of quakers, and would not have dif- 
 turbed the tranquillity of the new world. 
 
 " The moderation with which he conduced himfelf 
 after his vlftories, has been highly extolled ; but in this 
 he fhowed his penetration, not the goodnefs of his 
 heart. Is it not obvious, that the difplay of certain 
 vli-tues is necefTary to put in motion the political ma^ 
 chine ? It was rsqulfite that he ftiould have the appear- 
 ance of clemency, if he inclined that Rome fhould for- 
 give him his viftories. But what greatnefs of mind is 
 there in a generofity which follows on the ufurpation 
 of fupreme power ? 
 
 *' Nature, while it marked Caefar with a fublime cha- 
 rafter, gave him alfo that fpirit of perfeverance which 
 renders.it ufeful. He had no fooner begun to refleft, 
 . than he admired Sylla ; hated him, and yet wifhed to 
 imitate him. At the age of 15, he formed the pro- 
 ject of being diflator. It was thus that the prefident 
 Montefquieu conceived, in his early youth, the idea of 
 the fpirit of laws. 
 
 *' Phyfical qualities, as well as moral caufes, contri- 
 buted to give ftrength to his charafter. Nature, which 
 had made him for command, had. given him an air of 
 dignity. He had acquired that loft and infinuating 
 eloquence, which is perfeftly fulted to feduce vulgar 
 minds, and has a powerful influence on the moft culti- 
 vated. His love of pleafure was a merit with the fair 
 f x ; and women, who even in a republic can draw to 
 
 '4 1 
 
 C JE S 
 
 them the fufFrages and attention of men, have the 
 higheft importance in degenerate times. The ladiets • 
 of his age were charmed with the profpeft of ha- 
 ving a diftator whom they might fubdue by their at- 
 traftions. 
 
 " In vain did the genius of Cato watch for fomee 
 time to fuftain the liberty of his country. It was un - 
 equal to contend with that of Cxfar. Of what availl 
 were the eloquence, the philofophy, and the virtue off 
 this republican, when oppofed by a man who had thte 
 addrefs to debauch the wife of every citizen whofe in"> 
 tereft he meant to engage ; who, poffelEng an enthu- 
 fiafm for glory, wept, becaufe, at the age of 30, h(e 
 had not conquered the world like Alexander ; and who), 
 with the haughty temper of a defpot, was more defu* 
 rous to be the firft man in a village than the fecond im 
 Rome. 
 
 *' Casfar had the good fortune to exift in times 0)f 
 trouble and civil commotions, when the minds of mem 
 are put into a ferment ; when opportunities of grea-.t 
 aftlons are frequent; when talents are every thing, and 
 thofe who can only boaft of their virtues are nothing;. 
 If he had Hved an hundred years fooner, he would have 
 been no more than an obfcure villain ; and, inftead o)f 
 giving laws to the world, would not have been able t.o 
 produce any confufion in it. 
 
 " I will here be bold enough to advance an Ideai, 
 which may appear paradoxical to thofe who weakly 
 judge of men from what they atchieve, and not from 
 the principle which leads them to aft. Nature formecd 
 in the fame mould Caefar, Mahomet, Cromwell, antd 
 KouH Khan. They all of them united to genius thait 
 profound policy which renders it fo powerKil. They 
 all of them had an evident fuperiority over thofe vv-Itlh 
 whom they were furrounded ; they were confcious cjf 
 this fuperiority, and they made others confcious of itt. 
 They were all of them born fubjefts, and became for- 
 tunate ufurpers. Had Caefar been placed in Perfia, hie 
 would have made the conqueftof India; in Arabia, hie 
 would have been the founder of a new religion; in Lora- 
 don, he would have tabbed his fovereign, or have pro)- 
 cured his affaffination under the fanftion of the lawss. 
 He reigned with glory over men whom he had reduced 
 to be flaves; and, under one afpeft, he is tobeconfider- 
 ed as a hero; under another, asamonfter. But it v\'0uld 
 be unfortunate, indeed, for fociety, if the pofTelfion of 
 fuperior talents gave individuals a right to trouble it.s 
 repofe. Ufurpers accordingly have flatterers, but n<o 
 friends ; ftrangers refpeft them ; their fubjefts comi- 
 plain and fubmit ; it is in their own families that huma- 
 nity finds her avengers. Caefar was aflaffinated by hiis 
 fon, Mahomet was poifoned by his wife, Koull Kha;n 
 was mafiacred by his nephew, and Cromwell only died 
 in his bed becaufe his fon Richard was a philofopher. 
 
 ** Caefar, the tyrant of his countiy ; Csfar, whio 
 deftroyed the agents of his crimes, if they failed in adl- 
 drefs ; Casfar, in fine, the huft)and of every wife, and 
 the wife of every hufband ; has been accounted a greait 
 man by the mob of writers. But it is only the philo- 
 fopher who knows how to mark the barrier betweem 
 celebrity and greatnefs. The talents of this fingulaur 
 man, and the good fortune which conftantly attended 
 him till the moment of his afl^afhnation, have concealed 
 the enormity of his aftlons." 
 CitsAR, in Roman antiquity, a title borne by alU 
 
 9 
 
 t 
 
Catfar 
 
 cms [ I 
 
 tUic mpcrors, from Julius Caefar to the deftruftion of 
 tlhe empire. It was alfo ufed as a title of diftindion 
 J fcor the intended or prefumptive heir of the empire, 
 ass king of the Romans is now ufed for that of the Ger- 
 mian empire. 
 
 This title took its rife from the furname of the firfb 
 eimperor, C. Julius Caefar, which, by a decree of the 
 fesnate, all the fucceeding emperors were to bear. Un- 
 dier his fuccefibr, the appellation of Augujius being 
 appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that 
 p)rince, the title Ccefar was given to the fecond per- 
 fcon in the empire, though ftill it continued to be given 
 tco the lirft ; and hence the difference betwixt Caefar 
 iiifed fimply, and Caefar with the addition of Imperator 
 i^uguftus. 
 
 The dignity of Casfar remained to the fecond of the 
 empire, till Alexius Comnenus having elefted Nice- 
 pihorus Meliffenus Caefar, by contraft ; and it being 
 rutccffary to confer fome higher dignity on his own 
 b)rother Ifaaclus, he created him Sebaftocrator, with 
 tllie precedency over Meliffenus ; ordering, that in all 
 aicclamations, &c. Ifaacius Sebaftocrator fhould be 
 niamed the fecond, and Meliffenus Casfar the third. 
 
 C^^SAR (Sir JuHus), a learned civilian, was de- 
 fccended by the female line from the duke de Cefarini in 
 Ltaly ; and was born near Tottenham in Middlefex, in 
 tlhe year 1557. He was educated at Oxford, and af- 
 tterwards ftudied in the univerfity vi Paris, where, in 
 tlhe year 1581, he was created dodlor of the civil law, 
 amd two years after was admitted to the fame degree 
 ait Oxford, and alfo became dodlor of the canon law. 
 Rle was advanced to many honourable employments, 
 amd for the laft 20 years of his life was matter of the 
 trolls. He was remarkable for his extenfive bounty and 
 ejharity to all perfons of worth, fo that he feemed to 
 bie the almoner-general of the nation. He died 1639, 
 km the 79th year of his age. It is very remarkable that 
 t:he manufcripts of this lawyer were offered (by the ex- 
 e?cutors of fome of his defcendants) to a cheefemonger 
 ftor wafte-paper j but being timely infpeded by Mr 
 Sjamuel Paterfon, this gentleman difcovered their worthy 
 amd had the fatisfaftion to find his judgment confirmed 
 b)y the profefiion, to whom they were fold in lots for 
 uipwards of 500/. in the year 1757,. 
 
 Cjesar Augujla or Cafarea Augvjla^ (anc geog.), 
 at Roman colony fituated on the river Iberus in the 
 blither Spain, before called Saldubuy in the territories 
 o)f the Edetani. Now commonly thought to be Sara- 
 
 CiESAREA, the name of feveral ancient cities, 
 pjarticularly one on the coaft of Phenice. It was very 
 c;onveniently fituated for trade ; but had a very dange- 
 reous harbour, fo that no fhips could be fafe in it when 
 t;he wind was at fouth-weft. Herod the Great king 
 o)f Judea remedied this inconveniency at an Immenfe 
 e:xpence and labour, making it one of the moft con- 
 v/enient havens on that coaft. He alfo beautified it 
 vwith many buildings, and beftowed 12 years in the 
 fiinifhing and adorning it. 
 
 CiESARIAN operation. See Midwifery. 
 
 CiESARIANS, CafarlenfcSy in Roman antiquity, 
 were officers of minifters of the Roman emperors: They 
 kept the account of the revenues of the emperors ; and 
 t;ook poffeffion, in their name, of fuch things as de- 
 vfolved or were confifcated to them,. 
 
 a town of the Casfarodii- 
 the capital of ^ 
 
 Caffa. 
 
 5 ] C A F 
 
 C^SARODUNUM (anc. geog.), 
 Turones in Celtic Gaul ; now Tours, 
 Touraiiie. See Tours. 
 
 CjESAROMAGUS (anc. geog.), a town of the ■ 
 Trinobantes in Britain ; by fome fuppofed to be 
 Chelmsford, by others Brenford, and by others Burfiet. 
 
 CiESENA (anc. geog.)^ a tov^ai of Gallia Cifpa- 
 dana, fituated on the rivers Ifapis and Rubicon j now 
 C i?; s E N A , which fee . 
 
 C^SIA sYLVA (anc. geog.), a wood in Germany, 
 part of the great Sylva Hercynia, fituated partly in the 
 duchy of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia between 
 Wefel and Kesfieldi- 
 
 C^SONES, a denomination given to thofe cut out 
 of their mother's wombs. Pliny ranks this as an au- 
 fpicious kind of birth; the elder Scipio Africanus, and 
 the firft family of Caefars, were brought into the world 
 in this way. 
 
 CJiSTUS, i-n antiquity, a large gantlet made of 
 raw hide, which the wreftlers made ufe of when they 
 fought at the public games. — This was a kind of lea-- 
 thern ftrap, ftrengthened with lead or plates of iron, , 
 which encompaffed the hand, the wrift, and a part of 
 the arm, as well to defend thefe parts as to enforce 
 their blows. 
 
 CiESTus,or C<£/?«w, was alfo a kind of girdle, made 
 of wool, which the hufband untied for his fpoufe the 
 firft day of marriage, before they went to bed. 
 
 This relates to Venus's girdle, which Juno borrowed 
 of her to entice Jupiter to love her. See Cestus. 
 
 CiESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the 
 fcanning of a- verfe, a word is divided fo, as one part 
 feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from the 
 reft; as, 
 
 Menti\rL no\ll, nuti\quam men\dacta \profnnt. 
 where the fyllables r/, /i, quam, and metiy are cse* 
 furas. . 
 
 C^suRE, in the modern poetry, denotes a reft of 
 paufe towards the middle of an Alexandrian verfe, by 
 which the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the 
 verfe, as it were, divided into two hemiftichs. See 
 Pause. 
 
 CjETERIS paribus, a Latin term in frequent ufe 
 among mathematical and phyfical writers. The words 
 literally fignify, the rejl [or. other things') be'mg alike or 
 equal. Thus we fay the heavier the bullet, ceteris 
 paribus, the greater the range ; /. e. by how much the 
 bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece 
 and ftrength of the pow-der be the fame, by fo much 
 will the utmolt range or diftance of a piece of ordnance 
 be the greater. Thus alfo, in a phyfical way, we fay, 
 the velocity and quantity circulating in a given time 
 through any feftion of an artery, will, cateris paribus^ . 
 be according to its diameter, and nearnefs to-or diftanc* - 
 from the heart. - 
 
 CjETOBRIX (anc. geog.)i a town of Lufitania, . 
 near the mouth of the Tagus on the eaft fide ; now ex- 
 tinft. It had its name from its fifliery; and there 
 are ftill extant fifti-ponds on the fhore, done with platter 
 of Paris, which illuftrate the name of the ruined city. 
 
 CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton-cloths ma- 
 nufaftured in the Eaft Indies, and fold at Bengal. 
 
 Caffa, or Kaffa, a city and port-town of Crim 
 Tartary, fituated on the fouth-eaft part of that penin- 
 fula, E. Long. 37. c. N. Lat. 44. 55. 
 
 It 
 
II 
 
 •;Cage. 
 
 GAG [ I 
 
 It Is the moft confjderable towit m the country, and 
 
 gives name to the ttraits of CafFa, which runs from the 
 , Euxine or Black Sea, to the Palua Meotis, or fea of 
 Azoph. 
 
 CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers, 
 M'ho join ttigether in order to go v>'ith more fecurity 
 through the dominions of the Grand Mogul, and 
 through other countries on the continent of the Eaft 
 Indies. 
 
 The Caffila differs from a caravan, at leaft in Per- 
 fia : for the caffila belongs properly to fome fovereign, 
 or to fome powerful company in Europe, whereas a 
 caravan is a company of particular merchants, each 
 trading upon his own account. The EngHfii and 
 Dutch have each of them their caffila at Gambrow. 
 There are alfo fuch caffilas, w^hich crofs fome parts of 
 •the defer ts of Africa, particularly that called the fea of 
 fandy \'<'liich lies between the kingdom of Morocco and 
 thofe of Tombut and Gaigo. This is a journey of 400 
 leagues ; and takes up two months in going, and as 
 .many in coming back ; the caffila travelling only by 
 ■ night, on account of the exceffive heat of that country. 
 The chief merchandize they bring back confifts in gold 
 daft, which they call atibar, and the Europeans t':bh-. 
 
 Caffila on the coaft of Guzerat or Cambaya, fig- 
 nifies a fmall fleet of micrchant-fhips. 
 
 CAFFRARIA, the country of the Caffres or Hot- 
 tentots, in the moft foutherly parts of Africa lying in 
 the form of a crefcent about the inland country of Mo- 
 nomopata, between 35° fouth latitude and the tropic of 
 Capricorn : and bounded on the eaft, fouth, and weft, 
 by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. See Hotten- 
 tots. 
 
 Moft of the fea-coafts of this country are fubjeft to 
 the Dutch, who l^ave built a fort near the moft fouthern 
 promontory, called the Cape of Good-Hope. 
 
 CAG, or Keg, a barrel or veffel, that contains from 
 four to five gallons. 
 
 CAGANUS, or Cacanus, an appellation anciently 
 -given by the Huns to their kings. The word appears 
 alfo to have been formerly applied to the princes of 
 Mufcovy, now called c%ar. From the fame alfo, pro- 
 bably, the Tartar title cham or <ran, had its origin. 
 
 CAGE, an inclofure made of wire, wicker, or the 
 like, interwoven lattice-wife, for the coniinement of 
 birds or wild beafts. The word is French, cage, formed 
 from the Italian gaggla, of the Latin cavea, which fig- 
 nifies the fame : a cave'is theatralihus in quihus include' 
 hantur fera. 
 
 Beafts were ufually brought to Rome fhut up in oaken 
 ' or beechen cages, artfully formed, and covered or 
 fliaded with boughs, that the creatures, deceived with 
 the appearance of a wood, might fancy themfelves in 
 iheir foreft. The fiercer fort were pent in iron cages, 
 left wooden prifons fliould be broke through. In fome 
 prifons there are iron cages for the clofer confinement 
 of criminals. The French laws diftinguifti two forts 
 xjf bird-cages, viz. high or finging cages, and low or 
 dumb-cages; thofe who expofe birds to fale are obliged 
 to put the hens in the latter, and the cocks in the for- 
 mer, that perfons may not be impofed on by buying a 
 hen for a cock. 
 
 Cages {^cavea^, denote alfo places in the ancient 
 amphitheatres, wherein wild beafts were kept, ready to 
 be let out for fport. The cavee were a fort of iron 
 
 N°6i. J 
 
 6 1 
 
 CAG 
 
 cages different from dens, which were under ground and 
 dark; whereas the caivis being airy and light, the 
 beafts rufhed out of them with more alacrity and fierce- 
 nefs than if they had been pent under ground. 
 
 Cage, in carpentry, fignifies an outer- wox-k of tim- 
 ber, enclofing another within it. In this fenfe we fay, 
 the cage of a ivind-mlll. The cage of a ftaii-cafe denotes 
 the wooden fides or walls which inclofe it. 
 
 CAGEAN, or Cagayan, a province of the ifland 
 of Lytzen, or Manila, in the Eaft Indies. It is the 
 largeft in the ifland, being 80 leagues in length, and 
 40 in breadth. The principal city is called Neiu Se- 
 govia, and 1 5 leagues eaftward from this city lies cape 
 Bajador. Doubhng that cape, and coafting along 20 
 leagues from north to fouth, the province of Cagean 
 ends, and that of lUocos begins. The peaceable 
 Cageans who pay tribute are about 9000 ; but there 
 are a great many not fubdued. The whole province 
 is fruitful : the men apply themfelves to agriculture, 
 and are of a martial difpofition ; and the women apply 
 to feveral works in cotton. The mountains afford focd 
 for a vaft number of bees; in confequence of which was 
 is fo plenty, that all the poor burn it inftead of oil. 
 They make their candles after the following magner : 
 they leave a fmall hole at each end of a hollow ftick 
 for the wick to run through ; and then, ftopping the 
 bottom, fill it with wax at the top : when cold, they 
 break the mould, and take out the candle. On the 
 mountains there is abundance of brafil, ebony, and o- 
 ther valuable woods. In the woods are ftore of wild 
 beafts, as boars ; but not fo good as thofe of Europe, 
 There are alfo abundance of deer, which they kill for 
 their fl<ins and horns to fell to the Chinefe. 
 
 CAGLI, an ancient epifcopal town of Italy, ia 
 the duchy of Urbino, fituated at the foot of the Apen- 
 nine mountains. E. Long. 14. 12. N. Lat. 43. 30. 
 
 CAGLIARI (Paolo), called Paulo Veronefe, an ex- 
 cellent painter, was born at Verona in the year 1532- 
 Gabriel Cagliari his father was a fculptor, and Anto- 
 nio Badile his uncle was his mafter in painting. He 
 was not only efteemed the beft of all the Lombard 
 painters, but for his extenfive talents in the art was 
 pecuHarly ftyled // pittor felice, " the happy painter 
 and there is fcarcely a church in Venice where fome of 
 his performances are not to be feen. De Piles fays, 
 that " his pifture of the marriage at Cana, in the 
 church of St George, is to be dittinguiftied from his 
 other works, as being not only the triumph of Paul 
 Veronefe, but almoft the triumph of painting itfelf." 
 When the fenate fent Grimani, procurator of St Mark, 
 to be their ambaffador at Rome, Paul attended him, 
 but did not ftay long, having left fome pieces at Ve- 
 nice unfiniffied. Philip II. king of Spain, fent for him 
 to paint the Efcurial, and made him great offers ; but 
 Paul excufed himfclf from leaving his own country, 
 where his reputation was fo well eftabliftied, that moft 
 of the princes of Europe ordered their feveral ambaffa- 
 dors to procure fomething of his hand at any rate. 
 He was indeed highly efteemed by all the principal men 
 in his time ; and fo much admired by the great mafters, 
 as well his contemporaries as thofe who fucceeded 
 him, that Titian himfelf ufed to fay, he was the orna- 
 ment of his profeffion. And Guido Reni being aflced 
 which of the mafters his predeceffors he would choofe 
 to be, were it in his power, after Raphael and Corre- 
 
C A J 
 
 C 17 1 
 
 C A I 
 
 gjo, named Paul Veronefe ; whom he always called his 
 Paolino, He died of a fever at Venice in 1588, and 
 had a tomb and a ilatue of brafs erefted to his memory 
 in the church of St Sebaftian. He left great wealth to 
 his two fons Gabriel and Charles, who lived happily to- 
 gether, and joined in finifhing fevcral of their father's 
 imperfect pieces with good fuccefs. 
 
 Cagliari, an ancient, large, and rich town, capital 
 of the ifland of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is 
 feated on the declivity of an hill, is an univerfity, an 
 archbilhopric, and the rtfidence of the viceroy. It has 
 an excellent harbour, and a good trade ; but is a place 
 of no great ftrength. It was taken, with the whole 
 ifland, bv the Englidi in 1 708, who transferred it to 
 the emperor Charles VI. ; but it was retaken by the 
 Spaniards in 171 7, and about two years afteru'ards 
 ceded to the duke of Savoy in lieu of Sicily, and hence 
 he has the title of king of Sardinia, E. Long. 9. 14. 
 N. Lat. 39. 12. 
 
 CAGUI, in zoology, a fynonyme of two fpecies of 
 monkeys, viz. the jacchus and cedipus. See Si mi A. 
 
 CAHORS, a confiderable town of France, in Querci 
 in Guienne, with abifliop's fee and an univerfity. HLt is 
 feated on a peninfula made by the river Lot, and built 
 partly on a craggy rock. The principal ftreet is very 
 narrow ; and terminates in the market-place, in which 
 is the town-houfe. The cathedral is a Gothic llrufture, 
 tmd has a large fquare fteeple. The fortifications are 
 regular, and the town is furroUnded with thick walls. 
 E. Long. 1.6. N. Lat. 44. 26. 
 
 CAHYS, a dry m,eafure for corn, ufed in fome parts 
 of Spain, particularly at Seville and at Cadiz. It is 
 near a bufhel of our meafure. 
 
 CAJANABliRG, the capital of the province of 
 Cajania or Eaft Bothnia in Sweden, fituated on the 
 iiorth-eaft part of the lake Cajania, in^E. Long. 27. c» 
 N. Lat. 63. 50. 
 
 *CAIPHAS, high-prieft of the Jews after Simon, 
 Condemned Chriil to death ; and was put out of his 
 place by the emperor Vitellius, for which difgrace he 
 made away with himfclf. 
 
 CAJAZZO, a town of the province of Lavoro in 
 the kingdom of Naples, fituated in E. Long. 15. o. 
 N. Lat. 41. 15. 
 
 CAICOS, the name of fome American iflands to 
 the north of St Domingo, lying from W. Long. 112. 
 10. to 1 13. 16. N. Lat 21. 40. 
 
 CAJEPUT, an oil brought from the Eaft Indies 
 refembling that of Cardamoms. 
 
 CAIETA, (anc.geog.), a port and town of Latium, 
 to called from -/Eneas's. nurfe ; now Gaeta, which fee. 
 
 CAJETAN (Cardinal), was born at Cajeta in the 
 kingdom of Naples in the year 1469. His proper 
 name was Thomas de Via ; but he adopted that of Ca- 
 jetan from the place of his nativity. He defended the 
 authority of the Pope, which fuffered greatly at the 
 council of Nice, in a work entitled Of the po<wer of the 
 Pope ; and for this work he obtained the bifliopric of 
 Cajeta. He was afterwards raifed to the archiepifcopal 
 fee of Palermo, and in 1 5 1 7 was made a cardinal by 
 Pope Leo X. The year after, he was fent as legate 
 Into Germany, to quiet the commotions raifed againft 
 indulgences by Martin Luther ; but Luther, under pro- 
 tedlion of Fredei-ic eleftor of Saxony, fet him at de- 
 fiance ; for though he obeyed the cardinal's fummons 
 
 Vol.. IV. Part L 
 
 in repairing to Augfburg, yet he rendered all his pro- 
 ceedings ineffeftual. Cajetan^'was employed in feveral, 
 other negociations and tranfaftions, being as ready at 
 bufinefs as at letters. He died in 1534. He wrote 
 Commentaries upon Ariftotle's philofophy, and upon 
 Thomas Aqulnas's theology ; and made a literal tranf- 
 lation of the Old and New Teftaments. 
 
 CAIFONG, a lara^e, populous, and rich town of 
 Afia, in China, feated in the middle of a large and well 
 cultivated plain. It ftands in a bottom ; and when be- 
 fieged by the rebels in 1642, they ordered the dykes 
 of the river Hohangho to be cut, v/htch drowned the 
 city, and dcftroyed 300,000 of its inhabitants. E.Long. 
 1 13. 27. N. Lat. 35. o. 
 
 CAILLE (Nicholas Louis de la), an eminent ma- 
 thematician and ailronomer, was born at a fmall town 
 in the diocefe of Rheims in 1 7 1 3. His father had fer- 
 ved in the army, which he quitted, and in his retire- 
 ment ftudied mathematics; and amufed, himfelf with 
 mechanic exercifes, wherein he proved the happy author 
 of feveral inventions of confiderable ufe to the public, 
 Nicholas, almoft in his infancy, took a fancy to mecha- 
 nics, which proved of fignal fcrvice to him in his ma^^ 
 turer years. He was fent young to fchool at Mantes- 
 fur-Seine, where he difcovered early tokens of genius* 
 In 1729, he went to Paris ; where he ftudied the claf- 
 lics, philofophy, and mathematics. Afterwards he went 
 to ftudy divinity at the college de Navarre, propofing 
 to embrace an ccclefiaftlcal life. At the end of threfi 
 years he v/as oi-dained a deacon, and officiated as fuch 
 in the church of the college de Mazarin feveral years ; 
 but he never entered into pricfts orders, apprehending 
 that his aftronomical ftudies, to which he became moft 
 affiduoufly devoted, might too much interfere with his 
 religious duties. In 1739, he was conjoined with M. de 
 Thury, fon to M. Caffini, in verifying the meridian of 
 the royal obfervatory through the v/hole extent of the 
 kingdom of France. In the month of November the 
 fame year, whilft he was engaged day and night in the 
 operations which this grand undertaking required, and 
 at a great diftance from Paris, he was, without any fo- 
 licitation, eledled into the vacant mathematical chair 
 which the celebrated M. Varignon had fo worthily 
 filled. Here he began to teach about the end of 1 740 ; 
 and an obfervatory was ordered to be erefted for his 
 ufe in the college, and furnifhed with a fuitable appa* 
 ratus of the beft inftruments. In May 1741, M. de la 
 Caille was admitted into the royal academy of fciences 
 as an adjoint member for aftronomy. Befides the many 
 excellent papers of his difperfed up and down in their 
 memoirs, he publifhed Elements of geometry, mecha- 
 nics, optics, and aftronomy. Moreover, he carefully 
 computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon that had 
 happened fince the Chrlftian sera, which were printed 
 m a book pubhftied by two Benedidllnes, entitled PArt 
 de verejier les dates, &c. Paris, 1750, in 4to. Befides 
 thefe, he compiled a volume of aftronomical epheme- 
 rides for the years 1 745 to 1 755 ; another for the years 
 1755 to 1765 ; a third for the years 1765 to 1775 > 
 an excellent work entitled AJlronomia fundamcnta no- 
 'viffimis foils et Jlellarum obfervationibus Jlahilila ; and 
 the moft corredl folar tables that ever appeared. Ha- 
 ving gone through a feven years feries of aftronomi- 
 cal obfervations in his own obfervatory, he formed a 
 projedl of going to obferve the fouthern ftars at the 
 C Cape 
 
 Caifong, 
 Ca'vlie. 
 
C A I [ 1 
 
 Caille. Cape of Good Hope. This was highly approved by the 
 » academy, and by the prime minifter Comte de Argen- 
 fon, and very readily agreed to by the Hates of Hol- 
 land. Upon this, he drew up a plan of the method he 
 propofed to purfue in his fouthern obfervations ; fetting 
 forth, that, befides fettling the places of the fixed ftars, 
 he propofed to determine the parallax of the moon. 
 Mars, and Venus. But whereas this required corre- 
 fpondent obfervations to be made in the northern parts 
 of the world, he fent to thofe of his correfpondents 
 who were expert in praftical aftronoray previous no- 
 tice, in print, what obfervations he defigned to make 
 at fuch and fuch times for the faid purpofe. At length, 
 on the 2ift of November 1750, he failed for the Cape, 
 and arrived there on the 19th of April 1751. He forth- 
 with got his inftruments on Ihore ; and, with the affift- 
 *ance of fome Dutch artificers, fet about building an 
 aftronomical obfervatory, in which his apparatus of in- 
 ftruments was properly difpofed of as fooa as it w^as in 
 a fit condition to receive them. 
 
 The {l<.y at the Cape is generally pure and ferene, 
 imlefs when a fouth-eaft wind blows. But this is of- 
 ten the cafe ; and when it is, it is attended with fome 
 ftrange and terrible effefts. The ftars look bigger, and 
 feem to caper ; the moon has an undulating tremor ; 
 and the planets have a fort of beard like comets. Two 
 hundred and twenty-eight nights did our aftronomer 
 furvey the face of the fouthern heavens ; during which 
 fpace, which is almoft incredible, he obferved more 
 than io,coo ftars ; and whereas the ancients filled the 
 heavens with monfters and old-wives tales, the abbe de 
 la Caille chofe rather to adorn them with the inftru- 
 ments and machines which modern philofophy has 
 * Sfe the m.ade ufe of for the conqueft of nature*. With no 
 Planifpl^ere lefs fuccefs did he attend to the parallax of the moon, 
 Mars, Venus, and the fun. Having thus executed the 
 purpofe of his voyage, and no prefent opportunity of- 
 fering for his return, he thought of employing the va- 
 cant time in another arduous attempt ; no lefs than 
 that of taking the meafure of the earth, as he had al- 
 ready done that of the heavens. This indeed had, 
 through the munificence of the French king, been done 
 before by difl'erent lets of learned men both in Europe 
 and America ; fome determining the quantity of a de- 
 gree under the equator, and others under the arftic 
 circle : but it had not as yet been decided whether in 
 the fouthern parallels of latitude the fame dimenfions 
 (ibtained as in the northern. His labours were re- 
 warded with the fatisfaftion he wiflied for ; having de- 
 termined a diftance of 410,814 feet from a place cal- 
 led Kl'ip-Fontyn to the Cape, by means of a bafe of 
 38,802 feet, three times aftually meafured : whence he 
 difcovered a new fecret'of nature, namely, that the 
 radii of the parallels in fouth latitude are not the fame 
 as thofe of the correfponding parallels in north lati- 
 tude. About the 23d degree of fouth latitude he found 
 » degree on the meridian to contain 342,222 Paris feet. 
 He returned to Paris the 27th of September 1754 ; ha- 
 ving in his ahiioft four years abfence expended no more 
 than 9144 livres on himfelf and his companion ; and 
 at his coming into port, he refufed a bribe of 100,000 
 livres, offered by one who thirfted lefs after glory than 
 gain, to be fliarer in his immunity from cuftom-houfe 
 iearches. 
 
 After receiving the congratulatory vifits of his more 
 
 8 J 
 
 c A r 
 
 jn his - 
 
 lum auprale 
 jhll'Jtnint. 
 
 intimate friends and the aftronomers, he firft of all Caille 
 thought fit to draw up a reply to fome ftriiftures which 
 profeffbr Euler had pubhfhed relative to the meridian, 
 and then he fettled the refults of the comparifon of his 
 own with the obfervations of other aftronomers for the 
 parallaxes. That of the fun. he fixed at 9^:" ; of the 
 moon, at 56' 56 ' ; of Mars in his oppofition, 36" ; of 
 Venus, 38". He alfo fettled the laws whereby aftro- 
 nomical refraftions are varied by the different dcn- 
 fity or rarity of the air, by heat or cold, and drynefs 
 or moifture. And, laftly, he ftiowed an eafy, and by 
 common navigators pradlicable, method of finding the 
 longitude at fea by means of the moon, which he illuf- 
 trated by examples felefted from his own obfervations 
 during his voyages. His fame being now eftabhihed 
 upon fo firm a bafis, the raoft celebrated academies of 
 Europe claimicd him as their own : and he was unani- 
 moufly elefted a member of the royal fociety at I^on- 
 don ; of the inftitute of Bologna ; of the imperial aca- 
 demy at Peterft)urg ; and of the royal academies of 
 Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. In the year 1760, 
 Mr de la Caille was attacked with a fevere fit of the 
 gout ; which, however, did not interrupt the courfe of 
 his ftudies ; for he then planned out a new and immenfe 
 work, no lefs than a hiftory of aftronomy through all 
 ages, with a comparifon of the ancient and modern ob- 
 fervations, and the conftruftion and ufe of the inftru- 
 ments employed in making them. In order to purfue 
 the tafli he had impofed upon himfelf in a fuitable re- 
 tirement, he obtained a grant of apartments in the 
 royal palace of Vincennes ; and whilft his aftronomical 
 apparatus was erefting there, he began printing his 
 Catalogue of the fouthern ftars, and .the third volume 
 of his Ephemerides. The ftate of his health was, to- 
 wards the end of the year 1763, greatly reduced. His 
 blood grew inflamed ; he had pains of the head, ob- 
 ftruftions of the kidneys, lofs of appetite, with an op- 
 pletion of the whole habit. His mind remained un- 
 affefted, and he refolutely perfifted in his ftudies as 
 ufual. In the month of March, medicines were ad- 
 miniftered to him, which rather aggravated than al- 
 leviated his fymptoms ; and he was now fenfible, that 
 the fame diftemper which in Africa, ten years before, 
 yielded to a few fimple remedies, did in his native 
 country bid defiance to the beft phyficians. This in- 
 duced him to fettle his affairs : his manufcripts he com- 
 mitted to the care and difcretion of his efteemed friend 
 M. Maraldi. It was at laft determined that a vein 
 ftiould be opened ; but this brought on an obftinate 
 lethargy, of which he died, aged 49. 
 
 CAIMACAN.or CAiMACAM,in the Turkifh affairs, 
 a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to lieute- 
 nant, or rather deputy, amongft us. 
 
 There are ufually two Caimacans ; one refiding at 
 Conftantinople, as governor thereof ; the other attend- 
 ing the grand vizir in quality of his lieutenant, fecre- 
 tary of ftate, and firft minifter of his council, and gives 
 audience to ambaftadors. Sometimes there is a third 
 caimacan, who attends the fultan ; whom he acquaints 
 with any public difturbances, and receives his orders 
 concerning them. 
 
 CAIMAN ISLANDS, certain American iflands lying 
 fouth of Cuba, and north-weft of Jamaica, between 
 81° and 86'^ of weft longitude, and in 21 of north la- 
 titude. They are moft remarkable on account of the 
 6 fifhery 
 
Call 
 
 II 
 
 Cains, 
 
 C A I [ I 
 
 fifliery of tortoife, which the people of Jamaica catch 
 here, and carry home alive, keeping them in pens -for 
 food, and killing them as they want them. 
 
 CAIN, eldell fon of Adam and Eve, killed his 
 brother Abel; for which he was condemned by 
 God to banifhment and a vagabond Hate of life. 
 ■Cain retired to the land of Nod, on the eaft of Eden ; 
 and built a city, to which he gave the name of his fon 
 Enoch. 
 
 CAINITES, a feft of heretics in the zd century, fo 
 called on account of their great refpeft for Cain. They 
 pretended that the virtue which produced Abel was of 
 an order inferior to that which had produced Cain, and 
 that this was the reafon why Cain had the viftory over 
 Abel and killed him; for they admitted a great number 
 of genii, which they called virfi.vs, of different ranks 
 :and orders. They made pfofeflion of honouring thofe 
 who carry in Scripture the moft vifible marks of repro- 
 ibation; as the inhabitants of Sodom, Efau, Korah, 
 Dathan, and Abiram. They had, in particular, a 
 ■very great veneration for the traitor Judas, under pre- 
 ■tence that the death of Jefus Chrift had faved mankind. 
 'They had a forged gofpel of Judas, to which they paid 
 ^reat refpeft. 
 
 CAIRNS, or Carnes, the vulgar name of thofe 
 Iheaps of Hones which are to be feen in many places of 
 Britain, particularly Scotland and Wales. — They are 
 compofed of ftones of all dimenfions thrown together 
 3in a conical form, a flat ftone crowning the apex; (fee 
 Plate CXX VII.). 
 
 Various caufes have been affigned by the learned for 
 tthefe heaps of ftones. They have fuppofed them to have 
 Ibeen, in times of inauguration, the places where the chief- 
 ttain-eleft ftood to ftiow himfelf to beft advantage to the 
 ipeople ; or the place from whence judgment was pro- 
 nounced ; or to have been ereded on the road-fide in ho- 
 nour of Mercury ; or to have been formed in memory of 
 :fome folemn compaft, particularly where accompanied 
 )by ftanding pillars of ftones ; or for the celebration of 
 «certain religious ceremonies. Such might have been 
 ithe realons, in fome inftances, where the evidences of 
 ftone-chefts and urns are wanting : but thefe are fo 
 generally found, that they feem to determine the 
 mioft ufual purpofe of the piles in queftion to have 
 ibeen for fepulchral monuments. Even this dcftina- 
 tion might render them fuitable to other pui-pofes; 
 iparticularly religiousj to which by their nature they 
 jmight be fuppofed to give additional folemnity. — 
 According to Toland, fires were kindled on the 
 "tops or flat ftones, at certain times of the year, par- 
 'ticularly on the eves of the ift of May and the ift of 
 November, for the purpofe of facrificing ; at which 
 ■time all the people having extinguiftied their domeftic 
 Ihearths rekindled them from thefacred fires of the cairns. 
 In general, therefore, thefe accumulations appear to 
 have been defigned for the fepulchral protection of 
 'heroes and jjreat men. The ftone-chefts, the repofi- 
 ^ tory of the urns and afties, are lodged in the earth be- 
 neath: fometimes only one, fometimes more, are found 
 thus depofited; and Mr Pennant mentions an inftance 
 of 1 7 being difcovered under the fame pile. 
 
 Cairns are of different fizes, fome of them very large. 
 Mr Pennant defcribes o^ne in the ifland of Arran, 114 
 ■■feet over and of a vaft height. They may juftly be 
 ■.fuppofed to have been proportioned in fize to the rank 
 
 0 ] C A I 
 
 of the perfon, or to his popularity : the people of a Cairo, 
 whole diftrift aftemblcd to fliow their refpeft to the — — v"*-^ 
 deceafed ; and, by an aftive Iionouring of his me- 
 mory, foon accumulated heaps equal to thofe that a- 
 ftonilh us at this time. But thefehonours were notmere- 
 ly thofe of the day ; as long as the memory of the de- 
 ceafed endured, not a paftenger went by without add- 
 ing a ftone to the heap : they fuppofed it would be 
 an honour to the dead, and acceptable to his manes. 
 
 ^tanquam fejllnasy non ejl mora longa: Viceh'tty 
 ItijeSo ter pulvere, cur r as. 
 
 To this moment there is a proverbial expreflion a* 
 mong the highlanders allufive to the old praftice : a 
 fuppliant will tell his patron, Curri mi cloch er do 
 charne, *' I will add a ftone to your cairn;" meaning. 
 When you are no more, I will do all poflible honour to 
 your memory. 
 
 Cairns are to be found in all parts of our iflands, in 
 Cornwal, Wales, and all parts of North Britain ; they 
 were in ufe among the northern nations ; Dahlberg, 
 in his 323d plate, has given the figure of one. In 
 Wales they are called carneddau; but the proverb taken 
 from them there, is not of the complimental kind : 
 Karn ar dy beti, or, " A cairn on your head," is a token 
 of imprecation. 
 
 CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt, 
 fituated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, in E. 
 Long. 32.0. N. Lat. 30. o. It was founded by Jaw- 
 har, a Magrebian general, in the year of the Hegira 
 358. He had laid the foundations of it under the ho- 
 rofcope of Mai-s; and for that reafon gave his new city 
 the name of Jl Kahirah, or the Fiaorious, an epitbet 
 applied by the Arab aftronomers to that planet. In 
 362 it became the refidence of the kaliffs of Egypt, 
 and of confequence the capital of that country, and 
 has ever fince continued to be fo. It is divided into 
 the New and Old cities. Old Cairo is on the eafteni 
 fide of the river Nile, and is now almoft uninhabited. 
 The New, which is properly Cairo, is feated in a fandy 
 plain about two miles and a half from the old city. 
 It ftands on the weftern fide of the Nile, from whic]i 
 it is not three quarters of a mile diftant. It is ex'^ 
 tended along the mountain on which the caftle is built, 
 ■for the fake of which it was removed hither, in order, 
 as fome pretend, to be under its proteftion. Plow- 
 ever, the change is much for the worfe, as well with 
 regard to air as water, and the pleafiuitnefs of the pro- 
 fpeft. Bulack may be called the port of Cairo ; for it 
 ftands on the bank of the Nile, about a mile and a half 
 from it, and all the corn and other commodities are 
 knded there before they are brought to the city. 
 Some travellers have made Cairo of a moft enormous 
 magnitude, by taking in the old city Bulack, and the 
 new; the real circumference of it, however, is not above 
 ten miles, but it is extremely populous. The firil 
 thing that ftrikcs a traveller is the narrownefs of the 
 ftreets, and the appearance of the houfcs. Thefe are 
 fo daubed with mud on the outfide, that you would 
 think they were built with nothing elfe. Befides, as 
 the ftreets are unpaved, and always full of people, the 
 walking in them is very inconvenient, efpecially to 
 ftrangers. To remedy this, there are a great number 
 of aftes, which always ftand ready to be hired for a 
 -trifle, that is, a penny a mile. The owners drive 
 C 2 them 
 
C A I 
 
 [ 
 
 20 
 
 C A I 
 
 Cairo, them along, and give notice to the crowd to make way. 
 
 -—r—— And here it may be obferved, that the Chrillians in 
 this, as well as other parts of the Turkifh dominions, 
 are not permitted to ride upon horfes. The number 
 of the inhabitants can only be guefifedat; bat we may 
 conclude it to be very great, becaufc in ioxne. years 
 the plague will caiTy off 200,coo, without their being 
 much miffed. The houfes are from one to two or three 
 ftories high, and flat at the top ; where they take the 
 air, and often lleep all night. The better fort of thefe 
 have a court on the infide like a college. The com- 
 mon run of houfes have very little room, and even a- 
 mong great people it is ufual for 20 or 30 to lie in the 
 fmall hall. Some houfes wall hold 300 perfons of both 
 fexes, among whom are 20 or 30 flaves, and thofe of 
 ordinary rank have generally three or four. 
 
 There is a canal called Halis, which runs along the 
 city from one end to the other, with houfes on each 
 fide, which make a large ftraight ftreet. Befides this, 
 there are feveral lakes, which are called I'lrks in the 
 language of the country. The principal of thefe, which 
 is near the cattle, is 500 paces in diameter. The mioft 
 elegant houfes in the city are built on its banks ; but 
 w^hat is extraordinary, eight months in the year it con- 
 tains water, and the other four it appears with a charm- 
 ing verdure. When there is water fufficient, it ig al- 
 ways full of gilded boats, barge«, and barks, in which 
 people of condition take their pleafure towards night, 
 at which time there are curious fire -works, and variety 
 of mufic. 
 
 New. Cairo is furrounded with walls built with ftone^ 
 which are handfome battlements, and at the diftance 
 of every hundred paces there are very fine towers, which 
 have room for a gi-eat number of people. The walls 
 were never very high, and are in many places gone to 
 r^iln. The bafiia lives in the tsaftle, which was built 
 by Saladine feven hundred years ago. It Hands in the 
 middle of the famous mountain Moketan, which ter- 
 minates in this place, after it had accompanied the 
 Nile from Ethiopia hither. Tliis cattle is the only 
 place of defence in Egypt ; and yet the Turks take 
 no notice of its falling, infomuch that in procefs of 
 time it win become a heap of rubbilh. The principal 
 part in it is a magnificent hall, environed with 12 co- 
 lumns of granite, of a prodigious height and thicknefs, 
 which fuftain an op.en dome, under which Saladine 
 diftrlbuted juttice to his fubjcfts. Round this dome 
 there is an infcription in relievo, which determines the 
 date and by whom it was built. From this place the 
 whole city of Cairo may be feen, and above 30 miles 
 along the Nile, with the fruitful plains that lie near it,, 
 us well as the mofques, pyramids, villages, and gaixlens, 
 with Vv'hich thefe fields are covered. Thefe granite 
 pillars were the work of antiquity, for tliey were got 
 out of the ruins of Alexandiia. There are likewife in 
 the mofques and in the principal houfes no lefs than 
 40,000 more, befides great magazines, where all kinds 
 are to be had at very low rates. A janiffary happened 
 to find five in his garden, as large as thofe in tlie caf- 
 tle; but could not. find any macliine of ftrength fuffi- 
 cient to, move them, and therefore had them fawed in 
 pieces to make mill-ftones. It is believed that there 
 have been 30 or 40,000 of thefe pillars brought from 
 Alexandria, where there are yet many miore to.be.had. 
 
 The gates of Cairo arc three, which are very fine and 
 magnificent. 
 
 There are about 300 public mofques in this city, 
 fome of which have fix minarets. The mofque of A- 
 fhar hath feveral buildings adjoining, which were once 
 a famous unlverfity, and 14,000 fcholars and Itudents 
 were maintained on the foundation; but has now not 
 above 1400, and thofe are only taught- to. read and 
 write. AH the mofques are built upon the fame plan,, 
 and differ only in magnitude.. The entrance is thro" 
 the principal gate into a large fquare, open on the 
 top, but well paved. Roinidthis are covered galleries,, 
 fupported by pillars; under which/they fay their pray- 
 ers, in the fhade. On one fide of. the fquare there are 
 particular places with bafons of water, for. the conve- 
 niency of perfox-ming the ablutions injoinedby the Ko- 
 ran. The moft remarkable part of the mofque, befides 
 the minaret, is the dome. This is often bold, well 
 proportioned, and of an aftoniflilng magnitude. The 
 infide ftones are carved like lace, flowers, and melons. 
 They are built fo firm, and with fuch art, that they 
 will laft 600 or. 700 years. Abo at the outward cir- 
 cumference there are large Arabic infcriptions, in re- 
 lievo, which may be read by thofe who ftand below, 
 thoiigh they are fometimes of a wonderful height. 
 
 The khanes or caravanferas are numerous and large, 
 with a court in the middle, like their houfes. Some 
 are feveral ttorles high, and are always full of people 
 and merchandife. The Nubians, the Abyffinians, and 
 other African nations, which come to Cairo, have one 
 to themfelves, where they always meet with lodging. 
 Hen; thev are feciwe from infults, and their efie6ts are 
 all fafe. Befides thefe, there is a bazar, or market,, 
 where all forts of goods are to be fold. This is in a 
 long broad ftreet ; and yet the crowd Is fo great, you 
 can hardly pafs along. At the end of this ftreet is a- 
 nother fliort one, bat pretty broad, with fiiops -fuU of 
 the bfctt fort of goods, and precious merchandife; At 
 the end of this fhort ftreet there is a great khane, where 
 all forts of white llaves are to be fold. Farther than 
 this is another khane, where a great number of blacks, 
 of both fexes, are expofed to fale. Not far, from the 
 beft market-place is an hofpital, and a mofque for mad • 
 people. They alfo receive and maintain fick people 
 into this hofpital, but they are poorly looked after. 
 
 Old Cairo has fcarce any thing remarkable but th-e 
 granaries of Jofeph ; which are nothing but . a high 
 wall, lately built, which includes a fquare fpot of 
 ground, where they depofite wheat, barley, and other 
 grain, which is a? tribute to the baflia, paid by the 
 owners .of land. This has no other covering but the 
 heavens, and therefore the birds are alwayvS fure to 
 have their fnare. There is likewife a tolerable hand- 
 fome church, which is made ufe of by the Copts, who., 
 are Chriftlans and the original. inhabitants of Egypt. 
 Jofeph's well is in the cattle, and was made by king. 
 Mohammed about. 700 years ago. It is called Jofeph's. 
 nuell, becaufe they attribute every thing extraordinary^- 
 to that remarkable perfon. It is cut in a rock, and is,. 
 2.80 feet in depth. The water is drawn up to the top. 
 by means of oxen, placed on platforms, at proper dif- 
 tances, which turn about the machines that . raife it. 
 The defcent is fo Hoping, that, though there are no. 
 fteps, the oien can defcend and afcend with eafe. . 
 
C A I [ 
 
 Cairo The river Nile, to which not only Cairo, but all 
 .^ji^l ^ Egypt is fo much indebted, is now known to have its 
 _^ *" '. rife in Abyflinia. The increafe of the Nile generally 
 begins in May, and in June they commonly proclaim 
 about the city how much it is rifen. Over againll 
 old Cairo the bafha has a houfe, wherein the water 
 enters to a column, which has lines at the diftance of 
 every inch, and marks at every two feet as far as 30. 
 When the water rifes to 22 feet, it is thought to be of 
 a fufficicnt height ; when it rifes much higher, it does 
 a great deal of mifchief. There is much pomp and 
 ceremony ufed in letting the water into the canal, or 
 Lali, above-mentioned. The-bafha gives the firft Itroke 
 towards the removal of the dike or dam. When the 
 water has filled the canal and lakes in the city, and 
 the numerous citterns that are in the mofques and pri- 
 vate houfes, it is let into a vail plain, to the north- 
 eaft ; the extent of which is 50 miles. When the 
 covmtry is covered with water, it is no unpleafant fight 
 to view the towns appearing like little ifiands, and the 
 people palling and repafling in boats. 
 
 The inhabitants of Cairo are a mixture of Moors, 
 Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Cophts, or Coptis. The 
 only difference between the habit of the Moors and 
 Coptis is their turbans ; thofe of the Moors being 
 white, and of the Coptis white ftriped with blue. 
 The common people generally wear a long black loofe 
 frock, fewed together all down before. The Jews 
 wear a frock of the fame fafliion, made of cloth ; and 
 their caps are like a high crowned hat, v\-ithout brims, 
 covered with the fame cloth, but not fo taper. The 
 Jewilh womens are not very unlike the mens, but 
 more light and long. The Greeks are habited like 
 tlie Turks, only their turbans differ. 
 
 Provifions of all kinds are exceeding plenty;, for 20 
 eggs may be bought for a parrah or penny, and bread 
 is fix times as cheap as with »us. They have almott 
 all forts of flefh and fifli ; and in particular have tame 
 buffaloes, which are very ufeful. They bring goats 
 into the flreets in great numbers, to fell their milk. 
 Their gardens are well flocked with fruit-trees of va- 
 rious kinds, as well as toots, herbs, melons, and cu- 
 cumbers. The mofl common f^efh meat is mutton.. 
 The goats are very beautiful, and have ears two feet, 
 in length ; but their flefh is in no great efleem. 
 
 CAIROAN, or Cairwan, a city of Africa, in the 
 kingdom of Tunis, feated in a fandy barren foil, a- 
 bout five miles from the gulph of Capres. It has 
 neither fpring, well, nor river ; for. which reafon they 
 are obliged to preferve rain-v/ater in-tanks and citterns. 
 It was built by the Aglabites and is the ancient Cy- 
 3gg rene*, but hath now loft its fplendor. There is fiill, 
 hiry.- however, a very fuperb mofque, and the tombs of the 
 kings of Tunis are yet to be feen. E. Long. 9. 12. 
 N. Lat. 35. 40. 
 
 CAISSON, in the militar}^ art, a wooden cheft, 
 i-nto which feveral bombs are put, and fometimes 
 filled only with gunpowder : this is buried under foms 
 work whereof the enemy intend to poffefs themfelves, 
 and, when they are matters of it, is fired, in order to 
 blow them up. 
 
 Caisson is alfo ufed for a wooden frame or cheft 
 ufed in laying the fo.undations of the piers of a bridge. 
 
 CAITHNESS, otherwife caBed the>>f of Wkk, 
 \i the moft northcriv county of alt Scotland j bounded 
 
 21 1 C A I 
 
 on the eall by the ocean, and by Strafhnaver and Suther- Caithnefs. 
 
 land on the fouth and fouth-wett : from thefe it is di- v— 
 
 vided by the mountains Orde, and a continued ridge of 
 hills as far as Knockfin, then by the whole courfe of 
 the river Hallowdide. On the north it is wafhed by the 
 Pentland or Putland frith, which flows between this 
 county and the Orkneys. It extends 35 miles from 
 north to fouth, and about 20 from eatt to weft. The 
 coait is rocky, and remarkable for a number of bays 
 and promontories. Of thefe, the principal are Sand- 
 fide-head to the weft, pointing to the opening of Pent- 
 land frith ; Orcas, now Holborn-head, and Diinnet - 
 head, both pointing northward to the frith. Dunnet- 
 head, is a peninfulu about a mile broad, and feven in 
 compafs; affording feveral lakes, good paiture, excel- 
 lent mill-ttones, and a lead-mine. Scribifter bay, on. 
 the north-weft, is a good harbour, where fhips may 
 ride fecurely. Rice-bay, on the eafl fide, extends three 
 miles in breadth ^ but is of dangerous accefs, on ac- 
 count of fome funk rocks at the entrance. At the bot- 
 tom of this bay appear the ruins of two itrong catties,., 
 the feat of the Earl of Caithnefs, called Cajlk Sinclair, 
 and Gernegp, joined to each other by a draw-bridge. 
 D'uncan'sbay, ot\\er\vi{t cvMtdLDunfoy-hea/l, isthenorth- 
 eaft point of Caithnefs, and the extremeft promontory 
 in Britain. At this place, the breadth of the frith does 
 not exceed 12 miles, and in the neighbourhood is the 
 ordinary ferry to the Orkneys. Here is likewife Clythe- 
 nefs pointing eaft, and Nottiead pointing north-eafl. 
 The fea in tliis place is very im.petuous, being in con-, 
 tinual agitation from violent counter-tides, currents, 
 and vortices. The only ifland belonging to this coun-- 
 ty is that of Stroma, in the Pentland frith, at the di- 
 ftance of two miles from, the main land, extending a- 
 bout a mile in length, and producing good corn. The 
 navigation is here rendered very difficult by conflifting 
 tides and currents, which at both ends of the ifland 
 produce a great agitation in. the fea. At the fouth 
 end, the waves dance fo impetuoufly, that the failors. 
 term them the merry men of May, alluding, to the houfe 
 of one Mr May, on the oppofite fliore of Caithnefs, 
 which ferved them as a land-mark, in tlie'dangerous 
 pafi"age between the ifland and the continent. The pro- 
 perty of this ifland was once difputed between the earls 
 of Orkney and Caithnefs ; but. adjudged to the latter, 
 in confequence of an experiment, by which it appeared, 
 that venomous creatures will live in Stroma, whereas 
 they die immediately if tranfported to the Orkneys. 
 The county of Caithnefs, though chiefly mountainous, 
 flattens towards the fea-coaft, where the ground is a- 
 rable, and produces good harvefts of oats and barley, , 
 fufficient for the natives, and yielding a furplus for 
 exportation. Caithnefs is well watered with fmall rivers,, 
 brooks, lakes, and fountains, and. affords a few woods 
 of birch, but is in general bare of trees; and even thofe 
 the inhabitants plant are ftunted in their growth. 
 Lead is found at Dunnet, copper at Old Urk, and' 
 iron ore at feveral places; but thefe advantages are not 
 improved. The air of Caithnefs is temperate, tho' in 
 the latitude of 58, where the longeft day in fummeris. 
 computed at 18 hours; and when the fun iets, he makes 
 fo fmall an arch of a circle below the horizon, that the 
 people enjoy a twihght until he i-ifes again. The fuel 
 ufed by the inhabitants of Caithnefs confifts of peat and- 
 turf,, which the ground yield*, in great plenty. The. 
 
C A I [ 22 
 
 C»it'incf». forefts of Mo ravins and Bern" dale afford abundance of 
 *■ red-deer and roe-bucks ; the country is well ilored 
 with hares, rabbits, growfe, heathcocks, plover, and 
 all forts of game, comprehending a bird called fnoiv- 
 fleet, about the fize of a fparrow, exceedingly fat and 
 delicious, that comes hither in large flights about the 
 middle of February, and takes its departure in April* 
 The hills are covered with fheep and black cattle ; fo 
 numerous, that a fat cow has been fold at market for 
 4s. Sterling. The rocks along the coafts are frequented 
 by eagles, hawks, and all manner of fea-fowl, whofe 
 eggs and young are taken in vaft quantities by the na- 
 tives. The rivers and lakes abound with trout, fal- 
 inon, and eels ; and the fea affords a very advantageous 
 fifhery. Divers obeliflcs and ancient monuments appear 
 in this diitridl, and fevei-al Romifa chapels are ftill 
 Handing. Caithnefe is well peopled with a race of 
 hardy inhabitants, who employ themfelves chiefly in' 
 fifliing, and breeding flieep and black cattle : they are 
 even remarkably induftrious ; for between Wick and 
 Dunbeath, one continued track of rugged rocks, ex- 
 tending 12 miles, they have forced feveral little har- 
 bours for their fifliing boats, and cut artificial fteps 
 from the beach to the top of the rocks, where they have 
 fCrefled houfes, in which they cure and dry the fifh for 
 market. 
 
 According to Mr Pennant, this county is fuppofed to 
 fend out in fome years about io,ooohead of black cattle, 
 but in bad feafons the farmer kills and falts great num- 
 bers for fale. Great numbers of fvvine are alfo reared 
 here. Thefe are fliort, high-backed, long brillled, 
 fliarp, {lender, and.long-nofed ; have long ere£l; ears, 
 and moil favage looks. Here are neitlier barns nor 
 granaries: the corn is threflied out, and preferved in 
 the chaff in byks ; which are flacks, in the fliape of bee- 
 hives, thatched quite round, where it will keep good 
 for two years. Vaft numbers of falmon are taken at 
 Caftle-hifl, Dunnet, Wick, and Thurfo. A miracu- 
 / lous draugbt at this laft place is ftill talked of, not lefs 
 
 than 2500 being taken at one tide within the memoiy 
 of man; and Mr Smollet informs us, that, in the neigh- 
 bourhood, above 300 good falmon have been taken at 
 one draught of the net. In the month of November, 
 great numbers of feals are taken in the caverns that o- 
 pen into the fea, and run fome hundreds of yai-ds un- 
 der ground. The entrance of thefe caverns is narrow, 
 but the infide lofty and fpacious. The feal-hunters en- 
 ter thefe in fmall boats with torches, which they light 
 as foon as they land, and then with loud ftiouts alarm 
 the animals, which they kill with clubs as they attempt 
 to pafs. This is a hazardous employment; for fliould 
 the wind blow hard from fea, thefe adventurers are in- 
 evitably loft. Sometimes a large fpecies of feals, 12 
 •feet long, have been killed on this coaft ; and it is faid 
 the fame kind are found on the rock Hiflcir, one of the 
 weftern iflands. During the fpring, 'great quantities 
 of lump-fifli refort to this coaft, and are the pre)' of the 
 ' feals, as appears from the number of fliins of thofe 
 fiflies which at that feafon float -afliore. At certain 
 times alfo the feals feem lobe vifited .by a great morta- 
 lity; for, at thofe times, multitudes of them are feen 
 dead in the water. Much Jimeftone is found in this 
 country, which when burtit is n.ade into a compoft 
 with turf and fea-plants. The common people are 
 j<ept in great, fervitude, and moft cf tlieir time is g^ven 
 
 ] CAT 
 
 to the lairds, an Invincible impediment 1 0 the profpe- Cai'us. 
 rity of the countiy. The women are alfo condemned — 
 to a fliameful drudgery ; it not being uncommon to fee 
 them trudging in droves of 60 or 70 to the fields with 
 baflcets of dung on their backs, which are filled at plea- 
 fure from the dunghills by their lords and mafters with 
 their pitcliforks. 
 
 The laft private v»'ar in Scotland was occafioned by 
 a difpute relating to this county. An earl of Breadal- 
 bane married an heirefs of Caithnefs : the inhabitants 
 would not admit her title, but fet up another perfon in 
 oppofition. The earl, according to the cuftom of thofe 
 times, defigned to aflert his right by force of arms : he 
 raifed an army of 1500 men; but thinking the number 
 too great, he difmifled firft one 500, and then another. 
 With the remainder he marched to the borders of Caith- 
 nefs. Here he thought proper to add ftratagem to 
 force. He knew that the enemy's army waited for him 
 on the other fide of the promontory of Ord. He knew 
 alfo, that whiiky was then the ne£lar of Caithnefs ; and 
 therefore ordered a fliip laden with that precious liquor 
 to pafs round, and wilfully ftrand itfelf on the fliore. 
 The direftions weft punAually obeyed ; and the crew 
 in a feeming fright efcaped in the boats to the invading 
 army. The Caithnefs men made a prize of the fliip ; 
 but making too free with the freight, became an eafy 
 prey to the earl, who attacked them during their in- 
 toxication, and gained the county, which he difpofed 
 of very foon after his conqueft*, 
 
 CAIUS, Kaye, or Keye, (Dr John), the founder 
 of Caius college in Cambridge, was born at Norwich 
 in 1 5 10. He was admitted very young a ttudent in 
 Gonville-hall in the above mentioned univerfity ; and, 
 at the age of 2 1 tranflated from Greek into Latin fome: 
 pieces of divinity, and into Eaglifli Erafmus's para- 
 phrafe on Jude, &c. From thefe his juvenile labours,, 
 it feems probable that he firft intended to profecute the: 
 ftudy of divinity. Be that as it may, he travelled tO) 
 Italy, and at Padua ftudied phyfic under the celebratedl 
 Montanus. In that univerfity he continued fome time,, 
 where we are told he read Greek leftures with great- 
 applaufe. In 1543, he travelled through part of .Italy„ 
 Germany, and France; and returning to England com- 
 menced doftor of phyfic at Cambridge. -He pradfifedi 
 firft at Shrewfljury, and afterwards at Norwich ; but 
 removing to London, in 1547 he was admitted fellow 
 of the college of phyficians, to which he was feverall 
 years prefident. In 1557, being then phyfician t(j> 
 queen Mary, and in great favour, he obtained a licence; 
 to advance Gonville-hall, -where he had been educated „ 
 into a college; which he endowed with feveral confi- 
 derable eftates, adding an entire new fquare at the ex- 
 pence oi 1834I. Of tjiis college he accepted the ma- 
 fterfhip, which he kept till within a fliort time of hiss 
 death. He was phyfician to Edward VI. queen Mary,, 
 and Queen Ehzabeth. Towards the latter end of his 
 life he retired to his own college at Cambridge ; where„ 
 having refigned the mafterfliip to Dr I^egge of Nor- 
 wich, he fpent the remainder of his life as a fellow- 
 commoner. He died in July 1573, aged 63; and wats 
 buried in the chapel of his own college. Dr Caius wats 
 a learned, aftive, benevolent man. In 1557, he erec - 
 ted a monument in St Paul's to the memory of the fat-- 
 mous Linacre. In 156,3, he obtained a grant for th(e 
 college of phyficians to take the bgdies of two malc- 
 
 fa(ftoiT3 
 
C A L I 2 
 
 . Cake fsTaftors annually for difleftlon ; and he was the inven- 
 II _ tdor of the infignia which diftingulfh the prefident from 
 Calabria |. j^hg reft of the fellows. He wrote, i . Annals of the 
 ccoUege from l55'qtoi572. 2. Tranflation of feveral 
 ot)f Galen's works. Printed at different times abroad. 
 33. Hippocrates de MedicamenttSj firft difcovered and 
 ppublifhed by our author; alfo De rc^t'nne vl3us, Lov. 
 1 1556, 8vo. 4. De medendi Methodo. Balil, 1544, Lond. 
 11556, 8vo. 5. Account of the fweating ficknefs in 
 lEngland. Lond. 1556. 1721. It is entitled De ephe- 
 ^ nmera Britatinica. 6. Hiftory of the univerfity of Cam- 
 bbridge. Lond. 1568, 8vo. 1574, 4to. in Latin. "j.De 
 thherm'is Brilami'ids. Doubtful whether ever printed. 
 88. Of fome rare plants and animals. Lond. 1570. 
 99. De canmbus Britannicis, 1 5 70, 1 729. 10. De pro- 
 Titiunc'iattom Gra-ca et Lat'ina Lingute. Lond. 1574. 11. 
 LDelibrh propriis. Lond. 1570. Befides many other 
 vwoxks which never were printed. 
 
 CAKE, a finer fort of bread, denominated from its 
 flflat round figure. 
 
 We meet with different compofitions under the name 
 oof cakes ; as feed-cakes, made of flour, butter, cream, fu- 
 ggar, coriander and caraway feeds, mace, and other 
 fjfpices and perfumes baked in the o\tn; plum-cake, made 
 nmuch after the fame manner, only with fewer feeds, 
 aand the addition of currants ; pan-cakes, made of a 
 nmixture of flour, eggs, &:c. fried; cheefe-cakes, made of 
 GCream, eggs, and flour, with or without cheefe-curd, 
 bbutter, almonds, &c. oat-cakes, made of fine oaten flour, 
 nmixed with yett and fometimes without, rolled thin, 
 aand laid on an iron or ftone to bake over a flow fire ; 
 fifugar-cakes, made of fine fugar beaten and fearced with 
 t the fineft flour, adding butter, rofewater, and fpices ; 
 rrofe-cakes, placentae rofacea, are leaves of rofes dried and 
 ppreffed into a mafs, fold in the fliops for epithems. 
 
 The Hebrews had feveral forts of cakes, which they 
 ooffered in the temple. They were made of the meal 
 e either of wheat or barley ; they were kneaded fome- 
 ttimes with oil and fometimes with honey. Sometimes 
 tthey only rubbed them over with oil when they were 
 bbaked, or fried them with oil in a frying pan upon the 
 fifire. In the ceremony of Aaron's confecration, they 
 f;facrificed a calf and two rams, and offered unleavened 
 bbread, and cakes unleavened, tempered with oil, and 
 vwafers unleavened anointed with oil ; the whole made 
 oof fine wheaten flour. Ex. xxix. i, 2. 
 
 CAKET, a town of Aiia, in Perfia, in the province 
 oof Gurgiftan near Mount Caucafus. Its trade confifts 
 Gchiefly in filks. E. Long. 46. 15. N. I^at. 43. 32. 
 
 CALABASH, in commerce, a light kind of veffel 
 f formed of the fhell of a gourd, emptied and dried, fer- 
 vving to put divers kinds of goods in, as pitch, rofin, 
 aand the like. The word is Spanifli, Calahacca, which 
 fifignifies the fame. The Indians alfo, both of the North 
 aand South Sea, put the pearls they have fiflied in ca- 
 Idabafhes, and the negroes on the coaft of Africa do the 
 f fame by their gold-duft. The fmaller calabaflies are 
 aalfo frequently ufed by thefe people as a meafure, by 
 vwhich they fell thefe precious commodities to the Eu- 
 rropeans. The fame veffels likewife ferve for putting 
 iin liquors; and do the office of cups, as well as bottles, 
 ffor foldiers, pilgrims, &c. 
 
 CALABASH-Tree, in botany. See Crescentia. 
 
 African CALABASH-Tree. See Adansonia. 
 
 CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in the kingdom 
 
 \ I C A L 
 
 of "Naples, divided into Calabria Ultra, and Calabria Calabi 
 Citra, commonly called Ulterior and Citerior, or Far- 
 ther and Hither Calabria. Calabria Citerior is one of 
 the 1 2 provinces of the kingdom of Naples ; and bound- 
 ed on the fouth by Calabria Ultra, on the north by 
 Bafilicata, and on the weft and eaft by the fea : Co- 
 fenfa i? the capital. Calabria Ultra is wafhed by the 
 Mediterranean fea on the eaft, fouth, and weft, and 
 bounded by Calabria Citra on the north. Reggio is 
 the capital town. 
 
 This country has been almoft entirely dcfolated by 
 the earthquakes of 1783. The reiterated fliocks ex- 
 tended from Cape Spartivento to Amantea above the 
 gulf of St Eufemia, and alfo affefted that part of Sicily 
 which lies oppofite to the fouthern extremity of Italy. 
 Thofe of the 5th and 7th of February, and of the 28th' 
 of March, were the moft violent, and completed the 
 deftruftion of every building throughout the above- 
 mentioned fpace. Not one ftone was left upon another 
 fouth of the narrow ifthmus of Squillace ; and what is 
 more difaftrous, a very large proportion of the inhabi- 
 tants was killed by the falling of their houfes, near 
 40,000 lives being loft. Some perfons were dug out 
 alive after remaining a furprifing length of time buried 
 among the rubbifh. Meifma became a mafs of ruins 
 its beautiful palazzata was thrown in upon the town, 
 and its quay cracked into ditches full of water. 
 Reggio almoft deftroyed ; Tropea greatly dama-- 
 ged ; every other place in the province levelled to the 
 ground. 
 
 Before and during the concuffion the clouds gather- 
 ed, and then hung immoveable and heavy over the 
 earth. At Palmi the atmofphere wore fo fiery an 
 afpeft, that many people thought part of the town was 
 burning. It was afterwai-ds remembered that an un-- 
 ufual heat had affefted the llcin of feveral perfons juft 
 before the fliock ; the rivers affumed a muddy afli- 
 coloured tinge, and a fulphureous fmell was almoft ge- 
 neral. A frigate paffmg between Calabria and Lipari 
 felt fo fevere a fliock, that the fteerfman was thrown 
 from the helm, and the cannons were raifed up on their 
 carriages, while all around the fea- exhaled a ftrong- 
 fmell of brimftone. 
 
 Stupendous alterations were occafioned in the face" 
 of the country ; rivers choaked up by the falHng in of 
 the hills, were converted into lakes, which if not fpeedily 
 drained by fome future convulfion, or opened by human 
 labour, will fill the air with peftilential vapours, and' 
 deftroy the remnants of population. Whole acres of" 
 ground, with houfes and trees upon them, were broken 
 off from the plains, and waflied many furlongs down' 
 the deep hollows which the courfe of the rivers had' 
 worn; there, to the aftonifliment and terror of behold-- 
 ers, they found a new foundation to fix upon, either 
 in an upright or an inclining pofition. In fliort, every 
 fpecies of phenomenon, incident to thefe deftruAive 
 commotions of the earth, was to be feen in its utmoft 
 extent and variety in thi* ruinated country. Their 
 Sicihan majefties, with the utmoft expedition, dif- 
 patched veffels loaded with every thing that could be 
 thought of on the occafion for the relief and accommc-- 
 dation of the diftreffed Calabrians ; a general officer - 
 went from Naples with engineers and troops to direct*" 
 the operations of the perfons employed in clearings 
 away and rebuilding the houfes, and to defend the- 
 
 propertyy 
 
GAL 
 
 C n 1 
 
 GAL 
 
 I 
 
 Calade 
 II 
 
 property of the fufFerers. The king ordered this offi- 
 cer to take all the money the royal treafures could fup- 
 ply or borrow ; for, rather than it (hould be wanting 
 on this prefling call, he was determined to part with 
 his plate, nay, the very furniture of his palace. A 
 i-nefTenger fent off from a town near Regglo ort the 
 8th of February, travelled four days without flielter, 
 and without being able to procure a morfel of bread; 
 he fupported nature with a piece of cheefe which he 
 had brought in his pocket, and the vegetables he was 
 lucky enough to find near the road. To add to all 
 their other fufferings, the Calabrlans found themfelves 
 and the miferable wreck of their fortunes expofed to 
 the depredations of robbers and pirates. Villains 
 landed from boats and plundered feveral places, and 
 thieves went even from Naples in fearch of booty : 
 In order to ftrike a greater terror, they dreffed them- 
 felves like Algerines; but were difcovered and driven 
 off. To this accumulated diftrefs fucceeded a mod in- 
 clement feafon, which obftrufted every effort made to 
 alleviate it ; and almoft daily earthquakes kept the in- 
 habitants in continual dread, not of being deftroyed by 
 the fall of houfes, for none were left, but of being 
 Twallowed up by the fplitting of the earth, or buried 
 in the waves by fome fudden inundation. 
 
 For further particulars concerning this dreadful ca* 
 taftrophe, and the phenomena attending It, fee Earth- 
 
 QXJAKE. 
 
 CALADE, in the manege, the defcent or floping 
 declivity of a rifing manege ground, being a fmall emi- 
 nence, upon which we ride down a horfe feveral times, 
 putting him to a (liort gallop, with his fore-hams in 
 the air, to learn him to ply or bend his haunches, and 
 form his flop upon the aids of the calves of the legs, the 
 ftay of the bridle, and the cavefon feafonably given. 
 
 CALAGORINA, or CalAguris, diftlnguirtied by 
 the furname Naftca (anc. geog.), a city of the Vafcones 
 in the Hither Spain; now Calahorra. 
 
 CALAHORllA, an epifcopal town of Spain, In 
 Old Caftile, feated in a fertile foil, on the fide of a hill 
 which extends to the hanks of the river Ebro. W. Long. 
 2. 7. N. Lat. 42. 12. 
 
 CALAIS, a ftrong town of France, in Lower PI- 
 cardy, with a citadel and a fortified harbour. It is built 
 in the form of a triangle, one fide of which is towards 
 the fea. The citadel is as large as the town, and has 
 but one entrance. It Is a trading place, with handfome 
 ftreets, and feveral churches and monafterles; the num- 
 'iser of inhabitants is reckoned to be 4000. 
 
 Calais was taken by Edward III. In 1 347. Hither he 
 marched his vlftorlous army from Crefcy, and invefted 
 the town on the 8th of September. But finding that it 
 could not be taken by force without the deftruftion of 
 great multitudes of his men, he turned the fiege into a 
 blockade ; and having made ftrong entrenchments to 
 fecure his army from the enemy, huts to proteft them 
 from the inclemency of the weather, and ftationed a 
 fleet before the harbour to prevent the IntroduAIon of 
 provlfions, he refolved to wait with patience till the 
 place fell Into his hands by famine. The befieged, 
 difcovcring his intention, turned feventeen hundred wo- 
 men, children, and old people, out of the town, to fave 
 their provlfions ; and Edward had the goodnefs, after 
 entertaining them with a dinner, and giving them two- 
 pence a-plece, to fuffer them to pafs. The garrifon 
 
 N°6i. 
 
 and inhabitants of Calais having at length confumed all 
 their provlfions, and even eaten all the horfes, dogs, 
 cats, and vermin, in the place, the governor John de 
 Vienne appeared upon the walls, and ofTered to capitu- 
 late* Edward, greatly incenfed at their obftinate re- . 
 fiftance, which had detained him eleven months under 
 their walls, at an imniettfe expence both of men and 
 money, fent Sir Walter Manny, an Illuftrious knight, 
 to acquaint the governor, that he Would grant them no 
 terms ; but that they muft furrender at difcretion. 
 At length, however, at the fpirited. remonfl:rances of 
 the governor, and the perfuafions of Sir Walter Manny, 
 Edward confented to grant their lives to all the garri- 
 fon and inhabitants, except fix of the principal bur- 
 geffes, who ftiould deliver to him the keys of the city, 
 with ropes about their necks* When tliefe terms 
 were made known to the people of Calais, they were 
 plunged into the deepeft diftrefs ; and after all the 
 miferies they had fuffered, they could not think without 
 horror of giving up fix of their fellow-citizens to cer- 
 tain death. In this extremity, when the whole people 
 were drowned in tears, and uncertain what to do, 
 Euftace de Pierre, one of the richcfu merchants In the 
 place, ftepped forth, and voluntarily offered himfelf to 
 be one of thefe fix devoted viftlms. His noble exam- 
 ple was foon imitated -by other five of the moft wealthy 
 citizens. Thefe true patriots, barefooted and bare- 
 headed, with ropes about their necks, were attended 
 to the gates by the whole Inhabitants, with tears, blef 
 fings, and prayers, for their fafety. When they were 
 brought into Edward's prefence, they laid the keys of 
 the city at his feet, and falling on their knees implored 
 his mercy in fuch moving ftralns, that all the noble 
 fpedtators melted Into tears. The king's refentment 
 was fo ftrong for the many toils and loffes he had fuf- 
 fered in this tedious fiege, that he was in fome danger 
 of forgetting his ufual humanity ; when the queen, 
 falling upon her knees before him, earneftly begged 
 and obtained their lives. This great and good princefs 
 conduced thefe virtuous citizens, whofe lives fhe had 
 faved, to her own apartment, entertained them honour- 
 ably, and difmiffed them with prefentg. Edward took 
 poffeffion of Calais Auguft 4th; and in order to fecure 
 a conqueft of fo great importance, and which had coft 
 him fo dear, he found It neceffary to turn out all the 
 ancient Inhabitants, who had difcovered fo ftrong an 
 attachment to their native prince, and to people it 
 with Englifti. 
 
 Calais remained in fubjeftlon to England till the 
 reign of queen Mary, when it was retaken by the 
 duke of Guife. This general began the enterprife by 
 ordering the privateers of Normandy and Bretagne to 
 cruize In the channel, more efpecially in the very ftralts 
 of Calais : he then detached the duke of Nevers, with 
 a confiderable army, towards the country of Luxem- 
 burgh ; a motion which drew the attention of the 
 Spaniards that way : when all things were ready, he 
 procured an application from the people of Boulogne, 
 for a body of troops to fecure them agalnft the incur- 
 fions of the Spaniards ; he fent a ftrong detachment at 
 their requeft, which was followed by another, under 
 colour of fupporting them, then repaired thither in 
 perfon, fecure that his officers would follow his in* 
 ftruftions ; and thus, on the firft day of the new 
 year, 1557, Calais was invefted. He immediately at- 
 3 tacked 
 
 Calais. 
 
C A L 
 
 Calais, tacked fort St Agatha, which the gamfon quitted, 
 ■~"v~--' and retired into the fort of Nieulai, which, together 
 with the Rifbank, the heiiegers attacked at the fame 
 time, granted good terms to the officer who commanded 
 in the former, but obliged the garrifon of the latter 
 to furrender prifoners of war. By thefc means he 
 opened a communication with the fea ; and having 
 received from on board the iliips an imraenfe quantity 
 of hurdles, his infantry, by the help of them, paffed 
 the morafles that lie round the town. He then made 
 a falfe attack at the water-gate, which drew the atten- 
 tion of the garrifon, who fatigued themfelves exceed- 
 ingly in making entrenchments behind the breach; hut 
 when tliey had finifhed their work, he began to Are 
 upon the caftle, wdiere the walls were very old, and 
 had been negledlcd on account of the breadth of the 
 ditch, which was alfo very deep when the tide was in ; 
 but a great breach being made, the duke caufed it 
 to be attacked in the night, and during the ebb the 
 foldiers paffing almoft up to the (houlders. The place 
 was ealily carried, though the governor made three vi- 
 gorous attacks before the break of day, in order to 
 diflodge them ; but the French, though they loft a 
 confiderable number of men, kept their pofts. The 
 governor then faw that it was impraAicable to de- 
 fend the place any longer, and therefore made the 
 beft terms for himfclf that he could obtain, which, 
 however, were not veiy good : and thus in eight days 
 the duke of Guife recovered a fortrefs which coft the 
 vidtorious Edward III. a whole year's iiege, and which 
 had been now aio yeai-s in the pofTeffion of the Eng- 
 Jifh, without fo much as a /ingle attempt to retake it. 
 There are very different accounts given of this matter; 
 Some Engliih hiilorians fay, that king Philip pene- 
 trated the defign of the French upon this fortrefs, 
 gave notice of it in England, and offered to take the 
 defence of it upon himfelf ; but that this, out of jea- 
 loufy, was refufed, it being believed to be only an ar- 
 tifice to get a place of fuch confequence into his own 
 hands. The truth of the matter feems to be this : 
 The ftrength <?f Calais confifted in its fituation and 
 outworks, which required a very numerous garrifon ; 
 hut this being attended with a very large expence, the 
 bell part of the troops had been fent to join Philip's 
 army, fo that the governor had not above 500 men, 
 and there were not more than 250 of the townfmen 
 able to bear arms. As to ammunition, artillery, and 
 provifioua, the French found there abundance, but 
 with.fo fie nder -a garrifon, that it was impoflible to 
 make a better defence ; and therefore, when the lord 
 Wentworth, who was governor, and whom the French 
 call lord Dumfort, was tried by his peers for the lofs 
 ■of this place, he was acqilitted. The duke obliged 
 all the Englifh inhabitant;? to quit Calais ; and be- 
 llowed the gov^-rnmcnt of it upon dcs Tennes, who 
 was foon after made a marilial of France. 
 
 The fortifications of Calais are good ; but its great- 
 -tft ftrength is its fituation among the marfhes, wliich 
 may be overflowed at the approach of an enemy. The 
 harbour is not fo good as formerly, nor will it admit 
 vefTels of any great burden. In times of peace^ there 
 
 [ 25 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 reau and Orythia, to whom the poets attributed wings; 
 they went on the voyage of Colchis with the Argo- 
 nauts, delivered Phineus from the harpies, and were 
 flain by Hercules. 
 
 CALAMANCO, a fort of woollen ftulF manufac- 
 tured in England and Brabant. It has a fineglofs; and 
 is checkered in the warp, whence the checks appear 
 only on the right fide. Some calamancos are quite 
 plain, others have broad ftripes adorned with flowers, 
 fome with plain broad ftripes, forae with narrow ftripes, 
 and others watered. 
 
 CALAMARItE, in botany, an order of plants in* 
 the Fragnienta viethodi naturalis of I^innnsus; in which 
 he has the following genera, viz, bobartia, fcirpus, cy-r 
 perus, eriophorum, carex, fchasnus, flagellaria, juncus. 
 See Botany. 
 
 CALAMATA, a confiderable town of Turky in 
 Europe, in the Morea, and province of Belvedera. It 
 was taken by the Venetians in 1685 ? ^'^^ Turks 
 retook it afterwards with all the Morea. It flands oh 
 the river Spinarza, eight miles from the fea. E. Long* 
 22. 15. N. Lat. ^7. 8. 
 
 CALAMINE, Ca LAM Y, Lapis Calain'wanSy Or Cad^ 
 Kiia Foffilisy a fort of ftone or mineral, containing zinc» 
 iron, and fometimes other fubftances. It is confide- 
 rably heav)-, and the more fo the better; moderately hard 
 ai d brittle, or of a conflftence betwixt ftone and earth { 
 the colour is fometimes whitifh or grey ; fometimes 
 yellowifli, or of a deep j-^llow ; fometimes red ; fonie^ 
 tim.es brown or blackifh. It is plentiful in feveral 
 places of Europe, as Hungary, Tranfylvania, Poland, 
 Spain, Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, Goflar, France, 
 and England, particularly in Derbyfhire, Gloucefter- 
 fliire, Nottinghamfliire, and Somerfetfliire, as alfo in 
 Wales. The calamine of England, however, is by 
 the beft judges allowed to be fuperior in quality to that 
 of moil other countries. It feldom lies veiy deep, being 
 chiefly fovmd in clayey grounds near the furface. In 
 fome places it is mixed with lead-ores. It is the only 
 true ore of 7.inc, and is ufed as an ingredient in making 
 of brafs. — Newmann relates various experiments with 
 this mineral, the only refult of whkh was to fhow that 
 it contained iron as well as z.in-c. The moft remarkable 
 are the following. A/aturated folution of calamine in 
 the marine acid, concentrated by evaporating part of the 
 liquor, exhibits in the cold an appearance of fine cry- 
 ftals, which on the application of warmth dlffolve and 
 difappear. A little of this concentrated folution tinges 
 a large quantity of vv^ater of a bright yellow colour ; 
 and at the fame time depofitsby degrees a fine, fpongy, 
 brownifh precipitate. Giue diflblved in this folution, 
 and afterwards infpifTated, forms an extremely flippery 
 tenacious mafs, which does not become dry, and, were 
 it not too expenfive, might be of ufe for entangling 
 flies, caterpillars, &c. Sulphur boiled in the folution 
 feems to acquire fome degree of tranfparency. — This 
 mineral is an article in the materia medica; but, before 
 it comes to the fhops, is ufually roafted or calcined, in 
 order to feparate fome arfenical or fulphureous matter 
 which la its crude ftate it is fuppofed to contaiu, and 
 to render it more eaiily reducible into a fine powder. In 
 
 II. 
 
 Cilaniine, 
 
 are packet-boats going backward and forward twice this ftate it is empkjyed in collyria againft defiuxions 
 
 a week from Dover to Calais, which is 2 1 miles diftantv of thin acrid humours upon the eyes, for drying up 
 
 E. Long. 2. 6. N. Lat. 50. 5S. moift running ulcers, and hcaHng excoriations. It is 
 
 Calais and Zetes, in fabulous hiftory, fons of Bo- tlie kiiis of an officinal epulotic Cerate. 
 
 Vol. IV. Pari L ' D Though 
 
Calamlnt 
 II 
 
 Calamy. 
 
 C A L [ 
 
 Though the lapis calaminaris is the only native ore 
 of zinc, there is another fubttance from which that 
 femi-raetal is alfo obtained. This is called cadmia forna' 
 cum, or cadmia of the furnaces, to diftinguifh it from 
 the other. This is a matter fublimed when ores con- 
 taining zinc, liJce thofe of Rammelfberg, are fmelted. 
 This cadmia confifts of the flowers of the femi-metal 
 Jiiblimed during the fufion, and adhering to the inner 
 furfaces of the walls of furnaces, where they fufFer a 
 fenu-fufion,. and therefore acquire fome folidity. So 
 great a quantity of thefe are collefted, that they form 
 very thick incruftations, which muft be frequently ta- 
 ken off. The name of cadmia of the furnaces has alfo 
 been given to all the foots and metallic fubllmates 
 formed by fmelting in the great, although there is cer- 
 tainly a <JilFerence in thefe matters. 
 
 CALAMINT, in botany. See Melissa, and Men- 
 tha. 
 
 CALAMUS, in botany ; A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 5th 
 order, TripelaloideiE. The calyx is hexaphyllous, 
 there is no corolla, the fruit is a dry monofpermous 
 berry, imbricated backwards. There is but one fpe- 
 cies, the rotang. The ftem is without branches, has 
 a crown at top, and is every where befct with ilraight 
 fpines. This is the true Indian cane, which is act 
 vifible on the outfide; but the bark being taken off 
 difcovers the fmooth ftick, which has no marks of fpine 
 on the bark, and is exafUy like thofe which the Dutch 
 fell to us ; keeping this matter very fccret, left travel- 
 lers going by fhould take as many canes out of the 
 woods as they pleafe. Sumatra is faid to be the place 
 where moft of thefe ftlcks grow. Such are to be cho- 
 fen as are of proper growth between two joints, fuit- 
 able to the fafliionable length of canes as they are then 
 worn : but fuch are fcarce. — The calamus rotang is 
 one of feveral plants from which the drug called Dra- 
 gon's-blood is obtained. 
 
 Calamus, in the ancient poets, denotes a fimple 
 kind of pipe or fiftula, the mufical inftrument of the 
 Ihepherds and herdfmen ; ufually made either of an 
 oaten ftalk or a reed. 
 
 Calamus Aromaticus, or Siveetfcented Flag, in the 
 materia medica, a fpecies of flag called acorus by Lin- 
 naeus. SeeAcoRus. 
 
 Calamus Scriptorius, in antiquity, a reed "or rufh 
 to write with. The ancients made ufe of ftyles to write 
 on tables covered with wax ; and of reed, or rufh, to 
 write on parchment, or Egyptian paper. 
 
 CALAMY (Edmund), an eminent Prefhyterian di- 
 vine, born at London in the year 1 600, and educated 
 at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, where his attachment 
 to the Armenian party excluded him from a fellowfhip. 
 Dr Feltonbifliop of Ely, however, made him his chap- 
 lain; and, in 1639, he was chofen minifter of St Mary 
 Aldermary, in the city of London. Upon the opening 
 of the long parliament, he diftinguiflied himfelf in de- 
 fence of the Pi-eftyterian caufc ; and had a principal 
 hand in writing the famous Sme8ymnus,. which, him- 
 felf fays, gave the firft deadly blow to epifcopacy. The 
 authors of this traft were five, the initials of whofe 
 names formed the name under which it was publifhed ; 
 viz. Stephen Marflial, Edmund Calamy, Thomas 
 Young, Matthew Nev/comen> and, William Sparilow. 
 
 26 ] C A L 
 
 He was after that an aftive member in the affembly of Cabmy. 
 divines, was a fl:renuous oppofer of feftaries, and ufed v — 
 his utmoft endeavours to prevent thofe violences com- 
 mitted after the king was brought from the ifle of 
 Wight. In Cromwell's time he lived privately, but 
 was affiduous in promoting the king's return ; for 
 which he was afterwards offered a bifliopric, but re- 
 fufed it. He was eje£ted for nonconformity in 1662; 
 and died of grief at the fight of the great fire of 
 London. 
 
 Calamy (Edmund), grandfon to the preceding (by 
 his eldeft fon Mr Edmund Calamy, who was ejefted out 
 of the living of Moxton in Effex on St Bartholomew's 
 day 1662), was born in London, April 5th 1671. Af- 
 ter having learned the languages, and gone through a 
 courfe of natural philofophy and logic at a private 
 academy in England, he lludied philofophy and civilr 
 law at the univerfity of Utrecht, and attended the lec- 
 tures of the learned Grsevius. Whilil he refided here,, 
 an offer of a profeffor's chair in the univerfity of Edin- 
 burgh was made him by Mr Carftairs, principal of that 
 univerfity, fent over on purpofe to find a perfon pro- 
 perly qualified for fuch an office. This he declined j 
 and returned to England in 1691, bringing with him 
 letters from Grsvius to Dr Pocock canon of Chrill- 
 church and regius profeffor of Hebrew, and toDrlBer- 
 nai'd Savilian profeffor of aftronomy, who obtained 
 leave for him to profecute his ftudies in the Bodleian 
 library. Having refolved to make divinity his principal 
 ftudy, he entered into an examination of the contro- 
 verfy between the conformifts and nonconformifts ; 
 which determined him to join the latter : and coming 
 to London in 1692, he was unanimoufly chofen affifl:- 
 ant to Mr Matthew Sylvefter at Blackfriars ; and lit , 
 1694, he was ordained at Mr Annefly's meetlng- 
 houfe in Little St-Helena, and foon after was invited 
 to become affiftant to Mr Daniel Williams in Hand- 
 AUey. In 1702, he was chofen to be one of the lec- 
 turers in Salter's-hall ; and, in 1703, fucceeded Mr 
 Vincent Alfop as paftor of a great congregation in 
 Weftminfter. He drew up the table of contents to Mr 
 Baxter's lilftory of his life and times, which was fent 
 to the prefs in 1 696 ; made fome remarks on the work 
 itfelf, and added to it an index; and, reflefting on the 
 ufefulnefs of the book, he faw the expediency of con- 
 tinuing it, for Mr Baxter's hiftory came no lower than 
 the year 1684. Accordingly he compofed an abridge- 
 ment of it, with an account of many other minifl;ers 
 who were tjefted after the reftoration of Charles II. ; 
 their apology, containing the grounds of their non^ 
 conformity and praftlce as to ftated and occafional 
 communion with the church of England ; and a con^ 
 tlnuation of their hiftory till the year 1691. This work 
 was publiflied In 1 702. He afterwards publlflied a mode- 
 rate defence of nonconformity, in three trafts, in anfwer 
 to fome trads of Dr Ploadley. In 1709, Mr Calamy 
 made a tour to Scotland; and had the degree of dodlor 
 of divinity conferred on him by the univerlities of Edir.a 
 burgh, Aberdeen, and Glafgow. In 1713, lie publifh- 
 ed a fecond edition of his Abridgement of Mr Bax- 
 ter's hiftory of his life and times ; in which, among 
 other additions, there is a continuation of the hiftory 
 through king William's reign, and queen Anne's, 
 down to the paffmg of the occafional bill ; and in the 
 clofe is fubjoined the reformed liturgy, which was 
 
 drawa. 
 
C A L f 
 
 Calandre, dravfn up and prefented to the birtiops in 1 66 1, " that 
 Calas. tj^e world may judge (he fays in his preface) how fair- 
 ' ly the ejected minillers have been often reprefented as 
 irreconcileable enemies to all liturgies." In 17 18, he 
 wrote a vindication of his grandfather, and feveral 
 other perfons, againft certain refleftions call upon 
 them by Mr Archdeacon Echard in his Hiftory of 
 England; and in 1728 appeared his Continuation 
 of the account of the minifters, lefturers, mailers, 
 and fellows of colleges, and fchoolmallers, who were 
 ejeiled, after the reftoration in 1660, by or before 
 the aft of uniformity. He died June 3d 1732, great- 
 ly regretted not only by the dilTenters, but alfo by 
 the moderate members of the eftablifhed church, both 
 clergy and laity, v/ith many of whom he lived in 
 great intimacy. Befides the pieces already mention- 
 ed, he publifhed a great many fermons on feveral fub- 
 jefts and occafions. He was twice married, and had 
 13 children. 
 
 C ALAND RE, a name given by the French wri- 
 ters to an infeft that does vaft mifchief in granaries. 
 It is properly of the fcarab or beetle clafs ; it has two 
 antennae or horns formed of a great number of round 
 joints, and covered with a foft and fhort down ; from 
 the anterior part of the head there is thruft out a 
 trunk, which is fo formed at the end, that the crea- 
 ture eafily makes way with it through the coat or flcin 
 that covers the grain, and gets at the meal or farina 
 on which it feeds ; the infide of the grains is alfo the 
 place where the female depofits her eggs, that the 
 young pi'ogeny may be born with provifion about them. 
 When the female has pierced a grain of corn for this 
 purpofe, (he depofits in it one egg, or at the utmoft 
 two, but file moil frequently lays them fingle : thefe 
 eggs hatch into fmall worms, which are ufually found 
 with their bodies rolled up in a fpiral form, and after 
 eating till they arrive at their full growth, they are 
 changed into chryfales, and from thefe in about a 
 fortnight comes out the pcrfedl calandre. The fe- 
 male lays a confiderable number of eggs ; and the in- 
 creafe of thefe creatures would be very great : but na- 
 ture has fo ordered it, that while in the egg ftate, and 
 even while in that of the worm, they are fubjedlto be 
 eaten by mites ; thefe little vermin are always very 
 plentiful in granaries, and they deilroy the far greater 
 number of thefe larger animals. 
 
 CALAS {John), the name of a moll unfortunate 
 Proteftant merchant atThouloufe, inhumanly butchered 
 under forms of law cruelly proftituted to fhelter the 
 fanguinary di£lates of ignorant Popifh zeal. He had 
 lived 40 years at Thouloufe. His wife was an Englifh 
 woman of French extra6lton : and they had five fons ; 
 one of whom, Lewis, had turned Catholic through 
 the perfuafions of a Catholic maid who had lived 30 
 years in the family. In Oftober 1761, the family 
 confiiled of Calas, his wife, Mark Anthony their fon, 
 Peter their fecond fon, and this maid. Anthony was 
 educated for the bar ; but being of a melancholy turn 
 of mind, was continually dwelling on palTages from 
 authors on the fubjeft of fuicide, and one night in 
 that month hanged himfelf on a bar laid acrofs two 
 folding doors in their (hop. The crowd coUedled by 
 the confufion of the family on fo (hocking a 4ifcovery, 
 l ook it into their heads that he had been ilrangled by 
 the family to prevent his changing his religion, and 
 
 27 ] C A L 
 
 that this was a commdn pra£lice among protellants. 
 The officers of juflice adopted the popular tale, and 
 were fupplied by the mob with what they accepted as 
 evidences of the fadl. The fraternity of white peni- 
 tents got the body, buried it with great ceremony^ 
 and performed a folemn fervice for him as a martyr; 
 the Francifcans did the fame : and after thefe formali- 
 ties no one doubted the guilt of the devoted heretical 
 family. They were all condemned to the torture, to 
 bring them to confeffion: they appealed to the parlia- 
 ment ; who, as weak and as wicked as the fubordinate 
 magiilrates, fentenced the father to the torture ordi- 
 nary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the 
 wheel, and then to be burned to aihes. A diabolical 
 decree ! which, to the fhame of humanity, was atlu- 
 ally carried into execution. Peter Calas, the other 
 fon, was baniflied for life ; and the reft were acquitted. 
 The diftrafted widow found fom.e friends, and among 
 the reft M. Voltaire, who laid her cafe before the 
 council of ftate at Verfailles, and the parliament of 
 Thouloufe were ordered to tranfmit the proceedings. 
 Thefe the king and council unanimoufly agreed to an- 
 nul ; the capitoul, or chief magiftrate of Thouloufe, 
 was degi-aded and fined ; old Calas was declared to 
 have been innocent ; and every imputation of guilt 
 was removed from the family, who alfo received from 
 the king and clergy confiderable gratuities. 
 
 CALA&H.,. or Cales-h, a fmall light kind of cha- 
 riot or chair, with very low wheels, ufed chiefly for 
 taking the air in parks and gardens. The calafh is for 
 the moft part richly decorated, and open on all fides 
 for the conveniency of the air and profpeft, or at moft, 
 inclofed with light mantlets of wax-cloth to be opened 
 and fhut at pleafure. In the Philofophical Tranfac" 
 tions we have a defcription of a new fort of calafti go- 
 ing on two wheels, not hung on traces, yet eafier than 
 the common coaches, over which it has this further 
 advantage, that whereas a common coach will over- 
 turn if one wheel go on a furface a foot and an half 
 higher than the other, this will admit of a difference 
 of 34- feet without danger of overturning. Add, that 
 it would turn over and over ; that is, after the fpokes 
 being fo turned as that they are parallel to the hori- 
 zon, and one wheel flat over the head of him that 
 rides in it, and the other flat under him, it will turn 
 once more, by v/hich the wheels are placed in Jlatu 
 quo, without any diforder to the horfe or rider. 
 
 CALASIO (Marius), a Francifcan, and profeffbr 
 of the Hebrew language at Rome, of whom there is 
 very little to be faid, but that he publiflied there, in 
 the year 1621, a Concordance of the Bible, which 
 confifted of four great volumes in folio. This work 
 has been highly approved and commended both by 
 Proteftants and Papifts, and is indeed a moft admi- 
 rable work. For befides the Hebrew words in the 
 Bible, which are in the body of the book, with the 
 Latin verfion over againft them ; there are, in the 
 margin, the differences between the feptuagint verfion 
 and the vulgate; fo that at one view may be feen 
 wherein the three Bibles agree, and wherein they dif- 
 fer. Moreover, at the beginning of every article there 
 is a kind of di£lionary, wliich gives the fignification 
 of each Hebrew word ; affords an opportunity of com- 
 paring it with other oriental languages, viz. with the 
 isyriac, Arabic, and Chaldee ; and is extremely ufeful 
 I D 2 for 
 
 Calafio. 
 
C A L [ 2 
 
 Calafirls for determining more exaftly the true meaning of the 
 
 Calauria ■^'^^1"^^ WOrds. 
 
 1 ^ CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed 
 
 at the bottom, and worn by tlie Egyptians under a 
 white woollen garment : but this lail they were ob- 
 lig;ed to pull off when they entered the temples, being 
 only allowed to appear there in linen garments. 
 
 CALATAJUI), a large and handfome town of 
 Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon ; fituated at the 
 confluence of the rivers Xalon and Xlloca, at tlie end 
 of a very fertile valley, with a good caftle on a rock. 
 W. I^ong. 2. 9. N. Lat. 41. 22. 
 
 CALATHUS, in antiquity, a kind of hand-balket 
 made of light wood or ruflies ; ufed by the women 
 fometinies to gather flcvi'ers, but chiefiy, after the ex- 
 ample of Minerva, to put their work in. The figure 
 of the calathus, as reprefented on ancient monuments, 
 is narrow at the bottom, and widening upwards like 
 that of a top. Pliny compares it to that of a lilv. 
 The Calathus or work-baikct of jNIinerva is no lefs ce- 
 lebrated among the poets than her dillaff. 
 
 Calathus was alio the name of a cup for wine, 
 ufed in facrinces. 
 
 CALATOR, in antiquity, a cryer, or officer ap- 
 pointed to publiih fomething aloud, or call the peo- 
 ple together. The word is formed from xkx:^, 'uqco, 
 I call. Such minii^ers the pontifices had, whom they 
 lUed to fend befoi-e them when they went to facrifice 
 on fitia or holidays, to advertife the people to leave 
 off work. The magiftrates alfo ufed calatores, to call 
 the people to the comitia, both curiata and centur'iata. 
 The officers in the army :Jfo had calatores ; as had like- 
 wife many private lamiUes, to invite their guefts to 
 entertainments. 
 
 CALATRAVA, a city of New Caftile, in Spain, 
 fituated on the river Guadiana, 45 miles foutli of To- 
 ledo. W. Long. 4. 20. N. I^at. 39. o. 
 
 Knights of CjLATRAyji, a military order in Spain, 
 inftituted under Sancho III. king of Caftile, upon the 
 following occ:»fior>. When that prince took the Itrong 
 fort of Calatrava from the mo*irs of Andalufia, he jrave 
 It to the templars, who, wantmg courage to defend 
 it, returned it him again. Then Don Reymond, of 
 the order of the Ciilercians, accompanied with feveral 
 |)erfons of quality, made an offer to defend the place, 
 which the king thereupon delivered up to them, and 
 inftituted that order. It increafed fo much under the 
 leign of Alphonfus, that the knights defired they 
 might have a grand mafter, which was granted. Fer- 
 dinand and Ifabella afterwards, with the confent of 
 pope Innocent VIII. re-united the grand- mafterfhip of 
 Calatrava to the Spanifh ci-own ; fo that the kings of 
 Spain are now become perpetual adminiftrators there- 
 of. 
 
 The knights of Calatrava bear a crofs gules, flower- 
 ^elifed with green, &c. Their rule and habit was 
 ©riginally that of the Ciitercians. 
 
 , CALAURIA (anc. geog.), an ifland of Greece 
 in the Saronic bay, overagainft the port of Troezen, 
 at the diftance of 40 ftadia. Hither Demofthenes 
 went twice into baniihment ; and here he died. Nep- 
 tune was faid to have accepted this ifland from Apollo 
 in exchange for Delos. The city ftood on a high 
 ridge nearly in the middle of the ifland, commanding 
 an extenfive view of the gulf and its coaib. Tli^re 
 
 8 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 was his holy temple. The prieftefs was a virgin, who Calcad* 
 was difmiffed when marriageable. Seven of the cities ^ , " . 
 near the ifland held a congrefs at it, and facrificed '""^ 
 jointly to the deity. Athens, ^gina, and Epidaurus 
 were^ of this number, with NaupHa, for which place 
 Argos contributed. The Macedonians, when they had 
 reduced Greece, were afraid to violate the fandluary,, 
 by forcing from it the fugitives, his fuppliants. An- 
 tipater commanded his general to bring away the ora- 
 tors, who had offended him, alive ; but Demofthenes 
 could not be prevailed on to furrender. His monu- 
 ment remained in the fecond century, within the in- 
 clofure of the temple. The city of Calauria has been 
 long abandoned. Traces of buildings, and of ancient 
 walls, appear nearly level with the ground ; and forae 
 ftones, in their places, each with a feat and back, 
 forming a little circle, once perhaps a bath. The tem- 
 ple, which was of the Doric order, and not large, as 
 may be inferred from the fragments, is reduced to an 
 inconfiderable heap of ruins. The ifland is now called 
 Poro. It ftrcfches along before the coaft of the Mo- 
 rea in a lower ridge, and is feparated from it by a canal 
 only four ftadia or half a mile wide. This, which is- 
 called Poro or the Ferry, in ftill weather may be pafled 
 on foot, as the water is not deep. It has given its 
 name to the ifland ; and alfo to the town, which con- 
 fifts of about 200 hcufes, mean and low, with flat 
 roofs ; rifing on the flope of a bare difagreeable rock. 
 
 CALCADA, or St Dimlngo CAicJJ.DAy a town of 
 Spain, fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 36. 
 
 CAJ^CAR, a very ftrong town of Germany, in the 
 circle of Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It belongs 
 to the king of Pruffia, and is feated near the Rhine, 
 in E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 51. 45. 
 
 Calcar, in glafs-making, the name of a fmall ovcn^ 
 or reverberatory furnace, in which the firlt calcination 
 of fand and fait of potaflies is made for the turning 
 them into what is called frit. This furnace is made in 
 the fafliion of an oven, tea feet long, feven broad in* 
 the wideft part, and two feet deep. On one lidc of it 
 is a trench fix inches fquare, the upper part of which 
 is level with the calcar, and feparated only from it at 
 the mouth by bricks nine inches wide. Into this trenclv 
 they put fea-coal, the flame of which is carried into 
 every part of the furnace, and is reverberated from the 
 roof upon the frit, over the furface of which the fmoke 
 flies very black, and goes out at the mouth of the 
 calcar ; the coals burn on iron-grates, and the afties 
 fall through. » 
 
 Calcar (John de), a celebrated painter, was the 
 difciple of Titian, and perfe<£led himfclf by ftiidying 
 Raphael. Among other pieces he drew a nativity, re- 
 prefenting thiC angels around the infant Chrift: ; and fo 
 ordered the difpuiicion of his pidture, that the light 
 all proceeds from the child. Pie died at Naples, in, 
 1546, in the flower of his age. It was he who de- 
 figned the anatomical figures of Vefal, and the por- 
 traits of the painters of Vefari. 
 
 CALCAREOUS, fomething that partakes of the 
 nature and qualities of calx, or lime. We fay, a cal^ 
 careous earth, calcareous ftone. See CusMiSTKr-Index, 
 
 CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a donative or la*- 
 gefs beftowed on Roman foldiers for buying flioes. Itt 
 monafteries, calcearium denoted the daily fervice of 
 ekaning the flioes of the religious. 
 
 5 CAL. 
 
C A L r 2g ] 
 
 la CALCEOLARIA, in botany; a genus of the mo- covered 
 nogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants. 
 The eoroUa is ringent and inflated ; the capfule has 
 two cells, and two valves ; the calyx four parted and 
 equal. 
 
 CAIXHAS, in fabulous hiftory, a famous di- 
 viner, followed the Greek army to Troy. He foretold 
 that the fiege would laft ten years ; and that the fleet, 
 which was detained in the port of Aulis by contrary 
 
 C A L 
 
 over vilth. wax. Their form is ftill feen in 
 forae medals of the Caflian family ; and the manner of 
 calling them into the urns, in the medals of the Lici- 
 nian family. The letters marked upon thefe calculi 
 were U. R. for utt rogas, and A. for antiqm ; the firft 
 of which exprefled an approbation of the law, the lat- 
 ter a rejeclicn of it. Afterwards the judges who fat 
 in capital caufes ufed calculi marked with the letter A. 
 for abfolvo ; C. for condemno ; and N. L. for non liquefy 
 
 Calcali;; 
 
 winds, would not fail till Agamemnon's daughter had fignifying that a more full information was required 
 been facrificed to Diana. After the taking of Troy, Culculus is alfo ufed in ancient grammatic writers 
 
 he retired to Colophon ; whei-c, it is faid, he died of for a kind of weight equal to two grains of cicer. 
 
 grief, becaufe he could not divine what another of his Some make it equivalent to the fdiqua, \vhich is equal 
 
 profeflion, called Mopfus, had dilcovered. to three grains of barley. Two calculi made the ce- 
 
 CALCINATION, in chemiftry, the reducing of ratium. 
 fubitances to a calx by ftre. See CHSMisrRr-Index. dicuius Dtfferentialls is a method of differencing 
 
 CALCINATO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of quantities, or of finding an infinitely fmall quantity, 
 
 ^tlantua, remarkabk for a victory gained over the Im- which, being taken infinite times, fliall be equal to a 
 
 pcrialiils by the French iii 1 706. E. Long. 9. 55. given (quantity : or, it is the arithmetic of the infinite- 
 
 iS'. Lat. 45. 25. iy fmall differences of variable quantities. 
 
 CALCULARY cf a Pear, a congeries of little The foundation of this calculus is an infinitely 
 
 ih-!ing knots difperfed through the whole parenchyma fmall quantity, or an infinitefimal, which is a portion 
 
 of the fruit. The calculary is molt obferved in rough- of a quantity incomparable to that quantity, or that 
 
 tarted or choak-pears. The knots lie more continu- is lefs than any afiignable one, and therefore account- 
 
 oiis and compact together towards the pear where they ed as nothing; the error accruing by omitting it beings 
 
 fuiTound the acetary. About tlie Italk they Hand lefs than any affignable one. Hence two quantities. 
 
 more diltant ; but towards the cork, or ftool of the 
 flower, they It ill grow clofer, and there at laft gather 
 into the firmnefs of a plumb-Hone. The calculary is 
 fto vital or effential part of the fruit ; the feveral knots 
 whereof it confiils being only fo many concretions or 
 precipitations out of the fap, as we fee in urines, wines, 
 and other liquors. 
 
 CALCULATION, the aft of computing feveral 
 films, by adding, fubtrafting, multiplying, or divi- 
 ding. See Arithmetic. 
 
 Calculation is more particularly ufed to fignify 
 the computations in allronomy and geometry, for ma- 
 king tables of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the 
 time of eclipfes, Sec. See Astronomv, Geometry, 
 and Logarithms. 
 
 CALCULUS, primarily denotes a little ftone or 
 
 only differing by an infinitefimal, are reputed equal. 
 Thus, in Aftronomy, the diameter of the earth is an 
 infinitefimal, in refpedt of the diftance of the fixed 
 ftars ; and the fame holds in abftraft quantities. The 
 term, infinitefimal, therefore, is merely refpedlive, and 
 involves a relation to another quantity ; and does not 
 denote any real ens, or being. Now infinitefimals are 
 called differentials, or differential quantities^ when they 
 are coniidered as the differences of two quantities. Sir 
 Ifaac Newton calls them moments ; confidering them 
 as the momentary increments of quantities, v. g. of a 
 line generated by the flux of a point, or of a furfuce 
 by the flux of a fine. The differential calculus, there- 
 fore, and the doftrine of fluxions, are the fame thing 
 under diftcrent names ; the former given by M. Leib- 
 nitz, and the latter bv Sir Ifaac Newton : each of 
 
 pebble, anciently ufed in making computations^ taking whom lay claim to the difcovery. There is, indeed, 3; 
 
 of fuffrages, playing at tables, and the like. In after 
 times, pieces of ivory, and counters ftruck of filver» 
 gold, and other matters, were ufed in lieu thereof, but 
 ftill retaining th~e ancient names. Coraputifts were by 
 the lawyers called calculories, when they were either 
 
 difference in the manner of expreffing the quantities^ 
 refulting from, the different views wherein the two au- 
 thors confider the infinitefimals ; the one as moments,, 
 the otlier as differences : Leibnitz, and moil foreigners, 
 exprefs the differentials ©f quantities by the fame let- 
 
 /laves or newly freed men ; thofe of a better condition, ters as variable ones, only prefixing the letter d : llms 
 
 the differential of x is called d x ; and tliat o£ dy : 
 now dx is a pofitive quantity, if .v continually increafe; 
 negatlve,if it d'ecreafe. The Englilh, with Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton, inftead of jc write x (with a dot o\er it ;) {ovdy,yy 
 6cc. which foreigners objeft againft, on account of that 
 coafufion of points, which they imagine arifes when 
 differentials are again differen'jed ; befides, that the 
 printers ai-e more apt to overlook a point than a letter. 
 Stable quantities being always expreffed by the firft let— 
 ters of the alphabet d a~o, dh'=.Q, dc—o ; wherefore d 
 (.v-f-j — a) zzz d x-\-d y, and d [x — J-f-^^) d x — d y. So 
 that the differencing of quantities is eafily performed, 
 by the addition or fubtraftion of their compounds. 
 
 To difference quantities, that multiply each, other ; 
 the rule is, firft, multiply the differential, of one fedtcr 
 into the other faftor, the fum of the two faftors is the 
 differential fought : thus, the quantities being x the 
 
 dif. 
 
 were named calculutores or numerarii : ordinarily there 
 was one of thefe in each family of diftinftion. The 
 Roman judges anciently gave their opinions by calculi, 
 which were white for abfolution, and black for con- 
 demnation. Hence calculus albus, in ancient writers, 
 denotes a favourable vate, either it» a perfon to be ab- 
 folved and acquitted of a charge, or elected to fome 
 dignity or poft ; as calculus niger did the contraty. This 
 ufage is faid to have been borrowed from the Thraci- 
 ans, who marked their happy or profperous days by 
 uuhite, and their unhappy by blacky pebbles, put each 
 night into an urn. 
 
 Befides the diverfity of coh)ur, there were fome cal- 
 culi alfo which had figures or characters engraven on 
 them, as thofe which were in ufe in taking the fuffra- 
 ges both in the fenate and at affemblies of the people. 
 Thefe calculi were made of thin wood, poliihtd and 
 
C A L 
 
 C 30 ] 
 
 GAL 
 
 tjalcu'ius. differential will be x dy-\-y d Xy i. e. d {^y) z:zx d y-^ry 
 ^■"""V^"^ d X. Secondly, if there be three quantities mutually 
 multiplying each other, the faftum of the two muft 
 then be multiplied into the differential of the third : 
 thus fuppofe vxy, let n) x~t, then 'vxy—ty; confe- 
 quently d [v xy) dy-\-y dt: but d t—v d x-\-x d u. 
 Thefe values, therefore, being fubllituted in the ante- 
 cedent differential, tdy-\-ydt, the refult is, d (vxy) 
 ~v X dy-^-vy d x-\-xy dv. Hence it is eafy to appre- 
 hend how to proceed, where the quantities are more 
 than three. If one variable quantity increafe, while 
 the other J decreafes, it is evident ^/oc — xdywWlhe 
 the differential of xy. 
 
 To difference quantities that mutually divide each 
 other ; the rule is, firft, multiply the diflFerential of the 
 dlvifor into the dividend ; and, on the contrary, the 
 differential of the dividend into the divifor ; fubtraft 
 the lafl produft from the firfl, and divide the remain- 
 der by the fquare of the divifor ; the quotient is the 
 differential of the quantities mutually dividing each 
 other. See Fluxions. 
 
 Calculus Exponent talis , is a method of differencing 
 exponential quantities, or of finding and fiimming 
 up the differentials or moments of exponential quan- 
 tities ; or at leafl bringing them to geometrical con- 
 llruftions. 
 
 By exponential quantity, is here underftood a power, 
 whofe exponent is variable ; v. g. x^ a^. x^. where the 
 exponent x does not denote the fame in all the points 
 of a curve, but in fome ftands for 2, in others for 3, 
 in others for 5, &c. 
 
 To difference an exponential quantity ; there is no- 
 thing required but to reduce the exponential quantities 
 to logarithmic ones ; which done, the differencing is 
 managed as in logarithmic quantities. — Thus, fuppofe 
 the differential of the exponential quantity x^f re- 
 ■quired, let 
 
 Then will y I x—I >. 
 
 ydx 
 
 / JC « v-l 
 
 %lx dy\- 
 
 -'=d 21 
 
 That is, Ix dy-\-x^ ' d x~d z. 
 
 Calculus Integralis, or Summatorius, is a method of 
 integrating, or fumming up moments, or differential 
 quantities ; i. e. from a differential quantity given, to 
 find the quantity from whofe differencing the given 
 differential refults. 
 
 The integi-al calculus, therefore, is the inverfe of 
 the differential one : whence the Enghfh, who ufually 
 call the differential method fluxions^ give this calculus., 
 which afcends from the fluxions, to the flowing or va- 
 riable quantities : or, as foreigners exprefs it, from the 
 differences to the fums, by the name of the inverfe me- 
 thod of fiuxiotis. 
 
 Hence, the integration is known to be juflly per- 
 formed, if the quantity found, according to the rules 
 of the differential calculus, being differenced, produce 
 that propofed to be fummed. 
 
 jSuppofe / the fign of the fum, or integral quantity, 
 
 then fydx will denote the fum, or integral of the dif- Ca.Icw!tn. 
 
 ferential ydx. ^r"^ 
 
 To integrate, or fum tip a differential quantity : It h 
 
 demonftrated, firft, that fdx-=x; fecondly,y'(r/x-J-i/j') 
 
 z=.x-\-y : thirdly,/ [x d y-\-y d x)—x y : fourthly, / (w 
 
 n — m n 
 X™ — ^ dx—xm: fifthly, f (n : m) x dx'=x • 
 
 fixthly, f {yd X — X dy) : y'^—x :y. Of thefe, the fourth 
 and fifth cafes are the moft frequent, wherein the dif- 
 ferential quantity is integrated, by adding a variable 
 unity to the exponent, and dividing the fum by the 
 new exponent multiplied into the differential of the 
 root; v. g. the fourth cafe, by m — (i + i) dx, i. e. by 
 m d X. 
 
 If the differential quantity to be integrated doth 
 not come under any of thefe formulas, it mufl either 
 be reduced to an integral finite, or an infinite feries, 
 each of whofe terms may be fummed. 
 
 It may be here obferved, that, as in the analyfis of 
 finites, any quantity may be raifed to any degree of 
 power ; but "vice verfa, the root cannot be extrafted 
 out of any number required : fo in the analyfis of 
 infinites, any variable or flowing quantity may be dif- 
 ferenced ; but vice verfa, any differential cannot be in- 
 tegrated. And as, in the analyfis of finites, we ai-e not 
 yet arrived at a method of extra£ting the roots of all 
 equations, fo neither has the integral calculus arrived 
 at its perfeftion : and as in the former we are obliged 
 to have recourfe to approximation, fo in the latter we 
 have recourfe to infinite feries, where we cannot at- 
 tain to a perfect integration. 
 
 Calculus Literalis, or Literal Calculus, is the fame 
 with fpecious arithmetic, or algebra, fo called from its 
 ufing the letters of the alphabet ; in contradiflinAion 
 to numeral arithmetic, which ufes figures. In the li- 
 teral calculus given quantities are expreffed by the firfl 
 letters, abed; and quantities fought by the lafl z 
 &c. Equal quantities are denoted by the fame letters. 
 
 Calculus Minerva, among the ancient lawyers, de- 
 noted the decifion of a caufe, wherein the judges were 
 equally divided. The expreffion is taken from the hi- 
 ftory of Oreftes, reprefented by ^fchylus and Euripi- 
 des ; at whofe trial, before the Areopagites, for the 
 murder of his mother, the votes being equally divided 
 for and againfl him, Minerva interpofed, and gave the 
 cafting vote or calculus in his behalf. 
 
 M. Cramer, profeffor at Marpurg, has a difcourfe 
 exprefs, De Calculo Minerva; wherein he maintains, ' 
 that all the effeft an entire equality of voices can have, 
 is to leave the caufe in Jlatu quo. 
 
 Calculus Tihtirtinus, a fort of figured ilone, formed 
 in great plenty about the cataradls of the Anio, and 
 other rivers in Italy ; of a white colour, and in fhape 
 oblong, round, or echinated. They are a fpecies of 
 the Jlirite lapidcte, and generated like them ; and fo like 
 fugar-plums in the whole, that it is a common jeft at 
 Rome to deceive the unexperienced by ferving them 
 up at deferts. 
 
 Calculus, in Medicine, the difeafe of the ftone in 
 the bladder, or kidneys. The term is Latin, and fig- 
 nifies a little peBble. The calculus in the bladder is 
 called Uthiafis ; and in the kidneys, nephritis. See Me- 
 dicine and Surgery. 
 
 Human calculi are commonly farmed of different 
 
 ftrata 
 
C A L 
 
 ftraita or Incrufiatlons ; fometimes fmooth and heavy 
 ' likie mineral ftones ; hut oftcner rough, fpongy, light, 
 an<d fvkll of inequalities or protuberances : chemically 
 anailyfed, or diftilled in an open fire, they nearly yield 
 thei fame principles as urine itfelf, or at lealt an empy- 
 remmatic volatile urinous matter, together with a great 
 deiul of air. Tliey never liave, nor can have, naturally, 
 ari)y foreign matter for a bafis : but they may by acci- 
 demt ; an inftance of which is related by Dr Percival*. 
 A bougie had unfortunately flipped into the bladder, 
 amd upon it a ftone of a confiderable fize was formed 
 in lefs than a year. This ftone had fo much the ap- 
 peiarance of chalk, that the Doctor was Induced to try 
 vshiether it could be converted into quicklime. His 
 exjpenment fucceeded, both with that and fome other 
 callcull ; from which he conjeftures, that hard waters 
 wliiich contain calcareous earth may contribute to- 
 wairds the formation of thefe calculi. 
 
 CALCUTTA, the capital of the province of Ben- 
 gall, and of all the Britlfh poiTeflions In the Eaft Indies, 
 is fituated on the river Huguely, a branch of the 
 Granges, about loo miles from the fea. In N. Lat. 23. 
 antd 88. 28. E. Long, from Greenwich. It Is but a 
 m(odern city, built on the fite of a village called 
 Cmvindpour. The Engllfli firft obtained the Mogul's 
 pejrmlffion to fettle in this place In the year 1690; 
 anid Mr Job Channock, the company's agent, made 
 chioice of the fpot on which the city ftands, on account 
 of" a large fhady grove which grew there ; though in 
 otlher refpefts It was the worft he could have pitched 
 upjon ; for three miles to the north coaft, there Is a 
 fallt-water lake, which overflows In September, and 
 wlhen the flood retires in December, leaves behind fuch 
 a cquantity. of fifli and other putrefcent matter, *s ren- 
 de:rs the air very unhealthy. The cufliom of the Gen- 
 tO(os throwing the dead bodies of their poor people 
 intto the river is idfo very dlfgufl:ful, and undoubtedly 
 contributes to render the place unhealthy, as well as 
 thie caufe already mentioned. 
 
 Calcutta is now become a large and populus city,, 
 benng fuppofed at prefent to cbntain 500,000 inhabi- 
 tams. It Is elegantly built, at leaft the part inhabited 
 hyj the Engllfli ; but the reft, and that the greatefl; 
 pairt. Is built after the fafliion of the cities of India In 
 general. The plan of all thefe is nearly the fame ; 
 thieir ftreets are exceedingly confined, narrow, and 
 ercQoked, with a vaft number of ponds, refervoirs, and 
 gairdens interfperfed. A few of the ftreets are paved 
 wilth brick. The houfes arebuUt, fome with brick, others 
 wilth mud, and a ftlll greater number with bamboes and 
 miats ; all which dlfi^erent kinds of fabrics ftanding In- 
 teirmixed with one another, form a very uncouth ap- 
 pe^arance. The brick houfes are feldom above two 
 ftcories high, but thefe of mud and bamboes are only 
 ome, and are covered with thatch. The roofs of the 
 br;ick houfes are fiat and terraced. Thefe, however, 
 arre much fewer In number than the other two kinds ; 
 fo) that fires, which often happen, do not fometlmes 
 mieet with a brick houfe to obftruft their progrefs in a 
 wlhcle ftreet. Within thefe 20 or 25 years Calcutta has 
 beien greatly Improved both In appearance and In the 
 fallubrlty of Its air : the ftreets have been properly 
 drralned, and the ponds filled ; thereby removing a vaft 
 fuirface of ftagnant water, the exhalations of which 
 wtere particularly hurtful.. The citadel is named Fort 
 
 [ 3x ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 William, and is fuperlor as a fortrefs to any In India ; 
 but is now on too extenfive a fcale to anfwer the pur- " 
 pofe for which It was' intended, viz. the holding a poft 
 in cafe of extremity. It was begun on this extended 
 plan by lord Clive Immediately after the battle of 
 Plafley. The expence attending it was fuppofed to 
 amount to two millions Sterling. 
 
 Calcutta Is the emporium of Bengal, and the refi- 
 dence of the governor-general of India. Its flourlfli- 
 ing ftate may in a great meafure be fuppofed owing to 
 the unlimited toleration of all religions allowed here ; 
 the Pagans being fufFered to carry their Idols In pro-- 
 ceffion, the Mahommedans not being difcountenanced, 
 and the Roman Catholics being allowed a church. — 
 At about a miles diftance from the town is a plain 
 where the natives annually undergo a very ftrange kind 
 of penanCe on the 9th of April ; fome for the fins 
 they have committed, others for thofe they may com- 
 mit, and others In confequence of a vov/ made by their 
 parents. This ceremony is performed in the follow- 
 ing manner. Thirty bamboes, each about the height 
 of 20 feet, are ere&ed In the plain above mentioned. 
 On the top of thefe they contrive to fix a fwivel, and 
 another bamboe of thirty feet or more croffes it, at 
 both ends of which hangs a rope. The people pull 
 down one end of this rope, and the devotee placing 
 himfelf under It, the Brahmin pinches up a large "piece 
 of llcin under both the flioulderblades, fometlmes lu- 
 the breafts, and thrufts a ftrong iron hook through 
 each. Thefe hooks have lines of Indian grafs hanging 
 to them, which the prieft makes faft to the rope at the 
 end of the crofs bamboe, and at the fame time puts a' 
 fafh round the body of the devotee, laying It loofely 
 in the hollow of the hooks, left by the flcln's giving 
 way, he fliould fall to the ground. When this Is done, 
 the people haul down the other end of the bamboe ; 
 by which means the devotee is Immediately lifted up 
 30 feet or more from the ground, and they run round? 
 as faft as their legs can carry them. Thus the de- 
 votee is thrown out the whole length of the rope,, 
 where, as he fwlngs, he plays a thoufand antic tricks ; 
 being painted and drefled in a very particular manner, . 
 on purpofe to make him look more ridiculous. Some 
 of them continue fwinging half an hour, others lefs. 
 The devotees undergo a preparation of four days for 
 this ceremoney. On the firft and third they abftain 
 from all kinds of food ; but eat fruit on the other 
 two. During this time of preparation they walk about 
 the ftreets in their fantaftlcal drefles, dancing to the 
 found of drums and horns ; and fome, to exprefs the 
 greater ardour of devotion, run a rod of Iron quite 
 through their tongues, and fometlmes through their 
 cheeks alfo. 
 
 Before the war of 1755, Calcutta was commonly 
 garrifoned by 300 Europeans, who were frequently em* 
 ployed in conveying the company's veffels from Patnaj , 
 loaded with falt-petre, piece-goods, opium, and rav/ 
 filk» The trade of Bengal alone fupplled rich cargoes 
 for 50 or 60 ftiips annually, befides what was carried 
 on In fmall veflels to the adjacent countries. It was ■ 
 this flourlfliing ftate of Calcutta that probably was one 
 motive for the Nabob Surajah Dowla to attack It la- 
 the year 1756. Having had the fort of Coflimbuzar ' 
 delivered up to him, he marched agalnft Calcutta wltlx- 
 all his forces, amounting to 70,000 horfe and footj, 
 
 with 
 
 Calcutta, 
 
GAL [3 
 
 ■Calcutta, with 400 elephants, and inveited the place on the 15th 
 ^" of June. Previous to any hoftilities, however, h<i wrote 
 
 a leter to Mr Drake the governor, offering to with- 
 draw his troops, on condition that he would pay him 
 his duty on the trade for 15 years pall, defray the 
 expence of his army, and deHver up the black mer- 
 chants ■who were in the fort. This being refufed, he 
 attacked one of the redoubts at the entrance of the 
 town ; but was repulfed with great flciughter. On the 
 1 6th he attacked another advanced polt, but was like- 
 wife repulfed with great lofs. Notwithftanding thie 
 diiappoiutment, how-tver, the attempt was renewed on 
 the 1 8th, when the troops abandoned thefe ports, and 
 retreated into the fort; on which the Nabob's troops 
 entered the town, and plundered it for 24 hours. An 
 order was then given for attacking the fort ; for which 
 purpofe a fmairbreaft-work was thrown up, and two 
 twelve pounders mounted upon it ; but without firing 
 oftener than two or three times an hour. The go- 
 vernor then called a cotmcil of war, when the captain 
 of the train informed them, that there was not am- 
 munition in the fort to ferve three days ; in confe- 
 quence of which the principal ladies were fent on board 
 the Oiips lying before the fort. They were followed 
 by the governor, who declared himfelf a Quaker, and 
 left the place to be defended by Mr Holwell the fecond 
 in cotmcil. Befides the governor, four of the coun- 
 cil, eight gentlemen in the company's fervice, four 
 officers, and 100 foldiers, with 52 free merchants, cap- 
 tains of (hips, and other gentlemen, efcaped on board 
 the {hips, where were alfo 59 ladies, with 33 of their 
 children. The whole number left in the fort wxrc about 
 250, effeftive men, with Mr Holwell, four captains, 
 five lieutenants, fix enfigns, and five ferjeants ; as alfo 
 14 fea-captains, and zg gentlemen of the faClory. Mr 
 Holwell then having held a council of war, divided 
 three chefts of treafure among tJie difcontented fol- 
 diers ; making them large promifes alfo, if they be- 
 haved with courage and fidelity ; after which he bold- 
 ly flood on the defence of the place, notwithftanding 
 tlie immenfe force which oppofed him. The attack 
 v/as very vigorous ; the enemy having got poffeffion of 
 the houfes, galled the EngliOi from thence, and drove 
 them from the baftions ; but they tliemfelves were 
 fcveral times diHodged by the fire from the fort, 
 which killed upwards of 12,000 men, with the 
 lofs of only five Englifh foldiers the firft day. The 
 attack, however, was continued till the afternoon 
 of the 20th ; when many of the garrifon being 
 killed and vvounded, and their ammunition almoft 
 cxhaufted, a flag of truce was hung out. Mr Hol- 
 well intended to have availed liimfelf of this oppor- 
 tunity to make his efcape on board the fliips, but they 
 had fallen feveral miles down from the fort, with- 
 out leaving even a fingle boat to facilitate the efcape 
 of thofe who remained. In the mean time, however, 
 the Tjack-gate was betrayed by the Dutch guard, and 
 the eneiyiy, entering the fort, killed all they firll met, 
 and took the reft prifoners. 
 
 The fort was taken before fix in the evening ; and, 
 in an hour after, Mr Holwell had three audiences of 
 the Nabob, the laft being in the durbar or council. 
 In all of thefe the governor had the moft pofitive af- 
 furances that no hann fhould happen to any of the 
 prifoners ; but he was furprifcd and enraged at finding 
 NO 61. 
 
 2 ] C A L 
 
 only 5000I. in the fort, inftead of the Immenfe trea- Ca 
 fures he expefted; and to this, as well as perhaps to the "~" 
 refentmcnt of tlie jemmidaars or officers, of whom 
 many were killed in the fiege, we may impute the ca- 
 taftrophe that followed. 
 
 As foon as it was dark, the Enghfii prifoners, to 
 the number of 146, were direfted by the jemmidaars 
 who guarded them, to coUe6t themfelves into one 
 body, and fit down quietly under the arched veranda, 
 or piazza, to the v/ettward of the black-hole prifon. 
 Befides the guard over them, another was placed at 
 the fouth-end of this veranda, to prevent the efcape of 
 any of them. About 500 gunmen, with lighted 
 matclies, were drawn up on the parade ; and foon af- 
 ter the faftory was in flames to the right and left of 
 the prifoners, who had Various conjcftures on this ap- 
 pearance. The fire advanced with rapidity on both 
 fides; and it was the prevailing opinion of the Englifh, 
 that they were to be fuftocated between the two fires. 
 On this thev foon came to a refolutioa of rufhing 
 on the gu.u'd, iVizing their fcymitars, and, attacking 
 the troops upon the parade, rather than be thus tame« 
 ly roafted to death : but Mr Holwell advanced, and 
 found the Moors were only fearching for a place to 
 confine them In. At that time Mr Holwell might 
 have made liis efcape, by the affiflancc of Mr Leech, 
 the company's fmith, who had efcaped when the 
 Moors entered the fort, and returned jufl as it waa 
 dark, to tell Mr Holwell he had provided a boat, 
 and would infure his efcape, if he woidd follow him 
 through a paflage few were acquainted with, and by 
 which he then entercKl. This might eafily have been 
 accompliflicd, as the guard took little notice of it 
 but Mr Holwell told Mr Leech, he was refolved to 
 fhare the fate of the gentlemen tmd the garrifon ; to 
 which Mr Leech gallantly replied, that " then he was 
 refolved to fliare Mr Holwell's fate, and would not 
 leave him." 
 
 The guard on the parade advanced, and ordered 
 them all to rife and go into the barracks. Then, with 
 their mufliets prefented, they ordered tliem to go into 
 the black-hole prifon ; while others, with clubs and 
 fcymitars, prefied upon them fo ftrong, that there was 
 no refifling it ; but, like one agitated wave impelling 
 another, they were obliged to give way and enter ; 
 the refl following like a torrent. Few among them, 
 the foldiers excepted, had the leaft idea of the di« 
 menfions or nature of a place they had never feen ; 
 for if they had, they fliould at all events have rufhed 
 upon the guard, and been cut to pieces by their own 
 choice as the leffer evil. 
 
 It was about eight o'clock when thefe 146 unhappy 
 perfons, exhaufted by continual a£tion and fatigue, 
 were thus crammed together into a dungeon about 
 eighteen feet fquare, in a clofe fultry night in Bengal; 
 fhut up to the eaft and fouth, tlie only quarters from 
 whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by 
 a wall and door to the north; open only to tlie weft by 
 two windows, ftrongly barred with iron, from which 
 they could receive fcarce any circulation of frefh air. 
 
 They had been but few minutes confined before 
 every one fell into a perfpiration fo profufe, that no 
 idea can be formed of it. This brought on a raging 
 thirll, which increafed in proportion as the body was 
 drained of its moifture. Various expedients were 
 
 thought 
 
 \mtu. 
 
GAL t ; 
 
 Calcutta, tlvouglit of to give more room and air. Every man 
 —-"—v^^ was ftripped, and every hat put in motion : they fe- 
 veral times fat down on their hams ; but at each 
 time feveral of the poor creatures fell, and were in- 
 ftantly fuffocated or trod to death* 
 
 Before nine o'clock every man's thirft grew into- 
 lerable, and refpiration difficult. Efforts were again 
 made to force the door ; but ftill in vain. Many in- 
 fults were ufed to the guards, to provoke them to fire 
 in upon the prifoners, who grew outrageous, and 
 many delirious. *' Water, water," became the ge- 
 neral cry. Some water was brought ; but thefe fup- 
 plies, Uke fprinlding water on fire, only fervcd to 
 raife and feed the flames. The confulion became ge- 
 neral, and horrid from the cries and ravings for water; 
 and fome were trampled to death. This fcene of mi- 
 feiy proved entertainment to the brutal wretches 
 without, who fupphed them with water, that they 
 might have the fatisfa<S;ion of feeing them fight 
 for it, as they phrafed it ; and held up lights to the 
 bars, that they might lofe no part of the inhuman di- 
 verfion. 
 
 Before eleven o'clock, moft of the gentlemen were 
 dead, and one third of the whole. Thirfl grew into- 
 lerable : but Mr Holwell kept his mouth moiil by 
 fucking the perfpiration out of his fhirt-fleeves, and 
 catching the drops as they fell, like heavy rain, from 
 his head and face. By half an hour after eleven, moft 
 of the living were in an outrageous dehrium. They 
 found that water heightened their uneafinefTes ; and 
 ** Air, air," was the general cry. Every infult that 
 could be devifed ag^infl the guard, all the opprobrious 
 names that the viceroy and his oflicers could be loaded 
 with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon 
 them. Every man had eager hopes of meeting the firft 
 fhot. Then a general prayer to heaven, to haften the ap*- 
 proach of the flames to the right and left of them, and 
 put a period to their mifery. Some expired on others ; 
 while a fleam arofe as well from the living as the dead, 
 which was very offenfive. 
 
 About two in the morning, they crowded fo much 
 to the windows, that many died ftanding, unable to 
 fall by the throng and equal preffure round. When 
 the day broke, the ftench arifing from the dead bodies 
 was unfufferable. At that junaure, the Soubah, who 
 had received an account of the havoc death had made 
 among them, fent one of his officers to enquire if the 
 chief furvived. Mr Holwell was fhown to him ; arid 
 near fix an order came for their releafe. 
 
 Thus they had remained in this infernal prifon 
 from eight at night until fix in the monihig, when 
 the poor remains of 146 fouls, being only 23, came 
 out alive; but moft of them in a high putrid fever. 
 The dead bodies were dragged out of the hole by the 
 foldiers, and thrown promifcuoufly into the ditch of 
 an unfiniflied ravelin, which was afterwards filled with 
 earth. 
 
 The injuries which Calcutta fuiTered at this time, 
 however, were foon repaired. The place was retaken 
 by Admiral Watfon and Colonel Clive, early in 
 1757 ; Surajah Dowle was defeated, depofed, and put 
 to death ; and Meer Jafner, who fucceeded him in 
 the Nabcbfliip, engaged to pay an immenfe fum for 
 the indemnification of the inhabitants. Since that 
 time the immenfe acquifition of territory by the Bri- 
 
 VoL. IV. Part I. 
 
 [3 1 C A L 
 
 tifh in this part of the world, with the conftant ftate of Caldarium 
 fecurity enjoyed by this city, have given an opportunity II 
 of embeUiihing and improving it greatly beyond what ^o-xl' 
 it was before. — Among thefe improvements we may ■ ^ / 
 reckon that of Sir William Jones ; who, on the r5th 
 of January 1784, inftituted a fociety for inquiring 
 into the hiftory civil and natural, the antiquities, arts, 
 fciences, and literature of Afia ; and thus the literature 
 of Europe, and along with it, it is to be hoped, the 
 arts of humanity, beneficence, and peace, have at 
 length obtained a footing in the rich empire of Indof- 
 tan, fo long a prey to the rapine and violence of ty- 
 rants and ufurpers. 
 
 CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, denoted a 
 brazen vefTel or ciflern, placed in the hypocauflum, full 
 of hot water, to be drawn thence into the p'lfcina 
 or bath, to give it the necefTary degree of heat. In 
 this fenfe, the caldarium ftood contradiftinguiflied from 
 the tep'idar'ium and fngidarhm. 
 
 Caldarium alfo denoted the ftove, or fudatory, 
 being a clofe vaulted room, wherein by hot dry fumes> 
 without water, people were brought to a profufe fwcati 
 In which fenfe, caldarium was the fame with what 
 was otherwife denominated vaporarium, fudatorlum, and 
 laconium; in the Greek baths, hypocaujlum, t^^oxaurov. 
 
 CALDERINUS (Domltius), a learned critic, born 
 at Calderia near Verona. He read ledlures upon polite 
 literature at Rome with great reputation ; and was the 
 firft who ventured to write upon the moft difficult of 
 the ancient poets. He died very young in 1477. 
 
 CALDERON, De la Barca, (Dom. Pedro), a 
 Spanifh officer, who, after having fignalized himfelf in 
 the mlHtary profeffion, quitted it for the ecclefiaftical, 
 and then commenced dramatic writer. His dramatic 
 works make 9 vols in 4to, and fome Spanifh authors 
 have compared him to Shakefpeare. He fiourifhed a* 
 bout the year 1640. 
 
 CALDERWOOD (David), a famous divine of 
 the church of Scotland, and a diftlnguifhed writer i« 
 behalf of the Prefbyterians, was defcended of a good 
 family in that kingdom; and being early defigned for 
 the miniflry, he applied with great diligence to the 
 ftudy of the Scriptures in their original tongues, the 
 works of the fathers, the councils, and the befl wri^ 
 ters on church-hiftory. He was fettled about the year 
 1604 at Crelling near Jedburgh. King James I. of 
 Great Britain, being defirous of bringing the church 
 of Scotland nearer to a conformity with that of Eng- 
 land, laboured earneftly to reflore the epifcopal autho- 
 rity, and enlarge the powers of the bifhops who were 
 then in Scotknd. This defign was very warmly oppo- 
 fed by many of the minifters, and particularly by Mr 
 David Calderwood ; who, when Mr James Law, hi- 
 fhop of Orkney, came to vifit the prefbyterles of Merfe 
 and Teviotdale, declined his jurifdiftion by a paper 
 under his hand dated May 5th 1 608. But the king ha- 
 ving Its fuccefs much at heart, fent the earl of Dunbar, 
 then high-treafurer of Scotland, with Dr Abbot after- 
 wards archbilhop of Canterbury, and two other divines, 
 into that kingdom, wath inftruftions to employ every 
 method to perfuade both the clergy and laity of his 
 majefty's fincere defire to promote the good of the 
 church, and of his zeal for the Proteftant rehglon. 
 Mr Calderwood did not affill; at the general affembly 
 held at -Glafgow June 8th 1610, in which lord Duh- 
 E bar 
 
C A L [ 34 ] C A L 
 
 Caldcr- bar prefided as commllfioner ; and it appears from his his offence, nor promife conformity for the future, he Caldr 
 wood, writings, that he looked upon every thing tranfaded retired to Holland, where, in 1623, he publifhed his II 
 in it as null and void. In May following, king James celebrated piece entitled Altare Damafcenum. Mr Cal- '^"'"^ 
 went to Scotland ; and 6n the 17th of June held a par- dei-wood having in the year 1624 been afflifted with 
 liament at Edinburgh : at that time the clergy met in a long fit of ficknefs, and nothing having been heard 
 one of the churches, to hear and advife with the bi- of him for fome time, one Mr Patrick Scot, as Cal- 
 fliops ; which kind of affembly, it feems, was contri- derwood himfelf informs us, took it for granted that 
 ved in order to refemble the EngHfh convocation. Mr he was dead ; and thereupon wrote a recantation in his 
 Calderwood was prefent at it, but declared publicly name, as if, before his deceafe, he had changed his- 
 that he did not take any fuch meetings to refemble a fentiments. This impofture being detedled, Scot went 
 convocation ; and being oppoied by Dr Whitford and over to Holland, and ftaid three weeks at Amfterdam, 
 Dr Hamilton, who were friends to the bifhops, he took where he made a diligent fearch for the author of Al- 
 ius leave of them in thefe words : " It is abfurd to fee tare Damafcenum, with a defign to have difpatched 
 men fitting in filks and fattins, and to cry poverty in him. But Calderwood had privately retii-ed into his 
 the kirk, when purity is departing." The parliament ovvn country, where he lived feveral years. Scot gave 
 proceeded in the mean while in the difpatch of bufinefs; out that the kinor had furnifhed him with the matter 
 and Mr Calderwood, with feveral other minifters, be- for the pretended recantation, and that he only put it 
 ing informed that a bill was depending to empower the in order. During his retirement, Mr Calderwood col- 
 king, with the advice of the archbifliops, biihops, and lefttd all the memorials relating to the ecclefiaftical af- 
 fuch a number of the miniftry as his Majefty fhould fairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the reforma- 
 think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters tion there down to the death of king James ; which 
 decent for the external poHcy of the church, not re- colleftioa is ilill preferved in the univerfity library of 
 pugnant to the word of God ; and that fuch conclu- Glafgow ; that which was publifhed under the title of 
 fious fhould have the ttrength and power of ecclefiafti- " The true hiilory of Scotland," is only an extraft 
 cal laws : againft tliis they protefted, for four reafons. from it. In the advertifement prefixed to the lart edi- 
 
 1 . Becaufe their church was fo perfed, that, inftead tion of his Altare Damafcenum mention is made of his 
 of needing reformation, it might be a pattern to others, being minifler of Pencaitland near Edinburgh in 1 638 ; 
 
 2. General affemblies, as now eftablifhed by law, and but we find nothing faid there, or any where elfe, of his 
 •which ought always to continue, might by this means death. 
 
 be overthrown. 3. Becaufe it might be a means of CALDRON, a large kitchen iitenfil, commonly- 
 creating fchifm,- and difliirb the tranquillity of the made of copper ; having a moveable iron handle, where- 
 church. 4. Becaufe they had received affurances, that by to hang it on the chimney-hook. The word is 
 no attempts fiiould be made to bring them to a confor- formed from the chaudron^ or rather the Latiij 
 
 mity with the church of England. They defired there- caldarlum. 
 
 fore, that, for thefe and other reafons, all thoughts of Boiling In Cjldrons^ (caMariis decoquere ), is a capl- 
 pafllng fuch a lav/ might be laid afide : but in cafe this tal puniihment fpoken of in the middle-age writers, 
 l)e not done, they proteft for themfelves and their bre- decreed to divers foi-ts of criminals, but chiefly to de- 
 thren who fhall adhere to them, that they can yield no bafers of the coin. One of the torments infli6led on 
 obedience to this law when it fhall be enaded, becaufe the ancient Chriilian martyrs, was boiling in caldrons . 
 it is deftruAive of the liberty of the church ; and there- of water, oil, &c. 
 
 fore fhall fubmit to fuch penalties, and think themfelves CALDWALL (Richard), a learned Englifh phy-- 
 oblige.d to undergo fuch punifliments, as may be inflic- fician, born in StafFordfhire about the year 151 3. He. 
 ted on them for difobeying that law. This proteft iludied phyfic in Brazen-Nofe college Oxford ; and 
 was figned by Mr Archibald Simfon on behalf of the was examined, admitted unto, and made cenfor of, the 
 members who fubfcribed another feparate roll, which college of phyficians at London, all in one day. Six 
 he kept for his juftification. This protefl was prefent- v/eeks after he was chofen one of the elects ; and in the 
 ed to the clerk regifter, who refufed to read it before year 1570, was made prefident of that college. Mr 
 the ilates in parliament. However, though not read, W ood tells us, that he v/rote feveral pieces in his pro-- 
 it had its efFe£l ; for although the bill had the confent fefiion ; but he does not tell iis what they v/cre, only 
 of parliament, yet the king thought fit to caufe it to be that he tranflated a book on the art of furgcry, written 
 laid afide, and not long after called a general affembly by one Huratio More, a Florentine phyfician. We 
 at St Andrew's. Soon after the parliament was dif- learn from Cambden, that Caldwall founded a chirurgi- 
 folved, and Mr Calderwood v/is fummoned to appear cal'lefture in the college of phyficiang, and endovired it 
 before the high-commiiTion court at St Andrew's, on with a handfome falary. He died in 1585. 
 the 8th of July foUov/ing, to anfwer for his muti- CALEA, in botany : A genus of the polygamia 
 nous and fcditlous behaviour. July loth, the king a;quahs order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of' 
 came t-o that city in perfon ; when Mr Calderwood, be- plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 ing called upoji, and refufing to comply v/ith what the 49th order, Comprjfiix. The receptacle is paleaceous, 
 king in perfon required of him, was committed to prifon, the pappus hairy, and the calyx imbricated. 
 Afterwards the privy council, according to the power CALEB, one of the deputies fent by the Ifraelites 
 exercifed by them at that time, direded him to ba- to take a view of the land of Canaan. He made a 
 nifh hi nr\fclf out of the king's dominions before Michael- good report of the country, and by this means revived 
 mas next; and not to return without hcence. Having the fpirits of the dejefted people ; on which account, 
 apphed to the king for a prorogation of his fentence he and Jofhua were the only perfons who, after their 
 without fuccefsj becaufe he would neither, acknowledge leaving Egypt, fettled in the land of Canaan. Caleb 
 
C A L 
 
 C 35 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 had, for his fliare, the mountains and the city of He- 
 bron, from which he drove three kings. Othoniel his 
 nephew having taken the city of Debir, Caleb gave 
 him his daughter Achfah in marriage ; and died, aged 
 1 14. 
 
 CALEDONIA, the ancient name of Scotland. 
 From the teftimonies of Tacitus, Dio, and Solinus, we 
 find, that the ancient Caledonia comprehended all that 
 country lying to the north of the rivers Forth and 
 Clyde.' In propox-ticn as the "^ilures or Cinibri advan- 
 ced towards the north, the Caledonians, being circum- 
 fcribed within narrower hmits, were forced to tranf- 
 migrate into the idands which crowd the weftern coails 
 of Scotland. It is in this period, probably, we ought 
 to place the firft great migration of the Eriti!h Gael 
 into Ireland ; that kingdom being much nearer to the 
 promontory of Galloway and Cantire, than many of 
 the Scottifh ifles are to the continent of North Bri- 
 tain. 
 
 To the country which the Caledonians pofleiTed, 
 they gave the name of Cael-doch; which is the only ap- 
 pellation the Scots, who fpeak the Gaelic language, 
 know for their own divifion of Britain. Cael-doch is 
 a compound, made up of Gael or Ca'el, the firft color 
 ny of the ancient Gauls who tranfmigrated into Bri- 
 tain, and doch, a diilrift or divifion of a country. 
 I'he Romans, by tranfpofing the letter / in Cael, and 
 by foftening into a Latin termination the ch of doch, 
 formed the well known name of Caledonia. 
 
 When the tribes of North Britain were attacked by 
 the Romans, they entered into affociations, tliat, by u- 
 niting their ftrength, they might be more able to re- 
 pel the common enemy. The particular name of that 
 tribe, which either its fuperior power or military repu- 
 tation placed at the head of the affociation, was the 
 general name given by the Romans to all the confede- 
 rates. Hence it is that the Mmata, who with other 
 tribes inhabited the diftrids of Scotland lying fouth- 
 ward of the frith, and the Caledonians, who inhabited 
 the weft and north-weft parts, have engroffed all the 
 glory which belonged in common, though in an infe- 
 rior deq:ree, to all the other nations fettled of old in 
 North Britain. It was for the fame reafon that |the 
 name of Mccata was entirely forgotten by foreign wri- 
 ters after the third century, and that of the Caledonians 
 themifelves but feldom mentioned after the fourth. 
 
 Britons, Caledonians, Mceattz, Barbarians, are the 
 names conftantly given to the old inhabitants of North 
 Britain, by Tacitus, Herodian, Dio, Spartian, Vopif- 
 cus, and other ancient writers. The fucceifors of thefe 
 Britons, Caledonians, Mceats, and Barbarians, are cal- 
 led Pifts, Scots, and Attacots, by fome Roman wri- 
 ters of the fourth century. 
 
 I'he origin of the appellation Scot! and Pi8i, intro- 
 Tluced by latter Roman authors, has occafioned much 
 ■controverfy among the antiquarians of thefe days. 
 The difpute feems now to be fully decided by fome 
 learned critics of the prefent century, whofe knowledge 
 of the Gaelic language aflifted their inveftigation. See 
 Scotland, Picts, and Highlanders. 
 
 Caledonia, the name of a fettlement made by the 
 'Scots on the weft fide of the gulph of Darien, in 1 698 ; 
 out of which they were ftarved at the requeft of the 
 Eaft-India company : for the Englilh government pro- 
 
 hibited the other colonies fending them any prOvIfions; Calecioftia. 
 fo they were obliged to leave it in 1 700. * ' " 
 
 Neiv Calf.vonia, an ifland in the fouth-fea, lately 
 difcovered by captain Cook, and, next to New Hol- 
 land and New Zealand, is the largeft ifland that hath 
 yet been difcovered ii) that fea. It extends from 19* 
 37. to 22. 30. S. Lat. and from 163. 37. to 167. 14. 
 E. Long. Its length from north-weft to fouth-eaft is 
 about 80 leagues; but its greateft breadth does not ex- 
 ceed ten leagues. This idand is diverfifiedby hills and 
 valleys of various fize and extent. From the hills ifhie 
 abundance of rivulets, wliich contribute to fertilize the 
 plains. Along its nor' h-eaft fhore the land is flat ; and 
 being well watered, ;u.d cultivated by the inhabitants 
 after their manner, i.'^peared to great advantage to cap* 
 tain Cook's people. Was it not, indeed, for thofe 
 fertile fpots on the plains, the whole country might be 
 called a dreary avajie : the mountains and higher parts 
 of the land are in general incapable of cultivation. 
 They confift chiefly of rocks, many of which are full 6f 
 mundic ; the httle foil that is upon them is fcorched 
 and burnt. up by the fun ; it is, however, Covered with 
 coarfe grafs and other plants, and here and there co- 
 vered with trees and fiirubs. The country in general 
 bears a great refemblance to thofe parts of New South 
 Wales wliich lie under the fame parallel of hititude. 
 Several of its natural prod aftions are the fame, and the 
 woods are without underwood as well as in that coun- 
 tiy. The whole coaft feems to be furrounded by - 
 reefs and flaoals, which render all accefs to it extreme- 
 ly dangerous ; but at the fame time guard the coafts 
 againft the attaeks of the wind and fea ; rendering it 
 eafily navigable along the coaft by canoes, and caufin^ 
 it abound with fi{h. Every part of the coaft feems to 
 be inhabited ; the plantations in the plains are laid out 
 with great judgment, and cultivated with much labour. 
 They begin their cultivation by fetting fire to the grafs, 
 &c. with which the ground is covered, but have no 
 notion of preferving its vigour by manure ; they, how- 
 ever, recruit it byletting it lie for fome years untouched. 
 On the beach was found a large irregular mafs of rock, 
 not lefs than a cube of ten feet, confifting of a clofe- 
 grained ftone fpeckled full of granates fomewhat bigger 
 than pins heads, from whence it feems probable that 
 fome valuable minerals may be found on this ifland. It 
 differs from all the other iflands yet difcovered in the 
 South Sea, by being entirely deftitute of volcanic pro- 
 ductions. Several plants of a new fpecies were found 
 hci'e ; and a few young i readfruit trees, not then fuf- 
 ficiently grown to bear fruit, feemed to have come up 
 without culture : plantains and fugar-canes are here 
 in fmall-quantity, and the cocoa-nut trees are fmall 
 and thinly planted. A new fpecies of pafiion-flower 
 was hkewife met with, which was never known to grow 
 wild any where but in America. Several Capuft (jMe- 
 LALEUCA ) trees were alfo found in flower. Mufquetos 
 here are very numerous. A great variety of birds were 
 feen of different clafles, which were for the moft part 
 entirely new ; particularly^ a beautiful fpecies of par- 
 rot before unknown to zoologifts. A new fpecies of 
 fiih, of the genus called by Linnaeus tetraodbn, was 
 caught here ; and its liver, v.-hich was very large, pre- 
 fented at fupper. Several fpecies of this genus being 
 reckoned poifonous, and the prefent fpecies being re- 
 E 2 mark ably 
 
C A L 
 
 C 36 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 Caledonia.^ markably ugly, Meff. Forfters hinted tlieir fufpicions 
 *~"'V"'~^ of its quality ; but the temptation of a fredi meal, and 
 the affurances of captain Cook that he had foi-merly 
 eaten this identical fort of fifli without harm, got the 
 better of tlieir fcruples, and they eat of it. Its oili- 
 nefs, however, though it had no other bad talle than 
 what proceeded from this, prevented them from taking 
 more than a morfel or two. In a few hours after they 
 had retired to reft, they were awakened by very alarm- 
 ing fymptoms, being all feized with an extreme giddi- 
 nefs ; their hands and feet were numbed, fo that they 
 were fcarcely able to crawl ; and a violent langour and 
 opprt'ffion feized them. Emetics -were adminiftered 
 Vv ith fome fuccefs, but fudorifics gave the greatell re- 
 lief. Some dogs who had eaten the remainder of the 
 liver were likewife taken ill ; and a pig which had eaten 
 the entrails died foon after, having fwelled to an un- 
 ufual fize. The effects of this poifon on the gentle- 
 men did not go entirely off in lefs than fix weeks. — • 
 Abundance of turtle was feen here. The natives had 
 not the leaft notion of goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, and 
 had not even a name for any of them. 
 
 The inhabitants are very flout, tall, and in genei-al 
 well proportioned; their features mild; their beards 
 and hair black, and ftrongly frizzled, fo as to ba 
 fomewhat woolly in fome individuals ; their colour is 
 fwarthy, or a dark chefnut brown. A few were feea 
 who meafured fix feet four inches. They are remark- 
 ably courteous, not at all addifted to pilfering and 
 ftealing ; in which charafter of honefty they are fin- 
 gular, all the other nations in the South Sea being re- 
 markably thievifh. Some wear their hair long, and tie 
 it up to the crown of their heads ; others fufFer only a 
 large lock to grow on each fide, which they tie up in 
 clubs ; many others, as well as all the women, wear it 
 cropt fhort. They make ufe of a kind of comb made 
 of fticks of hard wood, from feven to nine or ten inches 
 long, and about the thicknefs of knitting needles ; a 
 number of thefe, feldom exceeding 20, but generally 
 fewer, are fattened together at one end, parallel to and 
 near one tenth of an inch from each other ; the ends, 
 which are a little pointed, will fpread out or open hke 
 the fticks of a fan. Thefe combs they always wear in 
 their hair on one fide of their head. Some had a kind 
 of concave cylindrical MS black cap, which appeared 
 to be a great ornament among them, and was fuppofed 
 to be worn only by the chiefs and warriors. A large 
 Jheet of ftrong paper, whenever they got one in ex- 
 change,, was commonly appHed to this purpofe. The 
 men go naked ; only tying a ftring round their middle, 
 and another round their neck. A little piece of a 
 brown cloth made of the bark of a fig-tree, fometimes 
 tucked up to the belt, and fometimes pendulous, 
 fcarcely deferves the name of a covering ; nor indeed 
 does it feem at all intended for that purpofe. This 
 piece of cloth is fometimes of fuch a length, that the 
 extremity is faftened to the ftring round the neck ; to 
 this ftring they likewife hang fmall round beads of 
 a pale green nephritic ftone. Coarfe garments were 
 feen among them, made of a fort of matting ; but they 
 feemed never to wear them, except when in their ca- 
 noes and unemployed. The wonjen feemed to be in a 
 fervile ftate : they were the only perfons of the family 
 who had any employment, and feveral of them brought 
 bundles of fticks and fuel on tlieir back : thofe who 
 
 had children carried them on their backs in a kind of Calefloni*. 
 fatchel. The women alfo were feen to dig up the earth v 
 in order to plant it. They are in general of a dark 
 chefnut, and fometimes mahogany brown ; their fta- 
 ture middle-fized, fome being rather tall, and their 
 whole form rather ftout, and fomewhat clum.fy. Their 
 drefs is the moft disfiguring that can be imagined, and 
 gives them a thick fquat fiiape ; it is a fiiort petticoat 
 or fringe, confifting of filaments or little cords, about 
 eight inches long, wh.ta are fattened to u very long 
 ftring, which they have tied feveral times round their 
 waitt. The filaments, or little ropes, therefore, lie a- 
 bove each other in feveral layers, forming a kind of 
 thick thatch all round the body, but which does not 
 near cover the thigh : thefe filaments were fometimes 
 dyed black ; but frequently thofe on the outfide only 
 were of that colour, the reft being of a dirty grey. 
 There was not a fingle inttance, during the ttiip's ftay 
 in this ifland, of the women permitting any indecent 
 familiarity with an European : they took pleafure in 
 practifing the arts of a jilting coquette, but never be- 
 came abfolute wantons. The general ornam-ents of both 
 fexes are ear-rings o£ tortoife fhells ; necklaces, or amu- 
 lets, made both of ttiells and ftones; and bracelets made 
 of large fliells, which they wear above the elbows. 
 
 The houies, or huts, in New Caledonia, are circu- 
 lar, fomething like a bee-hive, and full as clofe and 
 warm ; the entrance is by a fmall door, or long fquare 
 hole, juft big enough to admit a man bent double: 
 the fide-walls are about four feet and a half high; but 
 the roof is lofty, and peaked to a point at the top, a- 
 bove which is a pott or ftick of wood, which is gene- 
 rally ornamented either with carving or fliells, or 
 both. The framing is of fmall fpars, reeds, &c. and 
 both fides and roof are thick, and clofe covered with 
 thatch made of coarfe long grafs. In the infide of the 
 houfe are fet up pofts, to which crofs fpars are faften- 
 ed, and platforms made, for the conveniency of laying 
 any thing on. Some houfes have two floors, one above 
 another; the floor is laid with dried grafs, and here 
 and there mats are fpread for the principal people to fit 
 or fleep on. In thefe houfes there was no paflage for 
 the fmoke but through the door; they were intolerably 
 fmoky, and fo hot as to be infupportable to. thofe 
 unaccuftomed to them : probably the fmoke is intend- 
 ed to drive out the mufquetos which fwarm here. They 
 commonly eredt two or three of thefe huts near each 
 other under a clufter of lofty fig-trees, whofe leaves are 
 impervious to the rays of the fun. 
 
 The canoes ufed here are very heavy clumfy veflels ; 
 they are made of two trees hollowed out, having a 
 raifed gunnel about two inches high, and clofed at each 
 end with a bulk head of the fame height ; fo that the 
 whole is like a long fquare trough about three feet 
 ftiorter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus 
 fitted are faftened to each other about three feet afun- 
 der, by means of crofs-fpars, which projed about a 
 foot over each fide. Over thefe is laid a deck or heavy 
 platform made of plank and fmall round fpars, on which 
 they have a fire-hearth, and generally a fire burning ; 
 they are navigated by one or two latteen fails, extended 
 to a fmall latteen yard, the end of which is fixed in a 
 notch or hole in the deck. 
 
 Notwithftanding the inoffenfive difpofition of the inr 
 habitants of New Caledonia, they are well provided 
 
 witli. 
 
C A L 
 
 [ 37 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 Caledonia with offenfive weapons ; as clubs, fpears, darts, and 
 „ , fling-s for throwine: ftones. Their clubs are about two 
 
 ■ ^ I ' feet and an half long, and varioufly formed ; fome like 
 a fcythe, others like a pick-ax ; fome have a head like 
 a hawk, and others have round heads ; but all are 
 neatly made ; many of their darts and fpears are no lefs 
 neat, and ornamented with carvings. The flings are 
 as fimple as polTible ; but tliey take fome pains to form 
 the {tones that they ufe into a proper lhape, which is 
 fomething like an egg, fuppofing both ends to be 
 like the fmall one. They drive the dart by the af- 
 fiftance of fliort cords knobbed at one end and looped 
 at the other, called by the ieamen beckets. Thefe 
 contain a quantity of red wool taken from the vam- 
 pyre, or great Indian bat. -Bows and arrows are wholly 
 unknown among them. 
 
 Their language bears no affinity to that fpoken in 
 the other South-fea iHands, the word arrekee and 
 one or two more excepted. This is the more extra- 
 ordinaiy, as different dialects of one language were 
 fpoken not only in the eafterly iflands, but at New 
 Zealand. 
 
 A mufical inflrument, a kind of whiflle, was procu- 
 red here. It was a little pollfhed piece of brown wood 
 about two inches long, fhaped hke a kind of bell, tho' 
 apparently folid, with a rope fixed at the fmall end ; 
 two holes were made in it near the bafe, and another 
 near the infertion of the rope, all which communicated 
 with each other ; and by blowing in the uppermoft, a 
 fhrill found like whiflling was produced : no other in- 
 flrument was feen among them that had the leail re- 
 lation to mufic. 
 
 Many of the New Caledonians were feen with pro- 
 digioufly thick legs and arms, which feemed to be af- 
 fefted with a kind of leprofy ; the fwelling was found 
 to be extremely hard, but the fliln was not alike harfh 
 and fcaly in all thofe who were afHicled with the difor- 
 der. The preternatural expanfion of the arm or leg 
 did not appear to be a great inconvenience to thofe who 
 fuffered it ; and they feemed to intimate that they 
 very rarely felt any pain in it ; but in fome the diforder 
 began to form blotches, which are marks of a great de- 
 gree of virulence. 
 
 Here they bury their dead in the ground. The 
 grave of a chief who had been flain in battle here re- 
 fembled a large mole-hill, and was decorated with 
 fpears, darts, paddles, &c. all ftuck upright in the 
 ground round about it. Lieutenant Pickerfgill was^ 
 fhowed a chief whom they named Tea-booma, and fly- 
 led thtir arrekee or king; but nothing further is known 
 of their government, and nothing at all of their reli- 
 gion. 
 
 CALEFACTION, the produftion of heat in a 
 body from the a£lion of fire, or that impulfe impref- 
 fed by a hot body on others around it. This word is 
 ufed in pharmacy, by way of diilindlion from coiiion, 
 which implies boiling; whereas calefadlion is only heat- 
 ing a thing. 
 
 CALENBERG, a caftle of Germany, in the duchy 
 of Brunfwic and principality of Calenberg. It is feated 
 on the river Leine, and is 1 5 miles fouth of Hanover. 
 It is fubjeft to the duke of Brunfwic Lunenburg, elec- 
 tor of Hanover, and king of Great Britain. E. Long, 
 y. 43. N. Lat. 52. 20. 
 
 CalenberG; a principality of Lower Saxony, and 
 
 Calenders. 
 
 one of the three parts of the duchy of Brunfwic, is Calendar 
 bounded on the north by the duchy of Verden, on the 
 eafl by the principality of Zell, on the fouth by the 
 principalities of Grubenhagen and Wolfenbuttle, and 
 on the well by Wellphalia. It belongs to the ele£lor 
 of Hanover. 
 
 CALENDAR, in aftronomy and chronology. See 
 Kalendar. 
 
 Calendar of prifoners, in law, a lift of all the pri- 
 foners names in the cuilody of each refpeftive fheriff*. • Seethe 
 
 CALEND ARIUM Flor^, in botany, a calendar article j 
 containing an exa6t regiller of the refpeftive times {ri^'^"^""' ' 
 which the plants of any given province or chmate ger- 
 minate, expand, and fhed their leaves and flowers, or 
 ripen and diiperfe their feeds. For particulars on this 
 curious fubjedl, fee the articles Defoliatio, Efflo- 
 REscENTiA, Frondescentia, Fru cth scenti A, and 
 Germinatio. 
 
 CALENDER, a machine ufed in manufaftories to 
 prefs certain woollen and filken fluffs and linens, to- 
 make them fmooth, even, and gloffy, or to give them 
 waves, or water them, as may be feen in Mohairs and 
 tabbies. This inflrument is compofed of two thick 
 cylinders or rollers, of very hard and well polifhed 
 wood, round which the fluffs to be calendered are 
 wound : thefe rollers are placed crofs-wife between two 
 vety thick boards, the lower ferving as a fixed bafe, and 
 the upper moveable by means of a thick fcrew with a 
 rope fattened to a fpindle which makes its axis : the 
 uppermoft board is loaded with large ftones weighing 
 20,ooolb. or more. At J*aris they have an extraordi- 
 nary machine of this kind, called the royal calender^ 
 made by order of M. Colbert. The lower table or plank 
 is made of a block of fmooth marble, and the upper 
 is lined- with a plate of polifhed copper. — The alternate 
 motion of the upper board fometimes one way and'- 
 fometimes another, together with the prodigious weight 
 laid upon it, gives the fluffs their glofs and fmoothnefs 
 or gives them the waves, by making the cylinders on 
 which they are put roll with great force over the un- 
 dermoft board. When they would put a roller from 
 under the calender, they only incline the undermoft 
 board of the machine. The dreffing alone, with the 
 many turns they make the ftuffs and linens undergo 
 in the calender, gives the waves, or waters them, as 
 the workmen call it. Ic is a miftake to think, as fome 
 have afferted, and Mr Chambers among others, that, 
 they ufe rollers with a fhallow indenture or engraving 
 cut into them. 
 
 CALENDER of Monteith, a diftridl in the 
 fouth-weft corner of Perthfhire in Scotland, from which 
 a branch of the ancient family of Livingften had the 
 title of Earl. The chief feat of the family near Fal- 
 kirk is alfo called Calender.- Both eflate and title 
 were forfeited' for being engaged in the rebellion 
 1715. 
 
 CALENDERS, a fort of Mahometan friars, fo call- 
 ed f rom Santon Calender! their founder. This Santon 
 went bare-headed, without a fhirt, and with the flcin of 
 a wild beaft thrown over his fhoulders. He wore a 
 kind of apron before, the ftrings of which were adorn- 
 ed with counterfeit precious ftonesi His difciples are 
 rather a fe£t of Epicureans than a fociety of rcligiousk 
 They honour a tavern as much as they do a mofquc j 
 and think they pay as aeceptable worlhip to God b-jj 
 
 the. 
 
C A L 
 
 Calends the free ufe of his creatures, as others do by the great- 
 'I eft aufterities and afts of devotion. They are called, in 
 
 [ 38 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 Ciilenture. 
 
 Perfn and Arabia, Ahdals, or AbMlat, i. e. perfons 
 confecvated to the honour and fervice of God. Their 
 garment is a fingle coat, made up cf a variety of pie- 
 ces, and quilted like a rug. They preach in the mar- 
 ket- places, and live upon what their auditors beftovir on 
 them. They are generally very vicious perfons ; for 
 which rcafon they are not admitted into any houfes. 
 CALENDS, in Roman antiquity. See Kalends. 
 CALENDULA, theMARicooo: A genus of;j|[ie 
 polygamia neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngehe- 
 fia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 49th order, Comp'Jifa^. The receptacle is 
 naked, there is no pappus, the calyx is polyphyllous 
 and equal, the feeds of the dilic membranaceous. Of 
 this there are eight fpecies, none of them natives of 
 Europe. The common kirfd is fo wf It knovirn ' as to 
 need no definition ; and none of the others merit any, 
 except the fruticofa, which hath lately been introdu- 
 ced from the Cape of Good Hope. It hath a (lender 
 fhrubby perennial ftalk, which rifes to the height of 
 feven or eight feet, but requires fupport : this fends 
 out a great number of weak branches from the bottom 
 to the top, which hang downward unlefs they are fup- 
 ported : they are garnifhed with oval leaves, having 
 ftrort flat footllalks ; thefe are of a fnining green co- 
 lour on their upper fide, but paler underneath : the 
 flowers come out at the end of the branches, on fnort 
 naked footftalks. This is eafdy propagated by cut- 
 tings; which may be planted at any time in fummer in 
 a fliady border, or otherwife fliaded with mats in the 
 heat of the day : in five or fix weeks thefe will have 
 taken root, when they (hould be feparately taken up, 
 each put in a feparate pot, and placed in the fiiade till 
 they have taken frefh root ; then they may be placed, 
 with other hardy exotic plants, in a fheltered fituation, 
 where they may remain till the froft begins, when the)'- 
 muft; be removed into the green-houfe, placing them 
 near the windows, that they may enjoy the free air ; 
 for this plant only requires protection from froft. The 
 feeds of the common fort maybe fown in March or A- 
 pril, where the plants are to remain ; and will require 
 no other culture but to keep them clear of weeds, and 
 to thin the plants where they are too thick. The 
 flowers of the common marigold are fuppofed to be a- 
 perient and attenuating, as alfo cardiac, alexipharmac, 
 and fudorific ; they are principally celebrated in uterine 
 obftruftions, the jaundice, and for throwing out the 
 fmall-pox. Their fenfible qualities, however, give Httle 
 foundation for thefe virtues: they have fcarce any tafte, 
 and have no confiderable fmell. The leaves of the 
 plant difcover a vifcid fweetiflmefs, accompanied with a 
 more durable faponaccous pungency and warmth ; thefe 
 feem capable of anfwering fome ufeful purpofes as a 
 fiimulating, aperient, and antifcorbutic medicine. 
 
 CALENTIUS (Ehfius), a Neapohtan poet and 
 profe author. He was preceptor to Frederic the fon 
 of Ferdinand king of Naples, and the earlieil writer on 
 the illegality of putting criminals to death, except for 
 murder. He died in 1503. 
 
 CALENTURE, a feverifh diforder incident to 
 failors in hot countries ; the principal fymptom of 
 which is their imagining the fea to be green fields : 
 •iience, attempting to walk abroad in thefe imaginary 
 
 places of delight, they are frequently loft. Vomiting* Cafepia 
 bleeding, a fpare diet, and the neutral falts, are re- 
 commended in this diforder ; a fingle vomit commonly j 
 removing the delirium, and the cooling medicines com- 
 pleting the cure. 
 
 CALEPIN (Ambrofius), an Auguftin monk of Ca- 
 lepio, Avhence he took his name, in the i6th centur}'. 
 He is author of a dictionary of eight languages, fincc 
 augmented by Pafferat and others. 
 
 CALES (anc. geog.), a municipal city of fome 
 note in Campania, at no great diftance from Cafili- 
 num. The epithet Calenus is. by Horace and Juvenal 
 applied to a generous wine which the ten-itory pro- 
 duced. 
 
 CALETES (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Cehi- 
 ca, on the confines of Belgica, fituated between the fea 
 and the Sequana. Now called le Pah ck Caux, in 
 Noi-mandy. ^ 
 
 CALETURE, a fort on the ifland of Ceylon, at 
 the mouth of a river of the fame name. The Dutch 
 becilme matters of it in 1655 ; but were afterwards ob- 
 hged to leave it. E. Long. 80. 5 1. N. Lat. 6. 38. 
 
 CALF, in zoology, the young of the ox kind. 
 
 There are two ways of breeding calves that ai^ in- 
 tended to be reared. The one is to let the calf run , 
 about with its dam all the year round ; which is the 
 method in the cheap breeding countries, and is gene- 
 rally allowed to make the bell cattle. The other is to 
 take them from the dam after they have fucked about 
 a fortnight : they are then to be taught to drink flat 
 milk, which is to be made but juft warm for them, it 
 being very dangerous to give it them too hot. The 
 bcft time of weaning calves is from January to May : 
 they fliould have milk for 12 weeks after; and a fort- 
 night before that is left off, water fliould be mixed with 
 the milk in larger and larger quantities. When the 
 calf has been fed on milk for about a month, little 
 whifps of liay fiiould be placed all about him in cleft 
 fl:icks to induce him to eat. In the beginning of A- 
 pril they firould be turned out to grafs ; only for a few 
 days they fliould be taken in for the night, and have 
 milk and water given them : the fame may alfo be gi- 
 ven them in a pail fometimes in the field, till they are 
 fo able to feed themfelves that they do not regard it. 
 The grafs they are turned into muft not be too rank, 
 but fliort and fweet, that they may like it, and yet get 
 it wath fome labour. Calves fliould always be weaned 
 at grafs ; for if it be done with hay and water, they of- 
 ten grow big-belly'd on it, and are apt to rot. "When 
 thofe among the males are felefted which are to be kept 
 as bulls, the reft fliould be gelt for oxen : the fooner 
 the better. Between 10 and 20 days is a proper age. 
 About London almoft all the calves are fatted for the 
 butcher. The reafon of this is, that there is a good mar- 
 ket for them ; and the lands there are not fo profitable 
 to breed upon as in cheaper countries. The way to- 
 make calves fat and fine is, the keeping them very 
 clean ; giving them frefli litter every day ; and the 
 hanging a large chalk-ftone in fome corner where they 
 can eafily get at it to lick it, but where it is out of the 
 way of being fouled by their dung and urine. The 
 coops are to be placed fo as not to have too much fun 
 upon them, and fo high above the ground that the u- 
 rine may run off. They alfo bleed them once when 
 they are a month old, and a fecond time before they 
 
 3 
 
CalF. 
 
 C A L [ 
 
 Ikill them ; which is a great addition to the beauty and 
 iwhitenefs of their fiefh : the bleeding is by fonme re- 
 peated much oftener, but this is fufEcient. Calves are 
 wery apt to be loofe in their bowels ; which waftes and 
 wery much injures them. The remedy is to give them 
 tchalk fcraped among milk, pouring it down witli a 
 Uiorn. If this does not fucceed, they give them bole 
 armenic in large dofes, and ufe the cold bath ev^y 
 nnorning. If a cow will not let a ilrange calf fuck her, 
 Ithe common method is to rub both her nofe and the 
 (calf's with a little brandy ; this generally reconciles 
 ithem after a few fmellings. 
 
 Golden C.1LF, an idol fet up and worfhipped by the 
 Ifraelites at the foot of Mount Sinai in their paffage 
 thi-ough the wlldernefs to the land of Canaan. Our 
 ^verfion makes Aaron faftiion this calf with a graving 
 !tool after he had caft it in a mould : the Geneva tranf- 
 ilation makes him engrave it firft, and caft it afterwards. 
 'Others, with more probabihty, render the whole verfe 
 ^thus ; '* And Aaron received them {the golden ear- 
 irings), and tied them up in a bag, and got them caft 
 iinto a molten calf;" w^iich verfion is authorifed by the 
 'different fenfes of the word tzur, which fignifies to tie 
 up or bind, as well as to fliape or form ; and of the 
 word cherret, which is ufed both for a graving tool 
 and a bag. Some of the ancient fathers bave been of 
 'Opinion that this idol had only the face of a calf, and 
 •the ftiape of a man from the neck downwards, in imi- 
 ^tation of the Egyptian Ifis. Others have thought it 
 was only the head of an ox without a body. But the 
 unoft general opinion is, that it was an entire calf in 
 jimitation of the Apis worftiipped by the Egyptians ; 
 iamong whom, no doubt, the Ifraelites had acquired 
 ttheir propenfity to idolatry. This calf Mofes is faid to 
 Hiave iurnt with JitSy reduced to powder, and ftrewed 
 Tppon the water which the people were to drink. How 
 Tthis could be accompliihed hath been a queftion. Moft 
 people have thought, that as gold is indeftrudlible, it 
 could only be burnt by the miraculous power of God ; 
 ibut M. Stahl conjeficures that Mofes diflblved it by 
 . jneans of liver of fulphur*. The Rabbins tell us that 
 the people were made to drink of this water in order to 
 diftinguifh the idolaters from the reft ; for that as foon 
 .as they had drunk of it, the beards of the former turn- 
 ted red. The cabbahfts add, that- the calf weighed 
 1 25 quintals ; which they gather from the Hebrew 
 word maffehah, whofe numerical letters make 125. 
 
 CjLF-Skms, in the leather manufafture, are prepared 
 and dreffed by the tanners, flfinners, and curriers, who 
 fell them for the ufe of the Ihoe-makers, faddlers, book- 
 hinders, and other artificers, who employ them in their 
 feveral raanufa£lures. 
 
 CAir-Slln drejjed tn fumnchy denotes the flcin of this 
 animal curried black on the hair fide, and dyed of an 
 orange colour on the flefti fide, by means of fumach, 
 . chiefly ufed in the making of belts. 
 
 The Englifti calf-flcin is much valued abroad, and 
 the commerce thereof very confiderable in France and 
 other countries; where divers attempts have been made 
 to imitate itj but hitherto in vain. What is Uke to 
 biafBe all endeavours for imitating the Englifh calf in 
 France is, the fmallnefs and weaknefs of the calves 
 about Paris ; w^hich at fifteen days old are not fo big 
 as the Englifh ones when they come into the world. 
 
 SaarCjir. See Pho,ca, . 
 
 39 ] c A L 
 
 CALI, a town of Popayan in South America, feat* 
 
 ed in a valley of the fame name on the riveV Cauca. 
 The governor of the province ufually refides there. W. 
 Long. 78. 5. N. Lat. 3. 15. 
 
 CALIBER, or Caliper, properly denotes the dia- 
 meter of any body ; thus we fay, two columns of the 
 fame caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the cali- 
 ber of a bullet, &c. 
 
 C ALUiKR-CompaJfcs ■> a fort of compaffes made with 
 arched legs to take the diameter of round or fw^elUng 
 bodies. See Compasses. 
 
 Caliber-compalTes, are chiefly ufed by gunners, for 
 taking the diameters of the feveral parts of a piece of 
 ordnance, or of bombs, bullets, &c. Their legs are 
 therefore circular ; and move on an arch of brafs, v.'here- 
 on is marked the inches and half inches, to fhow how 
 far the points of the compaffes ai-e opened afunder. 
 
 Some are alfo made for taking the dianleter of the 
 bore of a gun or mortar. 
 
 The gangers alfo fometimes ufe calibers, to em- 
 brace the two heads of any caflc, in order to find its . 
 length. 
 
 The calibers ufed by carpenters and joiners, is a piece 
 of board notched triangular-wife in the middle for the 
 taking of meafure. 
 
 CALiBER-Rukt or Gunner's Cailipers^ is an inftru- • 
 ment wherein a right line is fo divided as that the firft 
 part being equal to the diameter of an iron or leaden . 
 ball of one pound weighty the other parts are to the 
 firft as the diameters of balls of two, three, four, &c. 
 , pounds are to the diameter of a ball of one pound. 
 The caliber is ufed, by engineers, from the weight of 
 the ball given, to determine its diameter or caliber, or 
 vice verfa. 
 
 The gunner's callipers conlift of two thin plates of ' 
 brafs joined by a rivet, fo as to move quite round each 
 other : its length from the centre of the -joint is be- 
 tween fix iftches and a foot, and its breadth from one 
 to two inches ; that of; the moft convenient fize is . 
 about nine inches long. Many feales, tables, and pro- 
 portions, &c. may be introduced on this inftrument ; 
 but none are effential to it, except thofe for taking the 
 , calibt-r of fhot and cannon, and for meafuring the mag- 
 nitude of faliant and entering angles. The moft com- . 
 plete callipers is exhibited Plate CXII. the fui'niture 
 and ufe of which we fhall now briefly defcribe. Let 
 the four faces of this inftrument be diftinguiflied by 
 the letters A, B, C, D : A and D confift of a circular 
 head and leg; B and C confift only of a leg. 
 
 On the circular head adjoining to the leg of the face > 
 -A. are divifior.s denominated Jloot diameters ; which , 
 fhow the diftance in inches and tenths of an inch of the 
 points of the callipers when they are opened ; fo that 
 if a ball not exceeding ten inches be introduced be- 
 tween them, the bevil edge E marks its diameter a- 
 mong thefe divifions. 
 
 On the circular bevil part E of the face B is a fcale • 
 of divifions diftinguifhed by /b. lueight of irm JJjoL , 
 When the diameter of any ftiot is taken between the 
 points of the caUipers, the inner edge of the leg A 
 fhows its weight in avoirdupoife pounds, provided it he 
 lb. 1, I, 2, 3, 4, 5^, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 26, ' 
 32, 36, or 42 ; the figures neareft the bevil edge an-., 
 iwering to the fhort lines in the fcale, and thofe be- 
 hind them £0 the longer ftrokes. This fcale is con- 
 
 ,furua<;a.- 
 
 Call",' 
 
 Calibef, 
 
C A L 
 
 [ 40 1 
 
 C A L 
 
 ll'oer. ftrucled on tlie following geometrical theorem, viz. 
 "V— that the weights of fpheres are as the cubes of their 
 diameters. 
 
 On the lower part of the circular head of the face 
 A is a fcale of divifions marked liores of guns ; for the 
 ufe of which, the legs of the callipers are flipped acrofs 
 each other, till the fteel points touch the concave fur- 
 face of the gun in its greateft breadth ; then the bevil 
 edge F of the face B will cut a divifion in the fcale 
 fiiowing the diameter of the bore in inches and tenths. 
 
 Within the fcales of Jhot and bore diameters on the 
 circular part of A, are divifions marlied pounJers : the 
 inner figures 4, i^, j?, sit 8, 12, 18, 26, 36, corre- 
 fpond to the longeft lines ; and the figures i, 2, 4, 6, 
 9, 16, 24, 32, 42, "to the fliort ftrokes. When the 
 bore of a gun h taken between the points of the calli- 
 pers, the bevil edge F will either cut or be near orte of 
 t'hefe divifions, and fiiow the weight of iron-fiiot pro- 
 per for that gun. 
 
 On the upper half of the circular head of the face A 
 are three concentric fcales of degrees ; the outer fcale 
 confining of 180 degrees numbered from right to left, 
 to, 20, &c. the middle numbered the contrary way," 
 and the outer fcale beginning ^t the middle with o, 
 and numbered on each fide to 90 degrees. Thefe 
 fcales ferve to take the quantity of an angle, either 
 entering or faliant. For an entering or internal angle, 
 apply the legs of the callipers fo that its outward edges 
 coincide with the legs of the given angle, the degree 
 cut by the bevil edge F in the outer fcale fhows the 
 meafure of the angle fought : for a faliant or external 
 angle, flip the legs of the callipers acrofs each other, 
 fo that their outward edges may coincide with the 
 legs forming the angle, and the degree marked on the 
 middle fcale by the bevil edge E will (how the meafure 
 of the angle required. The inner fcale will ferve to 
 determine the elevation cf cannon and mortars, or of 
 any oblique plane. Let one end of a thread be fixed 
 into the notch on the plate B, and any weight tied to 
 the other end : apply the ftraight fide of the plate A to 
 the fide of the body whofe inclination is fought ; hold 
 it in this pofition, and move the plate B, till the thread 
 falls upon the line near the centre marked Perp. Then 
 will the bevil edge F cut the degrees on the inner fcale, 
 ftiowing the inclination of that body to the horizon. 
 
 On the face C near the point of the callipers is a 
 little table flio wing -the proportion of troy and avoirdu- 
 poife weights, by which one kind of weight may be 
 eafily reduced into another. 
 
 Near the extreme of the face D of the callipers are 
 two tables fhov/ing the proportion between the pounds 
 v/elght of London and Paris, and alfo between the 
 lengths of the foot meafure of England and France. 
 
 Near the extreme on the face A is a table contain- 
 ing four rules of the circle and fphere ; and geometri- 
 cal figures with numbers annexed to them : the firll is 
 a circle including the proportion in round numbers of 
 y the diameter to its circumference ; the fecond is a cir- 
 cle infcribed in a fquare, and a fquare within that cir- 
 cle, and another circle in the inner fquare : the numbers 
 28, 22, above this figure exhibit the proportion of the 
 outward fquare to the area of the infcribed circle ; and 
 the numbers 14, it, below it fhow the proportion be- 
 t\veen the area of the infcribed fquare and the area of 
 ks infcribed circle. The third is a cube infcribed in a 
 
 ,N^6f. 
 
 fphere ; aud the number 894- fliows that a cube of iron, 
 infcribed in a fphere of 12 inches in diameter, weighs 
 89-5-. The fourth is a fphere in a cube, and the num- i_ 
 ber 243 exprefTes the weight in pounds of a fphere 
 infcribed in a cube whofe fide is 1 2 inches : the fifth 
 reprefents a cylinder and cone of one foot diameter and 
 height: the number in the cylinder fliows, that an iron 
 cylinder of that diameter and height weighs 364.5 lb. 
 and the number 12 1. 5 in the cone exprefies the weight 
 of a cone, the diameter of whofe bafe is 1 2 inches, and 
 of the fame height: the fixth figure fliows that an iron 
 cube, whofe fide is 1 2 inches, weighs 464 lb. and that 
 a fquare pyramid of iron, whofe bafe is a fquare foot 
 and height 12 inches, weighs 154^ lb. The numbers 
 which have been hitherto fixed to the four laft figures 
 were not ftriftly true ; and therefore they have been 
 correcled in the figure here referred to ; and by thefe 
 the figures on any inflirument of this kind flxould be 
 correfted likewife. 
 
 On the leg B of the callipers, is a table fl^iowlng the 
 weights of a cubic inch or foot of various bodies in 
 pounds avoirdupoife. 
 
 On the face D of the circular iisad of the caUipers 
 is a table contained between five concentric fegments 
 of rings : the inner one marked Gmis fliows the nature 
 of the gun or the weight of ball it carries ; the two 
 next rings contain the quantity of powder ufed for 
 proof and fervice to brafs guns, and the two outermoft 
 rings fiiow the quantity for proof and fervice in iron 
 Gannon. 
 
 On -the face A is a table exhibiting the method of 
 computing the number of jhol or Jhelh in a triangular, 
 fquare, or redlangular pile. Near this is placed a 
 table containing the principal rules relative to the fall 
 of bodies^ exprefled in an algebraic manner : nearer the 
 centre we have another table of rules for raifing water, 
 calculated on the fuppofition, that one horfe is equal 
 in this kind of labour to five men, and that one man 
 will raife a hogfliead of water to eight feet of height 
 in one minute, and work at that rate for fome hours, 
 N. B. Hogflieads are reckoned at fixty gallons. 
 
 Some of the leading principles in gunnery, relating 
 to Jhoot'mg in cannon and mortars, are exprefled on the 
 face B of the callipers. Befides the articles already 
 enumerated, the fcales ufually marked on the feftor 
 pre laid down on this infl;rument : thus, the line of 
 inches is placed on the edge of the callipers, or on 
 the ftraight borders of the faces C, D : the logarithmic 
 fcales of numbers, fines, verfed fines, and tangents, 
 are placed along thefe faces near the ftraight edges : 
 the line of lines is placed on the fame faces in an an* 
 gular pofition, and marked Lin. The lines of plains 
 or fuperfices are alfo exhibited on the faces C and D, 
 tending towards the centre, and marked Plan. Fi* 
 nally, the lines of folids are laid on the fame faces 
 tending towards the centre, and diftinguiflied by Sol. 
 
 CALICOULAN, or Quillon, a town of Afia, in 
 the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of Malabar, and in the 
 peninfula on this fide the Ganges, where the Dutch 
 have a faftory. E. Long. 75. 21. N. Lat. 9. 5, 
 
 CALICUT, a kingdom of India, on this fide the 
 Ganges, upon the coaft of Malabar. It is about 63 
 miles long, and as much broad. It has many woods, 
 rivers, and marfliea, and is very populous ; but does 
 not produce much corn, abundance of rice being im- 
 2 ported 
 
 (1 
 
 Cf.iicu'-, 
 
c 
 
 Calicut ported from Canara. 
 
 ■"al forma fandy, and produces a number of cocoa-trees. 
 
 '- The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms 
 of a very good quality. They have likewife timber for 
 building, white and yellow fanders, caflia lignea, caf- 
 fia fiftula, nux vomica, and cocculus indicus. The 
 •woods abound with parrots and monkeys, as well as 
 different kinds of game. They have alfo plenty of 
 fifti, feveral forts of medicinal drugs, and their moun- 
 tains produce iron. The famorin, or king, of Calicut, 
 was once mailer of all the coaft of Malabar ; but at 
 his death, he left it by will among four of his nephews. 
 He who governs Calicut has a palace of ftone, and 
 there is fome appearance of grandeur about his court. 
 He carries on a confiderable trade, which makes the 
 people of Calicut richer than their neighbours. In 
 former times they had feveral ftrange cultoms, fome 
 of which are ftill kept up; particularly the famorin's 
 wife muft be firft enjoyed by the high prieft, who may 
 have her three nights if he pleafes. The nobles per- 
 mit the other priefts to take the fame liberty, but the 
 lower people cannot have that honour. A woman may 
 marry a number of hufbands ; each of whom has her 
 ten days or more by turns, as they agree among them- 
 felves ; and provides her all things necelTary during 
 that time. When Ihe proves with child, fhe names 
 the father ; who, after the child is weaned, takes care 
 of its education. Thefe people have no pens, ink, 
 or paper ; but write with a bodkin on flags that grow 
 by the fides of the rivers. By this means the letters 
 are in fome fenfe engraved ; and fo tough are the 
 fla^s, that they will laft for a great number of years. 
 This was the firft land difcovered by the Portuguefe in 
 1498. 
 
 Calicut, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of that 
 name on the coaft of Malabar. It contains a great 
 number of mean low houfes, each of which has a gar- 
 den. The Englifti had a factory here, but it is remo-. 
 ved to Tillcherry. E. Long. 76.4. N. Lat. 11. 21. 
 
 CALID^ plantjE (from c^i/or heat) ; plants that 
 are natives of warm climates. Such are thofe of the 
 Eaft Indies, South America, .Egypt, and the Canary 
 Iflands. Thefe plants, fays Linnxnis, will bear a de- 
 gree of heat which is as 40 on a fcale in which the 
 freezing point is o, and 100 the heat of boihng water. 
 In the loth degree of cold they ceafe to grow, lofe 
 their leaves, become barren, are fuffocated, and perifh. 
 
 CALIDUCT, in antiquity, a kind of pipes or ca- 
 nal difpofed along the walls of houfes or apartments, 
 ufed by the ancients for conveying heat to feveral re- 
 mote parts of the houfe from one common furnace. 
 
 ^ CALIFORNIA, the moft northerly of all the Spa- 
 nifti dominions on the continent of America, is fome- 
 timos diftinguifhed by the name of Netu Alh'inn, and 
 the IJlas Carab'iras : but the moft ancient appellation is 
 Cai'ijornia ; a word probably owing to fome accident, 
 or to fome words fpoken by the Indians and mifunder- 
 ftood by the Spaniards. For a long time California 
 was thought to be an ifland ; but Father Caino, a Ger- 
 man Jefuit, difcovered it to be a peninfula joining to the 
 coaft of New Mexico and the fouthern parts of Ame- 
 rica. This peninfula extends from Cape St Sebaftian, 
 lying in north latitude 43, 30. to Cape St Lucar which 
 lies in north latitude 22. 32. It is divided from New 
 Mexico by the gulph, or as fome call it the lake, of 
 
 Vol. IV. Part L 
 
 A L [ 4' 1 C A L 
 
 The land along the fea-coaft is California, or VmnlUon Sea, on the eaft ; on the north, California. 
 
 by that part of the continent of North America which 
 
 is leaft known ; and on the weft and fouth, by the 
 Pacific Ocean or great South Sea. The coafts, efpe- 
 cially towards the Vermilion Sea, are covered with in- 
 habited iflands, on fome of which the Jefuits have 
 eftabliflied fettlements, fuch as St Clement, Paxaros, 
 St Anne, Cedars (fo called from the great number of 
 thefe trees it produces), St Jofeph, and a multitude of 
 others. But the iflands beft known are three lying oft' 
 Cape St Lucar, towards the Mexican coaft. Thefe are 
 called Les Tres Marias, " the three Maries." They 
 are but fmall, have good wood and water, fait pits, and 
 abundance of game ; therefore the Englifli and French 
 pirates have fometimes wintered there, when bound on 
 cruizes in the South Seas. 
 
 As California lies altogether within the temperate 
 zone, the natives are neither chilled with cold nor 
 fcorched with heat ; and indeed the improvements in 
 agriculture made by the Jefuits afford ftrong proofs of 
 the excellency of the climate. In fome places the air 
 is extremely hot and dry ; and the earth wild, rugged, 
 and barren. In a countiy ftretching about 800 miles in 
 length, there muft be confiderable variations of foil and 
 climate ; and indeed we find, from good authority, that 
 California produces fome of the moft beautiful lawns, 
 as well as many of the moft inhofpitable defarts, in the 
 univerfe. Upon the whole, although California is ra- 
 ther rough and craggy, we are affured by the Jefuit 
 Vinegas, and other good writers, that with due culture 
 it furniflies every neceffary and conveniency of life j 
 and that, even where the atmofphere is hottell, vapours 
 rifing from the fea, and difperfed by pleafant breezes, 
 render it of a moderate temperature. 
 
 The peninfula of California is now ftocked with all 
 forts of domeftic animals known in Sapin and Mexico. 
 Horfes, mules, affes, oxen, ftieep, hogs, goats, and all 
 other quadrupeds imported, thrive and increafe in this 
 country. Among the native animals is a fpecies of deer 
 of the fize of a young heifer, and greatly refembhng it 
 in fliape ; the head is like that of a deer, and the horna 
 thick and crooked like thofe of a ram. The hoof of the 
 animal is large, round, and cloven, the flcin fpatted, but 
 the hair thinner and the tail fliarper than thofe of a 
 deer. Its flefli is greatly efteemed. There is another 
 animal peculiar to this country, larger and more bulky 
 than a flieep, but greatly refembling it in figure, and", 
 like it, covered with a fine black or white wool. Tlie 
 flelh of this animal is nourifhing and delicious ; and, 
 happily for the natives, it is fo abundant, that nothing 
 more is required than the trouble of hunting, as thefe 
 animals wander about in droves in the forefts and on 
 the mountains. Father Torquemado defcribes a crea, 
 ture which he calls a fpecies of large bear, fomething 
 Hke a buffalo, of the fize of a fteer, and nearly of the 
 figure of a ftag. Its hair is a quarter of a yard in 
 length, its neck long and aukward, and on its forehead 
 are horns branched like thofe of a ftag. The tail is a 
 yard in length and half a )':ard in breadth ; and the 
 hoofs cloven hke thofe of an ox. With regard to 
 birds, we have but an imperfeft account ; only, in ge- 
 neral, Father Venegas .tells ,us that the coaft is plen- 
 tifully ftored with peacocks, buftards, geefe, cranes, 
 and moft of the birds common in other parts of the 
 world. The quantity .of fifli which refort to thefe 
 F coaiis 
 
C A L 
 
 [ 42 
 
 lifornia. coails are incredible. Salmon, turbot, barbel, fkate, 
 ' mackerel, &c. are caught here with very little trou- 
 ble ; together with pearl oytters, common oyfters, 
 lobfters, and a variety of exquifite (hell-fifli. Plen- 
 ty of turtle are alfo caught on the coafts. On the 
 South Sea coails are fome Ihell-fifli pecuHar to it, and 
 perhaps the moll beautiful in the world ; their luftre 
 furpaffing that of the fineft pearl, and darting their 
 rays through a tranfparent varnifh of an elegant vivid 
 blue, hke the lapis lazuli. The fame of Cahfornia 
 for pearls foon drew forth great numbers of adventu- 
 rers, whofearched every part of the gulph, and are ftill 
 employed in that work, notwithftaiiding fafliion has 
 greatly diminiOied the value of this elegant natural pro- 
 duction. Father Torquimado obferves that the lea of 
 California affords very rich pearl fifheries; and that the 
 kojltas, or beds of-oylicrs, may be feen in three or four 
 fathom water, almoft as plain as if they were on the 
 ftirfacc. 
 
 The extremity of the peninfula towards Cape St Lu- 
 car is more level, temperate, and fertile, than the other 
 parts, and confcquently more woody. In tlie more di- 
 ilant parts, even to the farthell miffions on the eaft 
 coaft, no largo timber hath yet been difcovered. A 
 fpecics of manna is found in tliis country, Avhich, ac- 
 cording to the accounts of the Jefuits,"has all the fwcet- 
 ncfs of refined fugar without its whitcnefs. The natives 
 firmly believe that this juice drops from heaven. 
 
 The Californians are well made, and very ftrong. 
 They are extremely pufilanimous, inconftant, ftupid, 
 and even infenfible, and feem extremely deferving of 
 the charafter given to the Indians in general, under 
 the article America. Before the Europeans penetra- 
 ted into Cahfornia, the natives had no form of reli- 
 gion. The miflionaries indeed tell us many tales con- 
 cerning them, but they fo evidently bear the marks of 
 forgery as not to be worth repeating. Each nation was 
 then an afiemblage of feveral cottages more or kfs nu- 
 merous, that were all miutually confederated by alli- 
 ances, but without any chief. They were ilrangers 
 even to filial obedience. No kind of drefs was ufed by 
 the men ; but the women made ufe of fome coverings, 
 and were even fond of ornamenting themfelves with 
 pearls and fuch other trinkets as the country afforded. 
 What moftly difplayed their ingenuity was the con- 
 ftruftion of their fifhing nets, which are faid by the Je- 
 fuits to have even exceeded in goodnefs thofe made 
 in Europe. They were made by the women, of a 
 coarfe kind of flax procured from fome plants which 
 grow there. Their houfes were built of branches and 
 leaves of trees : nay, many of them were only inclofures 
 of earth and ftone, raifed half a yard high, without any 
 covering ; and even thefe were fo fmall, that they could 
 not ttretch themfelves at length in them. In winter, 
 they dwelt under ground in caves either natural or ar- 
 tificial. 
 
 In 1526, Ferdinand Cortez having reduced and fet- 
 tled Mexico, attempted the conqueft of Cahfornia ; but 
 was obliged to return, without even taking a furvey 
 of the country, a report of his death having difpofed 
 the Mexicans to a general infurreftion. Some other 
 attempts were made by the officers of Cortez, but thefe 
 were alfo unfuccefsful ; and this valuable coaft was 
 long neglefted by the Spaniards, whv, to this day, 
 have but one fettlement upon it. In 1595, a galleon 
 
 ] C A L 
 
 was fent to make difcoverles on the Californian Ihore ; Califomiaj 
 but the velTel was unfortunately loft. Seven years af- ^'''^g' ^- 
 ter, the count de Monteroy, then viceroy of New " " " 
 Spain, fent Sebaftian Bifcayno on the fame defign with 
 two fliips and a tender ; but he made no difcovery of 
 importance. In 1 684, the marquis de Laguna, alfo 
 viceroy of new Spain, difpatched two (hips with a 
 tender to make difcoveries on the lake of California. 
 He returned with an indifFerent account, but was a- 
 mong the firft that aflerted that California was not an 
 ifland ; which was afterwards confirmed by Father 
 Caino, as already reUted. In 1697, the Spaniards 
 being difcouraged by their loffes and difiippointmentSy 
 the Jefuits folicited and obtained permifilon to under- 
 take the conqueft of Cahfornia. They arrived among 
 the favages with cunofities that might amufe them, 
 corn for their food, and clothes for which they could 
 not but perceive the necefiity. The hatred thefe peo- 
 ple bore the Spaniih name could not fupport itfeif a- 
 gainft thefe demonitrations of benevolence. They tef- 
 tified their acknowledgments as much as their want of 
 fenfibility and their inconftancy would permit them. 
 Thefe faults were partly overcome by the religious in-, 
 ftitutors, who purfued their projed with a degree of 
 warmth and refolution peculiar to the fovicty. They 
 made themfelves carpenters, mafons, weavers, and huf- 
 bandmen ; and by thefe means fuccecded in impai'ting 
 knowledge, and in fome meafure a tafte for the ufeful 
 arts, to this favagc people, who have been all fuccef- 
 fively formed into one body. In 1745, they compo- 
 fed 43 villages, feparated from each other by the bar- 
 rennefs of the foil and the want of water. The inha- 
 bitants of thefe fmall villages fubfift principally on corn 
 and pulfe, which they cultivate ; and on the fruits and 
 domeftic animals of Europe, the breeding of which 
 laft is an objed of continual attention. The Indians 
 have each their field, and the property of what they 
 reap ; but fuch is their want of forefight, that they r 
 would fquander in a day what they had gathered, if 
 the miffionary did not take upon himfelf to dillribute 
 it to them as they ftand in need of it. They manu- 
 fadure fome coarfe ftuffs ; and the neceflaries they are 
 in want of arc purchafed with pearls, and with wine 
 nearly refembhng that of Madeira, which they fell ta 
 the Mexicans and to the galleons, and which experi- 
 ence hath (hown the neceffity of prahibiting in CalK- 
 fornia. A few laws, which are veyy fimple, are fuffi- 
 cient to regulate this rifing ftate. In order to enforce 
 them, the miffionary choofes the moft intelligent per- 
 fon of the village ; who is empowered to- whip and im- 
 prifon ; the only punilhments of which they have any 
 knowledge. In all Cahfornia there are only two gar- 
 rifons, each confifting of 30 men ard a foldier with 
 every miffionary. Thefe troops were chofen by the le- 
 giflators, though they are paid by the government. 
 Were the court of Madrid to pufh their intereft with - 
 half the zeal of the Jefuits, California might become 
 one of the moft; valuable of their acquifitions, on ac- 
 count of the pearls and other valuable articles of com- 
 merce which the country contains. At prefent the 
 httle Spanifh town near Cape St Lucar is made ufe of 
 for no other purpofe than as a place of refrefliment for 
 the Manila fliips, and the head refidence of the miffion- 
 aries. 
 
 CALIGA, in Roman Antiquity, was the proper 
 
 fol- 
 
C A L 
 
 CallgatI 
 
 !i 
 
 Caliph. 
 
 foldier's fhoe, made in the fandal fafiuon, without up- 
 per leather to cover the fuperior part of the foot, tho' 
 otherw'.fe reaching to the middle of the leg, and fa- 
 ftened with thongs. The fole of the caliga was of 
 wood, like the fabot of the French peafants, and its 
 bottom ftuck fuU of nails ; which clavi are fuppofed to 
 have been very long in the (hoes of the fcouts and fen- 
 tinels ; whence thefe were called by way of diftinftion, 
 caliga fpeculator'ta ; as if by mounting the wearer to a 
 higher pitch, they gave a greater advantage to the 
 fight : though others will have the caligte fpecvlatorite 
 to have been made foft and woolly, to prevent their 
 making a noife. From thefe cal'iga it was that the 
 emperor Caligula took his name, as having been born 
 in the army, and afterwards bred up in the habit of a 
 common foldier. 
 
 According to Du Cange, a fort of callgis was alfo 
 worn by monks and bilhops, when they celebrated mafs 
 pontifically. 
 
 CALIGATI, an appellation given by fome ancient 
 %vriters to the common foldicrs in the Roman armies, 
 by reafon of the caliga which they Avore. The caliga 
 was the badge or fymbol of a foldier ; whence to take 
 aw-*y tlie cahga and belt, imported a difmiffing or 
 cafhierlng. 
 
 CALIGO, or Caligatio, in Medicine, an opacity, 
 or cloudinefs of the anterior furface of the crytlalline, 
 caufing a dimnefs or fuffwhon of fight. 
 
 CALIGULA, the Roman emperor and tyrant, 
 A. D. 37, began his reign with every promifing ap- 
 pearance of becoming the real father of his people ; 
 but at the end of eight months he was feized with a 
 fever, which, it is thought, left a frenzy on his mind : 
 for his difpofition totally changed, and he committed 
 the moll atrocious afts of impiety, cruelty, and folly ; 
 fuch as proclaiming his liorfe conful, feeding it at his 
 table, introducing it to the temple in the veftments of 
 the priefts of Jupiter, &c. and caufing facrilices to be 
 ollered to himfelf, his wife, and the horfe. After ha- 
 ving murdered many of his fubjefts with his own hand, 
 and caufed others to be put to death without any juft 
 caufe, he was alTaflinated by a tribune of the people as 
 he came out of the amphitheatre, A. D. 41, in the 
 29th year of his age, and 4th of his reign. 
 
 CALIN, a compound metal, whereof the Chinefe 
 make tea-canifters, and the like. The ingredients feem 
 to be lead and tin. 
 
 CALIPH, or Khalif, the fupreme ecclefiaflical 
 dignity among the Saracens ; or, as it is otherwife de- 
 lined, a fovereign dignity among tlie Mahometans, veil- 
 ed with abfolute authority in all matters relating both 
 to religion and policy. In the Arabic it lignifies fuc- 
 cejfor or mc.ar ; the caliphs bearing the fame relation to 
 Mahomet that the popes pretend they do to Jefus 
 Chrlft or St Peter. It is at this day one of the Grand 
 Signior's titles, as fucceflbr of Mahomet ; and of the 
 Sophi of Perha, as fucceifor of AH. One of the chief 
 funftions of the caliph, in quality of imam or chief 
 prieft of MulTulmanifm, was to begin the public pray- 
 ers eveiy Friday in the chief mofque, and to deliver 
 tlie khothhak or fermon. In after-times, they had af- 
 littants for this latter office ; but the former the caliphs 
 always performed in perfon. The caliph was alfo ob- 
 liged to lead the pilgrims to Mecca in perfon, and to 
 march at the head of the armies of his empire. He 
 
 [ 43 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 granted Invefliture to princes ; and feat fwords, ftand- 
 ards, gowns, and the like, as prefcnts to princes of the 
 Maliometan religion ; wlio, though they had thrown 
 ofF the yoke of the caliphate, neverthelefs held of it as 
 valfals. The caliphs ufually went to the mofque 
 mounted on mules ; and the fultans felgiucides, thougFj 
 mailers of Bagdad, held their ftirrups, and led their 
 mule by the bridle fome dillance on foot, till fuch time 
 as the caliphs gave thfm the fign to mount on horfo 
 back. At one of the windows of the caliph's palace, 
 there always hung a piece of black velvet 20 cubits 
 long, which reached to the ground, and was called the 
 caliph's Jleeve ; which the grandees of his court never 
 failed to kifs every day, with great rcfpeft. After 
 the dellru6lion of the caliphate by Hulaku, the Ma- 
 hometan princes appointed a particular olFicer, in their 
 refpeftive dominions, who fuflains the faci-ed authority 
 of caliph. In Turky, he goes under the denominatioi* 
 of mufti, and in Perfia under that of fadne. 
 
 CALIPHATE, the office or dignity of caliph : 
 See the preceding article. The fucceffion of caliphs 
 continued from the death of Mahomet till the 655th 
 year of the Hegira, when the city of Bagdad waa ta- 
 ken by the Tartars. After this, however, there were 
 perlons who claimed the caliphate, as pretending to be 
 of the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the ful- 
 tans of Egypt rendered great honours at Cairo, as the 
 true fucceifors of Mahomet : but this honour wai 
 merely titular, and the rights allowed thsm only in- 
 matters relating to religion ; and though they bore the 
 fovereign title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs fub- 
 jects and dependents of the fultans. In the year of the 
 Hegira 361, a kind of caliphate was erefted by the 
 Fat«mites in Africa, and lailed till it was fuppreffed by 
 Saladdin. Hiftorians alfo fpeak of a third caliphate 
 in Gemen or Arabia Felix, erefted by Come princes of 
 the family of the Jobites. The emperors of Morocco 
 affume the title oS. grand cherifs ; and pretend to be the 
 true caliphs, or fucceflbrs of Mahomet, though under 
 another name. 
 
 CALIPPIC PERIOD, in chronology, a fcries of 
 feventy-fix years, perpetually recurring ; which elapfed 
 the middle of the new and full moons, as its inventor 
 Calippus, an Athenian, imagined, return to the fame 
 day of the folar year. Meton, an hundred years be- 
 fore, had invented the period, or cycle, of nineteen 
 years; afluming the quantity of the folar year 365 </. 
 6/j. 18' 56" 50^ ^i'* 34^ ; and the lunar month, 2C) d. 
 12 h. 45' 47" 26' 48^ 30^'; but Calippusj confider- 
 ing that the Metonic quantity of the folar year was 
 not exaft, multiphed Meton's period by 4, and thence 
 arofe a period of 76 years, called the Calippic. The 
 Calippic period, therefore, contains 2,7759 ^^7^ ' and 
 fince the lunar cycle contains 235 lunations, and the 
 Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains 940 
 lunations. This period began in the third year of 
 the iizth Olympiad, or the 4384th of the Julian 
 period. It is demonflrated, however, that the Cahp- 
 pic period itfclf is not accurate; that it does not bring 
 the new and full moons precifely to their places : 
 %h. 5' 52" 60"', being the excefs of 940 lunations 
 above 76 folar years ; but brings them too late, by a 
 whole day in 225 years. 
 
 CALISTA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of 
 Lycaon king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of 
 . F 2 Diana, 
 
 Caliphaff. 
 1/ 
 
C A L 
 
 r 44 1 
 
 C A L 
 
 Calix 
 
 II 
 
 Call. 
 
 Diana. Being beloved by Jupiter, that god affumed 
 the form or the goddefs of chaftity, by which noeans 
 he debauched her : but her difgrace being revealed, as 
 ftie was bathing with her patronefs, the incenfed deity 
 turned her and the fon with which flie was pregnant 
 into bears ; when Jupiter, in compaflion to her fufftr- 
 jngs, took them up into the heavens, and made them 
 the conftellations Urfa Major and Urfa Minor 
 CALIX. See Calyx. 
 
 CALIXTINS, a name given to thofe, among the 
 Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Ca- 
 Hxtus, a celebrated divine, and profefTor at Helmftadt, 
 in the duchy of Brunfwick, who died in 1656 : he op- 
 pofed the opinion of St Auguftin, on predeftination, 
 grace, and free-will, and endeavoured to form an 
 union among the various members of the Romifh, Lu- 
 theran, and reformed churches ; or, rather, to join 
 them in the bonds of mutual forbearance and charity. 
 
 Calixtins alfo denote a feft in Bohemia, derived 
 from the Huffites, about the middle of the 15th cen- 
 tury, who aflferted the ufe of the cup, as effential to 
 the eucharift. And hence their name ; which is formed 
 from the Latin calix, a cup. 
 
 The Calixtins are not ranked by Romanifts in the 
 lift of heretics, fince in the main they ftill adhered to 
 the dodlrine of Rome. The reformation they aimed 
 at terminated ill. the four following articles, i. In re- 
 ftoring the cup to the laity, 2. In fubjefting the cri- 
 minal clerks to the punlfcment of the civil magiftrate. 
 3. In ftripping the clergy of their lands, lordfhips, and 
 all temporal jurifdiftion. 4. In granting liberty to 
 all capable priefts to preach the word of God. 
 
 CALKA, a kingdom of Tartary, in Afia, to the 
 eaft of Siberia. 
 
 CALKING, See Caulking. 
 
 CALKINS, the prominent parts at the extremities 
 of a horfe-fhoe, bent downwards, and forged to a fort 
 of point. 
 
 Calkins are apt to make horfes trip ; they alfo oc- 
 cafion bleymes, and ruin the back fmews. If falhioned 
 in form of a hare's ear, and the horn of a horfe's heel 
 be pared a little low, they do little damage ; whereas, 
 the great fquare calkins quite fpoil the foot. 
 
 Calkins are either fuigle or double, that is, at one 
 end of the fhoe^ or at both : thefe lall are deemed lefs 
 hurtful, as the horfes can tread more even. 
 
 CALL, among hunters, a lelfon blown upon the 
 horn, to comfort the hounds. 
 
 Call, an Englifh name for the mineral called 
 Tungften or Wolfram by the Germans. 
 
 Call, among failors, a fort of whittle or pipe, of 
 filver or brafs, ufed by the boatfwain and his mates to 
 fummon the failors to their duty, and direft them in 
 the different employments of the fhip. As the call can 
 fee founded to various ftrains, each of them is appro- 
 priated to fome particular exercife ; fuch as hoilling, 
 heaving, lowering, veering away, belaying, letting go 
 a tackle, &c. The a£l of winding this initrument is 
 called piping, which is as attentively obferved by fail- 
 ors as the beat of the drum to march, retreat, rally, 
 charge, &;c. is obeyed by foldiers. 
 
 Call, among fowlers, the noife or cry of a bird, 
 efpecially to its young, or to its mate in coupling- 
 time. Oiie method of catching paitridges is by the 
 iiatural call of a hen trained for the purpofe, which 
 
 drawing the cocks to her, they are entangled in a net. 
 Different birds require different forts of calls ; but they 
 are mofl of them compofed of a pipe or reed, with a 
 little leathern bag or purfe, fomewhat in form of a 
 bellows; which, by the motion given thereto, yields a 
 noife like that of the /pecies of bird to be taken. The 
 call for partridges is formed like a boat bored through, 
 and fitted with a pipe or fwan's quill, &c. to be blown 
 with the mouth, to make the noife of the cock par- 
 tridge, which is very different from the call of the 
 hen. Calls for quails, &c. are made of a leathern purfe 
 in fhape like a pear, fluffed with horfe-hair, and fitted 
 at the end with the bone of a cat's, hare's, or coney's 
 leg, formed like a flageolet. They are play'd, by 
 fqueezing the purfe in the palm of the hand, at the 
 fame time ftriking on the flageolet part with the thumb, 
 to counterfeit the call of the hen-quail. 
 
 Call of the Hoiife. See Calling. 
 
 CALLA, Wake-robin, or Ethiopian Arum : A ge- 
 nus of the polyandria order, belonging to the gynan- 
 dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 2d order, Piperita. The fpatha is plain ; the 
 fpadix covered with florets; there is no calyx ; no petals; 
 and the berries are monofpcrmous. Of this there is but 
 one fpecies. It hath thick, flefhy, tuberous roots, 
 which are covered with a thin brown flcin, and ftrike 
 down many ftrong fleflay fibres into the ground. The 
 leaves have footftalks more than a foot long, which 
 are green and fucculent. The leaves are fhaped like 
 the point of an arrow ; they are eight or nine inches 
 in length, ending in a fliarp point, which turns back- 
 ward ; between the leaves arife the footftalk of the 
 flower, which is thick, fmooth, of the fame colour as 
 the leaves, rifes above them, and is terminated by a 
 fingle flower, fhaped like thofe of the arum, the hood 
 or fpatha being twifled at bottom, but fpreads open at 
 the top, and is of a pure white colour. When the flow- 
 ers fade, they are fucceeded by roundifh flefliy berries, 
 compreffed on two fides, each containing two or three 
 feeds. This plant grows naturally at the Cape of Good 
 Hope. It propagates very faff by offsets, which fliould 
 be taken off" in the latter end of Auguft, at which time 
 the old leaves decay ; for at this time the roots are in 
 their moft inadlive Itate. They are fo hardy as to live 
 without any cover in mild winters, if planted in a 
 warm border and dry foil ; but, with a little fhelter in 
 hard froft, they may be preferved in full growth very 
 well. 
 
 CALLA-Sufung, a town of Afia, in the iiland of 
 Bouton in the Eaft Indies. It is feated about a mile 
 from the fea, on the top of a fmall hill furrounded 
 with cocoa nut-trees. See Bouton. 
 
 CALLAO, a ftrong town of South America, in 
 Peru. It is the port of Lima, from which it is dif- 
 tant about five miles. The town is built on a low flat 
 point of land on the fea-fhore. It is fortified ; but the 
 fortifications were much damaged by the laft great 
 earthquake, and have not fince been repaired. The 
 town is not above nine or ten feet above the level of 
 high-water mark ; but the tide does not commonly 
 rife or fall above five feet. The ftreets are drawn in a. 
 line ; but are full of duft, which is very troublefome. 
 In a fquare near the fea-fide are the governor's houfe^ 
 the viceroy's palace, the parifti-church, and a battery 
 of three pieces of cannon. On the nortli fide are the 
 
 ware- 
 
 Cali 
 
 II 
 
 Callao. 
 
il 
 
 Gilligra- 
 phus. 
 
 C A L [ 45 ] C A L 
 
 warehoufes for the merchandife brought from Chili, as the Greeks called them, were enabled to keep pace Callifrra- 
 Mexico, and other parts of Peru. The other churches with a fpeaker or perfon who diftated. Thefe notes, P'^^ 
 are built with reeds, and covered with timber or clay, being underftood by few, were copied over fair, and collie 
 but they look tolerably neat. There are five monafte- at length, by perfons who had a good hand, for fale, 
 ries and an hofpital, though the number of famihes &c. Thefe perfons were called irfl/%ra/»/6/y a name fre- 
 does not exceed 400. The trade of Callao is confi- quently met with in the ancient writers, 
 derable. From Chili they bring cordage, leather, tal- CALLIGRAPHY, the art of fair writing. Cal- 
 low, dried fifli, and corn ; from Chiloe, cedar-planks, berates is faid to have written an elegant diftich on a 
 woollen manufaftures, and carpets ; from Peru, fugars, fefamum feed. Junius fpeaks of a perfon, as very ex- 
 
 lony- 
 
 mur!. 
 
 wines, brandy, mails, cordage, timber for (hipping, 
 cacao, tobacco, and molafies ; from Mexico, pitch, 
 tar, woods for dyeing, fulphur, balfam of Peru both 
 white and brown, as well as commodities from China. 
 At the port of Callao the watering is eafy, but the 
 wood is a mile or two diilant. Earthquakes are very 
 
 traordinary, who wrote the apoftles creed, and begin- 
 ning of St John's Gofpel, in the compafs of a farthing. 
 What would he have faid of our famous Peter Bale, 
 who in 1575 wrote the Lord's prayer, creed, ten 
 commandments, and two fhort prayers in Latin, with 
 his own name, motto, day of the month, year of the 
 
 frequent in thefe parts, which have done vaft mifchief Lord, and reign of the queen, in the compafs of a 
 
 to Lima and Callao. W. Long. 76. 15. S. Lat. 
 12. 29. 
 
 CALLE (anc. geog.), a town of Hither Spain, 
 fituated on an eminence which hangs over the river 
 Durius ; whofe port was at the mouth of the river. 
 Now Porto, Oporto, or Port a Port. 
 
 fingle penny, inchafed in a ring and border of gold, and 
 covered with a cryftal, all fo accurately wrought as to 
 be very legible ? 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, a celerated architeft, painter, 
 and fculptor, born at Corinth, having feen by accident 
 a vefTel about which the plant called acanthus had • 
 
 C ALLEN, a town of Ireland, in the county of raifed its leaves, conceived the idea of formiug the Co- ■ 
 
 Kilkenny and province of Leinfter, about ten miles 
 fouth-weft of Kilkenny. W. Long. 7. 22. N. Lat. 
 5^. 25. 
 
 CALLICARPA. See Johnsonia. 
 
 CALIvICO, in commerce, a fort of cloth refem- 
 bling linens made of cotton. The name is taken from 
 that of Callicut, a city on the coft of Malabar, being 
 the firlt place at which the Portuguefe landed when 
 they difovered the India trade. The Spaniards ftill 
 call it callicu. 
 
 Callicoes are of different kinds, plain, printed, paint- 
 ed, ftained, dyed, chints, muHins, and the like, all in- 
 cluded under the general denomination of callicoes. 
 Some of them are painted with various flowers of dif- 
 ferent colours : others are not ftained, but have a ftripe 
 of gold and filver quite through the piece, and at each 
 end is fixed atifl'ue of gold, filver, and filk, intermixed 
 with flowers. The printing of callicoes was firft fet on 
 foot in London about the year 1676. 
 
 CALLICRATES, an ancient fculptor, who en- 
 graved fome of Homer's verfes on a grain of millet, 
 made an ivory chariot tliat might be concealed under 
 the wing of a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the 
 members were dittinft : but ^Elian juftly blames him 
 for exerting his genius and talents in things fo ufelefs, 
 and at the fame time fo difficult. He flouriftied about 
 the year 472 before Chrill. 
 
 CALLIGONUM, in botany : A genus of the digy- 
 nia order belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 1 2th or- 
 der, Holoracea. The calyx is pentaphyllaus, without 
 petals or ftyles ; the fruit hifpid and monofpermous. 
 There is but one fpecies, which is found on Mount 
 Arrarat. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHUSanciently denoted a copyift, or 
 fcrivener, who tranfcribed fair, and at length, what the 
 notaries had taken down in notes or minutes. The 
 word is compounded of xax^of, beauty, and >pa:f«, / 
 nvrite. The minutes of a<Sls, &c. were always taken in 
 a kind of cypher, or fhort-hand ; fuch as the notes 
 of Tyro in Gruter : by which means the notaries, as the 
 
 rinthian capital. (See Acanthus, and Plate XXXIV. 
 fig. 4. ) The ancients afl'ure us, that he worked in ' 
 marble with wondetful delicacy. He flouriflied about 
 540 B. C. 
 
 Calumachus, a celebrated Greek poet, native of 
 Cyrene in Libya, fiourifhed under Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phus and Ptolemy Evergetes kings of Egypt, about 
 280 years before ChriiL He paffed, according to Qiiin- 
 tilian, for the prince of the Greek, elegiac poets. His 
 ftyle is elegant, delicate, and nervous. He wrote a 
 great number of fmall poems, of which we have only 
 fome hymns and epigrams remaining. Catullus has 
 clofely imitated him, and tranflated into Latin verfe 
 his fmall poem on the locks of Berenice. Callimachus 
 was alfo a good grammarian and a learned critic. There 
 is an edition of his remains, by Mefi". le Fevre, quarto; 
 and another in two volumes odtavo, with notes by 
 Spanhein, Gi"xvius, Bently, &c. 
 
 CALLING the House, in the Britifti parhament, . 
 is the calling over the members names, eveiy one an- 
 fwering to his own, and going out of the houfe,' in 
 the order in which he is called : this they do in order 
 to difcover whether there be any perfons there not re- 
 turned by the clerk of the crown, or if any member 
 be abfent without leave of the houfe. 
 
 CALLINICUS: of Heliopolis, inventor of a com- 
 pofition to burn in the water, called tlie Greek, and 
 fince Wild, Fire. See Grecian Fire. 
 
 CALLINUS of Ephefus, a very ancient Greek poet, 
 inventor of elegiac verfe ; fome fpecimens of which are 
 to be found in the collection of Stobeus. He flouriih- 
 ed about 776 years before Chrift. 
 
 CALLIONYMUS, the dragonet, in ichthyo- 
 logy, a genus of filhes belonging to th'e order of ju- 
 gularies. Tlie upper lip is doubled up ; the eyes are 
 very near each other ; the -raembrane of the gills has 
 fix radii ; the operculum is fliut ; the body is naked ; 
 and the belly -fins arc at a great diftance from each other. 
 There are three fpecies of callipnymus, viz. i.The ly- 
 ra, with the firft bone of the back-fin as long as the 
 body of the animal, and a cirrhus at the anus. It is 
 
 Latins called them, or the (rniAuoy^a^oi and Toxyypafoi^ found as far north as Norway and Spitzbergen, and a& . 
 
 far'-- 
 
C A L 
 
 C 46 J 
 
 C A L 
 
 Calliope 
 
 II 
 
 Califia. 
 
 far foutli as the Mediterranean fea, and is not unfrequent 
 on the Scarborough coails, where it is taken by tlie 
 hook in 30 or 40 fathoms water. It is often found in 
 the ftoinach of the cod-fifh. 2. The dracuncuhis, with 
 tlie firft bone of the back-fin fiiorter than its body, 
 which is of a fpotttd yellow colour. It frequents the 
 /liores of Genoa and Rome. ^. The indicus has a 
 fmooth head, with longitudinal wrinkles ; the lower 
 jaw is a httle longer than the upper one ; the tongue 
 is obtufe and emarginated ; the apertures of the gills are 
 large : it is of a livid colour, and the anus is in the mid- 
 dle of the body. It is a native of Afia. 
 
 CALLIOPE, in the Pagan mythology, the mufe 
 who prefides over eloquence and heroic poetry. She 
 was thus called from the fweetnefs of her voice, and 
 was reckoned the firll of the nine fillers. Her diftin- 
 {ruifhine office was to record the worthy actions of the 
 living ; and accordingly flie is reprelcnted with tablets 
 in her hand. 
 
 CALLIPiEDIA, the art of getting or breeding 
 fine and beautiful children. We find divers rules and 
 pra£tices relating to this art, in ancient and modern 
 writers. Among the magi, a fort of medicine called 
 ermefta was adminiftered to pregnant women, as a means 
 of producing a beautiful iffue. Of this kind w^ere the 
 kernels of pine-nuts "ground with honey, myrrh, faf- 
 fron, palm-wine, and milk. The Jews are faid to have 
 been fo folicitous about the beauty of their children, 
 that care was taken to have fome very beautiful child 
 placed at the door of the public baths, that the women 
 at going out being ftruck with his appearance, and 
 retaining the idea, might all have children as fine as 
 he. The Chinefe take ilill greater care of their breed- 
 ing women, to prevent uncouth objefts of any kind 
 from ftriking their imagination. Muficians are em- 
 ployed at night to entertain them with agreeable fongs 
 and odes, in which are fet forth all the duties and com- 
 forts of a conjugal and domeitic life ; that the infant 
 may receive good impreffions even before it is born, 
 and not only come forth agreeably formed in body, 
 but well difpofed in mind. Calhpa;dia, neverthelefs, 
 feems to have been firft erefted into a juft art by Claude 
 Quillet de Chinon, a French abbot, who, under the 
 fiftltious name of Calvhlus Latus, has publldied a fine 
 Latin poem in four books, under the title of CaU'ipadia., 
 feu de pulchra prol'ts habetida: rations ; wherein are con- 
 tained all the precepts of that new art. There is a 
 tranflation of it into Englifli verfe by Mr Rowe. 
 
 CALLIPOLIS, (anc. geog.) the name of feveral 
 cities of antiquity, particularly one upon the Hellef- 
 pont, next the Propontis, and oppofite to Lampfacus 
 inAfia. Now Gallipoli. 
 
 CALLIPPIC PERIOD. See Calippic. 
 
 CALLIRRHOE, (anc. geog), furnamed Ennea- 
 crunosy from its nine fprings or cliannels ; a fountain 
 not far from Athens, greatly adorned by Pififtratus, 
 where there were feveral wells, but this only the run- 
 ning fpring. CaUirrhoe was alfo the name of a veiy 
 fine fpring of hot water beyond Jordan near the Dead 
 Sea, into which it empties itfelf. 
 
 CALISIA, in botany : A genus of the monogy- 
 mia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 6th 
 order, Enjate. The calyx is triphyllousj the petals 
 
 are three ; the antherae are double ; and the capfule 
 is bilocular. There is but one fpecies, a native of 
 America. ^ 
 
 CALLISTEA, in Grecian antiquity, a Lefbian 
 feftival, wherein the women prefented thtmfelves in Ju- 
 no's temple, and the prize was alligned to the faireft* 
 There was another of thefe contentions at the feiUval 
 of Ceres Eleufinia among the Parrhafians, and another 
 among the Eleans, where the moft beautiful man was 
 prefented with a complete fult of armour, which he 
 confecrated to Minerva, to whofe temple he walked in 
 proceffion, being accompanied by his friends, who ad- 
 orned him with ribbons, and crowned him with a gar- 
 land of myrtle. 
 
 CALLISTHENES the phllofopher, difciple and 
 relation of Ariftotle, by whofe defire he accompanied 
 Alexander the Great in his expeditions ; but proving 
 too fevere a cenfurer of that hero's conduct, he was 
 put by him to the torture (on a fufpicion of a treafon- 
 able confpiracy), and died under it, 328 years before 
 ChrlR. 
 
 CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator, 
 was baniikcd for having obtained too great an autho- 
 rity in the government. Dtmofthenes was fo ftruck 
 with the force of his eloquence, and the glory it pro- 
 cured him, that he abandoned Plato, and refolvedfrom 
 thenceforward to apply himfelf to oratory. 
 
 CALLITRICHE, or Star GRASS, in botany: A 
 genus ot the digynia order, belonging to the monondria 
 clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking under 
 the I 2th order, Holoracea. There is no calyx, but two 
 petals, and the capfule is bilocular and tetraipermous. 
 
 CALLOO, a fortrefs in the Netherlands, in the 
 territory of Waes, on the river Scheld, fubjeft to the 
 houfe of Auftria. The Dutch were defeated here by 
 the Spaniards in 1638. E.Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 
 
 CALLOSUM CORPUS, in anatomy, a whltifii hard 
 fubftance, joining the two hemilphercs of the brainjj 
 and appearing in view when the two hemilpheres are 
 drawn back. See Anatomy, N"" 132. 
 
 CALLOT (James), a celebrated engraver born at 
 Nancy In 1593. In his youth he travelled to Rome 
 to learn defigning and engraving ; and from thence 
 went to Florence, where the grand duke took him into 
 his fervice. After tlie death of that prince, Callot re- 
 turned to his native country ; when he was very fa- 
 vourably received by Henry duke of Lorrain, who fet- 
 tled a confiderable pennon upon him. His reputation 
 being foon after fpread all over Europe, the Infanta of 
 the Netherlands drew him to BrufTels, where he engra- 
 ved the fiege of Breda. Louis XIII. made him de- 
 fign the fiege of Rochelle, and that of the ifle of Rhe. 
 The French king, having taken Nancy in 1631, made 
 Callot the propofal of reprefenting that new conqueft, 
 as he had already done the taking of Rochelle : but 
 Callot begged to be excufed ; and fome courtiers refol- 
 vlng to oblige him to do it, he anfwered, that he would 
 fooner cut off his thumb than do any thing agalnft the 
 honour of his prince and country. This excufe the 
 king accepted ; and faid, that the duke of Lorrain was 
 happy in having fuch faithful and affedtionate fubjedls. 
 Callot followed his bufinefs fo clofely, that, though he 
 died at 43 years of age, he is faid to have left of his 
 5 own 
 
 Ca1!{laa 
 
 I! 
 
 Callot. 
 
C A L 
 
 Callot, 
 Callus. 
 
 [ 47 1 
 
 C A L 
 
 own execution about 1500 pieces. The following are 
 a few of the principal. l. The murder of the innocents , a 
 fmall oval plate, engraved at Florence. Callot engraved 
 the fame fubjedl at Nancy, with fome difference in the 
 figures on the back-ground. The former is the moft 
 rare: a fine impreflion of it is very difficult to be found. 
 2. The marriage of Cana in Galilee, from Paolo Veronefe, 
 amiddling-Gzed plate lengthwife. paffion ofChriff, 
 
 on twelve very fmall upright plates: fiilt impreflious 
 very fcarce. 4. St "Jolm in the ijland of Palma, a fmall 
 plate, nearly fquare. ^, The temptation of St Anthony, a 
 middling-fized plate, iengtluvile. He alfo engraved 
 the fame fubjeft larger ; wliich, though not the beit, 
 is notwithftanding the fcarctfl print. There is a con- 
 fiderable difFerence in the treatment of the fubjeft in 
 the two prints. 6. The p:; r.ijlments , wherein is feen the 
 execution of feveral criminals. The marks of the belt 
 impreffions of this plate are, a fmall fquare tower 
 which appears above the houfes, towards the left, and a 
 very fmall image of the Virgin placed in an angle of 
 tlie wall, near the middle of the print. 7. The miferies 
 of ivary eighteen fraall plates, lengthwife. There is 
 another fet on tlie fame fubjeft, confiiling of feven 
 plates lefs than the former. 8. The r/'.-v?/ fair of Florence, 
 fo called becaufe it was engraved at Florence. As 
 feveral parts of this plate were not equally bitten by 
 the aquafortis, it is difficult to meet with a fine im- 
 preffion. Callot, on his return to Nancy, re-engraved 
 this plate without any alteration. The copy, howe- 
 ever, is by no means equal to the original. The firft 
 is diftinguifhed from the fecond by the words in Firen- 
 %a, which appear below at the right hand corner of 
 the plate. The fecond has thefe words in the fame 
 place, Fe Florientis, ^ excudit Nancei. There is alfo a 
 large copy of this print, reverfed, publiflied by Savery; 
 but the difFerence is eafily dillinguiflied between it and 
 the true print. 9. The little fair, otherwife called the 
 players at bonvls ; where alfo fome peafants are repre- 
 fented dancing. This is one of the fcarceft of Callot's 
 prints ; and it is very difficult to meet with a fine im- 
 preffion of it, for the diftances and other parts of the 
 plate failed in the biting it with the aquafortis. 10. The 
 tilting, or the neiu flreet at Nancy, a middling-fized plate, 
 lengthwife. 11. The Garden of Nancy, where young 
 men are playing with a balloon, the fame. 1 2. View of the 
 Port Neuf, a fmall plate, lengthwife. 13. Vieiu of the 
 Louvre, the fame. 14. Four landfcapes, fmall plates, 
 lengthwife. 
 
 CALLUS, or Callosity, in a general fenfc, any 
 cutaneous, corneous, or offeous hardnefs, whether na- 
 tural or preternatural ; but moft frequently it means 
 the callus generated about the edges pf a fradlin-e, pro- 
 vided by nature to preferve the fraftured bones, or di- 
 vided parts, in the fituation in which they are replaced 
 by the furgeon. A callus, in this hiil fenfe, is a foit 
 of jelly, or liquid vifcous matter, that fweats out from 
 the fmall arteries and bony fibres of the divided parts, 
 and fills up the chinks or cavities between them. It 
 firft appears of a cartilaginous fubftance ; but at length 
 becomes quite bony, and joins the fraAured part fo 
 firmly together, that the limb will often make greater 
 refiftance to any external violence with this part than 
 with thofe which were never broken. 
 
 Callus is alfo a hard, dtnfe, infcnfible knob, rifino- 
 
 on the hands, feet, &c. by much friftion and preffure Caltn 
 again ft hard Ijodies. c Im t 
 
 CALM, the ftate of reft which appears in the air ^ f 
 and fea when there is no wind ftirring. A calm is 
 •more dreaded by a fea-faring man than a ftorm if he 
 has a ftrong fl\ip and fea-rooiT\ enough ; for under the 
 line exceffivc heat fometimes produces fuch dead calms, 
 that fhips are obliged to llay two or three months with- 
 out being able to ftir one way or other. Two oppofite 
 winds will fometimes make a calm. This is frequently 
 obferved in the gulph of Mexico, at no great diftance 
 from the fhore, where fome gull or land-wind will 
 fo poife the general eallerly wind, as to produce a per- 
 fedl calm. 
 
 Calms are never fo great on the ocean as on tlie 
 Mediterranean, by reafon the flux and reflux of the 
 former keep the water in a continual agitation, even 
 where there is no wind ; whereas there being no tided 
 in the latter, the calm Is fometimes fo dead, that the 
 face of the water is as clear as a looking-glafs ; but 
 fuch calms are almoit conftant prefages of an approach- 
 ing ftonn. On the coaits about Smyrna, a long calm 
 is reputed a prognoftic of an earthquake. 
 
 It is not uncommon for the veflels to be calmed, or 
 becalmed, as the failors exprefs it, in the road of the 
 conftant Levantine winds, in places where they ride 
 near the land. Thus between the two capes of Car- 
 tooche tovi^ard the main, and cape Antonio in Cuba, 
 the fea is narrow, and there is often a calm produced 
 by fome gull of a land-w-ind, that poifes the Levantine 
 wand, and renders the whole perfeftly ftlll for two or 
 three days. In this cafe, the current that runs here is 
 of ufe to the veffels, if it fets right ; w^hen it fets eafter- • 
 ly, a fliip will have a paffage in thr-ee or four days to 
 the Havannah ; but if otherwife, it is often a fortnight 
 or three weeks fail, the flilp being embayed in the 
 gulf of Mexico. 
 
 When the weather is perfeftly calm, no wind at all 
 ftirring, the failors try which way the current fets, by 
 mtans of a boat which they fend out, and which will 
 ride at anchor though there is no bottom to be found, 
 as regularly and well as if faftened by the ftrongeft an- 
 chor to the bottom. The method is this : they row 
 the boat to a little diftance from the lliip, and then 
 throw over their plummet, which is about forty pounds 
 weight ; they let this fink to about two hundred fa- 
 thom ; and then, though it never reaches the bottom, 
 the boat will turn head againft the current, and ride as 
 firmly as can be. 
 
 Calm Latitudes, in fea language, are fituated in the 
 Atlantic ocean, ^between the tropic of Cancer and the 
 latitude of 2(f N. or they denote the fpace that hes 
 between the trade and variable winds, becaufe it is fre- 
 quently fubjeft to calms of long duration. 
 
 CALMAR, a fti-ong fea-port of Sweden, in the 
 province of Smaland, divided into two towns, the old 
 and the new ; but of the former there remains only the 
 church and a few houfes. The new town is built a 
 little way from the other, and has large Iiandfome hou- 
 fes. E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 56. 48. 
 
 CALMET (Auguttine), one of t\\Q nloft learned 
 and laborious writers of the 1 8th century, was born at 
 Mefnil le Horgne, a village In the diooefe of Toul in 
 France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the 
 
 Bene- 
 
C A L 
 
 [ 4^ 3 
 
 € A t 
 
 -Calmucks Bcnedl<?lincs In 1688. Among tKip many works he 
 I'^t publiflied are, i. A literal expofition, in French, of all 
 « „ , the books in the Old Teftament, in nine volumes folio. 
 
 2. An hiftorical, critical, chronological, geographical, 
 and literal, diftionary of the Bible, in four vols folio, 
 enriched with a great number of figures of Jewifli an- 
 .tiquities. 3. A civil and ecrclefiaftical hlP..ory of Lor- 
 rain, three vols folio. 4. A hiftoiy of the Old and 
 New Teftament, and of the Jews, in two volumes fo- 
 lio, and feven vols duodecimo. 5. An univerfal facred 
 and profane hiHory^, in feveral volumes quarto. He 
 died in 1757. 
 
 CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks. 
 
 CALNE, a town of Wiltfhire in England, feated 
 on a river of the fame name. It has a handfome church, 
 and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. i. 
 59. N. Lat. 51. 30. 
 
 CALNEH, (anc. geog.) a city in the land of Shi- 
 nar, built by Nimrod, and the lafl city mentioned 
 (Gen. X. 10.) as belonging to his kingdom. It is 
 believed to be the fame with Calno mentioned in Ifaiah 
 (x. 9.), and with Canneh in Ezekiel (xxvii. 23.) with 
 ftill greater variation. It is obferved, that it muft 
 have been fituated in Mefopotamia, fince thefe pro- 
 phets join it with Haran, Eden, Affyria, and Chilmad, 
 which carried on a trade with Tyre, It is faid by the 
 Chaldee interpreters, as alfo by Eufebiiis and Jerom, 
 to be the fame with Ctefiphon, ftanding upon the 
 Tigris, about three miles diftant from Seleucia, and 
 that for fome time it was the capital city of the Par- 
 thians. 
 
 GALOGERI, in church-hiftory, monks of the 
 Greek church, divided into three degrees: the novices, 
 called archari ; the ordinary' profefled, called mxcroche- 
 w't ; and the more perfeft, called megalochemi: tliey are 
 likewife divided into caenobites, anchorets, and reclufes. 
 The casnobites are employed in reciting their offices 
 from midnight to fun-fet ; they are obliged to make 
 three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and, return- 
 ing, to bow to the right and to the left, to their bre- 
 thren. The anchorites retire from the converfation of 
 the world, and live in hermitages in the neighbourhood 
 
 •of the monafteriei; they cultivate a little fpot of ground, 
 and never go,out but on Simdays and holidays to per- 
 form their devotions at the next monallery. As for 
 the reclufes, they fliut themfelves up in grottos and ca- 
 verns on the tops of mountains, which they never go 
 out of, abandoning themfelves entirely to Providence : 
 they live on the alms fent them by the neighbouring 
 
 ■ jnonaflerics. 
 
 CALOMEL, or dulcified fublimate of mercuiy. 
 See Pharmacy, Index. 
 
 CALOPHYLLUM, in botany: A genus of the 
 monogynia order belonging to the polyandria clafs of 
 plants : and in the natural method clafTed under thofc 
 called doubtful by Linnosus. The corolla is tetrapeta- 
 lous ; the calyx tetraphyllous and coloured ; the fruit 
 a globofe plum. There are two Ipecies, both natives 
 of India. 
 
 CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, fattin, or other 
 .Cuff ; an ecclefiaftical ornament in moft Popifh coun- 
 tries. See Cap. 
 
 Calotte, in ^rcKitefture, a round cavity or de- 
 preiTure, in form of a cap or cup, lathed and plaftcred, 
 •Ufed to diminilh the rife.or elevation of a moderate cha- 
 
 pel, cabinet, alcove, &c. which, without fuch an ex- Calp« 
 pedlent, would be too high for other pieces of the .,11 
 apartment. j 
 
 CAI^PE, a mountain of Andalufia in Spain ; at 
 the foot of which, towards the fea, (lands the town of 
 Gibraltar. It is half a league in height towards the 
 land, and fo fteep that there is no approaching it on 
 that fide. 
 
 CALPURNIUS (Titus), a Latin Sicilian poet, 
 lived under the emperor Carus and his fon. We have 
 feven of his eclogues remaining. 
 
 CALQUING, or Calking, a term ufed in paint- 
 ing, &c. where the back-fide of any thing is covered 
 over with a black or red colour, and the ftrokes or lines 
 traced through on a waxed plate, wall, or other mat- 
 ter, by paffing lightly over each ftroke of the defign 
 with a point, which leaves an impreffion of the colour 
 on the plate or wall. 
 
 CALTHA, in botany : A genus of the monogy- 
 nia order belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 26th or- 
 der, MuhifUqme. There is no calyx ; there are five 
 petals ; no neftaria ; the capfules are many, and polyfper- 
 raous. There is only one fp cies known, which grows 
 naturally in moift boggy lands in many parts of Eng- 
 land and Scotland. There is a variety, with veiy 
 double flowers, which for its beauty is preferved in 
 gardens. It is propagated by parting the roots in au- 
 tumn. It fhould be planted in a moift foil and fliady 
 fituation ; and as there are often fuch places in gardens 
 where few other plants will thrive, fo thefe may be al- 
 lowed room, and during their feafon of flowering will 
 afford an agreeable variety. The flowers gathered 
 before they expand, and preferved in falted vinegar» 
 are a good fubllitute for capers. The juice of the 
 petals, boiled with a little alum, ftains paper yellow. 
 The remarkable yellownefs of the butter in fpring is 
 fuppofed to be caufed by this plant : but cows will not 
 eat it, unlefs compelled by extreme hunger ; and then, 
 Boerhaave fay«, it occafions fuch an inflammation, that 
 they generally die. Upon May-day, the country 
 people fl;rew the flowers upon the pavement before their 
 doors. Goats and flieep eat this plant ; horfes, cows, 
 and fwine, refufe it. 
 
 CALTROP, in botany. See Tribulus. 
 
 Caltrop, in military affairs, an inftrument with 
 four iroi> points, difpofed in a triangular form, fo that 
 three of them are always on the ground, and the fourth 
 in the air. They are fcattered over the ground where 
 the enemy's cavalry is to pafs, in order to embarrafs 
 them. 
 
 CALVARiA, inanatqmy, the hairy fcalp crupper 
 part of the head, which, either by difeafe or old age, 
 grows bald firft. 
 
 CALVART (Denis), a 'celebrated painter, was 
 born at Antwerp in 1552; and had for his mailers 
 Profpero Fontana and Lorenzo Sabbatini. He open- 
 ed a fchool at Bologna, which became celebrated; and 
 from which proceeded Guidp, Albani, and other great 
 mailers. Calvart was well llcillcd in architefture, per- 
 •fpedlive, and anatomy, v^hich he confidered as necefr 
 fary to a painter, and taught them to his pupils. His 
 .principal works are at Bologna, Rome, and Reggio, 
 He died at Bologna, in 1 6 1 9. 
 
 CALVARY, a tenti ufed in Catholic countries for 
 6 a 
 
C A L 
 
 Calvary a kind of qhapel of devotion raifed on a hillock near a 
 Calvin, ^^^y*. "lemory of the place where Jefus Chrift was 
 crucified jiear the city of Jerufalem. The word comes 
 from the Latin Cii/varium; and that from calvus, bald ; 
 ■ in regard the top of that hillock was bare anddeftitute 
 of verdure: which is alfo fignified by the Hebrew word 
 golgotha. Such is the Calvary of St Valerian near Paris ; 
 which is accompanied with feveral little chapels, in each 
 of which is reprefented in fculpture one of the myfleries 
 of the paflion. 
 
 Calvary, in heraldry, a crofs fo called, becaufe it 
 refembles the crofs on which our Saviour fuffered. It 
 is always fet upon fteps. 
 
 CALVERT (George), afterwards lord Baltimore, 
 was born at Kipling in Yorkfhire about the year 1582, 
 and educated at Oxford, where he took the' degree of 
 bachelor of arts, and afterwards travelled. At his re- 
 turn, he was made fecretary to Sir Robert Cecil : he 
 was afterwards knighted, and in 161 8 appointed one 
 of the principal fecretaries of ftate. But after he had 
 enjoyed that poll about five years, he willingly refigned 
 it; freely owning to his majefty that he was become a 
 Roman-catholic, fo that he mull either be wanting to 
 his truft, or violate his confcience in difcharging his 
 office. This ingenuous confelfion fo affefted king 
 James, that he continued him privy-counfellor all his 
 reign, and the fame year created him baron of Bal- 
 timore in the kingdom of Ireland. He had be- 
 fore obtained a patent for him and his heirs, for the 
 province of Avelon in Newfoundland : hut that being 
 expofed to the infults of the French, he abandon- 
 ed it, and afterwards obtained the grant of a country 
 on the north part of Virginia from Charles I. who call- 
 ed it Maryland, in honour of his queen : but he died 
 in April 1632 (aged 50), before the patent was made 
 out. It was, however, filled up to his fon Cecil Cal- 
 vert lord Baltimore ; and bears date June 20th 1632. 
 It is held from the crown as part of the manor of 
 Windfor, on one very fingular condition, viz. to pre- 
 fent two Indian arrows yearly, on Eafter Tuefday, at 
 
 the caftle, where they are kept and fliown to vifitors. 
 
 His lordlhip wrote, i . A Latin poem on the death of 
 Sir Henry Upton. 2. Speeches in parliament. 3. Va- 
 rious letters of ftate. 4. The anfwerof Tom Tell-truth. 
 5. The praftice of princes. And, 6. The lamentation 
 of the kirk. 
 
 ^ CALVI, a town of the province of Lavoro, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, fituated near the fea, about fifteen 
 miles north of the city of Naples." E. Long. 14. 45. 
 N. Lat. 41. 15. 
 
 Calvi is alfo the name of a fea-port in the ifland of 
 Corfica, fituated on a bay, on the weft fide of the 
 ifland, about 40 miles fouth-weft of Baftia. E. Long. 
 9. 5. N. Lat. 42. 16. 
 
 ^ CALVIN (John), the celebrated reformer of the 
 Chriftian church from Romifh fuperftitions and doftri- 
 nal errors, and founder of the fed fince called Cahlnifls, 
 was born in 1509. He was the fon of a cooper of 
 Noyon in Picardy ; aiid his real name was Chawv'm, 
 which he chofe to latinize into Cah'w.tis, ftyling him- 
 felf in the title-page to his firft work (a Commentary 
 on Seneca de dementia), " Lucius Calvinus, Civis Roma- 
 nus;" an early proof of his pride, at about 24 years 
 of age. In 1529, he was redlor of Pont I'Eveque; and 
 in 1534 he threw up this benefice, feparating himfelf 
 Vol. IV. Part L r . a 
 
 f 49 ] 
 
 C A L 
 
 entirely from the Romifli church. The pcffecution CalvJn, 
 againft the Proteftants in France (with whom he was Calviniim. 
 nowaffociated) obliged him to retire to Bafle in Swit- ^^"^ 
 zerland : here he publifhed his famous Inftitutes of the 
 Chriftian religion in 1535. The following year, he 
 was chofen profeffor of divinity, and one of the mini- 
 fters of the church, at Geneva. The next year, viz. 1 5 3 7, 
 he made all the people folemnly fwear to a body of doc- 
 trines; butfinding that religion had not yet had any great 
 influence on the morals of the people, he, aflifted by other 
 minifters, declared, that fince all their admonitions and 
 warnings had proved unfuccefsful, they could not cele- 
 brate the holy facrament as long as thefe diforders 
 reigned ; he alfo declared, that he could not fubmitto 
 fome regulations made by the fynod of Berne. Upon 
 which the Syndics having fummoned the people, it 
 was ordered that Calvin and two other minifters fliould 
 teave the city within two days. Upon this Calvin re- 
 tired to Strafl)urg, where he eftabliflied a French 
 church, of which he was the firft minifter, and was al- 
 fo chofen profeiTor of divinity there. Two years af- 
 ter he was chofen to affift at the diet appointed by 
 the empei-or to meet at Worms and at Ratifton in order 
 to appeafe the troubles occafioned by the difference of 
 religion. He went with Bucer, and entered into a 
 conference with Melanfton. The people of Geneva 
 now entreated him to return ; to which he confented, 
 and arrived at Geneva, September 13th 1541. He 
 began with eftabhfliing a form of ecclefiaftical' difci- 
 phne, _and a confiftorial jurifdiftion, with the power of 
 infliaing all kinds of canonical punifliments. This 
 was greatly difliked by many perfons, who imagined 
 that the papal tyranny would foon be revived. Calvin 
 however, aflerted on all occafions the rights of his 
 confiftory with inflexible ftridnefs ; and he caufed Mi- 
 chael Servetus to be burnt at the ftake for writing a- 
 gainft: the dodrine of the Trinity. But though the 
 rigour of his proceedings fometimes occafioned great 
 tumults in the city, yet nothing could fliake his ftea- 
 dmefs and mflexibihty. Amongft all the difturbances 
 of the commonwealth, he took care of the foreign 
 churches in England, France, Germany, and in Po- 
 land ; and did more by his pen than his prefence, fend- • 
 ing his advice and inftruftions by letter, and writing 
 a great number of books. This great reformer died 
 on the 2 7th of May 1 564, aged 55. His works were 
 pnnted together at Amfterdam in 1671, in nine vo* 
 lumes folio : the principal of which are his Inftitutions, 
 in Latin, the beft edition of which is that of Robert 
 Stephens in 1553, in folio ; and his Commentaries on 
 the Holy Scriptures.— Calvin is univerfally allowed 
 to have had great talents, an excellent genius, and pro. 
 found learning. His ftyle is grave and polite. Inde- 
 pendent of his fpiritual pride, his morals were exem- 
 plary ; for he was pious, fober, chafte, laborious, and 
 difinterefted. But his memory can never be purified 
 from the ftain of burning Servetus : it ill became a 
 reformer to adopt the moft odious pradice of the cor- 
 rupt church of Rome. 
 
 CALVINISM, the doarine and fentiments of 
 Calvm and his followers. Calvinifm fubfifts in its 
 greateft purity in the city of Geneva; and from thence 
 It was firft propagated into Germany, France, the U- 
 nited Provinces, and England. In France it was abo- 
 Lflied by the revocation of the edia of Nantz in 1685. 
 
 G It 
 
C A L 
 
 [ 50 1 
 
 C A L 
 
 Calvities. 
 
 CalvInHii) It has been tKe prevailing religion in the United Pro- 
 f vinces everJince the year 1571. The theological fyf- 
 tem of Calvin was adopted, and made the public rule 
 of faith in England, under the reign of Edward VI. 
 and the church of Scotland was modelled by John 
 Knox, the difciple of Calvin, agreeably to the doc- 
 trine, rites, and form of eccleliaftical government, efta- 
 blifhed at Geneva. In England it has declined fince 
 the time of queen EUzabeth ; though it ftill fubfifts, 
 fome fay a little allayed, in the articles of the eftablifli- 
 ed church ; and in its rigour in Scotland. 
 
 The diftinguifhing theological tenets of Calvinifm, as 
 the term is now generally applied, refpeft the doc- 
 trines of Predestination, or particular Election 
 and Reprobation, original Sin, particular Redemp- 
 tion, effeftual, or, as fome have called it, irrefiftible 
 Grace in regeneration, Justification by faith, Per- 
 severance, and the Trinity. See each of thefe arti« 
 cles. 
 
 Befides the doftrinal part of Calvin's fyftem, which, 
 fo far as it differs from that of other reformers of the 
 fame period, principally regarded the abfolute decree 
 of God, whereby the future and eternal condition of 
 the human race was determined out of mere fovereign 
 pleafure and free-will ; it extended Hkewife to the dif- 
 clpline and government of the Chriftian church, the- 
 nature of the Eucharift, and the qualification of thofe 
 who were intitled to the participation of it. Calvin 
 confidered every church as a feparate and independent 
 body, Invefted with the power of legiflation for itfelf. 
 He propofed that it (hould be governed by preftyteries 
 and fynods, compofed of clergy and laity, without 
 biOiops, or any clerical fubordination ; and maintain- 
 ed, that the province of the civil magiftrate extended 
 only to its protection and outward accommodation. 
 In order to facilitate an union with the Lutheran church, 
 he acknowledged a real, though fpiritual, prefence of 
 Chrift, in the Eucharift, that true Chriftians were uni- 
 ted to the man Chrift in this ordinance, and that di- 
 was conferred upon them, and fealed to 
 
 grace 
 
 and he confined the 
 
 them, in the celebration of it 
 privilege of communion to pious and regenerate be- 
 lievers. In France the Calvinifts are diftmguifhed by 
 the name oi Huguenots; and, among the common people, 
 by that of ParpalUots. In Germany they are con- 
 founded with the Lutherans, under the general title 
 ProteJIants ; only fometimes diftinguifhed by the name 
 Reformed. 
 
 CALVINISTS, in church-hiftory, thofe who fol- 
 low the opinions of Calvin. See the two preceding 
 articles. 
 
 Crypto-CALvwisTs, a name given to the favourers 
 of Calvinifm in Saxony, on account of, their fecret at- 
 tachment to the Genevan doftrine and difcipHne. 
 Many of them fuffered by the decrees of the convoca- 
 tion of Torgaw, held in 1576. The Calvinifts in their 
 progrefs have divided into various branches, or lelTer 
 feas. 
 
 CALVISIUS (Seth), a celebrated German chro- 
 nologer in the beginning of the 1 yth century. He 
 wrote Elenchus calendarli Gregortani, et duplex calendarii 
 melioris forma, and other learned works, together with 
 fome excellent treatifes on mufic. He died in 1617, 
 aged 61. 
 
 CALVITIES, or Calvi.tium, in medicine, bald- 
 
 nefs, or a want of hair, particularly on the finclput, 
 
 occafioned by the moifture of the head, which ftiould - 
 feed it, being dried up, by fome difeafe, old age, 
 or the immoderate ufe of powder, &c. See Alo- 
 pecia. , 
 
 CALLIMET, a fymbolical inftrument of great im- 
 portance among the American Indians. — It is nothing 
 more than a pipe, whofe bowl is generally made of a 
 foft red marble : the tube of a very long reed, orna- 
 mented with the wings and feathers of birds. No af- 
 fair of confequence is tranfaAed without the calumet. 
 It ever appears in meetings of commerce or exchanges ; 
 in congreffes for determining of peace or w^ar ; and 
 even in the very fury of a battle. The acceptance of the 
 calumet is a mark of concurrence with the terms pro- 
 pofed ; as the refufal is a certain mark of rejection. 
 Even in the rage of a conflict this pipe is fometirnes 
 offered ; and if accepted, the weapons of deftruftion 
 inftantly drop from their hands, and a truce enfues. It 
 feems the facrament of the favages ; for no compatt 
 is ever violated which is confirmed by a whiff from 
 this holy reed. When they treat of war, the pipe and 
 all its ornaments are ufually red, or fometimes red on- 
 ly on one fide. The fize and decorations of the calu- 
 met are for the moft part proportioned to the quality 
 of the perfons to whom they are prefented, and to the 
 Importance of the occafion. The calumet of peace is dif- 
 ferent from that of war. They make ufe of the for- 
 mer to feal their alliances and treaties, to travel with 
 fafety, and to receive ftrangers ; but of the latter to 
 proclaim war. It confifts of a red ftone, like marble, 
 formed into a cavity refembfing the head of a tobacco 
 pipe, and fixed to a hollow reed. They adorn it with 
 feathers of various colours ; and name it the calumet 
 of the fun, to which luminary they prefent it, in ex- 
 pedtation of thereby obtaining a change of weather as 
 often as they defire. From the winged ornaments of 
 the calumet, and its conciliating ufes, writers compare 
 it to the caduccus of Mercuiy, which was carried by 
 the caduceatores, or meffengers of peace, with terms 
 to the hoftile ttates. It is fingular, that the moft re- 
 mote nations, and the moft oppofite in their other 
 cuftoms and manners, fliould in fome things have, 
 as it were, a certain confent of thought. The Greeks 
 and the Americans had the fame idea, jn the inven- 
 tion of the caduceus of the one, and the calumet of the 
 other. 
 
 Dattce of the Calumet, is a folemn rite among the 
 Indians on various' occafions. They dare not wafh 
 themfelves in rivers in the beginning of fummer, nor 
 tafte of the new fruits, without performing it ; and 
 the fame ceremony always confirms a peace or precedes 
 a war. It is performed in the winter-time in their 
 cabins, and in fummer in the open fields. For this 
 purpofe they choofe a fpot among trees to ftiade 
 them from the heat of the fun, and lay in the middle 
 a large mat, as a carpet, fetting upon it the monitor, 
 or god, of the chief of the company. On the right 
 hand of this image they place the calumet, as their 
 great deity, erefting around it a kind of trophy with 
 their arms. Things being thus difpofed, and the hour 
 of dancing come, thofe who are to fing take the moft 
 honourable feats under the fliade of the trees. The 
 company is then ranged round, every one, before he fits 
 down, faluting the monitor, which is done by blowing 
 
 upon 
 
 Calumet. 
 
amct: 
 
 , (I 
 
 alyb'.tess 
 
 C A L [ 5 
 
 upon it the fmokc of tlicir tobacco. Each perfon next re- 
 ceives the cahimet in rotation, and holding it with both 
 hands, dances to the cadence of the vocal mufic, which 
 is accompanied with the beating of a fort of drum. 
 During this exercife, he gives a iignal to one of their 
 M'arriors, who takes a bow, arrow, and axe, from the 
 trophies aheady mentioned, and fights him ; the for- 
 mer defending himfelf with the calumet only, and both 
 of them dancing all the while. This mock engage- 
 ment being over, he who holds the calumet makes a 
 fpeech, in which he gives an account of the battles 
 he has fought, and the prifoners he has taken, and 
 then receives a cloak, or fome other prefent, from the 
 chief of the ball. He then refigns the calumet to an- 
 other, who having afted a fimilar part, dehvers it to a 
 third, who aftervs-ards gives it to his neighbour, till at 
 laft the inilrument returns to the perfon that began the 
 ceremony, who prefents it to the nation invited to the 
 feaft, as a mark of their friendlliip, and a confirmation 
 of their alliance, when this is the occafion of the en- 
 tertainment. 
 
 CALUMNY, the crime of accufing another falfely, 
 znd knowingly fo, of fome heinous offence. 
 
 Oath of Calumny, Juramentum (or rather yusju- 
 ranclmn) Calumnla, among civilians and canonifts, was 
 an oath which both parties in a caufe were obliged to 
 take ; the plaintifi" that he did not bring his charge, 
 and the defendant that he did not deny it, with a defign 
 to abufe each other, but becaufe they believed their 
 caufe was jufl: and good ; that they would not deny 
 the truth, nor create unneceflary delays, nor offer the 
 judge or evidence any gifts or bribes. If the plaintiff 
 refiifed this oath, the complaint or libel was difmiffed; 
 Lt the defendant, it was taken pro confejfo. This cuftom 
 was taken from the ancient athletge ; who, before they 
 engaged, were to fwear that they had no malice, nor 
 would ufe any unfair means for overcoming each other. 
 The juramentum calnmnix is much difufed, as a great 
 occafion of perjury. Anciently the advocates and proc- 
 tors alfo took this oath ; but of late it is difpenfed 
 Tvith, and thought. fufhcient that they take it once for 
 all at their firll admilTion to praftice. See alfo Law, 
 Part IIL n° clxxxiv. 7. 
 
 CALVUS (Cornelius Licinius), a celebrated Ro- 
 man orator, was the friend of Catullus ; and flourifhed 
 64 B. C. Catullus, Ovid, and Horace, fpeak of him. 
 
 CALX properly fignifies lime, but is alfo ufed by 
 chcmiils and phyficians for a fine powder remaining 
 after the calcination or corrofion of metals and other 
 mineral fubftances. All metallic calces, at leafl all 
 thofe made by fire, are found to weigh more than the 
 metal from which they were originally produced. See 
 the article Fire. 
 
 Calx Nat'j-vo, in natural hiilory, a kind of marly 
 earth, of a dead whitifh colour, which, if thrown into 
 water, makes a confiderable bubbling and hiifing noife, 
 and has, without previous burning, the quality of ma- 
 king a cement like lime or plafter of ParLj. 
 
 Calx Viva, or ^iek~Jime, that whereon no water 
 has been caft, in contradiftinftion to hme which has been 
 fiaked by pouring water on it. 
 
 CALYBITES, the inhabitant of a cottage, an ap- 
 pellation given to divers faints , on account of their 
 long refidence in fome hut, by way of mortification. 
 
 I 3 C A L 
 
 The word is formed from x«\u*»'«, tego, I cover ; 
 whence naxvCw, a little cot. — The Romifh church com- 
 memorates St John the calybites on the 15th of De- 
 cember. 
 
 CALYCANTHEM^, in botany, an order of 
 plants in the Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Lin- 
 naeus, in which are the following genera, viz. epilo- 
 bium, Oenothera, julTiKa, ludivigia, oldenlandia, ifnar- 
 da, &c. See Botany, feft. vi. 17. 
 
 CALYCANTHUS, in botany : A genus of the 
 polygynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method claffed with thofe 
 of which the order is doubtfuL The calyx is mono- 
 phyllous, urceolate, or blown up ; fquanofe, or friz- 
 zled with fmall coloured leaves, the corolla confiiling 
 of the leaves on the calyx ; the Hyles are numerous, eacli 
 with a glandular ftigma ; the feeds are many, each 
 with a train, within a fucculent calyx. There are two 
 fpecies; namely, i. The prcecox, which is not quite 
 inured to this cHmate ; and, 2. The floridus, a flower- 
 . ing calycanthue, or Carolina allfpice tree, a native of 
 Carohna. It feldom grows, at leaft with us, to more than 
 five feet high. It divides into many branches irregularly 
 near the ground. They are of a brown colour, and 
 being bruifed emit a moft agreeable odour. The leaves 
 that garnifh this delightful aromatic are of an oval fi- 
 gure, pointed; They are near four inches long, and 
 are at leaft two and a half broad, and are placed oppo- 
 fite by pairs on the branches. At the end of thefe 
 ftand the flowers, of a kind of chocolate-purple colour, 
 and which are poffeffed of the oppofite qualities of the 
 bark on the branches. They iland fingle on their fhort 
 footftalks, come out ui May and June, and are fuc- 
 ceeded by ripe feeds in England. The prapagation 
 of this fhrub is not very difficult ; though more than 
 common care muft be taken, after fmall plants are 
 obtained, to preferve them till they are of a fize to be 
 ventured abroad. The laft year's fhoots, if laid in the 
 ground, the bark efpecially being a little bruifed, will 
 ftrike root within the compafs of twelve months, par- 
 ticularly if the layers are fnaded, and now and then 
 watered in the fummer's drought. In the fpring they 
 fhould be taken off, and planted in pots ; and if thefe 
 are afforded a fmall degree of heat in a bed, they will 
 ftrike fo much the fooner and ftronger. After they^ 
 bavejjeen in this bed a month or fix weeks, they fhould 
 be taken out. In the heat of the fummer they fhould 
 be placed in .the ftiade ; and if the pots are plunged 
 into the natural ground, it will be fo much the better. 
 At the approach of the fucceeding winter's bad wea- 
 ther, the pots fliould be removed into the green-houfe, 
 or fome fiielter, and in the fpring may refmne their old 
 Rations : and this fhould be repeated till they are of a; 
 proper fize and ftrength to be planted out to ftand. If 
 the pots in which they were firft planted were fmall, 
 they rnay be fiiifted into larger a fpring or two after ; 
 and, when they have got to be pretty ftrong plants, 
 they may be turned out, mould and all, into the places 
 where they are to remain. By this care of potting 
 them, and houfing them during the fevere weather in 
 winter, the young crop will be preferved ; otherwife, 
 if they were planted immediately abroad, the firft hard 
 froft the enfuing winter would deftroy them all : Tan- 
 ner's bark about their roots ^will be the moft proper 
 G 2 fecurityi 
 
 Ca!ycan- 
 themsB, 
 Calycan« 
 thus. 
 
C A L 
 
 Calyciflors fecurlty ; as they are at beft, when 
 
 tender plants, and muft have the warmell fituation and 
 the drieft foil. 
 
 CALYCIFLORiE, in botany, the i6th order in 
 
 Linnaeus's Fragmenta mcthodi naturalis, confifting of 
 
 Camaieu. 
 
 plants which, as the title imports, have the ftamina 
 (the flower) inferted into the calyx. This order con- 
 tains the following genera, viz. eleagnus, hippophae, 
 ©fyris, and trophis. See Botany, feft. vi. i6. 
 
 CALYCISTtE (from cfl/yx the flower-cup), fy He- 
 matic botanifl:s, fo termed by Linnaeus, who have ar- 
 ranged all vegetables- from the different fpecies, ilruc- 
 ture, and other circumftances, of the calyx or flower- 
 cup. The only fyllems of this kind are the Chara8er 
 plantarum novus, a pofthumous work of Magnolius, 
 profeflbr of botany at Montpelier, publifhed in 1720 ; 
 and LinnjEUs's Methodus calyc'ma, publiftied in his 
 Clajfes plantarum^ at Leyden, in 1738. See Botany, 
 p. 425. 
 
 CALYDON, (anc. geog.)J a town of ./EoHa, fitu- 
 ated feven miles and a half from the fea, and divided 
 by the river Evenus : the country was anciently called 
 Molts, from the TEolians its inhabitants. This country 
 was famous for the ftory of Meleager and tha Calydo- 
 nian boar. 
 
 CALYPSO, in febulous hiftory, a goddefs, who 
 was the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or, as others 
 fay, of Atlas. She was queen of the ifland of Ogygia, 
 which from her was called the ifland of Calypfo. Ac- 
 cording to Homer, Ulyfles fuffered fhipwreck on her 
 coaft, and ftaid with her feveral years. 
 
 CALYPTRA, among botanifl.s, a thin membrana- 
 c^us involucrum, ufually of a conic figure, which co- 
 vers the parts of fruftification. The capfules of moft 
 of the moffes have calyptrae. 
 
 CALYX, among botanifl;s, a general term exprcf- 
 fing the cup of a flower, or that part of a plant which 
 furrounds and fupports the other parts of the flower. 
 
 The cups of flowers are very various in their flruc- 
 ture, and on that account diftinguifhed by feveral 
 names, as perianth'ium, involucrum, fpatha, gluma, &c. 
 See Botany, p. 439. 
 
 CALZADA, a town of Old Cafl;ile in Spain, feat- 
 €d on the river Leglera. W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat. 
 42. 12. 
 
 CAM-EA, in- natural hiftory, a genus of the femi- 
 pellucid gems approaching to the onyx ftrufture, be- 
 ing compofed of zones, and formed on a cryftaUine 
 balls ; but having their zones very broad and thick, 
 and laid alternately one on another, with no common 
 matter between ; ufually lefs tranfparent, and more 
 debafed with earth, than the onyxes, 
 
 I. One fpecies of the camaea is th^ dull-looking 
 onyx, with broad black and white zones ; and is the 
 camaea of the moderns, and the Arabian onyx. This 
 fpecies is found in Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, andtheEaft 
 Indies. 2. Another fpecies of the cama»a is the dull 
 broad zoned, green and white camsa, or the jafpi- 
 cameo of the Itahans : it is found in the Eafl Indies, 
 and in fome parts of America. 3. The third is tjie hard 
 cam-cca, with broad white and chefnut coloured veins. 
 4. The hard camaea, with bhiifh, white, and flefli-co- 
 loured broad veins, being the fardonyx of Pliny's time, 
 cnly brought from the Eaft Indies. 
 
 CAMAIEU, or Camay eu, a word ufed to exprefs 
 3. peculiar fort of onyx : aUo by fome to exprefs a 
 
 [ j2 ] CAM 
 
 full grown, but ftone, whereon are found various figures, and repre- C.v.n^ 
 fentations of landscapes, &c. formed by a kind of lufus 
 nature ; fo as to exhibit piftures without painting. 
 The word eomes from camehulay a name the Orientals 
 give to the onyx, when they find, in preparing it, a- 
 
 aicu 
 I 
 
 rana. 
 
 nother colour ; as who fliould fay, a fecond Jione, It is 
 of thefe camaieux Pliny is to be underllood when he 
 fpeaks of the manifold pifture of gems, and the party- 
 coloured fpots of precious Hones : Gemmarum piSura 
 tarn multiplex, lapidumque tarn difcolores macuU, 
 
 Camaieu is alfo applied by others to thofe precious 
 ftones, as onyxes, cornelians, and agates, whereon the 
 lapidaries employ their art to aid nature, and perfect 
 thofe reprefentations. See QA.tiiMk. 
 
 Camaieu is alfo frequently applied to any kind of 
 gem, whereon figures may be engraven either indent- 
 edly or in relievo. In this fenfe the lapidaries of Pa- 
 ris are called in their ftatutes, cutters of camayeux. 
 
 A fociety of learned men at Florence undertook t» 
 procure all the cameos or camayeux, and intaglios in the 
 great duke's gallery to be engraven ; and began to 
 draw the heads of divers emperors in cameos. 
 
 Camaieu is alfo ufed for a painting, wherein there 
 is only one colour ; and where the lights and fliadows 
 are of gold, wrought on a golden or azure ground.^ 
 When the ground is yellow, the French call it cirage ; 
 when grey, grijfaile. This kind of work is chiefly 
 ufed to reprefent baflb relievos : the Greeks call pieces 
 
 of this fort ,ciOK);,jf a^ara. 
 
 CAMALDULIANS, Camaldunians, or Ca- 
 MALDOLiTES, an Order of religious, founded by Ro- 
 muald, an Italian fanatic, in 1023, in the horrible 
 defart of Camaldoli, otherwife called Canipo-Malduli, 
 fituate in the itate of Florence, on the Apennines. 
 Their rule is that of St Benedid ; and their houfes, 
 by the ftatutes, are never to be lefs than five leagues 
 from cities. The Camaldulians have not borne that 
 title from the beginning of their order ; till the clofe 
 of the eleventh century they were called Romualdins, 
 from the name of their founder. Till that time, Ca- 
 maldulian was a particular name for thofe of the defart 
 Camaldoli; and D. Grandi obferves, was not given to 
 the whole order, in regard it was in this monaftery 
 that the order commenced, but becaufe the regulation 
 was beft maintained here. 
 
 Guido Grandi, mathematician of the great duke of 
 Tufcany, and a monk of this order, has publiflied 
 Camaldulian DifTertations, on the origin and eftablifhr 
 ment of it. 
 
 The Camaldolites were diftinguifhed into two clafTes, 
 of which the one were coenobites, and the other 
 
 EREMITES. 
 
 CAMALODUNUM (anc. geog.), a town of the 
 Trinobantes, the firlt Roman colony in Britain, of 
 veterans, under the emperor. From the Itineraries it 
 appears to have flood where now Maiden flands. It 
 continued to be an open place under the Romans ; a 
 place of pleafure rather than ftrength ; yet not un- 
 adorned with fplendid works, as a theatre and a temple 
 of Claudius : which the Britons confidered as badges 
 of flavery, and which gave rife to feveral feditions and 
 commotions. It ftands on a bay of the fea, at the 
 mouth of the Chelmer, in the county of EfTex ; the 
 modern name is curtailed from the ancient. 
 
 CAM A RANA, an ifland of Arabia, in the Red 
 Sea, whofe inhabitants are little and black. It is the 
 
 bell 
 
CamaiTei 
 
 II 
 
 Camhaycs. 
 
 CAM [53 
 
 befl: of all the iflands in this fea, and Htre they fi(h for 
 coral and pearls. N. Lat. 15, o. 
 
 CAMASSEI, or Camace, (Andrea), painter of 
 hiftory and landfcape, was born at Bevagna, and at firft 
 Icained the principles of defign and colouring from 
 Domenichino ; but afterwards he ftudied in the fchool 
 of Andrea Sacchi, and proved a very great painter. 
 He was employed in St Peter's at Rome, as alfo at 
 John Lateran ; and his works are extremely admired, 
 for the fweetnefs of his colouring, the elegance of his 
 thoughts and defign, and likewife for the delicacy of his 
 pencil. Sandrart laments that the world was deprived of 
 fo promifing a genius, in the very bloom of hfe, when 
 his reputation was daily advancing. He died in 1 657. 
 At St John Lateran are to be feen, the Battle of Con- 
 fta'ntine and Maxentius ; and the Triumph of Con- 
 ftantine ; which are noble and grand compofitions ; 
 and they afford fyfficient proofs of the happinefs of his 
 invention and the correftnefs of his execution. Alfo 
 at Wilton, the feat of the earl of Pembroke, there is a 
 pifture of Venus with the Graces, faid to be by the 
 hand of Camaffei. 
 
 CAMARCUM, (anc. geog.), the capital of the 
 Nei vii, a people of Gallia Belgica, (Antonine, Peutin- 
 ger) ; before whofe time no mention was made of it. 
 Now Cambray, capital of the Cambrefis, in French 
 Flanders, E. Long. 3. 15. Lat. 50. 15. 
 
 CAMARINA, (anc. geog.), a city of Sicily, built 
 by the Syracufans on an eminence near the fea, in 
 the fouth of Sicily, to the well of the promontory 
 Pachynum, between two rivers, the Hipparis and 
 Oanus. Of fo famous a city nothing now remains but 
 its name and ancient walls, a mile and a half in com- 
 pals, with the flight remains of houfes : now called 
 Camc3jrana. 
 
 Camarii^a Pahs, a marfii or lake, near the city Ca- 
 nnarina, and from which it took its name. In a tinne of 
 drought, the llench of the lake produced a peftilence ; 
 upon which the inhabitants confulted the oracle, whether 
 they fhould not quite drain it. The oracle diffuaded them : 
 they notwithitanding drained it, and opened a way for 
 their enemies to come and plunder their city ; hence the 
 proverb, Ne moveas Camarinam, that is, not to remove 
 one evil to bring on a greater. Now Lago di Catnarana, 
 fituate in a beautiful plain, under the very walls of Ca- 
 marina, and of a triangular form. 
 
 CAMAYEU. See Camaieu. 
 
 CAMBAIA, or Campay, a tov/n of Afia, in In- 
 dia, and in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges ; ca- 
 pital of a province of the fame name ; but more com- 
 monly called Gvzarat. It is feated at the bottom of 
 a gulph of the fame name, on a fmall river; is a large 
 place with high walls, and has a pretty good trade. 
 The produft and maniifaftures are inferior to few 
 towns in India ; for it abounds in corn, cattle, and 
 filk ; and cornelian and agate ftoncs are found in its ri- 
 vers. The inhabitants are noted for embroidery ; and 
 fome of their quilts have been valued at 40!. It is 
 fubjedl to the Great Mogul. E. Long. 72. 15. N. 
 Lat. 2Z 30. 
 
 CAMBAYES, in commerce, cotton cloths made 
 at Bengal, Madras, and fc me other places on the coatl 
 are proper 
 
 of Cororcandcl. They 
 
 for the trade of 
 
 Marfeilles, whither the Enghfh at Madras fend great 
 numbers uf them. Many are alfo imported into Holland. 
 
 I. 
 
 ] C A M 
 
 CAMBER, according to our monkifh hlftorians, 
 one of the three fons of Brute, who, upon his father's 
 death, had that part of Britain affigned him for his , 
 fhare, called from him Cambria now Wales. 
 
 CAMBEK-Beam, among builders, a piece of timber 
 in an edifice cut archwife, or with an obtufe angle in 
 the middle, commonly ufed in platforms, as church- 
 leads, and on other occafions where long and ftrong 
 beams are required. 
 
 CAMBERED-DECKS, among fiiip-builders. The 
 deck or flooring of a fliip is faid to be cambered, or to 
 lie cambering, when it is higher in the middle of the 
 fhip's length, and droops toward the item and ftern, 
 or the two ends. Alfo when it lies irregular; a circum- 
 ftance which renders the fhip very unfit for war. 
 
 CAMBERT, a French mufician in the 17th cen- 
 tury, was at firft admired for the manner in which he 
 touched the organ, and became fuperintendant of the 
 mufic to Anne of Auftria the queen-mother. The 
 abbe Perrin affociated him in the privilege he obtained 
 of his majefty, of fetting up an opera in 1669. Cam- 
 ber t fet to mufic two paftorals, one entitled Pomona^ 
 the other /Iriachie, which were the firft operas given in 
 France. He alfo wrote a piece entitled The pains and 
 pleafures of love. Thefe pieces pleafed the public ; yet, 
 in 1672, Lully obtaining the privilege of the opera, 
 Cambert was obliged to come to England, where he 
 became fuperintendant of the mufic to king Charles II. 
 and died there in 1677. 
 
 CAMBIO, an Italian word which fignifies ^^cf^ijw^^; 
 commonly ufed at Province, and in fome other coun- 
 tries, particularly Holland. 
 
 CAMBIST, a name given in France to thofe who 
 trade in notes and bills of exchange. The word cam- 
 bift, though a term of antiquity, is even now a technical 
 word, of fome ufe among merchants, traders, and bank- 
 ers. Some derive it from the Latin cambium^ or ra- 
 ther caml'io. 
 
 CAMBLET, or Chamblet, a ftuff fometimes of 
 wool, fometimes filk, and fometimes hair, efpecially 
 that of goats, with wool or filk : in fome, the warp 
 is filk and wool twifted together, and the woof hair. 
 
 The true or oriental camblet is made of the pure 
 hair of a fort of goat, frequent about Angora, and 
 which makes the riches of that city, all the inhabitants 
 whereof are employed in the manufafture and com- 
 merce of camblets. It is certain we find mentioned in 
 middle-age writers ftuffs made of camel's hair, un- 
 der the denominations of cameletum and camelinumy 
 whence probably the origin of the term ; but thefe 
 are reprefented as ftrangely coarfe, rough, and prick- 
 ly, and feem to have been chiefly ufed among the 
 monks by w^iy of mortification, as the hair-ihirt of la- 
 ter times. 
 
 We have no camblets made in Europe of the goats 
 hair alone ; even at BrufTels, they find it neceffary to 
 add a mixture of woollen thread. 
 
 England, France, Holland, and Flanders, are the 
 chief places of this manufafture. Btuffels exceeds them 
 all in the beauty and quality of Its camblets : thofe of 
 Ensrland are reputed the fecond. 
 
 Figured Caubl&^s^ are thofe of one colour, whereon 
 are ftampcd various figures, fiowers, foliage, &c. by 
 means of hot ironr, which are a kind of moulds, paffed 
 together with the ftuff, under a prefs. Thefe are chief- 
 
 Camber 
 II 
 
 Camblet. 
 
CAM 
 
 C 54 3 
 
 CAM 
 
 II 
 
 Catnbray. 
 
 ly brouglit From Amiens and Flaaders : the commerce 
 of thefe was anciently much more conliderable than at 
 prefent. 
 
 Watered- Camblets, thofc which, after weaving, re- 
 ceive a certain preparation with water ; and are after- 
 wards pafled under a hot-prefs, which gives them a 
 fmoothnefs and luftre. 
 
 Waved-CAMBLETSf are thofe whereon waves are im- 
 preffed, as on tabbies ; by means of a calender, under 
 which they arc pafled and repafTed feveral times. 
 
 The manufafturers, &c. of camblets are to take care 
 they do not acquire any falfe and needlefs plaits ; it be- 
 ing almoft impoflible to get them out again. This is 
 notorious, even to a proverb : we fay, a perfon is like 
 camblet, he has taken his plait. 
 
 CAMBODIA, a kingdam of Afia, in the Eaft In- 
 dies, bounded on the north by the kingdom of Laos, 
 on the «aft by Cochin-China and Chiapa, and on the 
 fouth and weft by the gulph and kingdom of Siam ; 
 divided by a large river called Mecon. The capital 
 ■town is of the fame name, feated on the weftern fhore 
 of the faid river, about 1 50 miles north of its mouth. 
 This country is annually overflowed in the rainy 
 feafon, between June and Oftober ; and Its produc- 
 tions and fruits are much the fame with thofe ufually 
 found between the tropics. E.Long. 104. 15. N. Lat. 
 12. 40. 
 
 CAMBODUNUM, (Itinerary ); a town of the 
 Brigantes, in Britain ; now in ruins, near Almonbury, 
 
 for arms is of an extraordinary largenefs, and capable Cambray 
 of receiving the whole garrifon in order of battle. The H 
 cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary is one of the ^ ' 
 
 finefl in Europe. The body of the church is very large, 
 and there are rich chapels, the pillars of which are a- 
 dorned with marble tombs that are of exquiiite work- 
 manship, and add greatly to the beauty of the place. 
 There are two galleries, one of which is of copper, 
 finely wrought. The door of the choir is of the fame 
 metal, and well carved. The fteeple of this church is 
 very high, and built in the form of a pyramid ; and 
 from its top you have a view of the city, which is 
 one of the fineft and moll agreeable in the Low Coun- 
 tries. There are nine parilhes, four abbeys, and fe- 
 veral convents for both fexes. The citadel is very ad- 
 vantageoufly fitiiated on high ground, and commands 
 the whole city. Cambray is one of the moft opulent 
 and commercial cities in the Low Countries ; and 
 makes every year a great nuniher of pieces of cambric, 
 with which the inhabitants drive a great trade. E. 
 Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 50. II. 
 
 Cambray (M. de Fenelon, archbifhop of). See 
 Fenelon. 
 
 CAMBRESIS, a province of France, in the Nether- 
 lands, about 25 miles in length. It is bounded on the 
 north and eaft by Hainhalt, on the fouth by Picardy, 
 and on the weft by Artois. It is a very fertile and 
 populous country ; and the inhabitants are iuduftrious, 
 a<Slive, and ingenious. The trade confifts principally 
 
 in York-fliire. Weftchefter, (Talbot.) Alfo a town of jn corn, fheep, very fine wool, and fine linen cloth. 
 Vindehcia, on the Cambus : now Kempten, in Suabia. Cambray is the capital town. 
 
 CAMBOGIA, in botany : A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or- 
 der, Tr'tcocca:. The corolla is tetrapetalous ; the calyx 
 tetraphyllous ; and the fruit is a pome with eight cells, 
 and folitary feeds. There is but one fpecies, the gutta, 
 a native of India, which yields the gum-refin known by 
 the name of gamboge in the 'ftiops. "See Gamboge. 
 
 CAMBRASINES, in commerce, fine linen made 
 in Egypt, of which there is a confiderable trade at 
 Cairo, Alexandria, and Rofetta, or Rafchit. They 
 are called cainbrafmes from their refemblance to cam- 
 brics. 
 
 CAMBRxA-Y, an archiepifcopal city, the capital of 
 the Cambrefis, in the Low Countries, feated on the 
 Scheld. It is defendtd by good fortifications, and 
 has a fort on the fide of the river ; and as the land is 
 low on that fide, they can lay the adjacent parts under 
 water by means of fluices. Its ditches are large and 
 deep, and tliofe of the citadel are cut into a rock. Clo- 
 dion became maftcr of Cambray in 445. The Danes 
 burnt it afterwards ; fince which time it became a free 
 imperial city. It has been the fubjeft of conteft be- 
 tween the emperors, the kings of France, and the earls 
 of Flanders. Francis I. let it remain neutral during 
 the war with Charles V. but this laft took pofleffion of 
 it in 1543. After this it was giveiT to John of Mont- 
 luc by Henry III. of France, whom he created prince 
 of Cambray ; but the Spaniards took it from Montluc 
 in I593» which broke his heart. It continued under 
 the dominion of the Houfe of Auftria till 1677, when 
 the king of France became mafter of it, in whofe hands 
 it has continued ever fince. 
 
 The buildings of Cambray are tolerably handfome, 
 and die ftreets fine and fpacious. The place or fquare 
 
 CAMBRIA, a name for the principality of Wales. 
 CAMBRIC, in commerce, a fpecies of linen made 
 of flax, very fine and white ; the name of which was 
 originally derived from the city of Cambray, where 
 they were firft manufadlured. They are now made at 
 other places in France. 
 
 The manufafture of cambrics hath long fince proved 
 of extraordinary advantage to France. For many 
 years it appeared that England did not in this article 
 contribute lefs than 200,000/. per annum to the inte- 
 reft of Frajice. This proved motive fufiicient to in- 
 duce the parliament of Great Britain to enaft many 
 falutary laws to prevent this great lofs of our wealth. 
 See 18 Geo. II. c. 36. and 21 Geo. II. c. 26. See 
 alfo ftat. 32 Geo. II. c. 32. and 4 Geo. III. c. 37. 
 which regulates the cambric manufactory, not long 
 fince introduced into Winchelfea in Sufiex ; but very 
 foon abolifhed. The cambrics now allowed in this 
 country are manufadlured in Scotland and Ii-eland. 
 Any perfons convifted of wearing, felling (except for 
 exportation), or making up for hire any cambric or 
 French lawns, are liable to a penalty of 5/. by the two 
 fisi-ft ftatutes cited above, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a tow^n of England, and capital 
 of the county of that name. It takes the name of 
 Cambridge fr^m the bridge over the Cam, which di- 
 vides the town into two parts. Either it or a place in 
 the neighbourhood was ttyled Camborltum in the time 
 of the Romans. It fufFered much during the wars 
 with the Danes. Here was a caftle built by William 
 the Conqueror, of which the gatehoufe yet remains, 
 and is now the county goal. By Doomfday-book it 
 appears, that it then had ten wards, containing 387 
 houfes. In William Rufus's reign it was quite de- 
 ftroyed by Roger de Montgomery ; but Henry I. be- 
 llowed 
 
GAM 
 
 eambTid)^ ftowed many privileges upon it to encourage its refto- 
 ' ■' ' 'f^^ ration, particularly an exemption from the power of 
 the fheriff, on condition of its paying yearly into the 
 exchequer loomerks (equivalent to looo pounds now), 
 and from tolls, laftage, pontage, paflage, and ftallagc, 
 in all fairs of his dominions. It was afterwards often 
 plundered in the barons wars by the outlaws from the 
 lile of Ely, till Henry III. fecured it by a deep ditch. 
 In 1 388,- Richard II. held a parliament here. In the 
 rebellion of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw againft that 
 prince, the univerfity records were taken and burnt in 
 the market-place. 
 
 TKhe modern town is about one mile long from S. to 
 N. and about half a mile broad in the middle, dimi- 
 nifliing at the extremities. It has 14 parifii-churches, 
 of which two are without any towers. It contains above 
 I20ohoufe8; but the private buildings are neither 
 tlegant or large, owing chiefly to their being held on 
 college or corporation leafes. It is governed by a 
 mayor, high-fteward, recorder, 13 aldermen, and 24 
 common-council-men, a town-clerk, &c. Its chief 
 trade is water- carriage from hence toDownham, Lynn, 
 Ely, &c. The Jews being encouraged to fettle in 
 England by William I. and II. were very populous 
 here for feveral generations, and inhabited that ftreet 
 BOW called the Jewry. They had a fynagogue, fince 
 converted to a pariih church, called from the fhape of 
 its tower Round Church \ though others are of opinion j 
 that it was built by the Knights Templars, it bearing 
 a refemblance to the temple church in London. The 
 market-place is fituated in the middle of the town, and 
 confillsof two fpacious oblong fquares united together; 
 at the top of the angle Hands the Ihire hall, lately 
 crefted at the expence of the county. At the back 
 of the fhire-hall is the tovvn^hall and gaol. In the 
 market-place, fronting the fliire-hall, is a remakable 
 liandfome ftone conduit, to which water is conveyed 
 by an aqueduft, which was the benefaction of the cele- 
 brated Hobfon, a carrier in the reign of James I. who 
 was a native of this town. A fine road for the benefit 
 of the inhabitants and Undents was made a few years 
 7 iince for 4 miles, fiom this town to Gogmagog- hills, 
 
 purfuant to the will of Mr Wortes. The late Dr Ad- 
 denbroke alfo left it 4000 1. towards building and fur- 
 n ifhing an hofpital for the cure of poor difeafed people 
 gratis : of which charity the matter of Catharine-hall 
 a truftee ; which hofpital has been erefted at the 
 fouth-eall end of the town. At a little diitance from 
 ■ Benet-college is the botanic garden of 5 acres, and a 
 
 large houfe for the ufe of the governors and the refi- 
 dence of the curator, given to the univerfity by the 
 late Dr Walker, who ftttled an eftate on it towards 
 its fupport } to which the late Mr Edward Betham 
 added a very confiderable benefadion. The town has 
 fairs on June 24. and Aug. 14. 
 
 The glory of Cambridge is its univerfity ; but when 
 it had its beginning is uncertain. At firft there was 
 no public provifion for the accommodation or mainte- 
 nance of the fcholars; but afterwards inns began to be 
 erected by pious perfons for their reception, and in 
 the time of Edward I. colleges began to he built and 
 endowed. This univerfity, not inferior to any in 
 Chrillendom, confiils of 1 2 colleges and 4 halls, which 
 have the fame privilege* as the colleges. The whole 
 body, which is commonly about 15CO, enjoys very 
 
 [ 55 ] 
 
 CAM 
 
 great privileges granted by feveral of our fovereigns ; vambridge» 
 but it was James I. who impowered it to fend two " " 
 members to parliament, as the town had done from 
 the firft. The univerfity is governed, 1. By a chan- 
 cellor, who is always fome nobleman, and may be 
 changed every three years, or continued longer by the 
 tacit confent of the univerfity. 2. By a high-fteward^ 
 chofen by the ftnate, and holding his place by patent 
 from the univerfity. 3. By a vice-chancellor, who iV- 
 the head of fome college or hall, and chofen yearly by 
 the body of the univerfity, the heads of the colleges 
 naming two. 4. By two prodlors chofen every year, 
 according to the cycle of colleges and halls ; as are 
 two taxors, who with the proftors regulate the weights 
 and meafures, as clerks of markets. The proftors 
 alfo infpedl the behaviour of the fcholars, who muft 
 not be out of their colleges ^ter nine at night. Here 
 are alfo 2 moderators, 2 fcrutators, a commiflary, pub.^ 
 lie orator, 2 librarians, a regifter, a fchool- keeper, 5 
 efquire beadles and a yeoman beadle, 1 8 profelTors, and 
 the capvit, confifting of the vice-chancellor, a dodtor 
 of divinity, a doftor of laws, a doctor of phyfic, a re- 
 gent, and a non- regent mailer of arts. Henry VI. 
 granted it the power to print all books of any kind 
 within itfelf, a privilege which Oxford had not. The 
 fenate-houfe of the univerfity is an elegant building of 
 the Corinthian order, coft near 16,000 1 building ; in 
 which on the north fide is a fine ttatue of George I. 
 ereded in 1739 at the expence of the late Lord Town- 
 fend ; oppofite to this on the fouth fide is another of 
 George II. ereded in 1765 at the expence of the late 
 Duke of Newcaftle : at the eaft end, on each fide of 
 the entrance, are two others ; one, the late duke of 
 Somerfet, after' the Vandyke tafte ; the other, an Ita- 
 lian emblematical figure of Gloria. This is allowed to 
 be the moft fuperb room in England,- being 10 1 feet 
 long, 42 broad, and 32 high; and it has a gallery 
 which can contain 1000 perfons. This building forms 
 the north fide of a quadrangle, as the fchools and pub- 
 lic library do the weft, the fchools being theground floor, 
 and the library over them furrounding a fmall court. 
 North of the philofoiphy fchool is the repofitory of 
 Dr Woodward's foffils, ores, fiiells, &c. The dodor^ 
 together with that colledtion and a part of his library, 
 left a fum of money to this univerfity for erefting a 
 profeflbrflilp for natural philofophy, with a provifion 
 of 150 1, a-year for ever. At the fouth-eaft corner of. 
 this building is an elegant geometrical ftone ftaircafe 
 which leads to the old library, and confifts of 1 8 claiTes; 
 at the end of which is an elegant fquare room, in which 
 are depofited the MSS. and a valuable cabinet of orien- 
 tal books and curiofitles, &c. This room opens to 
 two other rooms, containing 26 large claffes confifting 
 of 30,000 volumes prefcnted the univerfity by George 1. 
 being the entire coUedtion of Dr Moor bifiiop of Ely, 
 and purchafed of the dodtor's executors by his majefty 
 for 6000 guineas ; before which his majefty gave tlte 
 univerfity 2000I. to defray the expence of fitting up 
 the apartments and eredting cfafles for their reception j 
 they confift of the firft editions of the Greek and La- 
 tin claffics and hiftorlans, and the greateft part of the 
 works of the firft printers ; large coUedlions of prints 
 of the greateft mafters ; and a valuable MS. of the 
 Gofpels and Ads of the Apoftles on vellum, in Greek 
 and Latin capitals, given the univerfity by Theodore 
 
 Beza^ 
 
 M 
 
 6, Vol. IV. to be cancelled, and thefe two 
 
 iiiilil 
 
CAM 
 
 [ 56 1 
 
 GAM 
 
 Cambridge. Beza, and Tuppofed to be as old as any MS. extant. 
 *~v-'~~' The other part of the library has been rebuilt in an 
 elegant manner, and forms the weft fide of the intend- 
 ed quadrangle. The books which are contained in 
 the laft room are part of the old library augmented 
 with a confiderable number of the beft modern books, 
 feveral of which are prefents from foreign fovereigns 
 and eminent men. The fouth fide of this quadrangle 
 is defigned for a building to contain the printing-oflice, 
 &c. of the univerfity, for which preparations began 
 lately to be made by pulling down the old buildings 
 on the fpot. St Mary's church forms the eaft fide of 
 this quadrangle : here the univerfity have their public 
 fermons ; and the pulpit, which ftands in the centre 
 of the church and faces the chancel, has no founding- 
 board. In a grand gallery over part of the chancel is 
 a feat for the chancellor, vice-chancellor, &c. George I. 
 when he gave the books, alfo eftablifhed a profelTor of 
 modern hiftory and modern languages in this univer- 
 fity, with a falary of 400I. for himfelf and two perfons 
 under him qualified to inftruft in that branch 20 fcho- 
 lars, to be nominated by the king, each of which ^is 
 obliged to learn two at leaft of the languages. A fel- 
 lowfhip is founded at Magdalen college, appropriated 
 to the gentlemen of Norfolk, and called the tra'velung 
 Norfolk felloivJJj'tp. All the libraries in Cambridge, 
 except that of the king'a-coUege, are lending libraries; 
 and thofe at Oxford are ftudying libraries. The dif- 
 ferent colleges are as follows. 
 
 I. St Peter's, the moft ancient, and thefirfton entering 
 the town from London, confiding of two courts, fepa- 
 ratcd by a cloifter and gallery. I he largeft is 144 
 feet long, 84 broad. The buildings in this court have 
 been lately repaired In an elegant manner. The lefTer 
 court is divided by the chaptl, which is a fine old 
 building 54 feet long, 27 broad, and 27 high. This 
 college was founded 1257. There are three colleges 
 in Oxford which difpute the antiquity with this. Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford were univerfitits long before they 
 were poflefled of any colleges in their own right, 
 the Undents then lodging and boarding with the 
 townfmen, and they then hired hotels for their ex- 
 ercifes and difputations. A hotel or hall, now deno- 
 minated Pythagoras'' s fchool, fituated on the weft fide of 
 thf river, is one of the ancient hotels that remains un- 
 demoliftied, and in which Erafmus read his firft Greek 
 Icfturcs in England, 2. Clare-hall, on the bank of 
 the river, over which it has an elegant ftone-bridge, 
 was founded 1326, confifting of one grand court 150 
 feet long and 1 1 1 broad. The front of this building 
 that faces the fields has the appearance of a palace. 
 To this college a new chapel has been added. 3. Pem- 
 broke-hall is near St Peter's college, and was founded 
 in 1343, confifts of two courts. It has an elegant 
 chapel built by Sir Chrift. Wren. 4 Corpus Chrifti 
 ' or Bentt college, founded in 1350, has but a mean ap- 
 pearance, but is pofl'efl'ed of a remarkably large col- 
 leftiun of valuable and curious ancient manufcripts. 
 5. Trinity-hall, on the north of Clare-hall, near the 
 river, was founded in 1351 ; it is a fmall but remark- 
 ably neat building. 6. Gonvil and Caius college is 
 near the middle of the town, north of the fenate-houfe, 
 and has three courts. It was founded 13 ,8, andaug- 
 memcd 1557. 7- King's-coUege, the moft noble foun- 
 dation in Europe, was firft endowed by Henry VI. 
 
 The old court refembles a decayed caftle more than a Caaibridge. 
 college. The new building is very magnificent, near — — v-~^ 
 300 feet long. The chapel is one of the fineft pieces 
 of Gothic architedlure now remaining in the world. 
 It is 304 feet long, 73 broad on the outfide and 40 
 within, and 91 high; and yet not a fingle pillar to 
 fuilain its ponderous roofs, of which it has two : the 
 firft is of ftone, 'moft curioufly carved ; the other of 
 wood, covered with lead, between which is a vacancy 
 of 10 feet. There is fuch a profufion of carvings both 
 within and without as is no where to be equalled. 
 Henry VII. enlarged it 188 feet in length, and Hen- 
 ry VIII. gave the elegant ftalls and organ gallery, 
 with its inimitable carvings, where are the coats of 
 arms of that king and thofe of Anne Boleyn quarter- 
 ed. He gave alfo the elegant painted glafs windows, 
 which are in fine prefervation, and were permitted by 
 Cromwell to be preferved when almoft every other in 
 England was deftroyed, as he had a particular regard 
 for this univerfity where he had his education, and 
 for the town which he had reprefented in parHament. 
 A new altar has been lately erefted, which correfponds 
 with the architedlure of the building, embellifhed with 
 an antique painting of Chrift taking down from the 
 crofs, purchafed in Italy, and prefented the college by 
 the earl of Carlifle. In this chapel are put up the 
 Spanifli colours taken at the reduAion of Manilla by 
 Colonel Draper,, a member of this college. This col- 
 lege has an ancient ftone-bridge over the Cam. 8. 
 Queen's- college, near the river, fouth of King's, was 
 founded 1448, and confifts of two courts, with a fine 
 grove and gardens on both fides of the river, connefted 
 with each other and the college by two wooden bridges, 
 one of which is of a curious ftrufture. 9. Catharine- 
 hall is eaft of Qu^een's, and its principal front on the 
 weft, the moft extenfive and regular in the univerfity. 
 It contains only one court 180 fett long and 120 broad, 
 and was founded in 1475. 10 Jefus college is at the 
 eaft end of the town, furrounded by groves and gar- 
 dens. The principal front faces the fouth 180 feet 
 long, regularly built and fafhed ; it was originally a 
 benedidline convent, and converted to the pret'ent ufe 
 1576. II. Chrift's college is oppofite to St Andrew's 
 church, on the eaft fide of the town; and was founded 
 by Henry VII.'s mother in 1505. It has lately had 
 a thorough repair, and is now a neat and beautiful 
 ftrufiture. 12. St John's college was founded by the 
 fame lady in 1 509, on the fite of a diffolved priory. 
 It confifts of three courts, and has a large hbrary filled 
 with fcarce and valuable books. To this college be- 
 longs a fine ftone-bridge over the river, which leads to 
 their grand walks. 13. Magdalen college, the only 
 one that ftands on the north fide of the river, near the 
 great bridge, confifts of two courts, and was founded 
 in 1519. 14. Frinity college is eaft of the river, ha? 
 ving St John's college on the north and Caius's col- 
 lege and Trinity-hall on the fouth. It contains two 
 large quadrangles, the firft of which is 344 feet long 
 and 280 broad It has two noble entrances; and on 
 the north fide of it is the chapel 204 feet long, 34 
 broad, and 44 high. It has every grand ornament, 
 and the much admired ftatue of Sir Ifaac Newton, 
 who was a ftudent in this college. The hall is above 
 100 feet long, 40 broad, and 50 high. The inner 
 Court is efteemed the fineft iu the univerfity, and fur* 
 
 paffea 
 
GAM 
 
 Cambridge, paffes any in Oxford. It is very fpacious, and has an 
 " elegant cloifter of ftone pillars, fupporting grand apart- 
 ments ; on the weft is the library, the moft elegant 
 ftrufture of the kind in the kingdom, 190 feet long, 
 40 broad, and 38 high within. Its entrance is by a 
 ftair-cafe, the fteps black marble, and the walls in- 
 crufted with ancient Roman monuments. The en- 
 trance into the library is by folding doors at the north 
 end. Its infide appearance is inexpreflibly grand, ha- 
 ving at the fouth end (lately erefted) a beautiful 
 painted glafs window of his prefent majefty in his robes ; 
 and the clafTes are large, beautiful, and noble, well 
 flocked with books, manufcripts, &c. Its outfide has 
 every fuitable embellifhment, and was ereded by Sir 
 Chriftopher Wren at the expence of near 20,000 1. 
 Under this building is a fpacious piazza of equal di- 
 menfions; out of which opens three gates to a lawn 
 that leads to the river, over which is a new elegant 
 cycloidal bridge of three arches, leading to exten- 
 five walks. In the middle is a remarkable vifta. This 
 college was founded on the fite of two other colleges 
 and a hall in 1546 by Henry VIII. 15. Emanuel 
 
 [ 55* ] 
 
 GAM 
 
 miclrcle refembling a horfe-flioe. The air is very dif- CambrUge, 
 ferent in different parts of the county. In the fens it Cajridea 
 is moift and foggy, and therefore not fo whole- ^ 
 fome ; but in the fouth and eaft parts it is very good, 
 thefe being much drier than the other : but both, by 
 late improvements, have been rendered very fruit- 
 ful, the former by draining, and the latter by cinque- 
 foil : fo that it produces plenty of corn, efpecily bar- 
 ley, faffron, and hemp, and affords the richeft paftures. 
 The rivers abound with fifh, and the fens with wild 
 fowl. The principal manufadures of the country are 
 malt, paper, and bailcets. As the above trad ap- 
 pears to have been dry land formerly, the great change 
 it has undergone muff have been owing either to a 
 violent breach and inundation of the fea or to earth- 
 quakes. As the towns in and about the fens were 
 great fufferers by the ftagnation of the waters in fum- 
 mer, and want of provlfions in winter, many attempts 
 vs^ere made to drain them, but without fuccefs, until the 
 time of Charles I. in which, and that of his fon, the 
 work was happily completed, and an ad of parliament 
 paffed, by which a corporation was eftabhflied for its 
 
 - ' J/r- "/ n V r .^."ciiiuvi v*iu<-u d curpuraiion was eitaDliined tor its 
 college IS at the lou;:h-ealt end of the town ; confifts prefervation and government. By the fame a6t, 82 000 
 of two courts, the princioal of which is verv neat ! anrl acres were vpHrA .'n fV.» — _„j ' . ' • 
 
 of two courts, the principal of which is very neat; and 
 was built on the fite of a Dominican convent. It has 
 been lately in a great part rebuilt and elegantly em- 
 bellifhed. 16. Sidney-Suffex college is in Bridge-ftreet. 
 Its hall is elegant, but chapel remarkable only for 
 ftanding north and fouth, as others do eaft and weft. 
 
 CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an inland county of Eng- 
 land, boun('ed on the eaft by Norfolk and Suffolk, on 
 the fouth by Effex and Hertforfhire, on the weft by 
 Bedfoi ftiire and Huntingdonfhire, and on the north by 
 Lincolnfhire. Prior to the arrival of the Romans it 
 was included in the antient divifion of the Iceiii ; and 
 after their conqueft in the third province of Flavia 
 Csfarienfis, which reached from the Thames to the 
 Humber. During the Heptarchy it belonged to the 
 kingdom of Eaft Angles, the fixth kindom, which be- 
 gan In 575, and ended in 792, having had 14 kings ; 
 and it is now included in the Norfolk circuit, the dio- 
 cefe of Ely, and province of Canterbury, except a 
 fmall part which is in the dioccfe of Norwich. It is 
 about 40 miles in length from north to fouth, and 25 
 in breadth from eaft to welt, and is 130 miles in cii-- 
 cumference, containing near 570,000 acres. It has 
 about 17,400 houfes, 140,000 inhabitants, is divided 
 into 1 7 hundreds, in which are one city, Ely ; 8 market 
 towns, viz. Cambridge which is the fliire town and a 
 celebrated univerfity : Caxton, Linton, Merch, New- 
 market, Soham Wift)each, Thorney, and part of Roy- 
 fton ; 220 villages, 64 parifhes, fends 2 members to 
 parliaments (exclufive of 2 for the town and 2 for the 
 univedity), pays one part of the land tax, and pro- 
 vides 480 men in the milita. Its only rivers are the 
 Gam,^ the Nene, and the Oufe. A confiderable trad of 
 land in this county is diftinguiihed by the name of the 
 Ifl of Ely. It confifts of fenny ground, divided by in- 
 numerable channels and drains ; and is part of a very 
 fpacious level, containing 300,000 acres of land, tx 
 trending into Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdonfhire, and 
 Lincolnfliire. The Ifle of Ely is the north divifion of 
 the county, and extends fouth almoft as far as Cam- 
 bridge. The whole level, of which this is part, is bound- 
 ed on one fide by the fea, and on the others by up- 
 lands ; which, taken together, forms a rude kind of fe- 
 
 acres were vetted in the corporation and 10,000 in 
 the king. In thefe fens are a great many decoys, in 
 which incredible numbers of ducks, and other wild 
 fowl, are caught during the feafon. 
 
 Ne-w Cambridge, a town of New England about three 
 milesfromBofton,remarkable for an univerfityconfifting- 
 of three colleges. W. Long. 70. 4. N. Lat. 42. o. 
 
 Cambridge Mamifcript, a copy of the Gofpels and 
 Ads of the Apoftles in Greek and Latin. Beza 
 found it in the monaftery of Irenaeus at Lyons in the 
 year 1562, and gave it to the uinverfity of Cambridge 
 in 1582. It is a quarto fize, and written on vellum; 
 66 leaves of it are much torn and mutilated, ten 
 of which are fupplied by a later tranfcriber. Beza 
 conjeftures, that this manufcript might have exifted fo 
 early as the time of Irenaeus: Wetftein apprehends, 
 that it either returned or was (irft brought from Egypt 
 into France ; that it is the fame copy which Druth- 
 mar, an ancient expofitor who lived about the year 
 840, had feen, and which, he obferves, was afcribed to 
 St Hilary ; and that R, Stphcns had given a parti- 
 cular account of it in his edition of the New Tefta- 
 ment in 1550. It is ufually called Stevens's fecond 
 manufcript. Mill agrees with F. Simon in opinion, 
 that it was written in the weftern part of the world by 
 a Latin fcribe, and that it is to a great degree inter- 
 polated and corrupted : he obferves, that it agrees fo 
 much with the Latin Vulgate, as to afford reafon for 
 concluding, that it was corrected or formed upon a 
 corrupt and faulty copy of that tranflation. From 
 this and the Clermont copy of St Paul's Epiftles, Beza 
 publifhed his larger Annotations in 1582. 
 CAMBYSES. See (Ht/iory of) Persia. 
 CAMDEN (William), the great antiquarian, was 
 born in London in the year 1551. His father was a 
 native of Litchfield in Staffordfliire, who fettling in 
 London, became a member of the company of painter- 
 ftainers, and hved in the Old Bailey. His mother was 
 of the ancient family of Curwen, of Wirkington in 
 Cumberland. He was educated firft at Chrift's hofpi- 
 tal, and afterwards at St Paul's ichool : from thence 
 he was fent, in 1566, to Oxford, and entered fervitor 
 of Magdalen college ; but being difappointed of a de- 
 
 mv'a 
 
CAM [ 56* ] CAM 
 
 €aT,delJ. my's place, he removed to Broad-gate hall, and fome- confcientious hlftorian. He was reverenced and efleem- Camden, 
 ^-r^ what more than two years after, to'»Chrift- church, ed by the literati of all nations, and will be ever re- , ^•^'"'^ • 
 where he was fupported by his kind friend and patron membered as an honour to the age and country where- 
 Dr Thornton. About this time he was a candidate for in he lived. Bcfides the works already mentioned, he 
 a fellowfhip of All- Socls college, but loft it by the in- was author of an excellent Greek grammar, and of fe- 
 trigues of the Popifh party. In 1570, he fupplicated veral trads in Hearne's colleftion. But his great and 
 the regents of the univeriity to be admitted bachelor of mod ufeful work, the ^Wmnnw, is that upon which 
 arts ; but in this alfo he mifcarried. The following his fame is chiefly built. The edition above mention- 
 year' Mr Camden came to London, where he profecu- ed, to which he put his laft hand, was correftly print- 
 ted his favourite ftudy of antiquity, under the patro- ed in folio, much augmented, amended where it wa& 
 nage of Dr Goodman, dean of Weftminfter, by whofe necclTary, and adorned with maps. It was tirft tranf- 
 intereft he was made fecond mafter of Weftminfter lated into Enghfti, and publiHicd in folio at London, 
 fchool in 1575. From the time of his leaving the uni- in 161 1, by the laborious Dr Philemon Holland, a 
 verfity to this period, he took feveral journeys to difte- phyfician of Coventry, who is thought to have con- 
 rent parts of England, with a view to make obferva- fulted our author himfelf ; and therefore great refpedl 
 tions and coUeft materials for his Britannia, in which has been paid to the additions and explanations that 
 he was now deeply engaged. In 158 i he became inti- occur therein, on a fuppofition that they may belong 
 mately acquainted with the learned prefident BrifTon, to Camden. But in a later edition of the fame tranfla- 
 who was then in England ; and in 1586 he publiflied tion, pubhftred in 1636, the Doftor has taken liberties 
 the firft edition of his Britannia; a work which, though which cannot either be defended or excufed. A new 
 much enlarged and improved in future editions, was tranflation, made with the utmoft fidelity froni the lad 
 even then efteemed an honour to its author, and the edition of our author's work, was publifhed in 1695, 
 glory of his country. In 1593 he fuccecded to the by Edmund Gibfon of Queen's College in Oxford, 
 head mafterftilp of Weftminfter fchool on the refigna- afterwards bifhop of London; in which, befides the 
 tion of Dr Grant. In this office he continued till addition of notes, and of all that deferved to be taken 
 1597, when he was promoted to be Clarenceux king notice of in Dr Holland's fiift edition, which, though 
 at arms. In the year 1600 Mr Camden made a tour thrown out of the text, is preferved at the bottonri of 
 to the north, as far as Carlifie, accompanied by his the page, there are many other augmentations and im- 
 friend Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Cotton. In 1606 provements, all properly diftlnguiihed from the genuine 
 he began his correfpondence with the celebrated pre- work of the author, as they ought to be : aiid the 
 fident de Thou, which continued to the death of fame judicious method obtained in the next edition of 
 that faithful hiftorian. In the following year he pub- the fame performance, which was juftly confidered as 
 liflied his laft edition of the Britannia, which is that the very beft book of its kind that had been hiiherto 
 from which the feveral EngHOr tranflations have been publiflied. But the public has recently beep put in 
 made; and in 1608, he began to digeft his materials pofleffion of a new tranflation, and ftill more improved 
 for a hittory of the reign of queen Elizabeth. In edition, by that learned and Induftrious topographer 
 1609, after recovering from a dangerous illnefs, he Mr Gough, under whofe hands it has been enlarged to 
 retired to Chiflehurft in Kent, where he continued to near double the fize of the laft of the preceding editions, 
 fpend the fummer months during the remainder of his CAMEL, in zoology. See Camelus. 
 life. The firft part of his annals of the queen did not Camel, in merchants,^ a kind of machine ufed in 
 appear till the year 161 5, and he determined that the Holland for raifing or lifting flrips, in order to bring 
 fecond volume ftrould not appear till after his death (a), them over the Pampiis, which is at the mouth of the 
 The work was entirely finiftied in 1617; and from river Y, where the ftiallovvnefs of the v,'ater hinders large 
 that time he was principally employed in colkaing fliips from paffing. It is alfo ufed in other places, parti- 
 more materials for the further improvement of his cularly at the dock of Peterfburg, the velTels built here 
 Britannia. In 1 622, being now upwards of 70, and being In their pafTage to Cronftadt Hfted over the bar by 
 finding his heahh decline apace, he determined to lofe means of camels. Thefe machines were originally in- 
 ro time In executing his defign of founding an hiftory- vented by the celebrated De Wit, for the purpofe a- 
 leclure in the univeriity of Oxford. His deed of gift bove mentioned ; and were introduced into Ruffia by 
 was accordingly tranfmltted by his friend Mr Heather Peter the Great, who obtained the model of them 
 to Mr Gregory Wheare, who was, by himfelf, ap- when he worked In Holland as a common fhipwrlght. 
 pointed his tirft profeffor. He died at Chiflehurft In A camel Is compofed of two feparate parts, wiiofe out- 
 1623, in the 73d year of his age ; and was buried fides are perpendicular, and whofe infides are concave, 
 with great folemnity in Weftminfter- abbey in the fouth ftiaped f6 as to embrace the hull of a flrip on both fides, 
 aifle, where a monument of white marble was erefted Each part has a fmall cabin with fixteen pumps and 
 lo his memory. Camden was a man of fingular mo- ten plugs, and contain twenty men. They are braced 
 defty and integrity ; profoundly learned In the hiftory to a fliip underneath by means of cables, and entirely 
 and antiquities of this kingdom, and a judicious and enclafe its fides and bottom ; being then towed to the 
 
 bar, 
 
 (a) The reign of queen Elizabeth was fo recent when the firft volume of the Annals was publiflied, that 
 -many of the perfons concerned, or their dependents, were ftill living. It is no wonder, therefore, that the 
 Weft hiftorian ftiouid off'end thofe whofe anions would not bear inquiry. Some of his enemies were clamo- 
 rous and troublefi)me ; which determined him not to publifli the fecond volume during his life ; but that po- 
 fierity might be In no danger of difappointment, he depofited one copy In the Cotton library, and tranfmltted 
 asQther to his friend Dupuy at Paris. It was firft printed at Leydeu in 1625.. 
 
CAM [57 
 
 Gamelford bar, the plugs are opened, and the water admitted until 
 the camel iinks with the fhip and runs a-grouiid. 
 Then, the water being pumped out, the camel rifes, 
 lifts up the veffel, and the whole is towed over the bar. 
 This machine can raife the fhip eleven feet, or, in 
 other words, make it draw eleven feet lefs water. 
 
 CAMELFORD, a borough town of Cornwall in 
 England, confilting of about 100 houfes, badly built; 
 but the llreets are broad and well paved. W. Long. 
 5. 4. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to par- 
 liament ; and gives title of baron to Thomas Pittelder, 
 •brother of the great earl of Chatham. 
 
 CAMELLIA, in botany: A genus of the polyan 
 
 ] CAM 
 
 2. TheBa6i:rIanus,orBa6l;rian camel, has two bunches Camelus. 
 on the back, but is in all other refpefts hke the pre- — — /— ~ 
 ceding ; of which it feems to be a mere variety, rather 
 than a different fpecles ; and is equally adapted for 
 riding or carrying loads. It is Hill found wild in the 
 deferts of the temperate parts of Aha, particularly in 
 thofe between China and India. Thefe are larger and 
 more generous than the domefticated race. The Bac- 
 trian camel, which is very common in Afia^ is ex- 
 tremely hariy, and in great ufe among the Tartars and 
 Mongols, as a beaft of burden, from the Cafpian Sea 
 to the empire of China. It bears even fo fevere a cli- 
 mate as that of Siberia, being found about the lake 
 
 ^dria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of Baikal, where the Burats and Mongols keep great 
 
 ■plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 37th order, Column'iferte. The calyx is imbricated and 
 ■polyphyllous, with the interior leaves larger than the 
 exterior ones. Of this genus there is but one fpecies", 
 a native both of China and Japan. Thunberg, in his 
 Flora yciponica, defcribes it as growing every where in 
 -the groves and gardens of Japan, where it becomes a 
 
 numbers. They are far lefs than thofe which inhabit 
 Weftern Tartary. Here they live during winter on 
 willows and other trees, and are by this diet reduced 
 very lean. They lofe their hair in April, and go 
 naked all May, amidll the frofts of that fevere climate. 
 To thrive, they mull have dry ground and fait marlhes. 
 There are feveral varieties among the camels. The 
 
 prodigipufly large and tall tree, highly efteemed by Turkman is the largeft and Itrongeft. The Arabian 
 
 the natives for the elegance of its large and very va- is hardy. What is called the Dromedary, Maihary, 
 
 ■riable blofToms, and its evergreen leaves ; it is there and Raguahl, is very fwift. The common fort travel 
 
 found with fmgle and double flowers, which alfo are about 30 miles a day. Thelatt, which has a lefs bunch, 
 
 white, red, and purple, and produced from April to and more dehcate lhape, and alfo is much inferior in 
 
 Oftober. Reprefentations of this flower are frequently fize, never carries burdens ; but is ufed to ride on. 
 
 met with in Chinefe paintings. With us, the Camellia In Arabia, they are trained for running-matches : and 
 
 IS generally treated as a ftove plant, and propagated in many places for carrying couriers, who can go a- 
 
 by layers ; it is fometimes placed in the greenhoufe ; bove 100 miles a day on them ; and thtit for nine days 
 
 but it appears to us to be one of the propereft plants together, over -burning deferts, unhabitable by any 
 
 imaginable for the confervatory. At fome future time living creature. The African camels are the molt 
 
 It may, perhaps, not be uncommon to treat it as a Laurii- hardy, having more difl;ant and more dreadful deferts 
 
 Jlinus or Magnolia : the high price at which it has hither- to pafs over than any of the others, from Numidi^ to 
 
 ■to been fold, may have prevented its being hazarded the kingdom of Ethiopia. In Weltern Tartary there 
 
 in this way. The bloflbms are of a firm texture, but is a white variety, veiy fcarce, and facred to the idols 
 
 apt to fall off long before they have loft their brilliancy ; and priells. The Chinefe have a fwift variety, whicli 
 
 it therefore is a pradice with fome to ftick fuch deci- they call by the expreffive name of Fong Kyo Fo, or 
 
 <luous blv.flbms on fome frefli bud, where they continue 
 to look well for a confiderable time. Petiver conlidered 
 this plant as a fpecies of tea-tree; and future obferva- 
 tions will probably confirm his conjecture. 
 
 CAMELODUM. See Camalodunum. 
 
 CAMELOPARDALIS, in zoology, the trivial 
 ^name of a fpecies of Cervus. 
 
 CAMELUS, or Camel, in zoology, a genus of 
 quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The 
 charafters of the camel are thefe : It has no horns ; 
 •it has fix fore-teeth in the under jaw ; the laniarii are 
 wide fet, three in the upper, and two in the lower 
 
 camels with feet of the wind. Fat of camels, or,, as 
 thofe people call it, oil of bunches, being drawn frbm 
 them, is efteemed in many dlforders, fuch as ulcers, 
 numbnefs, and confumptions. This fpecies of camel 
 is rare in Arabia, being an exotic, and only kept by 
 the great men. 
 
 Camels have conftituted the riches of Arabia from 
 the time of Job to the prefcnt day. The patriarch 
 reckoned 6000 camels among his paftoral treafures, 
 and the modern Arabs eftimate their v/ealth by the 
 mnnbers of thefe ufeful animals. Without them great 
 part of Africa would be wretched ; by them the Airhole 
 
 ■jaw ; and there is a fiffure in the upper lip, refembhng commerce is carried through arid and burning; trafts. 
 
 a cleft in the hp of a hare. The fpecies are . 
 
 I. Tlie dromedarius, or Arabian camel, with one 
 bunch or protuberance on the back. It has four callous 
 "protuberances on the fore-legs, andtwo on the hind ones. 
 This fpecies is common in Africa, and the warmer 
 parts of Afia ; not that it is fpread over either of tlie 
 continents. It is a common beaft of burden in Egypt, 
 and along the countries which border on the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea ; in the kingdom of Morocco, Sara or the 
 D'ifert, and in Ethiopia : but no where fouth of thofe 
 kingdoms. In Afia, it is equally common in Turky 
 and Arabia ; but is fcarcely feen farther north than 
 Perfia, being too tender to bear a more fcArere climate. 
 India is deftitute of this animal. 
 
 ¥ou IV. Part I. 
 
 impaflkble but by beafts which Providence formed ex- 
 prefsly for the fcoixhed deferts. Their foles are ad- 
 apted to the fands they are to pafs over, their tough- 
 nefs and fpungy foftnefs preventi'iig them from crack- 
 ing. Their great powers of fuftaining abftinence from 
 drinking, enables them to pafs over unwatered trafts 
 for many days, without requiring the leatt liquid ; and 
 their patience under hanger is fuch, .that tliey will 
 travel many days fed only with a few dates, or fome 
 fmall balls of bean or barley-meal, or on the miferable 
 .thorny plants they meet with in the deferts. 
 
 The Arabians regard the camel as a prefent from 
 heaven, a facred animal, without whofe afiiilance they 
 ■could neither fubfift, carryvon trade, .nor ti-avel. .Ca- 
 H mel's 
 
CAM [ ] 
 
 Camelus. mel's milk is their common food. They alfo eat its 
 ""V— ' flefh, that of the young camel being reckoned highly 
 favoury. Of the hair of thofe animals, which is fine 
 and foft, and which is completely renewed eveiy year, 
 the Arabians make ftuffs for clothes, and other furni- 
 ture. With their camels, they not only want nothing, 
 but have nothing to fear. In one day, they can per- 
 form a journey of fifty leagues into the defert, which 
 cuts off every approach from their enemies. All the 
 armies of the world would perifh in purfuit of a troop 
 of Arabs. Hence they never fubmit, unlefs from 
 choice, to any power. With a view to his predatory 
 expeditions, the Arab inftruAs, rears, and excrcifes 
 his camels. A few days after their birth, he folds 
 their limbs under their belly, forces them to remain on 
 the ground, and, in this fituation, loads them with a 
 Jjretty heavy weight, which is never removed but for 
 the purpofe of replacing a greater. Inilead of allow- 
 ing them to feed at pleafure, and to drink when they 
 are dry, he begins with regulating their meals, and 
 makes them gradually travel long journeys, diminifli- 
 ing, at tlie fame time, the quantity of their aliment. 
 When they acquire fome ftrength, they are trained to 
 .the courfe. He excites their emulation by the example 
 of horfes, and, in time, renders them more robult. In 
 fine, after he is certain of the ftrength, fleetnefs, and 
 fobriety of his camels, he loads them both with his 
 own and their food, fets off with them, arrives unper- 
 ceived at the confines of the defert, robs the firft paf- 
 fengers he merts, pillages the folitary houfes, loads 
 his camels with the booty, and, if purfued, he is o- 
 bliged to accelerate his retreat. It is on thefe occa- 
 fions that he unfolds his own talents and thofe of the 
 camels. He mounts, one of the fleeteft, condufts the 
 troop, and makes them travel night and day, v?ith- 
 out, almoft, either flopping, eating, or drinking; 
 and, in this manner, he eafily performs a journey of 
 three hundred leagues in eight days. During this pe- 
 riod of motion and fatigue, his camels are perpetually 
 loaded, and he allows them each day, one hour only of 
 repofe, and a ball of pafte. They often run in this 
 manner nine or ten days, without finding water; and 
 when, by chance, there is a pool at fome diftance, 
 they fcent the water half a league off. Thirft makes 
 them double their pace, and they drink as much at 
 once as ferves them for the time that is paft, and as 
 much to come; for tlieir journeys often laft feveral 
 weeks, and their abitinence continues an equal time. 
 
 Of all carriages, that by camels is tlie cheapeft and 
 moll expeditious. The merchants and other paffen- 
 gers unite in a caravan, to prevent the infults and rob- 
 beries of the Arabs. Thefe caravans are often very 
 numerous, and are ak^ays compofed of more camels 
 than men. Each camel is loaded in proportion to his 
 ftrength ; and, when overloaded, he refiifes to march, 
 and continues lying till his burden is lightened. The 
 Ifrge camels generally carry a thoufand, or even twelve 
 hundred pounds weight, and the fmallefi: from fix to 
 fcven hundred. In thefe commercial travels, their 
 march is not haftened : As the route is often feven or 
 eight hundred leagues, their motions and journeys are 
 regulated. They walk only, and perform about from 
 ten to twelve leagues each day. Every night they are 
 imloaded, and allowed to pafture at freedom. When 
 in a rich country, or ftitik meadow, they cat, in lefs^ 
 
 CAM 
 
 than an hour, as much as ferves them to ruminate the Clamcfus* 
 whole night, and to nourifh them during twenty-four 
 hours. But they feldom meet with fuch paftures; nei- 
 ther is this delicate food neceffary for them. They 
 even feem to prefer wormwood, thiftles, nettles, broom, 
 caffia, and other prickly vegetables, to the foftell her- 
 bage. As long as they find plants to broufe, they eafily 
 difpenfe with drink. This facility of abftaining long 
 from drink proceeds not, however, from habit alone, 
 but is rather an effeft of their ftrudlure. Independent ■ 
 of the four ftomachs, which are common to ruminating 
 animals, the camels have a fifth bag, which ferves them 
 as a refer^'oir for water. This fifth ftomach is pecu- 
 Uar to the camel. It is fo large as to contain a vafl 
 quantity of water,, where it remains without corrupt- 
 ing, or mixing with the other aliments. When the 
 animal is prefTed with thirfl, and has occafion for wa- 
 ter to macerate his dry food in ruminating, he makes 
 part of this water mount into his paunch, or even as 
 high as the oefophagus, by a fimple contraftion of cer- 
 tain mufcles. It is by this fingular conftru£lion that 
 the camel is enabled to pafs feveral days without 
 drinking, and to take at a time a prodigious quantity 
 of water, which remains in the refervoir pure and lim- 
 pid, becaufe neither the liquors of the body, nor the 
 juices of digeftion, can.mix with it. Travellers, when 
 much oppreffed with drought, are fometimes obliged 
 to kill their camels in order to have a fupply of drink 
 from thefe refervoirs. Thefe inoffenfive creatures mufl 
 fuffer much ; for they utter the moft lamentable cries, 
 efpecially when overloaded. But, though perpetually 
 oppreffed, their fortitude is equal to their dociUty. 
 At the firft fignal, they bend their knees and lie down 
 to be loaded, which faves their conduftor the trouble 
 of raifing the goods to a great height. As foon as 
 they are loaded, they rife fpontaneoufly, and without 
 any afliilance. One of them is mounted by their con- 
 ductor, who goes before, and regulates the march of 
 all the followers. They require neither whip nor fpur. 
 But, when they begin to be tired, their courage is 
 fupported, or rather their fatigue is charmed, by fing- 
 ing, or by the found of fome inftrument. Their con- 
 duAors reheve each other in finging ; and, when they 
 want to prolong the journey, they give the animals 
 but one hour'^s reft ; after which, refuming their fong, 
 they proceed on their march for feveral hours more, 
 and the iinging is continued till they arrive at another 
 refting place, when the camels again lie down ; and 
 their loads, by unloofiDg the ropes, are allowed to 
 ghde off on each fide of the animals. Thus they fleep 
 on their bellies in the middle of their baggage, which, 
 next morning is fixed on their backs with equal quick- 
 nefs and facility as it had been detached the evening ^ 
 before. 
 
 Fatigue, hunger, thirft,. and meagreuefs, . are not 
 the only inconveniencies to which thefe animals are 
 fubjefted : To all thefe evils they are prepared by caf- 
 tration.. One male is only left for eight or ten fe- 
 males ; and the labouring camels are generally geld- 
 ings. They are unqueftionably weaker than unmuti- 
 lated males ; but they are more tradable, and at all 
 feafons ready for.fervice. While the former are not 
 only unmanageable, but almoft furious, "during the 
 rutting feafon, which lafts forty days, and returns an- 
 nually ij^ .the fpring. It is ther) faid, that they foam 
 
 cpn- 
 
C A M [ 59 1 GAM 
 
 Catrelu.'s. continually, and that one or two red veficks, as large The canael is the genuine treafure of Afia. He is Camclus. 
 
 as a hog's bladder, ilTue from tlu ir mouths. In this moi-e valuable than the elephant ; for he may be faid -"—v*^ 
 
 feafon they eat little, attack and bite animals, and to perform an equal quantity of labour at a twen- 
 
 even their own mailers, to whom at all other times tieth part of the expence. Befides, the whole fpecies 
 
 they are very fubmiffive. Their mode of copulating are under fubjeftion to man, who projvagates and mul« 
 
 differs from that of all other quadrupeds ; for the fe- tiplies them at pleafure. But he has no fuch dominion 
 
 male, inftead of {landing, lies down on her knees, and over the elephants, whom he cannot multiply, and the 
 
 receives the male in the fame polition that fhe repofes, individuals of whom he conquers with great labour 
 
 or is loaded. This pofture, to which the anim.als are and difficulty. The camel is not only more valuable 
 
 early accuftomed, becomes natural, fince they affume tlian the elephant, but is perhaps equal in utility to 
 
 it fpontaneoufly in coition. The time of geftation is the Jiorfe, the afs, and the ox, when their powers 
 
 near twelve months, and, like all large quadrupeds, are united. He carries as much as two mules; though 
 
 the females bring forth only one at a birth. Her he eats as little,- and feeds upon herbs equally coarfe 
 
 milk is copious and thick ; and, when mixed with a as tlie afs. The female furnilhes milk longer than the 
 
 large quantity of water, affords an excellent nourifh- cow. The iiefh of a young camel is as good and 
 
 ment to men. The females are not obliged to labour, wholeforae as veal : The Africans and Arabs fill their 
 
 but are allowed to pafture and produce at full liberty, pots and tubs with it, which is fried with greafe, and 
 
 The advantage derived from their produce and tlieir preferved in this manner during the whole year for 
 
 milk is perhaps fuperior to what could be drawn from their ordinary repalls : The hair is finer and more in 
 
 their working. In fome places, however, moft of the requeft than the beft wool. Even their excrements 
 
 females are cuftrated, in order to fit them for labour ; are ufeful : for fal ammoniac is made of their urine ; 
 
 and it is alleged, that this operation, inftead of di- and their dung, dried in the fun and pulverifed, ferves 
 
 minifhing, augments their ftrength, vigour, and plump- for litter to themfelves, as well as to horfes, with 
 
 nefs. In genei-al, the fatter camels are, they are the which people frequently travel in countries where no 
 
 more capable of enduring great fatigue. Their bunch- hay or ftraw can be had. In fine, their dung makes 
 
 cs feem to proceed from a redundance of nourifh- excellent fuel, which burns freely, and gives as clear 
 
 ment ; for, during long journeys, in which their con- and nearly as hot a flame as dry wood, which is of 
 
 duftor is obliged to hufband their food, and where great ufe in the deferts, where not a tree is to be 
 
 they often fuffer much hunger and thirft, thefe bunch- found, and where, for want of combuftible materials, 
 
 <es gradually diminifh, and become fo fiat, that the fire is as fcarce as water. 
 
 place where they were is only perceptible by the length 3. The Glama, Llama, or South- American camel- 
 of the hair, which is always longer on thefe parts than fiieep, has an almoft even back, fmall head, fine black 
 on the reft of the back. The meagrenefs of the body eyes, and very long neck, bending much, and very- 
 augments in proportion as the bunches deci-eafe. The protuberant near the jundlion with the body : in a tame 
 Moors, who tranfport all articles of merchandtfe from ftate, with fmootli fliort hair ; in a wild ftate, with 
 Barbary and Numidia, as far as ^Ethiopia, fet out long coarfe hair, white, grey, and rufiet, difpofed in 
 w^th their camels well laden, which are very fat and fpots ; with a black line from the head along the top 
 vigorous; and bring back the fame animals fo meagre, of the back to the tail, and belly white. The fpotted 
 that they commonly fell at a low price to the Arabs may poffibly be the tame, the laft the wild, llamas, 
 of the Defert, to be again fattened. The tail is fiiort ; the height from four to four feet 
 " We are told by the ancients, that camels are in a and a half ; the length from the neck to the tail, fix 
 condition for propagating at the age of three years, feet. The carcafe divefted of Hcin and offals, accord- 
 This affertion is fufpicioits ; for, in three years, they ing to the editor of Mr Byron's voyage, weighed 200 lb-, 
 have not acquired one half of their growth. The pe- In general, the fliape exadlly refembles a camel, only 
 nis of the male, like that of the bull, is very long, and it v/ants the dorfal bunch. It is the camel of Pera 
 very flender. During ereftion, it ftretches forward, like and Chili ; and, before the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 that of all other quadrupeds; but, in its ordinaiy ftate, was the only beaft of burden known to the Indians, 
 the Iheath is drawn backward, and the urine is dif- It is very mild, gentle, and tradable. Before the in- 
 charged from between the hind legs ; fo that both troduftion of mules, they were ufed by the Indians t(i 
 males and females Hvinfe in the fame manner. The plough the land : at prefent they ferve to carry bur- 
 young camel fucks his mother twelve months ;^ but, dens of about 100 lb. They go with great gravity; 
 when meant to be trained, in order to render him and, like their Spanifh mafters, nothing can prevail 
 ftrong and robuft in the chace, he is allowed to fuck upon them to change their pace. They lie down to 
 and pafture at freedom during the firft years, and is the burden ; and when wearied, no blows can provoke 
 not loaded, or made to perform any labour, till he is them to go on. Teuillee fays, they are fo capricious, 
 four years old. He generally lives forty and fome- that if ftruck, they iriftantly fquat dov/n, and nothing 
 times fifty years, which duration of life is proportion- but carefTes can make them arife* When angry, they 
 ed to the time of his growth. There is no foundation have no other method of revenging their injuries, than 
 for what has been advanced by fome authors, that he by fpitting ; and they can ejaculate their fahva to the 
 lives one hundred years. diftance of ten paces : if it falls on the fkin, it raifes 
 •By -confidering, under one point of view, all the an itching and a reddifli fpot. Their flefh is eaten, 
 quahties of this animal, and all the advantages derived and is faid to be as good as mutton. The wool has a 
 from him, it muft b,e acknowledged that he is the moft flrong difagreeable fcent. They are very fure-footed ; 
 iifeful creature fubjefted to the fervice of man. Gold therefore ufed to carry the Peruvian ores over the rug- 
 and filk ccnftitute Hot the true riches of the Eaft. gedeft hills and narroweft paths of the Andes. They 
 
 H 2 inhabit 
 
CAM 
 
 [ 60 ] 
 
 CAM 
 
 Camelus inhabit that vaft chain of mountains their whole length 
 to the ftraits of Magellan ; but except where thefe 
 hills approach the fea, as in Patagonia, never appear 
 on the coafts. Like the camel, they have powers of 
 abftaining long from drink, fometimes for four or five 
 days : like that animal, their food is coarfe and trifling. 
 — In a v/ild ftate, they keep in great herds in the 
 higheft and fteepeft parts of the hills ; and while they 
 are feeding, one keeps centry on the pinnacle of fome 
 rock : if it perceives the approach of any one, it 
 neighs ; the. herd takes the alai-m, and goes off with 
 incredible fpeed. They outrun all dogs, fo there is 
 no other way of killing them but with the gun. They 
 are killed for the fake of their flefh and hair ; for the 
 Indians weave the laft into cloth. From the form of 
 the parts of generation in both fexes, no animal copu- 
 lates with fuch difficulty. It is often the labour of a 
 dav, antequam actum ipfum venereum mcij)ianf, et abfolvant. 
 
 \. The Pacos, or fheep of Chili, has no bunch on 
 the back. It is covered with a- line valuable wool, 
 which is of a rofe red colour on the back of the ani- 
 mal, and white on the belly. They are of the fame 
 nature with the preceding ; inhabit the fame places, 
 but are more capable of Supporting the rigour of froft 
 and Inow : they live in vaft herds ; are very timid, 
 and exceffively fwift. The Indians take the pacos in 
 a ilrange manner : they tie cords with bits of cloth or 
 wool hanging to them, above three or four feet from 
 the ground, crofs the narrow pafles of the mountains, 
 then drive thofe animals towards them, which are fo 
 terrified by the flutter of the rags, as not to dare to 
 pafs, but, huddling together, give the hunters an op- 
 portunity to kin with their flings as many as they 
 pleafe. The tame ones will carry from 50 to 75 lb. ; 
 but are kept principally for the fake of the wool and 
 the flefli, which is exceedingly well tafted. 
 
 CAMERA ^OLiA, a contrivance for blowing the 
 fire, for the fafion of ores, without bellows ; by means 
 of water falling through a funnel into a clofe veflel, 
 which fends from it fo much air or vapour as conti- 
 nually blows the fire: if there be the fpace of another 
 veflel for it to expatiate in by the way, it there lets 
 fall its humidity, whicli otherwife might hinder the 
 work. This contrivance was named camera JEol'ia by 
 Kircher. 
 
 Camera I.nc'tda, a contrivance of Dr Hook for ma- 
 king the image of any thing appear on a wall in alight 
 room, either by day or night. Oppofite to the place 
 or wall where the appearance is to be, make a hole of 
 at leafl: a foot in diameter, or if there be a high win- 
 dow with a cafement of this dimenfion in it, this will 
 do much better without fuch hole or cafement opened. 
 At a convenient diftance, to prevent its being per- 
 ceived by the company in the room, place the objeft 
 or piftui-e intended to be reprefented, but in an in- 
 verted fituation. If the pifture be tranfparent, refleft 
 the fun's rays by means of a looking-glafs, fo as that 
 they may pafs through it towards the place of repre- 
 fentation ; and to prevent any rays from pafllng afide 
 it, let the pidure be encompaffed with fome board or 
 cloth. If the objeft be a ftatue, or a living creature, 
 it raufl; be much enhgiitened by cafting the fun's rays 
 on it, either by rcflcftion, refraction, or both. Be- 
 tween this objeft and the place of reprefentation put 
 a broad convex glafs, ground to fuch a convexity as 
 
 that it may reprefent the objed difl:in£lly in fuch 
 place^. The nearer this is fituated to the obje£l, the 
 more will the image be magnified on the wall, and the 
 farther the lefs ; fuch diverfity depending on the dif- 
 ference of the fpheres of the glaffes. If the objcA 
 cannot be conveniently inverted, there mull be two 
 large glafles of proper fpheres, fituated at fuitable dii- 
 tances, eafily found by trial, to make the reprefenta- 
 tions ereft. ~ This whole apparatus of objeA, glafles, 
 &c. with the perfons employed in the management of 
 them, are to be placed without the window or hole, 
 fo that they may not be perceived by the fpeftators 
 in the room, and the operation itfelf will be eafihy4)er- 
 formed. Phil. Tranf. 38. p. 741, feq. 
 
 C.4MF.RA Obfcuray or Dark Chamber., in Optics, 2l ma- 
 chine, or apparatus, reprefenting an artificial eye ; 
 whereon the images of external objefts, received thro* 
 a double convex glafs, are exhibited diftinftly, and in 
 their native colours, on a white matter placed within 
 the machine, in the focus of the glafs. 
 
 The firfl invention of this inftrument is afcribed to 
 Baptifta Porta. See his Mag'ui Naturalis, lib. xvii. 
 cap. 6. firft publiflied at Franckfort about the year 
 1589 or 1591 ; the firfl; four books of this work were 
 publilhed at Antwerp in 1560. 
 
 The camera obfcura affords very diverting fpeftacles; 
 both by exhibiting images perfectly like their objefts, 
 and each clothed in their native colours ; and by ex- 
 prefling, at the fame time, all their motions ; which 
 latter no other art can imitate. By means of this in- 
 ftrument, a perfon unacquainted with defigning will 
 be able to dehneate objefts with the greateft accuracy 
 and juftnefs, and another well verfcd in painting will 
 find many things herein to perfeft his art. See the 
 conftruftion under Dioptrics. 
 
 CAMERARIA, in botany: A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 30th order, Contorta. There are two horizontal fol- 
 licles at the bafe of the feed-cafe. The feeds are in- 
 ferted into a proper membrane. Of this there are two 
 fpecies ; the latifolla, and the anguftifolia. The firft 
 is a native of the ifland of Cuba, and rifes with a 
 flirubby ftalk to the height of 10 or 12 feet, dividing 
 into feveral branches, garniflied with roundifli pointed 
 leaves placed oppofite. The flowers are produced at 
 the end of the branches in loofe clufters, which have 
 long tubes enlarging gradually upward, and at the top 
 are cut into five fegments, broad at their bafe, but end- 
 ing in fliarp points; the flower is/)f a yellowifli white 
 colour. The fecond fort has an irregular flirubby ftalk, 
 which rifes about eight feet high, fending out many 
 branches which are garniflied with very narrow thia 
 leaves placed oppofite at each joint. The flowers are 
 produced fcatterlngly at the end of the branches, 
 which are fliaped hke thofe of the former fort, but 
 fmaller. It is a native of Jamaica. Both thefe plants 
 abound with an acrid milky juice like the fpurge. They 
 are propagated by feeds, which muft be procured from 
 the places of their growth. They may alfo be propa- 
 gated by cuttings planted in a hot-bed during the 
 fummer-months : they muft have a bark-ftove, for they 
 are very tender plants; but in warm weather they 
 muft have plenty of air. 
 
 CAMERARIUS ( Joachim) , one of the moft learn- 
 
 td 
 
 Camera 
 Obfcura 
 
CAM [ I 
 
 Camera- ed writers of his time, was born in 1500, at Bamberg, 
 '^"'^ a city of Franconia ; and obtained great reputation by 
 Cainero- writings. He tranflated into Latin Herodotus, 
 nians, Dcmofthenes, Xenophon, Euclid, Homer, Theocritus, 
 - Sophocles, Lucian, Tlieodoret, Nicephorus, &:c. He 
 publifhed a catalogue of the bifhops of the principal 
 fees ; Greek epiftles; Accounts of his journeys, in La- 
 tin verfe ; a Commentary on Piautus ; the Lives of 
 Helius Eobanus Heffus, and Philip Melandlhon, &c. 
 He died in 1574. 
 
 Camerarius (Joachim), fon of the former, and a 
 learned phyfician, was born at Nuremberg in 1534. 
 After having finiflied his lludies in Germany, he went 
 into Italy, where he obtained the efteem of the learned. 
 At his return he was courted by feveral princes to live 
 with them ; but he was too much devoted to books, 
 and the ftudy of chemiftry and botany, to comply. He 
 wrote an hortus medicus, and feveral other works. He 
 died in 1598. 
 
 CAMERATED, among builders, t?he fame with 
 vaulted or arched. 
 
 CAMERET -BAY, in the province of Brittany in 
 France, forms the harbour of 13reft. See Brest. 
 
 CAME RING, a town of the ecclefiallical Itate in 
 Italy, fituated in E. Long. 13. 7. N. Lat. 45. 5. 
 
 CAMERLINGO, according to Ducange, fignified 
 formerly the pope's or emperor's treafure : at prefenl^' 
 camerlingo is no where ufed but at Rome, where it de- 
 notes the cardinal who governs the ecclefiaftical ftate 
 and adminillers juftice. It is the moft eminent office 
 at the court of Rome, becaufe he is at the head of the 
 treafury. During a vacation of the papal chair, the 
 cardinal camerlingo publiflies edifts, coins money, and 
 exerts every other prerogative of a fovereign prince ; 
 he has under him a treafurer-general, auditor-general, 
 and 12 prelates called clerls of the chamber. 
 
 _ CAMERON (John), one of the moft famous di- 
 vines among the Proteftants of France in the 1 7th 
 century, was born at Glafgow in Scotland, w^here he 
 taught the Greek tongue ; and having read ledures 
 upon that language for about a year, travelled, and be- 
 came profefibr at feveral univerfities, and miniller at 
 Bourdeaux. He pubhfhed, i. Theological leftures ; 
 2. Icon Johanms Cameroms ; and fome mifcellaneous 
 pieces. He died in 16^5, aged 60. 
 
 CAMERONIANS, a fed or party in Scotland, 
 who feparated from the Prefbyterians in 1666, and 
 continued, to hold their religious affemblies in the 
 fields. 
 
 The Cameronians took their denomination from 
 Richard Cameron, a famous field-preacher, who, refu- 
 fing to accept the indulgence to tender confciences, 
 granted by king Charles II. as fuch an acceptance 
 feemed an aoknowledgment of the king's fupremacy, 
 and that he had before a right to filence them, made 
 a dtfeftion from his brethren, and even headed a re- 
 bellion, in which he was killed. His followers were 
 never entirely reduced till the Revolution, . when they 
 voluntarily fubmitted to king William. 
 
 The Cameronians adhered rigidly to the form of 
 government eftabhfhed in 1648. 
 
 Cameronians, or C(7w«-(?wVfj, is alfo the denomi- 
 nation of a party of Calvinifts in France, who afferted 
 that the will, of man is only determined by the praiSti- 
 
 Ji J CAM 
 
 cal judgment of the mind ; that the caufe of mens Camga^ • 
 doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which i'.. 
 God infufes into them ; and that God does not move 
 the will phyfically, but only morally, in virtue of its 
 dependence on the judgment of the mind. They had 
 this name from John Cameron, a famous profeffor, firft 
 at Glafgow, where he v/as born, in 1580, and after- 
 wards at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur ; at which 
 laft place he broached his new doftrine of grace and 
 free-will, which was formed by Amyraut, Cappel, Bo- 
 charf, Dailie, and others of the more learned among 
 the reformed minifters, who judged Calvin's dodrines 
 on thefe points too harfh. The Cameronians are a 
 fort of mitigated Calvinifts, and approach to the opi- 
 nion of the Armenians. They are alfo called Uiiiver- 
 Jalip, as holding the univerfality of Chrift's death-; 
 and fometimes Amyraldijs. The rigid adherents to 
 the fynod of Dort accufed them of Pelagianifm, and 
 even of Manicheifm. The controverfy between the 
 parties was carried on with a zeal and fubtilty fcarcc 
 conceivable ; yet all the queftion between them was 
 only. Whether the will of man is determined by the 
 immediate aftion of God upon it, or by the interven- 
 tion of a knowledge which God imprelFes into the 
 mind ? The fynod of Dort had defined that God not 
 only illuminates the underftanding, but gives motion 
 to the will by making an internal change therein. Ca- 
 meron only admitted the illumination, whereby the 
 mmd is morally moved, and explained the fentiment of 
 the fynod of Dort fo as to make the two opinions con- 
 fiftent. 
 
 GAMES, a name given to the final! flender rods of 
 caft-lead, of which the glaziers make their turned lead. 
 
 Their lead being caft into flender rods of twelve or 
 fourteen inches long each, is called the came ; fome- 
 times alfo they call each of thefe rods a came^ which 
 being afterwards drawn through their vice, makes their 
 turned lead. 
 
 CAMILLUS (Marcus Furius) was the firft who • 
 rendered the family of Furius illuftrious. Pie triumph- 
 ed four times, was five times diftator, and was honour- 
 ed with the title of the fecond founder of Rome. In a 
 word, he acquired all the glory a man can gain in his • 
 own country; Lucius Apuhius, one of the tribunes, 
 profecuted him to make him give an account of the 
 Ipoils taken at Veii. Camillus anticipated judgment, 
 and banifted liimfelf voluntarily. During his banifh- 
 ment, inftead of rejoicing at the devaftation of Rome 
 by the Gauls, he exerted all his wifdom and bravery 
 to drive^ away the enemy ; and yet kept with the ut- 
 moft ftridtnefs the facred law of Rome, in refufing to 
 accept the command which feveral private perfons of- 
 fered him. The Romans, who were befieged in the 
 Capitol, created him diclator in the year 363; in 
 wiiich office he acled .with fo much bravery and con- 
 dudl, that he entirely drove the army of the Gauls out 
 of the territories of - the commonwealth. He died in 
 the 81ft year of, his age, 365 years before the Chriftiaa 
 aera. 
 
 ^ CAMILLI and Camilla, in antiquity, boys and 
 girls of ingenuous birth, who miniftered in the fa, 
 orifices of the gods ; and efpecially thofe who attended 
 the JIamen dialis, or prieft of Jupiter. The word feems, . 
 borrowed from the language of the ancient Hetrurians« 
 
 where 
 
C A M 
 
 [ ^2 1 
 
 wKcre it fignified miniiler, and was clianged from caf- 
 millus. The Tufcans alfo gave the appellation Camil- 
 lus to Mercury, in quality of minlRer of th.e gods. 
 « CAMINHA, a maritime town of Portucral, in the 
 province of Entre-Duero-'e-Minho, with the title of a 
 duchy. It is fituated at the mouth of the river Min- 
 ho, in W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 41. 44. 
 
 CAMIS, or Kamis, in the Japanefe Theology ^ de- 
 note deified fouls of ancient heroes, who are fuppofed 
 ftill to intereft themfelves in the welfare of the people 
 over whom they anciently commanded. 
 
 The camis anfwer to the heroes in the ancient Greek 
 and Roman theology, and are venerated like the faints 
 in the modern Romifh church. 
 
 Befides the heroes or camis beatified by the confent 
 of antiquity, the m'lkaddos, or pontiffis, have deified 
 many others,- and continue ftill to grant the apotheofis 
 to new worthies ; fo that they fwarm with camh ; the 
 principal one is "Tenjio Dai Sin, the common father of 
 Japan, to whom are paid devotions and pilgrimages 
 extraordinary. 
 
 CAMISADE, in the art of war, an attack by fur- 
 prlfe in the night, or at the break of day, when the 
 enemy is fuppofed to be a-bed. The word is faid' to 
 have taken its rife from an attack of this kind ; where- 
 in, as a badge or fignal to know one another by, they 
 bore a fliift, in French called chmife, or camife, over 
 "their arms. 
 
 CAMISARDS, a name given by the French to 
 the Calvinifts of the Cevennes, who fonned a league, 
 and took up arms in their own defence, in 1688. 
 
 CAMLETINE, a flight ftuff, made of hair and 
 coarfe filk, in the manner of camblet. It is now out 
 of faflilon. 
 
 CAMMA, and Gobbi, two provinces of the king- 
 dom of Loango in Africa. The inhabitants are con- 
 tinually at war with each other. The weapons they 
 formerly ufed in their wars w^ere the fhort pike, bows 
 and arrows, fword and dagger ; but fince the Euro- 
 peans have become acquainted with that coaft, they 
 have fupplied them with fire-arms. The chief town 
 of Gobbi lies about a day's journey from the fea. Their 
 rivers abound with a variety of filh ; but are infefted 
 with fea-horfcs, which do great mifchief both by land 
 and water. The principal commerce with the natives 
 is in logwood, elephants teeth, and tails, the hair of 
 which is highly valued, and ufed for feveral curious 
 ■purpofes. 
 
 CAMMIN, a maritime town of Germany, in Bran- 
 denburg Pomerania, fituated in E. Long. 150. N. Lat. 
 
 CAMOENS (Louis de), a famous Portuguefe poet, 
 the honour of whofe birth is claimed by different cities. 
 But according to N. Antonio, and Manuel Correa, his 
 intimate friend, this event happened atLifbonin 1517. 
 His family was of confiderable note, and originally 
 Spanifh. In 13 70, Vafco Perez de Caamans, difguft- 
 td. at the court of Callile, fltd to that of Lifbon, where 
 king Ferdinand immediately admitted him into his 
 council, and gave him the lordfhips of Sardoal, Pun- 
 nete, Marano, Amendo, and other confiderable lands ; 
 a certain proof of the eminence of his rank and abili- 
 ties. In the war for the fucceflion, which broke out 
 on the death of Ferdinand, Can^oens fided with the 
 
 CAM 
 
 king of Caflile, and wz.^ killed in the battle of AIja- Camoettt, 
 barota. But though John I. the viftor, feized a great -v"-"^ 
 part of his eftate, his widow, the daughter of Gonfalo 
 Tereyro, grand matter of the order of Chrift, and ge- 
 neral of the Portuguefe army, w-as not reduced beneath 
 her rank. She had three fons who took the name of 
 Camoens, The family of the eldefl intermarried with 
 the firft nobility of Portugal ; and even, according to 
 Caftera, with the blood royal. But the family of the 
 fecond brother, whofe fortune was flender, had the fu>- 
 perior honour to produce the author of the Lufiad. 
 
 Early in his life the misfortunes of the poet began. 
 In his infancy, Simon Vaz de Camoens, his father, 
 commander of a vefTel, was flilpwrecked at Goa, where, 
 with his life, the greateft part of his fortune was lofl. 
 His mother, however,, Anne de Macedo of Santarene, 
 provided for the education of her fon Louis at the uni- 
 verfity of Colmbra. What he acquired there, his 
 works difcover ; an intimacy with the clafilcs, equal to 
 that of a Scaliger, but diredled by the talte of a Mil- 
 ton or a Pope. 
 
 When he left the univerfity, he appeared at court. 
 He was handfome ; had fpeaking eyes, it is faid ; and 
 the finefl comj^lexion. Certain it is, however, he was 
 a polifhed fcholar, w-hlch, added to the natural ardour 
 and gay vivacity of his difpofitlon, rendered him an 
 accomplifhed gentleman. Courts are the fcenes of in- 
 trigue ; and intrigue was faflilonable at Lifbon. But 
 the particulars of the amours of Cam.oens reft unknown. 
 This only appears : he had afpired above his rank, for 
 he was banlfhed from the court ; and in feveral of his 
 fonnets he afcribes this misfortune to love. 
 
 He now retired to his mother's friends at Santarene. 
 Here he rcnev.'ed his ftudies, and began his poem on 
 the difcovery of India. John III. at this time prepared 
 an armament againft Africa. Camoens, tired of his in- 
 aftive obfcure life, went to Ceuta in this expedition, 
 and greatly diftlngulfhcd his valour in feveral rencoun- 
 ters. In a naval engagement with tlie Moors in the 
 ftraits of Gibraltar, in the confllfl of boarding, he was 
 among the foremoft, and loft his right eye. Yet nei- 
 ther hurry of aftual fervice nor the diffipation of the 
 camp could ftifle his genius. He continued his Lnji-' 
 adcis, and feveral of his moft beautiful fonnets were 
 written in Africa, while, as he expreffed it. 
 
 One hand the pen, and one the fword, employ'd. 
 
 The fame of his valour had now reached the courts 
 and he obtained permiffion to return to Lifbon. But, 
 while he folicited an eftablifhment which he had merit- 
 ed in the ranks of battle, the malignity of evil tongues, 
 as he calls it in one of his letters, was injurioufly pour- 
 ed upon him. Though the bloom of his early youth 
 was effaced by feveral years refidence under the fcorch- 
 ing heavens of Africa, and though altered by the lofs 
 of an ej'-e, his prefence gave uneafinefs to the gentle- 
 men of fome families of the firft rank where he had 
 formerly vifited. Jealoufy is the charafterlftlc of the 
 Spanifh and Portuguefe ; its refentment knows no 
 bounds, and Camoens now found it prudent to banlfh 
 himfelf from his native country. Accordingly, in 
 ^553» -^^ failed for India, with a refolution n&ver to 
 return. As the fhip left the Tagus, he exclaimed, it* 
 the words of the fepulchral monument of Scipio Afri- 
 canus, Ingrata patria^ non foJfideVis oJ[u meal " Ungrate- 
 ful 
 
CAM 
 
 [ 63 ] 
 
 CAM 
 
 #amoenif. ful country, thou (halt not poflefs my bones !'* But he 
 ~Y"— knew not what evils in the Eaft would awake the re- 
 membrance of his native fields. 
 
 When Camoens arrived in India, an expedition 
 was ready to fail to revenge the king of Cochin on 
 the king of Pimenta. Without any reft on flrore after 
 his long voyage, he joined this armament,, and in 
 the conqueft of the Alagada iflands dilplayed his ufual 
 bravery. 
 
 In the year following, he attended Manuel de Vaf- 
 concello in an expedition to the Red Sea. Here, fays 
 Faria, as Camoens had no ufe for his fword, he em- 
 ployed his pen. Nor was his aftivity confined in the 
 fleet or camp. He vifited Mount Felex and the adja- 
 cent inhofpitable regions of Africa, which he fo flrongly 
 piftures in the Luliad, and in one of his little pieces 
 where he laments the abfence of his miftrefs. ' 
 
 When he returned to Goa, he enjoyed a tranquillity 
 which enabled him to bellow his attention on his Epic 
 Poem. But this ferenity was interrupted, perhaps by 
 his own imprudence. He wrote fome fatires which gave 
 oflFence ; and, by order of the viceroy Francifco Barreto, 
 • he was banifhed to China. 
 
 The accompli diments and manners of Camoens foon 
 found him friends, though under the difgrace of banilh- 
 mcnt. He was appointed commifTary of the defunft in 
 the ifland of Macao, a Portuguefe fettlement in the bay 
 of Canton. Here he continued his Luliad ; and here 
 alfo, after five years refidence, he acquired a fortune, 
 though fmall, yet equal to his wifhe?. Don Conftantine 
 de Braganza was now vicei-oy of India ; and Camoens, 
 defirous to Return to Goa, refigned his charge. In a 
 fliip, freighted by hirafelf, he fet fail ; but was ftiip- 
 wrecked in the gulph near the mouth of the river Me- 
 hon on the coaft of China. All he had acquired was 
 loil in the waves:, his poems, which he held in one 
 hand, while he fwimmed with the other, were all he 
 found himfelf pofleffed of when he flood friendlefs on 
 the unknown fnore. But the natives gave him a raoft 
 humane reception : this he has immortalifed in the pro- 
 phetic fong in the tenth Lufiad ; and in the feventh, he 
 tells us, that here he loft the wealth which fatisfied his 
 wi flies. 
 
 Agora da efferancia ja adgu'iridii , Isfc, 
 Now bleft wi.h all the wealth fond hope could crave. 
 Soon I beheld that wealth beneath the wave 
 For ever loft ; 
 
 My life, like Judah's heaven-doom'd king-of yore, 
 by nriracle prolong'd 
 
 On the banks of the Mehon, he wrote his beautiful 
 paraphrafe of the pfalm, where the Jews, in the fineft 
 llrain of poetry, are reprefented as hanging their harps 
 on the willdws by the rivers of Babylon, and weeping 
 their exile from their native country. Here Camoens 
 continued fome time, till an opportunity offered to carry 
 him to Goa. When he arrived at that city, Don Con- 
 ftantine de Braganza, the viceroy, whofe charadleriftic 
 was politenefs, admitted him into intimate friendfhip, 
 and Camoens was happy till count Redondo affumed 
 the government. Ttiofe who had formerly procured 
 the banifhment of the fatirift, were filent while Con- 
 ftantine was in power ; . but now they exerted all their 
 arts againft him. Redondo, when he entered on office, 
 pretended to be the friend of Camoens; yet, with all 
 that unfeeling indifference with which he made hia moft 
 3. 
 
 horrible witticlfm on the Zamorim, he fuffered the in- Camoens. 
 nocent man to be thrown into the common prifon. » ' ' 
 After all the delay of bringing witneffes, Camoens, in 
 a public trial, fully refuted every accufation of his con- 
 dutt while coinraiffary at Macao, and his enemies were 
 loaded with ignominy and reproach. But Camoens had 
 fome creditors; and thefe-detained him in prifon acon- 
 fiderable time, till the gentlemen of Goa began to be 
 afhamed that a man of his fingular merit fhould expe- 
 rience fuch treatment among them. He was fet at li- 
 berty ; and again he affumed the profeffion of arms, 
 and i-eceived the allowance of a gentleman volunteer, a 
 character at this time common in Portuguefe India. 
 Soon after, Pedro Barreto, appointed governor of the - 
 fort at Sofala, by high promifes, allured the poet to 
 attend him thither. The governor of a diftant fort, in 
 a barbarous country, flrares in fome meafure the fate of 
 an exile. Yet, though the only motive of Barreto was, 
 in this unpleafant fituation, to retain the converfation 
 of Camoens at his table, it was his leaft care to render 
 the life of his gueft agreeable. Chagrined with his 
 treatment, and a confiderable time having elapfed in 
 vain dependence upon Barreto, Camoens refolved to re- 
 turn to his native country. A rtiip, on the homeward 
 voyage, at this time touched at Sofala, and feveral gen- 
 tlemen who were on board were defirous that Camoens ■ " 
 fliould accompany them. But this the governor unge- 
 neroufly endeavoured to prevent, and charged him with , 
 a debt for board. Anthony de Cabra, however, and ■ 
 Hedor de Sylveyra, paid the demand ; and Camoens, . 
 fays Faria, and the honour of Barreto, were fold to- 
 gcther. 
 
 After an abfence of 16 years, Camoens, in 1569, re- 
 turned to Lift)on, unhappy even in his arrival, for the 
 peftilence then raged in that city, and prevented his * 
 publication for three years. At laft, in 1572, he printed 
 his Lufiad, which, in the opening of the firft book, in 
 a moft elegant turn of comphment, he addreffed to his 
 prince, king Sebaftian, then in his i8th year. The 
 king, fays the French tranflator, was fo pleafed with 
 his merit, that he gave the author a penfion of 4000 
 reals, on condition that he Ihould rcfide at court. But 
 this falary, fays the fame waiter, was withdrawn by car 
 dinal Henry, who fucceeded to the crown of Portugal, , 
 loft by Sebaftian at the battle of Alcazar. 
 
 Though the great patron of one fpecies of literature, . 
 a fpecies the reverfe of that of Camoens, certain it is, , 
 that the author of the Lufiad was utterly neglefted by 
 Henry, under whofe inglorious reign he died in all the 
 mifery of poverty. By fome, it is faid, he died in an - 
 alms-houfe. It appears, however, that he had not even 
 the certainty of fubfiftence which thefe houfes provide. 
 He had a black fervant, who had gi-own old with him, . 
 and who had long experienced his mafter's humanity. 
 This grateful Indian, a native of Java, who, according 
 to fome writers, faved his mafter's fife in the unhappy 
 fhipwreck where he loft his effefts, begged in the ftreets - 
 of Lifbon for the only man in Portugal on whom God 
 had beftovved thofe talents which have a tendency to 
 ereft the fpirit of a downward age. To the eye of a 
 careful obferver, the fate of Camoens throws great light 
 on that of his country, and will appear ftriftly connec- 
 ted with it. The fame ignorance, the fame degenerated ; 
 fpirit, which fuffered Camoens to depend on his fhare 
 of the alms begged in the ftreets by his old hoary fer- 
 
CAM [ 
 
 Cnmomile, vant, tlie fame fpirit which caufed this, funk the king- 
 ' i ' . ^^"'^' Portugal into the mod abjeft vaflalage ever ex- 
 
 perienced by a conquered nation. While the grandees 
 of Portugal were blind to the ruin which impended 
 over them, Camoens beheld it with a' pungency of 
 grief which haftened his exit. In one of hi? letters 
 he has thefe remarkable words : £m Jim accaberey a 
 vida, c verram todos que fay efeicoada a minho patria, 
 Iffc "I am ending the courfe of my life, the world 
 will witnefs how I have loved my country. I have 
 returned, not only to die in her bofom, but to die with 
 her." 
 
 In this unhappy fituation, in 1579, in his 62d year, 
 the year after the fatal defeat of Don Sebaftian, died 
 Louis de Camoens, the grcateft literary genius ever 
 produced by Portugal ; in martial courage and fpirit of 
 honour, nothing inferior to her greateft heroes. And 
 in a manner fuitable to the poverty in which he died, 
 v/as he buried. 
 
 CAMOMILE, in botany. S ee Anth£mis. 
 
 CAMP, the ground 00 which an army pitch their 
 tents. It is marked out by the quarter-mafter general, 
 who appoints every regiment their ground. 
 
 The chief advantages to be minded In chufing a camp 
 for an army, are, to have it near the water, in a coun- 
 try of forage, where the foldiers may find wood for 
 dreffing their victuals ; that it have a free communica- 
 tion with garrifons, and with a country from whence 
 it may be fupplied with provlfions ; and, if polTible, 
 that it be fituated on a rifing ground, in a dry gravelly 
 foil. Befides, the advantages of the ground ought to 
 be confidered, as marfhes, woods, rivers, and inclofurcs; 
 and if the camp be near the enemy, with no river or 
 marfh to cover it, the army ought to be intrenched. 
 An army always encamps fronting the enemy ; and ge- 
 nerally in two lines, running parallel about 500 yards 
 diftance ; the horfe and dragoons, on the wings, and 
 the foot, in the centre : fomctlmes a body of two, three, 
 or four brigades is encamped behind the two lines, and 
 is called the body of referve. The artillery and bread- 
 ivaggons are generally encamped in the rear of the two 
 lines. AJiattalion of foot is allowed 80 or 100 paces 
 for its camp ; and 30 or 40 for an interval betwixt one 
 battalion and another. A fquadron of horfe is allowed 
 30 for ics camp, and for an Interval, and more if 
 the ground will allow it. 
 
 Where the grounds are equally dry, thofe camps are 
 always the moft healthful that are pitc led on the banks 
 of large rivers ; becaufe, in the hot feafon, fituations 
 of this kind have a ftream of frefh air from the water, 
 ferving to carry off the molft and putrid exhalations. 
 On the other hand, next to marfhes, the woril encamp- 
 menfs are on Ibw grounds clofe befet with trees ; for 
 then the air is not only molll and huitful in itfelf, but 
 by ^agnating becomes more fufceotible of corruption. 
 However, let the fituation of camps be ever fo good, 
 they are frequently rendered infeftlous by the putrid ef- 
 fluvia of rotten ftraw, and the privies of the army ; more 
 efpeclally if the bloody flux prevails, in which cafe the 
 bert method of preventing a general infeflion, is to leave 
 the ground with the privies, foul ftraw, and other filth 
 of the camp, behind. This mull be frequently done, If 
 confiflent with the military operations : but when thefe 
 render it improper to change the ground often, the pri- 
 vies (hould be made deeoer than ufual, ajid once a-day 
 
 ..N'62. 
 
 64 ] CAM 
 
 a. thick layer of earth thrown into them till the pits are 
 near full ; and then they are to be well covered, and* 
 fupplied by others. It may alfo be a proper caution 
 to order the pits to be made either in the front or the 
 rear, as the then ftationary winds may beft carry off 
 their effluvia from th« camp. Moreover, it will be ne- 
 ceflary to change the ftraw frequently, as being not 
 only apt to rot, but to retain the infeftlous fteams of 
 the fick. But if frefti ftraw cannot be procured, more 
 cate muft be taken in airing the tents, as well as the 
 old ftraw. 
 
 The difpofition of the Hebrew encampment was at 
 firft laid out by God himfelf. Their camp was of a 
 quadrangular form, forrounded with an inclofure of the 
 height of 10 hands-breadth. It made a fquare of 12 
 miles in compafs about the tabernacle ; and within this 
 was another, called the Levitet camp. 
 
 The Greeks had alfo their camps, fortified with gates 
 and ditches. The Lacedaemonians made their camp of 
 a round figure, looking upon that as the moft perfeA 
 and defenfible of any form : we are not, however, to 
 imagine, that they thought this form fo efTcntial to a 
 camp, as never to be dlfpenfed with^when the circum- 
 ftances of the place require it. Of the reft of the Gre- 
 cian camps, it may be obferved, that the moft vahant 
 of the foldiers were placed at the extremities, the 
 reft in the middle. Thus we learn from Homer, that 
 Achilles and Ajax were pofted at the ends of the camp 
 before Troy, as bulwarks on each fide of the reft of the 
 princes. 
 
 The figure of the Roman camp was a fquare divided 
 into two principal parts : in the upper parts were the 
 general's pavilion, or praztorium, and the tent of the 
 chief officers ; in the lower, thofe of inferior degree 
 were placed. On one fide of the prjetorlum ftood the 
 quaeftorium, or apartment of the treafurer of the army; 
 and near this the forum, both for a market-place 
 and the aflembling of councils. On the other fide of 
 the prJEtorium were lodged the legati ; and below it 
 the tribunes had their quarters, oppofite to their re- 
 fpeftlve legions. Afide of the tribunes were the pros- 
 fefti of the foreign troops, over agalnft their refpeftlve 
 wings ; and behind thefe were the lodgments of the 
 evocati, then thofe of the extraordinarii and ablefti 
 equitcs, which concluded the higher -part of the camp. 
 Between the two partitions was a fpot of ground called 
 pritjcipia, for the altars and images of the gods, and 
 probably alfo for the chief enfigns. The middle of the 
 lower partition was affignedto the Roman horfe ; next 
 to them were quartered the triarii ; then the princlpes, 
 and clofe by them the haftati ; afterwards the foreign 
 horfe, and laftly the foreign foot. They fortified 
 their camp with a ditch and parapet, which they term- 
 ed fojfj and vallum ; in the latter fome dlftlnguHh two 
 parts, viz. the agger or earth, and the fades or wooden 
 Itakes driven in to fecure it. The camps were fome- 
 times furrounded by walls made of hewn ftone ; and 
 the tents themfelves formed of the fame matter. 
 
 In the front of the Turkifh camp are quartered the 
 janizaries and other fool, whofe tents encompafs their 
 aga : in the rear are the quarters of the fpahis and 
 other horfemen. The body of the camp is poffeftcd by 
 the ftately tents or pavihons. of the vizer or general, 
 rals effendl or chancellor, kahija or fteward, the tefter- 
 dar baftiaw or Igrd treafurer, and kapiflar kahiafee or 
 
 mafter 
 
 Camp. 
 
CAM [ 
 
 Camp mafter of the ceremonies. In the middle of thefe tents 
 II . is a fpacious field, wherein are erecfted a building for 
 Cam paign. j]van, and a hafna or treafury. When the ground 
 is marked out for a camp, all wait for the pitching of 
 the tent /al/ac, the place where the courts of juftice 
 are held ; it being the difpofition of this that is to re- 
 gulate all the reft. 
 
 The Arabs ftill live in camps, as the ancient Scenites 
 did. The camp of the Affyne Emir, or king of the 
 country about Tadmor, is defcribed by a traveller who 
 viewed it, as fpread over a very large plain, and pof- 
 fefTmg fo vaft a fpace, that though he had the ad- 
 vantage of a rlfmg ground, he could not fee the 
 utmoft extent of it. His own tent was near the mid- 
 dle ; fcarce diftinguiOiable from the reft, except that 
 it was bigger, being made, like the others, of a fort of 
 hair-cloth. 
 
 Camp, is alfo ufed by the Siamefe, and fome other 
 nations in the Eaft Indies, as the name of the quarters 
 which they afiign to foreigners who come to trade with 
 them. In thefe camps, every nation forms, as it were, 
 a particular town, where they carry on all their trade, 
 not only keeping all their warehoufes and (hops there, 
 but alfo live in thefe camps with their whole families. 
 The Europeans, however, are fo far indulged, that at 
 Siam, and almoft every where elfe, they may live either 
 in the cities or fuburbs, as they fhall judge moft. con- 
 venient. 
 
 Camv fght, or K^MP fight t in law writers, denotes 
 the trial of a caiife by duel, or a legal combat of two 
 thampions in the field, for decifion of fome contro- 
 verfy. 
 
 In the trial by camp fight, the accufer was, with 
 the peril of his own body, to prove the accufed guilty; 
 and by offering him his glove, to challenge him to 
 this trial, which the other mull either accept of, or ac- 
 knowledge himfelf guilty of the crime whereof he was 
 accufed. 
 
 If it were a crime defcrving death, the camp fight 
 was for life and death : if the offence deferved only 
 Imprifonment, the camp fight was accompliihed when 
 one combatant had fubdued ihe other, fo as either to 
 make him yield or take him prifoner. The accufed 
 had liberty to choofe another to fight in his ftead, but 
 the accufer was obliged lo perform it in his own per- 
 fon, and with equality of weapons. No women were 
 permitted to be fpedlators, nor men under the age of 
 thirteen. The pricft and the people who looked on, 
 were engaged filently in prayer, that the viAory might 
 fall to him who had right. None might cry, fiiriek, 
 or give the leaft fign ; which in fome places was exe- 
 cuted with fo much ftriAnefs, that the executioner llood 
 ready with an axe to cut off the right hand or foot of 
 the party that fliould offend herein. 
 
 He that, being wounded, yielded himfelf, was at the 
 other's mercy cither to be killed or fufi^ered to live. But 
 if life were granted him, he was declared infamous by 
 the judge, and dilabled from ever bearing arms, or ri- 
 ding on horfeback. 
 
 CAMPAGNA. See Campania. 
 ■CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the fpace 
 of time that an army keeps the field, or is encamped. — 
 Theb eginning of every campaign is confiderably more 
 unhealthy than if the men were to rerr.ain in quarters. 
 After the firft fortnight or tiiree weeks encampment, 
 Vol. IV. Part. L 
 
 65 1 CAM 
 
 the ficknefs decreafes daily; the moft .infirm being byCapahaccae 
 that time in the hofpitals, and the weather daily grow- J'j^j^jj 
 ing warmer. This healthy ftate continues throughout ^'^f 
 the fummer, unlefs the men get wet clothes or wet 
 beds ; in which cafe, a greater or lefs degree of the dy- 
 fentery will appear in proportion tq the preceding 
 heats. But the moft fickly part of the campaign begins 
 about the middle or end of Auguft, whilft the days are 
 ftill hot, but the nights cool and damp, with fogs and 
 dews : then, and not fooner, the dyfentery prevails ; 
 and though its violence is over by the beginning of 
 Oftober, yet the remitting fever gaining ground, con- 
 tinues throughout the reft of the campaign, and never 
 entirely ceafes, even in winter-quarters, till the frofts 
 begin. At the beginning of a campaign the ficknefs is 
 fo uniform, that the number may be nearly predided ; 
 but for the reft of the feafon, as the difeafes are then 
 of a contagious nature, and depend fo much upon the 
 heats of fummer, it is impoffible to forefee how many- 
 may fall fick from the beginning to the end of autumn. 
 It is alfo obferved, that the laft fortnight of a cam- 
 paign, if protrafted till the beginning of a campaign, 
 is attended with more ficknefs than the firft two months 
 encampment : fo that it is better to take the field a 
 fortnight fooner, in order to return into winter-quar- 
 ters fo much the earlier. As to winter expeditions, 
 though fevere in appearance, they are attended with 
 httle ficknefs, if the men have ftrong ftioes, quarters, 
 fuel, and provifions. Long marches in fummer are 
 not without danger, unlefs made in the night, or fo 
 early in the morning as to be over before the heat of 
 the day. 
 
 CAMPANACEJ^., in botany, an order ofplantsin* Sce5».^ 
 the Fragmenta jnethodi naturalis of Linnseus, in which 
 are the following genera, viz. convolvulus, ipomasa, 
 polemonium, campanula, roella, viola, &c. * 
 
 CAMPANELLA (Thomas,) a famous Italian 
 philofopher, born at Siilo in Calabria, in 1 568. 
 He dillinguifhed himfelf by his early proficiency in 
 learning ; for at the age of 13 he was a perfeft mafter 
 of the ancient orators and poets. His peculiar inclina- 
 tion was to philofophy, to which he at laft confined 
 his whole time and fiudy. In order to arrive at truth, 
 he fliook off the yoke of authority : by which means 
 the novelty of fome of his opinions expofed him to 
 many inconveniences ; for at Naples he was thrown 
 into prifon, in which he remained 27 years, and du- 
 ring this confinement wrote his famous work entitled 
 Atheifnius triumphatus. Being at length fet at liberty, 
 he went to Paris, where he was gracioufly received by 
 Louis XIII. and cardinal Richelieu ; the latter pro- 
 cured him a penfion of 2000 livres, and often confulted 
 him on the affairs of Italy. Campanella paffed the re- 
 mainder of his days in a monaftery of Dominicans at 
 Paris, and died in 1639. 
 
 .CAMPANI (Matthew) of Spoletto, curate at 
 Rome, wrote a curious treatife on the art of cutting' 
 glaffes for fpeftacles, and made feveral improvements 
 in optics, allifted by his brother and pupil Jofeph. He 
 died after 1678. 
 
 CAMPANIA.a town of Italy, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, and in the farther principato, with a biftiop's 
 fee. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat. 4c. 40. 
 
 Campania or Campagna di Roma, anciently La- 
 tium, a province of Italy, bounded on the weft by the 
 I Tiber 
 
CAM 
 
 [ 66 ] 
 
 CAM 
 
 Campania. Tibet" and the fea, on the foutli-weftby tlie fea, on the 
 """^ fouth by Terra di Lavoro, on the eail by Abruzzo, 
 and on the north by Sabina. Though the foil is good, 
 it produces little or nothing, on account of the heavy 
 duties on corn ; and though the waters are good, the 
 air is unwholefome. It is fubjefl to the Pope, and is 
 about 60 miles in length on the Mediterranean fea. 
 
 It hath been generally thought that the air of this 
 country hath fomething in it pepuliarly noxious du- 
 ring the fummer-time ; but Mr Condamine is of opinion 
 that it is not more unhealthy than any other marfhy 
 country. His account follows. " It was after the in- 
 vafion of the Goths in the fifth and fixth centuries that 
 this corruption of the air began to manifell itfelf. The 
 bed of the Tiber being covered by the accumulated 
 ruins of the edifices of ancient Rome, could not but 
 raife itfelf confiderably. But what permits us not to 
 doubt of this fa6t is, that the ancient and well-preferved 
 pavement of the Pantheon and its portico is overflowed 
 every winter; that the water even rifes there fometimes 
 to the height of eight or ten feet ; and that it is not 
 poflible to fuppofe tliat the ancient Romans fhould 
 have built a temple in a place fo low as to be covered 
 with the waters of the Tiber on the leaft inundation. 
 It is evident, then, that the level of the bed of this river 
 is raifed fevtral feet ; which could not have happened 
 without forming there a kind of dikes or bars. The 
 choaking up of its canal neceffarily occafioned the over- 
 flow and reflux of its waters in fuch places as till then 
 had not been fubjeft to inundations : to thefe over- 
 flowings of the Tiber were added all the waters that 
 efcaped out of the ancient acquedufts, the ruins of which 
 are fl;iU to be feen, and which were entirely broken and 
 dellroyed by Totila. What need, therefore, of any 
 thing more to infeft the air, in a hot climate, than the 
 exhalations of fuch a mafs of fliagnating waters, depri- 
 ved of any difcharge, and become the receptacle of a 
 thoufand impurities, as well as. the grave of feveral mil- 
 lions both of men and animals? The evil could not but 
 increafe from the fame caufes while Rome was expofed 
 to the incurfions and devaftions of the Lombards, the 
 Normans, and the Saracens, which lafted for feveral 
 centuries. The air was become fo infeftious there at 
 the beginning of the 1 3th century, that Pope Inno- 
 cent III. wrote, that few people at Rome arrived to 
 the age of forty years, and that nothing was more 
 uncommon-there than to fee a perfon of fixty. A very 
 fhort time after, the popes transferred the feat of their 
 refidence to Avignon : during the feventy-two years 
 they remained there, Rome became- a defert ; the mo- 
 pafteries in it were converted into llabks ; and Gre- 
 gory XL on his return to Rome, in 1376, hardly 
 counted there 30,.ooo inhabitants. At his death began 
 the troubles of the great fchifm in the wefl;, which con- 
 tinued for upwards of 50 years. Martin V. in whom 
 this fchifm ended' in the year 1429, and his firft fuccef- 
 fors, were able to make but feeble efi^orts againft fo in- 
 veterate an evil. It was not till the beginning of the 
 16th. century that Leo X. under whom Rome began to 
 relume her wonted fplendor, gave himfelf fume trouble 
 about re-eftablilhing the falubrity of the air : but the 
 city, being ihortly after befieged- twice fucccflively by 
 the emperor Charles V. fiiw itfelf plunged again into 
 all its old calamities; and from 85,000 inhabitants, 
 -.vhich it contained under Leo X, it was reduced under 
 
 Clement VIII. to 32,000. In rtiort, it is only fmce the Campari- 
 time of Pius V. and Sextus V. at the end of the i6th ^"' "^ 
 century, that the pones have conftantlv employed the 1 
 neceliary methods tor purirymg the air 01 Rome and -, 
 its environs, by procuring proper dii'charges for the 
 waters, drying up the humid and marlby grounds, and 
 covering the banks of the Tiber and other places repu- 
 ted uninhabitable with fuperb edifices. Since that tinie 
 a perfon may dwell at Rome, and go in or out of it at 
 all feafons of the year. At the beginning, however, of 
 the prefent century, they were ftill afraid to lie out of 
 the city in fummer, when they had refided there ; as 
 they were alfo to return to it, when once they had 
 quitted it. They never ventured to fleep at Rome, even 
 in broad day, in any other houfe than their own.. 
 They are greatly relaxed at prefent from thefe ancient 
 fcruples : I have feen cardinals, in the months of July 
 and Auguft, go from Rome to lie at Frafcati, Tivoli, 
 Albano, &c. and return the next or the following days 
 to the city, without any detriment to their health : I 
 have myfelf tried all thefe experiments, without fufFer- 
 ing the leaft inconvenience from them : we have even 
 feen, in the laft war in Italy, two armies encamped 
 under the walls of Rome at the time when the heatSr 
 were moft violent. Yet, notwithftanding all this, the 
 greater part of the country people dare not ftill ven- 
 ture to lie during that feafon of the year, nor even as 
 much as fleep in a carriage, in any part of the terri- 
 toiy comprehended under the name of the Campagna of 
 Rome." 
 
 CAMPANIFORM, or Campanulated, an appel- 
 lation given to flowers refembling a bell. 
 
 CAMPANINI, a name given to an Italian marble 
 dug out of the mountains of Carrara, becaufe, when it 
 is worked, it founds like a bell. 
 
 CAMPANULA, or bell-flower; A genus of 
 the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria 
 clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking: 
 under the 29th order, Carnpavacea. The corolla i& 
 campanulated, with its fundus clofed up by the valves- 
 that fupport the ftamina; the ftigma is trifid; the cap- 
 fule inferior, or below the receptacle of the flower^ 
 opening and emitting the feeds by lateral pores. 
 
 Species. Of this genus there are no fewer than 41 
 fpecies enumerated by botanical writers ; but the fol- 
 lowing are the moft worthy of attention, i . The pyra- 
 midalis hath thick tuberous roots filled with a milky- 
 juice ; it fends out ftrong, fmooth, upright ftalks,. 
 which rife to the height of four feet, garniflied with 
 fmooth oblong leaves a little indented at the edges. 
 The flowers are produced from the fide of the ftalks, 
 and are regularly fet on for more than half their length, 
 forming, a fort of pyramid ; thefe are large, open, and 
 fliaped like a bell. The moft common colour of the 
 flowers is blue, though fome are white, but the former 
 are moft efteemed. 2. The decurrens, or peach-leaved 
 bell-flower, is a native of the northern parts of Lurope z 
 of this there are fome with white, and fome with blue 
 flowers, and fome with double flowers of both colours- 
 Thefe laft have of late been propagated in fuch abun- 
 dance- as to have almoft baniflied from the gardens 
 thofe with fingle flowers. 3. The medium, commonly 
 called Canterbury lell-Jloiver, is a biennial plant, which 
 periflies foon after it has ripened its feeds. It grows 
 ttftturally in . the woods of Italy and Auftria ; but i* 
 
 cuL 
 
CAM 
 
 C 67 ] 
 
 CAM 
 
 Cimpanula, cultivated in the Britilh gardens for the beauty of its 
 ""V"-' flowers, which are blue, purple, white, and llriped, with 
 double flowers of all the colours. This fpecies hath ob- 
 long, rough, hairy, leaves, ferrated on their edges : 
 from the centre of thefe rifes a ftiff, hairy, furrowed 
 Aalk, about two feet high, fending out feveral lateral 
 branches, garnifhed with long, narrow, hairy leaves 
 fawed on their edges. From the fetting on of thefe 
 leaves proceed the footftalks of the flower; thofe which 
 are on the lower part of the flialk and branches diml- 
 niibing gradually in their length upwai'd, and thereby 
 forming a fort of pyramid. The flowers of this kind 
 are very large, fo make a fine appearance. The feeds 
 ripen in September, and the plants decay foon after. 
 4. The trachelium, with nettle leaves, hath a peren- 
 nial root, which fends up feveral fl;iff" hairy ftalks ha- 
 ving two ribs or angles. Thefe put out a few flaort 
 fide-branches, garniflied with oblong hairy leaves deep- 
 ly fawed on their edges. Toward the upper part of 
 the fl:alks, the flowers come out alternately upon 
 fliort trifid foot-fl;alks having hairy empalements. 
 1'he colours of the flowers are a deep and a pale blue 
 and white, with double flowers of the fame ; the double- 
 flowered kind only merit a place in gardens. 5, The 
 latifolia, or greatefl: bell-flower, hath a perennial root, 
 compofed of many flefliy fibres that abound with a 
 milky juice. From thefe arife feveral flirong, round 
 fmgle flialks, which never put out branches, but are 
 ^aiTiifhed with oval fpear-fliaped leaves flightly indent- 
 ed on their edges. Towards the upper part of the fl:alk 
 the flowers come out fingly upon fliort foot-fl:alks; 
 their colours are blue, purple, and white. 6. The 
 rapunculus, or rampion, hath roundirti flefliy roots, 
 which are eatable, and much cultivated in France for 
 fallads ; fome years pafl; it was cultivated in the Eng- 
 lifti gardens for the fame purpofe, but is now general- 
 ly neglefted. It is a native of Britain ; but the roots 
 of the wild fort never grow to half the fize of thofe 
 which are cultivated. 7. The fpeculum, with yellow 
 €ye-bright leaves, is an annual plant with flender fl;alks 
 riling a foot high, branching out on every fide, and 
 garniflied with oblong leaves a little curled on their 
 edges ; from the wings of the leaves come out the 
 flowers fitting clofe to the ftalks, which are of a beau- 
 tiful purple inclining to a violet colour. In the even- 
 ing, they contrail and fold into a pentagonal figure ; 
 from whence it is by fome called viola pent agonia, or 
 Jive-cornered violet. 8. The hybrida, or common Venus 
 looking-glafs. This feldom rifes more than fix inches 
 high, with a ftalk branching from the bottom upward, 
 and garniflied with oval leaves fitting clofe to the 
 ftalks, from the bafe of which the branches are pro- 
 duced, which are terminated by flowers very like the 
 former fort. This was formerly cultivated in the gar- 
 dens: but fince the former kind hath been introduced, 
 it hath almoft fupplanted this ; for the other is a much 
 taller plant, and the flowers larger, though of a lefs 
 beautiful colour. 9. The canarienfis, with an orach 
 leaf and tuberous root, is a native of the Canary iflands. 
 It hath a thick flefliy root of an irregular form; fome- 
 times running downward like a parfnip, at other times 
 dividing into feveral knobs near the top ; and when 
 any part of the root is broken, there iflues out a milky 
 juice at the wound. From the head or crown of the 
 root arife one, two, three, or more ftalks, in propor- 
 
 tion to the fize of the root ; but that in the centre isCampanuU, 
 
 generally larger, and rifes higher, than the others. * ' ^ 
 
 Thefe ftalks are very tender, round, and of a pale 
 
 green; their joints are far diftant from each other; and 
 
 when the roots are ftrong, the ftalks will rife to ten 
 
 feet high, fending out feveral lateral branches. At 
 
 each joint they are garniflied with two, three, or four 
 
 fpear-fliaped leaves, with a fliarp pointed beard on each 
 
 fide. They are of a fea-green ; and, when they firft 
 
 come out, are covered flightly with an afli-coloured 
 
 pounce. From the joints of the ftalk the flowers are 
 
 produced, which are of the perfeft bell-fliape, and 
 
 hang downward ; they are of a flame-colour, marked 
 
 with ftripes of a brownifli red : the flower is divided 
 
 into five parts ; at the bottom of each is feated a nec- 
 
 tariuni, covered with a white tranfparent flcin, much 
 
 refembling thofe of the crown imperial, but fmaller. 
 
 The flowers begin to open in the beginning of Ofto- 
 
 ber, and there is often a fucceflion of them till March. 
 
 The ftalks decay to the root in June, and new ones 
 
 fpring up in Auguft. 
 
 Culture, &c. The firft fort is cultivated to adorn 
 halls, and to place before chininies in the fummer whtn 
 it is in flower, for which purpofe there is no plant m,ore 
 proper ; for when the roots are ftrong, they will fend 
 out four or five ftalks which will rife as many feet 
 high, and are adorned with flowers a great part of their 
 length. When the flowers begin to open, the pots are 
 removed into the rooms, where, being fliaded from the 
 fun and rain, the flowers will continue long in beauty ; 
 and if the pots are every night removed into a more 
 airy fituation, but not expofed to heavy rains, the 
 flowers will be fairer, and continue much longer in 
 beauty. Thofe plants which are thus treated, are fel- 
 dom fit for the purpofe the following feafon ; therefore 
 a fupply of young ones muft be annually railed. The 
 plant may be propagated either by dividing the roots 
 or by feeds, but the latter produce the moft vigorous 
 and beft flowering plants. The feeds muft be fown in 
 autumn in boxes or pots filled with light undunged 
 earth, and placed in the open air till the froft or hard 
 rains come on : then they muft be placed under a hot- 
 bed frame, where they may be ftieltered from both ; 
 but in mild weather the glafles fliould be drawn off 
 every day, that they may enjoy the free air : with this 
 management the plants will come up early in the fpring, 
 and then they muft be removed out of the frame, pla- 
 cing them firft in a warm fituation ; but, when the 
 feafon becomes warm, they fliould be fo placed as to 
 have the morning fun only. In September the leaves 
 of the plants will begin to decay, at which time they 
 fliould be tranfplanted ; therefore there muft be one or 
 two beds prepared, in proportion to the number of 
 plants. Thefe beds muft be in a warm fituation, and 
 the earth light, fandy, and without any mixture of 
 dung. The plants muft then be taken out of the 
 pots or cafes very carefully, fo as not to bruife their 
 roots; for they are very tender, and on being broken 
 the milky juice wiU flow out plentifully, which will 
 greatly weaken them. Thefe fliould be planted at a- 
 bout fix inches diftance each way, with the head or 
 crown of the root half an inch below the furface. If 
 the feafon proves dry, they muft be gently watered 
 three or four days after they are planted ; the beds 
 fliould alfo be covered with mats in the day time, but 
 I 2 which 
 
CAM [68 
 
 C.imp annla. which fhould be taken off at night to let the dew fall 
 * on the plants. Towards the end of November the beds 
 fhould be covered over with fome old tanners bark to 
 keep out the froft; and where there is not conveniency 
 for covering them with frames, they fhould be arched 
 over with hoops, that in fevere weather they may be 
 covered with macs. In the fpring the mats mull be re- 
 moved, and, the following fummer, the plants kept 
 free from weeds. In autumn the ea^th fliould be ftirred 
 between them, fome frelh earth fprcad over the beds, 
 and the plants covered in winter as before. In thefe 
 beds the plants may remain two years, during vt-hich 
 time they are to be treated in the manner before direc- 
 ted. The roots v/ill now be ftrong enough to flower 5 
 fo, in September they Ihould be carefully taken up, and 
 fome of the moll promifing carefully planted in pots ; 
 the others may be planted in warm borders, or in a frefh 
 bed, at a greater diftance than before, to allov/ them 
 room to grow. Thofe plants which are potted fliould 
 be fheltercd in winter from great rains and hard frclts, 
 othervvlfe they will be in danger of rotting, or at leaft 
 will be fo weakened as not to flower with any flrength 
 the following fummer; and thofe which are planted in 
 the full ground, fliould have fome old tanners bark laid 
 round them to prevent the froft from getting at the 
 roots. The fecond, third, fourth, and fifth forts are 
 ,fo eafily propagated by parting the roots, or by feeds, 
 that no particular direftions for their culture need be 
 given. The fixth fort, which is cultivated for its efcu- 
 lent roots, may be propagated by feeds, which are to 
 be fown in a fhady border ; and when the plants are a- 
 bout an inch high, the ground fhall be hoed as is 
 praftifed for onions, to cut up the weeds, and thin the 
 plants, to the diilance of three or four inches ; and 
 when the weeds come up again they muft be hoed over 
 to deftroy them : this, if well performed in dry wea- 
 ther, will make the ground clean for a long time ; fo 
 that, being three times repeated, it will keep the plants 
 clean till v.'inter, which is the feafon for eating the 
 roots, when they may be taken up for ufe as wanted. 
 They will continue good till April, at which time 
 they fend out their flalks, when the roots become hard 
 and unfit for ufe. — The feventh and eighth forts are 
 eafily propagated by feeds, which they produce in plen- 
 ty. If thefe, and the Venus navclwort, dwarf lych- 
 nis, candy-tuft, and other low annual flowers, are pro- 
 perly mixed in the border of the flower-garden, and 
 fown at two or three different feafons, fo as to have a 
 fucceffion of them in flower, they will make an agree- 
 able variety. If thefe feeds are fown in autumn, the 
 plants will flower early in the fpring; but if fown in the 
 fpring, they will not. flower till the middle of June ; 
 and If a third fowing is performed about the middle of 
 May, the plants will flower in Auguft; but from thefe, 
 good feeds muft not be expeaed.— The ninth fort is 
 propagated by parting the roots, Avhich muft be done 
 with caution : for if they are broken or wounded, the 
 milky juice will flow out plentifully; and if planted be- 
 fore the wounds are fl<inned over, it occafions their 
 rotting: therefore when any of them are broken, they 
 fhould be laid in the green-lioufe a few days to heaL 
 Thefe roots mufl; not be too often parted, if they are 
 expefted to flower well ; for by this means they are 
 weakened. The beft time for tranfplanting and part- 
 ing their roots is in July, foon after the ftalks ai-e de- 
 
 ] CAM 
 
 cayed. They mull not be planted in rich earth, other- CajmpbelT. 
 
 wife they will be very luxuriant in branches, and have 
 
 but few flowers. They fucceed beft in a light fandy 
 loam, mixed with a fourth part of fcreened lime-rub- 
 bifli : when the roots are firft planted the pots fliould 
 be placed in the fhade, and uniefs the feafon is very dry 
 they fliould not be watered ; for during the time they 
 are inaftive, wet is very injurious to them. About 
 the middle of Auguft, the roots will begin to put out 
 fibres ; at which time, if the pots are placed under a 
 hot-bed frame, and, as the nights grow cool, covered 
 with the glaffes, but opened every day to enjoy the free 
 air, it will greatly forward them for flowering, and in 
 creafe their ftrength : when the ftalks appear, they 
 muft be now and then refrefhed with water ; but it 
 muft not be given too often, nor in too great quantity. 
 The plants thus managed, by the middle of Septem- 
 ber will have grown fo tall as not to be kept any 
 longer under the glafs frame; they muft, therefore, be 
 removed into a dry airy glafs-cafe, where they may en- 
 joy the free air in mild weather, but fcreened from the 
 cold. During the winter feafon they muft be fre- 
 quently refreflied with water, and guarded from froft } 
 and, in the fpring, when the ftalks begin to decay, 
 the pots fliould be fet abroad inthe fhade, and not wa- 
 tered. 
 
 CAMPBELL (Archibald), earl and marquis of 
 Argyle, was the fon of Archibald earl of Argyle, by 
 the lady Anne Douglafs, daughter of William earl of 
 Morton. He was born in the year 1598 ; and edu- 
 cated in the profefTion of the Proteftant religion, ac- 
 cording to the ftritteft rules of the church of Scotland,, 
 as it was eftablifhed immediately after the reformation. 
 During the commonwealth he was induced to fubmit to 
 its authority. Upon the reftoration, he was tried for 
 his compHance; a crime common to him with the whole 
 nation, and fuch a one as the moft loyal and affec- 
 tionate fubjedl might frequently by violence be induced 
 to commit. To make this compliance appear the 
 more voluntary and hearty, there were produced in 
 court letters which he had wrote to Albemarle, while 
 that general governed Scotland, and which contained 
 expreffions of the moft cordial attachment to the efta- 
 blifhed government. But, befides the general indig 
 nation excited by Albermarle's difcovery of this private 
 correfpondcnce, men thought, that even the higheft 
 demonftrations of affedion might, during jealous times, 
 be exafted as a neceflary mark of compliance from a 
 perfon of fuch diftinftion as Argyle; and could not, by 
 any equitable conftru6lion, imply the crime of trea- 
 fon. The parliament, however, fcrupled not to pafs 
 fentence upon him, and he fuffered with great conitau- 
 cy and courage. 
 
 Campbell (Archibald), earl of Argyle, fon to the 
 former, had from his youth diftinguiflied himfelf by his 
 loyalty and his attachment to the royal family. Tho' 
 his father was head of the covenanters, he himfelf re« 
 fufed to concur in any of their meafures ; and when a 
 commiflionof colonel was given him by the convention 
 of ftates, he forbore to aft upon it till it fl-iould be ra- 
 tified by the king. By his refpeftful behaviour, as well 
 as by his fervices, he made himfelf acceptable to Charles 
 when that prince was in Scotland and even after the 
 battle of Worcefter, all the misfortunes which attended 
 the royal caufe could not engage him to' dfefert it. Un- 
 der 
 
CAM 
 
 [ 69 1 
 
 CAM 
 
 der Middeton he obftinately perfevered to harafs and 
 infeft the viftorious EngliiTi; and it was not till he re- 
 ceived orders from that general, that he would fubmit 
 to accept of a capitulation. Such jealoufy of his loyal 
 attachments was entertained by the commonwealth and 
 proteftor, that a pretence was foon after fallen upon to. 
 commit him to prifon ; and his confinement was rigo- 
 roufly continued till the reftoration. The king, fen- 
 fible of his fervices, had remitted to him his father's 
 forfeiture, and created him earl of Argyle ; and when 
 a moft unjuft fentence was paffed upon him by the Scots 
 parhament, Charles had anew remitted it. In the fub- 
 iequent part of this reign Argyle behaved himfelf du- 
 tifully ; and though he feemed not difpofed to go all 
 lengths with the court, he always appeared, even in his 
 op jofition, a man of mild difpofitions and peaceable 
 deportment. 
 
 A parliament was fummoned at Edinburgh in fum- 
 mer 1 68 1 , and the duke was appointed commiffioner. 
 Befides granting money to the king, and voting the 
 indefeafible right of fucceffion, this parliament enadled 
 a tell, which all perfons pofieffed of offices, civil,* mili- 
 tary, or eccleliaftical, were bound to take. In this telt 
 the king's fupremacy was afTerted, the covenant renoun- 
 ced, palhvc obedience afTented to, and all obligations 
 difclaimed of endeavouring any alteration in civil or ec- 
 clefiaftical eftablifhments. This was the ftate of the 
 teft as propofed by the courtiers; but the country par- 
 ty propofed alfo a claufe of adherence to the Protellant 
 religion, which could not with decency be rejefted. 
 The whole was of an enormous length, confidered as 
 an oath ; and, what was worfe, a confeffion of faith 
 was there ratified which had been impofed a little after 
 the reformation, and which contained many articles 
 altogether forged by the parliament and nation. A- 
 mong others, the do£trine of refiftance was inculcated ; 
 fo that the teft being voted in a hurry, was found on 
 examination to be a medley of abfurdity and contra- 
 diftion. Though the cburtiers could not rejeft the 
 claufe of adhering to the Proteilant religion, they 
 propofed, as a requifite mark of refpedl, that aU princes 
 of the blood fhould be exempted from taking that 
 6ath. This exception was zealou/ly oppofed by Ar- 
 gyle ; who obferved that the fole danger to be dreaded 
 for the Proteftant religion muft proceed from the 
 perverfion of the royal family. By infilling on fuch 
 topics, he drew on himfelf the fecret indignation of 
 the duke of York, of which he foon felt the fatal con- 
 fequences. 
 
 When Argyle took the teft as a privy counfellor, he 
 fubjoined, in the duke's prefence, an explanation which 
 he had before hand communicated to that prince, and 
 which he believed to have been approved by him. It 
 was in thefe words. " I have confidered the teft, and 
 am very defirous of giving obedience as far as I can. I 
 am confident that the parliament never intended to im- 
 pofe contradldlory oaths i therefore I think no man can 
 explain it but for himfelf. Accordingly I take it as far 
 as it is confiftent with itfelf and the Proteftant reli- 
 gion. And I do declare that I mean not to "bind my- 
 felf, in my ftation, and in a lawful way, from wifhing 
 and endeavouring any alteration, which I think to the 
 advantage of church or ftate, and not repugnant to the 
 Proteftant religion and my loyalty : and this I under- 
 ftand as a part of nxy oath." The duke, as was nataral,. 
 
 heard it with great tranquillity: no one took the leaft Cam pbell. 
 off"eiice : Argyle was admitted to fit that day in coun- — — \— ' 
 cil : and it was impofilble to imagine that a capital of- 
 fence had been committed where occafion feemed not 
 to have been given fo much as for a frown or repri- 
 mand. 
 
 Argyle was much furprifed a few days after, to find 
 that a warrant was iflued for committing him to pri- 
 fon ; that he was indicted for high treafon, leafing- 
 making, and perjury; and that from the innocent words 
 abovementioned an accufation was extracted, by which 
 he was to forfeit life, honours, and fortune. It is need- 
 lefs to enter into particulars, where the iniquity of the 
 whole is fo evidently apparent. Though the Iworcl of 
 juftice was difplayed, even her femblance was not put 
 on ; and the forms of law were preferved to fanftify, 
 or rather aggravate, the oppreflion. Of five judges, 
 three did not fcruple to find the guilt of trealon and 
 leafing-making to be incurred by the prifoner : a jury 
 of 15 noblemen gave verdift againft him ; and the king 
 being confulted, ordered the fentence to be pronounced^ 
 but the execution of it to be fufpended till further 
 orders. Argyle, however, faw no reafon to truft to 
 the juftice or mercy of fuch enemies : He made his e- 
 fcape from prifon, and till he could find a ftiip for Hol- 
 land he concealed himfelf during fome time in London.- 
 The king heard of his lurking place, but would not 
 fuffer him to be arrefted. All the parts, however, of 
 his fentence, fo far as the government in Scotland had 
 power, were rigoroufly executed ; hiseftate confifcated,, 
 his arms reverfed and torn. Having got over to Hol- 
 land, he remained there during the remaining part of 
 the reign of Charles II. But thinking himfelf at li- 
 berty, before the coronation of James II. to exert him- 
 felf in order to recover the conftitution by force of arms, 
 he concerted meafures with the duke of Monmouth, 
 and went into Scotland, to aflemble his friends : but 
 not meeting with the fuccefshe expefted, he was taken 
 prifoner ; and being can-ied to Edinburgh, was be- 
 headed upon his former unjuft fentence, June 30, 1685. 
 He fiiowed great conftancy and courage under his mif- 
 fortunes : on the day of his death he ate his dinner very 
 cheerfully : and, according to cuftom, flept after it 
 a quarter of an hour or more, very foundly. At the 
 place of execution, he made a fttort, grave, and religious 
 ipeech; and, after folemnly declaring that he for- 
 gave all his enemies, fubmitted to death with great 
 firmnefs. 
 
 Campbell (Archibald), firft duke of Argyle, fon 
 to the preceding, was an aftive promoter of the re- 
 volution. He came over with the Prince of Orange; 
 was admitted into the convention as Earl of Argyle, tho' 
 his father's attainder was not reverfed ; and in the claim- 
 of rights the fentence againft him was declared to be, 
 what moft certainly it was, a reproach upon the nation. 
 The eftablifhment of the crown upon the Prince and 
 Princefs of Orange being can-ied by a great majority 
 in the Scottifh convention, the earl was fent from the 
 nobility, with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John 
 Dalrymple from the barons and boroughs, to offer the 
 crown, in the name of the convention, to their Ma- 
 jefties, and tendered them the coronation oath ; for 
 which, and many other eminent fervices, he was ad- 
 mitted a member of the privy council, and, in 1690, 
 made one of the Lords of the Treafury. He was af- 
 terwards 
 
CAM C 70 ] 
 
 ^<im;-'!e1'. fjnvavds made a colonel of the Scots horfe guards; and, bloodfhcd 
 
 in 1694, one of the extraordinary Lords of SefTion. 
 He was likewife created Duke of Argyle, Marquis of 
 Kintyre and Lorn, Earl of Campbell and Cowell, Vif- 
 count of Lochow and Glengla, Lord Invcrary, Mull, 
 Morvern, and Terrey, by letters-patent, bearing date 
 at Kenfington the 23d of June 1701. He fent over 
 a regiment to Flanders for king William's fervice, the 
 officers of which were chiefly of his own name and fa- 
 mily, who bravely diftinguiihed themfelves through the 
 whole courfe of the war. He married Elizabeth, 
 -daughter of Sir Lionel Talmafli of Helmingham in 
 ihe county of Suffolk, by Elizabeth duchefs of I^au- 
 derdale his wife, daughter and heir of William Mur- 
 ray earl ofDyfart, by whom he left ilTue two fons and 
 a daughter ; namely, John duke of Argyle, the fubjed 
 of the next article ; Archibald, who fucceeded his 
 brother as Duke of Argyle ; and Lady Anne, mar- 
 ried to James Stuart, fecondearlof Bute, by whom fiie 
 l\nd the prefent earl. 
 
 Campbell (John), fecondduke of Argyle, andalfo 
 duke of Greenwich and baron of Chatham, fon to the 
 fubjeft of the preceding article, was born on the loth 
 .of Oftober 1680; and, on the very day when his grand- 
 father fuffered at Edinburgh, fell out of a window three 
 pair of ftairs high without receiving any hurt. At 
 the age of 15, he had made a confiderable progrefs in 
 claflical learning. His father then perceived and en- 
 couraged his military difpofition, and introduced him 
 to king William, who in the year 1694 g^'^^ ^'"^ the 
 command of a regiment. In this fituation he remained 
 ■till the death of his father in 1 703 ; when becoming 
 duke of Argyle, he was foon after fworn of queen 
 Anne's privy council, made captain of the Scotch horfe 
 guards, and appointed one of the extraordinary lords 
 of feffion. In 1704, her Majefty revivmg the Scottifh 
 order of the thiftle, his grace was inftalled one of the 
 knights of that order, and was foon after appointed 
 lu'gh-commiffioner to the Scotch parliament ; where, 
 being of great fervice in promoting the intended union, 
 he was on his return created a peer of England, by the 
 -titles of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, and 
 in 1 7 1 o was made knight of the garter. His grace 
 firft diftinguifhed himfelf in his military capacity at the 
 battle of Oudenard; where he commanded as brigadier- 
 general, with all the bravery of youth and the con- 
 du6x of a veteran officer. He was prefent uiider the 
 duke of Marlborough at the fiege of Ghent, and took 
 poffeffion of the town. He had alfo a confiderable fhare 
 in the viftory obtained over the French at the battle of 
 Malplaquet, by diflodging them from the wood of Sart, 
 and gaining a poll of great confequence. In this fharp 
 .engagement, feveral muflcet-balls paffed through the 
 duke's clothes, hat, and peruke. Soon after this hot 
 aftion, he was fent to take the command in Spain ; 
 and after the reduftion of Port Mahon, he returned to 
 England. His grace having now a feat in the houfe 
 of lords, he cenfured the meafures of the miniftry with 
 fuch freedom, that all his places were difpofed of to 
 other noblemen : but at the acceffion of George I. he 
 recovered his influence. At the breaking out of the 
 rebellion in 17 15, he was made commander in chief of 
 his majefty's forces in North Britain ; and was the 
 principal means and caufe of the total extindion, at 
 'that time, of the rebellion in Scotland, without muck 
 
 GAM 
 
 In dlre£l oppofitlon to him, or that part of CampbetU 
 
 the army he commanded, at the head of all his Camp- i——^ 
 
 bells was placed Campbell earl of Braidalbin, of the 
 fame family and kindred, by fome fatal error that 
 ever mifguided and milled that unhappy family of the 
 Stuarts and all its adherents. The confequence 
 was, that both fets of Campbells, from family afi^c- 
 tion, refufcd to ftrike a fliroke, and retired out of 
 the battle. He arrived at London March 6th 1716^ 
 and was in high favour : but, to the furprife of peo- 
 ple of all ranks, he was in a few months diveiled of 
 all his employments ; and from this period to the year 
 1 7 18, he fignalized himfelf in a civil capacity, by his 
 uncorrupted patriotifm and manly eloquence. In the 
 beginning of the year 1719, he was again admitted 
 into favour, appointed lord-ftewart of the houfliold, 
 and In April following was created duke of Green- 
 wich. He continued in the adminiftration during all 
 the remaining part of that reign ; and, after his late 
 majefty's acceffion, till April 1 740 ; when he dehvered 
 a fpeech with fuch warmth, that the miniftiy being 
 highly offended, he was again difmifTed from his em- 
 ployments. To thefe, however, on the change of the 
 miniftry, he was foon reftored ; but not approving of 
 the meafures of the new miniftry more than thofe of 
 the old, he gave up all his pofts for the laft time, and 
 never after engaged in affairs of ftate. He now en- 
 joyed privacy and retirement ; and died of a paralytic 
 diforder on the 4th of Oftober 1743. To the me- 
 mory of his grace a very noble monument was erefted 
 in Weftmlnfter- Abbey, executed by the ingenious Rou- 
 bllllac. 
 
 The duke of Argyle, though never lirft minifter, 
 was a very able ftatefman and politician, moft fteadily 
 fixed In thofe principles he believed to be right, and 
 not to be fhaken or changed. His delicacy and ho- 
 nour were fo great, that it hurt him to be even fuf- 
 pefted; witnefs that appHcatlon faid to be made to 
 him by one of the adherents of the Stuart family' be- 
 fore the laft rebelHon in order to gain his intereft, 
 which was confiderable both in Scotland and England. 
 He Immediately fent the letter to the fecretary of ftate ; 
 and It vexed him much even to have an application 
 made him, left any perfon fhould think him capable of 
 aftlng a double part. When he thought meafures 
 wrong or corrupt, he cared not who was the author, 
 however great or powerful he might be ; witnefs his 
 boldly attacking the great duke of Marlborough in 
 the houfe of lords, about his forage and army con- 
 tracts in Flanders, in the very zenith of his power and 
 popularity, though In all other refpefts he was the 
 moft able general of his time. The duke of Argyle, 
 on all occafions, fpoke well, with a firm, manly, and 
 noble eloquence ; and feems to deferve the charafter 
 given of him by Pope : 
 
 Argyle the ftate's whole thunder born to wield, 
 
 And (hake alike the fenate and the field. 
 In private life, the duke's conduft was highly ex- 
 emplary. He was an affeftlonate huft)and and an in- 
 dulgent mafter. He feldom parted with his fervants 
 till age had rendered them incapable of their employ- 
 ments ; and then he made provilion for their fubfift- 
 ence. He was liberal to the poor, and particularly to 
 perfons of merit in diftrefs : but though he was ready- 
 to patroaize deferving perfons, he waa extremely cau- 
 tious 
 
C A M 
 
 [ 7t J 
 
 CAM 
 
 eampbell. tlons not to deceive any by lavifh prcmlfts, or leading 
 
 ^— -V them to form vain expedations. He was a ftrid oeco- 
 
 nomift, and paid his tradelmen punaually every month ; 
 and though he maintained the dignity of his rank, he 
 took care°that no part of his income fhould be walled 
 in empty pomp or unneceffary expences. He was 
 twice married j and left live daughters, but no male 
 iffue. The titles of duke and earl of Greenwich and 
 baron of Chatham became extinft at his death ; but 
 in his other titles he was fucceeded by his brother Ar- 
 chibald earl of Ila, the fubjeft of the next article. 
 
 Campbell (Archibald), third Duke of Argyle, 
 brother to the fubjed of the preceding article, was 
 born at Hamhoufe, in England, in June 1 682, and 
 wns educated at the Univerfity of Glafgow. He 
 afterwards applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law 
 at Utrecht ; but, upon his father's being created a 
 Duke he betook himfelf to a mihtary lite, and 
 ferved' fome time under the duke of Marlborough. 
 Upon quitting the army, in which he did not 
 long remain, he appHed to the acquihtion ot that 
 knowledge which would enable him to make a 
 fia-ure in the political world. In 1705, he was con- 
 ftttuted treafurer of Scotland, and made a confiderable 
 figure in Parliament, though he was not more than 
 twenty- three years of age. In 1 706, he was appoint- 
 ed one of the commiffioners for treating of the Union ; 
 ard the fame year was created Lord Ornfay, Dunoon, 
 and Arrois, Vifcount and Earl of May. In 1708, he 
 was made an extraordinary Lord of Seffion ; and when 
 the Union was efFefted, he was chofen one of the bix- 
 teen Peers for Scotland, in the firft Parliament of 
 Great-Britain; and was conllantly eleded to every fu- 
 ture Parliament till his death, except the fourth. In 
 
 1710, he was made Juft ice- General of Scotland. In 
 
 171 1, he was called to the privy council ; and upon 
 the acceffion of George I. he was nominated lordregi- 
 fler of Scotland. When the rebeUion broke out in 
 171 c, he again betook himfelf to arms, in defence of 
 the houfe of Hanover, and by his prudent conduft in 
 the Weft Highlands, he prevented General Gordon, 
 at the head ef three thoufand men, from penetrating 
 into the country, and raifmg levies. He afterwards 
 joined his brother at Stirling, and was wounded at the 
 battle of Dumblain. In 1725, he was appointed keep- 
 er of the privy feal ; and, from this time, he was en. 
 trulled with the management of Scottifh affairs, in 
 1-7,4, upon his refigning the privy feal, he was made 
 keeper of the great feal, which office he enjoyed till his 
 death. Upon the deceafe of his brother, he became 
 duke of Argyle, hereditary juftice general, heutciiant, 
 fherifiP, and commiffary of Argylelhire and the Weitern 
 Ifles, hereditary great mafter-of the houlhold, heredi- 
 tary keeper of Dunftalfnage, Carrick, and feveral other 
 caaies. He was alio chancelor of the Univerhty of 
 Aberdeen ; and laboured to promote the interelt of 
 that, as well as of the other univerfuies of Scotland. 
 He particularly encouraged the fchool of phyiic at 
 Edinburgh, which has now acquired fo high a reputa- 
 tion. Having the chief management of Scotch afeirs, 
 he was alfo extremely attentive to promote the trade, 
 manufaaures, and improvements of his country. It 
 was by his advice that, after the rebeUion in 1745, 
 the Highlanders were- employed in the royal army. He 
 was a man of great endowments both natural and ac 
 quired, well verl'ed in the laws of his country, .and pof- 
 
 feffed confiderable parliamentary abilities. He was dampbuli:- 
 hkewife eminent for his fliill in human nature, had 
 great talents for converfation, and had coUeded 
 one of the moft valuable private libraries in Great Bri- 
 tain. He built himfelf a very magnificent feat at In- 
 verary. The faculties of his mind continued found 
 and vigorous till his death, which happened fuddenly 
 on the 15th of April 1761, in the _79th year of his 
 age. He was married, but had no ilfue ; and was fuc- 
 ceeded in his titles and the eftatcs of the family by 
 John Campbell, fourth duke of Argyle, fon of the ho- 
 nourable John Campbell of Mammore, who was the fe- 
 cond fon of Archibald the ninth earl of Argyle. 
 
 The family of Argyle was hertiable juftice-gcneral 
 for Scotland till abolilhed by the jurifdiaion a£t. They 
 are Itill heritable mailers of the king's houlhold in 
 Scotland, and keepers of DunllafFnage and Carrick. 
 
 CAMPBELL (John), an eminent hilloricaU bio- 
 graphical, and pohtical writer, was born at Edinburgh, 
 March 8, 1707-8. His father, Robert Campbell of 
 Glenlyon, Efq; was captain of horfe in a regiment 
 commanded by the then earl of Hyndford ; and his 
 
 mother, Elizabeth, daughter of Smith, Efq; of 
 
 Windfor in Berklhire, had the honour of claiming a 
 defcent from the poet Waller. Our author, their 
 fourth fon, vras at the age of five years brought from 
 Scotland to Windfor, where he received the fird prln- 
 ciples of his education ; and at a proper age, he was 
 placed out as clerk to an attorney, being intended for 
 the law. This profeflion, however, he never followed; 
 but by a clofe application to the acquifition of know- 
 ledge of various kinds, became qualified to appear with 
 great advantage in the literary world. In 1736, be- 
 fore he had completed his 30th year, he gave to the 
 public, in two volumes folio, " The Military Hi- 
 llory of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlbo- 
 rough," enriched with maps, plans, and cuts. The 
 reputation hence acquired, occafioned him foon af- 
 ter to be fohcited to take a part in the " Ancient 
 Univerfal Hiftory." Whilft employed in this capital 
 work. Mr Campbell found leifure to entertain the 
 world with other produdions. In 1739, he publifhed 
 the *' Travels and Adventures of Edward Brown, 
 Efq;" 8vo. In the fame year appeared his " Mc- 
 inoirs of the BalhavvDukede Ripperda," 8vo, reprint- 
 ed, with improvements, In 1740 .Thefe memoirs wera 
 followed, in 1741, by the " Concife Hiftory of Spanifh 
 America,"' 8vo. In 174.2, he was the author of " A 
 Letter to a Friend in the Country, on the Publication 
 of Thurloe's State Papers;" giving an account of their 
 difcovery, importance, and utility. The fame year 
 was diftinguilhed by the appearance of the ift and zd 
 volumes of his " Lives of the Englifii Admirals, and 
 other eminent Britiih Seamen." The two remaining, 
 volumes were completed in 1744 ; and the whole, not 
 long after, was tranllated into German. This was the 
 firft of Mr Campbell's works to which he prefixed his 
 name ; and it is a performance of great and acknow- 
 ledged merit. In 1743, he publiftied " Hermippus 
 revived ;" a fecond edition of which, much improved 
 and enlarp-ed, came out- in 1749, under the tollowing 
 
 title: " Hermippus Rediviviis : or, the Sage's Tri- 
 umph over old Age and the Giave. Wherein a me- 
 thod is laid down for prolonging the life and vigour 
 of man. Including a Commentary upon an ancient 
 Infcription, in which this great fecret is revealed ; fup- 
 li ported- 
 
CAM [ ^ 
 
 Campbell ported by numerous authorities The whole interfper- 
 fed with a great variety of remarkable and well-attefl- 
 ed relations." This extraordinary traft had its origin 
 in a foreign publication ; but it was wrought up to 
 perfeftion by the additional ingenuity and learning of 
 Mr Campbtdl. In 1 744, he gave to the public in two 
 volumes folio, his " Voyages and Travels," on Dr 
 Harris's filan, being a very diftinguiflied improvement 
 of that colleftion which had appeared in 1705. The 
 time and care employed by Mr Campbell in this im- 
 portant undertaking, did not prevent his engaging in 
 another great work, the " Biographia Britannica," 
 •wdiich began to be publilhed in weekly numbers in 
 I 745, and extended to feven volumes folio ; but our 
 author's articles were only in the firft four volumes ; of 
 which, Dr Kippis obferves, they confticute the prime 
 ■merit. 
 
 When the late Mr Dodfley formed the defign of 
 " The Preceptor," which appeared in 1748, Mr 
 •Campbell was to aflift in the undertaking ; and the 
 parts written by him were the IntroduAion to Chro- 
 nology, and the Difcourfe on Trade and Commerce, 
 "both of which difplayed an extenfive fund of knowledge 
 upon thefe fubjefta In fj^o, he publiihed the firil 
 fcparate edition of his " Prefent State of Europe a 
 ■work which had been originally begun in 1746, in the 
 ** Mufeum," a very valuable periodical performance, 
 .printed for Dodfley. There is no produftion of our 
 author's that hath met with a better reception. It 
 has gone through fix editions, and fully deferved this 
 encouragement. The next great undertaking which 
 called for the exertion of our author's abilities and 
 learning, was " The Modern Univerfal Hittory." This 
 ■extenfive work was publifhed, from time to time, in 
 detached parts, till it amounted to 16 volumes folio ; 
 and a fecond edition of it, in 8vo, began to make its 
 appearance in 1759. The parts of it written by Mr 
 Campbell were, the hiftoriesof the Portugueze, Dutch, 
 Spanifii, French, SwediHi, Danifh, and Oftend Set- 
 tlements in the Eaft- Indies ; and the Hiftories of the 
 Kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre, and 
 that of France, from Clovis to 1656. As our author 
 had thus diftinguifhed himfelf in the literary world, the 
 degree of LL.D. v/as very properly and honourably 
 conferred upon him, June 18, 1754, by the univerfity 
 of Glafgow. 
 
 His principal and favourite work was, " A political 
 furvey of Great Britain," 2 vol. 4to, publifhed a fhort 
 time before his death ; in which the extent of his 
 knowledge, and his patriotic fpirit, are equally confpi- 
 cuous. Dr Campbell's reputation was not confined to 
 his own country, but extended to the remotell parts of 
 Em-ope. As a ftriking inftance of this, it may be 
 mentioned, that in the fpring of 1774, the empi-efs of 
 Ruflia was pleafed to honour him with the prefent of 
 her pifture, drawn in the robes worn in that countiy 
 in the days of John Bafiliowitz, grand duke of Mufco- 
 vy, who was contemporary with queen Elizabeth. To 
 manifeft the doftor's fenfe of her imperial majefty's 
 goodnefs, a fett of the " Political Survey of Britain," 
 boimd in Morocco, highly ornamented, and accompa- 
 nied with a letter defcriptive of the triumphs and feli- 
 cities of her reign, was forwarded to St Peterfburg, 
 and conveyed into her hands by prince Orloff, who 
 }ied refided fome months in this kingdom. 
 
 '2 ] CAM 
 
 Dr Campbell in 1736 married Elizabeth, daughter Campheli 
 of Benjamine Vobe, of Leominfter, in the county of 
 Hereford, gentleman, with whom he lived nearly 40 t'rin 
 years in the greateft conjugal harmony and happinefs. ■ 
 So wholly did he dedicate his time to books, that he 
 feldom went abroad : but to relieve himfelf as much as 
 poffible from the inconveniences incident to a fedentary 
 life, it was his cullom, when the weather would ad- 
 mit, to walk in his garden ; or otherwife in fome room 
 of his houfe, by way of exercife. By this method, 
 united with the llrifteit temperance in eating, and an 
 equal abftemioufnefs in drinking, he enjoyed a good 
 ftate of health, though his conftitution was delicate. 
 His domelHc manner of hving did not preclude him 
 from a very extenfive and honourable acquaintance. 
 His houfe, efpecially on a Sunday evening, was the 
 refort of the moil diftinguiflied perfons of all ranks, 
 and particularly of fuch as had rendered themfelves e- 
 minent by their knowledge or love of literature. He 
 received foreigners, who were fond of learning, with 
 an affability and kindnefs which excited in them the 
 higheft i-efpe£l and veneration ; and his inllruitive and 
 cheerful converfation made him the delight of hi.s 
 friends in general. He was, during the latter part of 
 his life, agent for the province of Georgia in North 
 America; and died at the clofe of the year 1775, 
 the 67th year of his age. The Doctor's literary 
 knowledge was by no means confined to the fubjeits 
 on which he more particularly treated as an author ; 
 he was well acquainted with the mathematics, and 
 had read much in medicine. It hath been with 
 great reafon believed, that if he had dedicated his 
 ftudies to the lafl fcience, he would have made a 
 very confpicuous figure in the phyfical profef- 
 fion. He was eminently verfed in the different parts 
 of facred literature ; and his acquaintance with the 
 languages extended not only to the Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Latin among the ancient, and to the French, Ita- 
 lian, Spanifh, Portuguefe, and Dutch, among the mo- 
 dern ; but like wife to the Oriental tongues. He was 
 particularly fond of the Greek language. His attain- 
 ment of fuch a variety of knowledge was exceedingly 
 affifted by a memory furprifingly retentive, and which 
 indeed allonifhed every perfon with whom he was con- 
 verfant. In communicating his ideas, he had an un- 
 common readinefs and facility ; and the ftyle of his 
 works, which had been formed upon the model of that 
 of the celebrated bifliop Sprat, was perfpicuous, eafv, 
 flowing, and harmonious. To all thefe accomphfh- 
 ments of the undei-ftanding, Dr Campbell joined the 
 more important virtues of a moral and pious character. 
 His difpofition was gentle and humane, and his r-nan- 
 ners kind and obliging. He was the tenderefh of huf- 
 bands, a molt indulgent parent, a kind mafter, a firm 
 and fincere friend. To his great Creator he paid the 
 conflant and ardent tribute of devotion, duty, and r-e- 
 verence ; and in his correfpondences he fhowed that a 
 fenfe of piety was always neareil his heart. 
 
 CAMPBELLTOWN, a parliament town of Ar- 
 gyle-fiiire in Scotland, feated on the lough of Kilker- 
 ran, on the eaftern flrore of Kintyre or Cantyre, of 
 which it is the capital. It hath a good harbour ; and 
 is now a very confiderable place, though within thefe 
 50 years only a petty fifliing town. It has in faft 
 been created by the fifliery : for it was appointed the 
 5 place 
 
Camphuy- 
 fen. 
 
 GAM [ 
 
 Canipdcn place of rendezvous for the bufTcs ; and above 260 
 have been feen in the harbour at once. The inhabi- 
 tants are reckoned to be upwards of 8000 In number. 
 W. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 54. 
 
 CAMPDEN, a fmaU town of Gloucefterfhire in 
 England, containing about 200 houfes. It gives title 
 of Vifcount, by courtefy, to Earl of Gainfborough his 
 fon. W. Long. 1. 50.' N. Lat. 52. 
 
 CAMPEACHY, a town of Mexico in South A- 
 merica, feated on the eafl coaft of a bay of the fame 
 name, on the weft of the province of Yucataro. It is 
 defended by a good wall and ftrong forts ; but is nei- 
 ther fo rich, nor carries on fuch a trade, as formerly ; 
 it having been the port for the file of logwood, the 
 place where it is cut being about 30 miles diftant. It 
 was taken by the EngUfli in 1596 ; by the bucancers 
 In 1678; and by the Flibufters of St Domingo in 
 1685, who fet it on fire and blew up the citadel. W. 
 Long. 93. 7. N. Lat. 19. 20. 
 
 CAMPKACHT-Wood, in botany. See H.t:matoxylum. 
 CAMPEN, a ftrong town of OveryfTel in the Uni- 
 ted Provinces. It hath a citadel and a harbour ; but 
 the latter is almoft choked up with fand. It was ta- 
 ken by the Dutch in 1578, and by the French in 1672; 
 but they abandoned it the following year. It is ftated 
 near the mouth of the river YlTel and Zuider See. E. 
 Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 52. 38. 
 
 CAMPESTRE, in antiqiu^ty, a fort of cover for 
 the privities, worn by the Roman foldiers in their field 
 cxercifes ; being girt under the navel, and hanging 
 down to the knees. The name is fuppofed to be form- 
 ed from campus^ the field or place where the Roman 
 foldiers performed their exercifes. 
 
 CAMPHORA, or Camp HIRE, a fclid concrete 
 juice extradled from the wooA of the laurus coinphora. 
 See Laurus, Chemistry, and Materia Medica. 
 
 Pure camphire is very white, pellucid, fomewhat 
 tinftuous to the touch ; of a bitterifli aromatic talle, 
 yet accompanied with a fenfe of coolnefs ; of a very 
 fragrant fmell, fomewhat like that of rofemary, but 
 much ftronger. It has been very long efteemed one of 
 the moft efficacious diaphoretics ; and has been cele- 
 brated in fevers, malignant and epidemical diftempers. 
 In deliria, alfo, where opiates could not procure fleep, 
 but rather aggravated the fymptoms, this medicine has 
 often been obferved to procure it. All thefe effefts, 
 however, DrCullen attributes to its fedative property, 
 and denies that camphire has any other medicinal vir- 
 tues than thofe of art antifpafmodic and fedative. He 
 allows it to be very powerful, and capable of doing 
 much good or much harm. From experiments made 
 on different brute creatures, camphire appears to be 
 poifonous to every one of them. In fome it produced 
 ileep followed by death, without any other fymptcm. 
 In others, before death, they were awakened into con- 
 vulfions and rage. It feems, too, to aft chiefly on 
 the ftomach ; for an entire piece fwallowed, produced 
 the abovementioncd effefts with very little diminution 
 of weight. 
 
 CAMPHUYSEN, (Dirk Theodore Raphael), an 
 eminent painter, was born at Gorcum in 1586. He 
 learned the art of painting from Diederic Govertze ; 
 and by a fludious application to it, he very foon not 
 only equalled, but far furpaffed his matter. He had 
 an uncommon genius, and lludied nature with care, 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 73 T GAM 
 
 judgement, and afTiduIty. His fubje<Sts were landfcapes, Campiart. 
 moftly fmall, with ruinous buildings, hu's of peafants, — y— ~ 
 or views of villages on the banks of rivers, with boats 
 and hoys, and generally he reprefented them by moon* 
 light. His pencil is remarkably tender and foft, his 
 colouring true nature and very tranfparent, and his est* 
 pertnefs in perfpeftive is feen in the proportional di* 
 llances of his objefts, which are excellently contrived, 
 and have a furprifing degree of nature and truth. As 
 he left off painting at an age when others are fcarcely 
 qualified to commence artifts, few of his work are to 
 be met with, and they bring confiderable prices ; as 
 they cannot but give pleafure to the eye of every ob- 
 ferver. He painted his piftures with a thin body of 
 colour, but they are handled with fingular neatnefs 
 and fpirit. He praftifed in his profeffion only till he 
 was 18 years of age, and being then recommended as 
 a tutor to the fons of the lord of Nieuport, he under- 
 took the employment, and difcharged it with fo much 
 credit, that he was appointed fecretary to that noble- 
 man. He excelled in drawing with a pen ; and tlie 
 defigns which he finilhed in that manner are exceed- 
 ingly valued. 
 
 CAMPIAN (Edmund), an EngHfh Jefuit , was born 
 at London, of indigent parents, in the year 1540 ; and 
 educated at Chrill's hofpital, where he had the honour 
 to fpeak an oration before queen Mary on her accef- 
 fion to the throne. He was admitted a fcholar of St 
 John's college in Oxford at its foundation, and took 
 the degree of mailer of arts in 1564. About the fame 
 time he v/as ordained by a bifliop of the church of 
 FZngland, and became an eloquent Proteftant preacher. 
 In 1566, when queen Elizabeth was entertained by 
 the univcrfity of Oxford, he fpoke an elegant oration 
 before her majelly, and was alfo refpondent in the phi- 
 lofophy aft in St Mary's church. In 1568, he was 
 junior proftor of the univerfity. In the following year, 
 he went over to Ireland, where he wrote a hifiory of 
 that kingdom, and turned papift ; but being found 
 rather too affiduous in perfuading others to follow hia 
 example, he was committed to prifon. He foon, how- 
 ever, found means to make his efcape. He landed in 
 England in 1571 ; and thence pi-oceeded to Doway 
 in Flanders, where he publicly recanted his former he^ 
 refy, and was created bachelor of divinity. He went 
 foon after to Rome, where, in 1573, he was admitted 
 of the fociety of Jefus, and was fent by the general oi 
 that order to Vienna, where he wrote his tragedy cat- 
 led NeSar et ambrqfia, which was afted before the em- 
 peror with great applaufe. 
 
 From Vienna he went to Prague in Bohemia, where 
 he refided in the Jefuits college about fix years, and 
 then returned to Rome. From tlience, in 1580, he was 
 fent by Pope Gregory XIII. with the celebrated Father 
 ^Parfons, to convert the people of England. From Pitts 
 we learn, that, fome time before, feveral Engliih priefts, 
 infpired by the Holy Ghoft, had undertaken to convert 
 their countrymen ; that 80 of thefe foreign feminaries, 
 befides feveral others who by God's grace had been 
 converted in England, were aftually engaged in the 
 pious work with great fuccefs ; that fome of them had 
 fuffered imprifonment, chains, tortures, and ignomini- .< 
 ous death, with becoming conftancy and refolution : 
 but feeing at laft that the labour was abundant and 
 the labourers few, they foliclted the affiftance of the 
 K Jefuits J 
 
GAM [7. 
 
 amplan Jefuits ; requefting, that though not early In the morn- 
 m 'liftron ^^^^ would at leaft in the third, fixth, or ninth 
 hour, fend labourers into the Lord's vineyard. In con- 
 fequence of this folicitation, the above two were fent 
 to England. They arrived in an evil hour for Campian, 
 at Dover ; and were next day joyfully received by their 
 friends at London. He had not been long in England, 
 before Walfingham the fecretary of ftate, being in- 
 formed of his uncommon afliduity in the caufe of the 
 church of Rome, ufed every means in his power to have 
 him apprehended, but for a long time without fuccefs. 
 However, he was at lail taken by one Elliot, a noted 
 prlejl-taker, who found him in the houfe of Edward 
 Yates, Efq; at Lyfofd in Berkfhire, and conduced him 
 in triumph to London, with a paper on ^lis hat, on 
 which was written Campian the Jefuit. He was im- 
 prifoned in the Tower ; where, W ood fays, " he did 
 undergo many examinations, abufes, wrackings, tor- 
 tures exquifitljfim'is cruc'iat'ilus tortus., fays Pitts. It 
 is hoped, for the credit of our reformers, this torturing 
 part of the ftory is not true. The poor wretch, how- 
 ever, was condemned, on the ftatute 25 Ed. III. for 
 high treafon ; and butchered at Tyburn, with two or 
 three of his fraternity. Howfoever criminal in the eye 
 of the law, or of the Englifli gofpel, might be the zeal 
 of this Jefuit for the falvation of the poor heretics of 
 this kingdom, biographers of each perfuafion unite in 
 giving him a great and amiable charafter. " All wri- 
 ters (fays the Oxford antiquary), whether Proteftants 
 or Popifh, fay, that he was a man of admirable parts ; 
 an elegant orator, a fubtile philofopher and difputant, 
 and an exaft preacher whether in Englifh or the Latin 
 tongue, of a fweet difpofition, and a well-polifhed 
 man." Euller, in his church-hiftory, fays, " he was of 
 a fweet nature, conftantly carrying about him the 
 charms of a plaufible behaviour, of a fluent tongue, 
 and good parts." His Hiftory of Ireland, in two 
 books, was written in 1570; and publilhed, by Sir 
 James Ware, from a manufcript in the Cotton library, 
 DubKn, 1633, folio. He wrote alfo Chronologta uni- 
 iterfalis^ a very learned work ; and various other trafts. 
 
 "CAMPICURSIO, in the ancient military art, a 
 march of armed men for feveral miles, from and back 
 again to the camp, to inftruft them in the military pace. 
 This exercife was nearly akin to the decurfio, from which 
 it only differed, in that the latter was performed by 
 horfemen, the former alfo by fbet. 
 
 CAMPIDOCTORES, or CAMPiDucTOREs,in the 
 Roman armys were officers who inftrufted the foldiery 
 in the difcipline and exercifes of war, and the art of 
 handling their weapons to advantage. Thefe are alfo 
 fometimes called campigeni, and armidoSores. 
 
 CAMPIDUCTOR, in middle-age wnters, fignifies 
 the leader or commander of an army, or party. 
 
 CAMPION, in botany, the Englilh name of the 
 Lychnis. 
 
 Campion a town of the kingdom of Tanguth in 
 Tartary. It was formerly remarkable for being a 
 place through which the caravans palTed in the road 
 from Bukharia to China. E. Long. 104. 53. N. Lat. 
 40. 25. 
 
 CAMPISTRON, a celebrated French dramatic 
 author, was borck in 1656. Racine direfted his poe- 
 tical talents to the theatre, and affilled him in his firft 
 :pieces. He died in 1723. 
 
 . ] CAN 
 
 CAMPIT-ffi, in church hiftory. an appellation gi- Campi 
 ven to the donatifts, on account of their affembling in 
 the fields for want of churches. For a fimilar reafon, 
 they were alfo denominated Montenfes and Rupitan't. 
 
 CAMPLI, or Campoli, a town of Italy, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, and in the farther Abruzzo, litu- 
 ated in E. Long. 13. 55. N. Lat. 42. 38. 
 
 CAMPO MAJOR, a town of the province of Alen- 
 tejo in Portugal. W. Long. 7. 24. N. Lat. 38. 50. 
 
 CAMPREDON, a town of Catalonia in Spain, 
 feated at the foot of the Pyrenean mountain?. The 
 fortifications were demoliflied by the French in 1691. 
 W. Long. I. 5C). N. Lat. 42. 20. 
 
 CAMPS (Francis de), abbot of Notre Dame at 
 Sigi, was born at Amiens in 1643 ; and diftinguifhed 
 himfelf by his knowledge of medals, by writing an hi- 
 ftory of France, and feveral other works. He died at 
 Paris in 1723. 
 
 CAMPVERE, See Veer. 
 
 CAMPUS, in antiquity, a field or vacant plain in 
 a city, not built upon, left vacant on account of fhows, 
 combats, exercifes, or other ufes of the citi?enf. 
 
 Campus Mali, in ancient cuftoms, an anniverfary 
 affembly of our anceftors held on May-day, when they 
 confederated together for the defence of tlie kingdom 
 againft all its enemies.. 
 
 Campus Martlus, a large plain in the fuburbs of an- 
 cient Rome, lying between the Quirin:d and Capitoline 
 mounts and the Tiber, thus called becaufe confecrated 
 to the god Mars, and fet apart for military fports and 
 exercifes to which the Roman youth w^ere trained, as 
 the ufe and handling of arms, and all manner of feats 
 of aftivity. Here were the races run, either with cha- 
 riots or fingle horfes ; here alfo ftood the villa publica, 
 or palace for the reception of ambafladors, who were 
 not permitted to enter the city. Many of the public 
 comitia were held in the fame field, part of which was 
 for that purpofe cantoned out. The place was alfo 
 nobly decorated with ftatues, arches, columns, porti- 
 coes, and the like ftruftures. 
 
 Campus Scehratus, a place without the walls of an- 
 cient Rome, where the Veftals who had violated their 
 vows of virginity were buried alive. 
 
 CAMUL, a town of Afia, on the eaftern extremity 
 of the kingdom of Cialus, on the frontiers of Tangut. 
 E. Long. 98. 5. N. Lat. 37. 15. 
 
 CAMUS, a perfon with a low flat nofe, hollowed 
 in the middle. 
 
 The Tartars are great admirers of camus beauties. 
 Rubruquis obferves, that the wife of the great Jenghiz 
 Khan, a celebrated beauty, had only two holes for a 
 nofe. 
 
 Camus (John Peter), a French prelate born in 1582. 
 He was author of a number of pious romances (the 
 tafte of his time), and other theological works, to the 
 amount of 200 vols. His definition of politics is re- 
 markable : Ars non tam regend't, quam falkndi, homines ; 
 " the art not fo much of governing, as of deceiving 
 mankind." He died in 1652. 
 
 CAN, in the fea-language, as can-pump, a veflel 
 wherewith feamen pour water into the purnp to make 
 it go. 
 
 CAN-Buoy. See Bouy. 
 
 CAN-Hooki an inftrument ufed to fling a caflc by the 
 ends of the ftaves : it is formed by fixing a broad and 
 
 flat 
 
CAN T 7j 
 
 Cans, flat liook at eacli end of a fliort rope ; and the tackle 
 Canaan. which the caflv fo flung may be hoiiled or lowered, 
 •-^^r—^ is hooked to the middle of the rope. 
 
 CAN A (anc. geog.), a town on the confines of 
 the Upper and Lower Galilee: memorable for the 
 turning' water into wine (John). The birth place of 
 Sii-neon, called Cananite from this place, and of Na- 
 thaniel. 
 
 CANAAN, the fourth fon of Ham. The irreve- 
 rence of Ham towards his father Noah is recorded in 
 Gen. ix. Upon that occafion the patriarch curfed 
 him in a branch of his pofterity : " Curfed," fays he, 
 " be Canaan ; a fervant of fervants fliall he be unto 
 " his brethren." This curfe being pronounced, not 
 againft Ham the immediate tranfgreffor, but againll 
 his fon, who does not appear, from the words of Mofes, 
 to have been any ways concerned in the crime, hath 
 occafioned feveral conjeftures. Some have beheved 
 that Noah curfed Canaan, becaufe he could not well 
 have curfed Ham himfelf, whom God had not long 
 before blelTcd. Others think Mofes's chief intent in 
 recording this prediAion was to raife the fpirits of the 
 Ifraelites, then entering on a terrible war with the 
 eliildren of Canaan, by the afTurance, that, in confe- 
 quence of the curfe, that people were deftiiied by God 
 to be fubdued by them. For the opinion of thofe who 
 imagine all Ham's race were here accurfed, feems re- 
 pugnant to the plain words of Scripture, which con- 
 lines the malediftion to Canaan and his pofterity ; and 
 is alfo contrary to fad. Indeed, the prophecy of Noah, 
 that Canaan " fiiould be a fervant of fei-vants to his 
 brethren," feems to have been wholly completed in 
 iijm. It was completed with regard to Shem, not only 
 in that a confiderable part of the feven nations of the 
 Canaanites were made flaves to the Ifraelites, when 
 they took poffeihon of their land, as part of the re- 
 mainder of them were afterwards enflaved by Solomon ; 
 but alfo by the fubfequent expeditions of the AflTyri- 
 ans and Perfians, who were both defcended from Shem ; 
 and under whom the Canaanites fuffered fubjeftion, as 
 well as the Ifraelites ; not to mention the conqueft of 
 pai-t of Canaan by the Elamites, or Perfians, under 
 Chedorlaomer, prior to them all. With regard to Ja- 
 phet, we find a completion of the prophecy, in the 
 fucceflive conquefts of the Greeks and Romans in .Pa- 
 leftine and Phoenicia, where the Canaanites were fet- 
 tled ; but efpecially in the total fubverfion of the Car- 
 thaginian power by the Romans ; befides fome inva- 
 fions of the northern nations, as the pofterity of Tho- 
 garma and Magog ; wherein many of them, probably, 
 were carried away captive. 
 
 The pofterity of Canaan were very numerous. His 
 eldeft fon was Sidon, who at leaft founded and peo- 
 pled the city of Sidon, and was the father of the Si- 
 donians and Phoenicians. Canaan had befides ten fons, 
 who were the fathers of fo many people, dwelling in 
 Paleftine, and in part of Syria ; namely, the Hittites., 
 the Jebufites, the Amorites, the Girgafites, the Hi- 
 vites, the Arkites, the Sinites, the Arvadites, the Ze- 
 marites, and Hamathites. 
 
 Land of Canajin, the country, fo named from Ca- 
 naan the fon of Ham. It lies between the Mediter- 
 ranean fea and the mountains of Arabia, and extends 
 from Egypt to Phoenicia. It is bounded to the eaft 
 •by the mountains of Arabia ; to the fouth by the wil- 
 
 ] CAN 
 
 dernefs of Paran, Idumsa, and Egypt ; to the weft Canaan, 
 by the Mediterranean, called in Hebrew the Great Canada. 
 Sea ; to the north by the mountains of Libanus. Its 
 length from the city of Dan (fince called Crefarea 
 Philippi, or Paneadis, which ftands at the foot of thefe 
 mountains) to Beerftieba, is about 70 leagues ; a id it s 
 breadth from the Mediterranean fea to the eaftern 
 borders, is in fome places 30. This country, which 
 was firft called Canaan, from Canaan the fon of Ham, 
 whofe pofterity poffefled it, was afterwards called Pa- 
 leftine, from the people which the Hebrews call Phi- 
 liftines, and the Greeks and Romans corruptly Palef- 
 tines, who inhabited the fea coafts, and were firlt 
 known to them. It likewife had the name of the 
 Land of Promife, from the promife God made Abra- 
 ham of giving it to him ; that of the Land of Ifrael, 
 from the Ifraelites having made themfelves mafters of 
 it ; that of Jiidah, from the tribe of Judah, which was 
 the moft confiderable of the twelve ; and laftly, the 
 happinefs it had of being fanftified by the prefence, 
 adlions, miracles, and death of Jefus Chrift, has given 
 it the name of the Holy Land, which it retains to this 
 day. 
 
 The firft inhabitants of this land therefore were the 
 Canaanites, who were defcended from Canaan, and the 
 eleven fons of that patriarch. Here they multiplied 
 extremely ; trade and war were their firft occupations ; 
 thefe gave rife to their riches, and the feveral colonies 
 fcattered by them over almoft all the iflands and ma- 
 ritime provinces of the Mediterranean. The meafure 
 of their idolatry and abominations was completed, 
 when God delivered their country into the hands of 
 the Ifraelites. In St Athanafius's time, the Africans 
 ftill faid they were defcended from the Canaanites ; 
 and it is faid, that the Punic tongue was almoft en- 
 tirely the fame with the Canaanitifti and Hebrew lan- 
 guage. The colonies whicli Cadmus carried into The- 
 bes in Boeotia, and his brother Cilix into CiHcia, came 
 from the ftock of Canaan. The ifles of Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca and Minorca, 
 Gades and Ebufus, are thought to have been peopled 
 by the Canaanites. Bochart, in his large work en- 
 titled Canaan, has fet all this matter in a good light. 
 
 Many of the old inhabitants of the north-weft of 
 the land of Canaan, however, particularly on the coaft 
 or territories of Tyre and Sidon, were not driven out 
 by the children of Ifrael, whence this trail feems to 
 have retained the name of Canaan a great while after 
 thofe other parts of the country, which were better 
 inhabited by the Ifraelites, had loft the faid name. 
 The Greeks called this trad inhabited by the old Ca- 
 naanites along the Mediterranean fea, Thcenicia ; the 
 more inland parts, as being inhabited partly by Ca- 
 naanites, and partly by Syrians, Syrophoenicia : and 
 hence the woman faid by St Matthew (xy. 22.) to be 
 a woman of Canaan, whofe daughter Jefus cured, is 
 faid by St Mark (vii. 26.) to be a Syrophoenician by 
 nation, as fhe was a Greek by religion and language. 
 
 CANADA, or the province of Qjaebec, an ex- 
 tenfive country of North America, bounded on the 
 north-eaft by the gulph of St Lawrence, and St John's 
 river ; on the fouth-weft, by lands inhabited by the 
 favage Indians, which are frequently ir.ciuded in this 
 province ; on the fouth, by the provinces of Nova 
 Scotia, New England, and New York j and on the 
 K 2 flortho 
 
Canada, 
 
 C A N [ y 
 
 north-weft, by other Indian nations. Under the name 
 of Canada, the French comprehended a very large 
 territory ; taking into their claim part of New Scot- 
 land, New England, and New York on the eait ; and 
 extending it on the weit as f-ir as the Pacific Ocean. 
 That part, however, which was reduced by the Britifh 
 arms in the laft war, lies between 6i and 8i degrees 
 of weft longitude, and between 45 and 52 of north 
 latitude. The climate is not very different from that 
 of the northern Britifli colonics ; but as it is much 
 furtlier from the fea, and more to the northward, than 
 rnofl of thofe provinces, it has a much feverer winter, 
 though the air is generally clear ; and, hke moft of 
 thofe American trafts that do not lie too far to the 
 northward, the fummers are very hot, and exceeding 
 pleafant. The foil in general is very good, and in 
 raany parts extremely fertile ; producing many diffe- 
 rent forts of grains, fruits, and vegetables. The mea- 
 dov>r grounds, which are well watered, yield excellent 
 grafs, and breed vail numbers of great and fmall cattle. 
 The uncultivated parts are a continued wood, compofed 
 of prodigioufly large and lofty trees, of which there 
 is fuch a variety of fpecies, that even of thofe who 
 have taken moft pains to know them, there is not per- 
 haps one that can tell half the number. Canada pro- 
 duces, among others, two forts of pines, the white 
 and the red ; four forts of firs ; two forts of cedar and 
 oak, the white and the red ; the male and female ma- 
 ple ; three forts of afh-trees, the free, the mungrel) 
 and the baftard ; three forts of walnut-trees, the hard, 
 the foftj and the fmooth; vaft numbers of beech-trees 
 and white wood ; white and red elms, and poplars. 
 The Indians hollow the red elms into canoes, fome of 
 which made out of one piece will contain 20 perfons ; 
 others are made of the bark ; the dLftcrent pieces of 
 which they few together with the inner rind, and daub 
 over the feams with pitch, or rather a bituminous mat- 
 ter refembling pitch, to prevent their leaking ; the ribs 
 of thefe canoes are made of boughs of trees. In the 
 hollow elms, the bears and wild cats take up their 
 lodging from November to April. The country pro- 
 duces alio a vaft variety of other vegetables, particu- 
 larly tobacco, which thrives well. Near Quebec is a 
 fine lead mine, and many excellent ones of iron have 
 been difcovered. It hath alfo been reported that filver 
 is found in fome of the mountains. The rivers are ex- 
 tremely numerous, and many of them very large and 
 deep.^ The principal are, the Oirattauais, St John's, 
 Seguinay, Defpaires, and Trois Rivieres ; but all thefe 
 are fvvallowed up by the great river St Laurence. This 
 river iffues from the lake Ontario ; and, taking its 
 courfe north-eaft> waflies Montreal, where it receives 
 tlie Ouattauais, aud forms many feitile iflands. It con- 
 tinues the fame courfe, and njeets the tide upwards of 
 400 miles from the fea, where it is navigable for large 
 yefiels ; and below Quebec, 320 miles from the fea, 
 it becomes fo broad and fo deep, that fhips of the line 
 contributed in the laft war to reduce that city. After 
 receiving in its progrcfs innumerable ftreams, it at laft 
 fulls into the ocean at cape Rofiers, where it is 90 
 miles broady and where the cold is intenfe and the fea 
 boiftcrous. This river is the only one upon which 
 any ftttkments of note are as yet formed ; but it is 
 very probable, that, in time to come, Canada, and 
 thofe vaft regions to tlie weft, may be enabled of them- 
 
 76 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 felves to carry on a confiderable trade upon the great Canada 
 lakes cf fredi water vv'hich thefe countries environ. — -y— 
 Here are five lakes, the leaft of which is of greater ex- 
 tent than the frefti-water lakes to be found in any other 
 part of the world : thefe are the lake Ontario, which 
 is not lefs than 200 leagues in circumference ; Erie,, 
 or Ofwego, longer, but not fo broad, is about the 
 fame extent. That of the Huron fpreads greatly in 
 width, and is about 300 leagues in circuit ; as alfo is. 
 that of Maciiigan, though like lake Erie it is rather 
 long, and comparatively narrow. But the lake Su- 
 perior is larger than any of thefe, being not. lefs than 
 500 leagues in circumference.. AH thefe are navigable 
 by any velfels, and they all comanunicate with each 
 other ; but the paflage between Erie and Ontario is 
 interrupted by a moft. ftupendous fall or cataradt, 
 cdXhd. tht falls of Niagara* . The river St Lawrence, . 
 as already ohferved, is the outlet of thefe lakes, hy agatl.'' ' 
 which they difcharge themfelves into the ocean. Tlie 
 French built forts at thefe feveral ftraits, by which the 
 lakes communicate with one another, and on that 
 where the laft of them communicates with the river. 
 Ey thefe, while the country was in their pofleifion, 
 they effedually fecured to themfelves the trade of the 
 lakes, and p-/eferved an influence over all the Indian 
 nations tlmt lie near them. 
 
 ^ The moft curious and interefting part of the natural 
 hiftory of Canada is the animals there produced. Thefe 
 are ftags, elks, deer, bears, foxes, martins, wild cats, 
 ferrets, w-eafels, large fquirrels of a greyifh hue, hares 
 and rabbits. The fouthern parts, in particular, breed 
 great numbers of wild bulls, divers forts of roe bucks, 
 goats, wolves, &c. The marfhcs, lakes, and pools, 
 with which this country abounds, fwarm with otters 
 and beavers, of which the white are highly valued, 
 as well as the right black kind. A vaft variety of birds 
 are alio to be found in the woods ; and the river St 
 Lawrence abounds with fuch quantities of lifh, that 
 it is affirmed by fome writers, this would be a more 
 profitable article than even the fur-trade. — There are 
 in Canada a multitude of different Indian tribes : but 
 thefe are obferved to decreafe in number where the, 
 Europeans are moft numerous ; owing chiefly to the 
 immoderate ufe of fpirltuous liquors, of which they 
 are exceffively fond. Their manners and way of liviiio- 
 we have already particularly defcribedi-. The principal ^ ,See jfm 
 towns are Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal. The w^, N° g 
 
 commodities inquired by the Canadians fnmi Europe 2o. 
 
 are, wine, or rather rum ; cloths, chiefly coarie; linen; 
 and wrought iron. The Indian trade requires rum, 
 tobacco, a fort of dufFil blankets, gums, powder, balls, 
 and flints, kettles, hatchets, toys, and trinkets of alL 
 kinds. While the country was in poiTeffion of the' 
 French, the Indians fupplied them with poultry; and. 
 the French had traders, who, like the original inha-- 
 bitants, traverfed the vaft lakes and rivers in canoes, 
 with incredible induftry and patience, carrying their, 
 goods into the remoteft parts of America, and among 
 nations entirely unknown to us. Thefe. again brought, 
 the fmrs, &c. home to them, as the Indians wei-e there- 
 by habituated to trade with them. For this purpofe,. 
 people from all parts, even from the diftance of 1000 
 miles, came to the French fair at Montreal, which be- 
 gan in June, and fometimes laftcd three months. On- 
 this occafion many folemnities weie obferved, guards. 
 
 were 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 77 ] 
 
 G A N 
 
 mada. vfcrc placed, and the governor affifted to pref^irve order 
 in fo great and various a concourfe of favage nations. 
 But fometlmes great diforders and tumults happened ; 
 and the Indians frequently gave for a dram all that 
 they were polTelTed of. It is remarkable, that many 
 of thefe nations actually palled by the Englilh fettle- 
 ment of Albany in New York, and travelled 200 miles 
 further to Montreal, though they coidd have purchafed 
 the goods they wanted cheaper at the former. 
 
 Since Britain became pofleffed of Canada, our trade 
 with that country has generally employed 34 (hips and 
 400 feamen ; their exports, at an average of three 
 years, in ficins, furs, ginfeng, fnake-reot, capillaire, 
 and wheat, amount to 150,00c/. Their imports from 
 Great Britain are computed at nearly the fame fum. It 
 will, however, be always impoffible to overcome cer- 
 tain inconveniences arihng from the violence of the 
 winter. This is fo exceffive from December to April, 
 that the broadeft rivers are frozen over, and the fnow 
 lies commonly from four to fix feet deep on the ground, 
 even in thofe parts of the country which lie three de- 
 grees fouth of London, and in the temperate latitude of 
 Paris. Another inconvenience arifes from the falls in 
 the river St Lawrence below Montreal, which prevent 
 fhlps from penetrating to that emporium of inland com- 
 merce. Our communication therefore with Canada, 
 and the immenfe regions beyond it, will always be in- 
 terrupted during the winter-feafon, until roads are form- 
 ed that can be travelled without danger from the Indians. 
 For thefe favage people often commit hoftilitiesagainll 
 us, without any previous notice; and frequently, v/ith- 
 out any provocation, they commit the inoft liorrid ra- 
 vages for a long time with impunity. 
 
 Canada was undoubtedly difcovered by Sebaftian 
 Cabot, the famous Italian adventurer, who failed un- 
 der a commiifion from Henry VII. But though the 
 Engliih monarch did not think proper to make any ufe 
 of this difcovery, the French quickly attempted it; we 
 have an account of their fifhing for cod on the banks of 
 Newfoundland, and along the fea-ccaft of Canada, in 
 the beginning of the i6th century. About the year 
 1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, drew a map of the 
 gulph of St Lawrence ; and two years after, one Au- 
 bort, a fliip-mafter of Dieppe, carried over to France 
 fome of the natives of Canada. As the new country, 
 however, did not promife the fame amazing quantities 
 of gold and filver produced by Mexico and Peru, the 
 French for fome years neglected the difcovery. At 
 laft, in the year 1523, Francis 1. a fenfible and en- 
 terprifmg prince, fent four (hips, under the command 
 of Verazani, a Florentine, to profccute difcoveries in 
 that country. The particulars of this man's firft ex- 
 pedition are not known. All we can learn is, that 
 he i-eturned to France, and next year he undertook a 
 fecond. As he approached the coaft, he met with a vio- 
 lent ftorm; however, he came fo near as to perceive the 
 natives on the fliore, making friendly figns to him to 
 land. This being found impra6licabie by reafon of the 
 furf upon the coail, one of the failors threw himfelf in- 
 to the fea; but, endeavouring to fwirn back to the fliip, 
 a furge threw him on fhore without ligns of life. He 
 was, however, treated by the natives with fuch care 
 and humanity, that he recovered his ftrength, and was 
 allowed to fwim back to tlie fnip, which immediately 
 retunied to, France. This is. all we know of V.erar 
 
 zani's fecond expedition. He undertook a third, but C.!na:ia. 
 was no more heard of, and it is thought that he and all ~"~>^ — ^ 
 his company perifhed beforefhe could form any colony. 
 In T534, one Jaques Carticrof St Maloes fet fail under 
 a commifiiofi from the French king, and on the loth 
 of May arrived at Cape Bonavifta in Newfoundland. 
 He had with him two fmaU fliips befides the one in 
 which he failed. He cruifed along the coatts of that 
 ifland, on which he difcovereri inhaVntants, probably 
 the Elicimaux. He landed in feveral places along the 
 coaft of the Gulf, and took poffeffion of the country in 
 the king's name. On Iris return, he was again fent 
 out with a commiffion, and a pretty large force; he re- 
 turned in 1535, and palfed the winter at St Croix; but 
 the feafon proved fo levere, that he and his companions, 
 mull have died of the fcurvy, had they not, by the ad- 
 vice of the natives, made ufe of the decoClion of the 
 tops and bark of the white pines. As Cartier, how-- 
 ever, could produce neither gold nor filver, all that he 
 could fay about the utility of the fettlemeiit was difre-- 
 gardcd ; and in 1540, he was obliged to become pilot 
 to one M. Roberval, who was by the French king ap- 
 pointed viceroy of Canada, and who failed from France 
 with five vefftls. Arriving at the gulph of St Lawrence,; 
 they built a fort ; and Cartier was left to command the 
 garrifon in it, while Roberval returned to France for 
 additional recruits to his new fettlement. Atlaft, ha- 
 ving embarked in 1549, with a great number of adven- 
 turers, neither he nor imy of his followers were heard 
 of more. 
 
 This fatal accident fo greatly difcouraged the court 
 of France, that, for 50 years, no meafure were taken 
 for fupplying with neceiTarles the fettlers that were left. 
 jA-tlalt, Henry IV. appointed the Marquis de la Roche 
 lieutenant-general of Canada and the neighbouring- 
 countries. In 1598 he landed on the ille of Sable,, 
 which he abfurdly thought to be a proper place for a. 
 fettlement, though it was without any port, and with-- 
 out prodaft except briars. Here he left about 40 ma- 
 lefa(Stors, the refufe of the French jails. After cruizing 
 for fome time on the coaft of Nova Scotia, without be- 
 ing able to relieve thefe poor wretches, he returned to 
 France, v,'here he died of a broken heart. His colony 
 muft have periflied, had not a French fliip been wreck- 
 ed on the ifland, and a few fheep driven upon it at the 
 fame time. With the boards of the ftiip they erected 
 huts; and while the fheep lafted they lived on them, 
 feeding afterwards on fifh. Their clothes wearing out, 
 they made coats of feal-llcins; and in this miferable con-- 
 dition they fpent feven years, when Henry ordered 
 them to be brought to France. The king had the cu- 
 riofity to fee them in their feal-fliin dreifes, and was fo; 
 moved with their appearance, that he forgave them all 
 their offences, and gave each of them 50 crowns to be- 
 gin the world anew. 
 
 In 1600, one Chauvin, a commander in the French 
 navy, attended by a merchant of St Malo, called Pont^ 
 grave, made a voyage to Canada, from whence he re- 
 turned with a very profitable quantity of furs. Next; 
 year he repeated the voyage with.the fame good for- 
 tune, but died while he was preparing for a third. The 
 many fpecimens of profit to be made by the Canadian 
 trade, at laft induced the public to think favourably of 
 it. An armament was equipped, and the command of 
 it given to Pontgrave, , with powers to extend his difco-- 
 
 verics : 
 
C A N [ 7; 
 
 verles vjp the river St Lawrence. He failed in 1 603, ha- 
 ving in his company Samuel Champlain, who had been 
 a captain in the navy, and was a man of parts and fpi- 
 rit. It was not, however, till the year 1608, that the 
 colony was fully eftabliflred. This was accomplidied 
 by founding the city of Quebec, which from that time 
 commenced the capital of all the fettlements in Canada^ 
 The colony, however, for many years continued in a 
 low way, and was often in danger of being totally ex- 
 terminated by the Indians. As the particulars of thefe 
 wars, however, could neither be entertaining, nor in- 
 deed intelligible, to many of our readers, we choofe to 
 omit them, and in general obferve, that the French not 
 only concluded a permanent peace with the Indians, 
 but fo much ingratiated themfelves with them, that they 
 could with the greateft eafe prevail upon them at any 
 time to murder and fcalp the Englifh in their fettle- 
 ments. Thefe practices had a confiderable fhare in 
 bringing about the laft war with France, when the 
 whole country was conquered by the Britifh in 1761. 
 The moll remarkable tranfa£tion in this conqueft was 
 the fiege of Quebec ; for a particular account of which, 
 fee that article. And for the tranfaftions here during 
 the late American war, fee America (United States 
 of), nO 195, 200 — 207. 
 
 CANAL of Communication, an artificial cut in 
 the ground, fupplied with water from rivers, fprings, 
 &c. in order to make a navigable communication be- 
 twixt one place and another. 
 
 The particular operations necefTary for making arti- 
 ficial navigations depend upon a number of circumllan- 
 ces. The fituation of the ground; the vicinity or con- 
 nection with rivers ; the eafe or difficulty with which a 
 proper quantity of water can be obtained ; thefe and 
 many other cnxumftances neceffarily produce great va- 
 riety in the ftruAure of artificial navigations, and aug- 
 ment or diminifh the labour and expence of executing 
 them. When the ground is naturally level, and uncon- 
 nected with rivers, the execution is eafy, and the navi- 
 gation is not liable to be diflurbed by floods: but, when 
 the ground rifes and falls, and cannot be reduced to a 
 level, artificial methods of railing and lowering velTels 
 mull be employed ; which likewife vary according to 
 circumftances. 
 
 A kind of temporary fluices are fometimes employed 
 for raifing boats over falls or fhoals in rivers by a very 
 liinple operation. Two pofts or pillars of mafon-work, 
 with grooves, are fixed, one on each bank of the I'iver, 
 at fome dillance below the fhoal. The boat having paf- 
 fed thefe pofts, planks are let down acrofs the river by 
 puUies into the grooves, by which the water is dammed 
 up to a proper height for allowing the boat to pafs up 
 the river over the Ihoal. 
 
 ■The Dutch and Fleemings at this day fometimes, 
 when obftrufted by cafcades, form an inclined plane or 
 rolling-bridge upon dry land, alongft which their vef- 
 feh are drawn from the river below the cafcade into the 
 river above it. This, it is faid, was the only method 
 employed by the ancients, and is Hill ufcd by the Chi- 
 nefe, v\-ho are faid to be entirely ignorant of the nature 
 and utihty of locks. Thefe rolhng-bndges confift of 
 a number of cylindrical rollers which turn eafily on pi- 
 vots, and a mill is commonly built near by, fo that the 
 •fame machineiy may ferve the double purpofe of work- 
 ing the mill and drawing up vefTels. 
 
 ; ] CAN 
 
 A Lock Is a bafon placed lengthwife in a river or ca-* 
 nal, lined with walls of mafonry on each fide, and ter- 
 minated by two gates, placed where there is a cafcade 
 or natural fall of the country; and fo conftrufted, that 
 the bafon being filled with water by an Upper fiuice to 
 the level of the waters above, a veffel may afcend thro' 
 the upper gate; or the water in the lock being reduced 
 to the level of the water at the bottom of the cafcade, 
 the veffel may defcend through the lower gate ; fq>f 
 when the waters are brought to a level on either fide, 
 the gate on that fide may be eafily opened. But as the 
 lower gate is ftrained in proportion to the depth of wa- 
 ter it fiipports, when the perpendicular height of the 
 water exceeds 1 2 or 15 feet, more locks than one be- 
 come neceffary. Thus, if the fiill be 17 feet, twa 
 locks are required, each having %\ feet fall ; and if 
 the fall be 26 feet, three locks are necelfaiy, each 
 having 8 feet 8 inches fall. The fide-walls of a lock 
 ought to be very ftrong. Where the natural foun- 
 dation is bad, they fliouid be founded on piles and 
 platforms of wood: they Ihould likewife flope out- 
 wards, in order to refill the preflure of the earth from 
 behind. 
 
 Plate CXIV. fig. I. A perfpeftive view -of part of 
 a canul: the veflel L, within the lock AC. — Fig. 2. 
 Sedlion of an open lock: the veffel L about to enter. — 
 Fig. 3. Sedion of a lock full of water; the veffel L 
 raifed to a level with the water in the fuperior canal.-^ 
 Fig. 4. Ground feftion of a lock. L, a veffel in the 
 inferior canal. C, the under gate. A, the upper 
 gate. GH, a fubterraneous paflage for letting water 
 from the fuperior canal run into the lock. KF, a fub- 
 terraneous pafTage for water from the lock to the infe- 
 rior canal. 
 
 X and Y (fig. I.) are the two flood-gates, each 
 of which coniifls of two leaves, refling upon one an- 
 other, fo as to form an obtufe angle, in order the bet- 
 ter to refill the preffure of the water. The firft (X) 
 prevents the water of the fuperior canal from faUing 
 into the lock; and the fecond (Y) dams up and fu- 
 ftains the water in the lock. Thefe flood-gates ought 
 to be very flrong, and to turn freely upon their hinges. 
 In order to make them open and fhut with eafe, each 
 leaf is furnifhed with a long lever Kb, Ab\ Cb, Cb. 
 They flrould be made very tight and clofe, that as httle 
 water as poflible may be lofl. 
 
 By the fubterraneous paffagc G H (fig. 2, 3, & 4) 
 which defcends obliquely, by opening the fiuice G, the 
 water is let down from the fuperior canal D into the 
 lock, where it is ftopt and retained by the gate C 
 when fhut, till the water on the lock comes to be on a 
 level with the water in the fuperior canal D ; as repre- 
 fented, fig. 3, When, on the other hand, the wa- 
 ter contained by the lock is to be let out, the paffage 
 G H mull be fhut by letting down the fiuice G, the 
 gate A mull be alfo firut, and the paffage K F opened 
 by raifing t-he fiuice K : a free paffage being thus gi- 
 ven to the water, it defcends through K F, into the 
 inferior canal, until the water in the lock is on a level 
 with the water in the inferior canal B ; as reprefented, 
 fig* 2. 
 
 Now, let it be required to raife the veffel L (fig. 2) 
 from the inferior canal B to the fuperior one D ; if 
 the lock happens to be full of water, the fiuice G mull 
 be fiuit, and alfo the gate A, and the fiuice K opened, 
 2 fo 
 
CAN [79 
 
 Caiiul. fo tl-.iat the water in the lock may run out till it is on 
 
 — ^ a lev/el with the water in the inferior canal B. When 
 
 the ^water in the lock comes to be on a level with the 
 water at B, the leaves of the gate C are opened by the 
 leveii-s C h, which is ealily performed, the water on each 
 fide of the gate being in equilibrio ; the veffel then 
 fails into the lock. After this the gate C and the 
 fkiice K are (hut, and the fluice G opened, in order 
 to fill the lock, till the water in the lock, and con- 
 feqvuently the veflel, be upon a level with the water in 
 the fuperior canal D ; as is reprefented in fig. 3. The 
 gate: A is thjn opened, and the velfel pailes into the 
 canal D. 
 
 Again, let it be required to make a veffel defcer.d 
 from the canal D into the inferior canal B. If the 
 lock is empty, as in fig. 2. the gate C and fluice K 
 muft be {hut, and the upper fluice G opened, fo that 
 the water in the lock may rife to a level with the wa- 
 ter iin the upper canal D. Then open the gate A, 
 and let the veffel pafs thro' into the lock. Shut the 
 gate A and the fluice G ; then open the fluice K, till 
 the water in the lock be on a level with the water in 
 the inferior canal ; then the gate C is opened, and the 
 vefl'tel paffes along into the canal B, as was required. 
 
 It is almoft needlefs to fpend time in enumerating 
 the many advantages which neceffarily refidt from ar- 
 tificial navigations. Their utility is now fo apparent, 
 that moll nations in Europe give the higheft encou- 
 ragement to undertakings of this kind wherever they 
 are prafticable. The advantages of navigable canals 
 did not efcape the obfervation of the ancients. From 
 the moft early accounts of fociety we read of attempts 
 to cut through large ilthmufes, in order to make a 
 communication by water, either betwixt different na- 
 tions, or diftant parts of the fame nation, where land- 
 canriage was long and expeniive. Herodotus relates, 
 that the Cnidians, a people of Caria in Alia Minor, 
 deftgned to cut the ifl-hmus which joins that peninfula 
 to the continent ; but were fuperftitious enough to give 
 up the undertaking, becaufe they were interdifted by 
 an loracle. Several kings of Egypt attempted to join 
 the Red-Sea to the Mediterranean. Cleopatra was 
 exceedingly fond of this projed. Soliman II. empe- 
 ror of the Turks, employed 50,000 men in this great 
 work. This canal was completed under the caliphate 
 of Omar, but was afterwards allowed to fall into difre- 
 pair ; fo that it is now difficult to difcover any traces 
 of it. Both the Greeks and Romans intended to 
 make a canal acrofs the Ifthmus of Corinth, which joins 
 the Morea and Achaia, in order to make a navigable 
 pafTage by the Ionian fea into the Archipelago. De- 
 metrius, Julius Casfar, Caligula, and Nero, made feve- 
 ral unfuccefsful efforts to open this paffage. But, as 
 the ancients were entirely ignorant of the ufe of water- 
 locks, their whole attention was employed in making 
 level cuts, which is probably the principal reafon why 
 they fo often failed in their attempts. Charlemagne 
 for med a defign of joining the Rhine and the Danube, 
 in (Order to make a communication between the ocean 
 and the Black Sea, by a canal from the river Almutz 
 which difcharges itfelf into the Danube, to the Reditz, 
 which falls into the Maine, and this laft falls into the 
 Rhine near Mayence : for this purpofe he employed a 
 prodigious number of workmen ; but. he met with fo 
 
 ] CAN 
 
 many obHacles from different quarters, that he was ob- Canal, 
 liged to give up the attempt. - ^— v"" 
 
 The French at prefent have many fine canals : that 
 of Briare was begun under Henry IV. and finifhed un- 
 der the direftion of cardinal Richelieu in the reign of 
 Louis XIII. This canal makes a communication be- 
 twixt the Loire and the Seine by the river Loing. It 
 extends 1 1 French great leagues from Briare to Mon- 
 targis. It enters the Loire a little above Briare, and 
 terminates in the Loing at Cepoi. There are 42 locks 
 on this canal. 
 
 The canal of Orleans, for making another commu- 
 nication between the Seine and the Loire, was begun 
 in 1675, and finiflied by Phihp of Orleans, regent of 
 France, during the minority of Louis XV. and is fur- 
 niflied with 20 locks. It goes by the name of the ca- 
 nal of Orleans ; but it begins at the village of Com- 
 bleux, which is a fliort French league from the town 
 of Orleans. 
 
 But the greateft and moft ufeful work of this kind 
 is the junction of the ocean with the Mediterranean by 
 the canal of Languedoc. It was propofed in the reigns 
 of Francis I. and Henry IV. and was undertaken and 
 finiflied under Louis XIV. It begins with a large re- 
 fervoir 4000 paces in circumference, and 24 feet deep, 
 which receives many fprings from the mountain Noire. 
 This canal is about 64 leagues in length, is fupplied 
 by a niunber of rivulets, and is furniflied with 104 
 locks, of about eight feet rife each. In fome places it 
 paffes over bridges of vail height ; and in others it cuts 
 thro' fohd rocks for 1000 paces. At one end it joins 
 the river Garonne near Tholoufe, and terminates at the 
 other in the lake Tau, which extends to the port of 
 Cette. It was planned by Francis Riquet in the 1666, 
 and finiflied before his death, which happened in the 
 1680. 
 
 In the Dutch, Auftrlan, and French Netherlands, 
 there is a very great number of canals ; that from Bru- 
 ges to Oftend carries veffels of 200 tons. 
 
 The Chinefe have alfo a great number of canals;, 
 that which runs from Canton to Pekin extends about 
 825 miles in length, and was executed about 800 years 
 ago. 
 
 It would be an endlefs taflc to defcribe the number- 
 lefs canals, in Holand, Ruffia, Germany, &c. We fliall- 
 therefore confine ourfelves to thofe that are either al- 
 ready finiflied, or at prefent executing, in our own. 
 country. 
 
 As the promoting of commerce is the principal in- 
 tention of making canals, it is natural to expect that 
 their frequency in any nation fliould bear fome propor- 
 tion to the trade carried on in it, providing the fitua- 
 tion of the country will admit of them. The prefent 
 ftate of England and Scotland confirms this obferva- 
 tion. Though the Romans made a canal between the. 
 Nyne, a little below Peterborough, and the Witham, 
 three miles below Lincoln, which is now almoJl entire- 
 ly filled up, yet it is not long fince canals were revived 
 in England. They are now however become very nu- 
 merous, particularly in the counties of York, Lincoln, 
 and Chelhire. Moil of the counties betwixt the mouth 
 of the Thames and the Briilol channel are connedled 
 together either by natural or artificial navigations ; 
 thofe upon the Thames and Ifis reaching within about 
 
 zoo 
 
C A N [ 
 
 20 miles of thofe upon the Severn. The duke of 
 * Bridgewater's canal in Chefhire runs 27 miles on a per- 
 fe£l level ; but at Barton it is carried by a very high 
 aqueduft bridge over the Irwell, a navigable river ; lo 
 that it is common for vcffels to be pafling at the fame 
 time both under and above the bridge. It is likcwife 
 cut fome miles into the hills, where the Duke's coal- 
 mines are wrought. 
 
 A navigable canal betwixt the Forth and Clyde in 
 ■Scotland, and which divides the kingdom in two parts, 
 was firft thought of by Charles II, for tranfports and 
 fraall (hips of war ; the expence of which was to have 
 been L. 500,000, a fum far beyond the abilities of his 
 reign. It was again projefted in the year 1722, and a 
 fui-vey made ; but nothing more done till 1 761, when 
 the then Lord Napier, at his own expence, caufed 
 make a furvey, plan, and eftimate on a fraall fcale. In 
 1764., the truftees for fifheries, &c. in Scotland caufed 
 make another liirvey, plan, and eftimate of a canal five 
 feet deep, which was to coil L. 79,00a. In 1766, a 
 fubfcription was obtained by a number of the moil re- 
 fpeftable merchants in Glafgov>', for making a canal 
 four feet deep and twenty-four feet in breadth ; but 
 when the bill was nearly obtained in Parliament, it was 
 given up on account of the fniallnefs of the fcale, and 
 a new fubfcription fet on foot for a canal feven feet 
 deep, eftimated at L. 150,000. This obtained the 
 fanftion of Parliament ; and the work was begun in 
 1768 by Mr Smeaton the engineer. The extreme 
 length of the canal from the Forth to the Clyde is 35 
 miles, beginning at the mouth of the Carron, and end- 
 ing at Dalmure Burnfoot on the Clyde, fix miles be- 
 low Glafgow, rifing and falling 160 feet by means of 
 39 locks, 20 on the eaft fide of the fummit, and 19 
 on the weil, as the tide does not ebb fo low in Clyde as 
 in the Forth by nine feet. VefTels drawing eight feet 
 %vater, and not exceeding nineteen feet beam and feven- 
 ty-three feet in length, pafswith eafe, thecsnal having 
 afterwards been deepened to upwards of eight feet. 
 The whole enterprlfe difplays the art of man in a high 
 degree. The carrying the canal through mofs, quick- 
 fand, gravel, and rocks, up precipices and over valleys, 
 was attended with inconceivable difficulties. There 
 are eighteen draw-bridges and fifteen aqueduft bridges 
 of note, befides fmall ones and tunnels. In the firft 
 three miles there are only fix locks ; but in the fourth 
 mile there are no lefs than ten locks, and a very fine 
 Squedud bridge over the great road to the weft of 
 Falkirk. In the next fix miles there are only four 
 locks, which carry you to the fummit. The canal 
 then runs eighteen miles on a level, and terminates a- 
 bout a mile from Glafgow. In. this cotfrfe, for a con- 
 fiderable way the ground is banked about twenty feet 
 high, and the water is fixteen feet deep, and two miles 
 of it is made through a deep mofs. At Kirkintulloch, 
 the canal Is carried over the water of Logie on an 
 aquedudl arch of ninety feet broad. This arch was 
 thrown over in three ftretches, having only a centre of 
 
 80 ] CAN 
 
 the Clyde ; when tlie fubfcription and a fubfequent loan Canannr , 
 being exhaufted, the work was ftopt in 1775. The Canara. 
 city of Glafgow, howevenj by means of a collateral "'"'^'^ 
 branch, opened a communication with the Forth, which 
 has produced a revenue of about L. 6000 annually; 
 and, in order to finilh the remaining fix miles, the go- 
 vernment in 1784 gave L. 50,000 out of the forfeited 
 eftates, the dividends arifing from this fum to be ap- 
 plied to making and repairing roads in the Highlands 
 of Scotland. Accordingly the work has been refum- 
 ed ; and by contra(S, under a high penalty, muft be 
 entirely completed in November 1789. The aqueduft 
 bridge over the Kilven (now finifhed, and fuppofed 
 the greateft of the kind in the world) confifts of 
 four arches, and carries the canal over a valley 65 
 feet high and 420 in length, exhibiting a very fin- 
 gular effort of human ingenuity and labour. To 
 fupply the canal with water was of itfelf a very great 
 work. There is one refervoir of 50 acres 24 feet deep, 
 and another of 70 acres 22 feet deep, into v^hich many 
 rivers and fprings terminate, which it is thought will 
 afford fufficient fupply of water at all times. This 
 whole undertaking when finifhed will coft about 
 L. 2oa,ooo. It is the greateft of the kind in Britain, 
 and without doubt will he of great national utility ; 
 though it is to be regretted that it had not been exe- " 
 cuted on a ftill larger fcale, the locks being too (hutt 
 for tranfporting large mafts. 
 
 Canal, in anatomy, a duel or pafTage thi'ough 
 which any of the juices flow. 
 
 CANANOR, a large maritime town of Afia, on 
 the coaft of Malabar, in a kingdom of the fame name, 
 with a very large and fafe harbour. It formerly be- 
 longed to the Portuguefe, and had a ftrong fort to 
 guard it ; but in 1683, the Dutch, together with the 
 natives, drove them away ; and after they became ma» 
 fters of the town, enlarged the fortifications. They 
 have but a very fmall trade ; but there is a town at 
 the bottom of the bay independent of the Dutch, 
 whofe prince can bring 20,000 men Into the field. 
 The Dutch fort is la'rge, and the governor's lodgings 
 are at a good diftance from the gate ; fo that, when 
 there was a ficirmifti between the faftory and the na- 
 tives, he knew nothing of it till it was over. E. Long. 
 78. 10. N. Lat. 12. o. 
 
 Cananor, a fmall kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of 
 Malabar, whofe king can ralfe a confiderable army. 
 The natives are generally Mahometans ; and the coun- 
 try produces pepper, cardamons, ginger, mirobolans, 
 and tamarinds, in which they drive a confiderable trade. 
 
 CANARA, a kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of 
 Malabar. The inhabitants are Gentoos, or Pagans ; 
 and there is a pagod, or temple, called Ramtnit, which 
 Is vlfited every year by a great number of pilgrims. 
 Here the cuftom of burning the wives with their huf» 
 bands had its beginning, and is praflifed to this day. 
 The country is generally governed by a woman who 
 keeps her court at a town called Baydor, two days 
 
 thirty feet, which was fiilfted on fmall rollers from one journey from the fea. She may m.airy whom ftie pleafe.>; 
 
 ftretch to another ; a thing new, and never attempted 
 l)efore with an arch of this fize ; yet the joinings are 
 as fairly equal as any other part, and admired as a very 
 fine piece of mafonry. On each fide there is a very con- 
 fiderable banking over the valley. The work was car- 
 ried on till it came within fix raHes of its junilion with 
 
 -4: 
 
 and is not obhged to burn with her huftiand, hke her 
 female fubjedls. They are fo good obfervers of their 
 laws, that a robbery or murder is fcarce ever heard of 
 among them. The Canarans have forts built of earth 
 along the coaft, which are garrifoned with 200 or 300 
 foldiers, to guard againft the robberies of their neigh- 
 bours. 
 
Canary- If- 
 
 lands. 
 
 CAN [ 
 
 Canaria. bours. The lower grounds yield every year two crops 
 of corn or rice ; and the higher produce pepper, betel 
 nuts, fanders wood, iron, and fteel. The Portuguefe 
 clergy here live very loofely, and make no fcruple of 
 procuring women for ftrangers. 
 
 CANARIA (anc. geog.), one of the Fortunate 
 Iflands, a proof that thefe were what are now called the 
 Canaries. Canaria had its name from its abounding with 
 dogs of an enormous fize, two of which were brought 
 to Juba king of Mauritania. See the following article. 
 
 Canaria, or the Grand Canary, an ifland in 
 the Atlantic Ocean, about i8o miles from the coall 
 of Africa. It is about loo miles in circumference, and 
 33 in diameter. It is a fruitful ifland, and famous for 
 the wine that bears its name. It alfo abounds with 
 apples, melons, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, figa, 
 olives, peaches, and plantains. The fir and palm 
 trees are the moft common. The towns are, Canary 
 the capital, Gualdera, and Geria. 
 
 CANARY, or CiviDAD DE Palmas, is the capital 
 of the ifland of Canaria, with an indifferent caftle, and 
 a biihop's fee. It has alfo a court of inquifitlon, and 
 the fupreme council of the reft of the Canary-iflands ; 
 as alfo four convents, two for men and two for wo- 
 men. The town is about three miles in compafs, and 
 contains 12,000 inhabitants. The houfes are only one 
 ftory high, and flat at the top ; but they are well built. 
 The cathedral is a handfome ftrudture. W. Long. 
 15. 20. N. Lat. 28. 4. 
 
 CANjiRr-IJlandsf are fituated in the Atlantic ocean, 
 over againft the empire of Morocco in Africa. They 
 were formerly called the Fortunate IJlands, on ac- 
 count of the temperate healthy air, and excellent 
 fruits. The land is very fruitful, for both wheat and 
 barley produce 1 30 for one. The cattle thrive well, 
 and the woods are full of all forts of game. The Ca- 
 nary finging birds are well known all over Europe. 
 There are here fugar-canes in great abundance ; but 
 the Spaniards firft planted vines liere, from whence we 
 have the Avine called Canary or Sack. 
 
 Thefe iflands were not entirely unknown to the an- 
 cients ; but they were a long while forgot, till John de 
 Betencouit difcovered them in 1402. It is faid they 
 were firft inhabited by the Phoenicians, or Carthagi- 
 nians, but on no certain foundation; nor could the in- 
 habitants themfelves tell from whence they were deri- 
 ved ; on the contrary, they did hot know there was 
 any other country in the world. Their language, 
 manners, and cuftoms, had no refemblance to thofe of 
 their neighbours. However, they wei-e like the people 
 on the coaft of Barbary in complexion. They had no 
 iron. After the difcovery, the Spaniards foon got pof- 
 feflion of them all, under whofe dominions they are to 
 this day, except Madeira, which belongs to the Portu- 
 guefe. The inhabitants are chiefly Spaniards; though 
 there are fome of the firft people remaining, whom 
 they call Guanchcs^ who are fomewhat civilized by their 
 intercourfe with the Spaniards. They are a hardy, ac- 
 tive, bold people, and live on the mountains. Their 
 chief food is goat's milk. Their complexion is tawny, 
 and their nofes flat. The Spanifti veflels, when they 
 fail for the Weft Indies, always rendezvous at thefe 
 iflands, going and coming. Their number is 12. i. 
 Alegranza ; 2. Canaria; 3. Ferro; 4. Fuerteventura ; 
 5. Gomera; 6. Gratiofaj 7, Lancerotta ; 8. Madeira; 
 Vol. IV. Part L 
 
 81 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 9. Palma; 10. Rocca ; 11. Salvages; 12. Teneriff. Canary- 
 
 Weft longitude from 12. to 21. north latitude from ^ 
 
 27. 30. to 29. 30. >— V— " 
 
 CANARY-Bird. See Fringilla. Thefe birds are 
 much admired for their finging, and take their name 
 from the place from whence they originally came, vi%. 
 the Canary-iflands ; but of late years there is a fort of 
 birds brought from Germany, and efpecially from Tirol, 
 and therefore called German birds, which are much 
 better than the others ; though both are fuppofed to 
 have originally come from the fame place. The cocks 
 never grow fat, and by fome country people cannot be 
 diftinguifhed from common green-birds ; though the 
 Canary-birds are miich luftier, have a longer tail, and 
 differ much in the heaving of the paffages of the throat 
 when they fing. Thefe birds being fo much efteemed 
 for their fong, are fometimes fold at a high price, ac- 
 cording to the goodnefs and excellency of their notes ; 
 fo that it will always be advifable to hear one fmg be- 
 fore he is bought. In order to know whether he is in 
 good health, take him out of the ftore-cage, and put 
 him in a clean cage by himfelf ; if he ftand up boldly, 
 without crouching or fhrinking in his feathers, look 
 with a brifl< eye, and is not fubjeft to clap his head 
 under his wing, it is a fign that he is in good health ; 
 but the greateft matter is to obfervehis dunging: if he 
 bolts his tail like a nightingale after he has dunged, it 
 is a fign he is not in good health, or at leait that he 
 will foon be fick ; but if his dung be very thin like 
 water, or of a flimy white without any blacknefs in 
 it, it is a fign of approaching death. When in per- 
 fect health, his dung lies round and hard, w^ith a fine 
 white on the outfide, dark within, and dries quickly ; 
 though a feed-bird feldom dungs fo hard, unlefs he is 
 very young. 
 
 Canary-birds are fubjeft to many difeafes, particu- 
 larly impofthumes, which affeft the head, caufe them 
 to fall fuJdenly from the perch, and die in a fliort 
 time, if not fpeedily cured. The moft approved me- 
 dicine is an ointment made of freih butter and capon's 
 greafe melted together. With this the top of the 
 bird's head is to be anointed for two or three days, 
 and it will diffolve the impofthume : but if the medi- 
 cine^lias been too long delayed, then, after three or four 
 times anointing, fee whether the place of his head be 
 foft ; and if fo, open it gently, and let out the matter, 
 which will be like the yolk of an egg ; when this is 
 done, anoint theplace, and the bird will be cured. At 
 the fame time he muft have figs with his other food, 
 and in his water a flicc or two of liquorice, with white 
 fugar-candy. 
 
 Canary-birds are diftinguifhed by different names at 
 different times and ages : fuch as are about three years 
 old are called runts ; thofe above two are named er^/ 
 thofe of the firft year under the care of the old ones, 
 ■are termed hranchers j thofe that are new-flown, and 
 cannot feed themfelves, pujhers ; and thofe brought up 
 by liand, ne^lings. 
 
 The Canary-birds may be bred with us ; and, if 
 treated with proper care, they will become as vigorous 
 and healthful as in the country from whence they 
 have their name. The cages in which thefe birds 
 are kept are to be made either of walnut-tree or 
 oak, with bars of ware ; becaufe thefe, being woods of 
 itrength, do not require to be ufed in large piece*. 
 
 L The 
 
Canary- 
 birds. 
 
 C A N [ 
 
 The common ihape of cages, ivhich is cylindric, is 
 very improper for thefe birds ; for this allows little 
 room to walk, and without that the birds ufually be- 
 come melancholy. The moft proper of all ihapes is 
 the high and long, but narrow. 
 
 If thefe birds eat too much, they ^ow over-fat, 
 lofe. their (hape, and their fmging is fpolled ; or at 
 leaft they become fo idle, that they will fcarce ever 
 fing. In this cafe their vicluals is to be given them in 
 a much fmaller quantity, and they will by this means 
 be recovered by degrees to all their beauty, and will 
 fmg as at firft. 
 
 At the time that they are about to build their nefts, 
 there muft be put into their cages fome hay, dried 
 thoroughly in the fun : with this muft be mixed fome 
 mofs dried in the fame manner, and fome ftag's hair ; 
 and great care is to be taken of breeding the young, 
 in the article of food. As foon as the young birds 
 are eight days old, or fomewhat more, and are able to 
 eat and pick up food of themfelves, they are to be 
 taken out of the cage in which they were hatched, and 
 each put feparately into another cage, and hung up 
 in a room where it may never have an opportunity of 
 hearing the voice of any other bird. After they have 
 been kept thus about eight days, they are to be ex- 
 cited to fmg by a bird-pipe ; but this is not to be 
 blowed too much, or in too fln-ill a manner, left they 
 ling themfelves to death. 
 
 For the firft fifteen days the cages are to be covered 
 with a black cloth,' and for the fifteen days following 
 with a green one. Five lelTons in a day from the pipe 
 are fufiicient for thefe young creatures ; and they muft 
 not be difturbed with feveral founds at the fame- time, 
 left they confound and puzzle them: two lefTons fnould 
 be given them early in the morning, one about the 
 middle of the day, and two more at night. 
 
 The genius and temper of the feveral birds of this 
 kind are veiy different. The males are almoft always 
 m.elancholy, and will not ling unlefs they are excited 
 to it by hearing others continually finging about them. 
 The male bird of this kind will often kill the female 
 put to him for breeding ; and when there are feveral 
 females together with the males, they will often do 
 the fame to one another from jealoufy. It is therefore 
 not eafy to manage the article of their breeding well- 
 in this particular, unlefs- in this manner: let two female 
 birds be put into one cage, and when they have lived 
 together fome time, they will have contracted a fort of 
 love for one another, which wiU not eafily be diffolved. 
 Put a male bird into the cage with thefe two, and 
 every thing will go well ; their friendftiip will keep 
 them from quarrelling about his favours, and from dan- 
 ger of his mifchievous difpofition ; for if he attacks 
 one of them, in order to kill her, the other will imme- 
 diately take her part ; and after a few of thefe battles, 
 the male will find that they are together an over- 
 match for him at fighting, and will then diftribute his 
 favours to them, and there will not fail of being a 
 voung breed or two, which are to be taken away from 
 their parents, and educated as before directed. Some 
 males watch the time of the female's laying, and de- 
 vour the eggs as faft as Ihe depofits them ; and others 
 take the young ones in their beak as foon as hatched, 
 and crulh them to death againft the fides of the cage, 
 <ix iov'.e other way deftroy them. When a male, has 
 
 Caticallc 
 
 II ' 
 Cancer. 
 
 82 1 CAN 
 
 been known once to have been guilty of this, he is to 
 be fhut up in a fmall cage, in the middle of the large 
 one in which the female is breeding her young, and 
 thus he will often comfort her with finging all day 
 long, while fiie fits upon the eggs or takes care of the 
 young ones ; and when the time of taking away, to 
 put them into feparate cages, is come, the male is to 
 be let out, and he v.ill always after this live in friend- 
 flu'p with the female. 
 
 If the male become fick during the time of the fe- 
 male's fitting or bringing up her young, he muft be 
 removed immediately, and only brought to the fide of 
 her cage at certain times, that file may fee him, till he 
 is perfectly cured ; and then he is to be ftiut up again 
 in his cage in the middle. 
 
 Canary-birds arc various in their notes; fome having 
 a fweet fong, others a lowifh note, others a long fong, 
 which is beft, as having the greateft variety of notes : 
 but they fing chiefly either the titlark or nightingale 
 notes. See Song of Birds, 
 
 GANCALLE, a town of France, in Upper Brit- 
 tany, by the fea-fide, where there is a road. Here the 
 Britifli landed in 1758, in their way to St Maloes, 
 where they burnt a great number of ftiips in the har- 
 bour, and then retired without lofs. This town wa^ui 
 their power; but they a6led like generous enemies, and 
 did no hurt to this nor any other on the coaft. W. 
 Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 48. 41. 
 
 CANCELIER, in falconry, is when a hght brown 
 hawk, in her ftooping, turns two or three times upon 
 the wing, to recover herfelf before Ihe feizes. 
 
 CANCELLI, a term ufed to denote lattice windows, 
 of thofe made of crofs bars difpofed latticewife ; it is. 
 alfo ufed for rails or ballufters inclofing the communion- 
 table, a court of juftice, or the like, and for the network 
 in the infide of hollow bones. 
 
 CANCELLING, in the civil law, an aft whereby 
 a perfon confents that fome former deed be rendered 
 null and void. This is otherwife called refafion. The 
 word comes from the Latin cancellare to encompafs or 
 pale a thing round. In the proper fenfe of the word, 
 to cancel, is to deface an obligation, by pafling the pen 
 from top to bottom, or acrofs it; which makes a kind 
 of chequer lattice, which the Latins call cancelli. 
 
 CANCER, in zoology, a genus of infecls belong- 
 ing to the order of infefta aptera. The generic cha- 
 rafkers are thefe: they have eight legs, (feldom ten or 
 fix), befidesthe two large claws which anfwer the pur- 
 pose of hands. They have two eyes at a confiderable 
 diftance from each other, and for the moft part fup- 
 ported by a kind of peduncuH or footftalks ; the eyes 
 are likewife elongated and moveable ; they have two 
 clawed palpi, and the tail is jointed. This genus in- 
 cludes the lobfter, fnrimp, &c. There are no lefs than 
 87 fpecies of cancer, diftinguiflied principally by the 
 length of their tails and the margins of their breafts- 
 The following are the moft remarkable. 
 
 I . The gammarus, or common lobfter, with a fmooth Commoa 
 thorax, fliort ferrated fnout ; very long antennae ; anci^°^^^^^' 
 between them two Ihorter ones, bifid ; claws and fangs 
 large, the greater tuberculated, the lefier ferrated,on 
 the inner edge; four pair of legs; fix joints in the tail ; 
 tail-fins rounded. It inhabits all the rocky ftiores of 
 our ifland, but chiefly where there is a depth of wa- 
 ter. In Llyn ia Cuernarvonfliire a certain fmall lob- 
 6 ' ftcr. 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 83 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Cnncetr. ftef, notKIng different except in fize, burrows in the 
 " ■ " ' fand. They are brought in vaft quantities from the 
 Orkney ifles, and many parts of the eaftern coail of 
 Scotland, to the London markets. Sixty or feventy 
 thoufand are annually brought from the neighbourhood 
 
 of Montrofe alone The lobfter was well known to the 
 
 ancients, and is well defcribed by Ariftotle under the 
 name of arax©-. It is found as far as the Hellefpont ; 
 and is called at Conftantinople Uc%uda and Ikpuda. 
 
 Lobfters fear thunder, and are apt to cait their claws 
 on a great clap: it is faid that they will do the fame 
 on the firing of a great gun ; and that, when men of 
 war meet a lobfter boat, a jocular threat is ufed, that, 
 if the mafter does not fell them good lobfters, they will 
 Jaliite him. 
 
 The habitation of this fpecies is in the cleareft wa- 
 ter, at the foot of rocks that impend over the fea. This 
 has given opportunity of examining more clofely into 
 the natural hiftory of the animal, than of many others 
 who live in an element that prohibits moft of the hu- 
 man refearches, and limits the inquiries of the moft in- 
 quifitive. Some lobfters are taken by hand ; but the 
 greater quantity in pots, a fort of trap formed of twigs, 
 and baited with garbage ; they are form^ed like a wire 
 moufe trap, fo that when the lobfter gets in, there is no 
 return. Thcfe are fattened to a cord funk in ,the fea, 
 and their place marked by a buoy. — They begin to breed 
 in the fpring, and continue breeding moft part of the 
 fummer. They propagate iMre htwiano^ and are ex- 
 tremely prolific. Dr Bafter fays he counted 1 2,444 
 eggs under the tail, befides thole that remained in the 
 body unprotruded. They depofit thole eggs in the 
 fand, where they are foon hatched. 
 
 Lobfters change their cruft annually. Previous to 
 their putting off their old one, they appear fick, lan- 
 guid, and retilefs. They totally acquire a new coat in 
 a few days ; but during the time that they remain de- 
 fenceltfs, they feek fome very lonely place, for fear of 
 being devoured by fuch of their brethren as are not in 
 the fame fituation. It is alfo remarkable, that lobfters 
 and crabs will renew their claws, if by accident they 
 are torn off ; and it is certain they will grow again in a 
 few weeks, though they never attain to the fize of the 
 firft. They are very voracious animals, and feed on 
 fca-weeds, garbage, and all forts of dead bodies. The 
 pincers of one of the lobfters large claws are furnifhed 
 with knobs, and thofe of the other are always ierrated. 
 With the former it keeps firm hold of the ftalks of 
 fubmarine plants, and with the latter it cuts and minces 
 its food very dexteroufly. The knobbed or numb claw, 
 as the fiftiermen call it, is fometimes on the right and 
 fometimes on the left fide indiflFerently. It is more 
 dangerous to be feized by them with the cutting claw 
 than the other ; but, in either cafe, the quickeft way 
 to get difengaged from the creature is to pull off its 
 claw. The female or hen lobfter does not caft her {hell 
 the fame year that fhe depofits her ova, or, in the 
 common phrafe, Is in berry. When the ova firft appear 
 under her tail, they are fmall, and extremely black ; 
 but they become in fiiccefTion almoft as large as ripe 
 elder-berries before they are depofited, and turn of a 
 dark brown colour, efpecially towards the end of the 
 time of her depofiting them. They continue full, and 
 depofiting the ova in conftant fucceffion, as loi^g as 
 any of that black fubftance can be found in their body, 
 
 which, when boiled, turns of a beautiful red colour, Cancer, 
 and is called their coral. Hen-lobfters are found in '—- — 
 berry at all times of the year, but chiefly in winter. It 
 is a common miftake, that a berried hen is always ia 
 perfedlion for the table. When berberries appear large 
 and brownifh, fhe will always be found exhaufted, wa- 
 tery, and poor. Though the ova be caft at all times of 
 the year, they feem only to come to life during the 
 warm fummer months of July and Auguft. Great num- 
 bers of them may then be found, under the appearance 
 of tadpoles, fwimming about the little pools left by 
 the tides among the rocks, and many alfo under their 
 proper form from half an inch to four inches in length. 
 In cafting their fliells, it is hard to conceive how the 
 lobfter is able to draw the fifh of their large claws out» 
 leaving the fhells entire and attached to the fliell of 
 their body, in which ftate thty are conftantly found. 
 The fifhermen fay, the lobfter pines before cafting, till 
 the fifh of its large claw is no thicker than the quill of 
 a goofe, which enables it to draw its parts through 
 the joints and narrow paftage near the trunk. The new 
 fhell is quite membranaceous at firft, but hardens by 
 degrees. Lobfters only grow in fize while their fhells 
 are in their foft ftatc. They are chofen for the tables 
 by their being heavy in proportion to their fize ; and | 
 by the hardnefs of their fhells on their fides, which, 
 when in perfeAion, will not yield to moderate preflure. 
 Barnacles and other fmall fifli adhering to them are 
 reckoned certain figns of fuperior goodnefs. Cock- 
 lobfters are in general better than the hens in winter; 
 they are diftinguifhed by the narrownefs of their tails, 
 and by their having a ftrong fpine upon the centre of 
 each of the tranfverfe proceffes beneath the tail, which 
 fupport the four middle plates of their tails. The fifii 
 of a lobfter's claw is more tender, delicate, and eafy ot 
 digeftion, than that of the taih In fummer, the lob- 
 fters are found near the fhore, and thence to about fix 
 fathoms water ; in winter, they are feldom taken in 
 lefs than 12 or 15 fathoms. Like other infefts, they 
 are much more aftive and alert in warm weather than 
 in cold. In the water, they can run nimbly upon their 
 legs or fmall claws ; and, if alarmed, can fpring, tail 
 foremoft, to a furprifing diftance, as fwift as a bird can 
 fiy. The fifhermen can fee thtm pafs about 30 feet ; 
 and, by the fwiftnefs of their motion, fuppofe they may 
 go much further. Athenseus remarks this circumftance, 
 and fays, that " the incurvated lobfters will fpring with 
 the aftivity of dolphins.'* Their eyes are raifed upon 
 moveable bafes, which enables them to fee readily every 
 way. When frightened, they will fpring from a confi- 
 derable diftance to their hold in the rock, and, what is 
 not lefs furprifing than true, will throw themfelves into 
 their hold in that manner through an entrance barely 
 fufficient for their bodies to pa!s. 
 
 2. The ftrigofus, or plated lobfter, with a pyra- Plate CXV, 
 midal fpiny fnout ; thorax elegantly plated, each plate 
 marked near its junftion with fhort (tria; ; claws 
 
 much longer than the body, tjiick, echinated, and 
 tuberculated ; the upper fang trifid ; only three legs 
 fpiny on their fides ; tall broad. The largeft of this 
 fpecies is about fix inches long. It inhabits the coafts 
 of Anglefea, under ftones and fuci. It is very aftive ; 
 and, if taken, flaps its tail againft the body with much 
 violence and noife. 
 
 3. The aftacus, or craw-fifh, with a projefling fnout 
 
 L 2 flightly 
 
Cancer. 
 
 Crow-fifa 
 prawn, 
 ihi jmp, &c 
 
 Hermit- 
 crab, 
 
 CAN [8 
 
 nightly ferrated on the fiues ; a fmooth thorax ; back 
 fmooth, with two fmall fpines on each fide ; claws 
 large, befet with fmall tubercles ; two firft pair of legs 
 clawed, the two next Tubulated ; tail confifting of hve 
 joints ; the caudal fins rounded. It inhabits many of 
 the rivers in England, lodged in holes which they form 
 in the clayey banks. Cardan fays, that this fpecies in- 
 dicates the goodnefs of water ; for in the belt water 
 they are boiled into the redded colour. 
 
 4. The ferratus, or prawn, with a long ferrated fnout 
 bending upwards ; three pair of very long filiform 
 feelers ; claws fmall, furniPaed with two fangs ; fmooth 
 thorax ; five joints to the tail ; middle caudal fin fu- 
 bulated, two outmoft flat and rounded. It is frequent 
 in feveral fliores among loofe ftones ; fometimes found 
 at fea, and taken on the furface over 30 fathoms depth 
 cf water ; cinereous when frefh, of a fine red when 
 boiled. 
 
 5. The crangon, or fiirimp, with long flender feelers, 
 and between them two projefting laminae ; claws with 
 a fingle, hooked, moveable fang ; three pair of legs ; 
 feven joints in the tail ; the middle caudal fin fubu- 
 lated, the four others rounded and fringed, a fpine on 
 the exterior fide of each of the outmoft. It inhabits 
 the fhores of Britain in vaft quantities, and is the moft 
 delicious of the genus. 
 
 6. The fquilla, with a fnout like a prawn, but deeper 
 and thinner ; the feelers longer in proportion to the 
 bulk ; the fub-caudal fins rather larger ; is, at full 
 growth, not above half the bulk of the former. — It in- 
 habits the coafts of Kent ; and is fold in London un- 
 der the name of the ivhiie Jlrtmp, as it aflumes that 
 colour when boiled. 
 
 7. The atomos, or atom-lobfter, with a flender body ; 
 filiform antennae ; three pair of legs near the head ; be- 
 hind which are two pair of oval veficulae ; beyond are 
 three pair of legs, and a flender tail between the laft 
 pair. It is very minute, and the help of the microfcope 
 is often neceffary for its infpedion. 
 
 8. The pulex, or flea lobfl:er, with five pair of legs, 
 and two claws, imperfeft ; with 12 joints of the body. 
 It is very common in fountains and rivulets ; fwims 
 very fwiftly in an incurvated pofture on its back ; em- 
 braces and protedts its young between the legs ; does 
 Jiot leap. 
 
 9. The locuft, or locuft-lobfter, with four antennas ; 
 two pair of imperfeft claws ; the firft joint ovated ; 
 body confifts of 14 joints, in which it difl^ers from the 
 former. It abounds, in fummer, on the fliores, beneath 
 ftones and algas ; leaps about with vaft agihty. 
 
 10. The diogenes, foldler-crab, or hermit-crab, with 
 rough claws ; the left claw is the longeft (this being 
 the only difference between the Jiogenesand bernardus) ; 
 the legs are fubulated, and ferrated along the upper 
 ridge ; the tail naked and tender, and furniflied with a 
 hook by which it fccures itfelf in its lodging. This 
 fpecies is parafitic ; and inhabits the empty cavities of 
 turbinated fliells, changing its habitation according to 
 its increafe of growth from the fmall nerite to the large 
 nuhelk. Nature denies it the ttrong covering behind, 
 which it hath given to others of this clafs; and therefore 
 direfts it to take refuge in the deferted cafes of other 
 animals. They crawl very faft with the fliell on their 
 back ; and at the approach of danger draw themfelves 
 withio the (hell, and, thrufting out the larger claw, 
 
 + 1 
 
 CAN 
 
 will pinch very hard whatever molefts them. Ariftotle Cancer, 
 defcribes it very exaftly under the name of xa^x-fvioy. \r— 
 By the moderns it is called xhiifoldier, from the idea of 
 its dwelling in a tent ; or the hermit, from retiring into 
 a cell. 
 
 It is very diverting to obferve this animal when 
 wanting to change its fliell. The little foldier is feen 
 bufily parading the fliore along that line of pebbles 
 and flicUs which is formed by the extremeft wave j ftill, 
 however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at 
 its tail, unwilling to part with ^aie fliell, even though 
 a troublefome appendage, till it can find another more 
 convenient. It is feen ftopping at one fliell, turning it, 
 and pafling it by ; going on to another, contemplating 
 that for a while, and then flipping its tail from its old 
 habitation to try on the new : this alfo is found to be 
 inconvenient, and it quickly returns to its old fliell 
 again. In this mcinner it frequently changes, till at laft 
 it finds one light, roomy, and commodious ; to this it 
 adheres, though the flull be fometimes fo large as to 
 hide the body of the animal, claws and all. Yet it is 
 not till after many trials, and many combats alfo, that 
 the foldier is thus completely equipped ; for there is 
 often a conteft between two of them for fome well- 
 looking favourite fliell for which they are rivals. They 
 both endeavour to take poflefllon ; they ftrike with 
 their claws, they bite each other, till the weakeft is ob- 
 liged to yield by giving up the objeft of difpute. It is 
 then that the viftor immediately takes pofleflion, and 
 parades it in his new conqueft three or four times back 
 and forward upon the ftrand before his envious anta- 
 gonift. When this animal is taken, it fends forth a 
 feeble cry, endeavouring to feize the enemy with its 
 nippers ; which if it faftens upon, it will fooner die than 
 quit the grafp. 
 
 The hermit-crabs frequent moftly thofe parts of the 
 fea-fliores which are covered with flirubs and trees, 
 producing various wild fruits on which they fubfift ; 
 though they will alfo feed on the fragments of fifli and 
 other animal fubftances caft on fliore. When roafted 
 in the fliell, they are efleemed delicate. The hermit- • 
 crab, hung in the air, diflfolves into a kind of oil, 
 which fpeedily cures the rheumatifm, if rubbed upon 
 the part. 
 
 I I. The vocans, or fand-crab, is but of a fmall fize ; 
 its colour light brown, or duflcy white. It has eight 
 legs, and two claws, one of which is double the fize 
 of the other : thefe claws ferve both to defend and 
 to feed themfelves with. The head has two fquare 
 holes, which are receptacles for its eyes ; out of which 
 it thrufts them, and draws them in again at pleafure. 
 Their abode is only on the fandy fliores of Ilathera, 
 and many others of the Bahama iflands. They run 
 very faft, and retreat from danger into little holes they 
 make in the fand. 
 
 12. The grapfus, or red mottled crab, hath a round The pea=. 
 body, the legs longer and larger than in other kinds ; crab, 
 the claws red ; except which, the whole is mottled in 
 a beautiful manner with red and white. Thefe crabs 
 inhabit the rocks hanging over the fea ; they are the 
 nimbleft of all others, and run with furprifing agility 
 along the upright fide of a rock, and even under the 
 rocks that hang horizontally below" the water. This 
 they are often neceffitated to do for efcaping the aflaults 
 of rapacious birds that purfue them. Thefe crabs 
 
 never - 
 
CAN [ 
 
 never go to land ; but frequent moftly thofe parts of 
 the promontori'js and iflands of rocks in and near the 
 fea, where, by the continual and violent agitation of 
 the waves againft the rocks, they are always wet, con- 
 tinually receiving the fpray of the fea, which often 
 ■wafiies them into It ; but they inftantly return to the 
 rock again, not being able to live under water, and 
 yet requiring more of that element than any of the 
 ciuftaceous kinds that are not fifh. 
 
 13. The granulatus, or rough-fhelled crab: thefe 
 crabs are pretty large, and are commonly taken from 
 the bottom of the fea in fli^llow water ; the legs are 
 fmall in proportion to the body ; the two claws are 
 remarkably large and flat. The whole fliell is covered 
 over with innumerable little tubercles like fhagreen : 
 the colour is brown, varioully ftained with purple. 
 
 14. The cancer eiythropus, or red-claw crab, is of 
 a fmall fize, and brown colour ; it hath two claws of 
 unequal bignefs, red at the ends ; and eight legs, which 
 feem of Itfs ufe to them than in other crabs ; for when 
 on the ground, they crawl with flow pace, dragging 
 their bodies along ; but they are moftly feen grafping 
 with their claws, and hanging to fome fea-plant, or 
 other marine fubftance. 
 
 15. The pifum, or pea-crab, with rounded and 
 fmooth thorax, entire and blunt ; with a tail of the fize 
 of the body, which commonly is the bulk of a pea. 
 It inhabits the mufcle, and has unjuftly acquired the 
 repute of being poifonous. The fwelling after eating 
 of mufcles is wholly conftitutional ; for one that is af- 
 fefted by it, hundreds remain uninjured. Crabs either 
 of this kind, or allied to them, the ancients believed 
 to have been the confentaneous inmates of the Pinn^, 
 and other bivalves ; which, being too ftupid to per- 
 ceive the approach of their prey, were warned of it by 
 their vigilant friend. Oppian teUs the fable prettify. 
 
 In clouded deeps below, the pinna hides. 
 And through the filent paths obfcurely glides ; 
 A ftupid wretch, and void of thoughtful carej 
 He forms no bait, nor lays the tempting fnare ; 
 But the dull fluggard boafts a crab his friend, 
 Whofe bufy eyes the coming prey attend. v 
 One room contains them, and the partners dwell 
 Beneath the convex of one floping ftiell ; 
 Deep in the watry vaft the comrades rove. 
 And mutual intereft binds their conftant love 
 That wifer friend the lucky juncture tells, 
 When in the circuit of his gaping fliells 
 Fifh wand'ring enter ; then the bearded guide 
 Warns the dull mate, and pricks his tender fide ; 
 He knows the hint, nor at the treatment grieves, 
 But hugs th' advantage, and the pain forgives ; 
 His clofing fliells the pima fudden joins, 
 And 'twixt the preffing fides his prey confines : 
 Thus fed by mutual aid, the friendly pair 
 Divide their gains, and all the plunder ftiare. 
 
 16. The msenas, or common crab, with three not- 
 ches on the front ; five ferrated teeth on each fide ; 
 claws ovated; next joint toothed; hint feet fubulated; 
 dirty green colour; red when boiled. It inliabits all 
 our fliores; and lurks under the algae, or burrows un- 
 der the fand. Is fold, and eaten by the poor of our 
 capitals. 
 
 17. The pagurus, or black clawed crab, with a ere* 
 
 35 ] CAN 
 
 nated thorax; fmooth body; quinquedentated front; Can 
 fmooth claws and black tips ; hind feet fubulated. It """v 
 inhabits the rocky coafts ; is the moft delicious meat 
 of any ; cafts its ftiell between Chriftmas and Eafter. 
 The tips of the claws of this fpecies are ufed in medi- 
 cine ; intended to abforb acidities in the ftomach and 
 bowels. 
 
 1 8. The velutinus, or velvet crab, with the thorax 
 quinquedentated ; body covered with fliort, brown, 
 velvet-like pile ; claws covered with minute tubercles ; 
 fmall fpines round the top of the fecond joint ; hind 
 legs broadly ovated. — This is among the fpecies taken 
 notice of by Ariftotle on account of the broad feet, 
 which, he fays, affift them in fwimming ; as web-feet 
 do the water-fowl. It inhabits the weftern coaft of 
 Anglefea. 
 
 19. The horridus, or horrid-crab, with a projeftlng 
 bifurcated fnout, the end diverging ; body heart- 
 ftiaped ; with the claws and legs covered with long and 
 very fliarp fpines. — It is a large fpecies, and inhabits 
 the rocks on the eaftern. coafts of Scotland. It is com- 
 mon to Norway and Scotland,, as many of the marine 
 animals and birds^re. 
 
 20. The ruricola, land-crab, or violetrcrab, with violet 
 a fmooth entire thorax, and the two laft joints of the crab; 
 feet armed with fpines. It inhabits the Bahama iflands, 
 
 as well as moft lands between the tropics ; and feeds 
 upon vegetables. 
 
 Thefe animals live not only in a kind of orderly fo- 
 eiety in their retreats in the mountains, but regularly 
 once a year march down to the fea-fide in a body of 
 fome millions at a time. As they multiply in great 
 numbers, they choofe the month of April or May to 
 begin their expedition ; and then fally out by thou- 
 fands from the ftumps of hollow trees, from the clefts 
 of rocks, and from the holes which they dig for them- 
 felves under the furface of the earth. At that time 
 the whole ground is covered with this band of adventu- 
 rers; there is no fetting down one's foot without treading 
 upon them. The fea is their place of deftination, and 
 to that they diredl their march with right-lined pre- 
 cifion. No geometrician could fend them to their def- 
 tined ftation by a fliorter courfe ; they neither turn to 
 the right nor left,, whatever obftacles intervene ; and 
 even if they meet with a houfe, they will' attempt to 
 fcale the walls to keep the unbroken tenor of their way. 
 But though this be the general order of their route, 
 they, upon other occafions, are obliged to conform to 
 the face of the country ; and' if it is interfered with 
 rivers, they are then feen to wind along the courfe of 
 the ftream. The proceflion fets ; forward from tlie 
 mountains with the regularity of an army under the 
 guidance of an experienced commander. They arc 
 commonl)^ divided into three battalions ; of which the 
 firft confifts of the ftrongeft and boldeft males, that, , 
 like pioneers, march forward to clear the route and 
 face the greafeft dangers. Thefe are often obliged to 
 halt for want of rain, and to go into the moft conve- 
 nient encampment till the weather changes. The main 
 body of the army is compofed of females, which never 
 leave the mountains till the rain is fet in for fome time, 
 and then defcend in regular battalia, being formed into 
 columns, of 50 paces broad, and three miles deep, and. 
 fo clofe that they almoft cover the ground. Three 
 or four days after this,,, the rear-guard follows, a ftrag- 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 86 
 
 gli'ng undifciplined tribe, confifting of males and fe- 
 males, but neither fo robuil nor fo vigorous as the 
 fdVmer. The night is their chief time of proceeding ; 
 but if it^ains by day, they do not fail to profit by the 
 occafion ; and they continue to move forward in their 
 ilow uniform manner. When the fun ihines and is hot 
 upon tlie furface of the ground, they then make an u- 
 niverfal halt, and wait till the cool of the evening. 
 When they are terrified, they march back in a con- 
 fufed diforderly manner, holding up their nippers, w^ith 
 which they fometimes tear off a piece of the fl<in, and 
 then leave tlie weapon where they inflifted the wound. 
 They even try to intunidate their enemies ; for they- 
 often clatter their nippers together, as if it were to 
 threaten thofe that come to difturb them. But tho' 
 'they thus ftrive to be formidable to man, they are much 
 more fo to each other ; for they are poffefled of one 
 moft unfocial property, which is, that if any of them 
 "by accident is maimed in fuch a manner as to be inca- 
 pable of proceeding, the rell fall upon and devour it 
 on the fpot, and then purfue their journey. 
 
 When, after a fatiguing march, and efcaping a thou- 
 fand dangers, (for they are fometimes three months in 
 getting to the fliore), thty have arrived at their def- 
 tined port, they prepare to caft their fpawn. The 
 peas are as yet within their bodies, and not excluded 
 as is ufual in animals of this kind, under the tail ; for 
 the creature waits for the benefit of fea-water to help 
 the delivery. For this purpofe the crab has no fooner 
 reached the fliore, than it eagerly goes to the edge of 
 the water, and lets the waves wafli over its body two 
 or three times. This feems only a preparation for 
 bringing their fpawn to maturity ; for, without far- 
 ther delay, they withdraw to feek a lodging upon land : 
 in the mean time the fpaw'i grows larger, is excluded 
 out of the body, and fticks to the barbs under the flap, 
 or more properly the tail: This bunch is feen as big 
 as an hen's egg, and e)(a6lly refembling the roes of 
 herrings. In tliis ftate of pregnancy they once more 
 feek the fliore for the lail time ; and fliaking off their 
 fpawn into the water, leave accident to bring it to ma- 
 turity. At this time whole flioals of hungry fifli are 
 at the fliore in expeftalion of this annual fupply ; the 
 fea to a great difl;ance feems black with them ; and 
 about two thirds of the crabs eggs are immediately 
 devoured by thefe rapacious invaders. The eggs that 
 efcnpe are hatched under the fand ; and, foon after, 
 millions at a time of thefe liLtle crabs are feen quit- 
 ting the fhore, and flowly travelling up to the moun- 
 tains. The old ones, hov.-ever, are not fo aftive to 
 return ; they have become fo feeble and lean, that they 
 can hardly creep along, and the flefli at that time 
 changes its colour. The moil of them, therefore, are 
 obliged to continue in the flat parts of the countiy till 
 they recover, making holes in the earth, which they 
 cojer at the mouth with leaves and dirt, fo that no air 
 may enter. There they throw off their old fhells, 
 wr.ich they leave, as it were, quite whole ; the place 
 vv'h. re they opened on the belly being unfeen. At 
 that time they are quite naked, and almofb without 
 motion for fix days together, when they become fo 
 fat as to be delicious food. They have then under 
 their fl:omachs four large white fl:ones, which gradually 
 decreafe in proportion as the lkell hardens, and, when 
 
 ] CAN 
 
 they come to perfeftion, are not to be found. It is Cancccr. 
 a^that time that the animal is feen flowly making its 
 way back; and all this is molt commonly performed in 
 the fpace of fix weeks. 
 
 This animal, when poffeffed of its retreats in the 
 mountains, is impregnable : for, only fubfifting upon 
 vegetables, it feldom ventures out ; and its habitation 
 being in the mofl; inaccefTible places, it remains for a 
 great part of the feafon in perfeft fecurity. It is only 
 when impelled by the defire of bringing forth it", 
 yourtg, and when compelled to defcend into the flat 
 country, that it is taken. At that time the natives 
 wait for its defcent in eager expeftation, and deftroy 
 thoufands ; but, difregarding their bodies, they only 
 feek for that fmall fpawn which lies on each fide of the 
 ftomach within the fliell, of about the thicknefs of a 
 mail's thumb. They are much more valuable upon 
 their return after they have calf their fliell ; for, being 
 covered with a fl<in refembling foft parchment, almoit 
 every part except the fl:omach may be eaten. They 
 are taken in the holes by feeling for them with an in- 
 flrument ; they are fought after by night, when on 
 their journey, by flambeaux. The inttant the animal 
 perceives itfelf attacked, it throws itfelf on its back, 
 and with its claws pinches myft terribly whatever it 
 happens to faften on. But the dexterous crab-catcher 
 takes them by the hinder legs in fuch a manner that 
 the nippers cannot touch him, and thus he throws them 
 into his bag. Sometimes alfo they are caught "when 
 they take refuge in the bottoms of holes in tocks by 
 the fea-fide, by clapping a lUck at the .mouth of the 
 hole, which prevents their getting out:; and theh foon 
 after, the tide coming, enters the hole, and the ani- 
 mal is found. Upon its retiring, drowned in its retreat. 
 
 Thefe crabs are of vaj-ious fizes, the largefl about 
 fix inches wide ; they walk fide-ways like the fea-crab, 
 and are fliaped like them : fome are black, fome yel- 
 low^, fome red, and others variegated w'ith red, white, 
 and yellow mixed. Some of thefe are poiionous ; 
 and feveral people have died of eating of the crabs, 
 particularly of the black kind. The light-coloured are 
 reckoned befl: ; and when full in flefli, are very wtU 
 tailed. In fome of the fugar iflands they are eat with- 
 out danger; and are no fmall help to the negro flaves, 
 who, on many of thefe iflands, would fare -very hard 
 without them. 
 
 Cancer, in medicine, a roundifli, unequal, hard, 
 and livid tumour, generally feated in the glandulous 
 parts of the body, fuppofed to be fo called, becaufe 
 it appears at length with turgid veins ihooting out 
 from it, fo as to -refemble, as it is thought, the figure 
 of a crab-fifli ; or, othei^ fay, becaufe, like that 
 fiih, where it has once got, it is fcarce poflible to drive 
 it away. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine? 
 
 Cancer, in ailronomy, one of the twelve figns, re- 
 prciented on the globe in the form of a crab, and thus 
 marked {SB) in books. It is the fourth conilellatioiv 
 in the itarry zodiac, and that from which one qua- 
 drant of the ecliptic takes its denomination. The rea- 
 fon generally afligned for its name as well as figure, is 
 a fuppofed refemblance which the fun's motion in this 
 fign bears to the crab-riih. As the latter walks back- 
 wards, fo the formti-, in this part of his courfe, be- 
 gins to go backward^ or recede from us ; tiiough the 
 
 difpofi- 
 
CAN 
 
 [ Sy ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canchcrl- 
 Candahar 
 
 difpofition of ftars in this fign is by others fuppofed to 
 have given the firlt hint to the reprefentation of. a 
 crab. 
 
 Tropic of Cancfr^ in aflronomy, a lefTer circle of 
 the fphere parallel to the equator, and paffing through 
 the beginning of the lign Cancer. 
 
 CANCHERIZANTE, or Cancherizato, in the 
 Italian muiic, a term fignifying a piece of mulic that 
 begins at the end, being the retrograde motion from 
 the end of a fonir &c. to the becrinnin=f. 
 
 CANCROMA, or Boat-bill, in ornithology, a 
 genus of birds belonging to the order of Gralla: ; the 
 characters of which are : The bill is broad, with a keel 
 along the middle ; the nollrils are fmall, and lodged 
 in a furrow ; the tongue is fmall ; and the toes are di- 
 vided. There are two fpecies : 
 
 1. The Cochlearia, or Crefled Boat -bill, is of the 
 fize of a fowl ; the length 22 inches. The bill is four 
 inches long, and of a fingular form, not unlike a boat 
 with the keel uppermoft, or, as fome think, like the 
 bowls of two fpoons, placed with the hollow parts to- 
 gether ; the upper mandible has a prominent ridge at 
 the top, and on each fide of this a long channel, at 
 the bottom of which the noftrils are placed ; thefe are 
 oval, and iituated obliquely ; the general colour of the 
 bill is dufity, or in fome fpecimens dark brown ; the 
 fi<;in between the under jaw capable of diftenfion : from 
 the hind head fprings a long black creft, the feathers 
 which compofe it narrow, and end in a point ; the 
 middle ones are fix inches in length, the others lelTen 
 by degrees, the outer ones being not more than one 
 
 that of Cabul ; on the fouth, by Buchor and Sableftan ; Candahar 
 and on the well, by Sigeftan. There have been bloody Q,J,j;a 
 wars between the Indians and Perfians on account of ^ ^ 
 this province ; bxit in 1650 it fell to the Perfians. The 
 inhabitants are known by the name of A^^huans, or 
 Ajjghans, who have often endeavoured to throw off the 
 yoke. But, in 1737, tliey were feverely punilhed for 
 iuch an attempt. See Persia. 
 
 Candahar, the capital of the above province, is 
 feated on a mountain ; and being a place of great 
 trade, has a confiderable fortrefs. The caravans that 
 travel from Perfia and the parts about the Cafpian fea 
 to the Eaft lnc'.ies, choofe to pafs through Candahar, 
 becaufe there is no danger of being robbed on this 
 road, and provifions are very reafonable. The religion 
 is Mahonsetanifm, but there are many Banians and 
 Guebres. E. Long. 67. 5. N. Lat. 33. o. 
 
 CANDAULES, the laft king'of Lydia, of the 
 family of the Heraclides. See Lydia. 
 
 CANDELARES (from candela a candle), the 
 name of an order in ihe former editions of Linnsus's 
 Fragments of a natund method, confifting of thefe 
 three genera, rhlzophora, nvfa, and ininmfop. TJiey 
 are removed, in the latter editions, into the order 
 Holorace;e; which fee. 
 
 CANDLl, the modern name of the ifland of Crete 
 (fee Crete). The word is a variation of Kmnda, 
 which was originally the Arabian name of the raetro- 
 poHs only, but in time came to be apphed to the 
 whole ifland. 
 
 Candia came into the poffefiion of the Venetians 
 
 inch: between the bill and eye the flcin is bare and by purchafe in the year 1194, as related under tlie 
 
 duficy ; the plumage on the forehead white ; the reft article Crete ; and foon began to flourifli under the 
 
 of the bird of a pale bluifh afli-colour ; acrofs the laws of that wife repubhc. The inhabitants, living 
 
 lower part of the neck behind is a tranfverfe band of under the proteftion of a moderate government, and 
 
 brownifh black, which pafTes forwards on each fide to- being encouraged by their mafters, engaged in com- 
 
 wards the breaft, ending in a point, but does not en- merce and agriculture. The Venetian commandants 
 
 compafs it : the fore part of the neck, and under parts, readily afforded to thofe travellers who vifited the 
 
 are bluifh white, except the belly and thighs, which ifland, that afilftance which is neceffary to enable them 
 
 are rufous : the feathers which hang over the breaft to extend and improve ufeful knowledge. Bclon, the 
 
 are loofe, like thofe of the heron : the tail is three in- naturalift, is lavifh in praife of their good offices, and 
 
 ches and a half long, and the wings, vi'hen clofed, reach defcribes, in an interelling manner, the flourifhing ftate 
 
 nearly to the end of it : the leg is three inches in of that part of the ifland v,'hich he vifited. 
 
 length ; and the thigh, from its infertion to the knee. The feat of government was eftabhflied at Candia. 
 
 four ; the middle toe two inches and a half ; the bare The magiilrates and officers, who compofed the coun- 
 
 part above the knee one inch and a half: the colour cil, refided there. The provifor-general was prefident. 
 
 of the bare parts yellowifh brown ; claws black :. the 
 toes are connefted at the bafe by a membrane, wliich, 
 as in the umbre, is deepeft in the outer one. — It in- 
 habits Cayenne, Guiana, and Brafil, and chiefly fre- 
 quents fuch parts as are near the water : in fuch places 
 it perches on the trees which hang over the flreams, 
 and, like the kings-fifher, drops down on the fifli 
 which fwim beneath 
 
 crabs likewife, whence the.LiimcEan name 
 PlateCXVJ: 2. The Cancrophaga, or Brown Boat-bill, a diflinft 
 fpecies, according to Linn^us, but which Mr Lathan 
 confiders as only a variety, is of the fiae of the former; 
 the head and creft the fame ; the upper parts, inftead 
 of afh-colour, are of a pale rufous brown; the tail ru- 
 
 Ple pofTefTed the chief authority ; and his povver ex- 
 tended over the whole principality. It continued in 
 the p6fIeffion of the Venetians for five centuries and 
 an half. Cornaro held the chief command at the time 
 when it was threatened with a ftorm, on the fide of 
 Conltantinople. The Turks, for the fpace of a year, 
 n employed in preparing a vaft armament. They 
 
 had t:!ee 
 
 It has been thought to live on deceived the Venetian, by affuring him that it was m 
 
 tended againft Malta, In the year 1645, in the 
 midit of a folemn. peace, they appeared unexpectedly 
 before Crete- with a' fleet of 400 fail, having on board 
 60,000 land forces, , under the command of four pa- 
 chas. The emperor Ibrahim, under whom this ex- 
 pedition was undertaken, had no fair pretext to offer 
 
 fous afh ; and the under parts wholly of a cream co- in juftification of his entcrprize. He made life of all 
 lour ; the bill and legs of a yellow brown. Its. place that perfidy which charaderizes the people of the eaft 
 and manners the fame with thofe of the preceding. to impofe on the Venetian fenate. He loaded their 
 CANDAHAR, a province of Perfia, bounded on ambaffador with prefents, 'dire6ted his fleet to bear for " 
 the north by the province of Balk ; on the e;*ft, by Cape Matapan, as if tlxcy had been.going beyond the 
 
 Archil 
 
CAN [8 
 
 Arclilpelago ; and caufed the governors of Tina and 
 Cerigna to be folemnly afTured, that the repubUc had 
 nothing to fear for her poffeffions. At the very inflant 
 when he was making thofe affurances, his naval ar- 
 mament entered the gulf of Canea ; and, pafling be- 
 tween that city and St Theodore, anchored at the 
 mouth of Platan ia. 
 
 The Venetiana, not expefting this fudden attack, 
 had made no preparations to repel it. The Turks 
 landed without oppofition. The ifle of St Theodore 
 is but a league and an half from Canea. It is only 
 'three quarters of a league in compafs. The Venetians 
 had erected two forts there ; one of which. Handing 
 on the fummft of the nigheft eminence, on the coaft 
 of that little ifle, was called Turluru ; the other, on a 
 lower fituation, was named St Theodore. It was an 
 important objeft to the MufTulmans to make them- 
 felves mafters of that rock, which might annoy their 
 fliips. They immediately attacked it with ardour. 
 The firft of thofe fortrefles, being deftitute of foldiers 
 and cannon, was taken without ftriking a blow. The 
 garrifon -of the other confifted of no more than 60 
 men. They made a gallant defence, and ftood out till 
 the laft extremity ; and when the Turks at laft pre- 
 vailed, their number v. as diminiflied to ten, whom the 
 -captain-pacha cruelly caufed to be beheaded. 
 
 Being now mailers of that important poft, as well 
 as of Lazaret, an elevated rock, Handing about half 
 a league from Canea, the Turks inverted the city by 
 fea and land. General Cornaro was ftruck, as with a 
 •thunder-clap, when he learned the defcent of the ene- 
 my. In the whole ifland there were no more than 
 a body of 3500 infantry, and a fmall number of ca- 
 valry. The befieged city was defended only by 1000 
 regular troops, and a few citizens, who were able to 
 ■bear arms. He made hafte to give the republic notice 
 of his diftrefs; and ported himfelf off the road, that he 
 might the more readily fuccour the befieged city. He 
 threw a body of 250 men into the town, before the 
 lines of the enemy were completed. He afterwards 
 made feveral attempts to ftrengthen the befieged with 
 other reinforcements ; but in vain. The Turks had 
 advanced in bodies clofe to the town, had earned a 
 half-moon battery, which covered the gate of Retimo ; 
 and were battering the walls night and day v/ith their 
 numerous artillery. The befieged defended themfelves 
 with refolute valour, and the fmallcft advantage which 
 the befiegers gained coft them dear. General Cor- 
 naro made an attempt to arm the Greeks, particulatly 
 the Spachiots, who boatted loudly of their valour. He 
 formed a battalion of thefe. But the asra of their va- 
 lour was long pafl. When they beheld the enemy, 
 and heard the thunder of 'the cannon, they took to 
 -flight ; not one of them would ftand hre. 
 
 While the fenate of Venice were delfbei-ating on the 
 means to be ufed for relieving Canea, and endeavour- 
 ing to equip a fleet, the Mahometan generals were 
 facrificing the lives of their foldiere to bring their en- 
 -terprife to a glorious termination. In difi"erent en- 
 gagements they had already loft 20,000 warriors ; but, 
 .defcending into the ditches, they had undermined the 
 •walls, and blown up the moft impregnable forts with 
 *xplofions of powder. They fprung one of thofe mines 
 ieneath the baftion of St Demetri. It overturned a 
 ,confiderable part of the wall, which crurtied all the 
 
 8 ] CAN 
 
 defenders of the baftion. That inftant the befiegers Card 
 fprung up with their fabfes in their hands, and taking """^ 
 advantage of the general confternation of the befieged 
 on that quarter, made themfelves mafters of the poft. 
 The befieged, recovering from their terror, attacked 
 them with unequalled intrepidity. About 400 men af- 
 failed 2000 Turks already firmly pofted on the wall, 
 and prerted upon them with fuch obftinate and daunt- 
 lefs valour, that they killed a great number, and drove 
 the reft down into the ditch. In this extremity, 
 every perfon in the city was in arms. The Greek 
 I'nonks took up mufl<ets; and the women, forgetting 
 the delicacy of their fex, appeared on the walls among 
 the defenders, either fupplying the men with ammu- 
 nition and arms, or fighting themfelves; and feveral 
 of thofe daring heroines loft their lives. 
 
 For 50 days the city held out againft all the forces 
 of the Turks. If, even at the end of that time, the 
 V enetians had fent a naval armament to its relief, the 
 kingdom of Candia might have been faved. Doubtlefs, 
 they were not ignorant of this well known faft. The " 
 north wind blows ftraight into the harbour of Canea. 
 When it blows a little briflcly, the fea rages. It is 
 then impoflible for any fquadron of (hips, however 
 numerous, to form in line of battle in the harbour, and 
 to meet an enemy. If the V enetians had fet out from 
 Cerigo with a fair wind, they might have reached 
 Canea in five hours, and might have entered the har- 
 bour with full fails, without being expofed to one 
 cannon-fliot ; while none of the Turkirti fliips would 
 have dared to appear before them ; or if they had ven- 
 tured, muft have been driven back on the fliore, and 
 daflied in pieces among the rocks. But, inftead of thus 
 taking advantage of the natural circumftances of the 
 place, they fent a few galleys, which, not daring to 
 double Cape Spada, coafted along the fouthern ftiore 
 of the ifland, and failed of accomplifliing the defign 
 of their expedition. 
 
 At laft, the Cancans, defpairing of relief from Ve- 
 nice, feeing three breaches made in their walls, thro' 
 which the infidels might eafily advance upon them, 
 exhaufted with fatigue, and covered with Avounds, and 
 reduced to the number of 500 men, who v/cre obliged 
 to fcatter themfelves! round the walls, which were half 
 a league in extent, and undermined in all quarters, 
 demanded a parley, and offered to capitulate. They 
 obtained very honourable conditions ; and after a glo- 
 rious defence of two months, which coft the Turks 
 20,000 men, marched out of the city with the ho- 
 nours of war. Thofe citizens, who did not chufe to 
 continue in the city, were permitted to remove ; and 
 the Ottomans, contrary to their ufual practice, faith- 
 fully obferved their ftipulations. 
 
 The Venetians, after the lofs of Canea, retired to 
 Retimo. The captain-pacha laid fioge to the citadel 
 of the Sude, fituated in the entrance of the bay, on an 
 high rock, of about a quarter of a league in circum- 
 ference. He raifed earthen-batteries, and made an in- 
 eff'eftual attempt to level its ramparts. At laft, de- 
 fpairing of taking it by aflault, he left fome forces to 
 block it up from all communication, and advanced to- 
 wards Retimo. That city, being unwalled, was de- 
 fended by a citadel, ftanding on an eminence which 
 overlooks the harbour. General Cornaro had retired 
 thither. At the approach of the eneniy, he advanced 
 5 from 
 
CAN 
 
 Csndi'a. 
 
 L 89 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 from tKe city, and waited for them In the open field, 
 la the ailion, inattentive to his own fafety, he en- 
 couraged the foldiers, by fighting in the ranks. A 
 glorious death was the reward of his valour ; but his 
 fall determined the fate of Retimo. 
 
 The Turks having landed additional forces on the 
 ifland, they introduced the plague, which was almoft 
 a conllant attendant on their armies. This dreadful 
 pelt rapidly advanced, and, like a devouring fire, waft- 
 ing all before it, deftroyed molt part of the inhabi- 
 tants. The reft, fleeing in terror before its ravages, 
 efcaped into the Venetian territories, and the ifland 
 was left almoft defolate. 
 
 The fiege of the capital commenced in 1646, and 
 was protrafted much longer than that of Troy. Till 
 the year 1648, the Turks fcarce gained any advan- 
 tages before that city. They were often routed by the 
 Venetians, and fometimes compelled to retire to Re- 
 timo. At that period Ibrahim was folemnly depofed, 
 and his eldeft fon, at the age of nine years, was raifed 
 to the throne, under the name of Mahomet IV. Not 
 fatisfied with confining the fultan to the horrors and 
 obfcurity of a dungeon, the partizans of his fon 
 ftrangled him on the 19th of Auguft, in the fame 
 year. That young prince, who mounted the throne 
 by the death of his father, was afterwards expelled 
 from it, and condemned to pafs the remainder of his 
 life in confinement. 
 
 In the year 1649, Uffein Pacha, who blockaded 
 Candia, receiving no fupplies from the Porte, was 
 compelled to raife the fiege, and retreat to Canea. 
 The Venetians were then on the fea with a ftrong 
 fquadron. They attacked the Turkifh fleet in the 
 bay of Smyrna, burnt 12 of their fliips and 2 gallies, 
 and killed 6000 of their men. Some time after, the 
 Mahometans having found means to land an army on 
 Candia, renewed the fiege of the city with greater 
 vigour, and made themfelves matters of an advanced 
 tort that was very troublefome to the befieged ; which 
 obliged them to blow it up. 
 
 From the year 1650 till 1658, the Venetians, con- 
 tinuing mallei s of the fea, intercepted the Ottomans 
 every year in the ftraits of the Dardanelles, and fought 
 them in four naval engagements ; in which they de- 
 feated their numerous fleets, funk a number of their 
 caravels, took others, and extended the terror of their 
 arms even to the walls of Conftantinople. That capi- 
 tal became a fcene of tumult anddiforder. The Grand 
 Signior, alarmed, and trembling for his fafety, left 
 the city with precipitation* 
 
 Such glorious fuccefs revived the hopes of the Ve- 
 netians, and deprefled the courage of the Turks. They 
 converted the fiege of Candia into a blockade, and 
 fuflered confiderable lolTes. The Sultan, in order to 
 exclude the Venetian fleet from the Dardanelles, and 
 to open to .his awn navy a free and fafe paflage, caufed 
 .two fortreflfes to be built at the entrance of the ftraits. 
 He gave orders to the Pacha of Canea to appear again 
 ibefore the walls of Candia, and to make every poflible 
 effort to gain the city. In the mean time, the repub- 
 lic of Venice, to improve the advantages which they 
 had gained, made feveral attempts on Canea. In 1660, 
 that city was about to furrender to their arms, when 
 the Pacha of Rhodes, haftening to its relief, reinforced 
 the defenders with a body of 2000 men. He happily 
 
 Vol. IV. Pan L 
 
 doubled the extremity of Cape Melee,, though within 
 fight of the Venetian fleet, which was becalmed off 
 Cape Spada, and could not advance one fathom to 
 oppofe an enemy confiderably weaker than them- 
 felves. ^ 
 
 Kiopruli, fon and fuceeffor to the vifir of that name, 
 who had long been the fupport of the Ottoman em- 
 pire, knowing that the murmurs of the people againft 
 the long continuance of the fiege of Candia were 
 rifing to an height, and fearing a general revolt, which 
 would be fatal to himfelf and his mafter, fet out from . 
 Byzantium about the end of the year 1666 at the 
 head of a formidable army. Having efcaped the Ve- 
 netian fleet, which was lying off Canea with a view ta 
 Intercept him, he landed at Palio Cajlro, and formed 
 his lines around Candia. Under his command were 
 four Pachas, and the flower of the Ottoman forces. 
 Thofe troops, being encouraged by the prefence and 
 the promifes of their chiefs, and fupported by a great 
 quantity of artillery, performed prodigies of valour. 
 All the exterior forts were deftroyed. Nothing now 
 remained to the befieged but the bare line of the walls, 
 unprotefted by fortreffes ; and thefe being battered 
 by an Inceffant difcliarge of artillery, foon gave way 
 on all quarters. Still, however, what pofterity may 
 perhaps regard as Incredible, the Cancans held out 
 three years againft all the forces of the Ottoman em- 
 pire. At lafl they were going to capitulate, when 
 the hope of aiTxftance from France reanimated their 
 valour, and rendered them Invincible. The expedted 
 fuccours arrived on the 26th of June 1669. They 
 were condu£led by the duke of Noailles. Under his 
 command were a great number of French noblemen, 
 who came to make trial of their flcIU In arms againft 
 the Turks. 
 
 Next day after their arrival, the ardour of the French 
 prompted them to make a general fally. The duke 
 of Beaufort, admiral of France, affumed the command 
 of the forlorn hope. He was the firft to advance 
 againft the Muffulmans, and was followed by a nume- 
 rous body of Infantry and cavalry. They advanced 
 furloufly upon the enemy, attacked them within their 
 trenches, forced the trenches, and would have com- 
 pelled them to abandon their lines and artillery, had 
 not an unforefeen accident damped their courage. In 
 the midft of the engagement a magazine of powder 
 was fet on fire; the foiemoft of the combatants loft 
 their lives ; the French ranks were broken ; feveral of 
 their leaders, among wliom was the duke of Beaufoit, 
 difappeared for ever ; the foldiers fled In diforder; and 
 the duke of Noailles, with difficulty, effefted a retreat 
 within the walls of Canduu The French accufed the 
 Italians of having betrayed them ; and on that pretext 
 prepared to fet off fooner than the time agreed upon. 
 No Intreaties of the commandant could prevail with 
 them to delay their departure ; fo they reimbarked. 
 Their departure determined the fate of the city. Thci e 
 were now no more than five hundred men to defend 
 It. MorofinI capitulated with Kiopruli. to whom he 
 furrendered the kingdom of Crete, excepting only the 
 Sude, Grabufa, and Spina-Longua. The grand vifir 
 made his entrance Into Candia on the 4th of Oftober 
 1670; and flayed eight months In that city, infpefling 
 the reparation of its walls and fortreffes. 
 
 The three fortreffes left in the hands of the Vene- 
 M tians 
 
 Candia. 
 
CAN [ 
 
 tians hy the treaty of capitulation remained long after 
 in their pofTeflion. At lail they were all taken, one 
 after another. In fiiort, after a war of thirty years 
 continuance, in the coiirfe of which more than two 
 hundred thoufand men fell in the ifland, and it was 
 deluged with ftreams of Chriilian and Mahometan 
 blood, Candia was entirely fubdued by the Turks, in 
 whofe hands it ilill continues. 
 
 Of the climate of Candia travellers fpeak with rap- 
 ture. The heat is never exceffive ; and in the plains 
 violent cold is never felt. In the warmcft days of 
 fummcr the atmofphere is cooled by breezes from the 
 jfea. Winter properly begins here with December and 
 «nds with January ; and during that fhort period fnow 
 never falls on the the lower grounds, and the furface 
 «f the water is rarely frozen over. Moft frequently 
 the weather is as fine then as it is in Britain at the be- 
 ginning of June. Thefe two months have received 
 the name of ivinter, becaufe in them there is a copious 
 fall of rain, the flcy is obfcured with clouds, and the 
 north winds blow violently ; but the rains are favour- 
 able to agriculture, the winds chafe the clouds towards 
 the fummits of the mountains, where a repofitory is 
 formed for thofe waters which are to fertiUze the 
 fields ; and the inhabitants of the plain fuffer no in- 
 convenience from thefe tranfient blalls. In the month 
 of February, the ground is overfpread with flowers 
 and rifing' crops. The reft of the year is almoft one 
 continued fine day. The inhabitants of Crete never 
 experience any of thofe mortifying returns of piercing 
 cold, v^hich are fo frequently felt in Britain and even 
 more fouthern countries ; and which, fucceeding fud- 
 denly after the cherifhing heats of fpring, nip the blof- 
 foming flowers, wither the open buds, deftroy half the 
 fruits of the year, and are fatal to delicate conftitutions. 
 The flcy is always unclouded and ferene ; the winds are 
 mild and refrcftiing breezes. The radiant fun proceeds 
 in fmihng majefty along the azure vault, and ripens 
 the fruits on the lofty mountains, the rifmg hills, and 
 the plains. The nights are no lefs beautiful ; their 
 coolnefs is delicious. The atmofphere not being 
 overloaded with vapours, the flcy unfolds to the ob- 
 ftvvcr's view a countlefs profufion of ftars ; thofe nu- 
 merous ftars fparkle with the moft vivid rays, and 
 ftrew the azure vault in which they appear fixed, 
 with gold, with diamonds, and with rubies. Nothing 
 can be more magnificent than this fight, and the Cre- 
 tans enjoy it for fix months in the year. 
 
 To the charms of the climate other advantages are 
 joined which augment their value : There are fcarce 
 any moraffes in the ifland ; the waters never ftand here 
 in a ftate of ftagnation ; they flow in numberlefs ftreams 
 from the tops of the mountains, and form here and 
 there large fountains or fmall rivers that empty them- 
 felves into the fea ; the elevated fituation of their 
 fprings caufes them to daih down with fuch rapidity, 
 - that they never lofe themfelves in pools or lakes ; con- 
 fcquently Infefts cannot depofit their eggs upon them, 
 as they would be immediately hurried down into the 
 fea ; and Crete is not infefted like Egypt with thofe 
 clouds of infefts which fwarm in the houfes, and whofe 
 fting is infutTerably painful j nor is the atmofphere here 
 loaded with thofe noxious vapours which rife from 
 marfliy grounds. 
 
 The mountains and hills are overfpread with various 
 
 90 ] CAN 
 
 kinds of thyme, favoury, wild thyme, and with a mrj. 
 titude of odoriferous and balfamic plants ; the rivukts - 
 which flow down the vallies are overhung with myr- 
 'tles and laurel rofes ; clumps of orange, citron, and 
 almond trees, are plentifully fcattered over the fields ; 
 the gardens are adorned with tufts of Arabian jaf- 
 mine. In fpring, they are beftrewed with beds of 
 violets ; fome extenfive plains are arrayed in fafFron-; 
 the cavities of the rocks are fringed with fweet fmell- 
 ing dittany. In a word, from the hills, the vales, 
 and the plains, on all hands, there arife clouds of exqui- 
 fite perfumes, which embalm the air, and render it a 
 luxury to breathe it. 
 
 As to the inhabitants, the Mahometan men are ge- 
 nerally from five feet and an half to fix feet tall. They 
 bear a ftrong refemblance to ancient ftatues ; and it 
 muft have been after fuch models that the ancient ar- 
 tlfts wrought. The women alfo are generally beauti- 
 ful. Their drefs does not reftrainthe growth of any 
 part of their bodies, and their fliape therefore affumes 
 thofe admirable proportions with which the hand of 
 the Creator has graced his faireft workmanfliip on 
 earth. They are not all handfome or charming; but 
 fome of them are beautiful, particularly the Turkifh 
 ladies. In general, the Cretan women have a rifing 
 throat, a neck gracefully rounded, black eyesfparkling 
 with animation, a fmall mouth, a fine nofe, and cheeks 
 delicately coloure \ with the frefli vermilion of health. 
 But the oval of Aeit form is different from that of 
 Em-opeans, and the charafler of their beauty is pecu- 
 liar to their own nation. 
 
 The quadrupeds belonging to the ifland are not of 
 a ferocious temper. - There are no lions, tigers, bears, 
 wolves, foxes, nor indeed any dangerous animal here. 
 Wild goats are the only inhabitants of the forefts that 
 overfpread the lofty mountains ; and thefe have nothing 
 to fear but the ball of the hunter ; hares inhabit the 
 hills and the plain ; flieep graze in fecurity on the 
 thyme and the heath ; they are folded every night, and 
 the fhepherd fleeps foundly without being difturbed 
 with the fear that wild animals may invade and ravage 
 his folds. 
 
 The Cretans are very happy in not being expofed 
 to the troublefome bite of noxious infefts, the poifon 
 of ferpents, and the rapacity of the wild beafts of the 
 defart. The ancients believed that the ifland enjoyed 
 thefe fingular advantages, on account of its having been 
 the birth-place of Jupiter. " The Cretans (fay jEhan) 
 celebrate in their fongs the beneficence of Jupiter, and 
 the favour which he conferred on their ifland, which 
 was the place of his birth and education, by freeing it 
 from every noxious animal, and even rendering it unfit 
 for nourifhing thofe noxious animals that are introdu- 
 ced into it from foreign countries." 
 
 Dittany holds tlie firft rank among the medicinal 
 plants which are produced in Crete. The praifes be- 
 llowed on the virtues of this plant by the ancients are. 
 altogether extravagant ; yet we perhaps treat the me- 
 dicinal virtues of this plant with too much contempt. 
 Its leaf is very balfamic, and its flower diffufes arotind 
 it a delicious odour. At prefent the inhabitants of 
 the ifland apply it with fuccefs on various occafions. 
 The leaf, when di^ied and taken in an infufion with a 
 little fugar, makes a very pleafant drink, of a finer fla- 
 vour than tea. It is there an immediate cure for a 
 
 weak 
 
 Ciand 
 — — 
 
.CAN 
 
 [ 
 
 CAN 
 
 aniMa wcuk Homacli, and enables it to recover its Lone after a 
 •\ ■ ' baid digeftion. 
 
 Direafes are very rare in ii country wliofe atmof- 
 phere is exceedingly pure ; and in Candia, epidemical 
 difeafes are unknown. Fevers prevail here in fummer, 
 biiit are not dangerous ; and the plague would be wholly 
 imknown, had. not the Turks dellroyed the lazarets 
 that were ellablidied by the Venetians, for ftrangers to 
 do quarantine in. Since the period when thefe were 
 demolifhed, it is occafionally introduced by (hips from 
 Smyrna and Conftantinople. As no precautions are 
 taken againft it, it gains ground, and fpreadii over the 
 ilHand from one province to another ; and as the colds 
 and heats are never intemperate, it fometimes conti- 
 nuies its ravages for fix months at a time. 
 
 This fine country is infefted with a difeafe fomewhat 
 le fs dangerous than the plague, but whofe fymptoms 
 are fomewhat more hideous; that difeafe is the leprofy. 
 Iiii ancient times, Syria was the focus in which it ra- 
 g'cd with moft fury : and from Syria it was carried in- 
 to feveral of the illands of the Archipelago. It is in- 
 feftious, and is inllantaneoufly communicated by con- 
 taft. The vitlims who are attacked by it, are driven 
 from fociety, and confined to Httle ruinous houfes on 
 the highway. They are ftriftly forbidden to leave 
 tlhefe miferable dwellings, or hold intercourfe with any 
 P'erfon. Thofe poor wretches have generally befide 
 their huts a fmall garden producing pulfe, and feeding 
 P'oulti-y ; and with that fupport, and what they obtain 
 from pafTengers, they find means to drag out a painful 
 li fe in circumftances of fliocking bodily diftrefs. Their 
 bloated flcin is covered with a fcaly cruft, fpeckled with 
 red and white fpots ; which afflift them with intole- 
 rable itchings. A hoarfe and tremulous voice iffues 
 ■ from the bottom of their breatts. Their words are 
 fcarce articulated; becaufe their diftcraper inwardly 
 preys upon the organs of fpeech. Thefe frightful 
 ipeftres gradually lofe the ufc of their limbs. They 
 tiontinue to breathe till fuch time as the whole mafs of 
 their blood is corrupted, and their bodies entirely in a 
 ftate of putrefaftion. The rich are not attacked by 
 this diftemper : it confines itfelf to the poor, chiefly 
 to the Greeks. But thofe Greeks obferve ftriftly their 
 four lents ; and eat nothing during that time but fait 
 fifh, botorgo, falted and fmoked pickled olives, and 
 cheefe. They drink plentifully of the hot and muddy 
 wines of the ifland. The natural tendency of fuch a 
 regimen mull be, to fire the blood, to thicken the 
 fl uid part of it, and thus at length to bring on a leprofy. 
 
 Candia is at prefent governed by three Pachas, who 
 refide refpedlively at Candia, Canea, and Retimo. The 
 £.rft, who is always a Pacha of three tails, may be con- 
 ftdered as viceroy of the ifland. He enjoys more ex- 
 tenfive powers than the others. To him the infpec* 
 tion of the forts and arfenals is entrufted. He nomi- 
 nates to fuch military employments as fall vacant, as 
 well as to tlie governments, of the Sude, Grabufa, 
 S pina Longua, and Gira-petra. The governors of thefe 
 forts are denominated Beys. Each of them has a con- 
 ftable and three general officers under him : pne of 
 whom is commander of the artillery ; another of the 
 cavalry ; and the third of the janiflaries. 
 
 The council of the pacha confifts of a kyaia, who is 
 the channel through which all orders are iffued, and 
 
 all favours bcflowcd ; an aga of the janiflaries, eeloael- Gandia. 
 general of the troops, who has the chief care of the re- ~v-~" 
 gulation of the police ; two topigi bachi ; a defterdar, 
 who is treafurer-general for the imperial revenues ; a 
 keeper of the imperial treafury ; and the chief oSicers 
 of the army. This governnient is entirely military, 
 and the power of the pacha ferafquier is abfolute. The 
 juftice of his fentences is never called into quellion ; 
 they are inftantly carried into execution. 
 
 The people of the law are th? mufti, who is the re* 
 ligious head, and the cadi. The firll interprets thofe 
 laws which regard the divifion of the patrimony among 
 the children of a family, fucceflions, and marriages ; — 
 in a word, all that ai'e contained in the Koran ; and 
 he alfo decides on every thing that relates to the cere- 
 monies of the Mufiulman religion. The cadi cannot 
 pronounce fentence on affairs connedled with thefe 
 laws, without firfl taking the opinion of the mufti ii| 
 writing, which is named Fa'itfa. It is his byfinefs to 
 receive the declarations, complaints, and donations of 
 private perfons ; and to decide on fuch differences as 
 arife among them. The pacha is obliged to confult 
 thofe judges when he puts a Turk legally to death ; 
 but the pacha, who is dignified with three tails, fets 
 himfelf above all laws, condemns to death, and fees his 
 fentence executed, of his own proper authority. All 
 the mofques have their Itam, a kind of curate, whofe 
 duty is to perform the fervice. There are fchoolma- 
 {lers in the different quarters of the city. Thefe per- 
 fons are much refpe6led in Turky, and are honoured 
 with the title of Effendi. 
 
 The garrifon of Candia confifts of forty-fix compa- 
 nies, compofing a military force of about ten thoufand 
 men. All thefe forces do not refide conftantly in the 
 city, but they may be muftered in a very fliort time. 
 They are all regularly paid eveiy three months, except- 
 ing the janiflaries, none of whom but the officers receive 
 pay. The diffei-ent gradations of this military body do 
 not depend on the pacha. The council of each company, 
 confifting- of veterans, and of officers in aft ual fervice, 
 has the power of naming to them. A perfon can oc- 
 cupy the fame poft for no longer than two years ; but 
 the poft of Sorlagi, or captain, which is purchafed at 
 Conftantinople, is held for life. The ou/h, or cook, 
 is alfo continued in his employment as long as the 
 company to which he belongs is fatisfied with him. 
 Each company has its almoner, denominated imam. 
 
 The garrifons of Canea and Retimo, formed on a 
 fimilar plan, are much lefs numerous. The firft con- 
 fifts of about three thoufand men, the other of five 
 hundred ; but as all the male childi-en of the Turks 
 are enrolled among the janiflaries as foon as born, the 
 number of thefe troops miight be greatly augmented in 
 time of war ; but, to fay the truth, they are far from 
 formidable. Moft of them have never feen fire, nor 
 are they ever exercifed in militaiy evolutions. 
 
 The pachas of Canea and Retimo are no lefs abfo- 
 lute, within the bounds of their refpedive provinces, 
 than the pacha of Candia. They enjoy the fame pri- 
 vileges with him, and their council confifts of the fame 
 officers. Thefe governors chief objedl is to get rich 
 as fpeedily as poffible ; and in order to accompfifli that 
 end, they praftife all the arts and cruelties of oppref- 
 fion, to fqueeze money from the Greeks. In truth, 
 M 2 thofr 
 
Candia. 
 
 CAN [9 
 
 thofe poor wretches run to meet the chains with which 
 they are loaded. Envy, which always preys upon them, 
 continually prompts them to take up arms. If fome 
 one among them happen to enjoy a decent fortune, 
 the reft affiduoufly feek fome pretence for accufing him 
 before the pacha, who takes advantage of thefe diffen- 
 tions, to feize the property of both the parties. It is 
 by no means aftoniihing, that under fo barbarous a go- 
 vernment, the number of the Greeks is daily diminifhed 
 
 2 I 
 
 CAN 
 
 There are fc<ircely 
 in the ifland, fixty-five thoufand of 
 whom pay the carach. ^ 
 
 The Turks^have not pofTeffed tlic 
 ifland for more than one Imndred and 
 twenty years ; yet, as they are not 
 expofed to the fame opprelfion, they 
 have multiplied in it, and raifed them- 
 felves upon the ruin of the ancient 
 inhabitants. Their number amounts 
 to 
 
 The Jews, of whom there are not 
 many in the ifland, amount only to 
 
 150,000 Greeks 
 
 200,000 Turks. 
 
 200. 
 
 Total is ' 350,200 fouls. 
 
 This fertile country is in want of nothing but in- 
 duftrious hufbandmen, fefrure of enjoying the fruit of 
 their labours. It might maintain four times its prefent 
 number of inhabitants. 
 
 Antiquity has celebrated the ifland of Crete as con- 
 taining an hundred populous cities ; and the indullry 
 of geographers has preferved their names and fituations. 
 Many of-4kefe cities contained no fewer than thirty 
 thoufand inhJ\bitants ; — and by reckoning them, on 
 an average, at lix thoufand each, we fliall in all proba- 
 bility be rather within than beyond the truth. This 
 calculation gives for an hundred cities 600,000 
 
 By allowing the fame number as inhabi- 
 tants of the towns, villages, and all the reft 
 of the ifland, 600,000 
 
 the whole number of the inhabitants 
 of ancient Crete will amount to 1,200,000 
 This number cannot be exaggerated. When Can- 
 dia was in the hands of the Venetians, it was reckoned 
 to contain nine hundred fourfcore and fixteen vil- 
 lages. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that when the ifland of Crete 
 enjoyed the blefling of liberty, it maintained to the 
 number of eight hundred and forty-nine thoufand eight 
 hundred more inhabitants than it does at prefent. But 
 fince thofe happier times, flie has been deprived of her 
 laws by the tyranny of the Romans ; has groaned un- 
 der the deftruftive fway of the monarchs of the lower 
 empire ; has been expofed for a period of an hundred 
 and twenty years to the ravages of the Arabians ; has 
 next pafled under the dominion of the Venetians ; and 
 has at Lift been fubjefted to the defpotifm of the 
 Turks, who have produced a dreadful depopulation in 
 all the countries which have been fubdued by their arms. 
 
 The Turks allow the Greeks the free exercife of 
 their religion, but forbid them to repair their churches 
 or monafteries ; and accordingly they cannot obtain 
 permiflion to repair their places of worfliip, or religious 
 houfes, but by the powerful influence of gold. From 
 this article the pachas derive very confiderable fums. 
 
 They have twelve bifliops as formerly, the firft of whom Candia. 
 
 aflumes the title of Archbifhop of Gortynia. He re- v 
 
 fides at Candia ; in which city the metropolitan churc h 
 of the ifland ttands. He is appointed by the patri- 
 arch of Conftantinople ; and has the right of nomina- 
 ting to all the other bifliopricsof the ifland ; the names 
 of which are, Gortynia, Cnoflbu, Mirabella, Hyera, 
 Gira-petra, Arcadia, Cherronefe, Lambis, Milopotamo, 
 Retimo, Canea, Cifamo. Thefe biihoprics are nearly 
 the fame as under the reign of the Greek emperors. 
 The patriarch wears a triple tiara, writes his iignature 
 in red ink, and anfwers for all the debts of the clergy. 
 To enable him to fulHl his engagements, he lays ini- 
 pofitions on the reft of the bifliops, and particularly on 
 the m.onafteries, from which he draws very handfomic 
 contributions. He is confidered as the head of the 
 Greeks, whom he protects, as far as his flendcr credit 
 goes. The orders of government are directed to him 
 on important occaflons ; and he is the only one of all 
 the Greeks in the ifland who enjoys the privilege of 
 entering the city on horfeback. 
 
 Candia, is the capital of the above ifland, fituated 
 on its northern coaft, in E. Long, 25. o. N. Lat. 35. 
 30. It ftands on the fame fituation which was for- 
 merly occupied by Heraclea, and is the feat of govern- 
 ment under the Turks. Its walls, which are more 
 than a league in compufs, are in good repair, and de- 
 fended by deep ditches, but not protefted by any ex- 
 terior fort. Towards the fea, it has no attacks to 
 fear ; becaufe the fliallownefs of the harbour renders it 
 inacccflible to flilps of war. 
 
 The Porte generally commits- -the government of 
 this ifland to a Pacha of three tails. The principal of- 
 ficers, and feveral bodies of the Ottoma-n foldiery, are 
 ftationed here. This city, when under the Venetians, 
 was opulent, commercial, -and populous ; but it has 
 now loft much of its former ftrength and grandeur. 
 The harbour, naturally a fine bafon, in which fliips are 
 fecurely flickered from every ftorm, is every day beco- 
 ming narrower and fliallower. At prefent it admits only- 
 boats, and fmall fliips after they have difcharged a part 
 of their freight. Thofe veflels, which the Turks 
 freight at Candia, are obhged to go almoft empty 
 to the ports of Standie, whither their cargoes are con^ 
 veyed to them in barks. Such inconveniences are 
 highly unfavourable to commerce ; and as government 
 never thinks of removing them, the trade of Candia is 
 therefore confiderably decayed. 
 
 Candia, which was embellilhed by the Venetians 
 with regular ftreets, handfome houfes, a fine fquare, 
 and a magnificent ciftern, contains at prefent but a 
 fmall number of inhabitants, notwithftanding the vaft 
 extent of the area inclofed within its wafls. Several 
 divifions of the city are void of inhabitants. That ia. 
 which the market-place ftands is the only one which dlf? 
 covers any ftir of bufinefs, or fliow of affluence. The 
 Mahometans have converted moft of the Chriftian 
 temples into mofques; yet they have left two churches 
 to the Greeks, one to the Armenians, and a fynagogue 
 to the. Jews. The Capuchins poflfefs a fmall convent, 
 with 3 chapel in which the vice-conful of France hears 
 mafs. At prefent he is the only Frenchman who at- 
 tends it, as the French merchants have taken up their 
 refidence at Canea. 
 
 Weft of the city of Candia is an extenfive range of 
 
 hills : 
 
CAN [ 93 ] CAN 
 
 Candiac hialls, which are a continuation of mount Ida, and of dominions of the Great Mogul, bounded by Chytor Candijli, 
 which the extremity forms the promontory of Dion. ...a Candle. 
 
 Candidati ^-^^ ^.^ Dion, we find PaHo Caftro, on the 
 
 ^"""V^ fliore ; a name which the modern Greeks give indiffe- 
 rently to all remains of ancient cities. Its fituation 
 correfponds to that of the ancient Panormus, which 
 ftood north-weft from Haraclea. 
 
 The river which runs weft of Candia was anciently 
 known by the name of Triton ; near the fource of 
 •wliich Minerva fprung from the brain of Jove. Loaxus 
 is a little farther diftant. About a league eaft of that 
 city, the river Ceratus flows through a delightful vale. 
 According to Strabo, in one part of its courfe it runs 
 near by Gnoffus. A little beyond that, is another 
 river fuppofed to be Therenus, on the banks of which, 
 faile relates that Jupiter confummated his marriage 
 with Juno. For the fpace of more than half a league 
 round the walls of Candia there is not a fmgle tree to 
 be feen. The Turks cut them all down in the time of 
 the fiege, and laid wafte the gardens and orchards. 
 B<eyond that extent, the country is plentifully covered 
 with corn , and fruit trees. The neighbouring hills 
 are overfpread with vineyards, which produce the 
 ntalmfey of mount Ida, — worthy of preference at the 
 table of the moft exquifite connoifleur in wines. That 
 fpecies of wine, though little known, has a fine flavour, 
 a very pleafant relifli, and is highly efteemed in the 
 ifland. 
 
 CANDIAC (John Lewis), a premature genius, 
 born at Candiac in the diocefe of Nifmes in France, in 
 1 7 19. In the cradle he diftinguifhed his letters: at 13 
 m^onths, he knew them perfeftly : at three years of 
 age, he read Latin, either printed or in manufcript: at 
 fo)ur, he tranflated from that tongue : at fix, he read 
 Greek and Hebrew; was mafter of the principles of 
 arithmetic, hlftory, geography, heraldry, and the fci- 
 erace of medals; and had read the beft authors on al- 
 moft every branch of literature. He died of a compli- 
 cation of diforders, at Paris, in 1726. 
 
 CANDIDATE, a perfon who afplres to fome pub- 
 lic ofiice. 
 
 In the Roman commonwealth, they were obliged to 
 wear a white gown during the two years of their foli- 
 clting a place. This garment, according to Plutarch, 
 they wore without any other clothes, that the people 
 m ight not fufpeft they concealed money for purchafing 
 votes, and alfo that they might more eafily fliow to the 
 people the fears of thofe wounds they had received in 
 fighting for the defence of the commonwealth. The 
 candidates ufually declared their pretenfions a year be- 
 fore the time of eleftion, which they fpent in making 
 iiitereft and gaining friends. Various arts of popularity 
 were praftifed for this piffpofe, and frequent circuits 
 made round the city, and vifits and compliments to all 
 ■forts of perfons, the procefs of which was called aml/i- 
 tuj. See Ambitus. 
 
 CANDIDATI MiLiTEs, an order of foldiers, a- 
 mong the Romans, who ferved as the emperor's body- 
 guards to defend him in battle. They were the talleft 
 and ftrongeft of the whole troops, and moft proper to 
 infpire terror. They were called candidati, becaufe 
 clothed in white, either that they might be more con- 
 fplcuous, or becaufe they were confidered in the way 
 ot" preferment. 
 
 C ANDISH,. a confiderable province of Afia, in the 
 
 and Malva on the north, Orixa on the eaft, Decan on 
 the fouth, and Guzarat on the weft. It is populous 
 and rich ; and abounds in cotton, rice, and indigo. 
 Brampore is the capital town. 
 
 CANDLE, a fmall taper of tallow, wax, or fper- 
 maceti ; the wick of which is commonly of feveral 
 threads of cotton, fpun and twifted together. 
 
 A tallow-candle, to be good, muft be half flieep's 
 and half bullock's tallow ; for hog's tallow makes the 
 candle gutter, and always gives an offenfive-fraell, with 
 a thick black fmoke. The wick ought to be pure, fuf- 
 ficiently diy, and properly twifted ; otherwife the candle 
 will emit an inconftant vibratory flame, which is both 
 prejudicial to the eyes and infufficlent for the diftinft 
 illumination of objedls. 
 
 There are two forts of tallow-candles ; the one dip*- 
 ped, the other moulded : the former are the common 
 candles ; the others are the invention of the fieur le 
 Brege at Paiis, 
 
 As to the method of making candles in general : 
 After the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the 
 due proportions, it is cut into very fmall pieces, that 
 it may melt the fooner ; for the tallow in lumps, as it 
 comes from the butchers, would be in danger of burn- 
 ing or turning black, if It were left too long over the 
 fire. Being perfectly melted and fl^Immed, they pour 
 a certaiu quantity of water icto it, proportionable to 
 the quantity of tallow. This ferves to precipitate to 
 the bottom of the veflel the impurities of the tallow 
 which may have efcaped the fldmmer. No water, how- 
 ever, muft be thrown into the tallow defigned for the 
 three firft dips; becaufe the wick, being ftill quite dry, 
 would imbibe the water, which makes tlie candles 
 crackle in burning, and renders them of bad ufe. The 
 tallow, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a 
 coarfe'fieve of hcvfe-halr, to purify it ftill more, and 
 may be ufed after having flood three hours. It will 
 continue fit for ufe 24 hours in fummer and 15 in win- 
 ter. The wicks are made of fpua cotton, which tlie 
 tallow-chandlers buy in llvalns, and which they wind up 
 into bottoms or clues. Whence they are cut out, with 
 an inftrument contrived on purpofe, into pieces of the 
 length of the candle required; then put on the ftlcks oc 
 broaches, or elfe placed in the moulds, as the candlei- 
 are intended to be either dipped or moulded. 
 
 Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen wick, 
 nightly twifted, and covered with wliite or. yellow 
 wax. Of thefe, there are feveral kinds : fome of a 
 conical figure, ufed to illuminate churches, and in 
 proceflions, furneral ceremonies, &c. (fee Taper); 
 others of a cylindrical form, ufed on ordinary occa- 
 fions. The firft are either made with a ladle or the 
 hand. i. To make wax-candles with the ladle. The 
 wicks being prepared, a dozen of them are tied by 
 the neck, at equal dHlances, round an Ii-on circle, fuf- 
 pended over a large bafon of copper tinned, and full 
 of melted wax : a large ladle full of this wax Is poured 
 gently on the tops of the wicks one after another, 
 and this operation continued till the candle amve at 
 lis dcftlned bignefs ; with this precaution, that the 
 three firft ladles be poured on at the top of tlie wick, 
 the foiu-th at the height of \, the fifth at ^, and the 
 fixth at ^, in order to give the candle its pyramidal 
 
 form. 
 
 Then the candles are taken down, kept warm>». 
 
 and: 
 
CAN 
 
 ^Jandle. and rolled and fmootiied upon a walnut-tree (able, with 
 """y'^ a long fquare inltrumcnt of box, Imootli at the bottom. 
 
 z. As to the manner of making wax-candles by the 
 hand, they begin to foflcn the wax, by working it fe- 
 \'eral times in hot water, contained in ja narrow but 
 deep caldron. A piece of the wax is then taken out, 
 and difpofed by little and little around the wick, 
 which is hung on a hook in the wall, by the extix'- 
 xnity oppofite to the neck ; fo that they begin with 
 the big end, diminilhing Hill as they defcend towards 
 the neck. In other refpefts the method is nearly the 
 fame as in the former cafe. However, it muft be ob- 
 ferved, that, in the former cafe, water is always ufed to 
 moillen the feveral inftruments, to prevent the wax from 
 fticking; and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard,, for 
 the hands, &c. The cylindrical wax-candles are either 
 made as the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax- 
 candles drawn, are fo called, becaufe actually drawn 
 in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers 
 of wood, turned by a handle, which, tmniing back- 
 wards and forwards feveral times, pal's the wick 
 through melted wax contained in a brafs bafon, and at 
 the fame time through the holes of aninftrument likethat 
 ufed for drawing wire faftened at one fide of the bafon. 
 
 If any chandlers mix with their wares any thing de- 
 ceitfully, &c. the candles lhall be forfeited. Stat. 23 
 Eliz. and a tax or duty is granted on candles, by 8 
 and 9 Anne, cap. 6. made for fale, of one penny a 
 pound, befides the duty upon tallow, by 8 Anne, cap. 
 9. And by 24 Geo. III. cap. 11. an additional duty 
 of an halfpenny a pound : and by the fame an addition- 
 al duty of an halfpenny a pound is laid upon all candles 
 imported (except thofe of wax and fpermaceti,for ^vhich 
 fee WAX-Candles), fubjeft alfo to the two additional 
 5 per cents, impofed by 19 and 22 Geo. III. befides 
 the duty of 2g:d. formerly impofed by 2 W. felT. 2. 
 cap. 4. 8 Anne, cap. 9. and 9 Anne, cap. 6. And 
 every maker of candles, other than wax candles, for 
 fale, fhall annually take out a licence at L. i . The 
 maker of candles fhall, in four weeks within the bills, 
 and elfewhere in fix weeks, after entry, clear off the 
 duties on pain of double duty : nor fell any after de- 
 fault in payment on pain of double value ; 8 Anne, 
 cap. 9. The makers of candles are not to ufe melting 
 houfes, without making a true entry, on pain of L. 100, 
 and to give notice of making candles to the excife officer 
 for the duties ; and of the number, &c. or fhall 
 forfeit L. 50, flat. 11. Geo. I. cap. 30. See alfo 
 23 Geo. II. cap. 21. and 26 Geo. II. cap. 32. No 
 maker of candles for fale fliall begin to make candles, 
 Avithout notice firft given to the officer, unlefs from 
 September 29th to March 25th yearly, between feven 
 in the morning and five in the evening, and from 
 March 25th to September 29th, between five in 
 the morning and feven in the evening, on pain of 
 L. 10, 10 Anne, cap. 26. The penalty of obftrufting 
 the officer is L. 20, and of removing candles before 
 they are furveyed L. 20, 8 Anne, cap. 9. The pe- 
 nalty of privately making candles is the forfeiture of 
 the fame and utenfils, and L. loo, 5 Geo. III. cap. 43. 
 And the penalty of minghng weighed with unweighed 
 candles, of removing them before they are weighed, or 
 of concealing them. Is the forfeiture of L. 100, 11 
 Geo. cap. 30. Candles, for which the duty hath been 
 paid, may be exported, and the duty drawn back ; but 
 
 94 3 C AN 
 
 no draw-back fhall be allQwed on the exportation of Cttr\(\\«, 
 any foreign candles imported. 8 Ann. cap. 9. 23 Geo. 
 II. cap. 21. 
 
 The Roman candles were at firft little ftrings dipt 
 In pitch, or furrounded with wax ; though afterwards 
 they made them of the papyrus, covered Hkewife with 
 wax ; and fometimes alfo of rulhes, by ftripping off 
 the outer rind, and only retaining the pith. — For reli- 
 gious offices, wax candles were ufed ;-for vulgar ufes, 
 thofe of tallow. Lord Bacon propofes candles of divers 
 compofitions and ingredients, as alfo of difierent forts of 
 wicks; with experiments of the degrees of duration, and 
 light of each. Good houfewives bury their candles in 
 flour or bran, which it is faid incre^fcs their Uutiag al« 
 inoft half. 
 
 Experiments to (Jetcrm'ine the real and comparative value 
 of burning Candles of different forts and Jizes. 
 
 Nuvaib.of}Wei;-ht The time; The timejThe expence 
 
 Small wick. 
 Large wick. 
 
 candles 
 in ( lie 
 pound 
 
 i8| 
 i6i 
 
 5i 
 
 Mould- 
 candles. 
 
 Si 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 candle. 
 
 Oz. Dr 
 
 14 
 
 5t 
 8 
 I 
 o 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 o 
 
 one can- that one 
 lie lalicd pound 
 wili latl. 
 
 Hr.MIn 
 
 15 
 40 
 40 
 
 27 
 36 
 9 
 15 
 19 
 
 20 
 3 
 
 Hr. Min, 
 
 42 
 
 i36 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 2 
 
 24 
 24 
 12 
 o 
 ^5 
 
 39 
 20 
 
 I a hours 
 wiieit candles 
 are at bd. per 
 ddzen, which 
 Ifo fliows the 
 proportion cf 
 the expence 
 at any price 
 per di-zen. 
 Farthings and 
 icoth parts. 
 4.85 
 5.70 
 6.54 
 6.96 
 7.50 
 8.94 
 8.47 
 
 9-53 
 
 Moiild-candl. 
 at "Js.per doz. 
 7.87 
 9.28 
 
 N. B. The time that one candle lafled was taken 
 from an average of feveral trials in each fize. 
 
 It is obfervable. In optics, that the flame of two 
 candles joined, give a much fl;ronger light than both 
 of them feparate. The obfervatlon was fuggefted by 
 Dr Franklin. Probably the union of the two flames 
 produces a greater degree of heat, whereby the vapour 
 is attenuated, and the particles of which light confifts 
 more copioully emitted. 
 
 Lighting a Candle by a fmall fpark of eleBricity. This 
 method, which Is an Invention of Dr Ingenhoufz, Is 
 recorded In the Phil. Tranf. vol. 68. It Is done by 
 a fmall phial, having eight®or ten Inches of metaUIc 
 coating, or even lefs, charged with eleftriclty, which 
 may be done at any time of the night by a perfon 
 who has an eleftric machine In his room. •* When I 
 have occafion to Hght a candle," fays he, *' I charge 
 a fmall coated phial, whofe knob is bent outwards, fc) 
 as to hang a little over the body of the phial ; then \ 
 wrap fome loofe cotton over the extremity of a long 
 brafs pin or a wire, fo as to fl;Ick moderately fall to 
 Its fubftance. I next roll this extremity of the pin 
 wrapped up with cotton in fome fine powder of refin, 
 (which I always keep In readinefs upon the table for 
 this piu-pofe^ either in a wide-mouthed phial or in a 
 I loofe 
 
CAN [ 
 
 Cr^vAU, loofe paper) ; (his being clone, I apply tlie extremity 
 Candie- (-he pin or wire to the external coating of the char- 
 "'^'ZL^ S^*^ phial, and bring as quickly as poffible the oth^r 
 extremity wrapped round with cotton to the knob : 
 the po\vder of refm takes fire, and communicates its 
 flame to the cotton, and both together burn long e- 
 nough to light a candle. As I do not want more than 
 half a minute to light my candle in this way, I find it 
 a readier method than kindUng it by a flint and fteel, 
 or calhng a''fervant. I have found, that powder of 
 white or yellov\'- rcfin lights eafier than that of brown. 
 The farina lycopodil may be ufed for the fame purpofe : 
 but it is not fo good as the powder of refin, becaufe it 
 does not take fire quite fo readily, requiring a ftronger 
 fpark not to mifs : befides, it is foon burnt away. By 
 dipping the cotton in oil of turpentine, the fame ef- 
 fect may be as readily obtained, if you take a jar fome- 
 what greater in fize. This oil will inflame fo much the 
 readier if you ftrew a few fine particles of brafs upon it. 
 The pin duil is the beft for this purpofe ; but as this 
 oil is fcattered about by the explofion, and when kind- 
 led fills the room with much more fmoke than the 
 powder of refin, I prefer the laft," 
 
 CANDLE-Bombs, a name given to fmall glafs bubbles, 
 having a neck about an inch long, with a very {lender 
 bore, by means of which a fmall quantity of water is 
 ihttoduced into them, and the orifice afterwards clofed 
 up. This ftalk being put through the wick of a burn- 
 ing candle, the vicinity of the flame foon rarifies the 
 water into fteam, by the elafticity of which the glafs 
 is broken with a loud crack. 
 
 Candle is alfo a term of medicine, and is reckoned 
 among the infl:ruments of furgery. Thus the candela 
 fumalis, or the candela pro fitffitu odorata, is a mafs of 
 an oblong form, confifting of odoriferous powders, 
 mixed up with a third or more of the charcoal of wil- 
 low or lime tree, and reduced to a proper confiftence 
 with a mucilage of gum tragacanth, labdanum, or tur- 
 pentine. It is intended to excite a grateful fmell with- 
 out any flame, to correA the air, to fortify the brain, 
 and to excite the fpirits. 
 
 Medicated Candle, the fame with Bougie. 
 
 Candle. Sale or auftion by inch of candle, is when 
 n fmall piece of candle, being lighted, the byfl;anders 
 are allowed to bid for the merchandize that is felling ; 
 but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is 
 adjudged to the lafl; bidder. 
 
 There is alfo an excommunication by inch of can- 
 > die ; when the finner is allowed to come to repentance 
 while a candle continues burning ; but after it is con- 
 fumed, he remains excommunicated to all intents and 
 purpofes. 
 
 RuJ}j- Candles, ufed in different parts of England, 
 are made of the pith of a fort of ruflies, peeled or llrip- 
 ped of the ilcin, except on one fide, and dipped in melt- 
 ed greafe. 
 
 CANDLE-JVood, flips of pine about the thicknefs of a 
 finger, ufed in New England and other colonies to 
 burn inftead of candles, giving a very good light. The 
 French inhabitants of Tortuga ufe flips of yellow fan- 
 tal-wood for the fame purpofe, and under the fame de- 
 nomination, which yields a clear flame though of a 
 green colour. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY tree, in botany, the EngHfli 
 liamc of the Myrica.. 
 
 95 i CAN 
 
 CANDLEMAS, a feaft of the church held on the Cand!cma« 
 fecond day of February, in honour of the purification 
 of the Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the praftice , i , 
 of the ancient Chriftians, who on that day ufed abun- 
 dance of lights both in their churches and proceflions, 
 in memory, as is fuppofed, of our Saviour's being on 
 that day declared by Simon to be a light to lighten 
 the Gentiles." In imitation of this cuft;om, the Roman- 
 catholics on this day confecrate all the tapers and 
 candles which they ufe in their churches during the 
 whole year. At Rome, the Pope performs that ce- 
 remony himfelf ; and dlftributes wax-candles to the 
 cardinals and others, who carry them in procefliou 
 through the great hall of the Pope's palace. This- 
 ceremony was prohibited in England by an order of 
 council in 1548. 
 
 Candlemas, (2d Feb.) is made one of the four 
 terms of the year for paying and receiving rents or 
 borrowed money, &c. — In the courts of law. Candle- 
 mas terms begin 1 5th January, and ends 3d February. 
 
 CANDLESTICK, an inltrument to hold a candle, 
 made in different forms, and of all forts of matter. 
 
 The golden candleltick was one of the facred uten- 
 fils made by Mofes to be placed in the Jewifli taber- 
 nacle. It was made of hammered gold, a talent in 
 weight. It confilted of feven branches fupported by 
 a bafe or foot. Thefe branches were adorned at equal 
 diftances with fix flowers like lilies, and with as many 
 bowls and knobs placed alternately. Upon the ftock 
 and fix branches of the candleliick were the golden 
 lamps, which were immoveable, wlierein were put oil 
 and cotton. 
 
 Thefe feven lamps were lighted ever}-- evening, and 
 extinguifhed every morning. The lamps had tlieir tongs 
 or fnuffei-s to draw the cotton in <ff out, and difhes 
 underneath them to receive the fparks or droppings of 
 the oil. This candlefl:ick was placed in the antichamber 
 of the fanftuary on the fouth fide, and ferved to illu- 
 minate the altar of perfume and the tabernacle of the 
 fliew-bread. When Solomon had built the temple of 
 the Lord, he placed in it ten golden candlefl;icks of the 
 fame form as that defcribed by Mofes, five on the north 
 and five on the fouth fide of the holy place : But after tht 
 Babylonifli captivity, the golden candleftick was again 
 placed in the temple, as it had been before in the 
 tabernacle by Mofes. This facred utenfil, upon 
 the deftruftion of the temple by the Romans, 
 was lodged in the temple of peace built by Vefpafian ; 
 and the reprefentation of it is flill to be fecn on the 
 triumphal arch at the foot of mount Palatine, on which 
 Vefpafian's triumph is delineated. 
 
 CANDY, a large kingdom of Afia, in the iftand 
 of Ceylon. It contains about a quarter of the ifland ; 
 and as it is encompafled with high mountains, and co- 
 vered with thick forefls, through which the roads and 
 paths are narrow and difficult, the king has them 
 guarded to prevent his fubjefts from going into other 
 countries. It is full of hills, from v/hence rivulets pro- 
 ceed which are full of filh ; but as they run among the 
 rocks, they are not fit for boats : however, the Inha- 
 bitants are very dexterous in turning them to water 
 their land, which is fruitful in rice, pulfe, and hemp. 
 The king is abfolute, and his fubjefts are idolaters. 
 The capital town is of the fame name. 
 
 Candy, a town of Afia, and capital of a kingdom 
 
CAN 
 
 Candy 
 
 a 
 
 Cai ea. 
 
 r 96 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 of tlic fiime name, in the ifland of Ceylon. It has been 
 often burnt by the Portuguefe, wlien they were mafters 
 of thefe coalls. The houfes are very poor, low, and 
 badly furniflied. X. Long. 79. 12. N. Lat. 7. 35. 
 
 Cjndt, or Si/^mr-Cdtidy, a preparation of fugar made 
 by melting and cryilallizing it fix or feven times over, to 
 render it hard or tranfparent. . It is of three kinds, 
 white, yellow, and red. The white comes from the 
 loaf-fugar, the yellow from the caffonado, and the red 
 fiom the mufcavado. 
 
 CANDYING, the aft of preferving fimples in fub- 
 ftance, by boiling them in fugar. The performance of 
 tliis originally belonged to the apothecaries, but is now 
 become a part of the bufinefs of the confeftioner. 
 
 CANE, in botany. See Arundo and Calamus. 
 
 Cane, denotes alfo a walking ftick. It is cuftomary 
 to adorn it with a head of gold, filver, agate, &c. 
 Some are without knots, and very fmooth and even ; o- 
 thers are full of knots abouts tw^o inches dillance from 
 one another. Thefe lall have very little elafticity, and 
 will not bend'fo well as the others. 
 
 Canes of Bengal are the moft beautiful which the 
 Europeans bring into Europe. ^Some of them are fo 
 fine, that people work them into bowls or veffels, which 
 being varnifhed over in the infide, with black or yel- 
 low lacca, will hold liquors as well as glafs or China 
 ware does ; and the Indians ufe them for that pur- 
 pofe. 
 
 Cane is alfo the name of a long meafure, which dif- 
 fers according to the feveral countries where it is ufed. 
 At Naples the cane is equal to 7 feet 3^ inches Eng- 
 lifh meafure : the cane of Tholoufe and the Upper 
 Languedoc, is equal to the varre of Arragon, and 
 contains five feet 84- inches ; at Montpellior, Provence, 
 Dauphine, and t%e Lower Languedoc, to fix Englifh 
 feet 54- inches. 
 
 CANEA, a confiderable town of the ifland of Can- 
 dia, where a bafhaw refides. It was built by the Ve- 
 netians, and occupies part of the lite of the ancient 
 ■Cydonia. It is but about two miles in compafs ; en- 
 circled on the land fide with a fingle wall, extremely 
 thick ; and defended by a broad and deep ditch, cut 
 through a bed of rock, which extends all around the 
 wall. By cutting it iUll deeper, they might caufe the 
 fea to flow round its ramparts ; on which they have 
 raifed high platforms, that their great guns might 
 command a wider extent of the adjacent plain. The 
 city has only one gate, the gate of Retimo, protected 
 by an half-moon battery, which is the only exterior fort. 
 The fide which faces the fea is the beft fortified. On 
 the left of the harbour are four batteries, rilingone above 
 another, and planted with a number of large cannons 
 of caft metal, marked witli the arms of Venice. The 
 firll of thefe batteries ftands clofe on the brink of the 
 fea. The right fide of the harbour is defended only 
 bv a ftiong wall, extending along a chain of pointed 
 rocks which it is dangerous for (hips to approach. At 
 the extremity of this wall, there is an old caftle, falling 
 into ruins. Beneath that caftle, the Venetians had im- 
 menfe arfenals, vaulted with ftone. !pach of thefe 
 vaults was of fufficient length, breadth, and height, to 
 ferve as a work-fhop for building a fliip of the line. 
 The ground is Hoping, and the outermolt part of thefe 
 capacious arfenals is on a level with the fea ; fo that it 
 
 vi'as very eafy to launch the fhips built there into the Canelli. 
 
 water. The Turks are fuffering that magnificent work ^/^^ 
 
 to fall into ruins. 
 
 The city of Canea is laid out on a fine plan. The 
 ftreets are large and ttraight ; and the fquares adorned 
 with fountains. There are no remarkable buildings 
 in it. Moft of the houfes are flat-roofed, and have on- 
 ly one ftory. Thofe contiguous to the harbour are 
 adorned with galleries, from which you enjoy a de- 
 lightful profpeft. From the windows you difcover 
 the large bay formed between Cape Spada and Cape 
 Melee, and all the fhips that are entering in or paf- 
 fing out. The harbour, at prefent, receives fliips of 
 200 tons burden ; and it might be enlarged fo as to 
 admit the largeft frigates. Its mouth is expofed to the 
 violence of the north winds, which fometimes fwell the 
 billows above the ramparts. But, as it is narrow, and 
 the bottom is good, fliips that are well moored run no 
 danger. At the time when Tournefort viiited Crete, 
 Canea did not contain more than five or fix thoufand 
 inhabitants. But, at prefent, when the gates of Gira- 
 Petra, Candia, and Retimo are choaked up, the mer- 
 chants have retired to Canea ; and it is reckoned to 
 contain 16,000 fouls. The environs of the town are ad- 
 mirable ; being adorned with forefts of olive-trees mix- 
 ed with fields, vineyards, gardens, and brooks border- 
 ed with myrtle-trees and laurel-rofes. The chief re- 
 Yenue of this town confifts in oil-olive. E. Long. 24. 
 15. N. Lat. 35. 28. 
 
 CANELLA, in botany : A genus of the monogy 
 nia order belonging to the.dcdecandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 12 th or- 
 der, Holoracea. The calyx is three lobed ; the petals 
 are five ; the antherse 16, growing to an urceolatedor 
 bladder-ftiaped neftarium ; and the fruit is a trilocular 
 berry, with two feeds. There is but one fpecies, the 
 alba ; which grows ufually about 20 feet high, and 
 eight or ten inches in thicknefs, in the thick woods of 
 moft of the Bahama iflands. The leaves are narrow at 
 the ftalk, growing wider at their ends, which are broad 
 and rounding, having a middle rib only ; they are very 
 fmooth, and of a light fliining green. In May and 
 June the flowers, which are pentapetalous, come forth 
 in clufters at the ends of the branches : they are red, 
 and very fragrant, and are fucceeded by round berries, 
 of the fize of large peas, green, and when ripe (which 
 is in February) pui-ple, containing two fliining black 
 feeds, flat on one fide, otherwife not unlike in fiiape 
 to a kidney bean : thefe feeds in the berry are enve- 
 loped in a fiimy mucilage. The whole plant is very 
 aromatic, the bark particularly, being more ufed in 
 diftilling, and in greater efteem, in the more northern 
 parts of the world than in Britain. 
 
 The bark is the canella alba of the fliops. It is 
 brought to us rolled up into long quills, thicker than 
 cinnamon, and both outwardly and inwardly of a vvhi- 
 tifli colour, lightly inclining to yellow. Infufions of 
 it in water aie of a yellowifli colour, and fmell of the 
 canella ; but they are rather bitter than aromatic. 
 Tinftures in reftified fpirit have the warmth of the 
 bark, but little of its fmell. Proof-fpirit diflblves the 
 aromatic as well as the bitter matter of the canella, and 
 is therefore the beft menftruum. 
 
 The canella is the interior bark freed from an outward 
 2 thia 
 
 PI. cxvr. 
 
CAN 
 
 Canes. 
 
 Canelle tMn rough one,and dried in the (hade. The Ihops diftin- 
 guifh two forts of canella, differing from each other 
 ^ in the length and thicknefs of the quills : they are 
 both the bark of the fame tree ; the thicker being 
 taken from the trunk, and the thinner from the branch- 
 es. -This bark is a warm pungent aromatic, though 
 not of the moft agreeable kind ; nor are any of the 
 preparations of it very grateful. 
 
 Canella alba is often employed where a warm ftimu- 
 lant to die ftomach is neceffary, and as a corrigent of 
 other articles. It ie now, however, little ufed in com- 
 pofition by the London college ; the only official for- 
 mula which it enters being the pulvis aloeticus : but 
 with the Edinburgh college it is an ingredient in the 
 tinftura amara, vinum amatum, vinum rhei, &c. It 
 is ufeful as covering the tafte of fome other articles. — 
 This bark has been confounded with that called Win- 
 ter's bark, which belongs to a very different tree. See 
 
 WiNTERA. 
 
 CANELLE, or Cane-Land, a larp^e country in the 
 ifland of Ceylon, called formerly the kingdom of Cota. 
 It contains a great number of cantons, the principal of 
 which are occupied by the Dutch. The chi<;f riches of 
 this country confift in cinnamon, of which there are 
 large forefts. There are five towns on the coaft, fome 
 forts, and a great number of harbours. The rell of 
 the country is inhabited by the natives ; and there are 
 feveral rich mines, from whence they get rubies, fap- 
 phires, topazes, cats-eyes, and feveral ether precious 
 ilones. 
 
 CANEPHORiE, in Grecian antiquity, virgins who, 
 when they became marriageable, presented certain baf- 
 kets full of little curiofities to Diana, in order to get 
 leave to depart out of her train, and change their ftate 
 of life. 
 
 CANEPHORIA, in Grecian antiquity, a ceremo- 
 ny which made part of a feaft, celebrated by the Athe- 
 nian virgins on the eve of their marriage-day. At 
 Athens the canephoria confifted in this ; that the maid, 
 conduced by her father and mother, went to the tem- 
 ple of Minerva, carrying with her a baflcet full of pre- 
 sents to engage the goddefs to make the marriage- 
 flate happy ; or, as the fcholiaft of Theocritus has it, 
 the baflcet was intended as a kind of honourable a- 
 mends made to that goddefs, the proteftrix of virgi- 
 nity, for abandoning her party ; or as a ceremony to 
 appeafe her wrath. Suidas calls it a feftival in honour 
 of Diana. « 
 
 ■Ca"nephoria, is alfo the name of a feftiral in ho- 
 nour of Bacchus, celebrated particularly by the Athe- 
 nians, on which the young maids carried golden baf- 
 kets full of fruit, which baflcets were covered, to con- 
 ceal the myftery from the uninitiated. 
 
 CANES, in Egypt and other eaftern countries, a 
 poor fort of buildings for the reception of ftrangers and 
 travellers. People are accommodated in thefe with a 
 -room at a fmall price, but with no other neccffaries j 
 fo that, excepting the room, there are no greater ac- 
 commodations in thefe houfes than in the defarts, on- 
 ly that there is a market near. 
 
 Canes V enatid, in aftronoray, the grey-hounds, two 
 new conftellations, firft eilabhfhed by Hevelius, between 
 the tail of the Great Bear and Bootes's arms, above 
 the Coma Berenices. The firll is called ajlerhn, be- 
 ing that next the Bear's tail ; the other chara. They 
 Vol. IV. Part. L 
 
 [ 97 J 
 
 CAN 
 
 comprehend 23 ftars, of which Tycho only cbferved 
 two. The longitudes and latitudes of each are given 
 by Hevelius. In the Britifh Catalogue they are 25. 
 
 CANETO, a ftrong town of Italy in the duchy 
 of Mantua, feated on the river Oglio, which was 
 taken by the Imperialifts in 1701, by the French 
 in 1702, afterwards by the Imperialifts, and then 
 by the French in 1705. E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lato 
 
 CANGA, in the Chinefe affairs, a wooden clog 
 borne on- the neck, by way of punifiiment for divert 
 offences. The canga is compofed of two pieces of 
 v/ood notched, to receive the criminal's neck ; the load 
 lies on his fhoulders, and is more or lefs heavy ac- 
 cording to the quality of his offence. Some cangas 
 weigh 20olb ; the generality from 50 to 60. Thtf 
 Mandarins condemn to the punifhment of the canga. 
 Sentence of death is fometimes changed for this kind 
 of punifhment. 
 
 CANGE (Charles du Frefne fieur du), one of the 
 moft learned writers of his time, was born at Amiens 
 in 1 60 1, and fludled at the Jefuits college in that city. 
 Afterwards he applied himfelf to the iludy of the law 
 at Orleans, and gained great reputation by his works; 
 among which are, I. The hiilory of the empire of 
 Conftantinople under the French emperors. 2- John 
 Cinnamus's fix books of the hiflory of the affairs of 
 John and Manuel Comnenus, in Greek and Latin, with 
 hiilorical and philological notes. 3. Clojj'arium ad Scrip- 
 tores media £ff infimce Latinttatis. 
 
 CANGI, Ceangi, or Cangani, anciently a people 
 of Britain, concerning whofe fituation antiquaries have 
 been much perplexed. They are all the fame people. 
 Cambden difcovercd fome traces of them in many dif- 
 ferent and diflant places, as in Somerfetfhire, Wales, 
 Derbyfhire, and Chefhire ; and he might have found 
 as plain vefllges of them in Devonfhire, Dorfetfliire, 
 Effex, Wiltfhire, &c. Mr Horfley and others arc no 
 lefs perplexed and undetermined in their opinions ou 
 this fubjeft. But Mr Baxter feems to have difcovered 
 the true caufe of all this perplexity, by obfetving that 
 the Cangi or Ceangi were not a diflinft nation feated 
 in one particular place, but fuch of the youth of many 
 different nations as were employed in paflurage, in 
 feeding the flocks and herds of their refpeilive tribes. 
 Almofl all the ancient nations of Britain had their" 
 ceangi, their palloritia pubes, the keepers of their 
 flocks and herds, who ranged about the country in 
 great numbers, as they were invited by the fea- 
 fon and plenty of pafture for their cattle. This is 
 the reafon that vefllges of their name are to be found 
 in fo many different parts of Britain ; but chiefly in 
 thofe parts which are moft fit for pafturage. Thefe 
 ceangi of the different Britifh nations, naturally brave, 
 and rendered ftill more hardy by their way of life, 
 were conftantly armed for the protedlion of their flocks 
 from wild bealls ; and thefe arms they occafionally em- 
 ployed In the defence of their country and their liberty. 
 
 CANGIAGIO, or Cambiasi (Ludovico), one of 
 the moft eminent of the Gcnoefe painters, was born 
 in 1527. His works at Genoa are very numerous; 
 and he was employed by the king of Spain to adorn 
 part of the Efcurlal. It is remarked of him, that he 
 was not only a moft expeditious and rapid painter, 
 but alfo that he worked equally well with both hands \ 
 N and 
 
 Canelo ■ 
 Cangi ajrio. 
 
CAN [ gS 
 
 Canlcula and by that unufual power he executed more defigns, 
 and finifhed more grand works with his own pencil, in 
 ^Can ine. ^ j^,^^.)^ fhorter time, than moft other artifts could do 
 with feveral affiftants. He died in 1585:. 
 
 In the royal coUeftion at Paris, there is a Sleeplni^ 
 Cupid, as large as life,' and likewife Judith with her 
 attendant ; which are painted by Canglagio, and are 
 an honour to that mafter. And in the Pembroke col- 
 leftion at Wilton, is a pidure, reputed the work of 
 Cangiaj!;io, reprefenting Ghrift bearing his Crofs. 
 
 CANICULA, is a name proper to one of the liars 
 of the conftellation canis major, called alfo fimply the 
 * Sit Sirlus dog-Jar; by the Greeks /'-^.^((Sy-, Jirius*. Canicula is 
 the tenth in order in the Britannic catalogue ; in 
 Tycho's and Ptolemy's it is the fecond. It is fituated 
 in the mouth of the cnnftellation ; and is of the firft 
 magnitude, being the largeft and brighteft of all the 
 ftars in the heavens. From the rifing of this ftar not 
 cofmically, or with the fun, but heliacally, that is, its 
 emerfion from the fun's rays, which now happens about 
 the 15th day of Auguft, the ancients reckoned their 
 dfes can'tculares, or dog-days. The Egyptians and E- 
 thiopians began their year at the rifing of the canicula, 
 reckoning to its rife again the next year, which is 
 called the annus canar'ms, or canicular year. This year 
 Gonfifted ordinal ily of 365 days, and every fourth year 
 of '366, by which it was accommodated to the civil 
 year. The reafon of their choice of the canicula be- 
 fore the other ftars to compute their time by, was not 
 only the fuperior brightnefs of that ftar, but becaufe 
 Its heliacal rifmg was in Egypt a time of fingular note, 
 as faUing on the greateft augmentation of the Nile, 
 the reputed father of Egypt. Epheftion adds, that 
 from the afpeft and colour of canicula, the Egyptians 
 drew prognoftics concerning the rife of the Nile ; and, 
 according to Florus, predicted the future ftate of the 
 year ; fo that the firft rifing of this ftar was annually 
 obferved with great attention. 
 
 CANICULUM, or Caniculus, in the Byzantine 
 antiquities, a golden ftandifti or ink-veflel, decorated 
 with precious ftones, wherein was kept the facred eri- 
 eaujiunii or rid ink, wherewith the empero>s figned their 
 decrees, letters, &c. The word is by fome derived 
 from cants, or caniculus; alluding to the figure of a 
 dog which it reprefented, or rather becaufe it was fup- 
 ported by the figures of dogs. The caniculum was un- 
 der the care of a particular officer of ftate. 
 
 CANINA, the north part of the ancient Epirus, a 
 province of Greece, which now belongs to the Turks, 
 and lies off the entrance of the gulph of Venice. The 
 principal town is of the fame name, and is feated on the 
 fca-coaft, at the foot of the mountains of Chimera. E. 
 Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 40. 55. 
 
 CANINANA, in zoology, the name of a fpecies of 
 ferpent found in America, and efteemtd one of the lefs 
 poifonous kinds. It grows to about two feet long ; and 
 is green on the back, and yellow on the belly. It feeds 
 on egccs and fmall birds; the natives cut off the head 
 and tail, and eat the body as a delicate difti. 
 
 CANINE, whatever partakes of, or has any relation 
 to, the nature of a dog. 
 
 Ni A' E ApJ)etiie, amounts to much the fame with 
 
 Bu !MY. 
 
 Canine Madnejs. See (the /n JfAr.fubjpihed tcQ Me- 
 
 »iClN£. 
 
 Canint, 
 Canis. 
 
 ] CAN 
 
 Canine Teeth, are two fliarp edged teeth in each jaw ; 
 oneoneaeh fide, placed between the incifores and molares, 
 
 CANINI (John Angelo and Marc Anthony,) bro- * ' 
 thers and Romans, celebrated for their love of antiqui- 
 ties. John excelled in defigns for engraving on ftones, 
 particularly heads ; Marc engraved them. They were 
 encouraged by Colbert to publifh a fucccffion of heads of 
 the heroes and great men of antiquity, defigned from 
 medals, antique ftones, and other ancient remains; but 
 John died at Rome foon after the work was begun : Marc 
 Anthony, however, procured affiftance, finiftied and 
 publifhed it in IiaHan in 1669. The cuts of this edition 
 were engraved by Canini, Picard, and Valet ; and a cu- 
 rious explanation is given, which difcovers the flcill of 
 the Canini's in hiftory and mythology. The French 
 edition of Amfterdam, 1731, is fpurious. 
 
 CANIS, or Dog, in zoology, a genus of quadru- 
 peds, belonging to the order of ferae. The charafters 
 of the dog are thefe : he has fix fore-teeth in the upper 
 jaw, thofe in the fides being longer than the interme- 
 diate ones, which are lobated ; in the under jaw there 
 are likewife fix fore-teeth, thofe on the fides being lo- 
 bated. He has fix grinders in the upper, and feven in • 
 the lower jaw. The teeth called dog-teeth are four, one 
 on each fide, both in the lower and upper jaw ; they are 
 ftiarp-pointed, bent a little inward, and ilaiid at a di- 
 ftance from any of the reft. 
 
 There are 14 fpecies of this genus, viz. 
 
 I.TheFAMiLiARis,orDomeftic Dog, is diftinguifhed Domeftic 
 from the other fpecies by having his tail bent to the -^'^S- 
 left fide ; which mark is fo fingular, that perhaps the 
 tail of no other quadruped is bent in this manner. Of See Plate* 
 this fpecies there are a great number of varieties. Lin- p^^J[' 
 nseus enumerates ii, and Buff'on gives figures of cxix ^' 
 lefs than 27. The maftifF is about the fize of a wolf, andcXX. 
 with the fides of the Hps hanging down, and a full ro- 
 buft body. The large Danifti dog differs only from 
 the former in being fuller in the body, and generally 
 of a larger fize. The gre-hour is likewife the fame 
 with the maftiff ; but its make is more flender and de- 
 Hcate. Indeed the difference betwixt thefe three dogs, 
 although perfectly diftinguifliable at firft fight, is not 
 greater than that betwixt a Dutchman, a Frenchman, 
 and an Italian. The fhepherd's dog, the wolf-dog, and 
 what is commonly called the Siberian dog, to which may 
 be joined the Lapland dog, the Canada dog, and, in 
 general, all thofe which have ftraight ears and a pointed 
 fnout, are all one kind, differing only in thicknefs, the 
 roughnefs or fmoothnefs of their flcin, the length of their 
 legs and tails. The hound or beagle, the terrier, the 
 braque or harrier, and the fpaniel, may be Confidered 
 as the fame kind : they have the fame form and the 
 fame inftinfts ; and differ only in the length of their 
 legs, and fize of their ears, which in each of them .are 
 long, foft, and pendulous- The bull-dog, the fmall 
 Danifh dog, the Turklfli dog, and the Iceland dog, 
 may likewife be confidered as the fame kind, all the va- 
 rieties in their appearance taking their rife merely from 
 climate. Foi inftance, the Turkifli dog, which has no 
 hair, is nothing elfe birt the fmall Danifh dog tranf- 
 ported to a warm climate, which makes the hair fall off. 
 A dog of any kind lofes its hair in very warm climates. 
 But this is not the only change which arifes from dif- 
 ference of climate. In fome, countries, the voiceis chan- 
 ged} 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 99 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Omis.. ged ; in others, dogs become altogether filent. In feme 
 climates they lofe the faculty of barking, and howriike 
 wolves, or yelp like foxes. Warm climates even change 
 their form and inftindts : they turn ill-fhaped, and their 
 ears become ftraight and pointed. It is only in tem- 
 perate climes that dogs preferve their natural courage, 
 ardour, and fagacity. 
 
 Dr Caius has left, among feveral other trafts relating 
 to natural hillory, one written exprefsly on the fpecies 
 of Britilh dogs ; befides a defcription of the variety 
 of dogs then exifting in this country, he has added a 
 fyftematic table of them; which we fhall here infert, 
 and explain by a brief account of each kind. 
 
 Synopsis of British Dogs. 
 
 ' Hounds. C Terrier 
 Harrier 
 C Blood-hound 
 
 Gaze-hound 
 Gie-hound 
 
 Leviner, or Lyemmer 
 Tumbler 
 
 Spaniel 
 Setter. 
 
 Water-fpaniel, or finder 
 
 Spaniel gentle, or comforter 
 
 Shepherd's dog 
 MaftifF, or ban dog. 
 
 fcuO 
 
 o 
 E 
 
 Eh 
 
 bo 
 
 o 
 
 11 
 
 L.3 
 
 O 
 
 ! 
 
 Wappe 
 
 Turnfpit 
 
 Dancer. 
 
 I . a. The firft variety is the terrar'ius or terrier, which 
 takes its name from its fubterraneous employ ; being a 
 fmall kind of hound ufed to force the fox or other bealts 
 of prey out of their holes : and, in former times, rab- 
 bits out of their burrows into nets. 
 
 b. The leverariusy or harrier, is a fpecies well known 
 at prefent : it derives its name from its ufe, that of 
 hiinting the hare ; but under this head may be placed 
 the fox hound, whkh is only a llronger and fleeter va- 
 riety, applied to a different chace. 
 
 c. The fanguinar'ms , blood-hound, or Jleut-hounde 
 of the Scots, was a dog of great ufe, as already noticed 
 under the article Blood-HoujuI. 
 
 The next fubdivifion of this fpecies of dogs compre- 
 hends thofe that hunt by the eye ; and whofc fuccefs 
 depends either upon the quicknefs of their light, their 
 fwiftnefs, or their fubtilty. 
 
 d. The agafitus, or gaze-hound, was the firft : it 
 chaced indifferently the fox, hare, or buck. It would 
 feleft from the herd the fatteft and faireft deer; purfue 
 it by the eye ; and, if loil for a time, recover it again 
 by its fingular diftinguiOiing faculty ; nay, ffiould the 
 bcaft rejoin the herd, this dog would fix unerringly 
 on the fame. This fpecies is now loft, or at leaft un- 
 known to us. 
 
 e. The next kind is the leporarms, or gre -hound. Dr 
 Caius informs us, that it takes its name quod praclpui 
 
 gradus fit inter canes ^ " the firft in rank among dogs:" 
 that it was formerly efteemed fo, appears from the fo- 
 reft-laws of king Canute, who enafted that no one un- 
 der the degree of a gentleman fliould prefume to keep 
 a gre-hound; and ftill more ftrongly from an old Welfli 
 faying which fignifies, that " you may know a gentle- 
 man by his hawk, his horfe, and his gre-hound." 
 
 The variety called the Highland gre-hound^ and now 
 become very fcarce, is of very great fize, ftrong, deep- 
 chefted, and covered^ with long rough hair. This kind 
 was much efteemed in former days, and ufed in great 
 numbers by the powerful chieftains in their magnificent 
 hunting- matches. It had as fagacious noftrils as the 
 blood-hound, and was as fierce. 
 
 f. The third fpecies is the lev'manus, or lorarius,; 
 the leviner or lyemmer : the firft name is derived from 
 the lightnefs of the kind; the other from the old word 
 lyemme, a thong; this fpecies being ufed to be led in a 
 thong, and flipped at the game. Our author fays that 
 this dog was a kind that hunted both by fcent and 
 fight ; and in the form of its body obferved a medium 
 between the hound and the gre-hound. This probably 
 is the kind now known among us by the name of the 
 Iri/h gre-hound, a dog now extremely fcarce in that 
 kingdom, the late king of Poland having procured from 
 them as many as poffible. They were of the kind called 
 by Buffon le grand Danois, and probably imported tliere 
 by the Danes who long poffefled that kingdom. Their 
 uie feems originally to have been for the chace of wolves 
 with which Ireland fwarmed till the latter end of the 
 laft century. As foon as thefe animals were extirpated, 
 the numbers of the dogs decreafed ; for, from that pe- 
 riod, they were kept only for ftate. 
 
 g. The 'veriagus, or tumbler, is a fourth fpecies ; 
 which took its prey by mere fubtilty, depending nei- 
 ther on the fagacity of its nofe, nor its fwiftnefs : if it 
 came into a warren, it neither barked, nor ran on the 
 rabbits ; but by a feeming negleft of them, or atten- 
 tion to fomething elfe, deceived the objeft till It got 
 within reach, fo as to take it by a fudden fprlng. This 
 dog was lefs than the hound, more fcraggy, had prickt 
 up ears, and by Dr Caius's defcription feems to anfwer 
 to the modern lurcher. 
 
 The third fubdivlfion of the more generous dogs com- 
 prehends thofe which were ufed In fowling. 
 
 h. Firft, the Hlfpaniolus\ or fpanlel ; from the name, 
 it may be fuppofed that we were indebted to Spain for 
 this breed. There were two varieties of this kind : the 
 firft ufed to fprlng the game, wjilch are the fame with 
 our ftarters. The other variety was uf^d only for the net, 
 and was called indtx or the fetter; a kind well known 
 at prefent. This kingdom has been long remarkable for 
 producing dogs of this fort, particular care having been 
 taken to preferve the breed in the utmoft puritv. Thev 
 are ftill diftingulflied by the name of Englijlo ' Spaniels; 
 fo that, notwithftanding the derivation of the name, it 
 is probable they are natives of Great Britain. 
 
 i. The «5r«a/;Vt/j-, or finder, was another fpecies ufed 
 in fowling ; was the fame with our water-fpaniel ; and 
 was ufed to find or recover the game that was fliot- 
 
 k. The MditteiiSy or fotor, the fpanlel gentle or com- 
 forter of Dr Caius (the modern lap-dog), was the 
 laft of this divlfioii. The Maltefe little dogs were as 
 much efteemed by the fine ladles of paft times as thofe 
 of Bologna are among the modern. Old Holllngnied 
 is rldiculoufly fevere on the fair of his days for their 
 N 2 excefiive 
 
Canis. 
 
 * The reign 
 of Q«eeii 
 jElizabeth, 
 
 Cynegettcon, 
 
 CAN [ 100 
 
 exceffive paffion for tliefe little animals ; wKlch is fuffi- 
 cient to prove that it was, in his time*, a novelty. 
 
 2. The fecond grand divifion of dogs comprehends 
 the rtijlici, or thofe that were ufed in the country. 
 
 a. The firft fpecies is the paJIoraUs, or fliepherd's 
 €log ; which is the fame that is ufed at prefent, either 
 in guarding our flocks, or in driving herds of cattle. 
 This kind is fo well trained for thefe purpofes as to at- 
 tend to every part of the herd, be it ever fo large ; con 
 fine them to the I'cad; and force in every ilraggler, 
 without doing it the leaft injury. 
 
 b. The next is the villatkusy or eatenar'ms ; the 
 malliff or ban dog ; a fpecies of great fize and 
 ftrengtli, and a very loud barker. Caius tells us that 
 three of thefe were reckoned a match for a bear; and alteration 
 four for a lion: but from an experiment made in the 
 Tower of London, that noble quadruped was foiind an 
 unequal match to only three. Two of the dogs were 
 difabled in the combat, but the third forced the lion to 
 feek for fafety by flight. The Englifli bull-dog feems 
 to belong to this fpecies ; and probably is tlie dog our 
 author mentions under tlie title of lanlarius. Great Bri- 
 tain was fo noted for its maft;iffs, that the Roman empe- 
 yors appointed an officer in this ifland under the name 
 • of procurator fynegii, whofe fole bufinefs was to breed, 
 
 and tranfmit from hence to the amphitheatre, fuch as 
 •would prove equal to the combats of the place. Gra- 
 tius fpeaks in high terms of the excellency of the Bjri- 
 tiflr dog. 
 
 Atque ipfos liieat penetrare Britannos ? 
 Q quanta ejl merces, et quantum hnpend'ia fupra! 
 S'l non ad fpecitm, ment'tturofque dec ores 
 Prot'mus: hac una ejl catulh jatlura Britannis. 
 At magnum cum venit opus, promendaque virtus, 
 Et vocat eSctrenio pra-ceps difcrhnine Mavcrs, 
 Won tunc egreg'ws tantuni adnilrere MolofTos. 
 
 If Britain's diftant coaft we dare explore, 
 How much beyond the coft the valued ftore ? 
 If lhape and beauty not alone we prize. 
 Which natuj^ to the Brittjh hound denies : 
 But when the mighty toil the huntfman warms. 
 And all the foul is rous'd by fierce alarms. 
 When Mars calls furious to th' enfanguin'd field, 
 Even bold MohJJlans then to thefe mult yield. 
 
 Strabo tells us that the mallifFs of Britain were trained 
 
 to war, and were ufed by the Gauls in their battles ; 
 
 and it is certain a well trained mafliff might be of ufe 
 •in diltreffing fuch half-armed and irregular combatants 
 
 as the adverfaries of the Gauls feem generally to have 
 "been before the Romans conquered them.. 
 
 3. The kft divifion is that of the degencres, or curs. 
 
 a. The firft of thefe was the ivappe, a name derived 
 from its note ; its only ufe was to alarm the family by 
 barking, if any perfon approached the houfe. 
 
 b. Of this clafs was the 'verfator, or turn-fpit ; and 
 laftly the Jditator or dancing-dog ; or fuch as was 
 
 • |aught variety of tricks, and carried about by idle people 
 hs a (hew. Thefe degaiares were of no certain fliape, be- 
 ing mongrels or mixtures of all kinds of dogs. 
 
 M. de Buffoa has given a genealogical table of all 
 the knovi'n dogs, in which he makes the chien deberger, 
 or flicpherd's dog, the origin of all, becaufe it is na- 
 turally the moft fenfibki This table or tree is intend- 
 ed not only to exhibit the different kiada of dogs, but 
 
 Canis, 
 
 ] CAN 
 
 to give an idea of their varieties as ariflng from a dege- 
 neration in particular climates, and from a commixture 
 of the differ ;nt races. It is conftrufted in the form See Plate 
 of a geographical chart, preferving as much as poffible CXXXI. 
 the pofition of the different climates to which each va- 
 riety naturally belongs. The fhepherd's dog, as already 
 mentioned, is the root of the tree. This dog, when 
 tranfported into Lapland, or other very cold chmates, 
 afliunes an ugly appearance, and flirinks into a fmaller 
 fize ; but, in Ruflia, Iceland, and Siberia, where the 
 climate is lefs rigorous, and the people a little more 
 advanced in civill/ation, he feems to be better accomi 
 pllflied. Thefe changes are occufioned folely by the 
 influence of thofe climates, which produce no great 
 alteration in the figure of this dog ; for, in each of 
 thefe climates, his ears are ere£l, his hair thick and 
 long, his afpeft wild, and he barks lefs frequently, and 
 in a different manner, than in more favourable cli- 
 mates, where he acquires a finer pollih. The Iceland 
 dog is the only one that has not his ears entirely ere<?t; 
 for their extremities are a little incHncd; and Iceland, 
 of all the northern regions, has been longeft inhabited 
 by half civilized men. 
 
 The fame fhepherd's dog", when brought into tem- 
 perate climates, and among a people perfedlly civilized, 
 as Britain, France, Germany, would, by the hiere in- 
 fluence of the climate, lofe his favage afpecl, his eretl 
 ears, his rude, thick, long hair, and aflTume the figure 
 of a bull dog, the hound, and the Irifli gre-hound. 
 The bull-dog and Irifli gi-ey-hound have their ears flill 
 partly ereft, and very much refemble, both in their 
 manners and fanguinary temper, the dog from which 
 they derive their origin. The hoimd is fartheft remo- 
 ved from the fhepherd's dog ; for his ears are long and 
 entirely pendulous. The gentlenefs, docIHty, and even 
 the timidity of the hound, are proofs of his great de- 
 generation, or rather of the great perfeAion he has 
 acquired by the long and careful education befl:owed 
 on him by man. 
 
 The hound, the harrier, and the terrier, conflitute 
 but one race ; for, it has been remarked, that in the 
 fame litter, hounds, harriers, and terriers, have been - 
 brought forth, though the female hound had been co- 
 vered by only one of thefe three dogs. I have joined 
 the common harrier to the Dalmatian dog, or harrier 
 of Bengal, becaufe they differ only in having more or 
 fewer fpots on their coat. I have alfo hnked the turn- 
 fpit, or terrier with cropked legs', with the common, 
 terrier; becaufe the defeft in the legs of the former 
 has originally proceeded from a difeafe fimilar to the 
 rickets, with which fome individuals had been affefted, 
 and tranfmltted the deform.Ity to their defcondants. 
 The hound, when tranfported into Spain and Bar- 
 
 bary, where all animals have fine, long, bufhy hair. 
 
 would be converted into the fpanlel and water-dogo 
 The great and fmall fpanlel, which differ only in fize, 
 when brought into Britain, have changed their white 
 colour into black, and become, by the influence of cli- 
 mate, the great and httle King Charles's dog : To 
 thefe maybe joined the pyrame, which is only a King 
 Charles's dog, black like the others, but marked with 
 red on the four legs, and a fpot of the fame colour a- 
 bove each eye, and on the muzzle. 
 
 The Irlfii gre-hound, tranfported to the north, is 
 become the great Danifh dog; and, Vv'hen carried to 
 tlj.e fuuthi was converted into the common gre-hound. 
 
CAN [ i( 
 
 Canis. The largeft gre-hounda come from the Levant, thofe 
 — '— ' of a fmaller fize from Italy ; and thofe Italian gre- 
 
 hounds, carried into Britain, have been Itill farther di- 
 
 miniilied. 
 
 The great Danifh dog, tranfported into Ireland, the 
 Ukraine, Tartary, Epirus, and Albania, has been chan- 
 ged into the Irifli gre-hound, which is the largefl of 
 all dogs. 
 
 The bull-dog, tranfported from Britain to Den- 
 mark, is become the little Danifli dog ; and the latter, 
 brought into warm climates, has been converted into 
 the Turkifh dog. All thefe races, with their varieties, 
 have been produced by the influence of climate, joined 
 to the effedls of (helter, food, and education. The 
 otlier dogs are not pure races, but have proceeded 
 from commixtures of thofe already defcribed. I have 
 maiked, in the table, by dotted lines, the double ori- 
 gin of thefe mongrels. 
 
 The gre-hound and Irifh gre-hound have produ- 
 ced the mongrel gre-hound, called alfo the gre- 
 hound with wolf's hair. The muzzle of this mongrel 
 is lefs pointed than that of the true gre-hound, which 
 is very rare in France. 
 
 The great Dani^h dog and the large fpanlel have 
 produced the Calabrian dog, which is a beautiful ani- 
 mal, with long bufhy hair, and larger than the Irifli 
 gi"e-hound. 
 
 The fpaniel and terrier have produced the dog cal- 
 led Lurgos. 
 
 ■ From the fpaniel and little Danifli dog has pro- 
 ceeded the lion-dog, which is now very rare. 
 
 The dogs with long, fine, crifped hair, called the 
 houjffe dogs, and which are larger than the water-dog, 
 proceed from the fpaniel and water-dog. 
 
 The little water-dog comes from the watei'-dog and 
 fmall fpaniel. 
 
 From the bull-dog and Irifh gre-hound proceeds 
 a mongrel called the majilff', which is larger than the 
 bull-dog, and refembles the latter moi-e than the Iiifli 
 gre-hound. 
 
 The pug-dog proceeds from the bull-dog and fmall 
 Danifh dog. 
 
 All thefe dogs are fimple mongrels, and are produ- 
 ced by the commixture of two pure races. But there 
 are other dogs, called double mongrels, becaufe they pre)- 
 ceed from the junftion of a pure race with a mongrel. 
 The baftard pug-dog is a double mongrel from a.mrx- 
 ture of the pug-dog with the httle Danifh dog. The 
 Alicant dog is alfo a double mongrel, proceeding from 
 the pug-dog and fmall. fpaniel.. The Maltefe, or lap- 
 i og, is a double mongrel, produced between the fmall 
 fprmiel and httle water-dog. 
 
 Lafdy, there are dogs which may be called /ri^/* 
 mongrels, becaufe they are produced by two mixed ra- 
 ces. Of this kind are the Artois and. lilois dogs, 
 ■which are produced by the pug-dog and the hailard 
 pug-dog ; to which may be added the dogs called_y?/w/- 
 dogs, which refemble no particular kind, becaiife they 
 proceed from, races which have previoufly been feveral 
 times mixed.. 
 
 The following is a fyflematic catalogue of all the 
 known dogs, as arranged by Mi- Pennant in his Hi- 
 iiory of Quadrupeds : 
 
 j...She|)herd's dog (Cams domejluusf Liu» Le Chkn. 
 
 I ] CAN 
 
 de Berger, Buff.) ; fo called, becaufe it becomes with- Can* 
 
 out difcipline almoft inftantly the guardian of the flocks, 
 
 keeps them within bounds, reduces the ftragglers to 
 their proper hmits, and defends them from the attacks 
 of the wolves. "\\^e have this variety in England ; but 
 it is fmall and weak. It Is the paltoralis of Caius 
 above mentioned. Thofe of France and the Alps are 
 very large and Itrong; fliarp-nofed ; ereft and fnarp ear- 
 ed ; very hairy, efpecially about the neck; and have their 
 tails turned up or curled : and by accident their faces 
 often fnow' the marks of tlieir combats vv'ith the wolf. 
 
 Its varieties or nearefl; allies are : a, Pomeranian 
 dog. h, Siberian dog. The other varieties in the in- 
 land parts of the empire and Siberia noticed by Buflbn,. 
 are chiefly from the fhepherd's dog ; and there is a 
 high-Hmbed taper-bodied kind, the common dog of 
 the Calmuc and independent Tartars, excellent for the 
 chace and all ufes. 
 
 2. The hound, or dog with long, fmooth, and pen- 
 dulous ear.s. This is the fame with the blood-hound 
 in Caiui's Table, (le Chlen courant. Buff. Cams fagax^ 
 Lin.). Tt is the head of the other kinds with fmooth 
 and hanging ears: a. Harrier; b, Dalmatian, viJgarly 
 the Danilh, a beautiful fpotted dog ; c, Turnfpit; d^ 
 Water-dog, great and fraall. 
 
 From this Itock branches out anothei; race with 
 pendent ears, covered with long hairs, and lefs in fiaej 
 which form, 
 
 3. The Spaniel; [Cams av'icjdarms,'Lm.) Thofe of - 
 this kind vary in fize from the fefting dog to the 
 fpringing fpaniels, and fome of the little lap-dogs ; as, 
 
 a. King Charles's.' Charles II. never went out ex- 
 cept attended by numbers of this kind, b, Le pyrame 
 of Buflbn. For this fort, though common in Britain,, 
 there is no Enghfh name. It is black, marked on the 
 legs with red, and having a fpot of the fame colour 
 above each eye. c. The Shuck-dog. 
 
 4. Dogs with, fliort pendent ears, and long legs and 
 bodies; as, 
 
 a, Irifli gre-hound; [le Matin, Buff.); a variety 
 once very frequent in, Ireland, and nfed in the chace 
 of the wolf ; now very fcarce. Probably the fame 
 with the leviner in Caius's table, defcribed above. 
 
 h. Common gre-hound, defcribed above under Caius's ; 
 table; {le Levrier et Schreber, BuS. Cams gralus, hin.) 
 Its varieties are^ i. Italian gre-hound, fmall and fmooth: 
 2. Oriental gre-hound, tall, flender, with very pendulous 
 ears, and very long hairs on the tail hanging down a 
 great length. 
 
 c, Danifh dog, of a ftronger make than a gre-hound : , 
 the largell of dogs; (le Grand Z)<«/zo/j-, Buff.) Mr 
 Pennant thinks it probable, that of this kind were the 
 dogs of Epirus, mentioned by Arillotle, lib. iii. c. 21 j , 
 or. thofe of Albania, the modem Schirwan or Eaft 
 Georgia, fo beautifully defcribed by Phny, lib.viii. c.40. 
 Perhaps to this head may be referred the vafl: dogs of 
 Thibet, faid by Marco Paolo to be as big as affes, and" 
 ufed in that country to take wild beafts, and efpecially 
 the wild oxen called Beyamini. 
 
 J, Maftiff, (le Dogue de forte r^r^. Buff. Canis mo- 
 lojfus, Lin.): Very jtrong and thick made; the head, 
 large ; the lips great, and hanging down on each fide-^ . 
 a fine and noble countenance ; grows to a great fize:: 
 A Britifh kind. See above under Dr Caius's table. 
 
 5. Dogs with fliort pendent ears, fliort, compad; 
 
CAN [ TC 
 
 bodies, (hort nofes, and generally (hort legs. a. 
 dog (le Dogue, BufF.), with a fliort nofe, and under 
 jaw longer than the upper : a cruel and veiy fierce 
 kind, often biting before it barks ; peculiar to England ; 
 the breed fcarcer than it has been iince the barbarous 
 cuftom of bull-baiting has declined, b, Pug-dog, ( le 
 Dogui/:, BufF.): A fmall fpecies; an innocent refein- 
 blance of the laft. f,.Baftard pug, fie Roquet^ BufF.) 
 d.) Naked, ( le ch'ien Turc^ BufF. ) : A degenerate fpecies 
 with naked bodies; having loft their hair by the heat 
 of climate. 
 
 Dogs arc found in the Society iflands, New Zea- 
 land, and the Low iflands; there are alfo a few in 
 New Holland. Of thefe are two varieties : 
 
 Refembling the fharp-nofed pricked-ear fhepherd's 
 cur. Thofe of New Zeland are of the largefl fort. In 
 the Society iflands they are the common food, and are 
 fattened with vegetables, which the natives cram down 
 their throats as we ferve turkeys when Ihey will volun- 
 tarily eat no more. They are killed by ftrangling, 
 and the extravafated blood is preferved in cocoa-nut 
 " fliells, and baked for the table. They grow very fa£, 
 and are allowed, even by Europeans who have got 
 ever their prejudices, to be very fweet and palatable. 
 But the tafte for the flefh of thefe animals was not 
 tonfined to the iflanders of the Pacific ocean. The 
 tncients reckoned a young and fat dog excellent food, 
 efpecially if it had been caltrated: Plippocrates placed 
 it on a footing with mutton and pork ; and in another 
 place fays, that the fleih of a grown dog is wholefome 
 snd ftrengthening, of puppies relaxing. The Romans 
 admired fucking puppies : they facrificed them alfo to 
 their divinities, and thought them a fupper in which 
 the gods themfelves delighted. 
 
 The barbet, whofe hair being long and filky, is 
 greatly valued by the New Zelanders for trimming their 
 ornamental drefs. This variety is not eaten. The 
 iflanders never ufe their dogs for any purpofes but 
 what we mention ; and take fuch care of them as not 
 to fufFer them even to wet their feet. They are ex- 
 ceffively ftupid, have a very bad nofe for fmelling, and 
 feldom or never bark, only now and then hov.rl. The 
 New Zelanders feed their dogs entirely with fifh. 
 
 The Marquefas, Friendly Iflands, New Hebrides, 
 New Caledonia, and Eailcr Ifle, have not yet received 
 thofe animals. 
 
 Having thus traced the varieties of the Dog, and 
 noticed the peculiarities of each, we fliall now give its 
 general natural hiftory. 
 
 From the ftru£lure of the teeth, it might be con- 
 cluded a prion that the dog is a carnivorous animal. 
 - He does not, however, eat indifcriminately every kind 
 of animal fubftance. There are fome birds, as theco- 
 lymbus arfticus, which the water-dog will lay hold of 
 with keennefs, but will not bring out of the water, be- 
 caufe its fmell is exceedingly offenlive to him. He 
 ■will not eat the bones of a goofe, crow, or hawk : bift 
 he devours even the putrid flefli of moll other animak. 
 He is pofTefTed of fuch flrong digeftive powers, as to 
 draw nourifliment from the hardeft bones. When flefh 
 cannot be procured, he wiU eat fifli, fruits, fucculent 
 herbs, and bi-ead of all kinds. When opprefTed with 
 ficknefs, to which he is veiy fubjefil, -efpecially in the 
 ■beginning of fummer, and before ill m-athei:, in oider 
 
 2 T CAN 
 
 to procure a puke, he eats the leaves of the quicken* Can 
 grafs, the bearded wheat-grafs, or the rough cock's- ' ^ 
 foot grafs, which gives him immediate relief. When 
 he fleals a piece of flefh, as confcious of the immorality 
 of the aftion, he runs off with his tail hanging and 
 bent in betwixt his feet. 
 
 His drink is water, which he takes in fmall quanti- 
 ties at a time, by licking with his tongue. He is in 
 fome meafure obliged to lick in this manner, otherwife 
 his nofe would be immerfed in the water. 
 
 His excrements are generally hard fcybals, which, 
 efpecially after eating bones, are white, and go by the 
 name of album gmcum among phyficians. This album 
 graecum was for a long time in great repute as a feptic; 
 but it is now entirely dtfregarded. He does not throw 
 out his excrements promifcuoufly upon eveiy thing that 
 happens to be in the way, but upon flones, trunks of 
 trees, or barren places. This is a wife inftitution of 
 nature ; for the excrements of a dog deflroy almofl e- 
 very vegetable or animal fubftance. They are of fuch 
 a putrid nature, that if a man's fhoe touches them 
 when recently expelled, that particular part will rot in 
 a few days. He obierves the fame method in making 
 his urine, which he throws out at a fide. It is re- 
 markable, that a dog will not pafs a flone or a wall a- 
 gainfl which any other dog has pifFed, without follow- 
 ing his example, although a hundred fliould occur in a 
 few minutes, in fo much that it is altonifhing how fuch 
 a quantity can be fecreted in fo Ihort a time. 
 
 The dog is an animal not only of quick motion, "but 
 remarkable for travelling very long journeys. He can 
 eaiily keep up with his Ynafter, either on foot Or horfe- 
 back, for a whole day. When fatigued, 'he does not 
 fweat, but lolls out his tongue. Every kind of dog can 
 fwim ; but the water-dog excels in that article. 
 
 The dog runs round when about to lie down, in or* 
 der to difcover the moft proper lituation. He lies ge- 
 nerally on his breall, with his head turned to one fide, 
 and fometimes with his head above his two fore -feet. 
 He fleeps little, and even that does not feem to be very 
 quiet ; for he often ftarts, and feems to hear with 
 more acutenefs ui fleep than when awake. They 
 have a tremulous motion in fleep, frequently move 
 their legs, and bark, which is an indication of dream- 
 ing. 
 
 Dogs are pofTefTed of the fenfation of fmelling in a 
 high degree. They can trace their mafter by the fmell 
 of his feet in a church, or in the flreets of a populous 
 city. This fenfation is not equally ftrong in every 
 kind. The hound can trace game, or his matter's 
 fteps, 24 hours afterwards. He barks more furioufly 
 the nearer he approaches the fowls, unlefs he \>t beat 
 aud trained to filence. 
 
 The dog eats envioufly, with oblique eyes ; is an 
 en«my to beggars ; bites at a flone flung at it; is fond 
 of licking wounds; howls at certain notes in mulic, and 
 often urines on hearing them. 
 
 With regard to the propagation of dogs, the females 
 admit the males before they are 12 months old. They 
 remain in feafon 10, 12, or even 15 days, during which 
 time they w ill admit a variety of males. They comc- 
 ■in feafon generally twice in the year, and more fre- 
 ^qirently in the cold than in the hot months. The male 
 difcovers the condition of the female by the fmell; but 
 (he feldom admits him the firil fix or feven days. One 
 
 coitut 
 
CAN F K 
 
 Canis. coitus will make her conceive a great number of young ; 
 but, when not reftrained, fhe will admit feveral dogs 
 every day : fhe feems to have no choice or predilec- 
 tion, except in favour of large dogs: from this circum- 
 ftance it fometimes happens, that a fmall female, who 
 has admitted a mallifF, perifhes in bringing forth her 
 young. During the time of copulation, thefe animals 
 cannot feparate themfelves, but remain united fo long 
 as the erection fubiiils. This is owing to the ftrufture 
 of the parts. The dog has not only a bone in his pe- 
 nis,, but in the middle of the corpus cavernofum there 
 is a large hollow, which is blown vip in the time of e- 
 reftton to a confiderable bulk. The female, on the 
 other hand, has a larg-er clitoris than perhaps any other 
 animal : befides, a large firm protuberance rifes in the 
 time of copulation, and remains perhaps longer than 
 that of the male,, and prevents him from retii'ing till it 
 fubfides : accordingly, after the aft of copulation is 
 over, the male turns about in order to reft himfelf on 
 his legs, and remains in that polition till the parts turn 
 flaccid. The female goes with young about, nine 
 weeks. They generally bring forth from fix to twelve 
 puppies. Thofe of a fmall fize bring forth five, four, 
 and fometimes but two. They continue to copulate 
 and bring forth during life, which lafts generally about 
 14 or 15 years. The whelps are commonly blind, and 
 cannot open their eyes till the loth or 12th day: the 
 males are like the dog, the females like the bitch. In 
 the fourth month, they lofe fome of their teeth, which 
 are foon fucceeded by others. 
 
 The dog has fuch a ftrong refemblance to the wolf 
 and the fox, that he is commonly fuppofed to be the 
 production of one or other of thefe animals tamed and 
 civiKzed. BufFon informs us, that he kept a young 
 dog and a young wolf together till they were three 
 years of age, without their difcovering the leaft incli- 
 nation to copulate. He made the fame experiment 
 upon a dog and a fox ; but their antipathy was rather 
 increafed when the female was in feafon. From thefe 
 experiments he concludes, that dogs, wolves, and foxes, 
 are perfeftly difl:in£t genera of animals. There has, 
 however, been lately an inftance to the contrary: 
 Mr Brooke, animal-merchant in Holborn, turned a 
 wolf to a Pomeranian bitch in heat ; the congrefs was 
 immediatCj and as ufual between dog and bitch : fhe 
 produced ten puppies. Mr Pennant faw one of them 
 at Gordon Caftle, that had very much the refemblance 
 of a wolf, and alfo much of its nature ; being (lipped 
 at a weak deer, it inftantly caught at the animal's 
 throat and killed it. " I could not learn (fays Mr Pen- 
 nant) whether thi-s mongrel continued its fpecies; but 
 another of the fame lund did, and flocked the neigh- 
 bourhood of Fochabers, in the county of Moray 
 (where it was kept), with a multitude of curs of a moil 
 wolfifh afpe£L — There was lately living a mongrel 
 offspring of this kind. It greatly refembled its wolf 
 pm-ent. It v/^as firft the property of Sir Wolftein 
 !0ixey ; afterwards of Sir Wiilughby Afton. During 
 day it was very tame ; but at night fometimes relapfed 
 into feVocity. It never barked, but rather howled ; 
 when it came into fields where fheep were it would 
 feign lamenefs, but if no, one was prefent would in- 
 ftantly attack them. It had been feen in copulation 
 vvith a bitch, which afterwards pupped : the breed was 
 ifiDaginedto. refemble in many refpe(5ls the fuppofed 
 
 ^3 ] e A N 
 
 fire. It died between the age of five and fix.— The Cam's, 
 bitch will alfo breed with the fox. The woodman of — — v— 
 the manor of Mongewell, in Oxfordfhire, has a bitch, 
 which conftantly follows him, the offspring of <i tame 
 dog-fox by a fhepherd's cur ; and (he again has had 
 puppies by a dog. Since there are fuch authentic 
 proofs of the further continuance of the breed, we 
 may furely add the wolf and fox to the other fuppofed 
 flocks of thefe faithful domellics." 
 
 With regard to the natural difpofition of the dog : 
 in a favage flate, he is fierce, cruel, and voracious ; 
 but, when civilized and accuftomed to hve with nien, 
 he is poffefTed of every amiable quality. He feems 
 to have no other defire than to pleafe and protect his . 
 mafter. He is gentle, obedient, fubmilTive, and faith- 
 ful. Thefe difpofitions, joined to his almoft un- 
 bounded fagacity, juftly claim the efteem of mankind. 
 Accordingly no animal is fo much carefTed or refpected: 
 he is fo duftile, and fo much formed to pleafe, that he 
 affumes the very air and temper of the family in which 
 he refides. 
 
 An animal endowed with fuch uncommon qualities 
 mull anfwer many uicful purpofes. His fidelity and 
 vigilance are daily employed to protect our perfons, our 
 flocks, or our goods. The acutenefs of his fmell gains 
 him employment in hunting: he is frequently employ- 
 ed as a turnfpit: at Bruffelsand in Holland he is train- 
 ed to draw little carts to the herb-market ; and in the 
 northern regions draws a fledge with his mafter in it, 
 or loaden with provifions. The Kamfchatkans, Ef- 
 quimaux, and Gi-eenlanders, ftrangers to the fofter vir- - 
 tues, treat thefe poor animals with great negle6l. 
 The former, during fummer, the feafon in which they 
 are ufelefs, turn them loofe to provide for themfelves ; 
 and recall them in Odlober into their ufual confinement - 
 and labour: from that time till fpring they are fed 
 with fifli-bones and opana, i. e. putrid fifti preferved in 
 pits, and ferved up to them mixed with hot water. 
 Thofe ufed for draught are caftrated; and four, yoked' 
 to the carriage, will draw five poods, or a hundred and' 
 ninety Englifh pounds, befides the driver ; and thixs 
 Loaden, will travel - 30 verfts, or zo miles a-day ; or if 
 unloaden, on hardened fnow, on fliders of bone, a 
 a hundred and fifty verfts, or a hundred Englifh miles. 
 
 It is pretty certain, Mr Pennant obferves, that the 
 Kamfchatkan dogs are of wolfifli defcent; .for wolves : 
 abound in that countr}', in all parts of Siberia, and even 
 under the ardlic circle. If their mafter is flung out of his 
 fledge, they want the affeftionate fidelity of the European 
 kind, and leave him to follow, never ftopping till the 
 fledge is oveilurned, or clft flopped by fome impediment. . 
 The great traveller of the 1 3th century, Marco Polo, had 
 knowledge of this fpecies of conveyance from the mer- 
 chants who went far north to traffic for the precious 
 furs. He defcribes the fledges ; adds, that they were 
 drawn by fix. great dogs ; . and that they changed them 
 and the fledges on the road, as we do at prefent in go- 
 ing poft. The Kamfchatkans make ufe of the fl^ins 
 of dogs for clothing, and the long hair for ornament: 
 fome nations are fond of them as a food ; and reckon - 
 a fat dog a great r delicacy. Both the Afiatic and 
 American favages ufe thefe animals in.fa'-'rifices to their 
 gods, to befpeak favour or avert evil. When the Ko- - 
 reki dread any infcdlion, they kill a dog, wind the in= - 
 teftines round two poles, and pafs between them. 
 6:-. The^- 
 
C A N 
 
 Canis. The Greenlanders are not better mailers 
 "•"V-"— leave their dogs to feed on mufcles or berries; unlefs 
 in a great capture of feals, when they treat them with 
 the blcrod and garbage. Thefe people alfo fometimes 
 eat their dogs ; ufe the ficins for coverlets, for cloth- 
 ing, or to border and feani their liabits ; and their beft 
 thread is made of the guts. Thefe northern dogs in 
 general are large ; and in the frigid parts at leaft have 
 the appearance of wolves : are ufually white, with a 
 black face ] fometimes varied with black and white, 
 fometimes all white ; rarely brown or all black : have 
 {harp nofes, thick hair, and fliort ears ; and feldom 
 bark, but fet up a fort of growl or favage howl. They 
 deep abroad ; and make a lodge in the fnow, lying 
 with only th^^ir nofes out. They fwim moft excellent- 
 ly ; and will hunt in packs the ptarmigan, arftic fox, 
 polar bear, and feals lying on the ice. The natives 
 fometimes ufe them in the chafe of the bear. They 
 are exceffively fierce ; and, hke wolves, inftantly fly on 
 the- few domeftic animals introduced into Greenland* 
 They will fight among themfelves even to death. Ca- 
 nine madnefs is unknown in Greenland. Being to the 
 natives in the place of horfes, the Greenlanders faften 
 to their fledges from four to ten; and thus make their 
 vifits in favage ftate, or bring home the animals they 
 have killed. Egede fays that they will travel over the 
 'ice 15 German miles in a day, or 60 Enghfh, with 
 fledges loaden with their maflers and five or fix large 
 feals. 
 
 Thofe of the neighbouring ifland of Iceland have a 
 great refemblance to them. As to thofe of Newfound- 
 land, it is not certain that there is any diftinft breed : 
 moil of them are curs,' with a crofs of the maftiff : 
 fome will, and others will not, take the water, abfo- 
 lutely refufing to go in. The country was found un- 
 inhabited, which makes it more probable that they 
 were introduced by the Europeans ; who ufe them, as 
 the faftory does in Hudfon's bay, to draw firing from 
 the woods to the forts. The favages who trade to 
 ^ Hudfon's bay make ufe of the wolfifli kind to draw 
 their furs. 
 
 It is fingular, that the race of European dogs fhovsr 
 as ftrong an antipathy to this American fpecies as 
 they do to the wolf itfelf. They never meet with 
 them, but they fiiow all poffible figns of diflike, and 
 win fall on and worry them ; while the wolfifh breed, 
 with every mark of timidity, puts its tail between its 
 legs, and runs from the rage of the others. This aver- 
 fion to the wolf is natural to all genuine dogs ; for it 
 is well knovi-n that a whelp, which has never feen a 
 wolf, will at firft fight tremble, and run to its matter 
 for proteftion : an old dog will inftantly attack it. 
 Yet thefe animals may be made to breed with one an- 
 other as above fliown ; and the following abftraft of a 
 letter from Dr Pallas to Mr Pennant, dated Oftober 
 5th 1 78 1, affords a further confirmation of the fa6l. 
 *' I have feen at Mofcow about twenty fpurious animals 
 from dogs and black wolves. They are for the moft 
 part Hke wolves, except that fome cany their tails 
 higher, and have a kind of hoarfe barking. They 
 multiply among themfelves : and fome of the whelps 
 ' are greyifli, rufty, or even of the whitifh hue of the 
 ar£lic wolves ; and one of thofe I faw, in ftiape, tail, 
 and hair, and even in barking, fo like a cur, that was 
 it not for his head and ears, his ill-natured look, and 
 
 I 104 ] CAN 
 
 They fearfulnefs at tKe approach of man, I fliould hardly Catiis. 
 
 have believed that it was of the fame breed." — y— -/ 
 
 The dog is liable to many difeafes, as thefcab, mad- 
 nefs, &c. and he feldom wants the taenia or tape-worm 
 in his guts, efpecially if he drinks dirty water. 
 
 II. The fecond fpecies of this genus is tbe Lufus, The Wolf, 
 or Wolf. He has a long head, pointed nofe, ears 
 ereft and fliarp, long legs well clothed with hair ; 
 tail bufhy and bending down, with the tip black; 
 head and neck afh-coloured ; body generally pale brown 
 tinged with yellow: fometimes found white, and fome- 
 times entirely black. The wolf is larger and fierce? 
 than a dog. His eyes fparkle, and there is a great 
 degree of fury and wildnefs in his looks. He draws 
 up his claws when he walks, to prevent his tread from 
 being heard. His neck is (hort, but admits of very 
 quick motion to either fide. His teeth are large and 
 fharp ; and his bite is terrible, as his ibength is great* 
 The wolf, cruel, but cowardly and fufpicious, flies from 
 man ; and feldom ventures out of the woods, except 
 prefled by hunger : but when this becomes extreme, 
 he braves danger, and will attack men, horfes, dogs, 
 and cattle of all kinds ; even the graves of the deatj 
 are not proof againft his rapacity. Thefe circum* 
 ftances are finely defcribed, in the following lines : 
 
 By wintry famine rous'd, 
 
 Cruel as death, and hungry as the grave ! 
 Burning for blood ! bony, and ghaimt, and grim ! 
 Affembling wolves in raging troops defcend ; 
 And, pouring o'er the country, bear along. 
 Keen as the north-wind fweeps the gloffy fnow. 
 All is their prize. They fallen on the fteed, 
 Prefs him to earth, and pierce his mighty heart. 
 Nor can the bull his av/ful front defend. 
 Or fliake the murthering favages away. 
 Rapacious at the mother's throat they fly, 
 And tear the fcreaming infant from her breaft. 
 The god-like face of man avails him nought. 
 Even beauty, force divine ! at whofe bright glance 
 The generous lion ftands in foften'd gaze, 
 Here bleeds, a haplefs undiftinguifli'd prey. 
 Buc if, appris'd of the fevere attack. 
 The country be fliut up, lur'd by the fcent. 
 On church-yards drear (inhuman to relate !) 
 The difappolnted prowlers fall, and dig 
 The flirouded body from the grave ; o'er which, 
 Mix'd with foul ftiadesand frighted ghofts, they howl. 
 
 Thomson's Winter. 
 
 The wolf, unlike the dog, is an enemy to all fo- 
 ciety, and keeps no company even with thofe of his 
 own fpecies. When feveral wolves appear together, 
 it is not a fociety of peace, but of war; it is attended 
 with tumult and dreadftJ prowlings, and indicates an 
 attack upon fome large animal, as a ftag, ari ox,^ or a 
 formidable maftiff". This military expedition is no 
 fooner finiflied, than they feparate, and each returns 
 in filence to liis folitude. There is even little inter- 
 courfe between the males and females : They feel the 
 mutual attraftions of love but once a-year, and never 
 remain long together. The females come in feafon in 
 winter: many males follow the fame female; and this af- 
 fociation is more bloody than the former ; forthey growl, 
 chafe, fight, and tear one another, and often facrifi^ce 
 
 him 
 
CAN [ 
 
 Kim that is preferred by'the female. The female com- 
 monly flies z long time, fatigues her admirers, and 
 retires, while they fleep, with the moll alert or raoft 
 favourite male. ■ 
 
 The feafoH of love continues only twelve or fifteen 
 days; it commences vi'ith the oldeft females; the young 
 ones are not fo early difpofed. Tlie inales have no 
 marked period, but are equally ready at all times. 
 They go from female to female, according as they are in 
 a condition to receive them. They begin with the old 
 females about the end of December, and finifh with 
 the young ones in the month of February or beginning 
 of March. The time of geftation is about three 
 months and a half ; and young whelps are found from 
 the end of April to the month of July. The wolves 
 copulate like the dogs, and have an olTeous penis, fur- 
 rounded with a ring, which fwells and hinders them 
 from feparating. When the females are about to bring 
 forth, they fearch for a concealed place in the inmoft 
 recefTes of the foreft. After fixing on the fpot, they 
 make it fmooth and plain for a confiderable fpace, by 
 cutting and tearing up with their teeth all the brambles 
 and brufh-wood. They then bring great quantities of 
 mofs, and prepare a commodious bed for their young, 
 which are generally five or fix, though fometimes they 
 bring forth feven, eight, and even nine, but never 
 lefs than three. They come into the world blind, hke 
 the dogs ; the mother fuckles thera fome weeks, and 
 foon learns them to eat flefh, which flie prepares for 
 them by tearing it into fraall pieces. Some time af- 
 ter file brings them field-mic:e, young hares, par- 
 tridges, and living fowls. The young -wolves begin 
 by playing with thefe animals, and at lall worry them; 
 then the mother pulls off the feathers, tears them in 
 pieces, and gives a part to each of her young. They 
 never leave their den till the end of fix weeks or two 
 months. They then follow their mother, who leads 
 them to drink in the hollow trunk of a tree, or in 
 fome neighbouring pool. She condufts them back to 
 the den, or, when any danger is apprehended, obhges 
 them to conceal themfelves elfewhere. Though, like 
 other females, the flie-wolf is naturally more timid 
 than the male ; yet when her young are attacked, fhe 
 defends them with intrepidity ; fiie lofes all fenfe of 
 danger, and becomes perfeilly furious. She never 
 leaves them till their education is finifhed, till they 
 are fo ftrong as to need no afliftance or protection, and 
 Jiave acquired talents fit for rapine, which generally 
 happens in ten or twelve months after their firft teeth 
 (which commonly fall out in the firft month) are re- 
 placed. 
 
 Wolves acquire their full growth at the end of two 
 <or three years, and live 15 or 20 years. When old, 
 itliey turn whitifh, and tlieir teeth are much worn. 
 When full, or fatigued, they fleep, but more during 
 \the day than the night, and it is always a kind of 
 jflight flumber. They drink often ; and,' in the time 
 •of drought, when there is no water in the hollows, or 
 iin the trunks of old trees, they repair, feveral times 
 iin a day, to the brooks or rivulets. Though extreme- 
 Uy voracious, if fupplied with water, they can pafs 
 Ifour or five days without rneat. 
 
 The wolf has great ftrength, efpecially in the ante- 
 jrior parts of the body, ia the mufcles of the neck and 
 jjaws. He carries a flieep in his mouth, and, at the 
 ifame time, outruns the fliepherds; fo that he can only 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 105 1 CAN 
 
 be ftoppefl or deprived of his prey by dogs. His bite 
 is cruel, and always more obftinate in proportion to 
 the fmallnefs of the refillance ; for when an animal 
 can defend itfelf, he is cautious and circumfpeCt. He 
 never fights but from neceflity, and not from motives 
 of courage. When wounded with a. ball, he cries; 
 and yet, when difpatching him with bludgeons, he 
 complains not. When he falls into a fnare, he is fo 
 overcome with terror, that he may be either killed or 
 taken alive without refifliance : he allows himfelf to 
 be chained, muzzled, and led where you pleafe, with- 
 out exhibiting the leaft fymptom of refentment or dif- 
 content. 
 
 The fenfes of the wolf are excellent, but particular- 
 ly his fenfe of finelling,. which often extends farther than 
 his eye. The odour of carrion ftrikes him at the di- 
 ftance of more than a league. He likewife fcents hve 
 animals very far, and hunts them a long time by fol- 
 lowing their trad. When he ifliies from the wood, he 
 never lofes the wind. He ftops upon the borders of 
 the foreft, fmells on all fides, and receives the emana- 
 tions of living or dead animals brought to him from a 
 diitance by the wind. Though he prefers living to 
 dead animals; yet he devours the moft putrid carcafes. 
 He is fond of human flefli; and, if ftronger, he v\?oald 
 perhaps eat no other. Wolves have been known to 
 follow armies, to come in troops to the field of bat- 
 tle, where bodies are carelefsly interred, to tear them 
 up, and to devour them with an infatiable avidity: 
 And, when once accuftomed to human flefli, thefe 
 wolves ever after attack men, prefer the fliepherd to the 
 flock, devour women, and carry off children. Wolves 
 of this vicious difpofition are called Loups garoux 
 by the French peafants, who fuppofe them to be pof- 
 feffed with fome evil fpirits ; and of this nature were 
 the tvere ividfs of the old Saxons. 
 
 The wolf inhabits the continents of Europe, A- 
 fia, Africa, and America ; Kamtfchatka, and even 
 as high as the arclic circle. The wolves of North A- 
 merica are the fmalleft ; and, when reclaimed, are 
 the dogs of the natives : the wolves of Senegal the 
 largell and fierceft ; they prey in c'bmpany with the 
 lion. Thofe of the Cape are grey ftriped with black ; 
 others are black. — They are found in Africa as low a« 
 the Cape ; and are beheved to inhabit New Holland, 
 animals refembling them having b^en feen there by the 
 late circumnavigators. Dampier's people alfo faw fome 
 half-ftarved animals in the fame country, which they 
 fuppofed to be wolves. In the eaft, and particularly 
 in Perfia, wolves are exhibited as fpeftacles to the 
 people. When young, they are learned to dance, or 
 rather to perform a kind of wrcftling with a number of 
 men. Cbardin tells us, that a wolf, well educated in 
 dancing, is fold at 500 French crowns. This fa£l 
 proves, that thefe animals, by time and reftraint, are 
 fufceptible of fome kind of education. M. Buff"on 
 brought up feveral of them : " When young, or du- 
 ring their firft year (he informs us), they are very 
 docile, and even careffing ; and, if well fed, neither 
 difturb the poultry nor any other animal: but, at the 
 age of 18 months or two years, their- natural ferocity 
 appears, and they muft be chained, to prevent them 
 from running o>ff and doing mifchief. I brought up 
 one till the age of 1 8 or 1 9 months, in a court along 
 with fowls, none of which he ever attacked ; but, for 
 his firft eflTay, he killed the whole in one night, withr 
 O out 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 106 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canis: out eating any of them. Another, having broken 
 V— his chain, run off, after killing a dog with whom he 
 had lived in great familiarity." 
 
 Whole countries are fometimes. obliged to arm, in 
 ©rder to deftroy the wolves. Princes have particular 
 equipages for this fpecies of hunting, which is both 
 ufeful and neceflary. Hunters diftinguifh wolves into 
 ymng, old, and very old. They know them by the 
 tracks of their feet. The older the wolf, his feet is 
 the larger. The {he-wolf's feet are longer and more 
 {lender ; her heel is alfo fmaller, and her toes thinner. 
 A good blood-hound is neceflary for hunting the wolf: 
 and, when he falls into the fcent, he mull be coaxed 
 and encouraged; for all dogs have an averfion from 
 the wolf, and proceed with coldnefs in the chace. 
 When the wolf is ralfed, the gre-hounds are let 
 loofe in pairs, and one is kept for diflodging him, if 
 he gets under cover ) the other dogs are led before as 
 a referve. The firft pair are let loofe after the wolf, 
 and are fupported by a man on horfe-back ; then the 
 fecond pair are let loofe at the diftance of feven or 
 eight hundred paces ; and, laftly, the third pair, when 
 the other dogs begin to join and to teaze the wolf. 
 The whole together foon reduce him to the lail extre- 
 mity ; and the hunters complete the bufmefs by ttab- 
 bing him with a dagger. The dogs have fuch a reluc- 
 tance to the wolf's flefh, that it muft be prepared and 
 feafoned before they will eat it. The wolf may alfo 
 be hunted with beagles or hounds ; but as he darts 
 always ftraight forward, and runs for a whole day 
 without Hopping, the chace is irkfome, unlefs the 
 beagles be fupported by grey-hounds, to teaze him, 
 and give the hounds time to come up. 
 
 Wolves are now fo rare in the populated parts of 
 America, that the inhabitants leave their flieep the 
 whole night unguarded : yet the governments of Pen- 
 fylvania and New Jerfey did fome years ago allow a 
 reward of twenty fhillings, and the laft even thirty 
 fliillings, for the killing of every wolf. Tradition in- 
 formed them what a fcourge thofe animals had been 
 to the colonies ; fo they wifely determined to prevent 
 the like evil. In their infant ftate, wolves came down 
 in multitudes from the mountains, often attracted by 
 t'he fmell of the corpfes of hundreds of Indians who 
 died of the fmall-pox, brought among them by the 
 Europeans : but the animals did not confine their in- 
 fults to the dead, but even devoured in their huts the 
 fick and dying favages. 
 
 Befides being hunted, wolves are deftroyed by pit- 
 falls, traps, or poifon. A peafant in France who kills 
 a wolf, carries its head from village to village, and col- 
 lefts fome fmall reward from the inhabitants : the 
 Kirghis-Coflacks take the wolves by the help of a large 
 hawk called beriut, which is trained for the diverfion, 
 and will fallen on them and tear out their eyes. Britain, 
 a few centuries ago, was much infefted by them. It 
 was, as appears by Hollingfhed, very noxious to the 
 flocks in Scotland in 1577; nor was it entirely extir- 
 pated till about 1680, when the laft wolf fell by the 
 hand of the famous Sir Ewen Cameron. We may 
 therefore with confidence affert the non-exiftence of 
 thefc animals, notwithftanding M. de Bulion maintains 
 that the Englifh pretend to the contrary* It has 
 been a received opinion, that the other parts of thefe 
 kingdoms were in early times delivered from this peft 
 by the care of king Edgar. . la England he attempted 
 
 to effeft it, hy commuting the punifhments of certain 
 crimes into the acceptance of a certain number of wolves 
 tongues from each criminal ; and in Wales by con- 
 verting the tax of gold and filver into an annual tax 
 of 300 wolves heads. But, notwithftanding thefe his 
 endeavours, and the affertions of fome authors, his 
 fcheme proved abortive. We find, that fome cen- 
 turies after the reign of that Saxon monarch, thefe 
 animals were again increafed to fuch a degree as 
 to become again the objeft of royal attention : ac- 
 cordingly Edward I. iflued out his royal mandate to Pe- 
 ter Corbet to fuperintend and affift in the deftruc- 
 tion of them in the feveral counties of Gloucefter 
 Worcefter, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford; and in 
 the adjacent county of Derby (as Cambden, p. 902, 
 informs us), certain perfons at Wormhill held their 
 lands by the duty of hunting and taking the wolvea 
 that infefted the country, whence they were fty- 
 led <ivolve-hunt. To look back into the Saxon times, 
 we find, that in Athelftan's reign wolves abounded fo 
 in Yorkftiire, that a retreat was built at Fhxton in 
 that county, " to defend paflengers from the wolves, 
 that they ftiould not be devoured by them :" and fuch 
 ravages did thofe animals make during winter, parti- 
 cularly in January, when the cold was fevereft, that 
 the Saxons diflinguiftied that month by the name of 
 the ivolf-month. They alfo called an outlaw <wolf's-head, 
 as being out of the proteftion of the law, profcribed, 
 and as liable to be killed as that deftruftlve beaft. Ire- 
 land was infefted by wolves for many centuries after 
 their extinftion in England ; for there are accounts of 
 fome being found there as late as the year 1710, the 
 laft prefentment for killing of wolves being made in 
 the county of Cork about that time. 
 
 In many parts of Sweden the number of wolves has 
 been confiderably diminiftied by placing poifoned car- 
 cafes in their way : but in other places they are found 
 in great multitudes. Hunger fometimes compels them 
 to eat lichens : thefe vegetables were found in the 
 body of one killed by a foldier ; but it was fo weak, 
 that it could fcarcely move. It probably had fed on 
 the lichen vulpinus, which is a known poifon to thefe 
 animals. Madnefs, in certain years, is apt to feize 
 the wolf. The confequences are often very me- 
 lancholy. Mad wolves will bite hogs and dogs, and 
 the laft again the human fpecies. In a fingle pariih 
 14 perfons were vi6tims to this dreadful malady. The 
 fymptoms are the fame with thofe attendant on the 
 bite of a mad dog. Fury fparkles in their eyes; a glu- 
 tinous faliva diftils from their mouths; they carry their 
 tails low, and bite indifferently men and beafts. It is 
 remarkable that this difeafe happens in the depth of 
 winter, fo can never be attributed to the rage of the 
 dog-days. Often, towards fpring, wolves get upon 
 the ice of the fea, to prey on tlie young feals, which 
 they catch aileep : but this repaft often proves fatal to 
 them ; for the ice, detached from the fliore, carries 
 them to a great diftance from land, before they are 
 fenfible of it. In fome years a large diftrift is by this 
 means delivered from thefe pex-nicious beafts ; which 
 are heard howling in a moft dreadful manner, far in 
 the fea. When wolves come to make their attack on 
 cattle, they never fail attempting to frighten away the 
 men by their cries ; but the found of the horn makca 
 them fly like lightning. 
 
 There is nothing valuable in the wolf but his flcin, 
 
 whic 
 
 (CinJs. 
 
CAN r I. 
 
 Canis. whlcK makes a warm durable fur. His flefh is fo 
 -—^r'^ bad, that it is rejefted with abhorrence by all other 
 quadrupeds ; and no animal but a wolf will voluntarily 
 eat a wolf. The fmell of his breath is exceedingly of- 
 fenfive. As, to appeafe hunger, he fwallows indif- 
 criminately every thing he can find, corrupted flefh, 
 bones, hair, flcins half tanned and covered with lime, 
 lie vomits frequently, and empties himfelf oftener than 
 he fills. In fine, the wolf is confummately difagree- 
 able ; his afpeft is bafe and favage, his voice dreadful, 
 his odour infupportable, his difpofition perverfe, his 
 manners ferocious ; odious and deftruftive when living, 
 and, when dead, he is perfeftly ufdlefs. 
 
 Hyaena. - III. The Hy^na has a ftraight jointed tafil, with the 
 hair of its neck ereft, fmall naked ears, and four toes 
 on each foot. It inhabits Afiatic Turky, Syria, Per- 
 fia, and Barbary. Like the jackal, it violates the 
 repofitories of the dead, and greedily devours the pu- 
 trid contents of the grave ; like it, preys on the herds 
 and flocks ; yet, for want of other food, will eat the 
 roots of plants, and the tender fluoots of the palms : 
 but, contrary to the nature of the former, it is an un- 
 fociable animal ; is folitary, and inhabits the chafms 
 of the rocks. The fuperftitious Arabs, vi^hen they 
 kill one, carefully bury the head, left it fhould be em- 
 ployed for magical purpofes ; as the neck was of old 
 by the Theffalian forcerefs. 
 
 Vifcera non lyncisf non dira nodus hytents 
 Defuit. Lucan, vi. 672. 
 
 The ancients were wild in their opinion of the hyaena; 
 they believed that its neck confifted of one bone with- 
 out any joint ; that it changed its fex ; imitated the 
 human voice ; had the power of charming the fhep- 
 herds, and, as it were, rivetting them to the place 
 they flood on : no wonder that an ignorant Arab 
 (hould attribute preternatural powers to its remains. 
 They are cruel, fierce, and untameable animals, of a 
 moft malevolent afpeft ; have a fort of obflinate cou- 
 rage, which will make them face ftronger quadrupeds 
 than themfelves. Kaempfer relates, that he faw one 
 which had put two lions to flight, regarding them 
 with the iitmoft coolnefs. Their voice is hoarfe, a 
 difagreeable mixture of growling and roaring. 
 
 Mr Pennant defcribes a variety of this fpecies, un- 
 diftinguifhed by former naturalifls, which he calls the 
 [potted hyena. It has a large and flat head ; fome long 
 iiairs above each eye ; very long whiflcers on each fide of 
 the nofe ; a fhort black mane ; hair on the body fhort 
 and fmooth ; ears fhort and a little pointed, their out- 
 fide black, infide cinereous ; face and upper part of 
 the head black ; body and limbs reddifli brown, marked 
 with difl:inft black round fpots ; the hind legs with 
 black tranfverfe bars ; the tail fhort, black, and full 
 of hair. It inhabits Guinea, Ethiopia, and the Cape: 
 h'ves in holes in the earth, or cliffs of the rocks ; preys 
 by night ; howls horribly ; breaks into the folds, and 
 kills two or three fheep ; devours as much as it can, 
 and carries away one for a future repaft ; will attack 
 mankind, fcrape open graves, and devour the dead. 
 Bofman has given this creature the name jackal ; by 
 which BufFon being mifled, makes it fynonymous v/ith 
 the common jackal. This hyaena is called the tiger- 
 tvol/hj the colonifls at the Cape, where it is a very 
 common aud formidable beafl of prey. Of this ani- 
 
 >7 ] CAN 
 
 mal, formerly but imperfedly known, the following CaftU. 
 account is given by Dr Sparmann in his Voyage to the ^"~nr" 
 Cape. 
 
 *« The night, or the duflc of the evening only, is 
 the time in which thefe animals feek their prey, after 
 which they are ufed to roam about both feparately and 
 in flocks. But one of the mofl; unfortunate properties 
 of this creature is, that it cannot keep its own coun^ 
 fel. The language of it cannot eafily be taken down 
 upon paper ; however, with a view to make this fpe- 
 cies of wolf better known than it has been hitherto, I 
 ftiall obferve, that it is by means of a found fomething 
 like the following, aaiiae, and fometiraes ooao, yelled 
 out with a tone of defpair {at the interval of fome mi- 
 nutes between each howl), that nature obliges this, 
 the mofl: voracious animal in all Africa, to difcover it- 
 felf, juft as it does the mofl: venomous of all the Ame- 
 rican fei-pents, by the rattle in its tail, itfelf, to warn 
 every one to avoid its mortal bite. This fame rattle ■ 
 fnake would feem, in confequence of thus betraying 
 its own defigns, and of its great inaftivity (to be as 
 it were nature's flep-child), if, according to many 
 credible accounts, it had not the wondrous property 
 of charming its prey by fixing its eye upon it. The 
 like is affirmed alfo of the tiger-wolf. This creature, 
 it is true, is obliged to give information againfl; itfelf; 
 but, on the other hand, is aftually pofTefTed of the pe^ 
 cuKar gift of being enabled, in fome meafure, to imi- 
 tate the cries of other animals ; by which means this 
 arch-deceiver is fometimes lucky enough to beguile 
 and attra6i: calves, foals, lambs, and other animals. 
 Near fome of the larger farms, where there is a great 
 deal of cattle, this ravenous beafl is to be found almofl 
 every night ; and at the fame time frequently from 
 one hour to another betraying itfelf by its howHngs, 
 gives the dogs the alarm. The peafants affured me, 
 that the cunning of the wolves was fo great (adding, 
 that the trick had now and then even fucceeded with 
 fome of them), that a party of them, half flying and 
 half defending themCelves, would decoy the whole pack 
 of dogs to follow them to the difl:ance of a gun-fliot or 
 two from the farm, with a view to give an opportunity 
 to the reft of the wolves to come out from their am- 
 bufcade, and, without meeting with the leaft refift- 
 ance, carry off booty fufficient for themfelves and their 
 fugitive brethren. As the tiger-wolf, though a much 
 larger and ftronger animal, does not venture, without 
 being driven to the utmoft neceffity, to meafure its 
 ftrength with the common dog, this is certainly an 
 evident proof of its cowardice. Neither does this fame 
 voracious beaft dare openly to attack oxen, cows, 
 horfes, or any of the larger animals, while they make 
 the leaft appearance as if they would defend themfelves, 
 or even as long as they do not betray any figns of fear. 
 On the other hand, it has art enough to rufh in upon 
 them fuddenly and unexpectedly, at the fame time 
 fetting up a horrid and ftrange cry, fo as to fet them 
 a running in confequence of the fright, that it may af- 
 terwards keep clofe to their heels with fafety, till it 
 has an opportunity with one bite or ftroke to rip up 
 the belly of its prey (even though it fliould be fo large 
 an animal as a draught-ox), or elfe give it fome dan- 
 gerous bite, and fo at one fingle bout make itfelf mafter 
 of its antagonift. On this account the peafants are 
 cbligejto drive their cattle liome every evening before 
 
 O 2 it 
 
CAN [ ic 
 
 Canis it is dark, excepting the more confiderable droves of 
 ». draught-oxen, which they let roam about day and 
 night to feek their food unattended, by reafon that 
 they are ufed both to the country and the artifices of 
 the wolves, and can therefore the eafier depend upon 
 and defend each other. 
 
 " Travellers, on the other hand, who are obliged to 
 keep on in their journey, frequently fuffer great loffes 
 by turning their cattle out at night ; efpecially of the 
 young ones, which are eafiert feared. The Hottentots 
 informed me that it was ftill within the memory of 
 man, that the tiger- wolf was bold enough to fteal 
 upon them and moleft them in their huts, particularly 
 by carrj'ing off their children. This, however, is now 
 no longer the cafe ; a circumftance, perhaps, pi'oceed- 
 ing from the introduCllon of fire-arms into the coun- 
 try, a circumftance which, in thefe latter times, has 
 caufed this, as well as other wild beafts, to ftand in 
 greater awe of man than it did formerly. I have heai'd 
 the following ftory of the tiger-wolf mentioned, as be- 
 ing related in a certain treatife on the Cape, of v>^hich 
 I now cannot exactly remember the title. The tale is 
 laughable enough, though perhaps not quite fo pro- 
 bable. * At a feaft near the Cape one night, a trum- 
 peter who had got his fill Avas carried out of doors, in 
 order that he might cool himfelf, and get fober again. 
 The fcent of him foon drew thither a tiger-wolf, which 
 threw him on his back, and dragged him along with 
 Lim as a corpfe, and confequently a fair prize, up to- 
 wards Table-mountain. During this, however, our 
 drunken mufician waked, enough in his fenfes to know 
 the danger of his fituation, and to found the alarm 
 with his trumpet, which he carried failened to his fide. 
 The wild beait, as may eafily be fappofed, was not 
 lefs frightened in his turn.' Any other befides a trum- 
 peter w^ouid, in fuch circumllances, have undoubtedly 
 been no better than wolf's meat. 
 
 " In the mean while it is certain, that thefe wolves 
 are to be found alraoil every dark night about the 
 lhambles at the Cape, where they devour the offals of 
 Bones, Ikin, &c. which are thrown out there in great 
 quantities, and drag away with them what they catmot 
 eat. The inhabitants repay thefe good offices of the 
 hyaena with a free and unlimited privilege of accefs and 
 egrefs. The dogs too hereabouts, perfeifly accuftomed 
 to their company, are faid never to throw any impe- 
 diment in their way; fo that the beaft, entertained 
 and fed in the very heart of the town, has been feldom 
 known to do any mjfchief there. It is likewife a well- 
 known faft, that thefe wolves, in different parts of 
 Africa, exhibit different degrees of courage ; this, 
 however, may perhaps proceed from their being of 
 different fpecies in different parts. 
 
 " Yet in this very greedinefs of the hysena, and its 
 difpofition to confume every thing it can get at, the 
 provident economy of nature is abundantly evinced. 
 The flowery fields at the Cape would certainly foon 
 become hideous and disfigured with carcafes and flcele- 
 tons, the relicks of the great qviantity,of game of all 
 forts which graze and die there in fucceffion, were not 
 the tiger-wolf manifeftly fubfervient to nature in the 
 regulation of her pohce, by clearing her theatre from 
 them ; nay, I had almoft faid the wolf alone : for 
 lions and tigers, for example, never eat bones, and are 
 not very fond of cai'cafes. Thefe are ferviceabie ia 
 
 )8 ] CAN 
 
 another way. They make the other animals vigilant Cam's, 
 and attentive to the funftions for which nature has de- 
 figned them ; and befides anfwering feveral other in- 
 tentions of providence, they ferve, in conjunftion with 
 mankind, to keep in a jufl equilibrium the increafe of 
 the animal kingdom ; fo that it may not exceed the 
 fupplies afforded it by the vegetable part of the crea- 
 tion, and by this means prevent the neceffary renewal 
 of the latter by feeds, &c. and thus, by defokting it 
 and laying it wafte, in the end impoverifh and deflroy 
 themfelves, and die moft wretched viAims to want and 
 hunger ; fo that, notwithflanding the immeafe quanti- 
 ties of game exifling in this country, there are very 
 feldom found any bones in the haunts they have left, 
 and never after the tiger, lion, jackal, wild cat, and 
 wild dog. Thefe latter animals, that they may not 
 encumber and litter the ground which nature has or- 
 dained them to clear, never go out of their dens and 
 caverns when they find themfelves iick and difabled ; 
 but there, oppreffed with hunger and difeafe, await 
 the tranfitory moment, when they muil pay obedience 
 to nature's lafl law." 
 
 IV. The MEXICAN us has a fmooth crooked tail. The Mexi- 
 The body is afli-coloured, variegated withyeUow fpots.canus. 
 
 It is a native of Mexico, and is called the mountain-cat 
 by Seba. , It agrees with the European wolf ia its 
 manners ; attacks cattle, and fometimes men. 
 
 V. The VuLPES, or Fox, has a llraight tail, white at The Fos, 
 the point. His body is yellowifh, or rather llraw-co- 
 
 loured ; his eats are fmall and ereft ; his lips are whi- 
 tifh, and his forefeet black. From the bafe of the tail 
 a Rrong fcent is emitted, which to i'ome people is very 
 fragrant, and to others extremely difagreeable. The 
 fox is a native of ahsiofl every quarter of the globe, and 
 is of fuch a wild and favage nature that it is impoifible 
 fully to tame him. He ia efteemed to be the moft 
 fagacious and the moft crafty of all beafts of prey, 
 I'he former quality he fhows in his method of pro- 
 viding himfelf with an afylum, where he retires from 
 preffing dangers, where he dwells, and where he brings 
 up his young : and his craftinefs is chiefly difcovered 
 by the fchemes he falls upon in order to catch lambs, 
 geefe,hens, and all kinds of fmall birds. The fox fixes his 
 abode on the border of the wood, in the neighbourhood 
 of cottages : he llftens to the crowing of the cocks and 
 the cries of the poultry. Hefcents them at a diftance; 
 he choofes his time with judgment; he conceals his 
 road as well as his defign ; he flips forward with cau- 
 tion, fometimes even traihng his body, and feldom. 
 makes a fruitlefs expedition. If he can leap the wall, 
 or get in underneath, he ravages the court-yard, puts 
 all to death, and then retires foftly with his prey, 
 which he either hides under the herbage, or carries off 
 to his kennel. He returns in a few minutes for an- 
 other, which he carries off, or conceals in the fame 
 manner, but in a different place. In this way he pro- 
 ceeds till the progrefs of the fun, or fome movements- 
 perceived in the houfe, advertife him that it is time to 
 fufpend his operations, and to retire to his den. He 
 plays the fame game with the catchers of thrufhes, 
 wood-cocks, &c. He vifits the nets and bird-lime very 
 early in the morning, carries off fucceffively the birds 
 which are entangled, and lays them in different places, 
 efpecially near the fides of high- ways, in the furrows, 
 under the herbage or bruihwood^ where they fometimes 
 
CAN 
 
 Canis 
 
 . lie two or three days ; but he knows perftcTlIy where 
 to find them when he is in need. He hunts the young 
 hares in the plains, feizes old ones in their feats, never 
 mifles thofe which are wounded, digs out the rabbits 
 in the warrens, difcovers the nefts of partridges and 
 quails, feizes the mothers on the eggs, and deftroys a 
 va ft quantity of game. The fox is exceedingly vora- 
 cious ; befides fleih of all kinds, he eats, with equ;!l 
 avidity, eggs, milk, cheefe, fruits, and particularlv 
 grapes. When the young hares and partridges fail 
 him, he makes war againft rats, field-mice, ferpents, li- 
 zards, toads, &c. Of thefe he deftroys vafl numbers ; 
 and this is the only fervice he does to mankind. Pie 
 is fo fond of honey, that he attacks the wild bees, 
 wafps, and hornets. They at firft put him to flight 
 by a thoufand ftlngs ; but he retires only for the pur- 
 pofe of rolling himfelf on the ground to crufh them ; 
 and he returns fo often to the charge, that he obliges 
 them to abandon the hive, which he foon uncovers, and 
 devours both the honey and wax. In a word, he eats 
 fifhes, lobfters, grafa-hoppers, &c. 
 
 The fox is not eafily, and never fully tamed ; he lan- 
 guifhes when deprived of liberty ; and, if kept too long 
 in a domeftic ftate, he dies of chagrin. Foxes produce 
 but once a year ; and the Httcr commonly confift of 
 four or five, feldora fix, and never lefs than three. 
 When the female is full, fhe retires, and feldom goes 
 out of her hole, where fiie prepares a bed for her young. 
 She comes in feafon in the winter ; and young foxes 
 are found in the month of April. When (he perceives 
 that her retreat is difcovered, and that her young have 
 been difturbed, flie carries them off one by one, and 
 goes in fearch of another habitation. The young are 
 brought forth blind; like the dogs, they grow i8 
 months, or two years, and live 13 or 14 years. — The 
 fox, as well as the congenerous wolf, will produce with 
 the dog-kind, as noticed above. 
 
 The fenfes of the fox are equally good as thofe of 
 the wolf ; his fentlment is more delicate ; and the or- 
 gans of his voice are more pliant and perfect The 
 wolf fends forth only frightful howKngs ; but the fox 
 barks, yelps, and utters a mournful cry like that of the 
 peacock. He varies his tones according to the differ- 
 ent fentiments with which he is affefted : he has an 
 accent peculiar to the chace, the tone of defire, of com- 
 plaint, and of forrow. He has another cry expreffive 
 of acute pain, which he utters only when he is (hot, 
 or has fome of his members broken ; for he never com- 
 plains of any other wound, and, like the wolf, allows 
 himfelf to be killed with a bludgeon without complain- 
 ing ; but he always defends himfelf to the laft with 
 great courage and bravery. His bite is obltinate and 
 dangerous ; and the fevereft blows will hardly make 
 him quit his hold. His yelping is a fpecies of bark- 
 ing, and confifts of a quick fucccflion of fimilar tones ; 
 at the end of which he generally raifes his voice fim.ilar 
 to the cry of the peacock. In winter, and particukr- 
 ly during froil and Ihow, he yelps perpetually ;,- but, 
 in fummer, he is almoff entirely filent, and, during this 
 feafon, he cafts his hair. He fleeps found, and maybe 
 eafily approached without wakening :. he fleeps in a 
 round form, like the dog ; but, when he only repofes 
 himfelf, he extends his hind legs, and Hes on his belly. 
 It is in this fituation that he fpies the birds along the 
 hedges, and meditates fchemes for their furgrite. The 
 
 [ 109 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 fox flies when he hears the explofion of a gun, or fmells Canis. 
 
 gun- powder. He is exeedingly fond of grapes, and does ' v — ''^ 
 
 much raifchief in vineyards. Various methods are 
 daily employed to dellroy foxes : they are hunted with 
 dogs ; iron traps are frequently fet at their holes ; and 
 their holes are fometimes fmoked to make them rua 
 out, that they may the more readily fall into the fnares 
 or be killed by dogs or fire-arms. * 
 The chace of the fox requires lefs apparatus, and is- 
 more amufing, than that of the wolf. To the latter 
 every dog has great reluftance : but all dogs hunt the 
 fox fpontaneoufly and with pleafure ; for, thouo-h his 
 odour be ftrong, they often prefer him to the ilag or 
 the hare. He may be hunted with terriers, hounds, 
 &c. Whenever he finds himfelf purfued, he runs to 
 his hole ; the terriers with crooked legs, or turnfpits, 
 go in with raoft eafe. Tiiis mode anfwers very well 
 when we want to carry off a whole htter of foxes, both 
 mother and young. While the mother defends' her- 
 fclf againft the terriers, the hunters remove the earth 
 above, and either kill or feize her alive. But, as the 
 holes are often under rocks, the roots of trees, or funk, 
 too deep in the ground, this method is frequently un- 
 fuccefsfuL I he moft certain and moft common me- 
 thod of huntmg foxes, is to begin with fhutting up 
 their holes, to place a man with a gun near the en= 
 trance, and then to fearch about with the dogs. When 
 they fall in with him, he immediately makes for his 
 hole ; but, when he comes up to it, he is met with a 
 difcharge from the gun. If he efcapes the fiiot, he 
 runs with full fpeed, takes a large circuit, and returns 
 again to the hole, where he is fired upon a fecond time • 
 but, finding the entrance ihut, he now endeavours to 
 efcape by darting ftraight forward, with the defian of ' 
 never revifiting his former habitation. He is ''then 
 purfued by the hounds, whom he feldom fails to fa- 
 tigue, becaufe he purpofely paffes through the thick-ft 
 parts of the foreft or places of the moft difficult accefs 
 where the dogs are hardly able to follow him • and' 
 when he take? to the plains, he runs ftraight out,' with' 
 out ftopping or doubling. 
 
 Of all animals the fox has the moft fignificant 
 eye, by which it expreffes every paffion of love 
 fear, hatred, &c. It is remarkably play{"nl ; but' 
 hke all favage creatures half reclaimed, will on the 
 Icaft offence bite thofe it is moft familiar, with It 
 It a great admirer of its bu/hy tail, with which it 
 frequently amufes and exercifes itfelf, by running- 
 in circles to catch it : and, in cold weather, wraps' 
 It round Its nofe. The fmell of this animal is in gene- 
 ral very ftrong, but that of the urine is remarkably fe- 
 tid. This feems fo offenfive even to itfelf, that it will/ 
 take the trouble of digging a hole in the ground, 
 ftretching its body at full length over it ; and there af- 
 ter depofitmg Its water, cover it over with the earth as 
 the cat does.its dung. The fmell is fo obnoxious, that 
 It has often proved the means of the fox's efcape from 
 the dogs ; who have fo ftrong an averfion at the filthy 
 effluvia, as to avoid encountering the animal it came 
 from. It IS faid that the fox makes ufe of its urine as an 
 expedient to force the cleanly badger from its habita^ 
 tation : whether that is the means, is rather doubtful » 
 but that the fox makes ufe of the badger's hole is cer! ' 
 tain : not through want of ability to form its own re- 
 treat, but to fave itfelf fome trouble ; for after the ex,- 
 
 pulfioaa 
 
'Cants. 
 
 CAN [ no ] 
 
 pUlfion of the firft inhabitant, the fox improves as well 
 as enlarges it confxderably, adding feveral chambers, 
 and providently making feveral entrances to fecure a 
 retreat from every quarter. In warm weather, it will 
 quit its habitation for the fake of baflcing in the fun, or 
 to enjoy the free air ; but then it rarely lies expofed, 
 but choofes fome thick brake, that it may reft fecure 
 from furprize. Crows, magpies, and other birds, who 
 confider the fox as their cofnmon enemy, will often, 
 by their notes of anger, point out its retreat. — The 
 iliin of this animal is furnifhed with a warm foft fur, 
 which in many parts of Europe is ufed to make muffs 
 and to line clothes. Vaft numbers are taken in Le Val- 
 lais, and the Alpine parts of Switzerland. At Lau- 
 fenne there are furriers who are in poifeflion of be- 
 tween 2000 and 3000 llcins, all taken in one winter. 
 
 Of the fox there are feveral varieties, derived from 
 colour ; as, 
 
 1. The field-fox, or alopex of Linnaeus, who makes 
 it a diftindl fpecies ; but it is every way the fame with 
 the common fox, except in the point of the tail, which 
 is black. 
 
 2. The crofs-fox, with a black mark pafllng tranf- 
 verfely from (houlder to fiioulder, with another along 
 the back to the tail. It inhabits the coldeft parts of 
 Europe, Afia, and North -America : a valuable fur, 
 thicker and fofter than the common fort; great num- 
 bers of the flcins are imported from Canada. 
 
 3. The black fox is the moft cunning of any, and 
 its fldn the moft valuable; a lining of it is, in RufTia, 
 
 ^ efteemed preferable to the fineft fables : a fingle flcin 
 vill fell for 400 rubles. It inhabits the northern parts 
 of Afia and North- America. The laft is inferior in 
 goodnefs. 
 
 4. The brant fox, as defcrlbed by Gefner and Lin- 
 naeus, is of a fiery rednefs ; and called by the firft 
 brand-fuchf, by the laft brandraef ; it is fcarce half the 
 fize of the common fox : the nofe is black, and much 
 lharper ; the fpace round the ears ferruginous ; the 
 forehead, back, (houlders, thighs, and fides black mix- 
 ed with red, afh-colour, and black; the belly yellowifli; 
 the tail black above, red beneath, and cinereous on its 
 fide. It is a native of Penfylvania. 
 
 5. The corfac-fox, with upright ears, foft downy 
 hair; tail bufliy ; colour in fummer pale tawney, 
 in winter grey : the bafe and tip of the tail black ; a 
 fmall kind. It inhabits the defarts beyond the Yaik : 
 lives in holes howls and barks : is caught by the Kir- 
 ris Cafl'acks with falcons and gre-hounds; 40 or 
 50.000 are annually taken, and fold to the Ruffians, at 
 the rate of 40 kopeiks, or 20 pence, each : the former 
 ufe their fldns inftead of money : great numbers are 
 fent into Turky. r , • 1 
 
 6. There are three varieties of foxes found in the 
 mountainous parts of Britain, which differ a little in 
 form, but not in colour, from each other. They are 
 diftingulflied in Wales by as many different names. 
 The m'llgh or gre-hound-fox, is the largeft, talleft, and 
 boldeft ; and will attack a grown Iheep or wedder : the 
 maM-fox is lefs, but more ftrongly built : the corgi, 
 or cur-fox is theleaft ; lurks about hedges, out-hou(es, 
 &c. and is the moft pernicious of the three to the fea- 
 thered tribe. The firft of thefe varieties has a white 
 tag or tip to the tail ; the laft a black. When hunted, 
 they never run diredly forward, but make a great raa- 
 
 CAN 
 
 ny doublings and tnrnlngs ; and when in danger of be- Cams, 
 ing taken, they emit fuch a fmell from their pofteriors ' v—- ' 
 that the hunters can hardly endure it. 
 
 VI. The Lagopus, or arftlc fox, with a (harp nofe ; The arftic 
 ftiort rounded ears, alraoft hid in the fur ; long and Fox. 
 foft hair, fomewhat woolly ; (hort legs ; toes covered 
 on all parts, like that of a common hare, with fur ; tail 
 fliorter and more buihy than that of the common fox, 
 of a bluifh grey or afli colour, fometimes white : the 
 young of the grey are black before they come to matu- 
 rity : the hair much longer in winter than fummer, as 
 is ufual with animals of cold climates. It inhabits the 
 countries bordering on the Frozen Sea; Khamfchatka, 
 the ifles between it and America, and the oppofite 
 parts of America difcovered in captain Bering's expedi- 
 tion, 1741 ; is again found in Greenland, Iceland, 
 Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and Lapland. _ It bur- 
 rows undergroiind, forms holes many feet in length, 
 and ftrews the bottom with mofs. In Greenland and 
 Spitzbergen it lives in the cliffs of rocks, not being 
 able to burrow, by reafon of the froft : two or three 
 pair inhabit the fame hole. They are in heat about 
 Lady-day ; and during that time, they continue in the 
 open air, but afterwards take to their holes. They go 
 with young nine weeks: like dogs, they continue united 
 in copulation : they bark like that animal, for which 
 reafon the Ruffians call them pefzt'i, or dogs. They 
 have all the cunning of the common fox ; prey on 
 geefe, ducks, and other water-fowl, before they can fly; 
 on groufe of the country, on hares, and the eggs of 
 birds ; and in Greenland (through neceflity) on ber- 
 ries, fliell-fifh, or any thing the fea flings up. But their 
 principal food in the north of Afia and in Lapland is 
 the leming, or Lapland marmot : thofe of the countries' 
 laft mentioned are very migratory, purfuing the leming 
 which is a wandering animal : fometimes thefe foxes 
 will defert the country for three or four years, probably 
 in purfuit of their prey ; for it is well known that the 
 migrations of the leming are very inconftant, it ap- 
 pearing in fome countries only once in feveral years. ^ 
 The people of Jcnefea fufpeft they go to the banks 01 
 the Oby. Their chief rendezvous is on the banks of 
 the Frozen Sea, and the rivers'^ that flow into it, where 
 they are found in great troops. The Greenlanders 
 take them either in pitfalls dug in the fnow, and baited 
 with the capehn fifh ; or in fprings made with whale- 
 bone, laid over a hole made in the fnow, ftrewedover at 
 bottom with the fame kind of fifti ; or in traps made 
 like little huts, with flat ftones, with a broad One by 
 way of door, which falls down (by means of a ftring 
 baited on the infide with a piece of fiefh) whenever 
 the fox enters and pulls at it. The Geeenlanders pre- 
 ferve the fl<ins for traffic ; and in cafes of neceflity eat 
 the flefli. They alfo make buttons of the fliins ; and 
 fpHt the tendons, and make ufe of them inftead of thread. 
 The blue furs are much.more efteemed than the white. 
 
 VIT. The Indica, or antarfiic fox (the coyotl of -fj^g ^j^jan 
 Fcrnandej, the loup-renard of Bougainville), has fliortticFox. 
 pointed ears; irides hazel; head and body cinereous 
 brown ; hair more woolly than that of the common 
 fox, refembling much that of the arftic ; legs daflied 
 with ruft-colour ; tail dufliy, tipped with white ; fliorter 
 and morebufliy than that of the common fox, to which 
 it is about one-third fuperior in fize. It has much the 
 habit of the wolf, in ears, tail, and ftrength of limbs. 
 
 The 
 
CAN 
 
 The grey 
 fox of 
 Catcfty, 
 
 The filver 
 Fox of 
 Loufiana. 
 
 Canlj. The French therefore call it loitp-renard, or wolf-fox. 
 "■"V^^ It may be a wolf degenerated by climate. The largeft 
 are thofe of Senegal : the next are the European: thofe 
 of North America are ftill fmaller. The Mexican 
 wolves, which Mr Pennant apprehends to be this fpe- 
 cies, are again lefs ; and this, which inhabits the Falk- 
 land ifles, near the extremity of South America, is 
 dwindled to the fize defcrihed. This is the only land 
 animal of thofe diftant ifles ; it has a fetid fmell, and 
 barks like a dog. It lives near the ftiores ; kennels like 
 a fox ; and forms regular paths from bay to bay, pro- 
 bably for the conveniency of furprizing the water- 
 fowl, on which it lives. It is at times very meagre, 
 from want of prey ; and is extremely tame. The 
 iflands were propably ftocked with thofe animals by- 
 means of maflcs of ice broken from the continent, and 
 carried by the currents. 
 
 VIII. The Grey- FOX of Catefhy, &c. has a fharp 
 nofe ; (harp, long, upright ears ; legs long ; colour 
 grey, except a little rednefs about the ears. — It inha- 
 bits Carolina, and the warmer parts of North America: 
 It differs from the arftic fox in form, and the nature 
 of its dwelling ; agrees with the coir.mon fox in the 
 firll, varies from it in the laft : It never burrows, but 
 lives in hollow trees ; it gives no diverlion to the fportf- 
 raan ; for after a mile's chace, it takes to its retreat ; it 
 has no ftrong fmell ; it feeds on poultry, birds, &c. 
 Thefe foxes are eafily made tame ; their Ikins, when in 
 feafon, made ufe of for muffs, 
 
 IX. The Silver fox of Louifiana. It refembles 
 the common fox in form, but has a mofl beautiful coat. 
 The fhort hairs are of a deep brown ; and over them 
 fpring long filvery hairs, which give the animal a very 
 elegant appearance. They live in forefls abounding in 
 game, and never attempt the poultry which run at 
 large. The woody eminences in Louifiana are every- 
 where pierced with their holes. 
 
 The Bar- The Barbary fox, [le Chacal, Buff. ), or jackal- 
 
 bary Fox. adive, has a long and flender nofe, fharp upright ears, 
 long bufhy tail ; colour, a very pale brown ; fpace above 
 and below the eyes, black ; from behind each ear, there 
 is a black line, which foon divides into two, which ex- 
 tend to the lower part of the neck ; and the tail is 
 furrounded with three broad rings. This fpecies is of 
 the fize of the common fox, but the limbs are fliorter, 
 and the nofe is more flender. — M. de Buffon informs 
 us, that Mr Bruce told him this animal was common 
 in Barbary, where it was called thalel. But Mr Pen- 
 nant obferves, that Mr Bruce fhould have given it a 
 more diflinguifliing name ; for thaleb^ or taaJeb, is no 
 more than the Arabic name for the common fox, which 
 is alfo frequent in that country. 
 The Jackal. XI. The Aureus, Schakal, or Jackal, as defcrlbed 
 by Mr Pennant, has yellowifh brown irides ; ears en dl, 
 . formed like thofe of a fox, but fhorter and lefs pointed: 
 hairy and white within; brown without, tinged wiih 
 duf]<y : head fhorter than that of a fox, and nofe blunt- 
 er: lips black, and fomewhat looie : neck and body- 
 very much refembling thofe of that animal, but the 
 body more compreffed : the legs have the fame refem- 
 blance, but are longer: tailthickefl In the middle, taper- 
 ing to the point : five toes on the fore feet ; the inner 
 toe very fhort, and placed high : four toes on the hind 
 feet ; all are covered with hair even to the claws The 
 hairs arei much fliff^r than thofe of a fox, but fcareely 
 
 II ] CAN 
 
 fo ftiff as thofe of a wolf ; fhort about the nofe ; on Cani^i 
 the back, three inches long ; on the belly fhorter. *— -v— 
 Thofe at the end of the tail four inches long. Colour 
 of the upper part of the body a dirty tawny ; on the 
 back, mixed with black : lower part of the body of a 
 yellowifh white : tail tipt with black ; the reft of the 
 fame colour with the back : the legs of ^an unmixed 
 tawny brown ; the fore legs marked (but not always) 
 with a black fpot on the knees ; but on no part arc 
 thofe vivid colours which could merit the title of 
 golden^ beflowed on it by Kaempfer. — The length of 
 this animal from the nofe to the root of the tail is little 
 more thao twenty-nine inches Englifh : the tail, to the 
 ends of the hairs, ten three quarters ; the tip reaching 
 to the top of the hind legs : the height, from the fpace 
 between the flioulders to the ground, rather more than 
 eighteen inches and a half ; the hind parts a little 
 higher. — This fpecies inhabits all the hot and tem- 
 perate parts of Afia, India, Perfia, Arabia, Great Tar- 
 tary, and about Mount Caucafus, Syria, and the Holy- 
 land. It is found In moft parts of Africa, from Bar- 
 bary to the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Profeflbr GueldenRaedt *, the able defcribcr of this J^'^'^; ^'"^^ 
 long-lofl animal, remarks, that the coscum entirely 
 agrees in form with that of a dog, and differs from 
 that of the wolf and fox. And Mr Pennant obferves, 
 that there is the fame agreement in the teeth with thofe 
 of a dog ; and the fame variation in them from thofe of 
 the two other animals. Thefe circumflances flrength- 
 en the opinion entertained by fome writers, that the 
 dogs of the old world did derive their origin from one 
 or other of them. The jackals have indeed fo much the 
 nature of dogs, as to give reafonable caufe to imagine 
 that they are at leafl the chief flock from which is 
 fprung the various races of thofe domeitic animals. 
 When taken young, they grow inflantly tame ; attach 
 themfelves to mankind ; wag their tails ; love to be 
 flroked; diflinguifh their maflers from others; will 
 come on being called by the name given to them ; will 
 leap on the table, being encouraged to it: they drink» 
 lapping ; and make water fideways, with their leg held 
 up. Their dung is hard : odorat anum alterius, cohsret 
 copula junSiis. When they fee dogs, inflead of flying, - 
 they feek them, and play with them. They will eat 
 bread eagerly; notvvithftandlng they are in a wild flate 
 carnivorous. They have a great referablance to fome 
 of the Calmuc dogs, which perhaps were but a few de- 
 fcents removed from the wild kinds. Our dogs are 
 probably derived from thofe reclaimed in the firfl ages 
 of the world ; altered by numberlefs accidents into the 
 many varieties which now appear among us. 
 
 The wild fchakals go in packs of. 40, 50, and even 
 two hundred, and hunt like hounds in full cry from 
 evening to morning. They defhroy flocks and poultry, 
 but in a lefs degree than the wolf or fox : ravage the 
 ftreets of villages and gardens near towns, and will even 
 deftroy children, if left unprotefted. They will enter 
 flables and outhoufes, and devour flilns, or any thing 
 made of that material. They will familiarly enter a 
 tent, and flcal whatfoever they can find from the fleep- 
 ing travfeller. In default of living prey, they will feed 
 on luoto and fruits ; and even on the moft infefted car- 
 rion : they will greedily difinter the dead, and devour 
 the putrid carcafes ; for -wiiich reafon, in many coun- 
 tries the graves are made of a great depth. They at- • 
 
 tend r 
 
CAN 
 
 Cat 
 
 [ n 
 
 tend caravans, and follow armies, in hopes that death 
 will provide them a banquet. 
 
 Their voice naturally is a howl. Barking', Mr Pen- 
 nant obferves, is latently inherent ; and in their ftate 
 of nature ftldom exerted: but its different modifica- 
 tions are adventitious, and expreffive of the new paf- 
 fions and afFedlions gained by a domeftic ftate. Their 
 howlings and clamours in the night are dreadful, and 
 fo loud that people can fcarcely hear one another 
 fpeak. Dellon fays, their voice is like the cries of a 
 great many children of different ages mixed together : 
 when one begins to howl, the whole pack join in the 
 cry. Kasmpfer fays, that every now and then a fort 
 of bark is intermixed; which confirms what is above 
 afferted by Mr Pennant. Dellon agrees in the account 
 of their being tamed, and entertained as domeftic ani- 
 mals. During day they are filent. They dig burrows 
 in the earth, in which they lie all day, and come out 
 at night to range for prey : they hunt by the nofe, and 
 are very quick of fcent. The females breed only once 
 a year; and go with young only four weeks; they 
 bring from fix to eight at a time. Both Mr Guelden- 
 ftaedt and Mr Bell contradidthe opinion of their being 
 A'ery fierce animals. 
 
 This animal is vulgarly called the Lion's Provider^ 
 from an opinion that it rouzes the prey for that bad- 
 nofed quadruped. The faft is, every creature in the 
 foreft is fct in motion by the fearful cries of the jackals ; 
 the Hon, and other beafts of rapine, by a fort of inftinft, 
 attend to the chace, and feize fuch timid animals as 
 betake themfclves to flight at the noife of this nightly 
 pack. The jackal is defcribed by Oppian, under the 
 name of Aux©- s«6o<, or yellow nvolf ; who mentions Its 
 horrible howL It may, as M. de Buffon conjedlures, 
 be the ©t-f of Ariftotle, who mentions it with the 
 wolf, and fays that it has the fame internal ftrufture 
 as the wolf, which is common with congenerous ani- 
 mals. The Thoes of Phny may alfo be a variety of 
 the fame animal ; for his account of it ageces with 
 the modern hiftory of the fchakal, except in the laft 
 article : " Thoes, Luporum id genus eft procerius 
 longitudine, brevitate crurum diffimile, velox faltu, ve- 
 natu vivens, innocuum homini ;" lib. viii. c. 34. 
 
 XII. The Mesomelas, or Capejch of Schreber, the 
 TheMdo. f^j^j-^ or kenlie of the Hotentots, has 'ereft yellowifh 
 brown ears, mixed with a few fcattered black hairs : 
 the head is of a yellowifh brown, mixed with black and 
 white, growing darker towards the hind part : the 
 fides are of a light brown, varied with du(l<y hairs : 
 the body and alfo the back part of the legs are of a 
 yellowifli brown, lighteft on the body ; the throat, 
 breaft, and belly white. On the neck, flioulders, and 
 back, is a bed of black ; broad on the Ihoulders, and 
 growing narrower to the tail : when the hairs are 
 fmooth, the part on the neck feerns barred with white ; 
 that on the fhoulders with white conoid marks, one 
 within the other, the end pointing to the back : when 
 the hairs are ruffled, thefe marks vanifti, or grow lefs 
 diftinft, and a hoaryncfs appears in their ftead. The 
 tail isbufhy, of a yellowifh brown ; marked on the up- 
 per part with a longitudinal ftripe of black, and to- 
 wards the end encircled with two rings of black, and 
 is tipt with white. In length, the animal is two feet 
 three quarters, to the or igin of the tail : the tail is one 
 •foot. This fpecics. inhabits the countries about the Cape 
 IJo 63. 
 
 jndas. 
 
 2 ] CAN 
 
 of Good Hope, and probably is found as high as the 
 line. 
 
 XIII. The THOUS has a fmooth crooked tail; the 
 upper part of its body is grey, and its belly white, It-pj^^ TLous, 
 is about the fize of a large cat ; and, according to 
 Linnaeus, is found at Surinam ; it is mentioned by no 
 
 other naturalift. 
 
 XIV. The Zerda. This animal has a very poi"t-rpj^g ^^^^^ 
 ed vifage; large bright black eyes; very large ears, ' 
 of a bright rofe-colour, internally lined with long hairs; 
 
 the orifice fo fmall as not to be vifible, probably co- 
 vered with a valve or membrane : the legs and feet 
 are like thsfe of a dog ; the tail is taper: colour be- 
 tween a ftraw and pale brown. Length from nofe to 
 tail, ten inches ; ears, three inches and a half long ; 
 tail, fix : height, not five. It inhabits the vaft defart 
 of Saara, which extends beyond mount Atlas : It bur- 
 rows in the fandy ground, which ftrovvs the neceffity of 
 the valves to the ears ; and is fo exceffively fwift, that 
 it is very rarely taken alive. It feeds on infefts, efpe- 
 cially locufts : fits on its rump :.is very vigilant : barks 
 hke a dog, but much fhriller, and that chiefly in the 
 night : never is obferved to be fportive. We are in- 
 debted to Mr Eric Skioldebrand, the late Swedidi con- 
 ful at Algiers, for our knowledge of this fingular ani- 
 mal. He never could procure but one alive, which 
 efcaped before he examined its teeth : the genus is very 
 uncertain : the form of its head and legs, and fome of 
 its manners, determined Mr Pennant to rank it in this 
 genus. That which was in poffeffion of Mr Skiolde- 
 brand fed freely from the hand, and would eat bread 
 or boiled meat. Buffon has given a figure of this ani 
 mal ; but from the authority of Mr Bruce afcribes to it 
 a different place, and different manners. He fays that it is 
 found to the I'outh of the Palus Tritonides, in Libya ; 
 that it has fomething of the nature of the hare, and 
 fomething of the fquirrel ; and that it lives on the 
 palm-trees, and feeds on the fruits. 
 
 Cjnis Major, the great dog in aftronomy, a conftel- 
 lation of the fouthern hemifphere, below Orion's feet, 
 though fomewhat to the weftward of him ; whofe ftara 
 Ptolemy makes 29 ; Tycho obferved only 13 ; Hevc- 
 hus 21 ; in the Britannic catalogue they are 31. 
 
 Cj.\is Minor, the little dog, in aftronomy, a conftcl- 
 lation of the northern hemifphere ; called alfo by the 
 Greeks, Procyon, and by the Latins Aiitecnnis and Can- 
 iculn. The ftars in" the conftcllation can is minor, are 
 in Ptolemy's catalogue 2 ; in Tycho's, 5 ; in Hevclius's, 
 13; and in the Britifti catalogue, 14. 
 
 CANISIUS (Henry), a native of Nimeguen, and 
 one of the moft learned men of his time, was profeffor 
 of canon law at Ingolftadt ; and wrote a great number 
 of books ; the principal of which are, l. Summa Juris 
 Carionici. 2. Antiqua leBiunes, a very valuable work. He 
 died in 1 609. 
 
 CANITZ (the baron of), a German poet and 
 ftatefman, was of an ancient and illuftrious family in 
 Brandenburg, and born at Berlin in 1 564, five months 
 after his father's death. After his early ftudies, he 
 travelled to France, Italy, Holland, and England ; and 
 upon his return to his country, was charged with im- 
 portant negociations by Frederic IT, Frederic III. 
 employed him alfo. Canitz united the ftatefman with 
 the poet ; and was converfant in many languages, dead 
 
 5 
 
CAN [I 
 
 Canker 59 tvell 33 living. His German poems were piiblifh- 
 ed for the tenth time, 1750, in 8vo. He is faid to 
 have taken Horace for his model, and to have written 
 purely and dehcately. But he did not content him- 
 felf with barely cultivating the fine arts in himfelf ; he 
 jiave all the encouragement he could to them in others. 
 He died at Berlin, in 1699, privy counftllor of ilate, 
 aged 45. 
 
 CANKER, a difeafe Incident to trees, proceeding 
 chiefly from the nature of the foil. It makes the bark 
 rot and fall. If the canker be in a bough, cut It off ; 
 in a large bough, at fome dillance from the Hem ; in a 
 Imall one, clofe to it : but for over-hot ftrong ground, 
 the ground is to be cooled about the roots witli pond- 
 mud and cow-duncr. 
 
 Canker, among farriers. See Farriery, ^ xliv, 2. 
 CANNA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia or- 
 der, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants; and in 
 the natural method ranking under the eighth order, 
 Scltam'mea. The corolla is ered, and divided into fix 
 parts, with a diftlnft lip bipartite and rolled back ; 
 the ilyle lanceolate, and growing to the corolla ; the 
 calyx is triphyllous. 
 
 Species. I. The indica, or common broad-leaved 
 flowering cane, is a native of both Indies ; the inha- 
 bitants of the Britifh iflands in America call it Indian 
 Jlooty from the roundnefs and hardnefs of the feeds. It 
 hath a thick, flefiiy, tuberous root, which divides into 
 many Irregular knobs ; it fends out many large oval 
 leaves, without order. At their firft appearance the 
 leaves are like a twifted horn ; but afterwards expand, 
 and are near a foot long, and five inches broad in the 
 middle ; leiTening gradually to both ends, and termi- 
 nated in a point. The ftalks are herbaceous, rifing four 
 feet high, and are encompaffed by the broad leafy foot- 
 llalks of the leaves ; at the upper part of the ftalk the 
 flowers are produced in loofe fpikes, each being at firft 
 covered with a leafy hood, and turns to a brown co- 
 lour. The flo wers are fucceedcd by a fruit or capfule, 
 oblong, rough, and crowned with the three-cornered 
 empalement of the flower which remains. When the 
 fruit is ripe, the capfule opens lengthwife into three 
 veils, filled with round, fliining, hard, and black feeds. 
 2. The latifolia, with a pale red flower, is a native of 
 Carohna, and fome other northern provinces of Ame- 
 rica. 3. The glauca, with a very large flower, is a 
 native of South America. 4. The lutea, with obtufe 
 oval leaves, Is lefs common in America than the other 
 forts. 5. Tiie coccinea, hath larger leaves than any of 
 the other fpecies, and the (talks life much higher. The 
 flowers are produced in large fpikes ; and are of a 
 ■bright crimfon, or rather fcarlet colour. 
 
 Culture. Thefe plants muft always be kept In pots 
 of rich eart'h, to be moved to flielter In winter. They 
 are propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed, in the 
 fpring ; and In fummer, when the plants are a little 
 advanced in growth, prick them feparatcly in fmall 
 ■pots of rich earth, plunging them alfo in the hot-bed, 
 •giving fliade, water, and freili air; to which laft hard- 
 en them by degrees, till they bear It fully. In Ofto- 
 ber they muft be removed into a very good ftove or 
 green houfe. 
 
 CANNABIS, In botany: A genus of the pentan- 
 dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ; 
 ■aiid in the natural method ranking under the c^d or- 
 VoL. IVPartl. 
 
 3 ] . c h n _ 
 
 der, Scahridie. The calyx of the male Is qulaquepartlte, Cannahif, 
 with no corolla. In the female the calyx Is monophyl- — — z^-— 
 lous, entire, and gaping at the fide ; there is no corol- 
 la, but two ftyles ; the fruit is a nut, bivalved, within 
 the clofed calyx. Of this there Is but one fpecies, viz. 
 the fatlva. This Is propagated In the rich fenny parts 
 of LIncolnfhire In great quantities, for Its bark, which 
 is ufeful for cordage, cloth, &c. and the feeds abound 
 with oil. Hemp is always fown on a deep, moitt, 
 rich, foil, fuch as is found in Holland, Lincolnihire, the 
 fens of the ifland of Ely, where It is cultivated to great 
 advantage, as it might be In many other parts of Eng- 
 land where there is a foil of the fame kind ; but it will 
 not thrive on clayey or ftlff" cold land. The ground 
 on which hemp is defigned to be fown, fhould be well 
 ploughed, and made very fine by harrowing. About 
 the middle of April the feed may be fown; three 
 bufliels Is the ufual allowance for an acre, but two are 
 fufficlent. In the choice of the feed, the heavieft. and 
 brighteft coloured fl:iould be preferred ; and particular 
 care fliould be had to the kernel of the feed. For the 
 greater certainty in this matter, fome of the feeds 
 Ihould be cracked, to fee whether they have the germ 
 or future plant perfeft : for, In fome places, the male 
 plants are drawn out too foon from the female, I. e^ 
 before they have impregnated the female plants with the 
 farina; In which cafe, though the feeds produced by 
 thefe females may feem fair to the eye, yet they will 
 not grow*, according to the doftrlne of Linnaeus. * 5^^. Bo- 
 When the plants are come up, they fliould be hoed t.niy, 
 out In the fame manner as is praclifed for turnips, 
 leaving them two feet apart ; obferve alfo to cut down 
 all the weeds, which, If well performed, and in dry 
 weather, will deftroy them. This crop, however, will 
 require a fecond hoeing, in about fix weeks after the 
 firft ; and, if this is well performed, the crop will re- 
 quire no further care. The firlt feafon for pulling 
 hemp is ufually about the middle of Auguft, when 
 i hey begin to pull what they call the f mile hemp, being 
 that which is compofed of the male plants ; but it 
 would be the much better method to defer this for a 
 fortnight or three weeks longer, until thofe male 
 plants have fvilly llied their , farina or duft, without 
 which the feeds will prove only empty huflcs. Thefe 
 male plants decay foon after they have fhed their farr- 
 na. The fecond pulling is a little after Michaelmas, 
 when the feeds are ripe. This is ufually called hark 
 hemp, and confifts of the female plants Vv'hich were left. 
 This karle hemp is bound In bundles of a yard com- 
 pafs, according to ftatute mcafure, which are laid in 
 the fun for a few days to dry ; and then It is ftacked 
 up, or houfed, to keep it dry till the feed can be threfli- 
 ed out. An acre of hemp, on a rich foil, will produce 
 near three quarters of feed, which, together \\ ith the 
 unwrought hemp, is worth from fix to eight pounds. 
 Hemp Is efteemed very eflTeftual for deftroying weeds: 
 but this it accoiupliflies by impoverilhing the ground, 
 and thus robbing them of their nourllhrnent ; fo that 
 a crop of It muft not be repeated on the fame fpot. 
 
 Some feeds of a large kind of hemp growing in 
 China were lately fent by the Eaft India Company to 
 the Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufac- 
 tures, and Commerce, who diftributed them to the 
 members and other gentlemen who appeared likely to 
 cultivate them ; and from experiments made in confe- 
 ^ quence, 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 1 
 
 CanraMs, quence, tKe plant has been found to fucceed perfectly 
 Canns. ^.j^jg climate. The firft trials were rather unpro- 
 mifing, the hemp produced from the foreign feeds pro- 
 ving of very little value. But the Reverend Dr Hin- 
 ton of Northwold, who made the above trial in 1786, 
 having accidentally faved fome ripe feeds of that crop, 
 fowed them in May 1787 on a fpot of good land. They 
 came up well, and attained as much perfedlion as ordi- 
 nary hemp. The produce, wlien dreffed, weighed at 
 the rate of 95 ftone 7 pounds and 1 2 ounces per acre, 
 (being above 30 ftone more, he fays, than the ufual 
 crops of hemp in that neighbourhood) ; and at the 
 rate of three bulhels two pecks and half a pint of feed 
 per acre were faved. Dr Hinton fuppofes that the 
 feeds brought from China failed principally^ if not en^ 
 tirely, by having been two years old, at which age 
 hempfeed feldom vegetates. Now that it is found to 
 ripen with us, frefii feeds can always be obtained. It 
 will yet, however, require a few years to determine 
 whether this fpecies will continue to retain its great 
 fize, or will degenerate and become the common hemp 
 of Europe. 
 
 From the leaves of hemp pounded and boiled in 
 water, the natives of the Eaft Indies prepare an intoxi- 
 cating liquor of which they are very fond. The plant, 
 when frefh, has a rank narcotic fmell ; the water in 
 which the ttalks are foaked, in order to feparate the 
 tough rind for mechanic ufes, is faid to be violently 
 poifonous, and to produce its efFeds ajmoft as foou 
 as drank. The feeds alfo have forae fmell of the 
 herb, and their tafte is unftuous and fweetifh : they 
 are recommended, boiled in milk, or triturated with 
 water into an emulfion, againft coughs, heat of urine, 
 and the like. They are alfo faid to be ufeful in incon- 
 tinence of urine, and for rellraining venereal appetites; 
 but experience does, not warrant their having any vir- 
 tues of that kind. 
 
 CANNiK, (aoc. geog.) a town of Apulia, in the 
 Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Aufidus, rendered 
 famous by a terrible overthrow which the Romans here 
 received from the Carthaginians under Hannibal. The 
 Roman confuls ^milius Paulus and Terentius Varro, 
 being authorized by the fenate to quit the defenfive plan, 
 and liake the fortunes of the republic on the chance of 
 a battle, marched from Canufuim, and encamped a fc,w 
 miles eaft, in two unequal divifions, with the Aufidus 
 between them. In this pofition they meant to wait for 
 an opportunity of engaging to advantage ; but Hanni- 
 bal, whofe critical fituation in a defolated country, 
 without refuge or allies, could admit of no delay, found 
 means to inflame the vanity of Varro by fome trivial 
 advantages in ftirmifhes between the light horfe. The 
 Roman," elated with tlus fuccefs, determined to bring 
 matters to a fpeedy conclniion ; but, finding the ground 
 on the fouth fide too confined for the operations of fo 
 large ar. army, croffed the river ; and Varro, refting 
 his" right v;ing upon the Avdidus, drew out his for- 
 ces in\he plain. HanmbaJ, whofe head quarters were 
 at Cannje, no fooner perceived the enemy in motion, 
 than he forded the- water below, and marftialled his 
 troops in a Unp oppofite to that of his adverfaries. 
 
 The Romans w.ere vaftly fuperior in number to the, 
 Carthaginians ; but the latter were fuperior in, cavalry. 
 The ai-my of the former, eonfifting of 87,000 men, 
 was -drawn up in the. ufual. manner ; the hnjiatl in the 
 
 14 ] CAN 
 
 firft line, the pnndpes in the fecond, and the tr'uirti In fCann-i 
 the third. The cavalry were pofted on the wings. '■ ■' — y— — 
 On the right, the Roman knights flanked the legio- 
 naries ; in the left, the cavalry of the allies covered 
 their own infantry. The two confuls commanded the 
 two wings, Emilius the right, and Terentius the left ; 
 and the two proconfuls Servihus and Attilius the main 
 body. On the other hand, Hannibal, whofe army 
 confifled of 40,000 foot and 10,000 hoi-fe, placed his 
 Gaullfh and Spanifli cavalry in his left wing, to face 
 the Roman knights ; and the Numidian horfe in his. 
 right, over againft the cavah-y of tJie allies of Rome. 
 As to his infantry, he divided the African battalions, 
 into two bodies; one of which. he pofted near the Gaul- 
 ifti and Spanifli horfe, the other near the Numidian. 
 Between thefe two bodies were placed on one fide the 
 Gaulifli, on the other the Spanilh infantiy, drawn up 
 in fuch a manner as to form an obtufe angle projefting 
 a confiderabie way beyond the two wings. Behind 
 this line he drew up a fecond which had no projec- 
 tion. Afdrubal cammanded the left wing ; Maherbal 
 tbe right ; and Hannibal himfelf, with his brother 
 Mago, the main body. He had alfo taken care to poft 
 himfelf ia fuch. a manner that the wind Vidturnusy 
 which rifes at certain ftated times, fliould blow direiStly 
 in the faces of the, Romans during the fight, and cover 
 them with duft.. The onfet was begun by the light- 
 armed infantry ; the Romans difcharging their jave- 
 lins, and the laleares tlieir ftones, with pretty equal 
 fuccefs ; neverthelefs, the conful Emilius was wound- 
 ed. Then the Roman cavalry in the right wing ad- 
 vanced againft the Gaulifli and Spanifli in Hannibal's 
 left. As they were fliut in by the river Aufidus on. 
 one fide, and by their infantry on the other, they did 
 not fight, as ufual, by charging and wheeling oft", and 
 then returning to the. charge ; but continued fighting 
 each man againft his adverfary, till one of them was 
 killed or retired. After they had made prodigious 
 efforts on both fides to overbeiu- each other, they all 
 on a fudden difmounted, and fought on foot with great 
 fury. In this attack the Gauls and Spaniards foon 
 prevailed ; put the Romans to the rout ; and, purfur 
 ing them along the river,, ftrewed the ground with their 
 dead bodies, Afdrubal giving no quarter. This adlion 
 was fcarce over, when the infantry on both fides ad- 
 vanced. The Romans firft fell upon the Spaniards 
 and Gauls, who, as already obferved, formed a kind of 
 triangle projefting beyond the two wings. Thefe 
 gave ground, and, purfuant to Hannibal's direftions, 
 funk into the void fpace in their rear; by which means 
 they infenfibly brought the Romans into the centre of 
 the African infantry, and then the fugitives rallying, 
 attacked them in front, while the Africans charged 
 them in both flanks. The Romans, being by this art- 
 ful retreat drawn into the fnar.e and furrounded, no 
 longer kept their ranks, but formed feveral platoons 
 in order to face every way. Emilius, who was on the 
 right wing, feeing the danger of the main body, at the 
 head of his legionaries afted the part both of a foldier 
 and general, penetrating into the heart of the enemy's 
 battalions, and cutting great numbers of them in pieces. 
 All the Roman cavalry that were left, attended the 
 brave conful on foot; and, encouraged by his example, 
 fought like men in defpair. But, in the mean time., 
 Afdrubal, at the he^d of a detachment of Gaulifli and 
 
 Spapi,(h 
 
CAN [ I 
 
 Oanns. Spanifh infantry brought from tlic centre, attacked 
 ■y— — ^imilius's legionaries with fuch fury, that they were 
 fenced to give ground and fly : the conful being all 
 "towered with wounds, was at lall killed by fome of the 
 enemy who did not know hirn. In the main body, 
 the Romans, though invefted on all fides, continued to 
 fell, their lives dear ; fighting in platoons, and making 
 a g;reat flaughter of the enemy. But being at length 
 overpowered, and difheartened by the death of the two 
 proconfuls Servilius and Attilius who headed them, 
 they difperfed and fled, fome to the right, and others to 
 the- left, as they could find opportunity ; but the Nu- 
 midian horfe cut moft of them in pieces : the whole 
 pla.in was covered with heaps of dead bodies, infomuch 
 tlia.t Hannibal himfelf, thinking the butchery too ter- 
 ribUe, ordered his men to put a ftop to it. — There is 
 a g;reat difagreem.ent among authors as to the number 
 of -Romans killed and taken at the battle of Cannae. 
 According to Livy, the republic lofl: 50,000 men, in- 
 clu<ding the auxiliaries. According to Polybius, of 
 6000 Roman horfe, only 70 efcaped to Venxifia with 
 Tea-entius Varro and 300 of the auxiliary horfe. As 
 to the infantiy, that writer tells us, that 70,000 of the 
 Ro.man foot died on the field of battle fighting like 
 brave men; and that 13,000 were made prifoners. 
 According to Dionyfius of Halicarnafl"us, of 6000 
 horfe, only 370 efcaped the general flaughter, and of 
 80^000 foot, 3000 only were left. The moft moderate 
 computation makes the number of Romans killed to 
 amount to 45,000. The fcene of aftion is marked 
 out to pofterity, by the name of Pe-z%o di Sangue, 
 " Field of Blood." 
 
 'Thefe plains have more than once, fince the Punic 
 war, affbrded room for men to accomplifh their mutual 
 deftruftion. Mclo of Ban, after raifing the fl:andard 
 of revolt againft the Greek emperors, and defeating 
 their generals in feveral engagements, was at lafl; rout- 
 ed bere in 1019, by the Catapan Bolanus. Out of 
 two hundred and fifty Norman adventurers, the flower 
 of Melo's army, only ten efcaped the flaughter of the 
 day. In 1201, the archbifhop of Palermo and his re- 
 bellious affociates, who had taken advantage of the 
 nonage of Frederic of Swabia, were cut to pieces at 
 Cannffi by Walter de Brienne, fent by the pope to de- 
 fend the young king's dominions. 
 
 Xhe traces of the town of Cannas are very faint, 
 coafifting of fragments of altars, cornices, gates, walls, 
 vaults, and under-ground granaries. It was defl:royed 
 the year before the battle ; but being rebuilt, became 
 an epifcopal fee in the infancy of Chriftianity. It was 
 again ruined in the fixth century, but feems to have 
 fubififted in an humble ftate many ages later ; for we 
 read of its contending with Barletta for the teiritory, 
 ■which till then had been enjoyed in common by them ; 
 and in 1284, Charles I. iflued an edidl for divi- 
 ding the lands, to prevent all future litigation. The 
 profperity of the towns along the coaft, which increa- 
 fed in wealth and population by embarkations for the 
 Crufadoes and by traffic, proved the annihilation of the 
 great inland cities ; and Cannas was probably abandon- 
 ed entirely before the end of the thirteenth century. 
 
 CANNEQUINS, in commerce, white cotton cloths 
 brought from the Eaft Indies. They are a proper 
 commodity for trading on the coaft of Guinea, parti- 
 cularly about the rivers Senega and Gambia. Thefe 
 
 r5 ] CAN 
 
 linens are folded fquare-wlfe, and are about eight ells CanncI 
 long. C-1 
 
 CANNEL Coal. See Ampelites. Cannonade* 
 
 CANNES, a town of France, in Provence, and in ' 
 
 the viguerie of Grafle, feated on the coaft of the Me- 
 diterranean fea, with a harbour and a caftle. E. Long. 
 7. 7. N. Lat. 43. 34. 
 
 CANNIBAL, a modern term for an anthropo- 
 phagus or man-eater, more efpecially in the Weft In- 
 dies. See Anthropophagi. 
 
 CANNON, a military engine for throwing balls, 
 &c. by the help of Gunpowder. 
 
 The invention of brafs cannon is by Laney afcribed 
 to J. Owen : he fays, that they were firft known in 
 England in the year 1535 ; but yet acknowledges, 
 that, in 1 346, there were four pieces of cannon in the 
 Englifti army at the battle of Crefl'y, and that thefe 
 were the firft that were known in France. And Me- 
 zeray relates, that king Edward, by five or fix pieces 
 of cannon, ftruck terror into the French army, it be- 
 ing the firft time they had feen any of thefe thunder- 
 ing machines ; though others affirm that cannon were 
 known alfo in France at the fame time ; but that the 
 French king, in his hurry to attack the Englifli, and 
 in confidence of viftory, left all his cannon behind him 
 as ufelefs incumbrances (See Artillery). The Ger- 
 mans carry the invention farther back, and attribute 
 it to Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, about the 
 year 1250. Voflius rejefts all thefe opinions, and finds 
 cannon in China almoft 1 700 years ago. According 
 to him, they were mounted by the emperor Kitey in 
 the year of Chrift 85. For further particulars of their 
 hiftory, &c. fee Gun and Gunnery. 
 
 For the cafting of cannon, fee Foundery. For 
 their different parts, proportions, management, ope- 
 ration, and eff"e£ts, fee Gunnery. 
 
 Cannon, with letter-founders and printers, the 
 name of the largeft fize of letters they ufe. 
 
 CANNONADE, the appHcation of artilleiy to the 
 purpofes of war, or the direction of its efforts againft 
 fome diftant 6bje£t intended to be feized or deftroyed, 
 as a ftiip, battery, or fortrefs. See Gunnery. 
 
 Since a large fliip of war may h& confidered as a 
 combination of floating batteries, it is evident that the 
 eff'orts of her artillery muft be greatly fuperior to thofe 
 of a fortrefs ou the fea-coaft ; that is to fay, in gene- 
 ral ; becaufe, on fome particular occafions, her fitua- 
 tion may be extremely dangerous, and her cannonading 
 ineff'edlual. Her fuperiority confifts in feveral circum- 
 ftances, as the power of bringing her different batte- 
 ries to converge to one point ; of ftiifting the hue of 
 her attack fo as to do the greateft poflible execution 
 againft the enemy, or to lie where flie wiU be the leaft 
 expofed to his fliot ; and chiefly becaufe, by employ- 
 ing a much greater number of cannon againft a fort 
 than it can poflibly return, the impreffion of her artil- 
 lery againft ftone-walls foon becomes decifive and irre- 
 fiftible. Befides thefe advantages in the attack, flie is 
 alfo greatly fuperior in point of defence : becaufe the 
 cannon-fliot, pafling with rapidity through her fides, 
 feldom do any execution out of the line of their flight, 
 or occafion much mifchief by ' their fplinters ; whereas 
 they very foon fliatter and deftroy the faces of a para- 
 pet, and produce incredible havoc among the men by 
 the fragments of the ftones, &c. A Ihip may alfo re- 
 P 2 treat 
 
CAN 
 
 t n6 1 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canoe. 
 
 Cannula treat when fhe finds it too dangerous to remain longer 
 II expofed to the enemy's fire, or when her own fire can- 
 not produce tlie defired efFeft. Finally, the fluftuating 
 fituation of a fliip," and of the element on whicli fhe 
 refts, renders the effetts of bombs very uncertain, and 
 altogether deftrov i the effecl of the ricochet^ or rolling 
 and bounding fhot, which is fo pernicious and de- 
 ftru£live in a fortrefs or land engagement. The chief 
 iaconveniency to which a fhip is expofed, on the con- 
 trary, is, that the low-laid cannon in a fort near the 
 brink of the fea, may ftrike her repeatedly on or under 
 the furface of the water, fo as to fink her before her 
 cannonade can have any confiderable efficacy. 
 
 CANNULA, in furgery, a tube made of different 
 metals, principally of filver and lead, but fometimes of 
 iron. 
 
 They are introduced into hollow ulcers, la order to 
 faciUtate a difcharge of pus or any other fub (lance ; or 
 into wounds, either accidental or artificial, of the large 
 cavities, as the thorax or abdomen : they are ufed in 
 the operation of bronchotomy ; and, by fome, after 
 cutting for the ftone, as a drain for urine. 
 
 Other cannulas are ufed for introducing cauteries, 
 either aftual or potential, into hollow parts, in order 
 to guard the parts adjacent to that to be cauterized, 
 from injury. They are of various figures ; fome being 
 oval, fome round, and others crooked. 
 
 CANO, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, with 
 a town of the fame name. It is bounded by Zaara on 
 the north, by the river Niger on the fouth, the king- 
 dom of Agades on the weft, and that of Caffina on the 
 eaft. Some of the inhabitants are herdfmen, and o- 
 thers till the ground and dwell in villages. It produces 
 corn, rice, and cotton. Here are alfo many deferts, 
 and mountains covered with woods, in which are wild 
 citrons and lemon trees. The walls and houfes of the 
 town are made of clay, and the principal inhabitants 
 are merchants. E. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat. 21. 5.^ 
 
 Canobia, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan, 
 feated on the weftern bank of Lago Maggiore, or the 
 Greater Lake. E. Long. 8. 47. N. Lat. 45. 55. 
 
 CANOE, a fort of Indian boat or vefTel, formed of 
 the trunk of a tree hollowed, and fometimes of feveral 
 pieces of the bark put together. 
 
 Canoes are of various fizee, according to the ufes 
 for which they may be defigned, or the countries 
 wherein they are formed. The largeft are made of the 
 cotton tree j fome of them will carry between 20 and 
 30 hogfheads of fugar or molaffes. Some are made to 
 carry fail : and for this purpofe are fteeped in water 
 till they become pliant ; after which their fides are ex- 
 tended, and ftrong beams placed between them, on 
 which a deck is afterwards laid that ferves to fupport 
 their fides. The other forts very rarely carry fail, mi- 
 lefs when going before the wind : their fails are made 
 of a fort of fhort filk grafs or rufhes. They are com- 
 monly> rowed with paddles, which are pieces of light 
 wood fomewhat refembhng a corn-fnovel ; and, inftead 
 of rowing with it horizontally like an oar, they ma- 
 nage it perpendicularly. The fmall canoes are very 
 naiTow, having only room for one perfon in breadth, 
 and feven or eight lengthwife. The rowers, who are 
 generally American favages, are very expert in mana- 
 ging their paddles uniformly, and in balancing the ca- 
 »oes viith their bodies ; which would be difficult for a 
 
 ftranger to do, how well accuftoined foever to the con- Canoni 
 dufting of European boats, becaufc the canoes are ex- — — v— 
 tremety light, and liable to be overturned. The Ame- 
 rican Indians, when they are under the neccffity of 
 landing to avoid a water-fall, or of crolTing the land 
 from one river to another, carry their canucs on their 
 heads, till they arrive at a place where they can 
 launch them again. This is the general conflrudiion of 
 canoes, and method of managing them : but fome na- 
 tions have vefiels going under the name of canoes, 
 which differ confiderably from the above ; as the inha- 
 bitants of Greenland, Hudfon's-bay, Otaheite, &c. 
 
 CANON, a perfon who poffeffes a prebend, or re- 
 venue allotted for the perfoi-mance of divine fervice, 
 in a cathedral, or collegiate church. 
 
 Canons are of no great antiquity : Pafchier obferves, 
 that the name canon was not known before Charle- 
 magne ; at kail the firft we hear of are in Gregory 
 de Tours, who mentions a college of canons inftituted 
 by Baldwin XVI. archbilhop of that city, in the time 
 of Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the 
 inftitution of this order to Chrodegangus, bifiiop of 
 Metz, about the middle of the eighth century. 
 
 Originally canons were only priefts, or inferior ec- 
 clefiaftics, who lived in community ; refiding by the 
 cathedral church, to aflift the bifliop ; depending en- 
 tirely on his will ; fupported by the revenues of tlie 
 bifhopric ; and living in the fame houfe, as his domef- 
 tics, or counfellors, &c.. They even inherited his 
 moveables, till the year 817, when this was prohibited 
 by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a new rule fub- 
 ftituted in the place of that which had been appointed 
 by Chrodegangus, and which was obferved for the 
 moft part in the weft till the twelfth century. By de- 
 grees, thefe communities of priefts, ftiaking off their 
 dependence, formed feparate bodies ; whereof the bi- 
 fhops, however, were flill heads. In the tenth cen- 
 tur)', there wei'e communities or congregations of tlie 
 fame kind, eftabliilied even in cities where there were 
 no bifhops : thefe were called coUegiates, as they ufed 
 the terms congregation and college indifferently : the 
 name chapter, now given to thefe bodies, being much 
 moje modern. Under the fecond race of the French 
 kings, the canonical, or collegiate life, had fpread It- 
 felf all over the country ; and each cathedral had its 
 chapter, diftinA from the reft of the clergy. They 
 had the name canon from the Greek xa'^v, which fig- 
 nifies three different things ; a rule, a penfion, or fixed 
 revenue to live on, and a catalogue or matricula ; all 
 which are applicable to them. 
 
 In time, the canons freed themfelves from their rules, 
 the obfervance relaxed, and, at length, they ceafed to 
 live in community : yet they ftill formed bodies ; pre- 
 tending to other funcftions befides the celebration of 
 the common office in the church ; yet affuming the 
 rights of the reft of the clergy ; making themfelves as 
 a neceffary council of the bifhop ; taking upon them 
 the admiiiiftration of a fee during a vacancy, and the 
 eledlion of a biftiop to fupply it. There are even 
 fome chapters exempt from the jurifditf ion of the bi- 
 fiiop, and owning no head but their dean. After the 
 example of cathedral chapters, collegiate ones alfo con- 
 tinued to form bodies, after they had abandoned living 
 in community. 
 
 Canons are of various kinds j as, 
 
 Cardinal 
 
CAN [ I 
 
 Canofti. Cardinal Canoks^ which are thofe attached, and, as 
 
 "~v ' the Latins call it, incard'mati to a church, as a priell 
 
 h to a parifli. 
 
 jyomcellary Canons, were young canons, who, not 
 being in orders, had no right in any particular chap- 
 ters. 
 
 ExpeBati've Canons, wexc fuch as, without having 
 ^ny revenue or prebend, had the title and dignities 
 of canons, a voice in the chapter, and a place in the 
 choir; till fuch time as a prebend (hould fall. 
 
 Foreign CANONi, were fuch as did not officiate in the 
 canonries to which they belonged. To thefe were op- 
 pofi;d nianrioriaJ7 canons, or canons refidentiary. 
 
 J.ay or honorary Canons, are fuch among the laity 
 as have been admitted, out of honour and refpect, in- 
 to fome chapter of caiions. 
 
 Regular Canons, are canons that llill live in coin- 
 rnunity ; and who, like religious, have, in procefs of 
 time, to the practice of their rules, added the folemn 
 profcflion of vows. They are called regulars, to dif- 
 tinguifh them from thofe fecular canons who abandon 
 living in community, and at the fame time the ob- 
 - fervance of the canons made as the rule of the clergy, 
 
 for the tnaintenance of the ancient difcipline. The 
 canons fubfifted in their fanplicity till the eleventh, 
 fome fay the twelfth century, when fome of them, fe- 
 parating from the community, took with them the 
 name of canons, or acephalous priefts, becaufe they 
 declined to live in community with the bifhop ; and 
 thofe who were left thenceforth acquired the denomi- 
 nation of canons regular, and adopted moft of the pro- 
 feffions of the rule of St Auguftine. This order of re- 
 gular canons of St Augulline was brought into Eng- 
 land by Adelwald, confelTor to Henry I. who erefted 
 a priory at Noftel in Yorkfhire; and obtained for them 
 the church of Carlifle as an epifcopal fee, with the pii- 
 vilege of choofmg their own bifhop* They were fin- 
 gukrly protected and encouraged by Henry I. who 
 gave them the priory of Danftable in 1107, and by 
 queen Maud, who, in the following year, gave them 
 the priory of the Holy Trinity in Lotrdon. It appears, 
 that under the reign of Edward I. they had 53 
 priories. 
 
 Tertiary Canons, thofe who had only the third part 
 cf the revenues of the canonlcate. 
 
 Canon, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is a law or rule, 
 either of doctrine or difcipline, enacted efpecially by a 
 oouncilj and confirmed by the authority of the fove- 
 rcign. 
 
 Canons are properly decifions of matters of religion; 
 or regulations of the policy and difcipline of a church, 
 made by councils, either general, national, or pro- 
 vincial. Such are the canons of the council of Nice, 
 or Trent, &c. 
 
 There have been various coUedllons of the canons 
 of the Eallern councils ; but four principal ones, each 
 ampler than the preceding. The firfl, according to 
 Ufher, A. D. 3B0, containing only thofe of the firll 
 oecumenical council, and the firlt provincid ones: they 
 were but 1 64 in number. To thefe, Dionyfms Exi- 
 guus, in the year 520, added th-e 50 canons of the 
 apoftles, and thofe of tiie other general councils. The 
 Greek canons in this fecond coileftion end with thofe 
 of the council of Chalcedon ; to which are fubjoined 
 thefe of the council of Sardica, and the African coun- 
 
 7 1 CAN 
 
 cils. Tht fourth and laft collcdlion comes down as Canon, 
 low as the fecond council of Nice ; and it is on this ^— nr-"" 
 that Balfamon and Zonaras have commented. 
 
 j^poJloUcal Canons, are thofe which have been ufu- 
 ally afcribed to St Clement. Bellannin, Baronius, &c. 
 will have them to be genuine canons of the apoftles : 
 Cotelerius obferves, that they cannot be afcribed to the 
 apoftles or Clement, becaufe they ai'e not received with 
 other books of fcripture, are not quoted by the wri- 
 ters of the firft ages, and contain many things not a- 
 greeable to the apoftolical times : Hincmar, De Mar- 
 ca, Beveridge, &c. take them to be framed , by the 
 bifliops wlio xvere the apoftles difciples in the fecond 
 or third century ; S. Bafnage is of opinion, that they 
 were collefted by an anonymous writer in the fifth 
 century ; but Daille, &c. maintain them to have been 
 forged by fome heretic in the fixth century ; and S. 
 Bafnage conjectures, that fome of them are ancient, 
 and others not older than the feventh century. The 
 Greek church allow only 85 of them, and the Latins 
 only 50 ; though there are 84 in the edition given of 
 them in the Corpus Juris Canonici. 
 
 Canon is alfo ufed for the authorifed catalogue o£ 
 the facred writings. See Bible. 
 
 The ancient canon, or catalogue of the books of the 
 Old Teftament, was made by the Jews, and is ordina- 
 rily attributed to Ezra ; who is faid to have diltri- 
 buted them into the law, the prophets, and the ha- 
 glographa, to which our Saviour refers, Luke, chap, 
 xxiv. ver. 44. The fame divifion is alfo mentioned by . 
 Jofephus, cont. Applon. 
 
 This is the canon allowed to have been followed by 
 the primitive church, till the council of Carthage j 
 and, according to St Jerona, this confifted of no more 
 than 22 books ; anfwering to the number of the He- 
 brew alphabet ; though at prefent they are clafTed Into 
 24 divlfions, containing Genefis, Exodus, Leviticus, 
 Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joftiua, Judges, Samuel, 
 Kings, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezeklel, the twelve minor 
 prophets, the Pfalms, the Proverbs, Job, Canticles, 
 Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclefialles, Either, Daniel, 
 Ezra, comprehending the book of Nehemiah and the 
 Chronicles. However, this order is not unlverfally 
 obferved either among Jews or Chriftians : nor were 
 all the books above enumerated admitted into the ca- 
 non In Ezra's time. It is moft likely, fays Dr Pry- 
 deaux, that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Ne- 
 hemiah, Efther, and Malachi, were added in the time 
 of Simon the Juft, when the canon was completed. 
 But that council enlarged the canon very confiderably, 
 taking Into It the books which we call apocryphal ; 
 which the council of Trent has further enforced, en- 
 joining all thefe to be received as books of Holy Scrip- 
 ture, upon pain of anathema, and being attainted of 
 herefy. The Romanifts, in defence of this canon, fay, 
 that it is the fame with that of the council of Hippo, 
 held In 393 ; and with that of the third council of 
 Carthage, In 397, at which werejirefent 46 biftiops, 
 and, among the reft, St Auguftine ; who declared that 
 they received it from their fathers. 
 
 Their canon of the New Teftament perfeftly agrees 
 with ours. It confifts of books that are well known ; 
 fome of which have been unlverfally acknowledged 
 fuch are the four Gofpels, the Afts of the Apoftles, 
 thirteen Epiftles of St Paul, one Epiftle of St Ptter, 
 
CAN 
 
 Car.or. and one Epiftle of St Jolin : and others, Goncernin^ 
 ■"""v which doubts were eiitertaincd, but which were after- 
 wards received as genuine ; fuch are the epifde to the 
 Hebrews, that of James, the fccond of Peter, the fe- 
 cond and third of John, that of Jude, and tlie Reve- 
 lation. Thefe books were written at difTerent times, 
 and they are authenticated, not by the decrees of coun- 
 cils, or infalhble authority, but by fuch kind of evi- 
 dence as is thought fufliclent in the cafe of any other 
 ancient writings. They were very extenfively diifufed ; 
 they were read In every Chriftian fociety ; they were 
 valued and preferved wJth care by the firft Chriftians ; 
 they were cited by Chriftian writers of the fecond, 
 third, and fourth century, as by Irenseus, Clement the 
 Alexandrian, TertuUian, Origen, Eufebius, &c. and 
 their genuinenefs is proved by the teftimony of thofe 
 vvlio were contemporary with the apoftles therafelves, 
 and by tradition. The four Gofpels, and moll of the 
 other books of the New Teftament, were coUefted 
 either by one of the apoftles, or fome of their difci- 
 ples and fucceiTors, before the end of the firft century. 
 The catalogue of canonical books furniilied by the 
 more ancient Chriftian writers, as Origen about the 
 year 210, Eufebius and Athanafius in 31,^, Epiphanius 
 in 370, Jerome in 382, Auftin in 394, and many o- 
 thers, agrees with thajt which is now received among 
 Chriftians. For the time of writing the feveral books 
 of the New Teftament, fee the titles of the books 
 themfelves ; as the Gofpel of St Matthew, Mark, 
 &c. 
 
 Some of the fathers diftinguifti the infpired writings 
 into three claffes ; proto-canonical, deutero-canonioal, 
 and apocryphal. 
 
 Pajchal Cjnon, a table of the moveable feafts, fliow- 
 ing the day of Eafter, and the other feafts depending 
 on it, for a cycle of 1 9 years. 
 
 The pafchal canon is fuppofed to be the calculation 
 of Eufebius of Csfarea, and to have been done by or- 
 der of the council of Nice. 
 
 Canon, in monaftic orders, a book wherein the re- 
 ligious of every convent have a fair tranfcript of the 
 rules of their order, frequently read among them as 
 their local ftatutes. Tliis is alfo called regida, as con- 
 taining the rule and inftitution of their order. 
 
 The canon differs from the miffale, martyrologium, 
 and necrologium. 
 
 Canon, again, is ufed for the catalogue of faints 
 acknowledged and canonized in the Roman church. 
 
 Canon is alfo ufed, by way of exceflence, in the 
 Romifti church, for the fecret words of the mafs, from 
 the preface to the Pater ; in the middle of which the 
 pi-ieft confecrates the hoft. The common opinion is, 
 that the canon of the mafs commences with Te igifur, 
 &c. The people are to be on their knees, hearing the 
 canon ; and are to rehearfe it to themfelves, fo as not 
 to be heard. 
 
 Canon, in the ancient mufic, is a rule or method 
 of determining the intervals of notes. 
 
 Ptolemy, rcjefting the Ariftoxeiiian way of meafu- 
 ring the intervals in mufic, by the magnitude of a tone 
 (which was fuppofed to be formed by the difference 
 between a diapente and a diateflaron ) , thought that 
 mufical intervals fhould be diftinguifhed, according to 
 the ratios or proportions which the founds terminating 
 thof(; intervals bear to one anoth-er, when confidered 
 
 [ 118 1 
 
 CAN 
 
 according to their degree of acutenefs or ^avity ; C^ai-roa. 
 which, before Aiiftoxenus, was the old Pythagorean * ~" 
 way. He therefore made the diapafon confill in a 
 double ratio ; the diapente, in a fefquialterate ; the 
 diateffaron, in a fefquitertian ; and the tohe itfelf, in 
 a fefquioftave ; and all the other intervals, according 
 to the proportion of the founds that terminate them : 
 wherefore taking the canon (as it is called) for a de- 
 terminate Hne of any length, he fhows how this ca- 
 non is to be cut accordingly, fo that it may reprefent 
 the refpeftive intervals : and this method anfwers ex- 
 aftly to experiment, in the different lengths of mufical 
 chords. From this canon, Ptolemy and his followers 
 have been called Canonici ; as thofe of Ariftoxenu« 
 were called Mufici. 
 
 Can©n, in modern mufic, Is a kind of fugue, which 
 they call a perpetual fugue y becaufe the different parts 
 beginning one after another, repeat inceflantly the fame 
 
 air 
 
 Formerly, fays Zarlino, they placed, at the head of 
 perpetual fugues, particular direftions which fhowed 
 how this kind of fugues was to be fung ; and thefe di- 
 reftions being properly the rules by which perpetual 
 fugues were compofed were called canon'r, rules, or ca- 
 nons. From this cuftom, others taking the title for the 
 thing fignified, by a metonimy, termed this kind of 
 compofition canon. Such canons as are compofed with 
 the greateft facility, and of confequence moft gaisrally 
 ufed, begin the fugue either with the oftave or the u- 
 nifon ; that is to fay, that every part repeats in the fame 
 tone the melody of the preceding. In order to form 3 
 canon of this kind, it is only neceffary for the compo- 
 ler to make an air according to his tafte ; to add in 
 fcore as many parts as he choofes, where the voices in 
 oftave or unifon repeat the fame melody; then formino- 
 a fingle air from all thefe parts fucceflively executed, to 
 try whether this fucceffion may form an entire piece 
 which will give pleafure, as well in the harmony as the 
 melody. 
 
 In order to execute fuch a canouy he who fings the 
 firft part begins alone, and continues till the air is fi- 
 niflied; then recommences immediately, without any 
 fufpence of found or interruption of time : as foon as 
 he has ended the firft couplet, which ought to ferve 
 for the perpetual fubjeft upon which the whole canon 
 has been compofed^ the fecond part begins and repeats 
 the fame couplet, whilft the firft who had begun pur- 
 fues the fecond : others in fucceffion begiii, and pro- 
 ceed the fame way, as foon as he who precedes, has 
 reached the end of the firft couplet. Thus, by incef- 
 fantly recommencing, an univerfal clofe can never be 
 found, and the canon may be repeated as long as the 
 fingers pleafe. 
 
 A perpetual fugue may likewife confift of parts which 
 begin with the intervals of a fourth or fifth ; or, in other 
 words, eveiy part may repeat the melody of the firft, a 
 fourth or a fifth higher or lower. It is then neceffary 
 that the whole canon ffiould be' invented di prima in- 
 ten-zloncy as the Italians fay ; and that fliarps or flats 
 ftiould be added to the notes, whofe natural gradations 
 do not anfwer exaftly, by a fourth or fifth, to the me- 
 lody of the preceding part, and produce the fame in- 
 tervals with itfelf. Here the compofer cannot pay the 
 leaft regard to modulation; his only care is, that the 
 melody may be the fame, which renders the formation 
 
 of 
 
CAN [ : 
 
 Canon, of a canon more difficult ; for at every tune wliea any 
 ' * ■' part rcfumes the fugue, it takes a new key; it changes 
 the tone almoft at every note, and what is ftill worfe, 
 no part is at the fame time found in the fame tone with 
 anotlier ; licnce it is that this kind of canons, in other 
 refpefts far from being eafy to be purfued, never pro- 
 duces a pleafing efteft, however good the harmony may 
 be, and how jver pi'operly it may be fung. 
 
 There is a thii-d kind of canon, but very fcarce, as 
 well becaufe it is extremely difficult, as becaufe it is for 
 the moft part incapable of giving pleafure, and can boaft 
 no other merit but the pains which have been thrown 
 away in its compofition. This may be called a double 
 canon inveiieJ, as well by the inverfions which are prac- 
 tlfedi in it with I'efpeft to the melody of the parts, as 
 by thofe which are found among the parts themfelves, 
 in finging. There is fuch an artifice in this kind of ca- 
 non, that, whether the parts be fung in their natural 
 order, or whether the paper in which they are fet be 
 turned the contrary w^y, to fing them backward from 
 the end to the beginning, in fuch a manner that the 
 bafs becomes the upper part, and the reft undergo a li- 
 milar change, ftill you have pretty harmony, and ftill 
 a regular canon. The reader may confult RoufTeau's 
 Dictionary in this article, where he is referred to plate D 
 fig. 1 1 . for two examples of canons of this fort extrac- 
 ted from Bontempi, who likewife gives rules foi their 
 compofition. But he adds, that the true principle from 
 which this rule is deduced will be found at the word 
 Sjifieme, in his account of the fyftem of Tartini, to which 
 we muft likewife once more refer the reader; as a quo- 
 tatlcn of fuch length muft have protrafted our article 
 to an enormous extent. 
 
 To form a canon in which the harmony may be a 
 little varied, it is neceffary that the parts fnould not fol- 
 low each other in a fucceffion too rapid, and that the 
 one fliould only begin a confiuerable time after the o- 
 ther. When they follow one another fo immediately as 
 at the diftance of a feraibreve or a minim, the duration 
 is not fufficlent to admit a great number of chords, and 
 the canon muft of neceffity exhibit a difagreeable mo- 
 notony; but it is a method of compofing, without much 
 difficulty, a canon in as many parts as the compofer 
 choofes. Foe a canon of four bars only, will confift of 
 eight parts if they follow each other at the diftance of 
 half a bar; and by each bar which is added, two parts 
 will conftantly be gained.- 
 
 The emperor Charles VI. who was a great mwfician, 
 and compofed extremely well, took much pleafure in 
 compofing and finging canons. Italy is ftill replete with 
 moft beautiful canons compofed for this prince, by the 
 beft niafters in that country. To what has been faid 
 by Roufieau, we need only fubjoin, that the Englifa 
 caicli and the Italian canon are much the fame ; as any 
 intelligent reader may perceive, from comparing tlie 
 ftruflure and execution of the Englifli catci with the 
 account of canons which has now been given. 
 
 Canon, in geometry and algebra, a general rule 
 for the folution cf all cafes of a like nature witli the 
 prefent inquiry. Thus every laft ftep of an equation is 
 a canon ; and, if turned into words, becomes a rule 
 "to folve all queftions of the fame nature with that pro- 
 pofed. 
 
 CANON-Laiu, a colleftion of ecclefiaftlcal lav/s, fer- 
 ving as, the rule and meafure of church-government. 
 
 ig ] CAN 
 
 The power of making laws ^yas exercifed by the Canon 
 church before the Homan empire became Chriftian. 
 The canon-law that obtained throughout the Weft, till , ,' 
 
 the 1 2th century, was the colleftion of canons made by 
 Uionyfius Exiguus in 520, the capitularies of Charle- 
 magne, and the decrees of the popes from Sircius to 
 Anaftafius. 
 
 The canon-law, even when papal authority was at 
 its height in England, war, of no force when it was found' 
 to contradi(ft the prerogative of the king, the laws, fta- 
 tutes, and cuftoms of the realm, or the doftrine of the " 
 eftabliflied church. 
 
 The ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion of the fee of Rome In 
 England was founded on the canon-law ; and this 
 created quarrels between kings and feveral archbiftiops 
 and prelates who adhered to the papal ufurpation. 
 
 Befides the foreign canons, there were feveral laws 
 and conftitutions made here for the government of the 
 church : but all tliefe received their force from the royal 
 aflent ; and if, at any time, the ecclefiaftical courts 
 did, by their fentence, endeavour to enforce obedience 
 to fuch canons, the courts at common law, upon com- 
 plaints made, would grant prohibition. The autho- 
 rity vefted in the church of England of making canons, 
 was afcertained by a ftatute of Henry "VIII. commonly 
 called tlie ad of the clergy'' s fiibnilffion ; by v.hich they 
 acknowledged, that the convocation had always been: 
 affembled by the king's writ ; fo that though the 
 power of making canons refided in the clergy met in 
 convocation, their force was derived from the au- 
 thority of tlie king's affenting to _and confirming 
 them. 
 
 The old canons continued in fidl force till the reign 
 of James I. when the clergy being affembled in convo- 
 cation, t)ie king gave them leave to treat and confult 
 upan canons ; which they did, and prefented them to 
 the king, who gave them the royal aflent : thefe were 
 a colleftion out of the feveral preceding canons and in- 
 juaclions. Some of thefe canons are now obfolete. In. 
 the reign of Charles L feveral canons were pafled by 
 the clergy in convocation. 
 
 CANONESS, in the Romifti church, a woman wha 
 enjoys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to maids, 
 without their being obliged to renounce the world or 
 make any vows. 
 
 CANONICA, in philofophical hiftory, an appella- 
 tion given by Epicurus to his dodlrine of logic. It 
 was called canonlca, as _ confifting of a few canons or 
 rules for diredling the underftanding in the purfuit and. 
 knowledge of truth. Epicurus's caiion'ica is reprefent- 
 ed as a very flight and infufficient logic by feveral of 
 the ancients, who put a great value on his ethics and 
 phyfics. Laertius even affures us, that the Epicureans 
 rejefted logic as a fuperfluous fcience ; and Plutarch 
 complains that Epicurus made an unflcilful and pre- 
 pofterous ufe of fyllogifms. But thefe cenfures feem. 
 too fevere. Epicurus was hot averfe to the ftudy o£ 
 Logic, but even gave better rules in this art than thofe 
 philofophers who aimed at no glory but tlrat of logics. 
 He only feems to have rejedled the dialeftics of the 
 ftoics,,as full of vain fubtleties and deceits, and fitted, 
 rather for parade and difputation.than real ufe. The 
 ftrefs of Epicurus's canon'ica confifts in his doftrine of 
 the criteria of truth. AH queftions in philofophy are 
 either concerning words or things: concerning things,. 
 
 we- 
 
CAN 
 
 r 
 
 1 20 
 
 canonical, we feek tlicir truth ; concerning words, their fignifi- 
 ^"""Y--^ cation : things are either natural or moral ; and the 
 former are either perceived by fenfe or by the under- 
 ftanding. Hence, according to Epicurus, ariie three 
 criterions of truth, viz. fenfe, anticipation or prceno- 
 lion, and paffion. The great canon or principle of 
 Epicurus's logic is, that the fenfes are never deceived ; 
 and therefore, that every fenfatlon or perception of an 
 appearance is true. 
 
 CANONICAL, fomething that belongs to, or par- 
 takes of, the nature of a rule or canon. 
 
 Canonical Hours-, are certain ftated times of the 
 day, configned, more efpecially by the Romilh church, 
 to the offices of prayer and devotion. Such are matins, 
 lauds, Jixth, ninth, vefpers. In our country the canoni- 
 cal hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon, be- 
 fore or after which marriage cannot be legally perform- 
 ed in any parifli-church. 
 
 Canonical Obedience, is that fubmiffion which, by 
 the eccleliaftical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to 
 their bllhops, and religious to their fuperiors. 
 
 Canonical Sins, in the ancient church, thofe whicli 
 ivere capital or mortal. Such efpecially were idolatry, 
 murder, adultery, herefy, and fchifm. 
 
 Canonical Puni/hments, are thofe which the church 
 may infliA ; fuch as excommunication, degradation, 
 and penance, in Roman Catholic countries, alfo fall- 
 ing, alms, whipping, &c. 
 
 Canonical Life, the method or rule of living pre- 
 fcribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community. 
 The canonical life was a kind of medium between the 
 monaftic and clerical lives. Originally the orders of 
 monks and clerks were entirely dillindl ; but pious per- 
 lons, in procefs of time, inilituted colleges of priefts 
 and canons, where clerks brought up for the miniftry, 
 as well" as others already engaged therein, might live 
 under a fixed rule, which, though fomewhat more eafy 
 than the monaftic, was yet more reftrained than the fe- 
 cular. This was called the canonical life, and thofe 
 who embraced it canons. — Authors are divided about 
 the founder of the canonical life. Some will have it to 
 be founded by the apoftles ; others afcribe it to pope 
 Urban I. about the year 1230, who is faid to have 
 ordered bifbops to provide fuch of their clergy as were 
 willing to live in community, with necelFaries out of 
 the revenues £)f their churches. The genei-ality attri- 
 bute it to St Auguttin ; who, having gathered a num- 
 ber of clerks to devote themlelves to religion, inftitu- 
 ted a monalleiy within his epilcopal palace, where he 
 lived in community with them. Onuphrius Panvinius 
 brings the inftitution fomewhat lower ; according to 
 him, pope Gelafms I. about the year 495, placed the 
 firft regular canons of St Auguftin in the Lateran 
 church. 
 
 Canonical Letters, in the ancient church, were a 
 fort of teftimonials of the orthodox faith, which the 
 bifhops and clergy fent each other to keep up the ca- 
 tholic communion, and dittinguini orthodox Chriftians 
 from Arians and other heretics. They were denomi- 
 nated canonical, either as being compofed according to 
 a certain rule or form, or becaufe they were given to 
 the canoniciy that is, thofe comprehended in the canon 
 or catalogue of their church. When they had occalion 
 to travel into other diocefes or countries, dimiffory and 
 
 1 
 
 Can 
 
 recommendatory letters, ailo letters of peace, he. were 
 fo many fpecies of canonical letters. 
 
 Canonical is alfo an appellation given to thofe 
 epilUes in the New Teftam.cnt more frequently called 
 catholic or general epiftles. 
 
 CANONIC UM, in a general fenfe, denotes a tax 
 or tribute. 
 
 Canonicum is more particularly ufed in the Greek 
 church for a fee paid by the clergy to biihops, arch- 
 bifliops, and metropolitans, for degrees and promo* 
 tions. 
 
 Canonicum alfo denotes a due of firil-fruits, paid 
 by the Greek laity to their bifhops, or, according to 
 Du-Cange, to their priefts. The canonicum is afTelTed 
 according to the number of houfes or chininies in a 
 place. 
 
 The emperor Ifaac Comnenus made a conftitution 
 for regulating ■ the canonicum of biihops, which was 
 confirmed by another made in 1086, by his nephew 
 Alexis Comnenus. A village containing thirty fires, 
 was to pay for its canonicum one piece of gold, two of 
 filver, one Iheep, fix bufliels of barley, fix of vvlicat 
 flour, fix meafures of wine, and thirty hens. 
 
 CANONIST, a perfon fltilled in or who makes pro-' 
 feffion of the ftudy and praftice of the canon law. Ca- 
 noniits and civilians are ufually combined in the fame 
 perfons : and hence the title of doEior juris utriufquc, 
 or legum do8or, ufually expreffed in abbreviature, 
 L. L.D. or J. U.D. 
 
 CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the Romilli 
 church, by which perfons deceafed are ranked in the 
 catalogue of the faints. It fucceeds beatification. 
 " 'Before a beatified perfon is canonized, the qualifica- 
 tions of the candidate are ftriftly examined into, in 
 fome Gonfiftories held for that purpofe ; after which, 
 one of the confiftorial advocates, in the prefence of 
 the pope and cardinals, makes the panegyric of the 
 perfon who is to be proclaimed a faint, and gives a 
 particular detail of his life and miracles : which done, 
 the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints 
 the day. 
 
 On the day of canonization the pope officiates in 
 white, and their eminences are dreft in the fame colour. 
 St Peter's church is hung with rich tapeftry, upon 
 which the arms of the pope, and of the prince or ftatc 
 requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold 
 and filver. An infinite number of lights blaze all round 
 the church, which is crowded with pious fouls, who 
 wait with devout impatience till the new faint has made 
 his public entry as it were into paradife, that they may 
 offer up their petitions to him without danger of be- 
 ing rejefted. 
 
 The following maxim with regard to canonization is 
 rtow obferved, though it has not been followed above a 
 century, vi-z. not to enter into the inquiries prior to ca- 
 nonization, till 50 years, atleaft, after the death of the 
 perfon to be canonized. By the ceremony of canoni- 
 zation, it appears that this rite of the modern Romans 
 has fomething in it very like the apotheofis or deifica- 
 tion of the ancient Romans, and, in all probability, 
 takes its rife from it ; at leaft feveral ceremonies of the 
 fame nature are confpicuous in both. 
 
 CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It dif- 
 fers from a prebend, in that the prebend may fubfiil 
 
 without 
 
CAN 
 
 [ I 
 
 without the cationicatc : whereas the canonicate is infe- 
 parable from the prebend: again, the rights of fuffra- 
 ges, and other privileges, are annexed to the canoni- 
 cate, and not to the prebend. 
 
 CANOPUS, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft mag- 
 nitude in the rudder of Argo, a conftellation of the 
 fouthern hemifphere. 
 
 Canopus, in Pagan mythology, one of the deities 
 of the ancient Egyptians, and, according to fome, the 
 god of water. It is faid, that the Chaldeans, who 
 worfliipped fire, carried their fancied deity thro' other 
 countries to try its pov.'er, in order that, if it obtained 
 the viftory over the other gods, it might be acknow- 
 ledged as the true object of worfhip; and it having ea- 
 fily fubdued the gods of wood. Hone, brafs, filver, and 
 gold, its priefts declared, that all gods did it homage. 
 This the priefts of Canopus hearing, and finding that 
 the Chaldeans had brought their god to contend with 
 Canopus, they took a large earthen vefTel, in which 
 they bored feveral holes, which they afterwards ftop- 
 ped with wax, and having filled the veffel with water, 
 ■painted it of feveral colours, and fitting the head of an 
 idol to It, brought it out, in order to contend with the 
 Chaldean deity. The Chaldeans accordingly kindled 
 their fire all around it ; but the heat having melted the 
 wax, the water gufhed out thro' the holes, and extin- 
 guiftied the fire ; and thus Canopus cojiquered the god 
 of the Chaldeans. 
 
 Canopus, or Canobusy according to Strabo, had 
 been Menelaus's pilot, and had a temple eredled to him 
 in a town called Canopus, near one of the mouths of the 
 Nile. Dionyfius mentions it : 
 
 Kai Ttf/.ii<^ -mpirvrf'y AjuiiY^oti nio Kc/.vuliv. 
 There ftancU Canobus' ftrnple known to fame ; 
 The pilot who from fair Amytla came. 
 
 Voflius remarks, on this occafion, the vanity of the 
 Greeks, who, as he conjeftures, hearing of an Egyp- 
 tian deity named Canopus, took from thence an oppor- 
 tunity of deifying the pilot of Menelaus who bore the 
 fame name, and giving out that the Egyptian god Ca- 
 nopus had been a Greek. P. Monfaucon gives feveral 
 reprefentations of this deity. One, in allufion to the 
 vi(?tory above mentioned, throws out water on every 
 iide through little holes. 
 
 Canopus, or Canolus, (anc. geog.) a town of 
 the Lower Egypt, on the Mediterranean, an hnn 
 dred and twenty ftadia, or fifteen miles to the eaft of 
 Alexandria ; as old as the war of Troy, Canopus, or 
 Canobus, Menelaus's fteerfman, being there buried. 
 Canopaei, the gentilitious name : famous for their luxu- 
 ry and debauchery, (Strabo, Juvenal.) See Aboukir. 
 
 CANOPY, in architefture and fculpture, a mag- 
 nificent kind of decoration, fcrving to cover and crown 
 an altar, throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like. 
 The word is formed from the barbarous Latin canopeum^ 
 of y.aiu7nioi^ anefjpnail oDe-r a bed to keep off the guais, from 
 %!^y--^:^y,n gnat, 
 
 ■ Canopies are alfo botne over the head in procefllons 
 of ftate, after the manner of umbrellas. The canopy 
 ■ef an altar is more peculiarly called Ciborhm, 
 
 The Roman grandees had their canopies, or fpread 
 Teils, called thenfo'., over their chairs : the like were al- 
 io in temples over the ftatues of the gods. The mo- 
 (2ern cardinals ftill retain the ufe of canopies. 
 
 CANOSA, a town of Puglia in Italy, occupying 
 Vol. IV. Part. I. 
 
 2f ] can" 
 
 part of the fite of the ancient Canufium. The old Canofa 
 city was founded by Diomede, according to Strabo. It i' 
 afterwards became a Roman colony, and one of the , 
 moft confiderable cities of this part of Italy for extent, ' 
 population, and magnificence in building. The sraof 
 Trajan feems to have been that of its greateft fplen- 
 dour ; but this pomp only ferved to mark it as a capi- 
 tal objeA for the avarice and fury of the Barbarians. 
 Genferic, Totila, and Autharis, treated it with ex- 
 treme cruelty. The deplorable ftate to which this 
 province was reduced in 590 is concifely but ftrongly '^>'ai,sls in 
 painted by Gregory the Great, in thefe terms : " On o 
 " every fide we hear groans ! on every fide we behold ^^^^ "^^ ' 
 *' crowds of mourners, cities burnt, caftles rafed to the 
 " ground, countries laid wafte, provinces .become de- 
 " ferts, fome citizens led away captives, and others in- 
 " humanly maiTacred." No town in Puglia fuffered 
 more than Canofa from the outrages of the Saracens; 
 the contcfts between the Greeks and Normans increa 
 fed the meafure of its woes, which was filled by a con- ' 
 flagratlon that happened when it was ftormed by duke 
 Robert. In 1090, it was affigncd, by agreement, to 
 Bohemund prince of Antioch, who died here in 1 1 1 1. 
 Under the reign of Ferdinand the Third, this eftate 
 belonged to the Grimaldis. On their forfeiture, the 
 Affaititi acquired It, and ftill retain the title of mar- 
 qui's, though the Capeci are the proprietors of the fief. 
 
 The ancient city ftood in a plain between the hills 
 and the river Ofanto, and covered a large trad of 
 ground. Many brick monuments, though degraded 
 and ftripped of their marble cafing, ftill atteft its ancient 
 grandeur. Among them may be traced the fragments 
 of aqueduds, tombs, amphitheatre baths, military co- 
 lumns, and two triumphal arches, which, by their po- 
 fitlon, feem to have been two city gates. The prefent 
 town ftands above, on the foundations of the old cita- 
 del, and is a moft pitiful remnant of fo great a city, 
 not containing above three hundred houfes. The 
 church of St Sabinus, built, as is faid, In the fixth cen- 
 tury, is now without the inclofure. It is aftoniftiing, 
 that any part of this ancient cathedral fhould have 
 wichftood fo many calamities. Its altars and pave- 
 ments are rich in marbles ; and in a fmall court ad- 
 joining, under an oAagonal cupola. Is the maufoleum 
 of Bohemund, adorned in a minute Gothic ftyle. 
 
 C ANSO, a fea-port town of Acadia, or Nova Sco- 
 tia, In North America, feated on a narrow ftrait which 
 feparates Nova Scotia from Cape Breton. Near this 
 town is a fine fiftiery for cod. W. Long. 62. N. Lat. 
 46. 
 
 CANSTAT, a town of Swabia, in Germany, in the 
 duchy of Wirtemberg, fituated on the river Neckar, in 
 E. Long. 9. 9. N. Lat. 48. 51. 
 
 CANT, a quaint affeded manner of fpeaking, ad- 
 apted chiefly to the lower fort. Skinner racks his in- 
 vention for the origin of this word ; which he fuccef- 
 fively deduces from the German, Elemifh, and Saxon 
 tongues. According to the general opinion, Cantij 
 originally the proper name of a Cameronlan preacher 
 in Scotland, who by exercife had obtained the faculty 
 of talking in the pulpit in fuch a tone and dialed as was 
 underftood by none but his, own congregation: fincc 
 Andrew Cant's time, the word has been extended to 
 fignify all fudden exclamations, and whining unmufica! 
 tones, efpecially in praying and j)reaching. But thi» 
 
 origin 
 
ing L 
 guage. 
 
 CAN [ T2 
 
 Canr, origin of the word has been dlfputed by others ; and 
 Cantabria. perhaps the true derivation is from the Latin cantare 
 ^"—^^r—^ to fmg." 
 
 Cant is alfo applied to words and phrafcs affefted 
 by particular perfons or profeflions for low ends, and 
 • SeeCa«/.not authorifed by the eftablifhed language *. The 
 difference between cant d^ni technical feems to be this : 
 the former is reftrained to words introduced out of fol- 
 ly, affeftation, or impofture ; the latter is applied to 
 fuch as are introduced for the fake of clearnefs, preci- 
 fion, and fignificancy. 
 
 Cant is alfo ufed to denote a fale by auction. The 
 origin of the word in this fenfe is dubious ; it may 
 come, according to feme, from quantum, how much ; 
 according to others, from cantare., to fing or cry aloud; 
 agreeably to which, we fometimcs alfo call it an out- 
 cry. 
 
 CANT-Timhers, in fhip-building, thofe timbers which 
 are fituated at the two ends of a fhip. They derive 
 their name from being canted, or raifed obliquely from 
 the keel ; in contracliiHnftion from thofe whofe planes 
 are perpendicular to it. The upper ends of thofe on 
 the bow, or fore-part of the fhip, are inclined to the 
 ftern; as thofe in the after, or hind part, incline to the 
 ftern-poft above. See SHip-Buildlng. 
 
 CANTABRIA, (anc. geog.), a diftrift of Terra - 
 conenfis, on the Oceanus Cantabricus or bay of Bif- 
 cay ; now Biscay. The inhabitants were famous for 
 their warlike charaAer. In conjunftion with the A- 
 t See AJlu- fturians f, they carried on defperate wars with the Ro- 
 tria. mans ; but were fubdued by them about 25 years be- 
 
 fore Chrift. Being impatient, however, of a foreign 
 yoke, they in a few years revolted. Moft of their 
 youth had been already taken prifoners by the Romans, 
 and fold for flaves to the neighbouring nations : but 
 having found means to break their chains, they cut 
 the throats of their matters : and returning into their 
 own country, attacked the Roman garrifons with in- 
 credible fury. Agrippa marched againft them with 
 great expedition ; but, on his arrival, met with fo vi- 
 gorous a refiftance, that his foldieis began to defpair 
 ©f ever being able to reduce them. As the Cantabrians 
 had waged war with the Romans for upwards of 200 
 years, they were well acquainted with their manner of 
 fighting, no way inferior to them in courage, and were 
 now become defperate ; well knowing, that if they 
 were conquered, after having fo often attempted to re- 
 cover their liberty, they murt expeft^ the moft fevere 
 tjfage, and cruel flavery. Animated with this refleftion, 
 they fell upon the Romans with a fury hardly to be 
 exprefled, routed them in feveral engagements, and de- 
 fended themfelves when attacked by the enemy with 
 fuch intrepidity, that Agrippa afterwards owned, that 
 he had never, either by fea or land, been engaged in a 
 more dangerous entcrprize. That brave commander 
 was obliged to ufe intreaties, menaces, and to brand 
 fome of his legionaries with ignominy, before he could 
 bring them to enter the lilts with fuch a formidable 
 enemy. But having at laft, with much ado, prevailed 
 vipon them to try the chance of an engagement in the 
 open field, he fo animated them by his example, that, 
 after a moft obftinate difpute, he gained a complete 
 viftory, which indeed coft him dear, but put an end to 
 that deftrudlive war. All the Cantabrians fit to. bear 
 arras were cut in pieces ; their caftles and ftrong holds 
 
 2 ] CAN 
 
 taken and rafed 5 and their women, children, and old Cantabria 
 men (none elfe being left ahve), were obliged to aban. q^J^^^^ 
 don the moimtainous places, and fettle in the plain. ^^„.,. 
 
 Dr WaUis feems to make the Cantabrian the ancient 
 language of all Spain: which, according to him, like 
 the Gaulifh, gave way to a kind of broken Latin called 
 romance, oxromanjhe; which by degrees was refined into 
 the Caftilian or prefent Spanifli. But we can hardly 
 fuppofe, that fo large a country, inhabited by fuch a 
 variety of people, fpoke all the fame language. The 
 ancient Cantabrian, in clfeft, is ftill found to fubfift in 
 the more barren and mountainous parts of the province 
 of Bifcay, Afturias, and Navarre, as far as Bayonne, 
 much as the Britifti does in Wales ; but the people 
 only talk it : for writing, thty ufe either the Spani(h- 
 or French, as they happen to live under the one 01 the 
 other nation. Some att.ribnte this to a jealoufy of fo- 
 reigners learning the myfteries of their language ; o- 
 thers to a poverty of words and exprefiions. The 
 Cantabrian docs not appear to have any affinity with 
 any other known language, abating that fome Spanifii 
 words have been adopted in it for things whofe ufe the 
 Bifcayens were anciently unacquainted with. Its pro- 
 nunciation is not difagreeable. The Lord's prayer, 
 in the Cantabarian tongue, runs thus : Gure aita cervc- 
 tan a'lcena, fantijica hedi hire Icena, ethor bedl hire refuma, 
 e^uin hedi hire vorondatea cervan becala lurrean ere, dec. 
 
 CANTABRICA, in botany : A fynonime of a 
 fpecies of Con volvulus. 
 
 CANTABRUM, in antiquity, a large kind of flag 
 ufed by the Roman emperors, dHlinguidied by its pe- 
 culiar colour, and bearing on it fome words or motto 
 of good omen, to encourage the foldlevs. 
 
 CANTACUZENUS (Johannes), of Conftantl- 
 nople, a celebrated ilatefman, general, and hiftorian, 
 was born in that city, of a very ancient and noble fami- 
 ly. He was bred to letters and to arms, and admitted 
 to the higheft offices of the ftate. The emperor An- 
 dronicus loaded him with wealth and honour ; made 
 him generaliffimo of his forces; and was defirous of 
 having him join him in the government, but this he 
 refufed. Audronicus dying in 1341, left to Cantacu- 
 zcnus the care of the empire, till his fon John Paleo- 
 logus, who was then but nine vears of age, ihould- be 
 fit to take it upon himfelf. This truft he faithfully 
 difcharged ; till the emprefs dowager and her fadion 
 forming a party againft- him, declared him a traitor.. 
 On this the principal nobihty and the aimy belought 
 him to afcend the throne ; and accordingly he waa 
 crowned on the 21ft of May 1342. This was follow- 
 ed by a civil war, which lafted five years ; when he ad- 
 mitted John a partner with him in the empire, and 
 their union was confirmed by his giving hini his. 
 daughter in marriage. Sufpicions and enmities, 
 however, foon arifing, the war broke out again, and 
 continued till John took Conftantinople in 1355. _ A 
 few days after, Cantacuzenus, unwiUing to continue 
 the effufion of blood, abdicated his ftare of the em- 
 pire, and retiring to a monaftery, took the habit of a 
 monk, and the name of Joajaphas. His wife alfo re- 
 tired to a nunnery, and changed her name of Irene for 
 that of Eugenia. In this retirement he lived till the 
 year 1411, when he was upwards of 100 years of age^ 
 Here he wrote a hiftory of his own times, a Lafin 
 tranflation of which, from the Greek manufcript, was 
 
 pub- 
 
CAN 
 
 t 123 ] 
 
 C A N 
 
 antalivfers pnblifhed by Pontanus at Ingolftadt, in 1603: and a 
 I' . fpltndid edition was printed at Paris in 164^, in three 
 ^ ''^ " volumes folio, of the original Greek, and Pontanus's 
 Latin verfion. He alfo wrote an apology for the Chri- 
 ftlan religion againft that of Mahomet, under the name 
 of Chr'ijlodultis . 
 
 CANTALIVERS, in architefture, pieces of wood 
 framed into the front or fides of a houfe, to fufpend 
 the mouldings and eyes over it. 
 
 CANTAR, or Cantaro, an eaftern weight, of 
 different value in different places, equal at Acra in 
 Turky to 603 pounds, at Tunis and Tripoli to 114 
 pounds. 
 
 Cantar is alfo an Egyptian weight, which is de- 
 nominated a quintal., and confifts of an hundred or of an 
 hundred and fifty rotolos, according to the goods they 
 ' are to weigh. 
 
 Cantaro is alfo an Egyptian weight, which at 
 Naples is equivalent to 25 pounds, at Genoa to 150 
 pounds. At l^eghorn there are three kinds of contaros, 
 one weighing 150 pounds, another 151, and a third 
 160 pounds. 
 
 Cantaro is alfo a Spanifh liquid meafure, in ufe 
 efpccially at Alicant, containing three gallons. 
 
 Cantaro is alfo a meafure of capacity, ufed at Co- 
 chin, containing four rubies, the rubi 32 rotolos. 
 
 CANTARINI (Simon), a famous painter, called 
 the Fefarefe, from his being born at Pefaro, was the 
 difciple of Guido ; and copied the manner of his ma- 
 fler fo happily, that it is often difficult to diftinguifh 
 between their works. He died at Verona in 1648. 
 
 CANTATA, in muiic, a fong or compofition, in- 
 termixed with recitatives, airs, and different move- 
 ments, chiefly intended for a fingle voice, with a tho- 
 rough bafs, though fometimes for other inftruments. 
 
 The cantata, when performed with judgement, has 
 fomething in it very agreeable ; the vaiiety of the 
 movement- not clogging the ear, like other compoli- 
 tions. It was firfl ufed in Italy, then in France, whence 
 it paffcd to us. 
 
 CANTAZARO, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, and in the territory of Calabria 
 Ulterior. It is the refidence of the governor of the 
 province, and isfeated near the fea, in E.L jng. 17. o. 
 N. Lat. 38. 59. 
 
 CANTECROIX, a fmall territory of the Nether- 
 lands, in Brabant, and in the quarter of Antwerp, with 
 the title of a principality ; there is a fmall town of the 
 fame name, but Lire is the capital. 
 
 CANTEMIR (Demetrius), fon of a prince of Mol- 
 davia. Difappointed by not fucceeding his father in 
 that dignity, held under the Ottoman Port, he went 
 over with his araiy to the Czar Peter the great, againft 
 whom he had been fent by the Grand Signior : he flg- 
 nali/ed himfelf in the Czar's fervice ; and in the i-epu- 
 bh'c of letters, by a Latin hiftory of the origin and de- 
 cline of the Ottoman empire, &c. Died in 1723. 
 
 Can TE MIR (Antiochus), efleemed the founder of 
 the Ruflian poetry, was the youngeft fon of the pre- 
 ceding. Under the moll ingenious profeffors, whom 
 the czar had invited to Peterlburgh, he learned ma- 
 thematics, phyfic, hiftory, moral philofophy, and po- 
 lite llterciture ; without neglefting the fiudy of the 
 Holy Scriptures, to which he had a great inclination. 
 Scarce had he fiiiifhed his academic courfe, when he 
 
 printed a Concordance to the Pfalms in the Ruflian Cantemir, 
 language, and was elefted member of the academy. Canter- 
 The affairs of ftate in which he was foon after enga- j 
 ged, did not make him negleft his literary purfuitf. 
 In order to make himfelf ufeful to his fellow-citizens, 
 he compofed his fatires, to ridicule certain prejudices 
 which had got footing among them. When but 23 
 years of age, he was nominated miaifter at the court 
 of Great Britain ; and his dexterity in the management 
 of public affairs was as much admired as his tatte for 
 the fciences. He had the fame reputation in France, 
 whither he went in 1738, in quality of minifter ple- 
 nipotentiary, and foon after was invefted with the 
 charafter of ambaffador extraordinary. The wife and 
 prudent manner in which he conduced himfelf during 
 the different revolutions which happened in Ruffia du- 
 ring his abfence, gained him the confidence and efteeni 
 of three fuccefiive princes. He died of a dropfy, at 
 Paris, in 1744, aged 44. Befides the pieces already 
 mentioned, he wrote, i. Some fables and odes. 2. A 
 tranflation of Horace's epiftles into Ruffian verfe. 3. 
 A profe tranflation of Fontenelle's plurality of worlds ; 
 and, 4. Algarotti's dialogues on fight. The abbe 
 Guafco has written his life in French, and tranflated 
 his fatires into that language. 
 
 CANTERBURY, a city of England, and capital 
 of the county of Kent, fituated in E. Long. i. i^. 
 N. Lat. 51.16. It had the names of Durovernum 
 and Darvernum given it by the Romans, and Durober- 
 n'la by Bede, which are thought to be derived from 
 Durivhem, fignifying a rapid ftream, fuch as the Stour, 
 on which it flands, is. The Britons call it Gaer-Kent^ 
 i. e. the city of Kent ; and its prefent Englifh nanie 
 is of the fame import, derived from the Saxon. Modern 
 writers in Latin call it Catituaria. Its great antiquity 
 appears not only from Antoninus's itinerary, but from 
 the military way which has been difcovered here, and 
 the caufew^ays leading to Dover and Lymme, befides 
 the coins and other curiolitles found about it. The 
 archlepifcopal and metropolitical dignity feems to have 
 been fettled here very early ; and to prevent lis being 
 removed, an anathema was decreed againft afty who 
 fhould attempt it. After that, the city flourlfiied great- 
 ly ; though it fuffered in common with other towns 
 during the Danilh invafions, and at other times by the 
 cafiialties of fire. The city was given entirely to the 
 bifhops by William Rufus, and was held in the utmoft 
 veneration in the Popifh times, efpecially after the 
 murder of Becket in the reign of Henry II. to whofe 
 flirine fo great was the refort, and fo rich were the 
 offerings, that Erafmus, who was an eye-wltnefs of its 
 wealth, fays the whole church and chapel in which lie 
 was interred glittered with jewels ; and at the diffolu- 
 tion, the plate and jewels filled two great chefts, each 
 of which required eight ftrong men to carry out. Tlie 
 cathedral was granted by Etlieibert, king of Kent, up- 
 on his converfion, to Auftin the monk, together with 
 his palace, and the royalty of the city and its territo- 
 ries. This Auftin founded a monaflery for monks, 
 called from him Aiigvjline. After the cathedral had 
 been feveral times deftroyed by fire and rebuilt, the 
 prefent was begun about the year 1 1 74, and augment- 
 ed and embellifhed by the fucceeding archbifhops, till 
 it was completed in the reign of Henry V. It is a 
 noble Gothic pile, and before the refonnation had 37 
 0^2 altars 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 124 ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canter- altars. A great many kings, princes, cardinals, and 
 ^" ""y' arclibilliops, are buried in it. At the diffolution, Henry 
 " VIII. feized all the revenues both of the church and 
 monaftery, except what he allotted for the maintenance 
 of a dean, 1 2- prebendaries, and fix preachers, whom 
 he eftablifhed in place of the monks. During the 
 grand rebellion, it fuffered much ; the ufurper Crom- 
 well having made a ftable of it for his dragoons. Af- 
 ter the reftoration, it was repaired, and made what it 
 now appears. 
 
 Befides the cathedral and other churches, as well as 
 a monaftery, the city had anciently a caftle on the 
 fouth-fide, and ftrong walls, with tov/ers, a ditch, and 
 rampart ; it had alfo a mint and an exchange. As to 
 its government, it fcems to have been entirely fubjeft 
 to the archbiihop, both in fplrftuals and temporals ; at 
 leaft from the time tliat William Rufus-gave it folely 
 to bifhop Anfelm, till the reformation. It is now a 
 county of itftlf ; and the corporation confifts of a may- 
 or, recorder, 12 aldermen, a fherifF, 24 common-coun- 
 cil-men, a mace-bearer, fvvord-bearer, and four ferjeants 
 at mace. Every Monday a court is held at Guildhall 
 for civil and criminal caufes ; and every other Tucfday 
 for the government of the city. Here were formerly 
 2000 or 3000 French Proteftants employed in the lilk 
 manufacture ; but this branch is now greatly decayed 
 in the place, fince Spitallields became fo flourifhing. 
 Befides the cathedral, it contains 15 parilh-churches, 
 feven hofpitals, a free-fchool, a houfe of corre£tion, a 
 gaol for criminals, and a fumptuous conduit for fupply- 
 ing the inhabitants with water. It coniirts of four 
 ttreets, difpofed in the form of a crofs, and divided in- 
 to fix w^ards, which are about three miles in circumfe- 
 rence. It is furrounded on all hands with hop-grounds 
 much to its advantage, and is famed for its excellent 
 brawn. 
 
 The diocefe of Canterbury contains 257 parifhes, 
 befides chapels, in Kent, and about 100 more in other 
 diocefes. Thefe are called Peculiars ; it being an an- 
 cient privilege of this fee, that, wherefoever the arch- 
 bifhops had either manors or advowfons, the place was 
 exempted from the jurifdiftion of the ordinary of the 
 diocefe where it was fituated, and was deemed in the 
 diocefe of Canterbury* This fee is valued in the king's 
 books at L. 2816 : 17 : g^, but is reckoned to produce 
 a clear revenue of L. 8000 a-year. The clergy's tenths 
 come to L. 65 1 : 1 8 : 2^. This fee had many great 
 privileges in the time of Popery, fome of which it ftill 
 retains. The archbilliop is accounted primate and me- 
 tropolitan of all England, and is the firil peer in the 
 realm ; having the precedence of all dukes not of the 
 blood-royal, and all the great officers of Hate. In 
 common fpeech, he is ftyled His Grace, and he writes 
 himfelf Divina Providentia ; whereas other bilhops ftyle 
 themfelves Divina PermiJJione. At coronations, he 
 places the crown on the king's head ; and, where- 
 ever the court may be, the king and queen are the 
 proper domeftic parifhioners of the archbiihop of Can- 
 terbury, The bilhop of London is accounted his pro- 
 vincial deaji, the bifhop of Winchefter liis fub-dean, 
 the bifliop of Lincoln his chancellor, and the bifliop of 
 Rochefter his chaplain. This fee hath yielded to the 
 cliurch I ^ faints ; to. the church of Rome, 9 cardinals ; 
 to, the civil ftate of England 12 lord chancellors, 4 
 lord treafurers, aad i lord chief juftice j and 9 chan- 
 
 Cantides. 
 
 cellors to the Univerfity of Oxford. To this fee be- Canterns 
 longs only one archdeacon, viz. of Canterbury. To 
 the cathedral belongs an archbifhop, a dean, a chan- 
 cellor, an archdeacon, 12 prebends, 6 preachers, 6 
 minor canons, 6 fubftitutes, 12 lay clerks, 10 chorifters, 
 2 mailers, 50 fcholars, and 12 almfmen. 
 
 CANTERRURr-Belly In botany : The Englifh name of 
 a fpecles of Campanula. 
 
 CANTERUS (WiUiam), an eminent lingulft and 
 philologer, was born at Utrecht, in 1542. He ftudied 
 at Louvain and Paris ; and gave furpriling proofs of 
 his progrefs in Greek and Latin literature. He after- 
 wards vifited the feveral univerfities of Germany and 
 Italy; and died at Louvain, in 1575, aged 33. He 
 underftood fix languages, befides that of his native 
 country ; and, notwithllanding his dying fo young, 
 wrote feveral philological and critical works, among 
 which are, Nota, Scholia, Emendationes , et Explicationes , 
 in Enripidem, Sophoclem, JEfchylum, Ciccronem, Proper- 
 tiiim, Aujonimi, Sec. and many tranflations of Greek 
 authors. 
 
 CANTHARIDES. See Cantharis and Meloe. 
 
 CANTHARIS, in zoology, a genus of infefts be- 
 longing to the order of infefta coleoptera. The feel- 
 ers of this genus are fetaceous ; the breaft is margina- 
 ted, and fhorter than the head ; the elytra, or wing- 
 cafes, are flexile ; and the fides of the belly are plated 
 and papillous. Linnaeus enumerates 27 fpecies of the 
 cantharis, moll of them to be found in different parts, 
 of Europe. The cantharis ufed in making blifiering 
 plafters, is ranked under a different genus, viz. the 
 Meloe. 
 
 CANTHI, in anatomy, cavities at the extremities 
 of the eye-lids, commonly called the corners of the ey^: 
 the greater of them, or the greater canthus, is next the 
 nofe ; the leffer of them, or the little canthus, lies to- 
 wards the temple. 
 
 CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Tefta- 
 ment, otherwife called the Song of Solomon ; by the 
 Jews the Song of Songs, Canticum Canticorum. The 
 book of Canticles is ufually fuppofed to be an epitha- 
 lamium compofed by Solomon, on occafion of his mar- 
 riage with the king of Egypt's daughter. But thofe 
 who penetrate further into the myilery, find in it the 
 marriage of Jefus Chrift with human nature, the church, 
 and good men. On this principle the Canticles is held 
 to be a continued allegory, wherein, under the terms 
 of a common wedding, a divine and fpiritual marriage 
 is expreffed. This fong contains the adventures of 
 feven days and feven nights ; the exail time allowed 
 for the celebration of marriage among the Hebrews. 
 The Jews themfelves, apprehending the book liable to 
 be underflood in a grofs and carnal manner, prohibited 
 the reading of it before the age of 30, and the fame 
 ufage anciently obtained in the ChriiHan church. A- 
 mong the ancients, Theodore Mopfuetanus rejefted 
 the book of Canticles a« not divine. Divers rabbins 
 have alfo queftioned its being written, by infpiration. 
 It is alleged, that the name of God is not once found, 
 in it. Mr Whitton has a difcourfe exprefs to prove 
 that the Canticles is not a facred book of the Old 
 Teftament. He alleges it indeed to have been wnt- 
 ten by king Solomon the fon of David ; but afferts 
 that it was compofed at the time when that prince, 
 bUndcd by his concubines, was iuuk in lull and idola- 
 try.. 
 
Cantima- 
 
 Cantlum. 
 
 CAN r I 
 
 try. This he chiefly infers from the general character 
 off vanity and diflblutenefs which reigns thro' the Can- 
 ti'cles ; in which there is not, according to Whirton, 
 one thought that leads the mind towards religion, but 
 all is worldly and carnal, to fay no worfe. For the 
 miyftic fenfe, he afferts it to be without foundation ; 
 and that the book is not cited as canonical by any 
 writer before the deftruAion of Jerufalem. Mr Whif- 
 ton will have it to have been taken into the canon be- 
 tween the years 77 and 128, when allegories came in- 
 to vogue, and the rabbins began to corrupt the text of 
 Scripture. Grotius, Nierembergius, the Dutch di- 
 vines who criticifed F. Simon, Menetrier, Bafnage, and 
 foime others, feem alfo to take the Canticles for a pro- 
 fa.ne compofition, on a footing with the love-pieces of 
 Catullus or Ovid. But this opinion is refuted by Mi- 
 chaeKs, Majus, Witfms, Nat. Alexander, Outrein, 
 Francius, and others. Mr Whifton's arguments have 
 been particularly confidered by Itchener, and alfo by 
 l>r Gill. R. Akiba finds the book of Canticles more 
 divine than the reft : the whole world, according to 
 this rabbin, is not worth that day when the Canticles 
 was given to Ifrael ; for, whereas all the hagiographers 
 are holy, the Canticles is the holy of holies. 
 
 CANTIMARONS, or Catimarons, a kind of 
 floats or rafts, ufed by the inhabitants of the coaft of 
 Coromandel to go a fifhing in, and to trade along the 
 coaft. They are made of three or four fmall canoes, 
 or trunks of trees dug hollow, and tied together with 
 cacao ropes, with a triangular fail in the middle, made 
 of matts. ' The perfons who manage them are almoft 
 half in the water, there being only a place in the mid- 
 dle a little raifed to hold their merchandize ; which 
 HA particular is only to be underftood of the trading 
 cantimarons, and not of thofe who go fiftiing. 
 
 CANTIN (Cape), a promontory of the coaft of 
 Morocco in Africa, fituated in W. Long. 10. 2. N. 
 Lat. 33. 9. 
 
 CANTING, a fea-phrafe, denotes the a£l of turn- 
 ing any thing about. 
 
 Canting Language or d'lakSi, is a myfterious fort 
 of jargon ufed by gypfies, thieves, and ftrolling beg- 
 gers, to exprefs their fentiments to each other, without 
 being underftood by the reft of mankind. This dia- 
 Ie*fl is not founded on any rules : yet, even out of that 
 irregularity many words feem to retain fomething of 
 fcholarftiip ; as togeman a gown, from toga in the La- 
 tin ; pannam, bread, from pan'is ; cafariy cheefe, from 
 ea/eus, 8cc. It is obfervable, that, even unknown to 
 ourfelves, we have adopted fome of their terms into our 
 vulgar language ; as lite and ll/i, to cheat ; bounce, to 
 vapour ^o'Zty^, ftrong drink; Jilchy to fteal ; ^og, to 
 whip ; rig, game or ridicule ; roajl, to rally ; rlnno, 
 Hioney. From the fame fource proceed the words JJ^am, 
 banter, bubble, bully, JJjarper, cutting, Jljujling, palming,_ 8cc. 
 An anonymous author has given a canting diftionarv, 
 comprehending all the terms ufed by the feveral tribes 
 ©f gypfies, beggars, ftioplifters, high-*-aymen, foot- 
 pads, and other clans of cheats and villains, with a 
 colleftion of fongs in tlie cantHig dialed ; London, 
 1725, 8vo. 
 
 CANTIUM, (anc. geog. ). a promontory of Bri- 
 tain, literally denoting a bead land ; giving name to 
 a terrritory called Cantium, now Kent ; and to a peo- 
 ple called Cantii, (C«far) j eoimnended for their great 
 
 25 ] CAN 
 
 humanity and polltenefs. The promontory now the Cantium, 
 North Fore/and. It is fuppofed that this was the firft , ^ 
 diftrift in Britain which received a colony from the * 
 continent ; and that it had frequently changed its ma- 
 fters, by new colonies coming over from time to time, 
 and driving the inhabitants further north. In the midft 
 of all thefe revolutions it ftill retained its ancient name 
 (which was fo agreeable to its ftiape and fituation), 
 and gave the fame name to all the fucceffive tribes 
 by which it was inhabited. Thofe who poflefled it at 
 the time of the firft Roman invafion were evidently of 
 Belgic origin, and had come over fo lately, that they 
 difftred in nothing from their countrymen on the con- 
 tinent. " The inhabitants of Kent (fays Caefar) are 
 the moft civilized of all the Britons, and differ but 
 very little in their manners from the Gauls." This 
 great refemblance between the people of Kent and 
 their neighbours on the continent^ might be partly- 
 owing to the fituation of their country, which be- 
 ing neareft to the continent, was molt frequented 
 by ftrangers from thence. It was this fituation al« 
 fo which expofed them to the firft affaults of the Ro- 
 mans. For Caefar, in both his expeditions into this 
 ifland, landed in Kent ; and therefore we may con- 
 clude, that the Cantii had a great ftiare in the vigo- 
 rous oppofition that was made to his landing, and in 
 the feveral battles and fiiirmifties- which were fought 
 againft him after his landing ; particularly, they made 
 a very bold, but unfuccefsful attempt, upon his naval 
 camp. The Cantii did not make tlie fame vigorous 
 refilfance to the Romans on tlieir next invafion in the 
 reign of Claudius. For Aulus Plautius, the Roman ge- 
 neral in that expedition, traverfed their country without, 
 feeing an enemy ; and as they now fubmitted to the 
 power of Rome without a ftruggle, fo they continued 
 in a ftate of quiet fubmiffion to it to the very laft. The- 
 fituation of Cantium occafioned its being much fre- 
 quented by the Romans,, who generally took their way- 
 through it in their marches to and from tlie continent. 
 Few places in Britain are more frequently mentioned 
 by the Roman writers than Rutupium and Portus 
 Rutupenfis,, moft probably Richborough and Stonar. 
 Rutupium was the fame in thofe times that Dover is 
 in ours ; the ufual place of embarking for, and land- 
 ing from, the continent. Before the final departure of 
 the Romans out of Britain, Portus Dubris, now Do- 
 ver, had become a confiderable place, and a well-fre- - 
 quented harbour, where the third iter of Antoninus 
 ends, and from whence they often embarked for Gaul.- 
 Portus Lemanus, fuppofed to be Lime near Weft: 
 Hythe, was alfo a not(!d fea-port in thefe times, and. 
 the termination of the fourth iter of Antoninus. Du-- 
 robrivae and Durovernum, now Rochefter and Canter- - 
 bury, were both Roman towns and ftations, and are 
 often mentioned in the itinerary and other books.. 
 Befides thefe, there were feveral other Roman ftations,, 
 towns,, and ports in Cantium,, which need' not be par- 
 ticularly enumerated^here. Cantium, in the moft per- 
 fedl ftate of the Roman government, made a part of " 
 the province which was called Ffavia Casfarienfis. 
 
 CANTO denotes apart or divifion of a poem, an-- 
 fwering to what is otherwife called a booL The word 
 is Itahan, where it properly fignifies fong. Taffo, Ari-- 
 ofto, and feveral other ItaRans,,have divided their longer 
 or heroic poems into cantos. In imitation of them-,„ 
 
 Scxuxoib 
 
CAN 
 
 12 
 
 Canton. Scarron has alfo divided his Gigantomachta, and Boi- 
 '-—\r^ kau his Lutrin, into chants or fongs. The like ufage 
 has been adopted by fome Englifh writers, as Butler, 
 who divides his Hudibras, and Dr Garth his Difpen- 
 fary, into cantos. A late tranflator of part of Virgil's 
 ^neid has even fubdivided a book of Virgil into feve- 
 ral cantos. 
 
 Canto, in the Italian mufic, fignifies z fmg: hence 
 canlo fimpllce is where all the notes or figures are equal, 
 and called alfo canto Jcrmo canlo figiiratoy that where 
 the figures are unequal, and expreis difierent motions. 
 
 Canto alfo fignifies the treble part of a fong : hence 
 catito conccrtante, tlie treble of the little chorus ; canto 
 ripleno, the treble of the grand chorus, or that which 
 hugs only now and then in particular places. Canto 
 fignifies the firft treble, unlefs fome other word be ad- 
 ded to it, as fecondo ; in which cafe it denotes the fe- 
 cond treble. 
 
 CANTON, in geography, denotes a fmall diftrift 
 or country conftituting a dlllind government : fuch 
 are the cantons of Switzerland. 
 
 Canton, ^ang-tong, or Koanton, one of the fouth- 
 ern provinces of China; bounded on the north-eatl by 
 I'okicn, on the north by Kiang-fi, oh the weft by 
 •Quang-fi and the kingdom of Tonking, and every 
 where tlfe by the fea. The country is diverfified with 
 hills and plains, and the foil in general fo fertile that it 
 produces two crops annually. Befides many of the 
 fruits of Europe, and thofe common in other parts 
 of the Indies, the province of Canton produces fonie 
 peculiar to itfelf. Abundance of valuable aromatic 
 woods are alfo to be met with in this province, as well 
 as eagle-wood, ebony, &c. ; and in tlie mineral king- 
 dom the province furniftes gold, precious ftones, tin, 
 quickfilver, and copper. Silk and fugar are alfo cul- 
 tivated here, and pearls are fiflied up on the coafts ; fo 
 that every thing which can contribute to the pleafure or 
 convenience of hfe is to be met with in Canton. *' One 
 begins (fays F. Premare) to have an idea of China, on 
 entering the river Canton. Both fides of it prefent 
 large fields of rice which refemble green meadows, and 
 extend beyond the reach of fight. They are inter- 
 fered by an infinite number of fiiiall canals, in fuch a 
 manner that the barks which pafs and repafs in them 
 feem at a dlllance, while the water which carries them 
 is concealed, to glide along the giafs. Farther inland 
 the country appears covered with trees and cultivated 
 along die valleys ; and the wliole fcene is interfperfed 
 \\\t\\ villages, rural feats, and fuch a variety of de- 
 lightful pro(pe£ls, that one is never tired of viewing 
 them, and regrets to be obliged to pafs them, fo 
 quickly. 
 
 All tlie coafts of this province abound with fifli, and 
 furnilh vail numbers of crabs, oyftcrs, and tortoifes of 
 an immenfe fi/e. - The inhabitants keep a prodigious 
 number of tame ducks, which they hatch in ovens or 
 dunghills, though it does net appear that they bor- 
 rowed tiiis cxiftcm from the Eg\-ptians. The docility 
 of thefe creatures exceeds what we ftiould be apt at 
 firft to imagine. The inhabitants load a junnbcr of 
 , fnall barks with them, and carry them in llocks to 
 feed on the fea-ihore, where they find ftirimps and 
 ■ other animals proper for tlieir nourilhment. But 
 though the ducks from the dliTerent barks are thus 
 unavoidably mixed together in the diy-tiine, they are 
 c. Illy colicclcd by only bealiiig on a bafon,, on vrhkh 
 
 6 ] CAN 
 
 they .immediately colleft themfelves Into different flocks. Canto, 
 and each returns to its proper bark. Canton. 
 
 In this province the Chinefe have alfo a method of ' ' " * 
 preferving not only the flefli of their ducks in fuch a 
 manner that it lofes nothing of its original flavour, 
 but their eggs alfo. The latter operation is performed 
 by covering the eggs with a coat of clay mixed with 
 fait. When mixed in this' manner, it feems that the 
 fait has the property of penetrating through the pores 
 of the fliell, and thus impregnating the fubftance in the 
 egg, which it could not do by fimple folution of water. 
 
 Canton, though it fiiffered much in the Chinefe 
 wars, is at prefent one of the moft flourifning provinces 
 of the empire; and being at a great diftance from 
 court, its government is one of the moft important. 
 A great number of fortreffes, many of which are cities 
 provided with numerous garrifons, have been built 
 along the coafts for the fuppreffion of pirates and 
 robbers ; for which purpofe alfo a certain number of 
 troops are kept properly pofted' in diff'erent parts of 
 the province. It is divided into ten diftrids, which 
 contain as many cities of the firft clafs, and 84 of the 
 fecond and third. The air in general is warm but 
 healthy, and the people are very induftrious. They 
 poffefs in an eminent degree the talent of imitation, fo 
 that if they are only ftiown any European work they 
 can execute others Uke it with furprifing exaftnefs. The 
 moft remarkable cities in the province befides Canton 
 the capital are, I. Chao-tcheou-fou, chiefly noted for a 
 monaftery of the bonzes in its neighbourhood, to which 
 the adjacent country belongs, and the origin of which 
 is traced back for 8 or 900 years. It has under its 
 jurifdiftion fix cities of the third clafs ; near one of 
 thefe grows a reed of which feveral inftruments are 
 made, which cannot be diftinguiihed from real ebony. 
 The air of Chao-tcheou-fou, however, is unhealthy ; 
 and great numbers of the inhabitants are carried off 
 annually by contagious dittempers, which prevail from 
 the middle of OAober to the beginning of December. 
 2. Kao-tcheou-fou, fituated in a delighful and plentiful 
 country. In- the neighbourhood is found a fingular 
 kind of ftone much refeml)li!ig marble, on which are 
 natural reprefentations of rivers, mountains, landfcapea, 
 and trees. Thefe ftjnes arc cut into flabs, and mado 
 into tables, &c. Crabs are alfo caught on the coafts 
 here, which very much refemble thole of Europe; but, 
 fays M. Grofier, they have this fingularity, that wdien 
 taken out of the wattr, they becom.e petrified without 
 lofing any thing of their natural figure. _ 3. Kiun- 
 tcheou-fou, the capilal or th.e il'Iand of Hai-nan. See 
 Hai-nan. , 
 
 Canton, a large, populous, and wealthy city of 
 China, capital of the province of that nia^e, ftaiitis on 
 the banks of the river Taa, of great river, which, near 
 the city, is wide and fpacious. The wall of the cicy 
 is pretty iiigh, and about fix or feven miles in circum- 
 ference, though not more than one-third of the ground 
 is occupied by buildings, the other parts being appro- 
 priated to pleafure grounds or to fifti ponds. The 
 country is extremely pieafaut, and towards the call 
 hilly, fo as to command a beauiiful piofpe£l of the city 
 and fuburbs, the compafs of which, together, is about 
 ten miles. 
 
 Tiie buildings of Cmton are in general low, confifting 
 of one ftory and a ground flour, which is covered with 
 earth or red tiki i;i order to keep it cool j but the houfes 
 6 o£ 
 
CAN 
 
 [ 
 
 Cantom. of the moft refpe£lable merchants and mancjarins are 
 -"-^ comparatively lofty and well built. In different parts 
 of the city and fuburbs are jofs houfes or temples, in 
 ■which are placed the images worfhipped by the Chi- 
 wefe ; before whom are placed, at particular feafons, a 
 vaft variety of fweetmeats, oranges, great plenty of 
 food ready dreffed, and alfo incenfe, which is kept per- 
 petually burning. 
 
 The ftreets of Canton are long and narrow, paved 
 with flint ftones, adorned at intervals with triumphal 
 arches, which have a pleafmg efFeft, and much crowded 
 with people. On both fides are (hops as in London, 
 appropriated to the fale of different commodities; and 
 a kind of awning is extended from houfe tohoufe, which 
 prevents the fun's rays from incommoding either inha- 
 bitants or palTengers. At the end of every ftreet is a 
 barrier, which, with the gates of the city, are fhut in 
 the evening. In China Street, which is pretty long 
 and confiderably wider than the reft, refice merchants; 
 whofe trade, fo far as refpeits China, lackered ware, 
 fans. Sec. is wholly confined to Europeans. Moft of 
 them fpeak the foreign languages tolerably well, or at 
 leaft fufncieutly intelligible to tranfaft bufinefs. Be- 
 fides thefe merchants, there is a company of twelve or 
 thirteen, called the Cohong ; who have an exchifive 
 right by appointment from authority to purchafe the 
 cargoes from the different fhips, and alio to fupply 
 them with teas, raw filks, &c. in return. The eda- 
 bliftiment of the Cohong, though injurious to private 
 trade, is admirably well adapted for the fecurity of the 
 different companies with which they traffic ; becaufe 
 each individual becomes a guarantee for the whole; 
 fo that if one fail, the others conlider themfelves as rc- 
 fponlible. .« 
 
 In Canton there are no carriages ; all burdens are 
 carried by porters acrofs their flioulders on bamboos; 
 as are alfo the principal people in fedan chairs, and the 
 ladies always. The ftreets of Canton may be traverfed 
 from morning till evening without feeing a woman, 
 thofe excepted who are Tartars, and even thefe but ve- 
 ry feldom. 
 
 On the wharf of the river, which is commodious and 
 pleafant, itand the faftories of the. different European 
 nation.^, viz. the Dutch, French, Swedes, Danes, Eng- 
 lifli, &c. In thofe. refide the fupercargoes belonging 
 to their refpeftive companies, who are appointed to 
 difpofe of the cargoes brought to market ; to fupply 
 the fhips with others for Europe in return ; and, du- 
 ring their abfence, to contraft with the merchants for 
 fuch articles as may be judged neceffary for the next 
 fleet. Between the refidents of the faftories the moft 
 perfect cordiality fubfifts ; in each a common and 
 fplendid table is kept at the company's expence, and 
 vifits are reciprocally exchanged ; fo that nothing is 
 wanting to make refidence at Canton agreeable to an 
 European, but the pkafure naturally refulting from the 
 fociety of women. 
 
 The fide of the river next the city is covered with 
 beats, which form a kind of town or ftreets, in which 
 live the poorer fort of the Chinefe, or rather the de- 
 fendants cf the Tartars. Some of the men come on 
 ftiore in the morning to their refpeftive employments, 
 and in thofe fampans or boats which are not ftation- 
 ary, the women and alfo the men carry paffengers 
 from place to place ui the fame manner as is done bv 
 
 27 J CAN 
 
 wherries on the Thames. On this river live many 
 thoufand fouls who never were permitted to come on 
 fhore ; whofe only habitation is their boat ; in which 
 they eat, drink, fleep, carry on many occupations, 
 keep ducks, &c. and occafionally a hog. 
 
 The manufactures of Canton ai'e principally carried 
 on in the fuburbs ; though it has been frequently fup- 
 pofed that they were confined to the city ; and this, by 
 fome writers, has been given as a reafon why Euro- 
 peans are not permitted to enter within the gates. 
 But this is a miftake; and perhaps the true reafon for this 
 very Angular reftraint is, that the houfes in which they 
 keep their women are chiefly within the city. 
 
 At Wampoa, a large commodious place for anchor- 
 age, and which is about 12 or 14 miles from Canton, 
 the European veffels lie and unload their cargoes, 
 which are tranfmitted by lighters to the fadlories ; 
 and by the fame conveyance receive their refpeftive 
 freights. Between this place and the city are three 
 floppo, or cuftom-houfes, at which the boats pafling 
 and repafiing are obliged to ftop, and undergo with its 
 paffengers an examination, in order to prevent fmiig- 
 ling. The lighters juft mentioned, and alfo the cap- 
 tain's pinnace, are, however, excepted; tlie former 
 having proper officers on board for the purpofe, 
 and the latter being narrowly watched and examined- 
 at the landing. 
 
 The weather at Canton' Is, in fummer, extremely 
 hot ; and in the months of December, January, and 
 February, cold : the country is neverthelefs pleafant 
 and healthful, abounding with all the neceffaries and 
 delicacies of life, which may be procured on ttr-ms much 
 cheaper than In Europe. The number of inhabitants 
 has been eftimated at one million ; but later calcula- 
 tions have made the number confider-ably lefs. N. Lat. 
 23. 30. E. Long. 113. 20. 
 
 Canton (John), an Ingenious natural philofopher, 
 was born at Stroud, in Gloucefterfhire, in 17 18 ; and 
 was placed, when young, under the care of a Mr Da- 
 vis, of the fame place, a very able mathematician, with 
 whom, before he had attained the age of nine years, he 
 had gone through both vulgar and decimal ai-ithmetic. 
 He then proceeded-to the mathematics, and particularly 
 to algebra and aftronomy, wherein he had made a con- 
 fiderable progrefs, when his father took him from 
 fchool, and put him to learrv his own bufinefs, which 
 was that of a broad cloth weaver-. This cir cumftance 
 was not able to damp his zeal for the acquifitlon of 
 knowledge. All his leifui-e time was devoted to the 
 affiduous cultivation of afti-onomical fcience ; and, by 
 the help of the Carohne tables, annexed to " Wing's 
 Aftronomy," he computed eclipfes of the moon and 
 other phenomena. His acquaintance with that fcience 
 he apphed likcwife to the conftrufting of feveral kinds 
 of dials.. Brrt the ftudies of our young philofopher 
 being frequently purfued to very late hours, his father, 
 fearing that they would Injure his health, forbad him 
 the ufe of a candle In his chamber any longer than for 
 the purpofe of going to bed, and would himfelf often 
 fee that his Injunftlon was obeyed. The fon's thirft 
 of knowledge was, however, fo great, that it nmde him 
 attempt to evade the prohibition, and to find means of 
 fccreting his light till the family had retired to reft, . 
 when he rofe to profecute undifturbed his favourite 
 piufuits. It was during this prohibition, and at thefe 
 
 hoursj. 
 
 C.mton. 
 
"CAN [12 
 
 Canton, hours, that he compxited, and cut upon ftone, with no 
 better an inftrument than a common knife, the hnes of 
 a large upriglit fun-dial, on which, befides the hour of 
 the day, wafa fliown the rifing of the fun, his place in 
 the ecliptic, and fome other particulars. When, this 
 Was finilhed, and made known to his father, he permit* 
 ted it to be placed againft the front of his houfe, where 
 it excited the admiration of feveral gentlemen in the 
 neighbourhood, and introduced young Mr Canton to 
 their acquaintance, which was foUowedby the offer of the 
 Hfe of their libraries. In the library of one of thefe gen- 
 tlemen, he found " Maftin's Philofophlcal Grammar," 
 which was the firft book that gave him a taile for na- 
 tural philofopliy. In the poffcfiion of another gentle- 
 tnan, a few miles from Stroud, he lirft faw a pair of 
 globes; an objeft that afforded him uncommon plea- 
 fure, from the great eafe with which he could folve 
 thofe problems he had hitherto been accuffomed to 
 compute. The dial was beautified a few years ago at 
 the expence of the gentlemen at Stroud, feveral of 
 whom had been his fchool-fellows, and who continued 
 ilill to regard it as a very diflinguifhed performance. 
 Among other perfons with whom he became acquaint- 
 ed in early life, was the late reverend and ingenious Dr 
 Henry Miles of Tooting, a learned and refpeftable 
 member of the Royal Society, and of approved emi- 
 nence in natural knowledge. This gentleman, per-* 
 reiving that Mr Canton pofTeffed abilities too promi- 
 fmg to be confined within the narrow limits of a coun- 
 try town, prevailed on his father to permit him to 
 come to London. Accordingly he arrived at the me- 
 tropoHs March 4, 1737, and relided with Dr Miles at 
 Tooting till the 6th of May following ; when he ar- 
 tided himfelf, for the term of five years, as a clerk to 
 Mr Samuel Watkins, mafter of the academy in Spital- 
 fquax-e. In this fituation, his ingenuity, dihgence, 
 and good conduft, were fo well difplayed, that on the 
 expiration of his clerkfhip in May 1742, he was taken 
 into partnerfliip with Mr Watkins for three years ; 
 which gentleman he afterwards fucceeded in Spital- 
 fquare, and there continued during his whole life. In 
 1 744, he married Penelope, the eldeft daughter of Mr 
 Thomas Colbrooke, and niece to James Culbrooke, 
 Efq; banker in London. 
 
 Towards the end of 1745, eleftrlcity, which feems 
 early to have engaged Mr Canton's notice, received a 
 very capital improvement by the difcoveiy of the fa- 
 mous I^eyden Phial. This event turned the thoughts 
 of moft of the philofophers of Europe to that branch 
 of natural philofophy ; and our author, who was one 
 of the firft to repeat and to purfue tlie experiment, 
 found his afTiduity and attention rewarded by many 
 capital difcoveries. Towards the end of 1 749, he was 
 concerned with his friend, the late Mr Benjamin Ro- 
 bins, in making experiments in order to determine to 
 •what height rockets may be made to afcend, and at 
 what diflance their light may b'e fcen. In 1750 was 
 read at the Royal Society, Mr Canton's '« Method of 
 making artificial magnets, without the ufe of, and yet 
 far fuperior to, any natural ones." This paper procu- 
 red him the honour of being elected a member of the 
 Society, and the prefent of their gold medal. The 
 ■fame year he was complimented with the degree of 
 M. A. by the univerfity of Aberdeen ; and, in 1751, 
 -was chofen o-ae of the council.of the Royal Society. 
 N°64, 
 
 & 1 CAN 
 
 In 1752, our- philofopher was fo fortunate as to he Camtort. 
 
 the firft perfon in England, who, by attrafting the v 
 
 eleftric fire from the clouds during a thunder-itorm, 
 verified Dr Franklin's hypothefis of the fimilarity of 
 lightning and eleftricity. Next year, his paper in* 
 titled, " Eledlrical Experiments, with an attempt to 
 account for their feveral Phaenomena," was read at the 
 Royal Society. In the fame paper Mr Canton men- 
 tioned his having difcovered, by a great number of ex- 
 periments, that fome clouds were in a pofitive, and 
 fome in a negative, ftate of ieleftricity. Dr Franklin, 
 much about the fame time, made the Hke difcovery in 
 America. This circumftance, together with our au- 
 thor's conftant defence of the doctor's hypothefis, in- 
 duced that excellent philofopher, immediately on his 
 arrival in England, to pay Mr Canton a vifit, and gave 
 rife to a friendfhip which ever after continued without 
 interruption or dimunition. In the " Lady's Diary 
 for 1756," our author anfwered the prize queflion that 
 had been propofed in the preceding year. The que- 
 ftion was, " How can what we call the fliooting of 
 ftars be bcft accounted for ; what is the fubftance of 
 this phsenomenon; and in what flate of the atmofphere 
 doth it moft frequently ihow itfelf The folution, 
 though anonymous, was fo fatisfaftory to his friend, 
 Mr Thomas Simpfon, who then conducted that work, 
 that he fent Mr Canton the prize, accompanied with a 
 note, in which he faid, he was fure that he was not mif- 
 taken in the author of it, as no one befides, that he 
 knew of, could have anfwered the queftion. Ourphi- 
 lofopher's next communication to the public, was a 
 letter in the " Gentleman's Magazine for September 
 1759," on the eleftrical properties of the tourmalin, 
 in which the laws of that wonderful ftone are laid down 
 in a very concife and elegant manner. On December 
 1 3th, in the fame year, was read at the Royal Society, 
 " An attempt to account for the regular diurnal va- 
 riation of the Horizontal Magnetic Needle ; and alio 
 for its iil-egular variation at the time of an Aurora 
 Borealis." A complete year's obfervations of the di- 
 urnal variations of the needle are annexed to the pa- 
 per. On Kov. 5. 1 761, our author communicated 
 to the Royal Society an account of the Tranfit of Ve- 
 nus, June 6. 1 761, obferved in Spital-fquare. Mr Can- 
 ton's next communication to the Society, was a letter 
 addreffed to Dr Benjamin Frankhn, and read Feb. 4. 
 1762, containing fome remarks on Mr Delaval's elec- 
 trical experiments. On Dec. 16. in the fame year, 
 another curious addition was made by him to philofo- 
 phical knowledge, in a paper, intituled, " Experiments 
 to prove that water is not incomprefTible." Thefe ex- 
 periments are a complete refutation of the famous 
 Florentine experiment, which fo many philofophers 
 have mentioned as a proof of the incompreiTibility of 
 water. On St Andrew's day 1763, our author was 
 the third time elefted one of the council of the Royal 
 Society ; and on Nov. 8. in the following year, were 
 read, before that learned body, his farther " Experi- 
 ments and obfervations on the compreffibility of wai- 
 ter, and fome other fluids." The eftablifliment of this 
 fact, in oppofition to the x'eceived opinion, formed on 
 the hafty decifion of the Florentine academy, was • 
 thought to be deferving of the Society's gold medal. 
 It was accordingly moved for in the council of 1 764 ; 
 and after feveral invidious delays, which terminated 
 ^ mucBi 
 
CAN 
 
 Curiton 
 II 
 
 Can tyre. 
 
 much to the honour of Mr Canton, h was prefented 
 to him Nov. 30. 1765. 
 
 The next communication of our ingenious author to 
 the Royal Society, which we fliall take notice of in 
 this place, was on Dec. 22. J 768, being " An eafy 
 method of making a Phofphorus that will imbibe and 
 emit light like the Bolognian ftone ; with expei-iments 
 and obfervations." When he firft (liowed to Dr Frank- 
 lin the initantaneous light acquired by fome of this 
 phofphorus from the near difcharge of an electrified 
 bottle, the do£lor immediately exclaimed, " And God 
 faid, let there be light, and there was light." The 
 dean and chapter of St Paul's having, in a letter to the 
 prefident, dated March 6. 1 769, requefted the opinion 
 of the Royal Society relative to the bell and moft ef- 
 feftual method of fixing ele£lrical conduftors to pre- 
 ferve that cathedral from damage by lightning, Mr 
 Canton was one of the committee appointed to take 
 the letter into confideration, and to report their opi- 
 nion upon it. The gentlemen joined with him in this 
 bufinefs were, Dr Watfon, Dr Franklin, Mi Delaval, 
 and Mr Wilfon. Their report was made on the 8th 
 of June following ; and the mode recommended by 
 them has*been carried into execution. The lall paper 
 of our author's, which was read before the Royal So- 
 ciety, was on Dec. 21. 1769 ; and C' ntained " Expe- 
 riments to prove that the Luminoufnefsof the Sea arifes 
 from the putrefaction of its animal fubftances." In 
 the account now given of his communications to the 
 public, we have chiefly confined ourfelves to fuch as 
 were the moft important, and which threw new and 
 <liiHnguiflied light on various objedls in the philofophi- 
 cal world. Befides thefe, he wrote a number of pa- 
 pers, both in earlier and in later life, which appeared 
 in feveral different publications, and particularly in the 
 -Gentleman's Magazine. 
 
 The -clofe and fedentary life of Mr Canton, arifing 
 from an unremitted attention to the duties of his pro- 
 feffion, and to the profecution of his philofophical en- 
 quiries and experiments, probably contributed to fhort- 
 en his days. The diforder into which he fell, and 
 which carried him off, was a dropfy. His death hap- 
 pened on March 22. 1772, in the 54th year of his age. 
 
 CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting 
 diftinft and feparate quarters to each regiment'; the 
 town where they are quartered being divided into as 
 many cantons as there are regiments, 
 
 CANTRED, or Cantref, fignifies an hundred vil- 
 lages. It is a Britifh word, compounded of the adjeftive 
 cant, i. e. hundred ; and tref, a town or village. In 
 Wales fome of the counties arc divided into cantreds, 
 as in England into hundreds. 
 
 CANTY RE, (from Canti erre, fignifying a " head- 
 land); the fouthern divifion of the ihire of Argyle in 
 ^Scotland. It is a peninfula, ftretching 37 miles from 
 •nortli to fouth, andfeven miles in breadth. It is moft- 
 3y plain, arable, and populous ; inhabited promifcuoufly 
 by Highlanders and Lowlanders , the latter being in- 
 vited to fettle in this place by the Argyle family, that 
 the lands might be the better cultivated. It gives the 
 title of marquis to the duke, and is by Lochfyn divi- 
 ded from Argyle Proper. ^ This loch is an inlet from 
 ihe fea, about 60 miles in length and four in breadth, 
 auording heretofore an excellent herrioig-fifhery. There 
 Vol. IV. Par,t L 
 
 [ ] 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canute. 
 
 are many paltry villages In this country, but no town Cantyre 
 of any confequence except Campbeltown. 
 
 Cantyre was granted to the houfe of Argyle after a 
 fuppreifion of a rebellion of the Macdonalds of the 
 Ifles (and it is fuppofed of this peninfula) in the be- 
 ginning of the laft century, and the grant was after- 
 wards ratified by parliament. The ancient inhabitants 
 were the Mac-donalds, Mac-eachrans, Mac-kays, and 
 Mac-maths. 
 
 Mut/ of Cantyre, the fouth cape or promontory of 
 the peninfula. There is here a light-houfe 235 feet a- 
 bove the fea at high water, fituated on the rocks called 
 the Merchants, Lat. 55.- 22. Long. 5. 42. weft of Lon- 
 don. The found of Ifla from the light-houfe bearing, 
 by the compafs, N. by E. diftant 2 7 miles ; the fouth 
 end of Ifla N. N. W. diftant 25 miles ; the north end 
 of Rathlin ifland, N. W. by W. one half W. ; the 
 Maiden Rocks, S. by W. one half W. diftant 14 miles; 
 Copland light, S. by W. one half W. diftant 31 
 miles. The lanthorn is fcen from N. N. E. i-4th E. 
 from S. by W. i-4th W. and intermediate points of 
 the compafs N. of thefe two points. 
 
 CANTZ, a town of Silefia in Germany, E. Long. 
 16. 36. N. Lat. 51.6. 
 
 CANVAS, in commerce, a very clear unbleached 
 cloth of hemp, or flax, wove regularly in Httle fquares. 
 It is ufed for working tapeftry with the needle, by 
 palling the threads of gold, filver, filk, or wool, through 
 the intervals or fquares. 
 
 Canvas is alfo a coarfe cloth of hemp, unbleached, 
 fomewhat clear, which fervcs to cover womens ftays, 
 alfo to ftiffen mens clothes, and to make fome other of 
 their wearing apparel, &c. 
 
 Canvas is alfo ufed among the French for the mo- 
 del or firft words whereon an air or piece of mufic is 
 compofed, and given to a poet to regulate and finifti. 
 The canvas of a fong contains certain notes of the 
 compofer, which fliow the poet the meafure of theverfes 
 he is to make. Thus Du Lot fays, he has canvas for 
 ten fonnets againft the mufes. 
 
 Canvas is alfo the name of a cloth made of hemp, 
 and ufed for Ihip-fails. 
 
 Canvas, among painters, is the cloth on which they 
 ufually draw their pictures ; the canvas being fmoothed 
 over with a flick-ftone, then fized, and afterwards 
 whited over, makes what the painters call their primed 
 cloth, on which they draw their firft flcetches with coal 
 or chalk, and afterwards finifh with colours. 
 
 CANUSIUM (anc. geog.), a town of Apulia, on 
 the right or fouth fide of the Aufidus, to the weft of 
 Cannie ; whither the Romans fled after the defeat fuf- 
 tained there. It was famous for its red fhining wool ; 
 whence thofe who wore clothes made of it were called 
 Canufmati. Now called Can osA ; which fee. 
 
 CANUTE, the firft Danilh king of England after 
 Ironfide. He married Emma widow of king Ethelred; 
 and put to death feveral perfons of quality who ftood 
 in his way to the crown. Having thus fettled his power 
 in England, he made a voyage to his other kingdom of 
 Denmark, in order to refift the attacks of the king of 
 Sweden ; and he earned along with him a great body 
 of the Engliih under the command of the earl of God- 
 win. This nobleman had here an opportunity of per- 
 forming a fervice by which he both reconciled the 
 R king's 
 
CAN 
 
 Cam te. king's mind to the Engllfh natloH, and 
 ■"'V"--' liimfclf the friendfhip of his fovereign, laid the founda- 
 tion of that immenfe fortune which he acquired to his 
 family. He was ftationed next the Swedifh camp ; and, 
 obferving a favourable opportunity which he was ob- 
 liged fuddenly to feize, he attacked the enemy in the 
 night, drove them fuddenly from their trenches, threw 
 them into diforder, purfued his advantage, and obtained 
 a decilive viftory over them. Next morning, Canute, 
 feeing the Enghfh camp entirely abandoned, imagined 
 that thefe difafFefted troops had dcferted to' the enemy ; 
 and he was agreeably furprifed to find that they were 
 at that time engaged in purfuit of the difcomfited 
 Swedes. He was fo pleafed with this fuccefs, and the 
 manner of obtaining it, that he bellowed his daugliter 
 in marriage upon Godwin, and treated him ever after 
 with the moft entire confidence and regard. 
 
 In another voyage which he afterwards made to 
 Denmark, Canute a.ttacked Norway, and expelled 
 the juft but unwarlike Olaus from his kingdom, of 
 which he kept pofleflion till the death of that prince. 
 He liad now by his conquefts and valour attained the 
 utmoft height of his ambition ; and having leifure from 
 wars and intrigues, he felt the unfatisfadlory nature of 
 all human enjoyments ; and, equally weary of the glory 
 and turmoils of this Hfe, he began to call his view to- 
 wards that future exiftence which is fo natural for 
 the human mind, whether fatiated by profperity or 
 difgufted with adverfity, to make the objeft of its at- 
 tention. Unfortunately the fpirit which prevailed in 
 that age gave a wrong dire£lion to his devotion ; and, 
 inftead of making atonement to thofe whom he had 
 formerly injured by his afts of violence, he entirely 
 employed himfelf in thofe exercifes of piety which 
 the monks reprefented as moft meritorious. He built 
 churches ; he endowed monafleries ; he enriched eccle- 
 fiaftics; and he beftowed revenues for the fupport of 
 chantries at Aflington and other places, where he ap- 
 pointed prayers to be faid for the fouls of thofe who 
 had there fallen in battle againft him. He even under- 
 took a pilgrimage to Rome, where he fojourned a con- 
 liderable time; and, befides obtaining from the Pope 
 feme privileges for the Enghfh fchool ereAed there, he 
 engaged all the princes through whofe dominions he was 
 obliged to pafs, to defift from thofe heavy impofitions 
 and tolls which they were accuftoined to exaft from the 
 EngliA pilgrims. By this fpirit of devotion, no lefs 
 than by his equitable and politic adminiftration, he 
 gained in a good meafure the afFeftions of his fubjefts. 
 
 Canute, who was the greateft and moft powerful 
 prince of his time, fovereign of Denmark and Norway 
 as well as of England, could not fail to meet with 
 adulation from his courtiers ; a tribute which is libe- 
 rally paid even to the meaneft and w^eakeft of princes. 
 Some of his flatterers breaking out one day in admi- 
 ration of his grandeur, exclaimed, that every thing 
 was pofiible for him : upon which the monarch, it is 
 faid, ordered a chair to be fet on the lea-fhore while 
 the tide was making ; and, as the waters approached, 
 ke commanded them to retire, and to obey the voice 
 of him who was lord of the ocean. He feigned to fit 
 fome time in expeftation of their fubmiffion ; but when 
 the fea ftill advanced towards him, and began to wafh 
 him with its billows, he turned to his courtiers, and 
 »emarked to them, That every creature in the univerfe 
 
 [ ,30 ] c A o 
 
 gaining to was feeble and impotent, and that power refidcd with 
 one Being alone, in whofe hands were all the elements 
 of nature, who could fay to the ocean, " Thus far 
 fiialt thou go, and no farther," and who could level 
 with his nod the moft towering piles of human pride 
 and ambition. From that time, it is faid, he never 
 would v,'ear a crown. He died in the 20th year of his 
 reign; and was interred at "VVinchefter, in the old nio- 
 nallery. 
 
 CANZONE, in mufic, fignifies, in general, a fong, 
 where fome Kttle fugues are introduced : but it is 
 fometimes ufcd for a fort of Italian poem, ufually 
 pretty long, to which mufic may be compofed in the 
 ftyle of a cantata. If this term be added to a piece of 
 inilrumental mufic, it fignifies much the fame as can- 
 tata : if placed in any part of a fonata, it implies the 
 fame meaning as aUcgro, and only denotes that tlie pai t 
 to which it is prefixed is to be played or fung in a brifk 
 and lively manner. 
 
 CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, deno- 
 ting a little ftiort fong. The canzonette neapohtane 
 has two ftrains, each whereof is fung twice over, as 
 the vaudevilles of the P'rench : The canzonette ficiliant; 
 is a fpecies of jigg, the meafure whereof is ufually 
 twelve eighths, and fix eighths, and fometimes both, as 
 rondeaus. 
 
 CAORLO, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, 00 
 the coaft of Friuli, 20 miles fouth-weft of Aquileia, 
 fubjeft to Venice. It has a town of the fame name, 
 with a bifhop's fee. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, Elastic Resin, or India Rub- 
 ber, a fubftance produced from the fyringe-tree of 
 Cayenne and other parts of South America, and pof- 
 fefled of the moft fingular properties. No fubftance is 
 yet known which is fo pliable, and at the fame time fo 
 elaftic ; and it is farther a matter of curiofity, as being 
 capable of refifting the aftion of very powerful roen- 
 ftrua. From the account of M. de la Condamine, we 
 learn, that this fubftance oozes out, under the form of 
 a vegetable milk, from incifions made in the tree ; 
 and that it is gathered chiefly in time of rain, becaufe, 
 though it may be coUefted at all times, it flows then 
 moft abundantly. The means employed to infpillatc 
 and indurate it, M. de la Borde fays, are kept a pro- 
 found fccret. M. Bomare, and others, affirm, tliat it 
 thickens and hardens gradually by being expofed to 
 the air ; and as foon as it acquires a folid confiftence, 
 it manifefts a very extraordinary degree of flexibility 
 and elafticity. Accordingly the Indians make boots 
 of it, which water cannot penetrate, and which, 
 when fmoaked, have the appearance of real leather. 
 Bottles are alfo made of jt, to the necks of which 
 ai-e faftened hollow reeds, fo that the liquor con- 
 tained in them may be fquirted through the reeds 
 or pipes by preffui-e. One of thefe filled with wa- 
 ter is always prefented to each of the guefts at their 
 entertainments, who never fail to make ufe of it be- 
 fore eating. This whimfical cuftom led the Portu- 
 guefe in that country to call the tree that produces 
 this refin pao di xirringa, and hence tire name of feringat 
 is given both to the tree and to its refin ousproduftion. 
 Flambeaux, an inch and a half in diameter, and two 
 feet long, are hkewife made of this refin, which give 
 a beautiful light, have no bad fmell, and burn twelve 
 hours. A kind of cloth is alfo prepared from it, which 
 z the 
 
 Canzone 
 
Caout- 
 chouc. 
 
 G A O [ I 
 
 the Inhabitants of Quito apply to the fame purpofcsas 
 our oil-cloth and fail-cloth. It is formed, in fine, by 
 me ans of moulds, into a variety of figures for ufe and 
 orn:an:ient ; and the procefs is faid to be thus : — The 
 juice, which is obtained by incifion, is fpread over 
 pieces of clay formed into the defired fliape ; and as 
 f ift; as one layer is dry, another is added, till the veffel 
 be of the proper thicknefs: the whole is then held over 
 a ftrong fmoke of vegetables on fire, 'vvhereby it hard- 
 ens" into the texture and appearance of leather ; and 
 before the finiihing, while yet foft, is capable of ha- 
 ving any imprellion made on the outfide, which re- 
 mains ever after. When the whole is done, the in- 
 fide movild is picked out. 
 
 Ever fince this refm has been known in Europe, its 
 chemical qualities and other interefting properties 
 have been very diligently inveiligated. In particular, 
 it has been endeavoured to difcover fome method of 
 dllTolving it in fuch a manner that it wouli affume dif- 
 ferent figures with equal eafe as when in its original 
 ftate of milk. In the memoirs of the academy of 
 fciences for 1768, we have an account of feveral at- 
 tempts for this purpofe, and how it may be effefted. 
 — The ftate of vegetable milk in which the caoutchouc 
 refin is found when it comes from the tree, led Mr 
 Macquer to imagine that it wzs compofed of an oil 
 and a watery matter. From its wanting aromatic fla- 
 vour, from its little volatihty, and from its being in- 
 capable of folution in fpirit of wine, he concluded that 
 the oil which entered its compofition was not an efTen* 
 tial, but a fatty, one. Hence he thought it probable 
 that It pafied from a fluid to a folid form by the eva- 
 poration of the watery part, and that the oily folvents 
 would reduce it to a foft ftate. The firft trials he 
 made for difTolving It were with linfeed oil, effence 
 of turpentine, and feveral others. But all he could ob- 
 tain by means of thefe menftrua was a vifcid fubftance 
 incapable of being hardened, and totally void of elafti- 
 clty. The reilified effentlal oil of turpentine vms em- 
 ployed feemlngly with greater fucccfs. To feparate from 
 this menftruum the caoutchouc which it had diffolved, 
 Mr Macquer added fpirit of wine : but the confequence 
 was, that part only of the oil united with the fpirit ; 
 the reft remaining obftinately attached to the refin 
 which it had diffolved, and thus preventing it from af- 
 fuming a folid confiftence* The author next endea- 
 voured to dlffolve it by means of heat in Papin's dlgef- 
 ter. But neither water, xwr fpirit of wine, although 
 in this way capable of difTolving the hardeft bones, 
 could produce any other effeft upon it than to render 
 it more firm than before. After this, he tried what ef- 
 feft the milky juice of other vegetables would have up- 
 on it. 'He ufed feveral kinds, particularly that of the 
 fig. But, in this way, he could obtain no folution. 
 From the great volatility of ether, he was next induced 
 to try it p.s a menftruum ; and, for this purpofe, he 
 prepared fome with great attention. The caoutchouc, 
 cut into little bi^s, and put into a proper veffel with 
 as much ether a^ was fufllcient to cover it, was per- 
 ■Feftly diffolved without any other heat than that of the 
 atmofphere. This folution was tranfparent and of an 
 smber colour. It ftill prefcrved the fmell of ether, but 
 mixed virith the diliigreeable odour of the caoutchouc, 
 and it was a little lefs fluid than pure ether. Upon its 
 being thrown into water, no milky liquor was produ- 
 
 3^1 G A O 
 
 ced; but there arofe to the furface a folid membrane 
 which poffeffed the great elafticity and other peculiar 
 properties of the caoutchouc. He obferves, however, 
 that two pints of the beft ether, obtained by rectifying 
 eight or ten pints of the common ether by a gentle 
 heat, muft be ufed, in order to the fuccefs of the ope- 
 ration,— The diftinguiftiing properties of this fub- 
 ftance, viz. its folidity, flexibility and elafticity, and 
 its quahty of refifting the aftion of aqueous, fpirl- 
 tuous, faline, oily, and other common folvents, ren- 
 der it extremely fit for the conftrudion of tubes, ca- 
 theters, and other inftruments, in which thefe proper- 
 ties are wanted. In order to form this refin into fmall 
 tubes, M. Macquer prepared a folid cylindrical mould 
 of wax, of the defired fize and ftiape ; and then dip- 
 ping a pencil Into the etherial folution of the refin, 
 daubed the mould over with it, till he had covered it 
 with a coat^ of refin of a fufficient thicknefs. The 
 whole piece is then thrown into boiling water; by the 
 heat of which tiie wax is foon melted, and rifes to the 
 furface, leaving the refinous tube completely formed 
 behind. 
 
 •A refin fimilar to this was fome years ago difcover- 
 cd by M. Poivre, In the Ifle of France ; and there are 
 various milky juices extrafted from trees in America 
 and elfewhere, which by previous mixtures and prepa- 
 rations are formed into an elaftic refin, but of an infe- 
 rior quality to that of Cayenne : fuch, for Inftance, 
 are the juices obtained from the Cecnpia pehata, the 
 Flcus religiofa and indica, &c. 
 
 Of the genuine trees, thofe growing along the banks 
 of the river of the Amazons are defcribed by M. Con- 
 damine as attaining a very great height, being at the 
 fame time perfedly ftraight, and having no branches 
 except at top, which Is but fmall, covering no more 
 than a circumference of ten feet. Its leaves bear fome 
 refemblance to thofe of the manioc they are green on 
 the upper part, and white beneath. The feeds are 
 three in number, and contained in a pod confiftlng of 
 three cells, not unlike thofe of the ricinus or falma 
 Chrijl'i; and In each of them there Is a kernel, which 
 being ftripped and boiled in water produces a thick oil 
 or fat, anfwering the purpofes of butter in the cookery 
 of that country. 
 
 A method of difTolving this elaftic gum without c- 
 ther, for the purpofes of a varnini or the like, is as fol- 
 lows : Take one pound of the fpirit of turpentine, and 
 a pound of the gum cut into very fmall pieces ; 
 pour the turpentine into a long-necked matrafs, which 
 muft be placed in a fand-bath; throw in the gum, 
 not all at once, but by little and little according 
 as It is perceived to dlffolve : When it is entirely dif- 
 folved, pour Into the matrafs a pint of nut or linfeed 
 oil, or oil of popies, rendered deficcative in the ufual 
 manner with htharge : Then let the whole boil for a 
 quarter of an hour, and the preparation Is finifhed. 
 This would make an excellent varnifh for air-balloons, 
 were it not fo expenilve on account of the price of the 
 gum. — Another method, invented by Mr Baldwin, is 
 as follows. Take any quantity of the caoutchouc, as 
 two ounces avoirdupois : cut it into fmall bits with a 
 pair of fciffars. Put a ftrong iron ladle (fuch as plum- 
 bers or glaziers melt their lead in) over a common pit- 
 coal or other fire. The fire muft be gentle, glowing, 
 and without fmoke. When the ladle is hot, much be- 
 R 2 low 
 
13 
 
 Caoutr 
 thouc, 
 Cap 
 
 CAP r 
 
 low a red heat, put a fingle bit into t}ie ladle. If 
 black fmoke ilTues, it will prefently flame and difap- 
 pear : or it will evaporate without flame : the ladle is 
 then too hot. When the ladle is lefs hot, put in a fe- 
 cond bit, which will produce a white fmoke. This 
 white fmoke will continue during the Q5)eration,and eva- 
 porate the caoutchouc: therefore no time is to be loH; 
 but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time, till the 
 whole are melted. It ihould be continually and gently 
 ftirred with an iron or brafs fpoon. Two pounds, or 
 one quart, of the beit drying oil (or of raw Hnfeed oil 
 which, together with a few drops of neats foot oil, 
 has flood a month, or not fo long, on a lump of quick- 
 hme, to make it more or lefs drying) is to be put in- 
 to the melted caoutchouc, and ilirred till hot : and the 
 whole poured into a glazed vt-flel, through a coarfe 
 gauze, or fine fieve. When fettled and clear, which 
 will be in a few minutes, it is fit for ufe, either hot 
 or cold. 
 
 The Abbe Clavigero informs us, that the elafl;ic 
 gum is called by the Mexicans Olin or 0//i, and by the 
 Spaniards of that kingdom Ule : That it diftils from 
 the Olquahuitl, which is a tree of moderate fize ; the 
 trunk of which is fmooth and yellowifli, the leaves 
 pretty large, the flowers white, and the fruit yellow 
 and rather round, but angular; within which there are 
 kernels as large as filberds, and white, but covered" 
 with a yellowifh pellicle : That the kernel has a bitter 
 tafte, -and the fruit always grows attached to the bark 
 of the tree : That when the trunk is cut, the Ule which 
 difl;ils from it is white, liquid, and vifcous ; afterwards 
 it becomes yellow; and laftly of a leaden colour, 
 though rather blacker, which it always retains. The 
 tree, he adds, is very common in the kingdom of Gua- 
 timala. 
 
 As to the genus of this tree, it does not feem to be 
 yet afcertained. Aublet, in his Hijloire des Plants de la 
 Guiane ('p. Syi.j, defcribes the tree, the fruit, and 
 manner of coUeAlng the juice ; but never faw the 
 flower : he calls it, however, Hevea Gulanetifis. In 
 Jacquin's America, it is called Echites corymbofa. The 
 younger Linnaeus, in his Supplementum Plantarum 
 (p. 422), names it Jatrnpha elaftica; but acknowledges 
 that he only gives it this name from the ttrufture of 
 the fruit having moft refcmblance to that genus, his 
 dry fpecies wanting the flowers. 
 
 Of the above gum, it is faid, the Chlnefe make ela- 
 ftic rings for lafcivious purpofes.— Among us it is ufed 
 by furgeons for injefting hquids, and by painters for 
 rubbing out black-lead pencil marks, &c. 
 
 CAP, a part of drefs made to cover the head, much 
 in the figure thereof. 
 
 The ufe of caps and hats is referred to the year 
 1449, the firll feen in thefe parts of the world being 
 at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that 
 time they began to talce place of the hoods, or cha- 
 peroons,' that had been ufed till then. Wlien the cap 
 was of velvet, they called it moriier ; when of wool, 
 Amply l/ontict. None but kings, princes, and knights, 
 v;ere allowed the ufe of the mortier. The cap was the. 
 head-drefs of the clergy and graduates. Pafquier fays, 
 that it v/as anciently a part of the hood worn by the 
 people of the robe ; the flclrts whereof being cut off 
 a,s an incumbrance, left the round cap an eafy commo- 
 dious cover for the head ; which round cap being af- 
 
 2 '] CAP 
 
 terwards affumed by the people, thofe of the gavvn ^ 
 
 changed it for a fquare one, firll invented by a French- " 
 man, called Patrouillet : he adds, that the giving of 
 the cap to the ftudents in the unlverfities, was to de- 
 note, that they had acquired full liberty, and were no 
 longer fubjedl to the rod of their fuperiors ; in imita- 
 tion of the ancient Romans, who gave a pikus^ or cap, 
 to their flaves, in the ceremony of making them free : 
 whence the proverb, Vocar'e fcrvos ad plkum. Hence, 
 alfo, on medals, the cap is the fymbol of liberty, whom 
 they reprefent holding a cap in her right hand, by the 
 point. 
 
 The Romans were many ages without any regular 
 covering for the head : when either the rain or fun 
 was troublefome, the lappet of the gown was thrown 
 over the head ; and hence it is that all the ancient fta- 
 tues appear bareheaded, excepting fometimes a wreath, 
 or the like. And the fame ufage obtained among the 
 Greeks, where, at leafl: during the heroic age, no caps 
 were known. The fort of caps or covers of the head 
 in ufe among the Romans on divers occafions, were 
 the pitra, pileits^ cucuUus, galenis, and pall'iolum ; the 
 difterences between which are often confounded by an- 
 cient as well as modern writers. 
 
 The French clergy wear a (hallow kind of cap, 
 called calotte^ which only covers the top of the head, 
 made of leather, fattin, worfl;ed, or other fluff. The 
 red cap is a mark of dignity allowed only to thofe who 
 are raifed to the cardinalate. The fecular clergy are 
 difl:ingui{hed by black leathern caps, the regulars by 
 knit and worfted ones. 
 
 Churchmen, and the members of univerfitles, ftu- 
 dents in law, phyfic, &c. as well as graduates, wear 
 fquare caps. In . mofl: univerfitles doilors are dlf- 
 tingulftied by peculiar caps, given them in afl'uming 
 the doftorate. "WicklifF calls the canons of his 
 time lifitrcati, from their caps. Pafquier obferves, 
 that, in his time, the caps worn by the churchmen, &c. 
 were called fquare caps ; though, in effeft, they were 
 round yellow caps. 
 
 The Chinefe have not the ufe of the hat, Hke us ; 
 but wear a cap of a peculiar ftrudture, which the laws 
 of civility will not ahow them to put off : it is diffe- 
 rent for the different feafons of the year : that ufed ia. 
 fummer is in form of a cone, ending at top in a point. 
 It is made of a vary beautiful kind of mat, much va- 
 lued in that country, and hned with fattin : to this is 
 added, at top, a large lock of red filk, which falls all 
 round as low as the bottom ; fo that, in walking, the 
 filk fluctuating regularly on all fides, makes a graceful 
 appearance : fometimes, inftead of filk, they ide a kind 
 of bright red hair, the luflre whereof no weather effa- 
 ces. In winter they wear a plufli cap, bordered with, 
 martlet's or fox's fl<in ; as- to the reft, like thofe for 
 the furfnner. Thcfe caps are frequently fold for eight or 
 ten crowns; but they are fo fliort, that the ears dre 
 expofed. 
 
 The cap is fometimes ufed as a mark of infamy ; in. 
 Italy the Jews are diftinguifhed by a- yellow cap ; at 
 Lucca by an orange one. In France, thofe who had 
 been bankrupts were obhged ever after to weara^r'.cn 
 cap, to prevent people from being impofed on in any 
 future commerce. By feveral arrets in 1584, 1622, 
 1628, 1688, it was decreed, that if they were at any 
 time found without their green cap, their proteftion 
 
 - Ihould. 
 
 (Cap. 
 
CAP [ I 
 
 fiiouild be null, and their creditors impowered to caft 
 therai into prifon : but the fentence is not now exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 Cap of Maintenance, one of the regalia, or ornaments 
 of ftate belonging to the kings of England, before 
 \vho)m it was carried at the coronation and other great 
 foleimnities. Caps of maintenance are alfo carried be- 
 fore the mayors of the feveral cities in England. 
 
 Cap, in fhip building, a flrong, ; thick, block of 
 vvoo'd, ufed to confine two mafts together, when one 
 is eredled at the head of the other in order to lengthen 
 it. It is for this purpofe furnifhed with two holes 
 perp)endicular to its length and breadth, and parallel 
 to its thicknefs : one of thefe is fquare, and the other 
 rourad ; the former being folidly fixed upon the upper 
 end of the lower maft, whilft the latter receives the 
 malt employed to lengthen it, and fecures it in this 
 pofittion. 
 
 CAPACIO, an epifcopal town of Italy, In the 
 king;dom of Naples, and in the hither Principato. E. 
 Long. 15. 18. N. Lat. 40. 40. 
 
 CAPACITY, in a general fenfe, an aptitude or 
 difpolition to hold or retain any thing. 
 
 Capacity, in geometry, is the fohd contents of any 
 body ; alfo our hollow meafure for wine, beer, corn, 
 fait, &c. are called meafures of capacity. 
 
 Capacity, in law, the ability of a man, or body 
 politic, to give or take lands or other things,, or fue 
 adiions. 
 
 Our law allows the king two capacities ; a natural, 
 and a political: in the firli, he may purchafe lands to 
 him and his heirs ; in the fecond, to him and his fuc- 
 ceffors. The clergy of the church of England have 
 the like. 
 
 CAPARASON, or Caparison, the covering or 
 clothing laid overanhorfe; efpecially a fumpter horfe, 
 or horfe of Itate. The word is Spanilli, being an aug- 
 mentative of cape, caput, head. 
 
 Anciently the caparafons were a kind of iron ar- 
 mour, wherewith horfes were covered in battle. 
 
 CAPE, in geography, an high land running out 
 with a point into the fea, as Cape-Nord, Cape-Horn, 
 the Cape of Good Hope, &c.. 
 
 CAPE-Elk. See Cervus. 
 
 CjiPE-Breton. See Breton. 
 
 CjiPE-CoaJl Cajlle. See Coast. 
 
 Cafe of Good Hope. See Good Hope.. 
 
 CAPE-Verd. See Verd. 
 
 CAPELL (Edward), a gentleman well known by 
 his indefatigable attention to the works of Shakefpeare, 
 was a native of the county of Suffolk, and received his 
 education at the fchool of St Edmund's Bury. In the 
 dedication of his edition of Shakefpeare, in 1768, to 
 the duke of Grafton, he obferves, that " his father 
 and the grandfather of his grace were friends, and to 
 the patronage of the deceafed nobleman he owed the 
 leifure which enabled hira to bellow the attention of 
 20 years on that work." The office which his grace 
 bellowed on Mr Capell was that of deputy-infpetlor 
 of the plays, to which a falary is annexed of 200I. a- 
 ycar. So early as the year 1745, as Mr Capell him- 
 felf informs us, fhockcd at the licentioufnefs of Han- 
 mer's plan, he firll projeftedan edition of Shakefpeare, 
 of the ilriftell accuracy, to bo collated and publifiied, 
 
 35 I 
 
 CAP 
 
 in due time, ex fide codicum. He immediately pro- CipelF. 
 ceeded to colledl and compare the oldefl and fcarceft 
 copies noting the original excellencies and defcfts of 
 the rarell quartos, and diflinguifhing the improve- 
 ments or variations of the firft, fecond, and third fo- 
 lios : and, after many years labour, produced a very 
 beautiful fmall o6lavo, in 10 volumes, with "an In- 
 troduftion." There is not, the authors of the Monthly 
 Review obferve, among the various publications of the 
 prefent literary sera, a more fingular compolition than 
 that " Introdu£lion." In llyle and manner, it is more 
 obfolete and antique than the age of which it treats. 
 It is Lord Herbert of Cherbury, walking the new 
 pavement in all the trappings of romance ; but, like 
 Lord Herbert, it difplays many valuable qualities ac- 
 companying this air of extravagance, much found fenfe,, 
 and appropriate erudition. In the title-page of " Mr 
 William Shakefpeare his Comedies, Hillorles, and 
 Tragedies," it was alfo announced and promulgated, 
 " Whereunto will be added, in fome other volumes, 
 notes critical and explanatory,, and a body of various- 
 readings entire." " The Introdu6liGn" likewife de- 
 clared, that thefe " notes and various readings" would 
 be accompanied with another work, difclofing the 
 fources from which Shakefpeare "drew the greater part 
 of his knowledge in mythological and claflical matters, 
 his fable, his hiftory, and even the feeming peculiari- 
 ties of his language — to which," fays Mr Capell, " we 
 have given for title. The Scliool of Sliakefpeare." No- 
 thing furely eould be more properly conceived than 
 fuch defigns, nor have we ever met with any thing 
 better grounded on the fubjeil of " the learning oF 
 Shakefpeare" than what may be found in the long note 
 to this part of Mr Capell's Introdudlion. It is more 
 folid than even the popular " Eifay" on this topic. 
 Certain quaintneffes of llyle, and peculiarities of print- 
 ing and punftuation, attended the whole of this pub- 
 lication. The outline, however, was^ correct ; and the 
 critic, with unremitting toil, proceeded in his under- 
 taking. But while he was diving into the clafllcs of 
 Caxton (to continue tlie Reviewers account), and 
 working his way underground, like the river Mole, in 
 order to emerge with all his glories ; while he was 
 looking forward to his triumphs ; certain other aftive 
 fpirits went to work upon his plan, and, digging out 
 the promifed treafures, laid them prematurely before 
 the public, defeating the effefl of our critic's difcove- 
 ries by anticipation. Steevens, Malone, Farmer, Percy, 
 Reed, and a whole hoil of literary ferrets, burrowed 
 into every hole and corner of the warren of modern 
 antiquity, and over-ran all the country, whofe map had 
 been, delineated by Edward CapelL Such a contin- 
 gency nearly llaggered the fleady and unfhaken perfe- 
 verance of our critic, at the very eve of the completion- 
 of his labours, and as his editor informs us — for, alas ! 
 at the end of near 40 years, the pubhcation was poilhu- 
 mous, and the critic himfelf no more ! — he was almoft 
 determined to lay the work wholly afide. He perfevered, 
 however, by the encouragement of fome noble and woi-- 
 thy perfons : and to fuch their encouragement, and his 
 perfeverance,the public was,in 1783, indebted for three 
 large volumes in 4to, under the title of " Notes and. 
 various readings of Shakefpeare ; together with the 
 School of Shakefpeare, or ExtraCls from divers Engliilv 
 
 Booksj 
 
CAP 
 
 'Capella 
 II 
 
 Caperolan? 
 
 [ ] 
 
 CAP 
 
 Books, that were in print in the Author's time ; evi- 
 dently {howing from whence his feveral Fables were 
 taken, and fome parcel of his Dialogue. Alfo farther 
 ExtraAs, which contribute to a due underftanding of 
 his Writings, or give a light to the Hiftory of his 
 Life, or to the Dramatic Hiitory of his Time. By 
 Kdw. Capell." — Befides the works already mentioned, 
 Mr Capell was the editor of a volume of ancient poems 
 called " Prolufions;" and the alteration of "Antony 
 and Cleopatra," as afted at Drury Lane in 1758. He 
 died January 24. 1781. 
 
 CAPELLA, in altronomy, a bright fixed ftar in 
 the left fhoulder of the conftellation Auriga. 
 
 CAPELLE, a town of France, in Picardy, and In 
 the Tierache, eight miles from Guife. It was taken 
 by the Spaniards in 1636; but retaken the year after. 
 E. Long. 3. 59. N. Lat, 49. 58. 
 
 CAPELLETS, in farriery. See there, § xxxvi. 4. 
 
 CAPELLUS (Lewis), an eminent French Pro- 
 teftant divine, born at Sedan in Champagne about the 
 year 1579. He was author of fome learned works ; 
 but is chiefly known from the controverfy he engaged 
 in with the younger Buxtorf concerning the antiquity 
 ■of Hebrew points, which Capellus undertook to dif- 
 prove. His Cr'ittca Sacra was alfo an elaborate work, 
 and excited fome difputes. He died in 1658, having 
 made an abridgement of his life in his work De gente 
 Capellori. 
 
 CAPER, in botany. See Capparis. 
 Caper alfo denotes a veflel ufed by the Dutch for 
 cruifing and taking prizes from the enemy ; in which 
 fenfe, caper amounts to the fame with privateer. Ca- 
 pers are commonly double-of&cered, and crowded with 
 hands even beyond the rates of fliips of war, becaufe 
 the thing chiefly in view is boarding the enemies. 
 
 CAPERNAUM, a city celebrated in the gofpels, 
 being the place where Jefus ufually refided during the 
 time of his minifl;ry. This city is no where mention* 
 ed in the Old Teftament under this or any other name 
 like it ; and therefore it is not improbable that it was 
 one of thofe towns which the Jews built after their 
 return from the Babylonifh captivity. It ft;ood on 
 the fea-coaft, /. e. on the coaft of the fea of Galilee, in 
 the borders of Zebulon and Nephtalim (Matt. iv. 1 5.), 
 and confequentiy towards the upper part thereof. It 
 took its name no doubt from an adjacent fpring of 
 great repute for its clear and limpid waters ; and 
 which, according to Jofephus, was by the natives called 
 Capernaum. As this Ipring might be fome inducement 
 to the building the town in the place where it ftood, 
 fo itsbeing a convenient wafting place from Galilee to 
 any part on th-e other fide of the fea, might be fome 
 motive to our Lord for his moving from Nazareth, and 
 making this the place of hi-s moll confl:ant refidence. 
 Upon this account Capernaum was highly honoured, 
 and faid by our Lord himfelf to be exalted unto heaven ; 
 but becaufe it made no right ufe of this fignal favour, 
 it drew from him the fevere denunciation, that it 
 fhould be Lrought doiun to hell (Matt. xi. 23.), which 
 has certainly been verified : for, as Dr Wells obferves, 
 fo far is it from being the metropolis of all Galilee, as 
 it once was, that it confiftedlong fince of no more than 
 fix poor fifliermens cottages, and may perhaps be now 
 totally defolate. 
 
 CAPEROLANS, a congregation of religious in 
 
 Italy, fo called from Peter Caperole their founder, in 
 the 1 5th century. 
 
 The Milanefe and Venetians being at war, the en- 
 mity occafioned thereby fpread itfelf to the very cloy- 
 fters. The fuperiors of the province of Milan, of mi- 
 nor brothers, which extended itfelf as far as the ter- 
 ritories of the republic of Venice, carried it fo haugh- 
 tily over the Venetians, that thofe of the convent of 
 Brefcia refolved to fliake off a yoke which was grown 
 infupportablc to them. The fuperiors, informed of 
 this, expelled out of the province thofe whom they 
 confidered as the authors of this defign ; the prmcipai 
 of whom were Peter Caperole, Matthew de Tharvillo 
 and Bonaventure of Brefcia. Peter Caperole, a man 
 of an enterprifing genius, found means to feparate the 
 convents of Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cremona, from the 
 province of Milan, and fubjeft them to the conventuals. 
 This occafioned a law-fuit between the vicar-general 
 and thefe convents, which was determined in favour of 
 the latter; and thefe convents, in 1475, by the autho- 
 rity of Pope Sixtus IV. were eredied into a diilinft 
 vicariate, under the title of that of Brefcia. This not 
 fatisfying the ambition of Caperole, he obtained, by 
 the interpofition of the Doge of Venice, that this vi- 
 cariate might be erefted into a congregation, which 
 was called from him Caperolans, This congregation 
 ftill fubfifts in Italy, and is compofed of 24 convents, 
 fituated in Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cremona. 
 
 CAPERQUIN, a town of Ireland, in the county 
 of Waterford, and province of Munfter, fituated on the 
 river Blackwater. W. Long. 7. 50. N. Lat. 52. 5. 
 
 CAPESTAN, a town of France, in Lower Lan- 
 guedoc, in the diocefe of Narbonne, and near the 
 royal canal. E. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 43. 35. 
 
 CAPH, a Jewilh meafure of capacity for things 
 cftimated by Kimchi at the 30th part of the log, by 
 Arbuthnot at the l6th part of the bin or 3 2d of the 
 feah, amounting to five-eighths of an Englifli pint. 
 The caph does not occur in Scripture as the nam.e of 
 any meafure. 
 
 CAPHAR, a duty which the Turks ralfe on the 
 Chrlfl;ians who carry or fend merchandifes from Alep- 
 po to Jerufalem and other places in Syria. 
 
 This duty of caphar was firft impofed by the Chri- 
 ftians themfelves, when they were in pofleflion of the 
 Holy Land, for the maintenance of the troops which 
 were planted in difficult pafles to obferve the Arabs 
 and prevent their incurfions. It is ftill continued, and 
 much increafed by the Turks, under pretence of de- 
 fending the Chriftans againft the Arabs; with whom,, 
 neverthelefs, they keep a fecret intelligence, favouring 
 their excurfions and plunders. 
 
 CAPHTOR (anc. geog.), a town or diftria of 
 Higher Egypt : and hence the people called CaphtO' 
 rim or Caphtoraei. — Caphtor is an ifland of Egypt, 
 Ai Caphtor, (Jeremiah); probably one of thofe in the 
 Nile. Dr Wells fuppofes it to be Coptos, which ftood 
 in a fmall ifland. Thence came the Caphiorim or Caph* 
 toraei, in Paleftine ; who with the Phlliftines confpired 
 to extirpate the Hevaei ; and whofe name was fwal- 
 lowed up in that of the Phlliftines. 
 
 CAPI-aga, or CAPi-yJgaJ/if a Turkifli officer who 
 is governor of the gates of the feraglio, or grand matter 
 of the feraglio. 
 
 The capi-aga is the firft dignity among the white 
 
 eunuchs : 
 
 Caperqiua" 
 II 
 
 Capi-aga. 
 
GAP [ I 
 
 eunuchs : he is always near the perfon of the grand 
 fignior : he introduces ambaffadors to their audience : 
 nobody enters or goes out of the grand fignior's apart- 
 mtent but by his means. His office gives him the pri- 
 viSege of ?^'earing the turban in the feragho, and of 
 going every where on hoifeback. He accompanies 
 th.e grand fignior to the apartment of the fultanas, but 
 ftops at the door without entering. His appointment 
 is very moderate ; the grand fignior bears the expence 
 of his table, and allows hfen at the rate of about fixty 
 French livres per day : but his office brings him in 
 abundance of prefects ; no affair of confequence coming 
 to the emperor's knowledge without paffing through 
 his hand. The capi-aga cannot be baihaw when he 
 quits his pott. 
 
 CAPIAS, in law, a WTit of two forts ; one before 
 judgment in an aftion, and the other after. That be- 
 fore judgment is called capids ad refpondendum, where 
 an original is iffued out, to take the defendant, and 
 make him anfwer the plaintiff. That after judgment 
 is of divers kinds ; as, 
 
 Capus ad Satisfaciendum^ a writ of execution that 
 iiTues on a judgment obtained, and lies where any per- 
 fon recovers in a perfonal aftion, as for debt, damages, 
 &c. in w^hich cafes this writ iffues to the fherifF, com- 
 manding him to take the body of him againft whom 
 the debt is recovered, who is to be kept in prifon till 
 he make fatisfaAion. 
 
 Capias pro Fine is a writ lying where a perfon is 
 fined to the king, for fome offence committed againll 
 a ilatute, and he does not difcharge the fine accord- 
 ing to the judgment ; therefore his body fliall be taken 
 by this writ, and committed to gaol till the fine is 
 paid. 
 
 Capias Uihgahim, a writ which lies againft any one 
 outlawed, upon any a6lion perfonal or criminal, by 
 which the fheriff is ordered to apprehend the party out- 
 lawed, for not appearing on the exigent, and keep him. 
 in fafe cuftody till the day of return, when he is or- 
 dered to prefent him to the court, to be there farther 
 ordered for his contempt. 
 
 Capias in Withernam^ a writ that lies for cattle 
 mibhernam : that is, where a difeefs taken is driven 
 out of the county, fo that the Iheriff cannot make de- 
 liverance upon a replevin ; then this writ iffues, com- 
 manding the fheriff to take as many beafts of the dif- 
 trainer, &c. 
 
 CAPIGI, a porter or door-keeper of the Turkifh 
 feraglio. There are about five hundred capigis or por- 
 ters in the feraglio, divided into two companies ; one 
 confining of three hundred, under a chief called Capigi- 
 Bajhy who has a ftipend of three ducats per day ; the 
 other confifls of two hundred, diftinguifhed by tlie 
 name of Cuccicapigi, and their chief Cuccicapigi-Bajfa^ 
 who has two ducats. The capigis have from feveu to 
 fifteen afpers per day ; fome more, others lefs. Their 
 bufinefs- is to affift the janizaries in the guard of the 
 firft and fecond gates of the feraglio; fometimes all 
 together ; as when the Turk holds a general council, 
 receives an ambaffador, or goes to the mofque ; and 
 fometimes only in part ; being ranged on either fide to 
 prevent people entering with arms, any tumults being 
 itiade, &c. The word, in its original, iignifies gate. 
 
 CAPILLAMENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies 
 Kair : whence the word is applied to feveral things, 
 
 35 ] C h V 
 
 which on account of their length or their finenefs re- Cr. illd- 
 femble hairs : as, ^f^"^'' 
 
 CAFiLLAMENrs of the Nerves, in anatomy, the fine _ ' 
 fibres or filaments whereof the nerves are compofed. 
 
 CAPn^LARY, in a general fenfe, an appellation 
 given to things on account of their extreme finenefs or 
 refembling hair. 
 
 Cafillart Tubes, in phyfics, are fmall pipes of glafs, 
 w^hofe canals are extremely narrow, their diameter be- 
 ing only a half, a third, or a fourth of a line. 
 
 The afcent of water, &c. in capillary tubes, is a phe- 
 nomenon that has long embarraffed the philofophers t 
 for let one end of a glafs tube open at both extremities 
 be immerged in water, the liquor within the tube will 
 rife to a confiderable height above the external furfaee : 
 or if two or more tubes are immerged in the fame fluid, 
 one a capillary tuba, and the other of a larger bore, 
 the fluid will afcend higher in the former than in the 
 latter; and this will be in a, reciprocal ratio of the dia- 
 meters of the tubes. 
 
 In order to account for this phenomenon, it will be 
 neceffary firfl to premife, that the atti-a£tion between, 
 the particles of glafs and water is greater than the 
 attraftion between the particles of waters themfelves : 
 for if a glafs tube be placed in a pofition parallel to 
 the horizon, and a drop of water be applied to the 
 under fide of the tube, it will adhere to it ; nor wilt 
 it fall from the glafs till its bulk and gravity are fo 
 far increafed, as to overcome the attraction of the 
 glafs. Hence it is eafy to conceive how fenfibly fuch 
 a power muft adl on the furfaee of a fluid, not vifcid, 
 as water, contained within the fmall cavity or bore of 
 a glafs-tube ; as alfo that it will be proportionablf 
 ftronger as the diameter of the bore is fmaller ; for it 
 will be evident that the efficacy of the power is in the 
 inverfe proportion of the diameter, when it is confi- 
 dered, that fuch particles only as are in contaft witk, 
 the fluid,., and thofe. immediately above the furfaee, can 
 effea it. 
 
 Now thefe particles form a periphery contiguous to 
 the furfaee, the upper part of which attrafts and raifes 
 the furfaee, while the lower part, which is in contaft 
 with it, fupports it : fo that neither the thicknefs nor 
 length of the tube is of anv* confequence here; the peri- 
 phery of particles only, vsaiich is always proportionable 
 to the diameter of the bore, is the only afting power. 
 The quantity of the fluid railed will therefore be as the 
 furfaee of the bore which it fills, that is, as the dia- 
 meter ; for otherwife the effeft woidd not be propor- 
 tional to the. caufe,. fince the quantities are always as- 
 the ratio of the diameters ; the heights therefore to 
 wliich the fluids will rife, in different, tubes, will be in— 
 verfely as the diameters. 
 
 Some doubt whether the law holds throughout, of " 
 the afcent of the fluid being always higher as the tube 
 is fmaller ; Dr Hook's experiments, with tubes almofl. 
 as fine as cobwebs, feem to fhow the contrary. The 
 water in thefe, he obferves, did not rife fo high as one. 
 would have expefted. The higheft he ever found it,, 
 was at 2 1 inches above the level of the water in the 
 bafon ;. which is much fhort of what it ought to have, 
 been by the law above mentioned. See Cohesion. 
 
 CAPii.LARr Vejfels. Many fmall veffels of animal' 
 bodies have been difcovered by the modern invention i 
 of .injecling the veffels of animals, with a coloured fluid x 
 
 which \ 
 
GAP 
 
 wLich upon cooling grows hard, 
 anatomiits know the manner of filling the large truiiks, 
 few are acquainted with the art of filling the capillaries. 
 Dr Monro, in the Medical Effays, has given what af- 
 ter many trials he has found moll fuccefsful. See In- 
 jection. 
 
 CAPILLUS VENERIS. See Adianthum. 
 
 CAPILUPI, or Capilupus (Camillus), a native 
 of Mantua in the i6th century. He wrote a book, 
 entitled, The Stratagem; in which he relates not only 
 what was perpetrated at Paris during the maffacre on 
 jSt Bartholomew's day, but alfo the artful preparations 
 which preceded that horrid maffacre. It is, however, 
 blended with a great number -of falfities. 
 
 Capilupi (Loelius), an Italian poet, brother to the 
 former, made himfelf famous by fome Centos of Virgil. 
 The manner in which he applied Virgil's expreffions to 
 rcprefent things which the poet never dreamt of, is ad- 
 mired. His Cento againft women is very ingenious, 
 but too fatirical. The poems of Capilupi are inferted 
 in the Delicio' Poetarum Italorum. 
 
 Cx%.PISCOLU.S, or Capischolus, in ecclefiaftical 
 writers, denotes a dignitary in certain cathedrals, who 
 had the fuperintendency of the choir, or band of mufic, 
 anfwerlng to what in other churches is called chanter or 
 precentor. The word is alfo written cal'ifcohs, and ca- 
 putfchoUf q. d. the head of the fchool, or band of 
 mufic. 
 
 The capifcolus is alfo called fcolajlicus, as having the 
 inftruftion of the young clerks and chorifters, how to 
 perform their duty. 
 
 CAPITA, (didrlbution by), in law, fignifies the 
 appointing to every man an equal fliare of a perfonal 
 ellace ; when all the claimants claim In their own rights, 
 as in equal degrees of kindred, and not jure reprajenta- 
 t'lonis. 
 
 Capita, (fuccefiion by), where the claimants are 
 jiext in degree to the anceftor, in their own right, and 
 not by right of reprefentation. 
 
 CAPITAL, of the Latin caput « the head", is 
 iifed on various occafions, to exprefs the relation of a 
 head, chief, or principal ; thus. 
 
 Capital City, in geography, denotes the principal 
 city of a kingdom, ftate, ou province. 
 
 Capital Stock, among merchants, bankers, and tra- 
 ders, fignifies, the fum of money which individuals 
 bring to make up the common ftock of a partnerfhip 
 •when it is firft formed. It is alfo faid of the ftock 
 which a merchant at firft puts into trade for his account. 
 It likewife fignifies the fund of a trading company or 
 corporation, in which fenfe the word ftock is generally 
 added to it. Thus we fay, the capital ftock of the 
 bank, &c. The word capital is oppofed to that of pro- 
 fit or gain, though the profit often increafes the capi- 
 tal, and becomes of itfelf part of the capital, when 
 joined with the former. 
 
 Capital Crime, fuch a one as fubjefts the criminal 
 * ^Z^,^'!'"^ to capital puniihment, that is, to lofs of life *. 
 
 Capital Pidure, m pamtmg, denotes one of the fineft 
 and moft excellent pieces of any celebrated mafter. 
 
 Capital Letters, in printing, large or initial letters, 
 wherein titles, &c. are corapofed ; with which all pe- 
 riods, veries, &c. commence ; and wherewith alfo all 
 proper names of men, kingdoms, nations, &c. begin. 
 The pradice which, for fome time, obtained among our 
 64, 
 
 and Puniji^ 
 snsnt. 
 
 [ 136 ] CAP 
 
 But though moft printers, of beginning every fubftantive with a capital, 
 is now juftly fallen into difrepute ; being a manifeft 
 perverfion of the defign of capitals, as well as an of- 
 fence againft beauty and diftindlncfs. 
 
 Capital, in architefture, the uppermoft part of a 
 •column or pilafter, ferving as the head or crowning, 
 and placed immediately over the ftiaft, and under the 
 entablature. See Architecture, 
 
 CAPITANA, or Captain Galley, the chief or prin- 
 cipal galley of a ftate, not dignified with the title of a 
 kingdom. The capitana was anciently the denomina- 
 tion of the chief galley of France, which the com- 
 mander went on board of. But fi,nce the fuppreflion 
 of the office of captain general of the gallies in 1669, 
 they have no capitana, but the firft galley is called reale^ 
 and the {tcox\^ parotic . 
 
 CAPITANATA, one of the 12 provinces of the 
 kingdom of Naples, in Italy, bounded on the north by 
 the Gulph of Venice, on the eaft by the Terra di Bar- 
 ri, on the fouth by the Bafilicata and the Farther Prin- 
 cipato, and on the weft by the county di Molife and 
 a fmall part of Hither Abruzzo. It is a level country, 
 without trees ; the foil fandy, the air hot : the land, 
 however, near the rivers, is fertile in paftures. The ca- 
 pital town is Manfredonia. 
 
 CAPITANEATE, in a general fenfe, the fame 
 with capitanla. Capitaneates, in Pruffia, are a kind 
 of noble feuds, or eftates, which, befides their revenue, 
 raife their owners to the rank of noblility. They are 
 other wife called Jlarojlies. 
 
 CAPITANEI, or Catanei, in Italy, was a deno- 
 mitation given to all the dukes, marquiffes, and counts, 
 who were called cap'itanei regis, Tlie fame appellation 
 was alfo given to perfons of inferior rank who were in- 
 veftcd with fees, formerly diftinguiftied by the appella- 
 tion valvafores majores, 
 
 CAPITANEUS, in ancient law writers, denotes a 
 tenant in capite, or chief. 
 
 Capitanevs Ecclejta, the fame with advocate. 
 CAPITANIA, in geography, an appellation given 
 to the 1 2 governments eftablilhed by the Portuguefe in 
 the Brafils. 
 
 CAPITATION, a tax or impofition raifed on each 
 perfon, in proportion to his labour, induftry, office, 
 rank, l^c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The 
 Latins call it tributum, by which taxes on perfons are 
 diftinguiflied from taxes on merchandife, which were 
 called ve8lgalla. 
 
 Capitations are never praftifed among us but in exi- 
 gencies of ftate. In France the capitation was intro- 
 duced by Louis XIV. in 1695 ; and is a tax very dif- 
 ferent from the tallle, being levied from all perfons, 
 whether they be fubjeft to the taille or not. The clergy 
 pay no capitation, but the princes of the blood are not 
 exempted from It. 
 
 CAPITE, in law, (from caput, I. e. rex; whence 
 tenere in capite, is to hold of the ilng, the head or lord 
 paramount of all the lands in the kingdom): An an- 
 cient tenure of land, held immediately of the king, as 
 of his crown, either by knight's fervice, or by foccage. 
 It is now abolifhed. See Tenure. 
 
 Capite Cen/l, in antiquity, the lovveft rank of Ro- 
 man citizens, who in public taxes were rated the leaft 
 of all, being fuch as never were worth above 365 affes. 
 They were fuppofed to have beeii thus called, becaufc 
 I they 
 
CAP [ I 
 
 Capitol, they were rather counted and marfhalled by their heads 
 apitohiie. lYis^fi by their eftates. The capiie cenji n:iade part of the 
 fixth clafs of citizens, being below th.^ proletariiy who 
 formed the other moiety of that clafs* They were not 
 enrolled in the army, as being judged not able to fup- 
 port the expence of war; for in thofe days the foldiera 
 rriaintained themfelves. It does not appear, that be- 
 fore Caius Marlus any of the Roman generals hfled 
 the capite cenfi in their armies. 
 
 CAPITOL, Capitolium, in antiquity, a famous 
 fort or caftle, on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, where- 
 in was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, thence alfo deno- 
 minated Cap'ttoTinus, in which the fenate anciently af- 
 fembled ; and which ftill ferves as the city-hall, or 
 town-houfe, for the meeting of the confervators of the 
 Roman people. — It had its name capital, frem caputs a 
 man's head, faid to have been found frefh, and yet 
 bleeding, upon digging the foundadon of the temple 
 built in honour of Jupiter. Arnobius adds, that the 
 man's name was Tolus, whence capiit-iol'ium. — The fii ll 
 foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin the 
 Elder, in the year of Rome 139. His fucccffor Servius 
 raifed the walls ; and Tarquin the Proud finilhed it in 
 the year 221. But it was not confecrated till the third 
 year after the expulfion of the kings, and eftablifliment 
 of the confulate. The ceremony of the dedication of 
 the temple was performed by the conful Horatius in 
 246. 
 
 The capitol confifled of three parts ; a nave facred 
 to Jupiter ; and two wings, the one confecrated to Juno, 
 the other to Minerva : it was afcended to by Hairs ; the 
 frontifpiece and fides were furrounded with galleries, in 
 which thofe who were honoured with triumphs enter- 
 tained the fenate at a magnificent banquet, after the fa- 
 crifices had been offered to the gods. 
 
 Both the infide and outfide were enriched with an in- 
 finity of ornaments, the mofl diftinguiflied of which 
 was the flatue of Jupiter, with his golden thunderbolt, 
 his fceptre, and crown. In the capitol alfo Were a 
 temple to Jupiter the guardian, and another to Juno, 
 with the mint ; and on the defcent of the hill was the 
 temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice contained 
 the rnoit facred depofits of religion, fuch as the ancylia, 
 the books of the Sibyls, 
 
 The capitol was burnt under Vltellius, and rebuilt 
 \jndcr Vefpafian. It was burnt a fecond time by light- 
 nmg under Titus, and reftored by Domltlan. 
 
 Anciently the name tapttol was likwife applied to 
 all the principal temples, in moft of the colonies 
 throughout the Roman empire ; as at Conftantinople, 
 Jtrufalem, Carthage, Ravenna, Capua, IfSc. — That of 
 Tholoufe, has given the name of capitmk to its eche- 
 vins or fherlffs. 
 
 CAPITOLINE GAMES, annual games Inftltuted by 
 Camillus, In honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in com- 
 memoration of the Capitol's not being taken by the 
 Gauls. Plutarch tells us, that a part of the ceremony 
 confifted in the public criers putting up the Hetrurians 
 to fale by auftion : they alfo took an old man, and ty- 
 ing a golden bulla about his neck, expofed him to the 
 public derifion. Feiius fays they alfo dreffed him in a 
 pretexta. — There was another kind ofCapitolIne games, 
 inltituted by Domltian, wherein tliere were rewards 
 and crowns beftowed on the poets, champions, orators, 
 hlftorians, and muficians. Thefe laft Capltcllne games 
 Vol, IV. Part. I. 
 
 37 ] CAP 
 
 were celebrated every five years, and became fo famous, CapitoKnus 
 that, inflead of calculating time by luftra, they began 
 to count by Capitoline games, as the Greeks did by O- "ffoj," ^' 
 lympiads. It appears, however, that this cuftom was ^— — ^ 1 ^ 
 not of long continuance. 
 
 _ CAPITOLINUS (Julius), an hillorlan in the be- 
 ginning of the fourth age under DIoclefian, to whom 
 he infcribed the Lives of Verus, Antoninus Pius, CIo- 
 dius Balbinus, Macrinus, the Maximins, and the Gor- 
 dians. He wrote other lives, which are moft of them 
 loft. 
 
 CAPITOUL, or Capitol, an appellation given 
 to the chief magiftrates of Tholoufe, who have the ad- 
 miniftration of juftice and policy both civil and mer- 
 cantile in the city. The capitouls at Tholoufe are 
 much the fame with the echevins at Paris, and with the 
 confuls, bailifFs, burger-mafters, mayors, and aldermen, 
 &c.in other cities. In ancient a£ts thsy are czWcd confules 
 capitularii or capkoUni, and their body cap'itulum. From 
 this laft come the words capitularii and capitouls. The 
 appellative capitoUni arofe hence, that they have the 
 charge and cuftody of the town-houfe, which was an- 
 ciently called capitol. 
 
 The office only lafts one year, and ennobles the bear- 
 ers. In fome ancient a£ls they are called capitulum no- 
 bilium Tolofa. Thofe who have borne it, ftyle them- 
 felves afterwards burgeffes. They are called to all ge- 
 neral councils, and have the jf^j imaginum', that is, when 
 the year of their adminiftration is expired, their pic* 
 tures are drawn in the town-houfe ; a cuftom which 
 they have retained from the ancient Romans, as may 
 be feen in Sigonius. 
 
 CAPITOULATE, an appellation given to the 
 feveral quarters or diftrifts of the city of Tholoufe, 
 each under the direflion of a capitoul; much like the 
 wards of London, under their aldermen*, Tholoufe is 
 now divided into eight capitoiilates or quarters, which 
 are fubdivided into moulans, each of which has its 
 tithlng-man, whofe bufinefs is to inform the capitoul 
 of what paiTes in his tithing, and to inform the inha- 
 bitants of the tithing of the orders of the capitoul. 
 
 CAPITULAR, or CAPITULARY, denotes an a£t 
 paffed in a chapter, either of knights, canons, or re- 
 ligious. 
 
 The capitularia,or capitulars of Charlemagne, Charles 
 the Bald, &c. are the laws, both ecclefiaflical and ci- 
 vil, made by thofe emperors in the general councils 
 or affemblies of the people ; which was the way in which 
 the conftltutions of moft of the ancient princes were 
 made ; each perfon prefent, though a plebeian, fetting 
 his hand to them. 
 
 Some diftinguifti thefe from laws ; and fay, they 
 were only fupplements to laws. They had their name, 
 capitulars, becaufe divided into capitula, chapters, of 
 feclions. In thefe capitulars did the whole French 
 jurifprudence anciently coniift. In procefs of time, 
 the name was changed for that of ordon nances. 
 
 Some diftingulih three kinds of capitulars, according 
 to the difference of their fubjeft-matter : thofe on ec- 
 cleliaftlcal affairs, are really canons, extracted front 
 councils ; thofe on fecular affairs, real laws ; thofe re- 
 lating to particular perfons, or occafions, private re- 
 gulations. 
 
 CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty 
 made between the inhabitants or garrifon of a place 
 S bcfieged 
 
Capitula- 
 tion 
 II 
 
 Capo. 
 
 CAP 1 
 
 befieged and the befiegers, for the delivering up the 
 place- on certain conditions. The moil honourable and 
 ordinary terms of capitulation are, To march out at 
 the breach with arms and baggage, drums beating, co- 
 lours flying, a match hghted at both ends, and feme 
 pieces of cannon, waggons and convoys for their bag- 
 gage, and for their fick and wounded. 
 
 Capitulation, in the German polity, a contraft 
 which the emperor makes with the eledtors, in the 
 name of all the princes and Hates in the empire, before 
 he is declared emperor, and which he ratifies before 
 he is raifed to that fovereign dignity. The principal 
 points which the emperor undertakes to obferve are, 
 1. To defend the church and empire. 2. To obferve 
 the fundamental laws of the empire. And, 3. To 
 maintain and preferve the rights, privileges, and im- 
 munities of the eleftors, princes, and other ftates of 
 the empire, fpecified in the capitulation. Thefe arti- 
 cles and capitulations are prefented to the emperor by 
 the eleftors only, without the concurrence of the other 
 ftates, who have complained from time to time of fuch 
 proceedings ; and in the time of the Wellphalian 
 treaty, in 1648, it was propofed to deliberate in the 
 following diet, upon a way of making a perpetual ca- 
 pitulation ; but the eledlors have always found m.eans 
 ©f eluding the execution of this article. In order, how- 
 ever, to give fome fatisfaftion to their adverfaries, 
 they have inferted in the capitulations of the empe- 
 rors, and in that of Francis I. in particular, a promife 
 to ufe all their influence to bring the affair of a per- 
 petual capitulation to a conclufion. Some German au- 
 thors own, that this capitulation hmits^ the emperor'^ 
 power ; but maintain that it does not weaken his fo- 
 vereignty : though the moft part maintain that he is 
 not abfolute, becaufe he receives the empire under 
 conditions, which fets bounds to an abfolute authority. 
 
 CAPITULUM, in the ancient military art, was a 
 taranfverfe beam, wherein were holes through which 
 pafled the ft:rings whereby the arms of huge engines, 
 as balifl:as, catapultae, and fcorpions, were played or 
 worked. 
 
 Capituluw, in ecclefiallical writers, denoted part 
 cf a chapter of the bible read and explained. In which 
 fenfe they faid, ire ad capituliim, to go to fuch a lec- 
 ture. Afterwards the place or apartment where fuch 
 theological exercifes were performed was denominated 
 Nonius capitul'i. 
 
 CAPNICON, in antiquity, chimney-money, or a 
 tax which the Roman emperors levied for fmoke, and 
 which of confequence was due from all, even the 
 poorefl;, who kept a fire. This was firft invented by 
 Nicephorus. 
 
 CAPNOMANCY, a kind of divination by means 
 of fmoke, ufed by the ancients in their facrifices. The 
 word comes •'■a-Tvc, fmoke, and jwavTua, divinaiion. 
 The general rule was, when the fmoke was thin, and 
 light, and rofe llraight up, it was a good omen : if the 
 contrary, it was an ill one. There was alfo another 
 fpecies of capnomancy, confifting in the obfervation 
 of the fmoke rifing from poppy and jellamin-feed, cafl 
 upon lighted coals.. 
 
 CAPO FIND, a large barren rock in the territory 
 ©f the Gcnoefe, which has a cattle on its eafl;ern peak. 
 Near it is a fmalMiarbour of the fame name, 13 miles 
 €aft by fouth of Genoa. 
 
 138 ] CAP 
 
 Capo d'ljlrui, a confiderable town of Italy, in Tilria, 
 on the gulph of Triefte, with a bifhop's fee, and fub- 
 je£t to the Venetians. The air is wholefome and tem- 
 perate ; its principal revenue confifts in wine and fait. 
 E. Long. 14. o. N. Lat. 45. 48. 
 
 CAPON, a cock-chicken, gelded as foon as left by 
 the dam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are 
 of ufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants, 
 &c. and defend them from the kites and buzzards ; 
 or to feed for the table, they being reckoned more de- 
 licate than either a cock or a hen. 
 
 CAPONIERE, or Capponiere, in fortification, a 
 covered lodgement, funk four or five feet into the 
 ground, encompaffed with a httle pai-apet about two. 
 feet high, ferving to fupport. feveral planks covered 
 with earth. The caponiere is large enough to contain 
 15 or 20 foldiers ; and is ufually placed in the glacis 
 on the extremity of the counterfcarp, and in dry 
 moats; having little embrafures for the foldiers to fire 
 through. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, 
 comprehending all that country which lies between 
 mount Taurus and the Euxine. fea. It was divided by 
 the Perfians into twofatrapies or governments ; by tha- 
 Macedonians into two kingdoms, the one called Cap' 
 padoc'ta ad Taurum ; the other, Cappadccia ad Pontuniy 
 and commonly Pontm ; for the hittory, &.c. of which 
 laft, fee the article Pontus. 
 
 Cafpabocia- Magna, or Cappadoc'ia properly fo Cal- 
 led, lies between the 38th and 41 ft degrees of north lati* 
 tude. It was bounded by Pontus on the north, Lycao- 
 nia and part of Armenia Major on the fouth, Galatia 
 on the weft, and by Euphrates and part of Armenia 
 Minor on the eaft. The firft king of Cappadocia wc3 
 read of in hiftory was Pharnaces, who was preferred 
 to the crown by Cyrus king of Perfia, who gave him 
 his fifter Atofla in marriage. This is all we find re-* 
 corded of him, except that he was killed in a war with 
 the Hyrcanians. After him came a fucceflion of eight 
 kings, of whom we know fcarce any thing but that 
 they continued faithful to the Perfian intereft. In the 
 time of Alexander the Great, Cappadocia was govern^ 
 ed by Ariarathes II. who, notwithftanding the vait 
 conquetts and fame of the Macedonian monarch, con-t 
 tinued unihaken in his fidelity to the Perfians. Alex- 
 ander was prevented by death from invading his domi- 
 nions ; but Perdiccas marching againft him with a 
 powerful and well difciplined army, difperfed his for- 
 ces, and having taken Ariarathes himfelf prifoner, cru- 
 cified him, with all thofe of the royal blood whom he 
 could get into his power. Diodorus tells us that he 
 was killed in the battle. He is faid to have reigned 
 82 years. His fon Ariarathes III. having efcaped the 
 general flaughter of the royal family, fled into Arme- 
 nia, where he lay concealed, till the civil diflenfions 
 which arofe among the Macedonians gave him a fair 
 opportunity of recovering his paternal kingdom. Ar 
 myntas, at that time the governor of Cappadocia, op-, 
 pofed him :. but being defeated in a pitched battle, the 
 Macedonians were obliged to abandon all the ftrong 
 holds. Ariarathes, after a long and peaceable reign,- . 
 left his kingdom to his fon Ariaramnes II. Pie apphed 
 himfelf more to the arts of peace than war, ,in confe- 
 quence of which Cappadocia flouriihed greatly during 
 his reign. Ke was fucceeded by his fon Ariarathes I Vi 
 
 who 
 
 Capo 
 
 II 
 
 CappadO"' 
 cia. 
 
CAP [ 139 ] CAP 
 
 €appado- who proved a very warlike pnnce, and having over- perfevered in their integrity ; and though their city was Cappado- 
 co'me Arfaces, founder of the Parthian monarchy, con- befieged by the united forces of Ariarathes and Atta- 
 * fid erably enlarged liis own dominions. lus, not only made an obilmate defence, but found """V— ' 
 
 He was fucceeded by Ariarathes V. who marrying means to reftore the fum to Orophernes. At lait they 
 the daughter of Antiochus the Great, entered into an applied to the Romans for alTiftance, who enjoined the 
 alliiance with that prince agalnft the Romans ; but An- two kings to raife the fiege, under pain of being de- 
 tioichus being defeated, the king of Cappadocia was ob- clared enemies to the republic. Ariarathes immedlate- 
 ligied to fue for peace, which he obtained, after ha- ly obeyed ; and marching his army into Aflyrla, joined 
 vinig paid 200 talents by way of fine, for taking up Alexander Epiphanes againll Demetrius Soter, by 
 arnns agalnft the people of Rome. He afterwards af- whom he had been formerly driven out of his kingdom, 
 fift ed the republic v,dth men and money agalnft Perfeus In the veiy firft engagement Demetrius was flain, and 
 king of Macedon, on which account he was by thefe- his army entirely difperfed, Ariarathes having on that 
 nate honoured with the title of the friend and ally of occafion given uncommon proofs of his courage and 
 the Roman people. He left the kingdom in a very flou- conduft. Some years after, a war breaking out be- 
 rifhing condition to his fon Mithrldates, who on his ac- tween the Romans and Ariftonicus who claimed the 
 ceffion took the name of Ariarathes VI. kingdom of Pergamus In right of his father, Ariarathes 
 
 This prince (furnamed Philopater, from the filial joined the former, and was llain in the fame battle in 
 relpeft and love he ftiowed his father from his very in- which P. Craffus proconful of Afia was taken, and the 
 faitcy) immediately renewed the alliance with Rome. Roman army cut In pieces. He left fix fons by his 
 Oiat of mere good-nature he reftored MIthrobuzanes fon wife Laodlce, on whom the Romans beftowed Lycao- 
 to Ladriades king of the Leffer Armenia to his father's nia and Clllcia. But Laodlce, fearing left her chil- 
 klnigdom, though he forefaw that the Armenians would dren, when they came of age, fhould take the govern- 
 lay hold of that opportunity to join Artaxlas, who was "lent out of her hands, polfoned five of them, the 
 the:n on the point of Invading Cappadocia. Thefe dif- youngeft only having efcaped her cruelty by being con- 
 ferences, however, were fettled before they came to veyed out of the kingdom. The queen herfelf was foon 
 an (Open rupture, by the Roman legates ; and Ariarathes after put to death by her fubjefts, who could not bear 
 feeling himfelf thus delivered from an Impending war by her cruel and tyrannical government, 
 the mediation of the republic, prefented the fcnate with Laodlce \yas fucceeded by Ariarathes VII. who, 
 a golden crown, and offered his fervice wherever they foon after his acceffion, married another Laodlce, 
 tho>ught proper to employ him. The fenate in return daughter of Mithrldates the Great, hoping to find in 
 fent him a ftaff, and chair of ivory ; which were pre- that prince a powerful friend to fupport him agalnft Ni- 
 fents ufually beftowed on thofe only whom they looked comedes king of Bithynia, who laid claim to part of 
 upon as attached to their intereft. Not long before Cappadocia. But Mithrldates Inftead of affifting, pro- 
 this, Demetrius Soter king of Syria had offered Aria- cured one Gordius to polfon his unhappy fon-In law ; 
 rathes his fifter in marriage, the widow of Perfeus king and, on his death, feized the kingdom, under pretence 
 of Macedon : but this offer the king of Cappadocia was of maintaining the i-ights of the Cappadoclans agalnft 
 obHged to dechne for fear of offending the Romans ; and NIcomedes, till the children of Ariarathes were in a 
 his jfo 'doing was in the higheft degree acceptable to condition to govern the kingdom. The Cappadoclans 
 •the repubhc, who reckoned him among the chief of her at firft fancied themfelves obliged to their new pro- 
 allies. Demetrius, however, being greatly Incenfed tedlor ; but, finding him unwilling to refign the klng- 
 at the flight put upon his fifter, fet up a pretender to dom to the lawful heir, they rofe up In arms, and, dri- 
 the throne, one Orophernes, a fuppofitltlous, or, as ving out all the garrifons placed by Mithrldates, pla- 
 others call him, a natural fon of the deceafed king, ced on the throne Ariarathes VIII. eldeft fon of their 
 Th<e Romans ordered Eumenes king of Pergamus to deceafed king. 
 
 aflilt Ariarathes with all his forces : which he did, but The new prince found himfelf immediately engaged 
 to no purpofe ; for the confederates were overthrown by in a war with NIcomedes ; but, being affifted by Mi- 
 Dennetrlus, and Ariarathes was obliged to abandon the thrldates, not only drove him out of Cappadocia, but 
 kingdom to his rival. This happened about 159 years ftrlpped him of a great part of his hereditary domi- 
 before Chrift, and the ufurper immediately difpatched nions. On the conclufion of the peace, Mithrldates, 
 ambaffadors to Rome with a golden crown. The fe- feeking for fome pretence to quarrel with Ariarathes, 
 nate decHned accepting the prefent, till they heard his infifted upon his recalling Gordius, who had murdered 
 pretenfions to the kingdom ; and this Orophernes, by his father; which being rcjedled with abhorrence, a war 
 fuborned witneffes, made appear fo plain, that the fe- enfued. Mithrldates took the field firft, in hopes of 
 nate decreed that Ariarathes and he fhould reign as over-running Cappadocia before Ariarathes could be in 
 partners; but next year, Orophernes was driven out by a condition to make head agalnft him ; but, contrary 
 Attains brother to Eumenes, and his fucceffor to the to his expeftatlon, he was met on the frontiers by the 
 kingdom of Pergamus. king of Cappadocia with an army no way inferior to 
 
 Ariarathes, being thus reftored. Immediately de- his own. Hereupon he Invited Ariarathes to a con- 
 manided of the PrLennlans 400 talents of gold which ference ; and. In fight of both armies, ftabbed him with 
 Orophernes had depofited with them. They honeftly a dagger, which he had concealed under his garment, 
 replied, that as they had been trufted with the money This ftruck fuch terror into the Cappadoclans, that 
 by Orophernes, they could dehver it to none but him- they immediately difperfed, and gave Mithrldates an 
 felf, or fuch as came in his name. Upon this, the king opportunity of poffeffmg himfelf of the kingdom wlth- 
 €ntered their territories with an army, deftroying all out the leaft oppofitlon. The Cappadoclans, however, 
 ■with fire and fword. The Priennians, however, ftlll not able to endure the tyranny of his prefers, foon 
 
 3 . S 2 ihook 
 
CAP 
 
 [ 140 ] 
 
 CAP 
 
 Cappado- 
 
 cia. 
 
 fliook off the yoke ; and recalling the king's brother, 
 who had fled into the province of Afia, proclaimed him 
 king. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however, 
 before Mithridates invaded the kingdom at the head 
 of a very numerous army, and having drawn Ariara- 
 thes to a battle, defeated his army with great flaugh- 
 ter, and obliged him to abandon the kingdom. Tiie 
 unhappy prince foon after died of grief ; and Mithri- 
 dates beftowed the kingdom on his fen, who was th^n 
 but eight years old, giving him alfo the name of Jria- 
 rathes. But Nicomedes Fhilopater king of Bithynia, 
 fearing left Mithridates, having now got poffeflion of 
 the whole kingdom of Cappadocia, Ihould invade his 
 territories, fuborned a youth to pafs himfelf for the 
 third fon of Ariarathes, and to prefent to them a peti- 
 tion in order to be reftored to his father's kingdom.. 
 With him he fent to Rome Laodice, fitter of Mitliri- 
 dates, whom he had married after the death of her for- 
 mer hulband Ariarathes. Laodice declared before the 
 fenate, that flie had three for i by Ariarathes, and that 
 the petitioner was one of them ; but that fhe had 
 been obliged to keep him concealed, left he Ihould un- 
 dergo the fame fate with his brothers. The fenate af- 
 fured him that they would at all events reinftate him 
 in his kingdom. But, in the mean time, Mithridates 
 having notice of thefe tranfatlions, difpatched Gordlus 
 to Rome, to undeceive the fenate, and to perfuade 
 them that the youth to whom he had refigned the king- 
 dom of Cappadocia was the lawful fon of the late king, 
 and grandfon to Ariarathes who had loft his hfe in the 
 fervice of the Romans againft Ariftonicus. This un- 
 expefted embaffy put the fenate upon enquiring more 
 narrowly into the matter, whereby the whole plot was 
 difcovered ; upon, which Mithridates was ordered to 
 refign Cappadocia, and the kingdom was declared 
 free. The Cappadoclans, however. In a fhort time 
 fent ambaffadors to Rome, acquainting the fenate that 
 they could not live without a king. This greatly 
 furprifed the Romans, who had fuch an averfion to 
 royal authority ; but they gave them leave to elecft a 
 king of their own nation. As the family of Pharna- 
 ces was now extlnil, the Cappadoclans chofe Aricbar- 
 zanes ; and their choice was approved by the fenate, 
 he having on all occafions fliown himfelf a fteady friend 
 to the Romans. 
 
 Ariobarzanes had fcarce taken pofrcflion of his king- 
 dom when he was driven out by Tigranesking of Ar- 
 menia ; who refigned Cappadocia to the fon of Mithri- 
 dates, In purfuance of an alliance previoufly concluded 
 bttween the two parties. Ariobarzanes fled to Rome ; 
 aad, having engaged the fenate In his caufe, he re- 
 turned into Afia with Sylla, who was enjoined to re- 
 ftore him to his kingdom. This was eafily performed 
 by Sylla, who, with a fmall body of troops, routed 
 Gordlus who came to meet him on the borders of Cap- 
 padocia at the head of a numerous army. Sylla, how- 
 ever, had fcarce turned his back, when Ariobarzanes 
 \!vtis again driven out by Ariarathes the fon. of Mithri- 
 dates, on whom Tigranes had beftowed the kingdom 
 of Cappadocia^ This obliged Sylla to return Into A- 
 fia, where he was attended with his uftial fuccefs, and 
 Ariobarzanes was again placed on the throne. After 
 the death of Sylla, he was the third time forced by 
 Mithridates to abandon his kingdom ; but Pompey, 
 feying entirely defeated Mithridates near mount Stel- 
 
 la, reftored Ariobarzanes to his throne, and rewarded 
 him for his fervices during the war, with the provinces 
 of Sophcne, Gordiene, and great part of CiUcia. The 
 king, however, being now advanced in years, and de- 
 firous of fpending the remainder of his life in eafe, 
 refigned the crown to his fon Ariobarzanes, in pre- 
 fence of Pompey ; and never afterwards troubled him- 
 felf with affairs of ftate. 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. proved no lefs faithful to the Ro- 
 mans than his father had been. On the breaking out 
 of the civil war between Ca;far and Pompey, he fided 
 with the latter ; but after the death of PJr.ipey, he 
 was received into favour by Casfar, who even beftowed 
 upon him great part of Armenia. While Ccefar was 
 engaged in a war with the Egyptians^ Pharnaces king 
 of Pontus Invaded Cappadocia, and ftripped Ariobar- 
 zanes of all his dominions ; but Casfar, having defeated 
 Pharnaces, reft-ored the king of Cappadocia, and ho- 
 noured him with new titles of frlendihip. After the 
 nmrder of Cffifar, Ariobarzanes, having refufed to join 
 Brutus and Caflius, was by them declared an enemy to 
 the republic, and foon after taken prifoner and put 
 to death. He was fucceeded by his brother Ario- 
 barzanes III. who was by Marc Anthony deprived 
 both of his kingdom and life ; and in him ended the 
 family of Ariobarzanes. 
 
 Archelaus, the grandfon of that general of the fame 
 name who commanded againft Sylla In the Mithridatic 
 war, was by Marc Anthony placed on the throne of 
 Cappadocia, though nowife related either to the fa- 
 mily of Pharnaces or Ariobarzanes. His preferment 
 was entirely owing to his mother Glaphyra, a woman 
 of great beauty, but of a loofe behaviour, wiio, in re- 
 turn for her compliance with the defires of Anthony, 
 obtained the kingdom of Cappadocia for her fon. In 
 the war between Auguftus and Anthony, he joined the 
 latter; but at the Interceffion of the Cappadoclans, 
 was pardoned by the emperor. Pie afterAvards recei- 
 ved fro-m him Armenia the TefTcr, and Cilicia Tra- 
 chea, for having aflifted the Romans in clearing the 
 feas of pirates who greatly infefted the coafts of Afia. 
 He contraded a ftrlil friendlhip with, Plerod the Great, 
 king of Judnsa ; and even married his daughter Gla- 
 phyra to Alexander, Herod's fon. In the reign of 
 Tiberius, Archelaus was fummoned to appear before 
 the fenate ; for he had always been hated by that em- 
 peror, becaufe in. his retirement at Rhodes he had paid 
 him no fort of refpeft. This had proceeded from no 
 •averfion in him to Tiberius, but from the warning gi- 
 ven Archelaus to his friends at Rome. For Caius 
 C^efar, the prefumptlve heir to the empire, was then 
 alive, and had been fent to compofe the differences of 
 the eaft, whence the friendlhip of Tiberius was then 
 looked upon as dangerous. But when he came to the 
 empire, Tiberius, remembering the difrefpeft fliown 
 him by Archelaus, enticed the latter to Rome by 
 means of letters from Livia, who promifcd him her fon , 
 Tiberius's pardon, provided he came in perfon to im- 
 plore It. Archelaus obeyed the fummons, and haften- . 
 ed to Rome ; where he was received by the emperor 
 with great v/rath and contempt, and foon after accu- 
 fed as'a criminal In the fenate. The crimes of which 
 he was accufcd wei-e mere fiftlons ; but his concern at. 
 feeing himfelf treated as a malefatlor was'fo great, that- 
 he died foon after of grief, or, as others fay, laid vio- . 
 
 lent: . 
 
CAP [ I 
 
 Cappadco- lent hands on himfelf. He is faid to have reigned 50 
 cia. years. 
 
 On the death of Archelaus, the kingdom of Cappa- 
 docia was reduced to a Ronnan province, and governed 
 by thofe of the equeftrian order. It continued fubjedl 
 to the Romans till the iuvafion of the eaftern empire 
 by the Turks, to whom it is now fubjeft, biit has 
 no diilinguifhing modern jiame. In what was an- 
 ciently called Cappadoc'ui, however, the Turks have 
 four Beglerbeglics, called Siivas, Trehizond, Marafch, 
 and Cogn:, 
 
 In the time of the Romans, the inhabitants of Cap- 
 padocia bore fo bad a charafter, and were reputed fo 
 vicious and lewd, that, among the neighbouring na- 
 tions, a wicked man was emphatically called a Cappa- 
 doc'ian. In after ages, however, their lewd difpofition 
 was fo corredled and reftrained by the pure doftrines 
 of Chrillianity, that no country whatever has produced 
 greater champions of the Chriftian rehgion, or given 
 to the church prelates of more unblemifned charac- 
 ters. 
 
 We have now no fyftem of the Cappadocian laws, 
 and fcarce vrherewithal to form any particular idea of 
 themi As to their commerce, they carried on a con- 
 fiderable trade in horfes, great numbers of which were 
 produced in their country ; and we read of them in 
 Sci-ipture as frequenting the fairs of Tyre with this 
 commodity. As Cappadocia abounded witli mines of 
 filver, brafs, iron, and alum, and afforded great ilore of 
 alabailer, cryftal, and jafper, it is probable that they 
 might fupply the neighbouring countries with thefe 
 commodities. 
 
 The religion of the ancient Cappadoclans was much 
 the fane with that of the Perhans. At Comana there 
 was a rich and flately temple dedicated to Bellona ; 
 whofc battles the prieils and their attendants ufed to 
 leprefent on ftated days, cutting and wounding each 
 other as if feized with an enthuhaftic fury. No lefs 
 famous and magnificent were the temples of Apollo 
 Catanius, and of Jupiter : the laft of which had 3000 
 facred fervants, or rehgious votaries. The chief prieil 
 was next in rank to that of Comana ; and, according 
 to Strabo, had an yearly revenue of 15 talents. Diana 
 Perlica was worfliipped in a city called Cajlaballa^ 
 where women, devoted to the worfhip of that goddefs, 
 were reported to tread barefooted on burning coals, 
 without receiving any hurt. The temples of Diana at 
 Dlofpolis, and of Anias at Zela, were likewife held in 
 ' great veneration both by the Cappadocians and Arme- 
 nians, who flocked to them from all parts. In the 
 latter were tendered aU oaths in matters of confequence ; 
 and the chief among the prieils was no way inferior 
 ia dignity, power, and wealth, to any in the kingdom; 
 having a royal attendance, and an unlimited authority 
 over all the inferior fervants and officers of the temple. 
 The Romams, who wiUingly adopted all the fuperfti- 
 tions and fuperftitious rites of the nations they con- 
 q.uered, greatly increafed the revenues of this and o- 
 ther temples ; conferring the priefthood on fuch as 
 they thought moft fit for carrying on their defigns. — 
 We are told that human facrifices were offered at Co- 
 mana ; and that this barbarous cuftom was brought by 
 Oreftes and his filler Iphigenia from Taurica Scythica, 
 where men and women were immolated to Diana. But 
 
 41 ] CAP 
 
 this cuftom, if ever it obtained in Cappadocia, was a- Cappanus 
 bolilhed in the times of the Romans. II 
 
 CAPPANUS, a name given by feme authors to a ' ' f 
 worm that adheres to and gnaws the bottoms of fhips ; 
 to which it is extrcm.ely pernicious, efpecially in the 
 Eaft and Weft Indies : to prevent this, feveral fhips 
 have lately been flieathed with copper ; the firft trial 
 of which was made on his majefty's frigate the Alarm. 
 
 CAPPARIS, in botany : A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ;.. 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or* 
 der, Putamineie. The calyx is tetraphyllous and cori- 
 aceous ; there petals are four ; the ftamina are long ; 
 the fruit is a berry, carnous, unilocular, and peduncu- ■ 
 lated, or furniflied with a foot-ilalk. 
 
 There are feven fpecies. The fpinofa, or com- 
 mon caper, is a low Ihrub, generally growing out 
 of the joints of old v.'alls, the fift'ures of rocks, and a-., 
 mongft rubblfti, in nioft of the warm parts of Europe : 
 it hath woody ftalks, which fend out many lateral ilen- 
 der branches ; under each of thefe are placed two fhort 
 crooked fpines, between which and the branches come 
 out the footftalks of the leaves, which are fingle, fhort, 
 and fullain a round fmooth entire leaf. At the interr- 
 mediate joints, between the branches, come out the - 
 flowers on long footftalks ; before thefe expand, the 
 bud with the empalexnent is gathered for pickling. 
 Thofe which are lail expand in form of a fingle role, , 
 having five large white petals, which are roundifti and 
 concave ; in the middle are placed a great number of 
 long ftamina, furrounding a flyle wliich rifes above 
 them, and qrowned with an oval germen, which after- • 
 wards becomes a capiule filled with kidney-fhaped i 
 feeds. 
 
 Culture, This plant is very difficultly preferved in 
 Britain : it delights to grow in crevices of rocks, old - 
 walls, &c. and always thrives beft in an horizontal po- 
 fture ; fo that, when planted either in pots or in the 
 full ground, they feldom thrive, though they may be 
 kept alive for fome years. They are propagated by 
 feeds in the warm parts of Europe, but very feldom in 
 Britain. 
 
 Ufes. The buds, pickled with vinegar, &c. are 
 brought to Britain annually from Italy and the Medir 
 terraneavu They are fuppofed to excite appetite and 
 affifl digeftion ; and to be particularly ufeful as deter- 
 gents and aperients in obftrutlions of the liver and . 
 fpleen. 
 
 CAPRA, or Goat, a genus of quadrupeds belong- Plates 
 incT to the order of pecora. The horns are hollow, 
 turned upwards, eredl, and fcabrous. There are t^ight , 
 fore-teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper ;cxxiv! 
 and they have no dog-teeth. Tliis genus confifts of 
 14 fpecies, viz. 
 
 I. The HiRcus, or common goat, with arched cari- 
 natid horns, and a long beard. It is a native of the 
 eallern mountains. 
 
 The goat is an animal of more fagacity than the 
 flieep. Inftead of having an antipatiiy at mankind, 
 they voluntarily mingle with them, and are .eafily ta- 
 med. Even in uninhabited countries, they betray no 
 favage difpofitions. In the year 1698, an Englifti vef- 
 fel having put in to the ifiand of Bonavifta, two ne- 
 groes came aboard, and offered gratis to the captain as. 
 
 mauyv 
 
CAP r ] CAP 
 
 The captain exprefTed his that of the he-goat is moft in requeft : the whiteft and 
 
 Capra. many goats as he pleafed. 
 
 ^"M—^ aftonifhnient at this offer But the negroes replied, 
 that there were only 1 2 perfons in the ifland ; that 
 the goats had multiplied to fuch a degree, that they 
 were become extremely troublefome ; and that, inftead 
 of having any difficulty in catching them^ they follow- 
 ed the men wherever they went, and were fo obftinately 
 officious, that they could not get quit of them upon 
 any account whatever. 
 
 Goats are fenfible of carefTes, and capable of a con- 
 fiderable degree of friendfhip. They are ftronger, 
 more agile, and lefs timid, than fheep. They have a 
 lively, capricious, and wandering difpofition ; are fond 
 of high and folitary places, and frequently fleep upon 
 the very points of rocks. They are more eafily fup- 
 ported than any other animal of the fame fize ; for 
 there is hardly an herb, or the bark of a tree, which 
 they wiU not eat with pleafure. Neither are they 
 liable to fo many difeafes as fheep : they can bear heat 
 and cold with lefs inconvenience. The adlions and 
 movements of animals depend more upon the force and 
 Variety of their fenfations than the ftrufture of their 
 bodies : the natural inconttancy or fancifulnefs of goats 
 is accordingly exprefTed by the irregularity of their 
 aftions : they walk, flop fliort, run, jump, fhow and 
 hide themfelves, as it were by mere caprice, and with- 
 out any other caufe than what arifes from the natural 
 vivacity of their temper. 
 
 The buck will copulate when he is a year old, and 
 the female when fhe is feven months. But as this is 
 rather premature, they are generally reftrained till 
 they be 1 8 months or two years. The buck is bald, 
 beautiful, and vigorous ; one is fufhcient to ferve 150 
 females. A buck for propagation fhould be large, 
 handfome, and about two years of age ; his neck fhould 
 be fhort and flefhy ; his head flender ; his ears pen 
 dent ; his thighs thick ; his limbs firm ; his hair 
 black, thick, and foft ; and his beard fliould be long 
 and bufhy. The females are generally in feafon from 
 September to the end of November. At that time 
 the males drive whole flocks of the females continually 
 from place to place, and fill the whole atmofphere 
 around them with their flrong difagreeable odour ; 
 which, though as difagreeable as afafoctida itfelf, yet 
 may be conducive to prevent many diflempers, and to 
 cure nervous and hyflerical ones. Horfes are fuppofed 
 to be much refrefhed by it ; on which account many 
 people keep a he-goat in their ftuds or flables. 
 
 Goats go with young four months and an half, and 
 bring forth from the latter end of February to the latter 
 end of April: having only two teats, they generally bring 
 forth but one or two young; fometimes three; and in 
 good warm paftures there have been inftances, tho' rare, 
 of their bringing forth four at a time. They continue 
 fruitful till they are feven years of age ; but a buck 
 goat is feldom kept after he is five. Both young and 
 old are affeftcd by the weather; a rainy feafon makes 
 them thin, a dry funny one makes them fat and 
 blithe: their exceihve venery prevents their longevity ; 
 for in our climate they feldom live above 1 1 or 12 years. 
 
 Though ihe food of this animal colls next to no- 
 thing, as it can fupport itfelf even upon the moft bar- 
 ren mountains, their produce is valuable. The whitell 
 wigs are made of their hair j for which purpofe 
 
 cleareft is feledled from that which grows on the 
 haunches, where it is longeft and thickeft: a good fkin 
 well haired is fold for a guinea; though a fltin of bad 
 hue, and fo yellow as to ba/He the barber's flcill to 
 bleach, will not fetch above i8d. or 2s. The Welfh 
 goats are far fuperior in fize, and in length and fine- 
 nefs of hair, to thofe of other mountainous countries. 
 Their ufual colour is white: thofe of France and the 
 Alps are fhort-haired, reddifh, and the horns fmall. 
 Bolfters made from the hair of a goat were in ufe in 
 the days of Saul, as appears from i Samuel xix. 13. 
 The fpecies veryprobably was the Angora goat, which 
 is only found in the Eaft ; and whofe foft and filky hair 
 fupplied a mofl luxurious couch. 
 
 The fuet of the goat is in great efleem as well as the 
 hair. Many of the inhabitants of Caernarvonfhire fuf- 
 fer thefe animals to run wild on the rocks in winter as 
 well as in fummer; and kill them in Oftober for the 
 fake of their fat, either by fhooting them with bullets, 
 or by running them down with dogs like deer. The 
 goats killed for this purpofe are about four or five years 
 old. Their fuet will make candles far fuperior in white- 
 nefs and goodnefs to thofe made from that of the flieep 
 or the ox, and accordingly brings a much gi-eater price 
 in the market ; nor are the horns without their ufe, the 
 countiy people making of them excellent handles for 
 tucks and pen-knives. The Hcin is peculiarly well ad- 
 apted for the glove manufaftory, efpecially that of the 
 kid : abroad it is dreffed and made into flockings, bed- 
 ticks, bed-hangings, fheets, and even fliirts. In the 
 army it covers the horfeman's arms, and carries the 
 foot-foldier's provifions. As it takes a dye better than 
 any other llvin, It was formerly much ufedfor hangings 
 in the houfcs of people of fortune, being fufceptible of 
 the richeft colours, and when flowered and ornamented 
 with gold and filver became an elegant and fuperb fur- 
 niture. 
 
 The flefh is of great ufe to the inhabitants of thofe 
 countries which abound with goats ; and affords them 
 a cheap and plentiful provifion in the winter-months, 
 when the kids are brought to market. The haunches 
 of the goat are frequently falted and dried, and fupply 
 all the ufes of bacon : this by the Welfh is called coch 
 yr ivden, or hung venifon. The meat of a fplayed goat 
 of fix or feven years old (which is called /-jy/r) is reck- 
 oned the befl; being generally very fat and fweet. This 
 makes an excellent pafly ; goes under the name of rod 
 venifon ; and is little inferior to that of the deer. 
 
 The milk of the goat is fweet, nourifhing, and me- 
 dicinal. It is an excellent fuccedaneum for afs's milk ; 
 and has (with a tea-fpoonful of hartfhorn drunk warm 
 in bed in the morning, and at four in the afternoon, 
 and repeated for fome time) been a cure for phthifical 
 people before they were gone too far. In fome of the 
 mountainous parts of Scotland and Ireland, the milk is 
 made into whey, which has done wonders in this and 
 other cafes where coolers and reftoratives are necefTary; 
 and to many of thofe places there is as great a refort 
 of patients of all ranks, as there is in England to the 
 Spas or baths. It is not furprifing that the milk of 
 this animal is fo falutary, as it browfes only on the tops, 
 tendrils, and flowers, of the mountain fln-ubs, and me- 
 dicinal herbs j rejedling the grolfer parts. The blood 
 
 of 
 
 Capra. 
 
CAP 
 
 of tLe lie-goat, dried, was formerly reckoned a fpecific 
 in pleurifies, and is even taken notice of by Dr Mead 
 for this purpofe ; but is now defervedly neglefted. 
 Cheefe made of goat's milk is much valued in Tome of 
 onr mountainous countries, when kept to a proper age ; 
 but has a pecuHar tafte and flavour. 
 
 a. The Angora goat is a variety that is found only in 
 the traft that furrounds Angora and Beibazar, towns 
 in Aliatic Turky, for the diftance of three or four 
 days journey. Strabo feems to have been acquainted 
 with this kind; for fpeaking of the river Halys, he 
 fays, that there are goats found near it that are not 
 known in other parts. In the form of their body they 
 differ from the common goat, being fhorter;. their legs 
 too^ are ihorter, their fides broader and flatter, and 
 their horns flraighter; but the moil valuable charafter- 
 iltic is their hair, which is foft as filk, of a gloffy 
 filvery whitenefs, and curled in locks of eight or nine 
 inches in length. This hair is the bafis of our fine 
 camlets, and imported to England in form of thread ; 
 for the Turks will not permit it to be exported raw, 
 for a reafon that does them honour; becaufe it fup- 
 
 ., ports a multitude of poor, who live by fpinning it. 
 The goat-herds %£ Angora and Beibazar are extremely 
 careful of their flocks, frequently combing and wafli- 
 mg them. It is obferved, that if they change their 
 climate and pafture, they lofe their beauty : we there- 
 fore fufpeft that the defign of Baron Alltroemer, a pa- 
 triotic Swede, turned out fruitlefs, who imported fome 
 into his own country, to propagate the breed for the 
 fake of their hair. 
 
 b. The Capricorn of Buff"on is another variety, ha- 
 ving fliort horns, the ends turned forwards, their {fides 
 annulated, and the rings more prominent before than 
 behind. 
 
 II. The IBEX, or wild-goat, is the flock from whence 
 the tame fpecies fprung. It has large knotty horns re- 
 clined upon its back, is of a yellowifli colour,, and its 
 beard is black. The females are lefs, and have fmaller 
 horns, more like thofe of a common flie-goat, and with 
 few knobs on the upper furface : they bring one young 
 one, feldom two, at a birth. They inhabit the highell 
 Alps of tlie Grifon's country and the Valais ; are aLTo 
 found in Crete. They are very wild, and difficult to be 
 fliot, as they always keep on the highell points. Their 
 ehace is exceedingly dangerous : being very ftrong, they 
 often tumble tlie incautious huntfman down, the preci- 
 pices, except he has time to He down, and let the ani- 
 mals pafs over him. They are faid iiot to be long-- 
 lived. ■ - ^ 
 
 III. The MAMBRiNA, Or Syrian goat, with reclined 
 horns, pendant ears, and a beard. It is a native of the 
 Eafl:. Their ears are of a vaft length; from one to two 
 feet; and fometimes fo troublefome,. that the owners 
 cut off one to enable the animal to feed with more eafe. 
 Thefe animals fupply Aleppo with milk. 
 
 rV. The RUPiCAPRA, or chamois-goat, has ereft and 
 hooked horns. The body is of a du/ky red colour; but 
 the front, top of the head', gullet, and infide of the ears, 
 are white ; the under part of the tail is blackifh ; and 
 the upper lip is a little divided. It inhabits the AJps 
 of Dauphine, Switzerland, and Italy ; the Pyrenean 
 mountains; Greece, and Crete: does not dwell fo high 
 in the hills as the. ibex, and is found in greater num- 
 
 CAP 
 
 _ The chamois is of the fize of a domeflic goat, and 
 his hair is as (hort as that of a hind. His vivacity is 
 delightful, and his agility truly admirable. Thefe ani- 
 mals are very focial among thomfelves: We find them 
 going in pairs, or in little flocks of from three to twen- 
 . ty ; and fometimes we fee from 60 to 100 of them dif- 
 perfed in different floeks along tlife declivity of the fame 
 mountain. The large males keep at a diftance from 
 the refl, except in the rutting feafon, when they join 
 the females, and beat off all the young. At this pe- 
 riod, their ardour is flill ftronger than that of the wild 
 bucks. They bleat often, and run from one mountain 
 to another. Their feafon of love is in the months of 
 Oftober and November, and they bring forth in March 
 and April. A young female takes the male at the 
 age of 1 8 months. The fem.ales bring forth one, but 
 rarely two, at a time. The young follow their mo*- 
 thers till OAober, if not difperfed by the hunters or the 
 wolves. We are affured that they live between 20 and 
 30 years. Their flefli is very good. A fat chamois, 
 goat will yield from 10 to 12 pounds of fuet, which is 
 harder and better than that of the goat. The blood of 
 the chamois is extremely hot, and it is faid to have 
 qualities and virtues nearly equal to thofe of the wild 
 goat. The hunters fometimes mix the blood of the 
 wild and chamois goats : At other times they fell the 
 blood of the wild goat for that of the chamois. The 
 voice of the chamois is a very low and almoft imper- 
 ceptible kind of bleating, refembling that of a hoarfe- 
 domeflic goat._ It is by this bleating that they colleft 
 together, particularly the mothers: and their young*. 
 But, when alarmed, or when they perceive their enemy^ 
 or any thing the nature of which they cannot diflin- 
 guifh, they advertife one another by a kind of whiff:, 
 ling noife. The iight of the chamois is very penetra- 
 ting, and his fenfe of fmelling is acute. When he 
 fees a man diilindlly, he ftops for fome time, and flies 
 off" when he makes a nearer approach. His fenfe of 
 hearing is equally acute as that of fmelling j for he 
 hears the fmallefl noife. When the wind blows in the 
 direilion bet'.veen him ajid a man, he will perceive the 
 fcent at the diftance of more than half a league. 
 Hence, when he fmells or hears any thing which he- 
 cannot fee, he whittles or blows with fuch force, that 
 the rocks and forefts rcrechoe the found. If there are 
 many of them near, they all take the alarm. This 
 whifthng is as long as the animal can blow without ta- 
 king breath. It: is at firft ffiarp, and turns flat at the 
 end. The chamois then ftpps for a moment, looks 
 round on all fides, and begins whiffling afrefli, which 
 he continues from time to time. His agitation is ex- 
 treme. He ftrikes the earth with his feet ; he leaps 
 upon the higheft ftones he can find ; he again looks 
 round, leaps from one eminence to another; and, when 
 he difcovers any thing, he flies oflP. The whiffling of 
 the male is fharper than that of the female. Thi.s 
 whiflling is performed through the noftrils, and con- 
 fifts of a ftrong blowing, fimilar to the found which a 
 man may make by fixing his tongue to thepakte, with 
 his teeth- nearly fhut, his lips open, and fomewhat ex- 
 tended, and blowing long and with great force. The 
 chamois feeds on the fineft herbs. He felefts the moff: 
 delicate parts of plants, as the flowers and the tender- 
 eft buds. He is very fond of fome aromatic herbs, 
 particularly of the carline thiftle and genipay, which 
 " are: 
 
GAP 
 
 Capra. are tlie hotteft plants that grow In the Alps. 
 
 — ""v— ^ he eats green herbs, he drinks verj'- little. He is very 
 fond of the leaves and tender buds of (lirubs. He ru- 
 minates like the common goat. The food he ufes 
 feems to announce the heat of his conftitution. This 
 animal is admired for his large round eyes, whofe fize 
 coiTefponds with the vi-acity of his difpofition. His 
 head is adorned with two fmall horns, from half a foot 
 to nine inches in length. Their colour is a fine black, 
 and they are placed on the front nearly between his 
 eyes; and, inftead of being reflefted backward, like 
 thofe of other animals, they advance forward above 
 the eyes, and bend backward at the points, which are 
 extremely (harp. He adjufts his ears moll beautifully 
 to the points of bis horns. Two tufts of blacik hair 
 ^defcend from his horns to the fides of his face. The 
 reft of the head is of a yellowilli white colour, which 
 never changes. The horns of the chamois are ufed 
 for the heads of canes. Thofe of the female are fmai- 
 ler and lefs crooked. The flcin of the chamois, when 
 dreifed, is very ftrong, nervous, and fupple, and makes 
 excellent riding-breeches, gloves, and vefts. Gar- 
 ments of this kind kft long, and are of great ufe to 
 manufafturers. The chamois goats are fo impatient 
 of heat, that, in fummer, they are only to be found 
 under the fhades of caverns in the rocks, among maffes 
 of congealed fnow and ice, or in elevated forefts on the 
 
 [ 144 ] CAP 
 
 When bl( ws oppofite to them, and, when a favourable oji- 
 poitunity occurs, fiioot them with mufket-balls. They 
 are likewife hunted in the fame manner as uaga and 
 other animals, by pofting iome of the hunters in nar- 
 row paflages, while others beat about to raife the 
 game. Men are preferable for this purpofe to dogs ; 
 for dogs too quickly difptrfe the animals, who fly off 
 fuddenly to the diilance of four or five leagues. 
 
 V. The DEPRESSA is an African goat, with fmall 
 deprelFed horns, bent inwards, lying on the head. It 
 is about the fize of a kid; and the hair is long and pen- 
 dulous. 
 
 VI. The REVERSA is likewife an African goat, with 
 ereft horns, and curved a little forwards. It is about 
 the fize of a kid of a year old. It inhabits Juda 
 or Whidaw in Africa. 
 
 VII. The GAZELLA has long, ereft, cylindrical 
 horns, annulated near the bafe. It inhabits Egypt, the 
 Cape, Arabia, the Levant, and India, dwelling in the 
 plains. 
 
 VIII. The CERviCAPRA, with plated cylindrical 
 horns, inhabits Barbary. The hair near the horns is 
 longer than in any other part of the body. The fe- 
 males want horns. Mr Haffelquift gives the following 
 account of this fpecies: " The cervicapra is larger, 
 fwifter, and wilder, than the common rock-goat, and 
 can fcarcely be taken without a falcon. It is met with 
 
 Caprs. 
 
 northern declivities of the mofl: fcabrolis mountains^ near Aleppo. I have feen a variety of this which is 
 
 where the rays of the fun feldom penetrate. They common in the Eaft, and the horns appear different ; 
 
 pafture in the mornings and evenings, and feldom du- perhaps it is a diftinft fpecies. This animal loves the 
 
 ring the day. They traverfe the rocks and precipices fmoke of tobacco ; and, when caught alive, will ap» 
 
 with great facility, where the dogs dare not follow proach the pipe of the huntfman, though otherwife more 
 
 them. There is nothing more worthy of admiration timid than any animal. This is perhaps the only crea 
 
 tha.n to fee thefe animals climbing or defcending inac- 
 ceffible rocks. They neither mount nor defcend per- 
 pendicularly, but in an oblique line. When (iefcend- 
 ing, particularly, they throw themfelves down acrofs 
 a rock which is nearly perpendicular, and of 20 or 30 
 feet in height, without having a fingle prop to fup- 
 port their feet. In defcending, they ftrike their feet 
 three or four times againft thu rock, till they arrive at 
 a proper refting-place below. The fpring of their ten- 
 dons is fo great, that, when leaping sbout among the 
 precipices, one would imagine they had wings inftead 
 of limbs. It has been alleged by fome, but without 
 foundation, that the chamois, in climbing and de- 
 fcending rocks, fupports himfelf by his horns. It 
 is bv the ftrength and agility of his limbs, that the 
 chamois is enabled to cHmb and defcend rocks. His 
 legs are veiy free and tall; thofe behind are fome- 
 what longer, and ahvays crooked, which favours their 
 fpringing to a great diftance ; and, when they throw 
 themfelves from a height, the bind legs receive the 
 fhock, and perform the office of two fprings in break- 
 ing the fall. In great fnows, and dvu-ing the rigour 
 of winter, the chamois goats inhabit the lower forefts, 
 and live upon pine leaves, the buds of trees, bufiies, 
 and fuch green or dry herbs as they can find by fcratch- 
 ing off the fnow with their feet. The forefts that de- 
 light them moft, are thofe which are very full of rocks 
 and precipices. The hunting of the chamois is very 
 difficult and laborious. The mode moft in ufe is to 
 kill them by fui-prife. The hunters conceal themfelves 
 behind rocks or large ftones, taking care that the wind 
 N° 64. 4 
 
 ture, befides man, that delights in the fmell of a poifon- 
 ous and ftinking plant. The Arabians hunt it with a 
 falcon ffaico gentiiis, Lin.) I had an excellent oppor- 
 tunity of feeing this fport near Nazareth in Galilee. 
 An Arab, mounted on a fwift courfer, held the falcon 
 in his hand, as huntfmen commonly do: when he efpied 
 the rock-goat on the top ©f a mountain, he let loofc 
 the falcon, which flew in a diretl line like an arrow, 
 and attacked the animal ; fixing the talons of one of 
 his feet into the cheek of the creature, and the other 
 into its throat, extending his wings obliquely over the 
 animal ; fpreading one towards one of its ears, and 
 the other to the oppofite hip. The animal, thus attack- 
 ed, made a leap twice the height of a man, and freed 
 himfelf from the falcon : but being wounded, and lo- 
 fing his ftrength and fpeed, he was a^ain attacked by 
 the falcon ; which fixed the talons of both its feet into 
 the throat of the animal, and held it faft, till the huntf- 
 man coming up, took it alive, and cut its throat ; the 
 falcon drinking the blood as a reward for his labour. 
 A young falcon, which was learning, was likewife put 
 to the throat of the goat : by this means are young fal- 
 cons taught to fix their talons in the throat of the ani- 
 mal, as being the propercit part ; for fliould the falcon 
 fix them in the creature's hip, or fome other part of the 
 body, the huntfman would not only iofe his game, biit 
 his falcon alfo : 'for the animal, roufed by the wound; 
 which could not prove mortal, would run to the de- 
 ferts and the tops of the mountains, whither its enemy, 
 keeping its hold, would be obliged to follow; and, be- 
 ing feparated from its matter, muft of courfe perilh." 
 
 IX. The 
 
 19 
 
CAP 
 
 Ga pra. IX. The BE'zoARTfCA, or bezoar goat, is bearded, 
 '"•'^r"^ and has cylindrical, arched, and wholly annulated horns. 
 
 It is a native of Perfia. The bezoar is found in one of 
 its ftomachs, called aioma/us. See Bezoar and Abo- 
 
 MASUS. 
 
 X. The Tartarica, or faiga of Buffon, has cylin- 
 drical, ftraight, annulated horns ; the ^joints incuning 
 inward, the ends fmooth ; the other part furrounded 
 with very prominent annuli ; of a pale yellow colour, 
 and the greateil part femipcllucid ; the cutting teeth 
 are placed fo loofe in their fockcts, as to move with 
 the leaft touch. The male is covered with rough hair 
 like the he-goat, and has a very ftrong fmell ; the fe- 
 male is fmoother. The hair on the bottom of the fides 
 and the throat is long, and refembles wool; that on 
 the fides of the neck and head is hoary ; the back and 
 fides of a dirty white ; the breaft, belly, and infide of 
 the thighs, of a fhining white. The females are defti- 
 tute of horns. Thefe animals inhabit all the deferts 
 from the Danube and Dnieper to the river Irtifh, but 
 not beyond. Nor are they ever feen to the north of 
 54 55 degrees of latitude. They are found there- 
 fore in Poland, Moldavia, about Mount Caucafus, and 
 the Cafpian Sea, and Siberia, in the dreary open deferts, 
 where falt-fprings abound, feeding on the fait, the a- 
 crid and aromatic plants of thcfe conntries, and grow in 
 the fummer-time very fat : but their fle{h acquires a 
 tafte difagreeable to many people, and is fcarcely eat- 
 able, until it is fufFered to grow cold after drefling. The 
 females go with young the whole winter ; and bring 
 forth in the northern deferts in May. They have but 
 one at a time; which is Angular, as the numbers of 
 thefe animals are prodigious. The young are covered 
 with a foft fleece, like new-dropt lambs, curled and 
 waved. They are regularly migratory. In the rut- 
 ting-ftafon, late in autumn, they colleft in flocks of 
 thoufands, and retire into the fouthern deferts. In 
 the fpring they divide into little flocks, and return 
 northward at the fame time as the wandering Tartars 
 change their quarters. 
 
 They very feldom feed alone ; the males feeding 
 proniifcuoufly with the females and their young. They 
 rarely lie down all at the fame time : but, by a provi- 
 deniial inftinft, fome arc always keeping watch ; and 
 when they are tired, they feemingly give notice tofuch 
 as have taken theit refl:, who arife inftantly, and 
 as it were relieve the centinels of the preceding hours. 
 They thus often preferve themfelves from the attack of 
 wolves, and from the furprizeof the huntfmen. They 
 are exceffively fwift, and will outrun the fleeteft horfe 
 or gre-hound ; yet partly through fear (for they aje 
 the mott timid of animals), and partly by the fhortnefs 
 of their breath, they are veiy foon taken. If they are 
 but bit by a dog, they iiiftantly fall down, nor will 
 they even offer to life. In running they feem to in- 
 cline on one fide, and their courfe is fo rapid that their 
 feet feem fcarcely to touch the ground. In a wild 
 Itate they feem to have no voice. When brought up 
 tame, the young emit a fhort fort of bleating, like 
 fheep. 
 
 The males are moft libidinous animals : the Tartars, 
 who liave fufficient time to obferve them, report that 
 they will copulate twenty times together; and that 
 this ability arifes from their feeding on a certain herb, 
 which has moft invigorating powers. When taken 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 [ 1 
 
 CAP 
 
 young, they may eafily be made tame ; but if caught 
 when at full age, are fo wild and fo obftinate as to 
 refufe all food. When they die, their nofes are quite 
 flaccid. 
 
 They are hunted for the fake of their flefli, horns, 
 and Ikins, which are excellent for gloves, belts, &c. 
 The huntfmen always approach them againft the wind, 
 leafl; they fliould fmell their enemy ; they alfo avoid 
 putting on red or white clothes, or any colours which 
 might attraft their notice. They are either Ihot, or 
 taken by dogs ; or by the black eagle, which is trained 
 to this fpccies of falconry. Their befl: feafon is in Sep- 
 tember : at other times, the flcins are penetrated by 
 worms. The fat refembles that of mutton ; in tafte, 
 like that of a buck ; the head is reckoned the mofl; de- 
 licatc part. 
 
 XI. TheAMM0N,ha8fcmicIrcular, plain, white horns, 
 and no beard. It is about the fize of a ram, and is a 
 native of Siberia. 
 
 XII. The jEegagrus of Pallas, or Caucafan goat, 
 has fmooth black horns, fliarply ridged on their upper 
 parts, and hollowed on their outward fides. No veftiges 
 of knots or rings, but on the upper furface are fome 
 wavy rifings; bend much back, and are much hooked at 
 the end, approaching a little at the points. On the 
 chin is a great beard, duflcy, mixed with chefnut. The 
 forepart of the head is black, the fides mixed with 
 brown ; the reft of the animal grey, or grey mixed with 
 ruft colour. Along the middle of the back, from the 
 neck to the tail, is a black Hft ; and the tail is black. 
 
 The female is either deftitute of horns, or has very 
 fhort ones. In fize it is fuperior to the largeft he- 
 goats, but in form and agility refembles a flag : yet 
 Monardus compares it to the he-goat, and fays that It 
 has the feet of the goat. They inhabit the lower 
 moimtains of Caucafus and Taurus, all Afia Minor, 
 and perhaps the mountains of India. They abound 
 on the inhofpitable hills of Laar and Khorazan in Per- 
 fia;^ and according to Monardus are alfo found in 
 Africa. It is an animal of vaft agility. Monardus 
 was witnefs to the manner of its faving itfelf from in- 
 jury by falling on its horns ; for he faw^ that which he 
 defcribes leap from a high tower, precipitating itfelf on 
 its horns; then fpringiug on its legs, and leaping about, 
 without receiving the leaft harm. This is one of the 
 animals which yields the once-valued alexipharmic, the 
 Bezoar- ftone; which is a concretioH formed of many 
 coats, incrufting a nucleus of fmall pebble, ftones of 
 fruits, bits of ftraw, or buds of trees. The incrufting 
 coats are created from the vegetable food of the ani- 
 mals, efpecially the rich, dry, and hot herbs of the Per- 
 fian and Indian mountains. Its virtues are now ex- 
 ploded, and it is reckoned only an abibrbent, and that 
 of the weakcft kind. 
 
 XIII. The Gnou, with fcabrous horns, and thick atthe 
 bafe, bending forward clofe to the head, then fuddenly 
 reverting upwards. The mouth is fquare ; the noftrils 
 covered with broad flaps. From the nofe, half way 
 up the front, is a thick oblong-fquare brufli of long 
 ftifF black hairs refleded upwards, on each fide of which 
 the other hairs are long, and point clofely down the 
 cheeks. Round the eyes are difpofed in a radiated 
 form feveral ftrong hairs. The neck is fliort, and a 
 little arched. On the top a ftrong and uptight mane, 
 reaching from the horns beyond tlie ilioulders. Oa 
 T the 
 
 Capra. 
 
GAP [ 146 ] C 
 
 the cKln is a loiig white beard ; and on the gullet a the beaiity of her eyes 
 very long pendulous bunch of hair. On the breatt, 
 and between the fore-legs, the hairs ate very long and 
 black. The tail reaches to the firll joint of the legs, 
 and is full of hair like that of a horfe, and quite white. 
 The body is thick ; and covered with fmooth Ihort 
 hair of a ruft brown colour tipt with white. The 
 legs are long, elegant, and (lender, like thofe of a ftag. 
 On each foot is only a fingle fpurious or hind hoof. — 
 It is a ftrange compound of animals : having a vaft 
 head like that of an ox ; body and tall, like a horfe ; 
 legs like a ftag ; and the finus lacrymalis of an ante- 
 lope. The ordinary iize of it is- about that of a 
 €ommon galloway ; the length of it being fome- 
 what above five, and height of It rather n:iorc than 
 four feet. — Thefe aninaals inhabit in great numbers the 
 fine 'plains of the great Namacquas, far north of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, extending from S. lat. 25. to 28. 
 42. where Africa feems at once to open its vaft Irea- 
 fures of hoofed quadrupeds. It is an exceedingly fierce 
 animal: on the fight of any body it ufually drops its 
 bead, and puts itfclf into an attitude of off'encc ; and 
 win dart with its horns againft the pales of tlie inclo- 
 fure tovs'ards the perfons on the outfide ; yet it will 
 afterwards take the bread which is offered. It will 
 often go upon its knees, run fwiftly in that fingular 
 pofture, and furrow the ground with its horns and legs. 
 The Hottentots call it Gnou from its voice. It has 
 two notes, one refembling the bellowing of an ox, the 
 other more clear, it is called an ox by the Euro- 
 peans. 
 
 XIV. The Dorcas, or antelope, has cylindrical an- 
 nulated horns, bent backward, contorted, and arifing 
 from the front between the eyes. It is a native of A- 
 frica and Mexico. Thefe animals are of a moft elegant 
 and aAive make ; of a reftlefs and timid difpofition ; ex- 
 tremely watchful ; of great vivacity ; remarkably fwift ; 
 txceedingly agile ; and moft of their boundings fo light, 
 fo elaftic, as to ftrike the fpe£lator with aftonilhment. 
 What is very fingular, they will ftop in the middle of 
 their courfe, for a moment gaze at their purfuers, and 
 then refume their flight. 
 
 As the chace of thefe animals is a favourite diverfion 
 with the eaftern nations, from that may be coUefttd 
 proofs of the rapid fpeed of the antelope tribe. The 
 gre-hound, the fleeteft of dogs, is unequal in the courfe ; 
 and the fportfman is obliged to call in the aid of the fal- 
 con trained to the work, to feize on the animal and 
 impede its motions, to give the dogs time to overtake 
 it. In India and Perfia a fort of leopard is made ufe of 
 in the chace : this is an animal that takes its prey, 
 not by fwiftnefs of foot, but by the greatnefs of its 
 fprings, by motions fimilar to that of the antelope ; 
 but ftiould the leopard fail in its firft effay, the game 
 «fcapes. 
 
 The fleetnefs of this animal was proverbial in the 
 country it inhabited even in the earheft times : the 
 fpeed of Afahel is beautifully compared to that of the 
 izebl ; and the Gadites were faid to be as fwift as the 
 roes upon the mountains. The facred writers took 
 their fimiles from fuch objedls as were before the eyes 
 of the people they addrelfed themfelves to. There 
 is another inftance drawn from the fame fubjedl : the 
 difciple raifed to life at Joppa was fuppofcd to have 
 been called TabUhaj i. e. Dorcas^ or the Antelope^ from 
 
 A P 
 
 and this is ftill a common 
 comparifon in the eaft : A'lne el Cza^el, or, " You have '~ 
 eyes of an Antelope," is the greateft compliment that 
 can be paid to a fifte woman. 
 
 Some fpecies of the antelopes form herds of 2000 or 
 3000, while others keep in fmall troops of five or fix. 
 They generally /efide in hilly countries ; though feme 
 inhabit plains: they often browfe like the goat, and 
 feed on the tender fhoots of trees, which gives their fleflt 
 an excellent flavour. This is to be underftood of thofe 
 that are taken in the chafe ; for thofe that are fattened 
 in houfes are far lefs delicious. The flefh of fome fpe- 
 cies are faid to tafte of muik, which perhaps depends 
 on the qualities of the plants they feed on. 
 
 Mr Pennant makes the antelope a diftinft genus of 
 animals, forming a link between the goat and the deer; 
 with the firft of which they agree in the texture of the 
 horns, which have a core in them, and they never cafl: 
 them ; with the laft, in the elegance of their fornni, an.i 
 great fwiftnefs. He diftinguifiies feveral fpecies, aniong' 
 which he ranks the ga%eUa^ the cervicapra^ the hetoar-' 
 t'lca, and the tartarica of Linnaeus, defcribed above, 
 VI!. viii. IX. X. with the mojchus gr'mmla of the farce 
 author. See Moschus. 
 
 The other fpecies of antelopes dlftingnlihed by zoolo- 
 gifts are : 
 
 1. Kevella of Pallas, or flat-horned antelope, has 
 horns twelve inches long, flattened on their fides, in- 
 clining firft backwards, bending in the middle, and theii 
 reverting forwards at their ends, and annulated with 
 from fourteen to eighteen rings : the upper fide of the 
 body is reddifti brown ; lower part and buttocks are 
 white : the fize equal to a fmall roebuck. They in- 
 habit Senegal ; where they livt in great flocks, are 
 eafily tamed, and are excellent meat. 
 
 2. The Gorine antelope, with very flender horns, fi:« 
 inches long, furroimded with circular ruga : on each 
 fide of the face is a white hne ; beneath that, is one of 
 black : the neck, body, and flanks are tawny ; belly 
 and infide ©f the thighs white: on the knees is atuftcf 
 hair. It is lefs than a roebuck, and Inhabits Senegal. 
 
 3. The nagor, or red antelope, with horns 5 J- inches 
 long ; one or two flight rings at the bafe : ears much 
 longer than the horns : hair ftifF and bright ; in all 
 parts of a reddifli colour, paleft on the cheft : tail very 
 ffiort. Inhabits Senegal and the Cape ; where it i* 
 very frequent, and is a common food. 
 
 4. The dama or fwift antelope (le Nanguer, Buff.), 
 with round horns, eight inches long, reverting at their 
 ends. The general colour is tawny ; but this fpecits 
 varies in that partiC|Ular. It inhabits Senegal ; and is 
 eafily tamed. It is very fwift : ^lian compares it& 
 flight to the rapidity of a whirlwind. 
 
 5. The elk~antelope of Sparman ( Indian antelope of 
 Pennant), has thick ftraight horns, marked with two 
 prominent fpiral ribs near two thirds of their length, 
 fmooth towards their end ; fome above two ftet long. 
 The head is of a reddifli colour, bounded on the cheeks 
 by a duflcy line. The forehead is broad ; the nofe 
 pointed. On the forehead is a ftripe of long loofe 
 hairs ; and on the lo\\*tT part of the dewlap, a large 
 tuft of black hair. Along the neck and back, from 
 head to tail, is a black ftiort mane : the reft of the body 
 is of a bluilh grey, ringed with red. The tail does not 
 reach to the firft joint of the leg; is covered with fl^ort 
 
 ci- 
 
CAP [ H7 1 CAP 
 
 ^apra. cinereous Kair; and the end tufted \vltli long biaek hairs, dufliy. The face, cheeks, nofe, chin, and thrbat, arc ' Capra. 
 
 •"-v— ' The hoofs are fhort, furrounded at their junilion with white. Tiie whole upper fide of the neck, part of the v — 
 
 the legs by a circle of black hairs. The height to the lower, the back, fides, and outfide of the limbs, are of 
 fhoulders is five feet. It is thick l%died and'ftrongly a pale yellowifli brown. The cheft, belly, and infide 
 made ; but the legs are (lender, it wants the Jtnus of the limbs, are white ; the fides and belly divided by 
 
 lachrymalh. The females are horned like the males.— a broad band of chefnut, which runs down part of the 
 
 The CafFres call this fpecies empofos and poffo. The fiioulders. The tail reaches to the firft joint of tlie 
 
 Dutch of the Cape call it the eland or elk. M. de Buf- leg ; the upper part white ; the lower black, and fur- 
 fon, by miftake, calls this the condaus, which he ought nifhed tv'ith long hair. The buttocks are white ; and 
 
 to have beftowed on his condoma. It inhabits India, from the tail half way up the back is a ftripe of white, 
 
 Congo, and the fouthern parts of Africa. They live expanfible at pleafure. This elegant fpecies weighs 
 in herds ; but the old males are often folitary. They about fifty pounds, and is rather lefs than a roebuck, 
 
 grow very fat, efpecially about the breaft and heart : It inliabits the Cape of Good Plope, where it is called 
 
 fo that they are eafily caught ; and when purfued, will the fpr'mg-bock, from the prodigious leaps it takes on 
 
 fometimes fall dead in the chace. They are flow run- the fight of any body. Wlien alarmed, il has the 
 
 ners: when roufed, alwaj-s go againft the wind, nor can power of expanding the white fpace about the tail in- 
 
 the hunters (even if they front the herd) divert them to the form of a circle, which returns to its linear form 
 
 from their courfe. The flefii is fine-grained, very de- when the animal is tranquil. Thefe animals migrate 
 
 licious, and juicy. The hide is tough : the Hottentots annually from the interior parts in fmall herds, and 
 
 make tobacco-pipes of the horns. continue in the neigbbourhood of the Cape for two of 
 
 _ 6. Tlie cervine antelope, or <7?7/^/o/^ fo3<7/;j of Pallas, three months: then join companies, and go off ia 
 
 with horns bending outward and backward, almoftclofe troops confifling of marty thoufands, covering the 
 
 at their bafe, and diftant at their points ; tvvifted and great plains for feveral hours in their paffage. They 
 
 snnulated ; \trj flrong and black : the head is large, are attended in their migrations by numbers of Hons, 
 
 nnd hke that of an ox: the eyes are placed very high, hyrenas, and other wild beafts, which make great de* 
 
 find near to the horns : the form of the body is a mix- flrudion among them. They are excellent eating, and 
 
 ture of the ftag and heifer; height to the top of tlie with other antelopes are the venlfon ofthe Gape. Mr 
 
 flioulders four feet : the tail is rather more than a foot Mafon* informs us, that they alfo make periodical * ThU. 
 
 long, afinine, and terminated with a tuft of hair : the migrations, in feven or eight years, in herds of many Tr.:nj. ' 
 
 colour a reddilh brown; white about the rump, the hundred thoufands, from the no'rth, as he fuppofes from 
 
 inner fide of the thighs, and lower part of the belly : a the interior parts of Terra de. Natal. *They are com-P"^°-^' 
 
 dark fpace occupies the top of the back, the front of pelled to it by the exceffive drought which happens in 
 
 the upper part of the fore legs, and hinder part of the that region, vvhen fome-tlmes there does not fall a drop 
 
 thighs.^ It inhabits Barbarv-, and probably other parts of rain for two or three years. Thefe animals in their 
 
 ■ of Africa, being alfo found towards the Cape of Good courfe defolate Caffraria, fpreading over the v^-hole 
 
 Hope. It is the deUer el nvajl.-i of the Arabs, accord- country, and not leaving a blade of grafs. Lions at- 
 
 ing to Dr Shaw; who fays, that its young quickly tend them ; where one of thofe beafts of prey are, his 
 
 grow_ tame, and herd with other cattle. Mr Forfical place is known by the vuft void vifible in the middle of 
 
 mentions it amo^g the A^rabian animals of an unccr- the timorous herd. 
 
 tain genus, by the name of lahir uajch. This is the 8. The ftriped antelope-, has fmooth horns, twifled 
 bubalus of the ancients ; net the buffalo, as later wri- fpiraily, and compreffed fideways, with a ridge on one 
 ters have fuppofed. The Dutch of the Cape call this fide following the wreaths: they confift of three bends; 
 {Y>^citf- bartcbeejl^. They go in great herds ; few only and are fometimes four feet and a half long meafured 
 are foHtary. They gullop feemin'gly with a heavy in a ftraight line. They are naturally of a duflcy co- 
 pace, yet go fwiftly. Tliey d]-op on their knees tt) lour, and wrinkled ; but are generally brought'over 
 fight like the white-footed antelope or nil-ghau, and highly poKflied. The females arc defiitute (Tf horns, 
 the bofch-bok, nfter-dcfcribed. The flefh is fine grained, In the upper jaw is a hard horny fubflance, difpofed in 
 but dry. — Mr Sparman informs us, that in this animal ridges. The length of the animal is nine feet ; the legs 
 there is a pore one line in diameter,, an inch or an Inch are flender: the general colour is of a reddifli cafl, mixed 
 and a half below and before the internal angle of the with gi-ey ; and from the tail, along the top of the 
 ^eye. From this pore, which is the aperture of a carun- back, to the fliotilders, is a white flripe ; from which 
 cle that lies below, there is fecreted a matter almofl: are feven others, four pointing towards the thighs, 
 like ear-wax, which he obfer^ed tise Hottentots kept and three towards the belly; but they vary in number 
 in a piece of fldn a-s a rare and excellent medicine; of flripes. On the upper' part of the neck is a fhort 
 ■on the dried fkin of the animal, this pore is fcarcely to mane: beneath the neck, from the throat to the breaft, 
 be difcerned. This Mr Sparman fuppofes is the rea- are fome long hairs hanging down. It inhabits the 
 fon why fo great and accurate a zoologift as M. Pallas Cape of Good Plope, where it is called coedoes, and is 
 (who defcrjbes it in his SpicUegia under the denomina- faid to leap to a mofl ailonifhmg height. This fpecies 
 'tion ^of Anidope luhal'is) makes no mention of this pore, wants \\\^ Jmvs lacrymalis. 
 ^ ;as1ie -rnade his defcriptions chiefly from the dried flcins 9. The bofch-bok, or wood-goat of the Cape, a 
 •of this -animal. The ufe of this pore, which is alfo fpecies of antelope, according to Mr Sparman, un- 
 found -Tn the deer, is for affording freer rcfpiration, a known to all the cultivators of natural hifliory, whether 
 «ircirmflancefoeffential to beafts of chafe. SeeCERvus. ancient or modern, till he defcribed it in the memoirs 
 7. The fpringer, with flender horns, annulated half of the Swedifti academy for the year 1780, quarter 
 way, and twice contorted. The e-ars veiy long and 3d, by the name of antilope fyhaika. This animal 
 
 T z has 
 
CAP 
 
 [ t48 ] 
 
 GAP 
 
 Capra. Jias obtained the name it goes by, in confequence of 
 " » its being the only one among the gazels in Africa, 
 which may be properly fald to live in the woods and 
 groves. In fize, the bofch-bok is foraewhat above two 
 feet and a half high. The horns are ten inches and a 
 half long ; the ears half the length of the horns, or 
 five inches. — The horns are black, in fome meafure 
 triangular, and at the fame time wreathed, fo that 
 both the iides and angles have fomewhat of a fpiral 
 turn. At bottom they are rather rough, in confe- 
 quence of a fet of almoft innumerable wavy-rings ; 
 which, however, are not elevated much above the fur- 
 face. At top they are conical and fharp-pointed, and 
 in that part as fmooth as though they had been pohfli- 
 ed. The teeth of this animal are like thofe of other 
 antelopes. It has no fore teeth or Incifores except in 
 the lower jaw, where it has eight. — There is no porus 
 cer'tfsrus in this, as there is in fome other antelopes. 
 The hairs on the head are very Ihort and fine ; after- 
 wards they become more rough and rugged, refem- 
 bling goats hair more than that of gazels or harts. 
 Forwards on the neck, breaft, fides, and belly, they 
 are an inch and a half or two inches long. On the 
 ridge of the neck, and fo on all along that of the back, 
 they are three or four inches in length, fo as to form 
 a kind of mane there, terminating in a tail about a 
 finger's breadth long. On the hind part of the thighs 
 and buttocks likewife, the hairs are eight inches long; 
 the legs and feet are flender, and covered with fiiort 
 hairs ; the fetlock -joints are fmall ; the nofe and un- 
 der-lip are decorated with black whilkers about an inch 
 long. The predominant colour in this animal is dark- 
 brown, which occupies the principal part of the fides, 
 the back, the upper part of the tail, the upper part 
 of the cheft and fore-ribs, and the fore-part of the 
 belly. A Hill darker brown, bordering upon black, 
 is difcoverable on the outfide of the fboulders, and 
 fome part of the foi-e-ribs. The fore-part of the nofe, 
 from the eyes to the muzzle, is of a foot colour. The 
 ears are likewife as black as foot on the outfide, but 
 on the infide grey ; and both outwards and inwards 
 covered with hairs ilill fhorter than thofe on the head; 
 excepting half the fore-part of the lower edge, where 
 the hairs are white and half an inch long. Divers 
 fmall white fpots, from nine to twelve in all, are feen 
 on each of the haunches and on the fides near them. A 
 narrow line of long white hairs extends from the neck 
 all along the back and tail, in the midil of the long 
 brown hairs already defcribed. From the chine of the 
 back to the fides run five white parallel Itreaks, which, 
 however, are only difcoverable by a clofe infpedtion. 
 
 This creature does much mifchief to the vineyards 
 and kitchen-gardens of the Cape colonilts ; and it 
 fhows a great deal of craft and artifice in avoiding the 
 fnares and traps fet for it, as well as the ambufcades 
 of the fportfraen. As the bofch-bok runs but flowly, 
 it fometimes happens that he is caught by dogs. 
 When he fees there is no other refource, he puts him- 
 felf in a pofl;ure of defence ; and when he is going to 
 butt, kneels down, like the white-footed antelope apd 
 the hartbeeft. The colonills are not very fond^ of 
 hunting him in this manner, as the beall on this occa- 
 fion generally fells his Hfe at a very dear rate, by go- 
 ring and killing fome of their beft and moft fpirited 
 hqunds. This creature's horns, which are its chief 
 
 defence, fometimes alfo prove its bane, by being en- 
 tangled in the bufhes and fmall branches of trees, 
 which thus Itop the beail in its flight. In fome imea- 
 fure to avoid tliis, it carries its nofe horizontally and 
 llraight forward while it runs; fo that its horns lie, as it 
 were, diretlly on its neck : notwithltanding which, 
 their horns are generally worn awa^ a little on the 
 fore part, and thus acquire iome degree of poliib. — 
 This fpecies of antelope is monogamous, or keeps in 
 pairs. It is fwifter in woodlands than the dogs, w hich 
 likewife fooner lofe fcent of him there. The female, 
 which is without horns, and on that account runs 
 about in the foreft more free and unimpeded, dOes-not 
 fuffer herfelf fo eafily to be hunted out of the woods, 
 having there, as well as on the plains, a more certain 
 defence againft the dogs in her legs, than the male 
 has in his horns, efpecially as ihe is not fo bulky and 
 heavy as the male. Her breaft is faid to be very 
 plump and flefiiy, but the flelli in general is not very 
 tender. 
 
 10. The leucoryx with the nofe thick and broad, 
 like that of a cow ; the ears fomewhat flouching ; 
 body clumfy and thick : The horns long, very flight- 
 ly incurvated, flender, annulated part of the way; black, 
 pointed. The tail reaching to the firft joint of the 
 legs, and tufted. The colour is in all parts a fnowy. 
 whitenefs, except the middle of the face, fides of the 
 cheeks, and limbs, which are tinged with red. — This 
 fpecies is about the fize of a Welch runt ; and inha- 
 bits Gow Bahrein, an ifle in the gulph of Baffora. 
 
 1 1 . The pi<?ta, white-footed antelope, or nyl-ghau ;. 
 with fhort horns, bending a little forward ; ears large,, 
 marked with two black Itripes ; a fmall black mane on 
 the neck, and half way down the back : a tuft of 
 long black hairs on the fore-part of the neck ; above 
 that, a large fpot of white ; another between the foi-e- 
 legs on the cheft : one white fpot on each fore-foot ; 
 two on each hind-foot: the tail is long, tufted with, 
 black hairs. The colour of the male is a dark grey. 
 The female is of a pale brown colour ; with a mane^ 
 tuft, and ftriped ears, like the male ; on each foot 
 three tranfverfe bands of black and two of white : It 
 is deftitute of horns. The height to the top of the 
 fiioulders is four feet and an inch ; the length from the 
 bottom of the neck to the anus, four feet. The head 
 is like that of a ttag; the legs are delicate. - Thefe ani- 
 mals inhabit the diftant and interior parts of India, re- 
 mote from our fettlements. They are brought down 
 as curiofities to the Europeans, and have of late years 
 been frequently imported into England. In the days 
 of Aurenge Zebe, they abounded between Delhi and 
 Labor, on the way to Cachemire. They were called 
 nyl-ghauy or blue or grey bulls ; and were one of the ob- 
 jects of chace, with that mighty prince, during his 
 journey. They were inclofed by his army of hunters 
 within nets, which being drawn clofer and clofer, at 
 length formed a fmall precinft : into this the king, 
 his omrahs, and hunters, entered, and killed the beafts 
 with arrows, fpears, or muflcets; and fo onetimes in fuch 
 numbers, that Aurenge Zebe ufed to lend quarters as 
 prefents to all his great people. They are ufually 
 very gentle and tame, will feed readily, and li<ik the 
 hands which give them food. In confinement they 
 will eat oats, but prefer grafs and hay; are very fond 
 of wheaten bread ; and when thirfty, they will drink 
 
 two 
 
 (Caj)ra, 
 
Capra. 
 
 C A P [ 
 
 two gallons at a time. They are fald to be 
 
 times very vicious and fierce. When the males fight, 
 they drop on their knees at a diftance from one 
 another, make their approaches in that attitude, and 
 when they come near, fpring and dart at each other. 
 They will often, in a ftate of confinement, fall into that 
 pofture without doing any h.trm. They will, not- 
 withilanding, attack mankind unprovoked. A la- 
 bourer, who was looking over fome pales which inclo- 
 fcd a few of them, was alarmed by one of the males 
 flying at him like lightning ; but he was favedTiy the 
 intervention of the woodwork, which it broke to 
 pieces, and at the fame time one of its horns. — They 
 have bred in England. They are fuppofed to go nine 
 months with young, and have fometimes two at a 
 birth. 
 
 The fcripta or harnefftd antelope (kgulb, Buff. 
 
 Cap 
 
 has ilraight horns nine inches long, pointing back 
 wards, with two fpiral ribs. The general colour is a 
 deep tawny ; but the fides are moft fingularly marked 
 with two tranfverfe bands of white, crolTed by two 
 others from the back, to the belly ; the rump with 
 three white lines pointing downwards on each fide ; 
 and the thighs are fpotted with white. The tail is 
 ten inches long, covered with long rough hairs. — It 
 inhabits the plains and woods of Senegal, living in 
 large herds. It is frequent at the Cape, where it is 
 called the bovte-bok, ov /potted goat. 
 
 CAPR/i-Saltam, in meteorology, a fiery meteor or 
 exhalation fometimes feen in the atmofphere. It forms 
 an inflefted line, refembling in fome meafure the ca- 
 perings of a goat ; whence it has its name.' 
 
 CAPRALA, an ifle of Italy, in the Tufcan fea, to 
 the north-ealt of Corfica, on which it depends. It is 
 pretty populous, and has a ftrong caftle for its defence. 
 It is about 15 miles in circumference. E. Long. 11. 
 5. N. Lat. 43. 15. 
 
 CAPRARIA, in botany : A genus of the angio- 
 fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quinquepartite ; 
 the corolla campanulated, quinquefid, with acute feg- 
 ments ; the capfule bivalved, bilocular, and polyfper- 
 mous. There is but one fpecies, the biflora, which is 
 a native of the warm parts of America. Being a 
 troublefome weed, and without beauty, it is never cul- 
 tivated, except in botanic gardens for the fake of va- 
 riety. 
 
 CAPRAROLA, one of the moft magnificent pa- 
 laces in Italy, feated on a hill, in Ronciglione, whofe 
 foot is watered by the river Tircia. It was built by 
 cardinal Farnefe ; and has five fronts, in the middle of 
 which is a round court, though all the rooms are fquare, 
 and well proportioned. It is 27 miles north-well of 
 Rome. 
 
 CAPREiE. See Capri. 
 
 CAPREOLUS (Elias), an excellent civilian, and 
 learned hiftorian, born in Brefcia in Italy, wrote an 
 hiftory of Brefcia, and other works : died in 15 19. 
 
 CAPRI, ( anciently Capre/e), a city and illand at the 
 entrance of the gulph of Naples, E. Long. 14. ^o^N. 
 Lat. 40. 45. — The ifland is only four miles long and 
 one broad ; the city is a bifhop's fee, fituated on a 
 high rock at the weft end of the illand. Capreae was 
 anciently famous for the retreat of the emperor Tibe- 
 
 149 ] CAP 
 
 at rius for feven years, during which he indulged himfeli 
 in the moft fcandalous debaucheries*. Before Tiberius 
 came hither, Capri had attrafted the notice of Auguf- 
 tus, as a moft eligible retreat, though in fight of popu- 
 lous cities, and almoft in the centre of the empire. His 
 fuccefibr preferred it to every other refidence ; and in l/erius 
 order to vary his pleafures, and enjoy the advantages 
 as well as avoid the inconveniences of each revolving 
 feafon, built twelve villas in different fituations, dedi- 
 cated to the twelve greater gods : the ruins of fome 
 of them are ftill to be feen : at Santa Maria are exten- 
 five vaults and refervoirs ; and on au adjoining brow 
 are the remains of a light-houfe ; two broken columns 
 indicate the entrance o£ the principal court. Ac- 
 cording to Dion Caffius, this ifland was wild and bar- 
 ren before the Caefars took it under their immediate 
 protection : at this day a large portion of its furface 
 is uncultivated and imprafticable ; but every fpot that 
 will admit the hoe is induftrioufly tilled, and richly 
 laden with the choiceil produftions of agriculture. The 
 odium attached to the memory of Tiberius proved fa- 
 tal to his favourite abode ; fcarce was his death pro- 
 claimed at Rome, when the fenate iffued orders for the 
 demohtion of every fabric he had raifed on the ifland, 
 which by way of punifliment was thenceforward de- 
 ftined to be a ftate prifon. The wife and filter of- 
 Commodus were baniflied to its inhofpitable rocks, 
 which were foon ftained with their blood. In the middle 
 ages Capri became an appendage of the Amalfitan re- 
 pubHc, and after the downfall of that ftate, belonged 
 to the duchy of Naples. There ftood a pharos on this 
 ifland, which, a few days before the death of Tiberius, 
 was overthrown by an earthquake. 
 
 CAPRI AT A {Peter John), a civilian and hiftorian, , 
 was born at Genoa. He wrote, in Itahan, the hiftory 
 of the wars of Italy ; an Englifh tranflation of which 
 was printed in London in 1663. 
 
 Caprifica- 
 t,i(in. 
 
 ^— » 
 
 See li- 
 
 CAPRICORN, in aftronomy, one of the 12 figns 
 of the zodiac. See As.TRONOMy, n° 404. 
 
 The ancients accounted Capricorn the tenth fign ; 
 and when the fun arrived thereat, it made the winter 
 folftice with regard to our hemifphere : but the ftars 
 having advanced a whole fign towards the eaft, Capri- 
 corn is now rather the iith fign; and it is at the fun's 
 entry into Sa^ittary that the folftice happens, though - 
 the ancient manner of fpeaking is ftill retaiued. 
 
 This fign is reprefented on ancient monuments, me- 
 dals, &c. as having the forepart of a goat and the hind- • 
 part of a filh, which is the form of an jEgipan ; fome- 
 times fimply under the form of a goat. 
 
 Tropic of Capricorn; a lefler circle of the fphere, 
 which is parallel to the equinoftial, and at 23° 30' di- 
 ftance from it fouthwards ; pafiing through the begin- ■ 
 ning of Capricorn. 
 
 CAPRIFICATION, a method ufedin the Levant, . 
 for ripening the fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, by means •. 
 of infefts bred in that of the wild fig-tree. 
 
 The moft ample and fatisfaftory accounts of this 
 curious operation in gardening are thofe of Tourne- ■ 
 fort and Pontedera ; the forraei", in his Voyage to the . 
 Levant, and in a Memoir delivered to the academy of 
 fciences at Paris in 1 705 ; the latter, in his Antbohgia. , 
 The fubftance of Tournefort's account follows : *' Of .'" 
 the thirty fpecies or varieties of the domeftic fig-tree • 
 ■vvliich are cultivated in France, Spain, and Italy, there - 
 
GAP [15 
 
 Caprlfica- are but two cultivated in the Archlpcla^^o, The fuft 
 tion. fgecles is called ornos, from the old Greek erinosy which 
 *' anfwers to caprlficui in Latin, and fignilics a wild fig- 
 tree. The fecond is the domeftic or garden fig-tree. 
 The former bears fucceflively, in the fame year, three 
 forts of fruit, called fornltes, cratliires, and orni ; which, 
 though not good to eat, are found abfolutely necelTary 
 towards ripening thofe of the garden-hg. Thefe fruits 
 have a fleek even ficin ; are of a deep green colour ; 
 and contain in their dry and mealy infide fevei-al male 
 and female flowers placed upon diflintl foot-ftalks, the 
 former above the latter. The formtes appear in Auguft, 
 and continue to November without ripening ; in thefe 
 are bred fmall worms, which turn to a fort of gnats 
 nowhere to be feen but about thefe trees. In Oftober 
 and November, thefe gnats of themfelvcs make a punc- 
 ture into the fecond fiuit, which is called cratitires. 
 Thefe do not fliow themfelves till towards ijie end of 
 September. The fornifes gradually fall away lifter the 
 gnats ai'e gone ; the cralifim, on the contrary, remain 
 on the tree till May, and inclofe the eggs dcpoltled by 
 the gnats when they pricked them. In May, the third 
 fort of fruit, called orni^ begins to be produced by the 
 wild fig-trees. This is much bigger than the other 
 two ; and when it gi-ows to a certain fize, and its bu4 
 begins to open, it is pricked in that part by the gnats 
 of the cratitires, which are ftrong enough to go from 
 one fruit to another to depcfit their eggs. It fome- 
 times happens that the gnats of the cratitires are flow 
 to come forth in certain parts, while the orni in thofe 
 A cnj"^ parts are difpofed to receive them. In this cafe, 
 the hufbandman is obliged to look for the cratitires in 
 another part, and fix them at the ends of the branches 
 of thofe fig-trees whofe or/ii are in a fit difpofition to 
 be pricked by the gnats. If they mifs the opportuni- 
 ty, the orni fall, and the gnats of the cratitires fly away. 
 None but thofe that are well acquainted with the cul- 
 ture know the critical moment of doing this ; and in 
 order to know it, tlieir eye is perpetually fixed on the 
 bud of the fig ; for that part not only indicates the 
 time that the prickers are to ifliie forth, but alfo a\ hen 
 the fig is to be fuccefsfuUy pricked : if the bud is too 
 hard and compact, the' gnat cannot lay its eggs ; and 
 the fig drops when the bud is too open. 
 
 *' The ufe of all thefe three forts of fruit is to ripen 
 the fruit of the garden fig-tree, in the following 
 manner. During the months of June and July, the 
 peafants take the orni, at the time their gnats are ready 
 to break out, and carry them to the garden fig-trees : 
 if they do not nick the moment, the orni fall ; and the 
 fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, not ripening, will in a 
 very little time fall in like manner. The peafants are 
 fo well acquainted with thefe precious moments, that, 
 every morning, in making their infpedtion, they only 
 transfer to their garden fig-trees fueh orni as are well 
 conditioned, otherwife they lofe their crop. In this 
 cafe, however, they have one remedy, though an indif- 
 ferent one ; which is, to fl;rew over the garden fig-trees 
 another plant in whofe fruit there is alfo a fpecies of 
 gnats which anfwer the pui-pofe in fome meafure." 
 
 The caprification of the ancient Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, defcribed by Theophrafl;us, Plutarch, Pliny, 
 and other authors of antiquity, correfponds in every 
 circumftance with what is praftifed at this day in the 
 Archipelago and in Italy. Thefe all agree in decla- 
 ring, that the wild fig-tree, caprijicus, never ripened its 
 
 o ] CAP 
 
 fruit ; but was abfolutely neceffary for ripening that Canr'frj. 
 of the garden or domeftic fig, over which the hulband- ■ 
 men fufpended its branches. The reafon of this fuc- ^— -V— — ^ 
 cefs has been fuppofed to be, that by the punftures of 
 thefe infedts the veflels of the fruit are lacerated, anid 
 thereby a greater quantity of nutritious juice derived 
 thither. Perhaps, too, in depofiting their eggs, the 
 gnats leave behind them fome fort of liquor proper to 
 ferment gently with the milk of the figs, and to make 
 their fledi tender. The figs in Provence, and even at 
 Paris, ripen much fooner for having their buds pricked 
 with a lhaw dipped in olive-oil. Plums and peujs 
 likewife, pricked by fome infefts, ripen much the fail- 
 er for it ; and the flefli round fuch punAure is better 
 tafted than the rell. It is not to be difputed, that 
 confiderable clianges happen to the contexture of frui ts 
 £0 pricked, jull the fame as to parts of animals pierced 
 with any fliarp infl:rument. Others have fuppofed that 
 thefe infedts penetrated the fruit of the tree to which 
 they were brought, and gave a more free admiflTion to 
 the air, and to the fun. Linnccus explained the ope- 
 ration, by fuppofing that the infefts brought the farina 
 from the wild lig, which contained male flowers only", 
 to the domellic fig, which contained the female ones. 
 Haflc'lquill;, fron^i what he faw in Paleftine, feemed to 
 doubt of this mode of fructiiication. M. Bernard, in 
 the Memoirs of the Society of Agriculture, oppofes it 
 more decidedly. He could never iind the infed in the 
 cultivated fig ; and, in reality, it appeared to leave the 
 wild fig, after the fliamina were mature, and their pol- 
 len diliipatcd : befides, he adds, what the}'- may have 
 brought on their wings muft be rubbed away^, in the 
 little aperture which they would form for themfelves. 
 At Malta, where there are feven or eight varieties of 
 the domeftic fig, this operation is only performed on 
 thefe which ripen latelt : the former are of a proper 
 fize, fine flavour, and in great abundance without it ; 
 fo that he thinks the caprification only haftens the 
 ripening. He examined the parts of fructification of 
 the fig ; and he obferves, if this examination be made 
 previous to the ripening, that round the eye of the 
 fig, and in the fubHance of its covering, may be 
 feen triangular dentated leaves, prefled one againft an- 
 other ; and under thefe leaves are the ftamiaa, whufe 
 pollen is deftined for the impregnation of the grains, 
 which fill the reft of the fruit. Thefe male organs are 
 much more numerous in the wild fig than in the do- 
 meftic ; and the ftamina are found to contain a yellow 
 duft, which may be collected when it is ripe. The 
 wild figs, when ripe, are not fucculent, and have no . 
 tafte, though the grains are difpofed in the fame man- 
 ner as in the other kind. The pith of the grain of 
 the wild fruit ferves as food to a fpecies of ihe cynips, 
 whofe larva is white, till the moment of its transfonna- 
 tion ; and it is by an opening, in the direction of the 
 piftil, that the infedt penetrates the grain. From this 
 account it is thought probable that the infedt is only 
 communicated by accident to the domeltic fig, and 
 tliat the flowers of this genus are fometimes herma- 
 phrodites. But the number of hermaphrodite flowers 
 being fewer on the cultivated than on the wild fig, the 
 feeds are fecundated more certainly and quickly by 
 the caprification ; and every botanift knows, that when 
 the impregnation is completed, the flower foon withers; 
 while, if by any accident it is delayed, it continues in 
 bloom much longer. This view of the fubjedt, there- 
 fore. 
 
CAP 
 
 I 
 
 aprlmul- for«f, explains verycompletely the rcafon wliy, in Malta, 
 S"** the caprification is praftifed on the late kind of figs, be- 
 cauife it haitens the formation and maturity of the fruit. 
 
 CAPRIMUI.GUS, Gc.AT-sucKER, or Fa-n-o-wl, 
 in ornithology, a genus ^f birds belonging to the order 
 of pjafferes. The beak is iiicurvated, fmall, tapering, and 
 depjreffed at the bafe ; the mouth opens very wide. 
 
 n. I'he Europffius, with the tubes of the noftrils 
 hardly vifible. It feeds on moths, gnats, dorrs, or 
 chaiffers ; from tvhich Charleton calls it a dorr-haivk, 
 its food being entirely of that fpecies of beetle du- 
 ring the month of July, the period of that infe6-t's 
 flig ht in this country-. This bird migrates. It makes 
 but a fhort ftay with us : appears the latter end of 
 Mai.y ; and difappearn, in the northern parts of oar 
 ifia nd, the latter end of Augiiil ; but, in the fouthern, 
 ftays above a m.on'ih later. It inhabits all parts of Bri- 
 tain from Ccrnwdll to the county of Rofs. Mr Sco- 
 poli feems to credit the report of their fucking the 
 tea ts of goats, an error delivered down from the days 
 f)f Ariftotle. Its notes are moxt fingular. Tlie loud- 
 eft fo much refcmbles that of a large Tpinning wheel, 
 thait the Welfh call this bird achryn y drcsll, or the 
 \vh etl-bird. It begins its fong mojl pundually on the 
 cloife of day, fitting ^-ifually on a bare bough, with the 
 heiud lower than the tail, the low^er jaw quivering with 
 the- efforts!. The noife is fo very violent, as to give a 
 fenfible vibration to any little building it chances to a- 
 ligLht on and emit this fpecies of note. The other is a 
 ftairp fqueak, whic h It repeats often ; this feems a note 
 of liove, as it is obferved to reiterate it when in purfuit 
 of the female among the trees. It lays its eggs on 
 the bare ground ; ufually two : they are of a long 
 form, of a whitiih hue, prettily marbled with reddiih 
 brown. The length of this bird is io|- inches ; ex- 
 fenlt 22. Plumage, a beautiful mixture of white, black, 
 hfh~colour, and ferruginous, difpofed in lines, bars, 
 andi fpots. The male is diftinguiihed from the ferrtale 
 by a great oval white fpot near the end of the three 
 fjrll; quill-feathers, and another on the outmoft feathers 
 ©f the tail. This is the only one of the genus which is 
 foumd in Europe. A variety lefs in fize, being only 
 ciglht inches in length, inhabits Virginia, in furamer : 
 arrives there towards the middle of April, and fre- 
 quents the nr.ountainous parts, but will frequently ap- 
 proach the houfes in the evening, where it fettles on a 
 rail or poft, and cries for feveral times together very 
 loud, fomewhat like the word luhiperiiuhipy ox ivhip- 
 poor-nvillf the firft and laft fyllables pronounced the 
 loudeft. After continuing in one place for fome time, 
 it flies to another, and does the fame ; fometimes four 
 or five cry all together : this noife it begins juft after 
 fun-fet, and continues at intervals till juft before fun- 
 rife- It does not catch infecls always on the wing ; for 
 it frequently fits upon a convenient place, and leaps 
 tip after them as they fly by, and returns to the fame 
 fpot again. It makes no neft, but lays the eggs, which 
 are two in number, and of a dull green with duiky 
 fpots and ftreaks, on the bare ground in the open fields. 
 Kalm fays that the flefti is good to eat. Another va- 
 riety, larger, inhabits Virginia and Carolina ; where it 
 is called the rain-bird, becaufe it never appears in the 
 day-tim.e, except when the ll<y, being obfcured with 
 clouds, betokens rain. It is faid to lay the eggs on 
 the ground, and tliat they arc not unlike thofe of the 
 X-apwing. 
 
 51 ] C A P 
 
 2. The Americanus, has the tubes of the nojTrils Caprioles 
 very confpicuous. It is a nierht bird, and is found in J' 
 America. 
 
 There arc feveral other fpecies or varieties inhabiting 
 different countries, and differently marked, but all 
 nearly fimilar in their manners. 
 
 CAPRIOLES, in the manege, leaps that a horfe 
 makes in th^ fame place without advancing, in fuch a 
 manner, that, when he is at the height of the leap, he 
 jerks out with his hinder legs even and near. It is the 
 moft difficult of all the high manege. It differs from 
 a croupade, in this, that, in a croupade, a horfe does 
 not fhow his flioes ; and from a ballotade, becaufe in 
 this he does not jerk out. To make a horfe work 
 well at caprioles, he muft be put between two pillars, 
 and taught to raife firft his fore-quarters, and then his 
 hind-quarters while his fore ones are yet in the air ; 
 for which end you muft give him the whip and the 
 poinfon. 
 
 GAPSA (anc. geog.), a large and ftrong town of 
 Numidia, fituated amidft vaft defarts, wafte, uncultiva- 
 ted, and full of ferpents, where Jugurtha kept his trea- 
 iure. In his time it was taken and rafed by Marina- 
 the Rom?.n general, who put to death all the citizens. 
 capable of bearing arms, and fold the reft for flaves. 
 It was, however, afterwards rebudt by the Romans,, 
 and ftrongly fortified ; but, on the decline of their em- 
 pire, was taken and demolifhed a fecond time, by Oc- 
 cuba a famous Arab general. The walls of the cita- 
 del are flill remaining, and are monumencs of the an- 
 cient glory and ftrength of Capfa. They are 24 fa- 
 thoms in height, and five in thicknefs, built of large ' 
 fquare ftones, and have now acquired the folidlty andl 
 firmnefs of a rock, llie walls of the town were re- 
 built by the inhabitants fince their firft demolicion 
 but were afterwards dellroyed by Jacob Almanzar^ 
 who fent a governor and troops into the province. Ia< 
 Marmol's time Capfa was very populous, and abound* 
 ed with ilateiy mofques and other ftruftures of fuperb- 
 and elegant woikmanfhip i but at prefent it is occu- ^ 
 pied by a poor and indigent people, fleeced- and op» 
 preffed by the Tunefe government. In the very centre 
 of the city ftands an inclofed fountain, which botb 
 fupplies the people with drink, and affords them an a- 
 greeable bath. The adjacent country is now cultiva- 
 ted, and produces feveral kinds of fruits ; but the ch- 
 mate is unhealthy. The inhabitants are remarkable- 
 for their peevlfhnefs of temper. Both m.m and wo- 
 men drefs handfomely except their feet, which they 
 cover with coarfe fhoes of bungling workmanlhip, and» 
 made of the rough ftins of wild beafts, equally incon- 
 venient and unbecoming. E. Long. 9. 3. N. Lat. 53. 1 5, 
 CAPSARIU8, from capfa^ fatchel, in antiquity, 
 a fervant who attended the Roman youth to fchool, 
 carrying a fatchel with their books ia it, fometimes 
 alfo called librarius. 
 
 Capsarius was alfo an attendant at the baths, to 
 whom perfons committed the keeping of their clothes. 
 
 Capsarius (.from capfa, " a cheft,"), among th? 
 Roman bankers, was he who had the care of the mo- 
 ney-cheft or cofftr. 
 
 CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper A genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 
 plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 28th order, ZwnW,?. The corolla is. verticillated, and 
 the fruit a faplefs berry.. 
 
 Species-:^ 
 
CAP 
 
 CAP 
 
 pficum. .C^-oW. I. The annuum, with oblong fruit, is the 
 ■^v" common long-podded capficum commonly cultivated 
 in the gardens. Of this there is one kind with red, 
 and another with yellow fruit : and of thefe there are 
 feveral varieties, differing only in the fize and figure 
 - of their fruit. 2. The tetragonum, commonly called 
 bell-pepper. The fruit of this is red, and is the only 
 kind proper for pickling, the flcin being tender ; 
 ■whereas thofe of the other forts are thin and tough. 
 The pods are from an inch to an inch and half or two 
 inches long ; are very large, fwelling,, and wrinkled, 
 flatted at the top, where they are angular, and fome- 
 times ftand erett, at others grow downward. 3. The 
 cerafiforme, with a round fmooth fruit, doth not grow 
 fo tall as the other forts, but fpreads near the ground ; 
 the leaves come out in clufters, are of a (hlning green, 
 and ftand on long footftalks. The fruit is of a beau- 
 tiful red, and of the fize of a cherry. 4. The pyra- 
 midale, is a native of Egypt, and hath much narrower 
 leaves than the other forts. The pods always grow 
 ereft, and are produced in great plenty, fo that the 
 plants make a good appearance for three months in the 
 winter. 5. The minimum, commonly called hird-pep- 
 pery rifes with a flirubby ilalk four or five feet high ; 
 the leaves are of a lucid green ; the fruit grows at the 
 divifiou of the branches, {landing ered : thefe are fmall, 
 oval, and of a bright red ; they are much more fharp 
 and biting than thofe of the other forts. Befides thefe 
 fpecies, botanifts defcrlbe as many more ; viz. the cor- 
 diforme, with heart-fliaped fruit ; the angulofum, with 
 angular heart-fliaped fruit ; the olivaforme, with oval 
 fruit ; the conoide, commonly called hen-pepper, with 
 a conical red fruit growing ereft ; and the fruitefcens, 
 with fmall pyramidal fruit growing ere£l ; commonly 
 called Barbary pepper. Thefe, however, have no re- 
 markable properties different from the others. 
 
 Cul/ure. The three firft fpecies are annual plants, 
 and muft be propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed in 
 the fpring, and treated in the fame manner with other 
 exotics ; they will however bear the open air, after 
 being inured to it by degrees. The plants of the fe- 
 cond fort, whofe fruit is ufed for pickhng, {hould be 
 taken from the hot-bed, and planted in a rich fpot of 
 ground in a warm fituatlon about a foot and an half 
 afunder. They muft be fiiaded till they have taken 
 root, and afterv^'ards duly watered in dry weather, which 
 will greatly promote their growth and caufe them to 
 be more fruitful, and likewife enlarge the fize of the 
 fruit. By this management, three or four crops of 
 fruit for pickling may be obtained the fame year. The 
 other forts are more tender; and therefore muft be 
 planted in pots plunged in a moderate hot-bed, and 
 iheltered under a frame. 
 
 U/es, iS'c. The fecond fort, as already obferved, 
 produces fruit fit for pickling ; for which purpofe they 
 muft be gathered before they arrive at their full fize, 
 while their rind is tender. They muft be flit down on 
 one fide to get out the feeds, after which they ftiould 
 be foaked two or three days in fait and .water ; when 
 they are taken out of this and drained, boiling vinegar 
 mull be poured on them in a fufiicient quantity to co- 
 ver them, and clofely flopped down for 'two months ; 
 then they fiiould be boiled in the vinegar. to make them 
 green ; buL they want no addition of any fpice, and 
 are the wholefomeft and beft pickk.iu the world. The 
 
 tenth fpecies is ufed for making what is called cayan- 
 butter, or pepper-pots, by the inhabitants of America, 
 and which they efteem the beft of all the fpices. The , 
 following is a receipt for making of a pepper-pot : 
 " Take of the ripe feeds of this fort of capficum, and 
 dry them well in the fun ; tiien put them into an 
 earthen or ftone pot, mixing flour between every ftra- 
 tum of pods ; and put them into an oven after the 
 baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly dried : 
 after which they muft be well cleanfed from the flour ; 
 and if any of the ftalks remain adhering to the pods, 
 they fiiould be taken off, and the pods reduced to a 
 fine powder : to every ounce of this add a pound of 
 wheat-flour, and as much leaven as is fufficient for the 
 quantity intended. After this has been properly 
 mixed and wrought, it fliould be made into fmall cakes, 
 and baked in the fame manner as common cakes of the 
 fame fize : then cut them into fmall parts, and bake 
 them again, that they may be as dry and hard as bif- 
 cuit ; which being powdered and fifted, is to be kept 
 for ufe." This is prodigioufly hot and acrimonious, 
 fetting the mouth as it were on fire. It is by fome re- 
 commended as a medicine for flatulencies ; but it is 
 greatly to be doubted whether all thofe hot irritating 
 medicines are not productive of more harm than good, 
 in this country at leaft. If the ripe pods of capficum 
 are thrown into the fire, they will raife ftrong and. 
 noifome vapours, which occafion vehement fneezing, 
 coughing, and often vomiting, in thofe who are near 
 the place, or in the room where they are burnt. 
 Some perfons have mixed the powder of the pods with 
 fnuff, to give to others for diverfion : but where it is 
 in quantity, there may be danger in ufing it ; for it 
 will occafion fuch violent fits of fneezing, as may break 
 the blood-veffels of the head. 
 
 CAPSQUARES, ftrong plates of iron which come 
 over the trunnions of a gun, and keep it in the car- 
 riage. They are faftened by a hinge to the prize- 
 plate, that they may lift up and down, and form a 
 part of an arch in the middle to receive a third part of 
 the thicknefs of the trunnions : for two-thirds are let 
 into the carriage, and the other end is faftened by two 
 iron wedges called the fore-loch znd keys. 
 
 CAPSTAN, or Capstern., a ftrong maffy column 
 of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and having 
 its upper extremity pierced with a number of holes to 
 receive the bars or levers. It is let perpendicularly 
 down through the decks of a Ihip; and is fixed in fuch 
 a manner, that the men, by turning it horizontally 
 with their bars, may perform any work which requires 
 an extraoi'dinary effort. 
 
 A capftern is compoied of feveral parts, where A is j 
 the barrel, b the whelps, c the drum-head, and J the », 
 fpindle. The whelps rife out from the main body of 
 the capftern like buttreffes, to enlarge the fweep, fo 
 that a greater quantity of cable, or whatever rope en- 
 circles the barrel, may be wound about it at one turn, 
 without adding much to the weight of the capftern. 
 The whelps reach downwards -from the lower part of 
 the drum-head to the deck. The drum-head is a broad, 
 cylindrical piece of wood refembling a mill-ftone, and 
 fixed immediately above the barrel and whelps. On 
 the outfide of this piece are cut a number of fquare 
 holes parallel to the deck to receive the bars. The 
 fpindle or pivot d, which is fliod wfth iron, is the axis 
 
 or 
 
GAP 
 
 or foot upon which the capftern reils, and turns round 
 in the faucer, which is a fort- of iron focket let into 
 a wooden flock or ftandar^ called the Jlep, refting upon 
 and bolted to the beams. 
 
 Befides the different parts of the capftern above ex- 
 plained, it is furniflied with feveral appurtenances, as 
 the ^i/'j, the pins, xSxzpa^Jsy the fivifter, and the fau- 
 cer, already defcribed. The bare are long pieces of 
 wood or arms, thruft into a number of fquare holes in 
 the drum-head all round, in which they are as the radii 
 of a circle, or the fpokes in the nave of awheel. They 
 are ufed to heave the capflern round, which is done by 
 the men fctting their breafls againftthem, and walking 
 about, like the machinery of a horfe-mill, till the opera- 
 tion is finifhed. — The pins e, are little bolts of iron 
 thruft perpendicularly through the holes of the drum- 
 head, and through a correfpondent hole in the end of 
 the bar, made to receive the pins when the bars are 
 fixed. They are ufed to confine the bars, and to pre- 
 vent them from working out as the men heave, or when 
 the fhip labours. Every pin is faftened to the drum- 
 liead with a fmall iron chain ; and that the bars may 
 txaftly fit their refpeftive lioles, they are all numbered. 
 — The pawlsy, n^ i. are fituated on each fide the cap- 
 flern, being two fliort bars of iron, bolted at one end 
 through the deck to the beams clofe to the lower part 
 of the whelps ; the other end, which occafionally turns 
 round on the deck, being placed in the intervals of the 
 whelps, as the capftern turns round, prevents it from 
 recoiling Or turning back by any fudden jerk of the 
 cable, as the fhip rifes on the fea, vvrhich might greatly 
 endanger the men who heave. There are alio hanging 
 pawls ^Q-ff, n°3. ufed for the fame purpofes, reaching 
 Ircm the deck above to the drum-head immediately 
 below it. The fwifter is a rope pafTed horizontally 
 through holes in the outer end of the bars, and drawn 
 very tight; the intent of this is to keep the men fteady 
 fts they walk round when the fhip rocks, and to give 
 room for a greater number to affifl by pulHng upon the 
 fwifter itfelf. 
 
 The moft frequent ufe of the ciapftern is to heave in 
 the cable, and thereby remove the fhip or draw up the 
 anchor. It is alfo ufed to wind up any weighty body, 
 as the mafts, artillery, &c. In merchant-fhips it is 
 iikewifc frequently employed to difcharge or take jn 
 the cargo, particularly when confifting of weighty ma- 
 terials that require a great exertion of mechanical powers 
 to be removed. 
 
 There are commonly two capfternsin a man of war, 
 the main and the gear capftern ; the former of which 
 has two 'drum-heads, and may be called a double one. 
 This is reprefented in n° 3. The latter is rcprefented 
 in n".2. 
 
 Foiitierly the bars of the capftern went entirely thro' 
 the head of it, and confequently w^ere more than double 
 the length of the prefent ones ; the holes were there- 
 fore formed at different heights, as reprefented in n° r. 
 But this machine had feveral inconveniences, and has 
 long been entirely difufed in the navy. Some of thefe 
 fort of capfterns, however, are ftill retained in mer- 
 chant-fhips, and are ufually denominated crals. The 
 fituation of the bars in a ci-ab, as ready for heaving, is 
 rcprefented in n°4. 
 
 To Rig the Catstern, is to fix the bars in their re- 
 fpedlive lioles, and tjjirufl in the pins, in order to con- 
 
 VoL. IV. Paitl. 
 
 [ ] 
 
 CAP 
 
 fine them. — Surge the Capstern, is the order to flacken 
 the rope heaved round upon it, of which there are ge- 
 nerally two turns and a half about the barrel at once, 
 and fometimes three turns. — To Heave the Capstern, 
 is to go round with it heaving on the bars, and draw- 
 ing in any rope of which the purchafe is created. — To 
 Come-up the Capstern, is to let go the rope upon whicli 
 they had been heaving. — To Paw/ the Capstkri^, is to 
 fix the pawls to prevent it from recoihng during any 
 paufe of heaving. 
 
 CAPSULE, in a general fenfe, denotes receptacle 
 or cover in form of a bag. 
 
 Capsule, among botanifts, a dry hollow feed-vef- 
 fel or pericarpium, that cleaves or fphts in fome de- 
 terminate manner. See Pericarpium. 
 
 This fpecies of feed-veffel is frequently flefliy and 
 fucculent, like a berry, before it has attained maturi- 
 ty ; but, in ripening, becomes dry, and often fo elaftic 
 as to dart the feeds from their departments with confi« 
 derable velocity. This elafticity is remarkably confpi- 
 cuousin wood-forrel ; balfam, impatiens ; African fpirjea, 
 diofma ; fraxinella; jujiicia; ruellia; larleria ; lathraa i 
 and many others.— The general aptitude or difpofition 
 of this fpecies of feed-veffel to cleave or feparate for 
 the purpofe of difperfing its feeds, diftinguiflies it not 
 lefs remarkably than its texture from the pulpy or 
 fucculent fruits of the apple, berry, and cherry kind. 
 This opening of the capfule for difcharging its feeds 
 when the fruit is ripe, is either at the top, as in mofl 
 plants ; at the bottom, as in triglochin ; at the fide 
 through a pore or fmall hole, as in campanula and 
 orchis ; horizontally, as in plantain, amaranthus, and 
 anagallis ; or longitudinally, as in convolvulus. All 
 fruit that is jointed opens at every one of the joints, 
 each of which contains a fingle feed. Capfules, in 
 fplitting, are divided, externally, into one or more 
 pieces, called by LinnjEUs valves. The internal di- 
 vifions of the capfules are called cells, loculamenta : 
 thefe, in point of number, are exceedingly diverfified ; 
 fome having only one cell, as the primrofe ; and 
 others many, as the water-lily. Hence a capfule is 
 termed unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, Sec. according as 
 it has one, two, three, &c. cells or cavities. 
 
 Capsvlm Atraliliarite, called alfo j'/a«</a/<« renales, and 
 renes fuccenturiati. See Anatomy, n° 100. 
 
 CAPTAIN, a mihtary officer, whereof there are 
 feveral kinds, according to their commands. 
 
 Captain of a Troop or Company, an inferior officer 
 who commands a troop of horfe or a company of foot, 
 under a colonel. The duty of this officer is to be care* 
 ful to keep his company full of able-bodied foldiers; to 
 vifit their tents and lodgings, to fee what is wantino-; 
 to pay them well; to caufe them keep themfelves neat 
 and clean in their clothes, and their arms bright. He 
 has power in his own company of making ferjeants, 
 corporals, and lanfpefades. 
 
 In the horfe and foot guards, the captains have the 
 rank of colonels. 
 
 CAPTAiN-General, he who commands in chief. 
 CAPTAiN-Lieutenant, he who with the rank of cap-* 
 tain, but the pay of lieutenant, *commands a troop or 
 company in the name and place of fome other perfon 
 who is difpenfed with on account of his quality from 
 performing the funftions of his poft. 
 
 Thus the colonel being ufually captain of the firfl 
 U company 
 
 Caf.fu'e 
 
 il 
 
 Capu-.n. 
 
CAP 
 
 r 15^4 ] 
 
 CAP 
 
 Captain, company of liis regiment, that company- is commanded 
 ^'"■^y^ by his deputy under the title oi captain-lieutenant. 
 
 So in England, as well as in France, the king, queen, 
 dauphin, princes, &c. have ufually the title of captain 
 of the guards, ^<?«i d'armes, &c. the. real duty of vvhich 
 offices is performed by captain-lieutenants. 
 
 Captain Reformed, one who, upon the reduction of 
 the forces, has his commiffion and company fuppreffed ; 
 yet is continued captain, either as fetond to another, 
 or without any poft or command at all.. 
 
 Captain of a Ship of War, the officer who com- 
 mands a.fhip of the Une of battle, or a frigate carrying 
 20 or more cannon. The charge of a captain in his 
 majefty's na\7 is very comprehenfive, in as much as 
 he is not only anfwerable for any bad conduct in 
 the mihtary gov^rnmentj navigation, and equipment 
 of the (hip he commands, but alfo for any negleft of 
 duty or iU management in his inferior officers, whofe 
 feveral charges he ia appointed to fuperintend and re- 
 gulate. 
 
 On his firft receiving information of the condition 
 and quahty of the fhip he is appointed to com.mand, he 
 muft attend her conftantly, and haften the neceffary 
 preparations to fit her for fea» So ftritl, indeed, are 
 the injunftions laid on him by the lord high admiral, 
 Qr commiffioners cf the admiralty, that he is forbid 
 to lie out of his (hip, from his arrival on board to 
 the day of his difcharge, unlefs by particular leave 
 from the admiralty or from his commander in - chief* 
 He is enjoined to Ihow a laudable example of honour 
 and virtue to the officers and men ; and to difcounte- 
 nance all diffolute, immoral, and diforderly praftices, 
 and fuch as are contrary to the rules of fubordination 
 and difciphne ; as well as to correft thofe who are 
 guilty of fuch offences as are puniihable according to 
 the ufage of the fea. He is ordered particularly to fur- 
 vey all the military ftores which arefent on board, and 
 tp return whatever is deemed unfit for- fervice. His di- 
 ligence and application are required to procure his 
 complement of men ; obferving carefully to enter only 
 fuch as are fit for the neceffary duty, that the govern- 
 ment may not be put to unnecelfary expence. When 
 his fhip is fully manned, he is expeded to keep the 
 ellabhfhed number of men complete, and fuperintend 
 the mufler him.felf if there is no clerk of the check at 
 the port. When his fhip is employed on a cruizing 
 ftation, he is expeded to keep the fea the whole length 
 of time previoufly appointed ; but if he is compelled 
 by fome unexpeded accident to return to port fooner 
 than the time limited, he ought to be very cautious in 
 the choice of a good fituation for anchoring, ordering 
 the mafter or other careful officers to found and difco- 
 ver the depths of water and dangers of the coaft. Pre- 
 vious to any poffibility of an engagement with the 
 enemy, he. is to quarter the officers and m^en . to the ne- 
 ceffary ftations according to their office and .abiHties, 
 and to ex^rcife them in the management of the artil- 
 lery, that they may be more expert in time of battle* 
 His ftatkin in the time of ao engagement is oar the 
 quarter-deck: at which time he is expeded to take all 
 cpportunlties of. annoying his ent my, and improving 
 every advantage over him ,; to exhibit an example of 
 courage and fortitmle to his officers and crew ; and to 
 place his fhip oppofite to his adverfary in fuch a pofi- 
 tioUj3.s .that.eyery.cannoa.fhaU do eScdual execution. 
 
 At the time of his arrival in port, after his return from 
 abroad, he is to afferable his officers, and draw up a ^ 
 detail of the obfervations that have been made during 
 the voyage, of the qualities of the fhip as to . her trim,, 
 ballafcs flowage, manner of failing, for the information 
 and diredion of thofe who may fucceed him in the 
 command : and this account is to be figned by himfelf 
 and officers, and to be returned to the refident com-- 
 miffioner of the navy at the port, where the fhip is dif- 
 charged. 
 
 Captain (f a Merchant-Jhip, "ko. who has the diredioa 
 of the fhip, her crew, and lading, &c. In fmaU fhipj. 
 and fhoil voyages, he is m.ore ordinarily called the- 
 mafler. In tlic Mediterranean, he is called the />i2/r6^on. 
 — The proprietor of the veffel appoints the captain or 
 mafter ; and he is to. form the crew, and choofe and 
 hire the pilots, mates, and feamen ; though, when the- 
 proprietor and mafler refide on the. fame fpot, they ge-- 
 nerally ad in concert together. 
 
 Captain Bajhanv, or Capondan. Bafhauo, in the- 
 polity of tlK: Turks, fignifies the Turkifh high admi-- 
 i-al.» He poffeflts the third office of the empire, and 
 is invefled with the fame power at fea that, the vizir> 
 has on fhore. Soliman II. inftituted this office in fa- 
 vour of the famous Barbaroffa, with abfolute autho- 
 rity over the officers of the marine and arfenal, whom 
 he may punifli, cafhier, or put to death, as foon as he- 
 is without the Dardanelles. He commands in chief 
 in all the maritim.e countries, cities, caflles, &c. and^ 
 at Conflantinople, is the firft magiflrate of police in: 
 the villages on the fide of the Porte, and the canal of tha 
 Black-Sea. The mark of his authority is a large In- 
 dian cane,, which he carries in his hand, both in the 
 arfenftl and with the army. — The captain-bafhaw en- 
 joys tvi^o forts of revenues; the one fixed, the other ca-i 
 fual. The firft arife from a capitation of the iflands 
 in the Archipelago, and certain governments in Nato- 
 lia and .Galipoli. The latter confift in the pay of the 
 men who die during a campaign; in a fifth of all prizes 
 made by the begs ; in the profits accruing from the la-, 
 hour of the flaves, whom he hires as rowers to the grand 
 iignior ; and in the contributions he exads in all pla- 
 ces where he pafTes.. 
 
 CAPTION, in Scots law, a writ ifTuing under his 
 majefty's ilgnet, in his majefly's name, obtained at the 
 inflance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding mef- 
 fengers at arms and other offix^ers of the law to appre- 
 hend and imprifon the perfon of the debtor until he 
 pay the debt,: — It is alfo the name. of a writ iffued by 
 the covirt of Seffion againft the agents of the court, to 
 return papers belonging to proceffes or law-fuxts, or 
 atherwife to go to prifon. 
 
 CAPTIVE, a flave, or a perfon taken from the 
 enemy. 
 
 Formerly captives in war became the flaves of thofe 
 who took them ; and though flavery, fuch as obtain- 
 ed among the ancients, is now. abolifhed, fome flia- 
 dow of it ftill remains in refped of prifoners of war, , 
 who are accounted the property of their captors, and 
 have no right to. liberty but by conceffion from them. 
 — The. Romans ufed their captives with great feverity ; 
 their necks were expofed to the foldiers to be trampled 
 on, and their perfons aftei-wards fold by public auc- 
 tion. Captives were frequently burnt in the funeral , 
 piles of the aucient,warriors,^as a facrifice. to the in^ 
 
 fernal 
 
GAP [ I 
 
 activity Vernal gods. Thofe of royal or noble blood had their 
 heads (haven, and their hair fent to Rome to ferve as 
 decoraitions for female toys, &c. They were led in 
 triumph loaded with chains through Rome, in the 
 emper-or's train, at leaft as far as the foot of the Ca- 
 pitolime mount, for they were not permitted to afcend 
 the fatcred hill, but carried thence to prifon. Thofe 
 of the prime quality were honoured with golden chains 
 on their hands and feet, and golden collars on their 
 necks.. If they made their efcape, or killed them- 
 felves, to avoid the ignominy of being carried in tri- 
 umph,, their images or effigies were frequently carried 
 in theiir place. 
 
 CA-PTIVITY, in a general fenfe, the ftate or con- 
 dition of a captive. 
 
 Captivity, in facred hiftory, a punirtiment which 
 God i nfliited upon his people for their vices and infi- 
 delitie:6. The firft of thefe captivities is that of Egypt, 
 from which Mofes delivered them ; after which, are 
 reckoned fix during the government of the judges; but 
 the greatell and moft remarkable were thofe of Judah 
 and ICrael, which happened under the kings of each of 
 thefe Ikingdoms. It is generally believed, that the ten 
 tribes of Ifrael never came back again after their dlf- 
 periiom ; and Jofephus and St Jerom are of this opi- 
 nion : neverthelefs, when we examine the writings of 
 the pr ophets, we find the return of Ifrael from capti- 
 vity piointed out in a manner almoft as clear as that of 
 the trilbes of Benjamin and Judah : See Hofea i. lo, 1 1 . 
 Amos, ix. 14. The captivities of Judah are generally 
 reckoned four; the fourth and laft of which fell in the 
 year of the world 3416, under Zedekiah: and from 
 this period begins the 70 years captivity foretold by 
 Jeremiah. 
 
 Since the deftruftion of the temple by the Romans, 
 the Hebrews boaft that they have always had their 
 heads or particular princes, whom they call J)rinces of 
 the captivity, in the eaft and weft. The princes of the 
 captivity in the eaft governed the Jews that dwelt in 
 Babylon, Affyria, and Perfia; and the princes of the 
 captivity in the weft governed thofe who dwelt in Ju- 
 daea, Egypt, Italy, ana in other parts of the Roman 
 empire. He who refided in Judsa commonly took up 
 his ab'ode at Tiberias, and affumed the name of Rnf- 
 ^hahhoih, " head of the fathers or patriarchs." He 
 prefid<ed in alTemblies, decided in cafes of confcience, 
 levied taxes for the expences of his vilits, and had offi- 
 cers u:nder him who were difpatched through the pro- 
 vinces for the execution of his orders. As to the prin- 
 •ces of the captivity at Babylon, or the eaft, we know 
 ■neither the original nor fucceffion of them. It only ap- 
 pears that they were not in being before the end of 
 the fecond century. 
 
 CAPTURE, a prize, or prey; particularly that of 
 •a fliip taken at fea. Captures made at fea were for- 
 merly held to be the property of the captors after a 
 poffeffion of twenty-four hours ; but the modern au- 
 thorities require, that before the property can be 
 changed, the goods muft have been brought into port, 
 and have continued a m^t intra pnefidia, in a place of 
 fafe cuftody, fo that all hope of recovering them was 
 loft. 
 
 Capture alfo denotes an arreft or feizure of a cri- 
 minal, debtor, &c. at land. 
 
 CAPUA, (anc. geog.) a very ancient city .of Italy, 
 
 ; j; ] CAP 
 
 in Campania, and capital of that diftricl. It is fa- Capua, 
 mous for the abode of Hannibal the Carthaginian ge- vr— 
 neral after the battle of Cannae, and where Livy ac- 
 cufes him, but unjuftly, of having enei-vated himfelf 
 with pleafures*. It ftill retains the name, and is the See Caf 
 fee of an archbiftiop. It is feated on the river Vultur- tl^^g"' 
 no, in E. Long. 15. 5-. N. Lat. 41. 7. The hiftory of 
 Capua is thus iliortly deduced by Mr Swinbiirne. " It 
 was a fettlemeiit of the Ofci known before the foun- 
 dation of Rome ; as the amazing fertility of the land 
 and a lucrative commerce poured immenfc wealth upon 
 its inhabitants, it became one of the moft extenfive 
 and magnificent cities in the world. With riches ex- 
 ccffive luxury crept in, and the Capuans grew info- 
 lent; but by their effeminacy they foon loft the power 
 of repelling thofe neighbouring nations which their 
 infolence had exafperated : For this reafon Capua was 
 continually expofed to the neceffity of calling in fo- 
 reign aid, and endangering its fafety by the uncom- 
 mon temptations it offered to needy auxiliaries. The 
 Roman foldiers fent to defend Capua were on the point 
 of making it their prey, and often the voice of the ' 
 Roman people was loud for a removal from the barren 
 unwholefome banks of the Tiber to the garden of 
 Italy, near thofe of the Voltorno. Through well- 
 founded jealoufy of the ambition of Rome, or, as Livy 
 and other partial writers term it, natural inconftancy, 
 the Capuans warmly efpoufed the quarrel of Carthage: 
 Hannibal made Capua his winter-quarters after the 
 campaign of Cannas ; and there, if we are to believe 
 hiftorians, his rough and hitherto invincible foldiers 
 were enervated by pleafure and indolence. ^ 
 
 *' When through a failure of fuppllesfrom Carthage 
 Hannibal was under a neceffity of remaining in Bru- 
 tium, and leaving the Capuans to defend themfelves, 
 this city, which had been long invefted, was furren- 
 dered at difcretion to the confuls Appius Claudius and 
 Q^Fulvius Flaccus. The fenators were put to death, 
 the nobles imprifoned for life, and all the citizens fold 
 and difperfed. Vibius, the chief of Hannibal's friends, 
 avoided this ignominious fate, and efcaped from the 
 cruel vengeance of the Romans by a voluntary death. 
 — When the mob infifted upon the gates being thrown 
 open to the enemy, Vibius affembled his fteady affo- 
 ciates, and fat down with them to a fuperb banquet, 
 after which each of the guefts fwallowed a poifonous 
 draught, and expired in full poffeffion of their free- 
 dom. The buildings were fpared by the viftor ; and 
 Capua was left to be merely a harbour for the hufband- 
 men of the plain, a warehoufe for goods, and a gra- 
 nary for corn ; but fo advantageous a fituation could 
 not long be neglefted ; colonies were fent to inha- 
 bit it, and in procefs of time it regained a degree of 
 impoitance. 
 
 " Genferic the Vandal was more cruel than the Roman 
 conquerors had been ; for he maffacred the inhabitants, 
 and burnt the town to the ground. Narfes rebuilt it ; 
 but in 841 it was totally dcftroyed by an army of Sa- 
 racens, and the inhabitants driven into the mountains. 
 Some time after the retreat of thefe favage invaders, 
 the Lombards ventured down again into the plain, 
 but not deeming their force adequate to the defence of 
 fo large a circuit as the old city, they built themfelves 
 a fmaller one on the river, and called it Capua. — They 
 chofe the fitc of Cafilinum, famous In the fecond Pu- 
 U 2 nic 
 
 V 
 
CAP 
 
 [ 15^ ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 Caput 1l' 
 pinum. 
 
 Capuchins nic war for the refiftance made by its garrifon again ft. 
 
 Hannibal. Since the foundation of the new city, old 
 Capua has remained in ruins. 
 
 " In 856 Landulph formed here an independent earl- 
 dom difmembered from the duchy of Benevento, and 
 in the courfe of a few generations Capua acquired the 
 title of a principality. In the i ith century, the Nor- 
 mans of Averfa expelled the Lombard race of princes, 
 and Richard their chief became prince of Capua ; the 
 grandfon of Tancred of Hauteville drove out the de- 
 fcendants of Richard, and united this (late to the rell 
 of his pofleffions. 
 
 *' Capua is at prefent a neat little city, fortified ac- 
 cording to the rules of modern art, and may be conli- 
 dered as the key of the kingdom ; though far remo- 
 ved from the frontier, it is the only fortification that 
 really covers the approach to Naples." 
 
 CAPUCHINS, religious of the order of St Francis 
 in its ftridleft obfervance ; deriving their name from ca- 
 puce, or capiichon, a Huff cap, or cowl, wherewith they 
 cover their heads. They are clothed v?ith brown or 
 grey ; always bare-footed ; are never to go in a coach, 
 nor ever (have their beard. — The capuchins are a re- 
 form made from the order of minors, commonly called 
 cordeliers, fet on foot in the ) 6th century by Matthew 
 Bafclii, a religious obfervant of the monallery of Moc- 
 tefiafcone ; who, being at Rome, was advertifed feve- 
 ral times from heaven, to praftife the rule of St Fran- 
 cis to the letter. Upon this he made application to 
 pope Clement in 1525 ; who gave him permiflion to 
 retire into a folitude, with as many others as chofe to 
 embrace the ftrid: obfervance. In 1528, they obtained 
 the pope's bull. In 1529, the order was brought into 
 complete form ; Matthew was elefted general, and the 
 chapter made conftitutions. In 1543, the right of 
 preaching was taken from the capuchins by the pope : 
 but in 15'45 It was reftored to them again with ho- 
 nour. In 1578, there were already 17 general chap- 
 ters in the order of capuchins. 
 CAPUT, the head. See Head. 
 Cafut baronia, the head of the barony, in ancient 
 cuftoms, denotes the ancient or chief feat or caRle of 
 a nobleman, where he made his ufual refidence, and 
 held his court ; fometlmes alfo called caput honoris, or 
 the head of the honour. The caput baronlae could 
 not be fettled in dowry ; nor could it be divided 
 among the daughters. In cafe there were no fon to In- 
 herit; but was to defcend entire to the eldeft daughter, 
 sxteris filiabus aliunde fatisfaSis. 
 
 Caput gallinaginis. In anatomy, is a kind of fep- 
 tum, or fpongious border, at the extremities or 
 apertures of each of the vejiculte feminales ; ferving 
 to prevent the feed coming from one fide, from 
 rufhing upon, and fo Hopping, the difcharge of the 
 other. 
 
 Caput hpinum. Anciently an outlawed felon was 
 faid to have caput hpinum, and might be knocked 
 on the head like a wolf, by any one that, fliould meet 
 him ; becaufe, having renounced all law, he was to be 
 dealt with as in a ftate of nature, when every one that 
 fhould find him might flay him : yet now, to avoid 
 fuch Inhumanity, it is holden that no man is intltled to 
 kill him wantonly and wilfully ; but In fo doing he is 
 guilty of murder, unlefs it Is done in the endeavour to 
 apprehend him. 
 
 Caput Mortuum, a Latin name given to fixed and '^'^P"'^ ^^'^ 
 exhdufted refiduums remaining In retorts after diftilla- '"""^ 
 tlons. As thefe refiduums are very different, accord- Caracal' 
 
 ing to the fubilances dlRiiled, and the degree of heat , 
 
 employed, they are by the more accurate modern che- 
 mifts particularly fpecified by adding a term denoting 
 their qualities ; as earthy rejldiiim, charry refiduum, fa- 
 line refiduum, &c. 
 
 CARABINE , a fire-arm fliorter than a mufket, car- 
 rying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by the hV^ht horfe, . ' *: 
 hanging at a belt over the left Iboulder. The barrel 
 is tv,'o feet and an half long ; and Is fometimes furrow- 
 ed fpirally within, which is faid to add to the range of 
 the piece. 
 
 CARABINEERS, regiments of light horfe, carry- 
 ing longer carabines than the reil, and fometimes ufed 
 on foot. 
 
 CARABUS, in zoology, a genus of inftjds be- 
 longing to the order of coleoptera, or the beetle kind. 
 The feelers are briflly ; the breall Is fliaped like a heatt, 
 and marglnated; and the elytra are likewlfe marginated. 
 There are 34 fpecies of this genus, mollly diftinguiflred Plate 
 by their colour. The moil remarkable Is the crepitans, ^^^^ 
 or bombardier, with the bread, head, and legs, fer- 
 ruginous or iron-coloured, and the elytra black. It 
 keeps Itfelf conceded among ftones, and feemsto make 
 little ufe of Its wings: when it moves, it is by a fort of 
 jump ; and whenever it is touched, one is furprifed t<3 
 hear a nolle refembling the difcharge of ^ muflcet, la 
 miniature, during which a blue fmoke may be perceived 
 to proceed from Its anus. The Infe£l may be made 
 at any time to play off Its artillery, by fcratching its 
 back with a needle. If we may believe Rolander, who 
 firft made thefe obfervations, it can give 20 difcharges 
 fucceflively. A bladder placed near the anus Is the ar- 
 fenal whence It derives its ftore, and this is Its chief * 
 defence agalnft an enemy, although the fmoke emitted 
 feems to be altogether inoffenfive, except it be bycaufing 
 a fright, or concealing its courfe. Its chief enemy ia 
 another fpecies of the fame genus, but four times larger : 
 when purfued and fatigued, the bombardier has recourfe 
 to this ftratagem, by lying down In the path of the 
 large carabus, which advances with open mouth a^^i 
 claws to feize it ; but, on this difcharge of the artillery, 
 fuddenly draws back, and remains a while confufeds 
 during which the bombardier conceals himfelf In fome 
 neighbouring crevice ; and if not happy enough to find 
 one, the large carabus returns to the attack, takes the 
 infedl by the head, and tears it ofF. 
 
 CARACALLA (M. Antoninus Baflianus), em- 
 peror after his father Severus in 211, put the phyfi- 
 clans to death for not difpatching his father as he would 
 have had them. He killed his brother Geta; and put 
 Papinianus to death, becaufe he would not defend nor 
 excufe his parricide. In (hort, it Is faid that 20,000 
 perfons were maflacred by his order. He married Ju- 
 lia, his father's widow. Going to Alexandria, he flew 
 the inhabitants, and applied to the magicians and aftro- 
 logers. At laft, going from EdeflTa to Mefopotamia, 
 one of his captains flew him, by order of Macrinus, Who 
 fucceeded him. He died after he had reigned fomc- 
 what more than fix years. 
 
 Caracalla, in antiquity, a long garment, having 
 a fort of capuchin, or hood a-top, and reaching to the 
 heels i worn equally among the Romans by the men 
 
 and 
 
CAR [ ] 
 
 I iraccas, and the women, in the city and the camp. Spartian 
 ^ and Xiphilian reprefent the emperor Caracalla as the in- 
 
 ventor of this e:arment, and hence fuppofe the appel- 
 lation Caracalia was firft given him. Others, with 
 more probability, make the caracalla originally a Gal- 
 lic habit, and only brought to Rome by the emperor 
 ab'Ove mentioned, who tirfl enjoined the foldlery to 
 wear it. The people called it antonhi'uin, from the 
 fame prince, who had borrowed the name of Antoni- 
 ntiSi The caracalla was a fort of cafl'ock, or furtout. 
 Aialmafiiis, Scaliger, and after them Dii-Cange, even 
 fake the name cafdque to have been formed from that 
 uf caraquc, for caracuHa. Tiiis is certain from St Je- 
 rom, that the caracalla, with a retrenchment of the 
 f.apuchin, became an ecclefiaftical garment. It is 
 defcribed as made of feveral pieces cut and fewed to- 
 gether, and hanging ddwn to the feet ; but it is more 
 than probable there were forae made Hiorter, efpecially 
 -out of Rovne, otherwife we do not fee how it could 
 have fitted the foldiers purpofes. 
 
 CARACCAS, a didria of Terra Firma in South 
 America, belonging to the Spaniards. The coaft is 
 rocky and mountainous, interfperfed with fmall fertile 
 valleys ; fubjefted at certain feafons of the year to dry 
 north-well winds, but bleffed in general with a clear air 
 and M'holefome climate. A very great illicit trade is 
 carried on by the Englifh and Dutch with this province, 
 notwithftanding all the vigilance of the Spaniards, who 
 have fcouts perpetually employed, and breaft-works rai- 
 led in all the valleys. A vail number of cacao-trees 
 are cultivated in this province; and it is reckoned that 
 the crop of cacao produced here amounts to more than 
 100,000 fanegas of 1 10 pounds each. The country of 
 Santa Fe con fumes 20,coo ; Mexico a little more ; the 
 Canaries a Iraall cargo ; and Europe from 50 to 60,000. 
 The cultivation of the plant employs 10 or i2,oco ne- 
 groes. Such of them as have obtained their liberty 
 have built a little town called Nirvuy into which they 
 will not admit any white people. The chief town is 
 likewife called Caraccas, and Is fituated in N. Lat. 
 .10. 10. Dampier fays it Hands at a coniiderable dif- 
 tance from the fea ; is large, wealthy, and populous ; 
 and extremely difficult of accefs, byreafon of the fteep 
 and craggy hills over which an enemy mnil take his 
 route. The commerce of this town, to which the bay 
 of Guaira at two leagues diftance ferves for a harbour, 
 was for a long time open to all the fubje<3;s of the 
 Spanifh monarchy, and is Hill fo to the Americans ; 
 but the Europeans are not fo well treated. In 1728 
 a company was formed at St Sebaftian, which obtained 
 an exclufive right of maintaining connexions with this 
 part of the new world. Four or five fhips, which they 
 difpatch every year, fail from thence, but they return 
 to Cadiz. 
 
 CARACCI, (Lewis, Auguflin, and Hannibal), 
 three celebrated painters of the Lombard fchool, all of 
 Bologna. Lewis was born in i^SS * ^"d was couiin- 
 gerraan to Auguilin and Hannibal who were brothers, 
 the fons of a taylor, who was yet careful to give them 
 a liberal education. They were both difciples of 
 their coufin Lewis. Auguftin gained a knowledge of 
 mathematics, natural philofophy, mufic, poetry, and 
 moil of the liberal arts ; but, though painting was his 
 principal purfuit, he learned the art of engraving from 
 Cornelius Cert, and furpafled all the nmfiers of his 
 
 57} .CAR 
 
 time. Hannibal, again, never deviated from his pencil. Caracci. 
 — Thefe. three painters, at length, having reaped all ^—-n/— • 
 the advantages they could by contemplation and prac- 
 tice, formed a plan of afTociation, continued always to- 
 gether, and laid the foundation of that celebrated 
 fchool which has ever fince been known by the name of 
 Caracd's academy. Hither all the young ftudents, who 
 had a view of becoming mailers, reforted to be inftruc- 
 ted in the rudiments of painting ; and here the Ca- 
 racci taught freely, and without referve, all that came. 
 Lewis's charge was to make a colletlion of antique 
 ftatues and bas-reliefs. They had defigns of the bell 
 mailers, and a colleftion of curious books on all fub- 
 jedls relating to their art ; and they had a fldlful ana- 
 tomift always ready to teach what belorrged to the 
 knitting, and motions of the mufcles, Iffc, There were 
 often difputations in the academy ; and not only paint- 
 ers, but men of learned profeflions, propofed quellions, 
 which were always decided by Lewis. Every body 
 was well received ; and though Hated hours were al- 
 lotted to treat of different matters, yet improvements 
 might be made at all hours by the antiquities and the 
 defigns which were to be feen. 
 
 The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, the cardinal 
 Farnefe fent for Hannibal thither, to paint the gallery 
 of his palace. Hannibal was the more willing to go, be- 
 caufe he had a great defire to fee Raphael's works, with 
 the antique ilatues and bas-reliefs. The guilo which 
 he took there from the ancient fculpture, made him 
 change his Bolognian manner for one more learned but 
 lefs natural in the defign and in the colouring. Au- 
 guftin followed Hannibal, to aflifl him in his underta- 
 king of the Farnefe gallery ; but the brothers not 
 rightly agreeing, Farnefe fent Auguftin to the court 
 of the duke of Parma, where he died in the year 1602, 
 being only 45 years ofage. His moll celebrated piece 
 of painting is that of the communion of St Jerom, in 
 Bologna. 
 
 In the mean while, Hannibal continued working in 
 the Farnefe gallery at Rome ; and, after inconceivable 
 pains and care, finifhed the paintings in the perfedlion 
 in which they are now to be feen. He hoped that the 
 cardinal would have rewarded him in fome proportion 
 to the excellence of his work, and the time it took him 
 up, which was eight years ; but he was difappointed. 
 The cardinal, influenced by an ignorant Spaniard his 
 domeftic, gave him but a httle above 200I. though it 
 is certain he defcrved more than twice as many thou- 
 fands. When the money was brought him, he was fo 
 furprifed at the injuftice done him, that he could not 
 fpeak a word to the perfon who brought it. This con- 
 firmed him in a melancholy to which his temper natu- 
 rally inclined, and made him refolve never more to touch 
 his pencil ; which refolution he had undoubtedly kept,, 
 if his neceffities had not compelled him to break it. It 
 is faid that his melancholy gained fo much upon him, 
 that at certain times it deprived him of ilie ufe of his 
 fenfes. It did not, however, put a ftop to his amours 
 and his debauches at Naples, whither he had retired for 
 the recovery of his health, brought a diilempev upon 
 him of which he died in 1609, when he was 49 years 
 of age. His veneration for Raphael was fo great, that 
 it was his deathbed requeft to be buried in the fame 
 tomb with him ; which was accordingly done, in the 
 pantheon or rotunda at Rome. There are extant ix- 
 
 verai 
 
Caraft. 
 
 GAR [ 158 
 
 Caracol veral prints of the bleffed Virgin, and feme other fub- 
 jeAs etched by the hand of this incomparable artift. 
 He is faid to have been a friendly, plain, honeft, and 
 open*hearted man ; very communicative to his fcho- 
 lars ; and fo extremely kind to them, that he general- 
 ly kept his money in the fame box with his colours, 
 where they might have recourfe to either as they had 
 occafion. 
 
 While Hannibal Caracci worked at Rome, Lewis 
 was courted from all parts of Lombardy, efpecially by 
 the clergy, to make pictures in their churches ; and we 
 may judge of his capacity and facility, by the great 
 number of piAures he made, and by the preference 
 that was given him to otlrer painters. In the midft of 
 thele employments Hamiibal folicited him to come and 
 affift him in the Farnefe gallery ; and fo earneftly, that 
 he could not avoid complying with his requeft. He 
 went to Rome ; corredled feveral things in that gallery; 
 painted a figure or two himfelf ; and then returned to 
 Bologna, where he died in 1619, aged 64. 
 
 CARACOL, in the manege, the half turn which 
 an borfeman makes, either to the right or left — In the 
 army, the horfe always makes a caracol after each dif- 
 charge, in order to pafs the rear of the fquadron. 
 
 Caracol, in architefture, denotes a ilair-cafe in a 
 helix or fpiral form. 
 
 CARACOLI, a kind of metal of which the Carib- 
 |)ees, or natives of the LefTer Antilles, make a fort of 
 ornament in the form of a crefcent, whith they alfo call 
 caracol'i. — This metal comes from the main land ; and 
 the common opinion is, that it is a compound of filver, 
 copper, and gold, fomething like the Corinthian brafs 
 among the ancients. Thefe metals are fo perfectly 
 Tnixed and incorporated together, that the compound 
 ■which refults from them, it is faid, has a colour that 
 never alters, how long foever it remains in the fea or 
 under ground. It is fomewhat brittle ; and they who 
 work at it are obliged to mix a large proportion of 
 gold with it, to make the compound more tough and 
 malleable. 
 
 CARACT, or Carat, the name of that weight 
 which exprelTes the degree of finenefs that gold is of. 
 "The word is alfo written, carra8, car rat, karraS, and 
 iarrat. Its origin is .contefted : But the moft pro- 
 bable opinion is that of Kennet, who derives it from ca- 
 re8a, a term which anciently denoted any weight, and 
 came not till of later days- to be appropriated to that 
 which exprelfes the finenefs of gold and the gravity of 
 diamonds. 
 
 Thefe carats are not real determinate weights, but 
 only imaginaiy. The whole mafs, be the weight what 
 -it will, is conceived to be divided into 24 carats ; and 
 as many 24th parts as it contains of pure gold, it is 
 •called gold of fo many carats, or fo many carats fine. 
 Thus, gold of 18 carats is a mixt, of which 18 parts is 
 pure gold, and the other fix an inferior metal, &c. This 
 is the common way of reckoning in Europe, and at the 
 gold mines in the Spanifh Weft Indies, but with fome 
 variation in the fubdivifion of the carat : among us, it 
 js divided into four grains ; among the Germans, into 
 12 parts; and by the French, according to Mr Helot, 
 Into 32. The Chinefe reckon by a different divifion 
 called touches, of which the higheft number, or that 
 •wliich denotes pure gold, is 100 ; fo that lOO touches 
 correfpond to our 24 carats, &:c. 
 
 ] 
 
 GAR 
 
 CarAct is alfo a certain weight which goldfmitlw Carailaeu! 
 and jewellers ufe wherewith to weigh precious ftones || 
 and pearls. — In this fenfe, the word is by fome fup- Caraites. 
 pofed to be derived from the Greek j-ffXTov, a fruit '" ' V 
 which the Latins call ftl'iqua, and we caroh lean ; each 
 of which may weigh about four grains of wheat, 
 whence the Latin fiUqua has been ufed for a weight of 
 four grains. This cara6t weighs four grains, but they 
 are fomething lighter than the grains of other weights. 
 Each of thefe grains is fubdivided in \, \, -J-, -j-'j-, &c. 
 
 CARACTACUS, a renowned king of the ancient 
 Britifh people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales. 
 Having valiantly defended his countiy feven years a- 
 gainft the Romans, he was at length defeated ; and 
 flying to Cartifmunda, queen of the Brigantes (inha- 
 bitants of Yorkfliire), was by her treacheroufly deli- 
 vered up to the Romans, and led in triumph to the 
 emperor Claudius then at York ; where his noble be- 
 havioiir, and heroic but pathetic fpeech, obtained him 
 not only his liberty, but the efteem of the emperor, 
 A. D. 52. 
 
 CARAGROUTH, in commerce, a filver coin of 
 the empire, weighing nine drachms. It goes at 
 Conftantinople for 120 afpers. There are four forts 
 of them, which are all equally current and of the fame 
 value. 
 
 CARAITES, in the.ecclefiaftical hiftory of the 
 Jews, a religious feft among that people, whereof thcie 
 are ftill fome fubfilting in Poland, RulTia, Conftanti- 
 nople, Cairo, and other places of the Levant ; whofe 
 diftinguifhing tenet and practice it is, to adhere clofe- 
 ly to the words and letter of the fcripture, exclufive of 
 allegories, traditions, and the like. 
 
 Leo of Modena, a rabbin of Venice, obfej-ves, that 
 of all the herefies among that people, before the de- 
 ftruftion of the temple, there is none now left but that 
 of the Cara'm, a name derived from Micro, which fig- 
 nifies the pure text of the bible ; becaufe of their keep- 
 ing to the Pentateuch, obferving it to the letter, and 
 rejefting all interpretations, paraphrafes, and conftitu- 
 tions of the rabbins. Aben Ezra, and fome other 
 rabbins, treat the Caraites as Sadducees ; but Leo de 
 Juda calls them, more accurately, Sadducees reformed; 
 becaufe they believe the immortality of the foul, para- 
 dife, hell, rcfurreftion, &c. which the ancient Sadu- 
 cees denied. He adds, however, that they were doubt- 
 lefs originally real Saducees, and fprung from among 
 them. 
 
 M. Simon, with more probability, fuppofes them to 
 have rifen hence ; that the more knowing among the 
 Jews oppofing the dreams and reveries of the rabbins, 
 and ufing the pure texts of fcripture to refute their 
 groundlefs traditions, had the name of Caraim given 
 them ; which fignifies as much as the barbarous Latin, 
 Scripturarii ; i. e. people attached to the text of Icrip- 
 ture. The other Jews give them the odious name Sad- 
 ducees, from their agreement with thofe feftaries on 
 the head of traditions. Scaliger, Voffius, and Span- 
 heim, rank the Caraites among the Sabeans, Magi, 
 Manichees, and Mulfulmans, but by mittake : Wolf- 
 gang, Fabricius, &c. fay the Sadducees and Eifeni 
 wei-e called Caraites, in oppofition to the Pharifees : 
 others take them for the doAors of the law fo often 
 mentioned in the gofpel : but thefe are all conjeftures. 
 Jofephus and Philo make no mention of them ; which 
 
 ihows 
 
CAR [ I 
 
 fiiows them to be more modern tlian either of thofe 
 authors. In all probability, this fe6t was not formed 
 till after the coUeftion of the fecond part of the Tal- 
 mud, or the Gemara ; perhaps not till after the com- 
 piling of the Mifchna in the third century. The Ca- 
 raites themfelves pretend to be the remains of the ten 
 tribes led captive by Shalmanefer. W olfius, from the 
 Mfmoirs of Mardacheus, a Caraite, refers their origin 
 to a maffacre among the Jewifli doclors, under Alex- 
 ander Jannseus, their king, about loo years, before 
 Chrift : becaufe Simeon, fon of Schetach, and the 
 queen's brother, making his efcape into Egypt, there 
 forged his pretended traditions and, at his return to. 
 Jerufalem, publifhed his vifions j- interpolating the law 
 after his own fancy, and fupporting his novelties on, 
 the notices which God, he faid, had communicated 
 by the mouth of Mofes, whofe depofitary he was : he 
 gained many followers ; and was oppofed by others,^ 
 who maintained, that all which God had revealed to 
 Mofes was written. Hence the Jews became divided' 
 into two fedls, the Caraites and Traditionaries : among, 
 tlie firft,, Juda, fon of Tabbai, diftinguifhed' hirafelf ; 
 among the latter,.. Hillel. Wolfius reckons not only 
 the Sadducees, but alfo the Scribes, in the number of 
 Caraites. But the addrefs of the Pharifees prevailed 
 againll them all ; and the number of Caraites dtcreafed : 
 Anan, indeed, in the eighth century, retrieved their 
 credit a little ; and rabbi Schalomon in the ninth. 
 They fucceeded pretty well till the fourteenth ; but 
 fince that time they have been declining.. 
 
 The Caraites. are but little known; their works 
 coming only into very few hands, even among the 
 greatelt Hebraifts. Buxtorf never faw more than one ; 
 Selden two ; but Mr Trigland fays, he has recovered 
 enough to fpeak of them with alTurance. He afferts, 
 that foon after the prophets had ceafed,the Jews became 
 divided on the fubje<R: of worlds,, aad fupererogation : 
 fome maintaining their neceffity from tradition ; whilft.. 
 others , keeping clofe to the written law^ fet them afide; 
 and it was from thefe lall that Caraitifra commenced. 
 He adds, that after the return from the Babylonifli 
 captivity, the obfervation of the law being to be re- 
 eftablifhed, there were feveral praftices found proper 
 for that end ; and thefe once introduced, were looked 
 upon as elTential, and appointed by Mofes ; which was 
 the origin of Pharifaifm ; as a contrary party, conti- 
 nuing to keep clofe to the letter, founded Caraitifm. 
 
 The modern Caraites,, Leo of Modena obferves, have 
 their fynagogues and ceremonies ; they pretend to be 
 the fole proper Jews, or obfervers of the laws of Mo- 
 fes ; calling the reft by the term Rabbanim, or follow 
 ers of the Rabbins.: thefe hate, the Caraites mortally ; 
 refufmg to ally or even con verfe with them, and treat- 
 ing them as mamzerim, or baftards ; becaufe of their 
 rejeding the conftitutions of the rabbins relating to 
 marriages,. repudiations, purifications of women, &c. 
 This averfion is fo great,, that if a Caraite would. be- 
 come a rabbinift, he would never be received by the 
 other Jews. 
 
 The Caraites, however,, do not abfolutely rejeft all 
 kind of traditions ; but only fuch as d& not appear 
 well-grounded. Selden, who is very exprefs on this 
 point, in his Uxor Hebraica, obferves, that befides the 
 mere text, they have certain interpretations, which 
 tbey call hereditary, and which are proper, traditions. 
 
 59 7 
 
 CAR 
 
 Their theology only feems to differ from that of the Caramanfa 
 other Jews, in that it is purer, and clearer of fuperfti- || 
 tion : they give no credit to the explications of the Caravan. 
 Cabbalifts, chimerical allegories, nor to any conftitu- .""^ ' 
 tlons of the Talmud, but what are conformable to the: 
 fcripture, and may be drawn from' it by juft and ne- 
 cefTary confequences. 
 
 Peringer obferves of the Caraites in Lithuania, that 
 they are very different, both in afped, language, and: 
 manners, from the rabbinifts, wherewith that country 
 abounds. Their mother tdngue is the Turkifh ; and 
 tJiis they ufe in their fchools. and fynagogues. In vl- 
 fage they refemble the Mahometan Tartars. Their 
 fynagogues are placed north and fouth ; and the rea- 
 fon they give far it is, that Shalmanefer brought them, 
 northward : fo that in praying,, to look to Jerufalem^, 
 they muft turn to the fouth. He adds, that they ad- 
 mit all the books of the Old Teftament ; contrary to 
 the.opinion of many of the learned, who hold that they- 
 rejcdl all but the Pentateuch. 
 
 Caleb, a Caraite, reduces the difference between them- 
 and the rabbinifts to three points : i. In that they^de-- 
 ny the oral law. to come 'from Mofes, and reject the 
 Cabbala. 2. In that they abhor the Talmud; 3. In 
 that they obferve the feafts, as the fabbaths, &c. much 
 more rigoroufly than the rabbins- do. To this may 
 be added, that they extend the degrees of affinity,, 
 wherein, marrriage is prohibited, almoft to infinity. 
 
 CARAMANIA, a confiderable province of Turky, 
 in Afia, in the fouth part of Natoha. Bajazet united, 
 this province to his empire about the year 1488, and 
 fince that time it has continued in the poffeffion of the 
 Turks. Satalia was the capital city, but is now much, 
 decayed. 
 
 CARAMANTA,. a town of South America, and 
 capital of a province of the fame name in Terra Firma,. 
 and in the audience of Santa Fe. W. Long. 72. 35. 
 N. Lat. 5. 18. The province of Caramanta is ex- 
 tended on both fides the river Cauca ; and is bounded 
 on the north by the diftri^t- of Carthagena, on the 
 eailby New Grenada, on the. fouth by Popayan, and 
 on the weft by Popayan and by the audience of Pana- 
 ma. It is a valley furrounded on every fide by very 
 high mountains. 
 
 CARANGA, an inconfiderable ifland near Bora- 
 bay in the Eaft Indies. It affords, nothing but fome 
 rice, fowls, and goats, for that market. 
 
 CARANNA, or Karanna, a very fcarce gum. 
 which comes from New Spain. It is faid to poffefs 
 many extraordinary medical virtues,, but the prefent 
 pradlice takes no notice of it. 
 
 CARANUS, the firft king of Macedon, and the 
 feventh of the race of the Heraclides, See Macedonia. 
 
 CARARA, a weight at Leghorn, and in other 
 parts of Italy, ufed in the fale of wool and cod-fifh, . 
 equivalent to 60 pounds of that country. 
 
 CARAT. SeeCARACT. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO (Micliael Angelo da). See 
 Angelo. 
 
 CARAVAN, or Karavanne, in the eaft, fignifies 
 a company or affembly of travellers and pilgrims, and- 
 more particularly of merchants, who, for their greater 
 fecurity, and in order to affift each other, march in a 
 body through the deferts, and other dangerous places,, 
 which are infefted with Arabs or robbers. 
 
 There 
 
G A R 
 
 Til ere are four regular caravans wlilcli go yearly to 
 Mecca ; the firft from Damafcus, compofed of the 
 pilgrims . from Europe and Alia ; the fecond from 
 Cairo, for the Mahometans of Barbary ; the third 
 from Zibith, a place near the mouth of the Red Sea, 
 -ivhere thofe of Arabia and India meet ; the fourth 
 from Babylon, where the Perfiaus affemble. Moil of 
 the inland commerce of the Eaft is carried on by ca- 
 ravans. The late czar Peter the Great eftablilhed a 
 trade between Ruflia and China by means of a caravan. 
 M. Bougnon, geographer to the duke of Lorrain, 
 has given a treatife of the caravans of merchants in 
 Afia ; wherein he fliows of what they are compofed, 
 how many forts there are, the feveral ufes of the dif- 
 ferent forts of animals in them ; the prices given for 
 -them, the officers and men appointed to conduQ; them, 
 and the pay of each, with their manner of marching, 
 halting, fighting, retreating, &c. Caravans of this 
 kind are large convoys of armed men, merchants, and 
 •travellers, with divers forts of animals for the carriage 
 of their provifions. There are commonly four chief 
 officers of a caravan, viz. the caravan bachi, or chief; 
 the captain-guide ; captain of rell ; and captain of 
 diftribution. The firft has abfolute command over all 
 the reft : the fecond is abfolute in the march: the of- 
 fice of the third only commences when the caravan 
 ftops and makes a ftay : to the fourth it belongs to 
 difpofe of every par^ of the corps, in cafe of an attack 
 or battle ; he has alfo the infpection over the diftribu- 
 tion of provifions, which is made under him by feveral 
 diftributors, who give fecurity to the mafter of the 
 caravan, and have each of them a certain number of 
 perfons, elephants, dromedaries, &c. to take care of 
 at their own peril. The treafurer of the caravan makes 
 a fifth officer, who has under him feveral agents and 
 interpreters, who keep journals of all that paffes, for 
 the fatisfaftion of thofe concerned in fitting out the 
 caravan. 
 
 Any dealer is at liberty to form a company, in or- 
 der to make a caravan. He in whofe name it is raifed, 
 is confidered as the caravan bachi, or chief of the ca- 
 ravan, unlefs he appoint fome other in his place. If 
 there are feveral merchants equally concerned, they 
 eleft a caravan bachi ; after which, they appoint offi- 
 cers to conduct the caravan and decide all controverfies 
 that may arife during the journey. 
 
 There are alfo fea caravans ; eftabhflied on the fame 
 footino-, and for the fame purpofes : fuch is the cara- 
 van of°ve{rels from Conftantinople to Alexandria. 
 
 CARAVANSERA, or Karavansera, a place 
 appointed for receiving and loading the caravans. 
 
 It is commonly a large fquare building, in the 
 middle of which there is a ver)' fpacious court ; and 
 under the arches or piazzas that furround it there runs 
 ' a bank, raifed fome feet above the ground, where the 
 merchants, and tliofe who travel with them in any ca- 
 pacity, take up their lodgings as well as they can ; 
 the beafts of burden being tied to the foot of the bank. 
 Over the gates that lead into the court, there are fome- 
 times little rooms, which the keepers of the caravan- 
 feras let out at a very high price to fuch as have a 
 mind to be private. 
 
 The caravanferas in the Eaft are fomething of the 
 nature of the inns in Europe ; only that you meet 
 with little accommodation either for man or beaft, but 
 
 N=' 64. 
 
 [ 160 1 CAR 
 
 are obliged to cany almoft every thing with ycu 
 there is never a caravanfera without a well, or fpring 
 of water. Thefe buildings are chiefly owing to the 
 charity of the Mahometans ; they are efteemed facred 
 dwellings, where it is not permitted to infult a4iy per- 
 fon, or to pillage any of the effefts that are depofited 
 there. There are alfo caravanferas where moft things 
 may be had for money ; and as the profits of thefe are 
 coiifiderable, the magiftrates of the cities to whofe ju- 
 rifdiftion they belong, take care to ftore them well. 
 There is an infpeftor, who, at the departure of each 
 caravan, fixes the price of the night's lodging, frora 
 which there is no appeal. 
 
 CARAVANSERASKIER, thefteward or keeper 
 of a Caravansera. He keeps an account of all the 
 raerchandifes that are fold upon truft, and demands 
 the payments of the fums due to the merchants for 
 what has been fold in the caravanfera, on the feller's 
 paying two per cent. 
 
 CARAVEL ; thus they call a fmall veffel on the 
 coaft of France, which goes to filh for herring on the 
 banks. They are commonly from 25 to 30 tons bur- 
 den. Thofe which are defigned for the fame fifhery 
 in the Britlfti channel are called by the French triri' 
 quarts : thefe are from 1 2 to 1 5 tons burden. 
 CARAWAY, in botany. See Carum. 
 CARBONADE, or Carbonado, in cookery 5 
 flefti, fowl, or the like, feafoned and broiled on the 
 
 Caravanfe- 
 rafkier 
 
 II 
 
 Carcafle. 
 
 coals. 
 
 CARBUNCLE, in natural hiftory, a very elegant 
 gem, whofe colour is deep red, with an admixture of 
 fcarlet. 
 
 This gem was known among the ancients by the 
 name of anthrax. It Is ufually found pure and fault- 
 lefs, and is of the fame degree of hardnefs with the 
 fapphire : it is naturally of an angular figure ; and is 
 found adhering, by Its bafe, to a heavy and ferrugl^ 
 nous ftone of the emery kind : its ufual fize is near a 
 quarter of an Inch In length, and two thirds of that in 
 diameter In Its thickeft parts : when held up agalnft 
 the fun. It lofes Its deep tinge, and becomes exadlly 
 of the colour of a burning charcoal, whence the pro- 
 priety of the name which the ancients gave It. It bears 
 the fire unaltered, not parting with its colour, nor be- 
 coming at all the paler by It. It Is found only in the 
 Eaft Indies, fo far as Is yet known ; and there but 
 very rarely. 
 
 Carbuncle, or Anthrax, In medicine, an Inflam- 
 mation which arlfes, in time of the plague, with a ve- 
 ficle or blifter almoft like that produced by burning. 
 
 Carbuncle, In heraldry, a charge or bearing, con* 
 filling of eight radii, four whereof make a common 
 crofs, and the other four a faltier. 
 
 Some call thefe radii buttons, or ftaves, becaufe round, 
 and enriched with buttons, or pearled like pilgrim's 
 ftaves, and frequently tipped or terminated with flower- 
 de-luces ; others blazon them, royal fceptres, placed in 
 faltier, pale and fefle. 
 
 CARCASSE, or Carcus, In the art of war, an 
 iron cafe, or hollow capacity, about the bigntfs of a 
 bomb, of an oval figure, made of ribs of Iron, filled 
 with combuftible matters, as meal-powder, fakpetre, 
 fulphur, broken glafs, fliavings of horn, turpentine, 
 tallow, &c. It has two or three apertures out of which 
 the fire is to blaze ; and the defigr. of it is to be thrown 
 ^ out 
 
CAR [ i6i 
 
 out of a mortar, to fet houfes on fire, and do other exe* 
 cut:i*on. It has the name carcajfe, becaufe the circles 
 whiich pafs from one ring or plate to the other feem 
 to reprefent the ribs of a human carcafe. 
 
 CARCASSONNE, an ancient city of France, in 
 Lower Languedoc, with a hi/hop's fee. It is divided 
 intCD the upper and lower town. T|iey are both fur- 
 rouinded with walls ; and though their fituations are 
 difFterent, they are both watered by the river Aude. The 
 upp.er town is feattd on a hill, with a caftle that com- 
 mamds it, as well as the lower town. It is flrong, not 
 onl)r by its fituation on a craggy rock, but alfo by fe- 
 verail large towers which are joined to its walls, and 
 whitch render it cf difficult accefs. The cathedral 
 chu)rch is remarkable for nothing but its antiquity. 
 The lower town is large, and built after the modern 
 tails. The flreets are very ftraight, and lead to a large 
 fquare in the middle, from whence may be feen the four 
 
 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 gates of the town. There is here a manufafture of 
 clotlh. The neighbouring country is full of olive-trees; 
 and in tlie mountains there is a fine marble, commonly 
 called marble of Languedoc. E. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 
 43- II- 
 
 This place bore a confiderable fhare in that celebra- 
 ted crufade undertaken againft the Albigenfes in the 
 beginning of the 13th century, and which forms one 
 of the moft aftonifhing inftances of fuperltition and of 
 atro/cious barbarity to be found in the annals of the 
 worSd, When the royal power was nearly annihilated, 
 duri ng the reigns of the laft kings of the Carlovingian 
 race in France, moil of the cities of Languedoc ere<ft- 
 ed themielves into little independent dates, governed 
 by their own princes. Carcaflbnne was then under the 
 do minion of vifcounts. At the time when Pope Inno- 
 cent III. patronized and commanded the profecuilon 
 of hioftilities againft the Albigenfes for the crime of 
 herefy, Raymond the reigning vifcount was included 
 in that profcription. Simon de Montfort, general of 
 the army of the church, invefled the city of Carcaflbnne 
 in 1209. The inhabitants, terrified at the fate of fe- 
 vcral other places where the moft dreadful maflacres 
 had been committed, demanded leave to canitulate ; 
 but this a£t of mercy was only extended to them under 
 a condition equally cruel, incredible, and unparalleled 
 in hiftory, if we were not compelled to believe it by 
 the unanimous teftimony ®f all the cotemporary wri» 
 ters. The people found in the place were all obliged, 
 without diftinftion of rank or fex, to evacuate it in a 
 ftate of nudity ; and Agnes the vifcountefa was not ex- 
 empted, though young and beautiful, from this igno- 
 minious and fliocking piinifhment. " On les fit fortir 
 tout nuds de la ville de Carcaflbnne (fays an ancient 
 author) afin qu'ik receuflent de la honte, en montrant 
 
 >ces parties du corps que la purete de la langue n'cx- 
 prime point, defquelles ils avoient abufe, et s'en etoient 
 
 .fervis dans dcs crimes execrables." It feems by this 
 imputation that the Albigeols were accufed by their 
 enemies of fome enormities, probably unjuft, and fi- 
 
 milar to thofe which religious enmity and prejudice 
 have attributed to the followers of Zinzendoif in the 
 
 jrefent century. 
 
 CARCERES, in the ancient Circenfian games, were 
 
 inclofures in the circus, wherein the horfes were reftrain- 
 
 ed till the fignal was given for ftarting, when, by an 
 
 admirable contrivance, they all at once flew open. 
 Vol. IV. PartL 
 
 CARCHEMISH (anc. ^eog.), a town lying upon Carchemifii 
 the Euphrates, and belonging to the Aflyrians. Necho (' 
 king of Egypt took it from the king of Aflyria, _f!]^f^ 
 2 Chr. XXXV. 20. Necho left a garrifon in it, which 
 was taken and cut to pieces, in the fourth year of Je- 
 hoiachan king of Judah, by Nebucliadnezzar king of 
 Bdbylon, 2 Kings xxiii. 29. Ifaiah (x. 9.) fpeaks of 
 Carcherairti, and feems to fay, that Tiglath pilefer 
 made a conqueft of it, perhaps from the Egyptians. 
 This is thought to be the fame city with that called 
 Ciitefium by the Greeks and Latins. 
 
 CARCINOMA, in medicine ; the fame withCAN- 
 
 CtR. 
 
 CARD, among artificers, an inftrutnent coafifting 
 of a block of wood, befet with ftiarp teeth, fcrving to 
 arrange the hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and the like-i 
 there are difl^ercnt kinds of them, as hand-cards, ftock- 
 cards, &c. They are made as follows: 
 
 A piece of thick leather, of the fize intended for 
 the card, is ftrained in a frame for that purpofe ; and 
 then pricked full of holes, into which the teeth or pieces 
 of iron wire are inferted. After which the leather is 
 nailed by the edges to a flat piece of wood, in the form 
 of an ©blong fquare, about a foot in length and half 
 a foot in breadth, with a handle placed in the middle 
 of one of the longer fides. 
 
 The teeth are made in the following manner. The 
 wire being drawn of the fize intended, a fltain or num- 
 ber of wires are cut into proper lengths by means of a 
 gauge, and then doubled in a tool contrived for that 
 purpofe : after which they are bent into the proper 
 diredlion by means of another tool; and then placed in 
 the leather, as mentioned above. 
 
 Cards, among gamefters, little pieces of fine thin 
 pafteboard of an oblong figure, of feveral fizes ; but 
 moft commonly, in Britain, three inches and an half 
 long and two and an half broad, on which are painted 
 feveral points and figures. 
 
 The moulds and blocks for making cards are exa<?lly 
 like thofe that were uled for the firft printed books. 
 They lay a ftieet of wet or moift paper on the block, 
 which is firft flightly done over with a fort of ink made 
 of lamp-black diluted in water, and mixed with fome 
 ftarch to give it a body. They afterwards rub it off 
 with a round lift. The court-cards are coloured by 
 means of feveral patterns, ftyled Jlane-fihs. Thefe con- 
 fift of papers cut through with a penknife ; and in thefe 
 apertures they apply feverally the various colours, as 
 red, black, &c. Thefe patterns are painted with oil- 
 colours, that the bruflies may not wear them out ; 
 and when the pattern is laid on the pafteboard, they ' ^ 
 flightly pafs over it a brufli-fuU of colour, which, leav- 
 ing it within the openings, forms the face or figure of 
 the card. 
 
 Among fiiarpers, divers forts of falfe and fraudulent 
 cards have been contrived; as, I. iJfarW cards, where 
 the aces, kings, queens, knaves, are marked on the cor- 
 ners of the backs with fpots of different number and 
 order, either with clear water or water tinged with 
 pale Indian ink, that thofe in the fecret may diftinguifli 
 them. Aces are marked with fingle fpots on two cor- 
 ners oppofite diagonally ; kings with two fpots at the 
 fame corners ; knaves with the fame number tranfver« 
 fed. 2. Ereef cards, thofe which are longer or broader 
 than the reft ; chiefly ufed at whift and piquet. The 
 X broad 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 
 
 Cards, broad cards are ufually for kings, queens, knaves, and 
 Cardamine.aces; the long for the reft. Their defign is to direft the 
 
 cutting, to enable him in the fecret to cut the cards dif 
 advantageoufly to his adveifary, and draw the perfon 
 unacquainted with the fraud to cut them favourably 
 for the fharper. As the pack is placed either endwife 
 or fidewife to him that is to cut, the long or broad 
 cards naturally lead him to cut to them. Breef cards 
 are fometimes made thus by the manufafturer ; but, in 
 defefl of thefe, (harpers pare all but the breefs with a 
 penknife or razor. 3. Corner bend, denotes four cards 
 turned down finely at one corner, to ferve as a fignal 
 to cut by. 4. Middle bend, or Kingfton-bridge, is 
 where the tricks are bent two different ways, which 
 caufes an opening or arch in the middle, to diredl like- 
 wife the cuttings 
 
 Cards were invented about the year 1 390, to divert 
 Charles VI. of France, who had fallen into a melan- 
 choly difpofition. The inventor propofed, by the fi- 
 gures of the four fuits or colours, as the French call 
 them, to reprefent the four claffes of men in the king- 
 dom. By the caiirs (hearts) are meant \.\itgens de choeur^ 
 choir-men, or ecclefiaftics ; and therefore the Spar 
 niards, who certainly received the ufe of cards from the 
 French, have copas, or chalices, inftead of hearts. The 
 nobility, or prime mlhcary part of the kingdom, are 
 reprefented by the end's or points of lances or pikes ; 
 and our ignorance of the meaning or refemblance of the 
 figure induced us to call them fpades: The Spaniards 
 have efpadast fvvords, in lieu of pikes, which are of 
 fimilar import. By diamonds are defigned the order of 
 citizens, merchants, or tradefmen, carreaux, (fquare 
 ftones, tiles, or the like): The Spaniards have a coin, 
 dtncrs)s, which anfwers to it ; and the Dutch call the 
 French word carreaux Jlreneen" ftones and diamonds, 
 from the form. Trefe, the trefoil- leaf, or clover- 
 grafs (corruptly called clubs), alludes to the hufband- 
 men and peafants. But how this fuit came to be called 
 clubs is not eafily explained ; unlefs, borrowing the 
 game from the Spaniards, who have bqftos (ftaves or 
 clubs) inftead of the trefoil, we give the Spanifti fig- 
 nificatlon to the French figure. 
 
 The hiftory of the four kings, which the French, in 
 drollery, fometimes call the cards, are David, Alex- 
 ander, Caefar, and Charles j which names were then, 
 and ftill are, on the French cards. Thefe refpeaable 
 , names reprefent the four celebrated monarchies of the 
 Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks under Charle- 
 magne. By the queens are intended Argine, Eflher, 
 Judith, and Pallas (names retained in the French 
 cards), typical of birth, piety, fortitude, and wifdora, 
 the qualifications refiding in each perfon. Argine is an 
 anagram for regina, queen by defcent. By the knaves 
 were defigned the fervants to knights (for knave ori- 
 ginally meant only fervant); but French pages and 
 valets, now indifcriminately ufed by various orders of 
 perfons, were formerly only allowed to perfons of qua- 
 lity, efquires (efiuires), ftiield or armour bearers. O- 
 thers fancy that the knights themfelves were defigned 
 by thofe cards; becaufe Hogier and Lahire, two 
 names on the French cards, were famous knights at 
 the time cards were fuppofed to have been invented.^ 
 Deceptions tuith Cards. See Legerdemain., fed. i. 
 CARD AMINE, in botany; A genus of the frli- 
 quofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of 
 
 62 ] CAR 
 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 39th order, SiUquofa. The filiqua parts afunder with 
 a fpring, and the valves roll fpirally backward ; the 
 ftigma is entire, and the calyx a little gaping. Of this 
 there are 15 fpecies; but the moft remarkable is the 
 pratenfis, with a large purpllfh flower. ^ This grows 
 naturally in many parts of Britain, and is alfo called 
 cuchonv-Jlower. There are four varieties, viz. the fingle, 
 with purple and white flowers, which are frequently in- 
 termixed in the meadows ; and the double, of both co- 
 lours. The fingle forts are not admitted into gardens 
 but the double deferve a place,- as making a pretty ap- 
 pearance during the time they are in flower. They 
 will thrive in a moift ftiady border; and are propagated 
 by parting their roots, which is beft performed in au^ 
 tumn. 'Hiey delight in a foft loamy foil, not too ftifR 
 By fome the plant is reckoned antifcorbutic. 
 
 CARDAMOM, in the Materia Medica^ See Amo- 
 
 Car<{a* 
 CardaUii 
 
 MUM. 
 
 CARDAN (Jerom), one of the moft extraordmary. 
 geniufes of his age, was born at Pavia on the 24th of 
 September 1 501. As his mother was not married, fhe 
 tried every method to procure an abortion, but without 
 effeft. She was three days in labour, and they were 
 at laft obliged to cut the child froni her. He was born 
 with his head covered with black curled hair. When 
 he was four years old, he was carried to Milan ; his fa- 
 ther being an advocate in that city. At the age of 
 20, he went to ftudy in the univerfity of that city; and 
 two years afterwards he explained EucHd. In 1524, 
 he went to Padua; and the fame year he wa^ admitted 
 to the degree of mafter of arts : in the end of the fol- 
 lowing year, he took the degree of dodor of phyfic. 
 He married about the year 1 53 1 . For ten years be- 
 fore, his impotency had hindered himfromhaving know- 
 ledge of a woman ; which was a great mortification tct 
 him. He attributed it to the evil influences of the 
 planet under which he was born. When he enume- 
 rates, as he frequently does,, the greateft misfortunes 
 of his life, this ten years impotency is always one. At 
 the age of 32, he became profelfor of mathematics at 
 Milan. In 1539, he was admitted member of the 
 college of phyficians at Milan; in 1543, he read 
 public leftures of medicine in that city, and at Pavia 
 the year following ; but difcontinued them becaufe he 
 could not get payment of his falary, and^ returned to 
 Milan. In 1552, he went into Scotland,, having been 
 fent for by the Archbifliop of St Andrew's, who had 
 in vain applied to the French king's phyficians, and 
 afterwards to thofe of the emperor of Germany. This 
 prelate, then 40 years old, had for ten years been af- 
 flided with a ftiortnefs of breath, which returned every 
 eight days for the two laft years. He began to reco- 
 ver from the moment that Cardan prefcribed for him. 
 Cardan took his leave of him at the end of fix week* 
 and three days, leaving him prefcriptions which in two 
 years wrought a complete cure. 
 
 Cardan's journey to Scotland gave him an oppor- 
 tunity of vifiting feveral countries. He crofled France 
 in going thither; and returned through Germany, and 
 the Low Countries, along the banks of the Rhine. It 
 was on this occafion he went to London, and calculated 
 king Edward's nativity. This tour took up about 
 four months : after which, coming back to Milan, he 
 continued there till the beginning of Odober 1552 %. 
 
 and 
 
G A R 
 
 'Carv!ani, and then went to Pavia, from whence he was invited 
 to Bologna in 1562. He taught in this laft city till 
 the year 1570 ; at which time he was thrown into 
 prifon ; but fome months after he was fent home to 
 his own houfe. He left Bologna in 1571 : and went 
 to Rome, where he lived for fome time without any 
 public employment. He was, however, admitted a 
 member of the college of phyficians, and received a 
 penfion from the pope. He died at Rome on the 21ft 
 x>{ September 1575, according to Thuanus. This ac- 
 count might be fufficient to mow the reader that Car- 
 dan was of a very fickle temper; but he will have a 
 much better idea of his Angular and odd turn of mind 
 hy examining what he himfelf has written concerning 
 his own good and bad qualities* He paid himfelf con- 
 gratulatory compliments for not having a friend in this 
 world ; \mt that, in r.^nuittal, he was attended by an 
 aerial fpirit, emaned partly from Saturn and partly 
 from Mercury, who was the conftant guide of his ac- 
 tions, and teacher of every duty to which he was bound. 
 'He declared, too, that he was fo irregular in his man- 
 ner of walking the ftreets, as induced all beholders to 
 point at him as a fool. Sometimes he walked very 
 Slowly, like a man abforbed in profound meditation ; 
 then all on a fudden quickened his fteps, accompanying 
 them with very abfurd attitudes. In Bologna his de- 
 light was to be drawn about in a mean vehicle with 
 three wheels. When nature did not vifit him with any 
 pain, he would procure to himfelf that difagreeable 
 fenfation by biting his lips fo wantonly, or pulling his 
 fingers to fuch a vehement degree, as fometimes to 
 force the tears from his eyes : and the reafon he affign- 
 cd for fo doing, was to moderate certain impetuous 
 Tallies of the mind, the violence of which was to him 
 by far more infupportable than pain itfelf ; and that 
 the fare confequencc of fuch a fevere difcipline was the 
 enjoying the pleafure of health. He fays elfewhere, 
 that, in his greatell tortures of foul, he ufed to whip 
 his legs with rods, and bite his left arm ; that it was a 
 great relief to him to weep, but that very often he 
 could not i that nothing gave him more pleafure than 
 to talk of things which made the whole company un- 
 eafy ; that he fpoke on all fubjefls, in feafon and out 
 of feafon ; and he was fo fond of games of chance, as 
 to fpend whole days in them, to the great prejudice of 
 his family and reputation, for he even flaked his furni- 
 ture and his wife's jewels. 
 
 Cardanus makes no fcruple of owning that he was 
 revengeful, envious, treacherous, a dealer in the black 
 art, a backbiter, a calumniator, and addlAed to all the 
 foul and deteftable CKcefTes that can be imagined : yet, 
 notwithilanding (as one would think) fo humbling a 
 declaration, there was never perhaps a vainer mortal, 
 or one that with lefs ceremony exprefled the high opl- 
 pion he had of himfelf, than Cardanirs was known to 
 tlo, as will appear by the following proofs. " I have 
 •been admired by many nations : an infinite number of 
 panegyrics, both in profe and verfe, have been compo- 
 fed to celebrate my fame. I was born to releafc the 
 world from the manifold errojs under which it gr oaned. 
 V/}iat I have found out could not be difcovered either 
 by my predeceffors or my cotemporaries ; and that is 
 the reafon why thofe authors who write any thing wor- 
 thy of being remembered, fcruple not to own that they 
 
 t 163 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 are indebted to me for it. I have compofed a book Cardan 
 on the dialeftic art, in which there is neither one fu- jj 
 perfluous letter nor one deficient. I finifhed it in feven ^ 
 days, which feems a prodl^^y. Yet where is there a 
 perfon to be found, that can boafl of his having become 
 mafter of its doftrine in a year ? And he that (hall have 
 comprehended it in that time, muft appear to have been 
 inftrufted by a familiar daemon." 
 
 The fame capricioufnefs obfervable in his outward 
 conduft is to be obferved in the compofition of his 
 works. We have a multitude of his treatifes in which 
 the reader is flopped almoft every moment by the ob- 
 fcurity of his text, or his digreffions from the point in 
 hand. In his arithmetical performances there are feve- 
 ral difcourfes on the motions of the planets, on the 
 creation, and on the tower of Babel. In his dialeftic 
 work, we find his judgment on hiftorians and the wri- 
 ters of epiftles. The only apology which he makes for 
 the frequency of his digreffions is, that they were pur- 
 pofely done for the fooner filling up of his flieet, his 
 bargain with the bookfeller being at fomuch perfheet; 
 and that he worked as much for his daily fupport as 
 for the acquifition of glary. The Lyons edition of 
 his works, printed in 1663, confifts of ten volumes in 
 folio. 
 
 It was Cardanus who revived in latter times all the 
 fecret philofophy of the Cabbala or Cabbalifts, which 
 filled the world with fpirits ; a likenefs to whom, he 
 aflerted, we might attain by purifying ourfelves with 
 philofophy. He chofe for himfelf, however, notwith- 
 Handing fuch reveries, this fine device, Tempus mea pof- 
 fejfio, tempus mens ager : " Time is my fole pofTelTion, 
 and the only fund I have to improve." 
 
 In faft, when we confidcr the tranfcendent qualities 
 of Cardan's mind, we cannot deny his having cultiva- 
 ted it with every fpecies of knowledge, and his having 
 made a greater progrefs in philofophy, in the medical 
 art, in aftronomy, in mathematics, &c. than the great- 
 eft part of his cotemporaries who had applied their 
 minds but to one of thofe fciences. 
 
 Scallger affirms, that Cardan, having fixed the time 
 of his death, abftained from food, that his predidion 
 might be fulfilled, and that his continuance to live 
 might not difcredit his art. Cardan's father, who was 
 a doftor of medicine, and a profeflbr of civil and ca- 
 non law, died in the fame manner, in the year 1524, 
 having abftained from all fuftenance for nine days. His 
 fon tells us, that he had white eyes, and could fee in 
 the night-time. 
 
 CARDASS, a fort of card, proper for carding 
 flocks of filk, to make cappadine of it. It is alfo the 
 name which the French give to thofe flocks of filk. 
 
 Carjdasses, Is alfo the name which, in the cloth 
 manufaftories of Languedoc, they give to a fort of 
 large card, which is ufed for carding the dyed wool, 
 defigned for making cloth of mixed colours. 
 
 CARDERS, in the woolle n manufactory, are per- 
 fons who prepare wool, &c. for fpinning, &c. 
 
 Carders, fpinners, weavers, fullers, flieermen, and 
 dyers, not performing their duty in their occupations, 
 fiiall yield to the party grieved double damages ; to be 
 committed until payment. One juftice to hear and 
 determine complaints. 
 
 Carders, combers, forters, fpinners, or weavers, 
 X 2 con- 
 
Cardi 
 
 II 
 
 Cardigan. 
 
 CAR [164 
 
 conveying away, embezzling, or detaining any wool 
 or yarn, delivered by the clothier, or any other perfon, 
 fhall give the party grieved fuch fatisfaftlon, as two 
 juftices, mayor, &c. /hall think fit : if not able or will- 
 ina to make fatlsfaftion, for the firft offence to be 
 whipped, or fet in the flocks in fome market- town, or 
 in any other town where the offence is committed : the 
 fecond offence to incur the like, orfiich further punifh- 
 ment by whipping, &c. as juftices fliall think proper. 
 GonviAion by one witnefs on oath, or confeffion. 
 CARDI (Ludovico). See Civoli. 
 CARDIAC, in a general fenfe, fignifics all medi- 
 cines beneficial to the heart, whether internally or ex- 
 ternally applied. The word comes from the Greek 
 word cor ; the heart being reputed the imme- 
 
 diate feat of their operation. 
 
 Cardiacs, in a more particular fenfe, denote medi- 
 cines which raife the fpirits, and give prefent flrength 
 and cheerfulnefs ; thefe amount to the fame with what 
 are popularly called cordials. Cardiacs are medicines 
 anciently fuppofed to exert themfelves immediately in 
 comforting and ftrengthening the heart : but the mo- 
 dern phyficians rather fuppofe them to produce the ef- 
 feft by putting the blood into a gentle fermentation, 
 whereby the fprings, before decayed, are repaired and 
 invigorated, and the tone and elullicity of the fibres of 
 the veffels reflored ; the confequence of which is a 
 more eafy and brifl< circulation. 
 
 CARDIALGIA, in medicine, a violent fenfation 
 of heat or acrimony felt towards the upper or left ori- 
 fice of the flomach, though feemingly at the heart ; 
 fometimes accompanied with palpitations of the heart, 
 fainting, and a propenfity to vomit; better known by 
 the name of cardiac pajpon, or heart-burn. See {.Index 
 Jiibjohied ^o^Medicine. 
 
 CARDIFF, a town of Glamorganfhire, in South 
 Wales, feated on the river Tave, in a rich and fruitful 
 foil. It is a large, compaft, well built town, having a 
 caflle, a wall, and four gates, built by Robert Fitz- 
 Hamon, a Norman, about the year 1100. It is go- 
 verned by the conflable of the caflle, 12 aldermen, 1 2 
 buigeffes, &c. and fends one member to parhament. 
 Here the affixes and fefflons are held, befides feveral 
 <;ourt9i There is a handfome bridge over the river, to 
 which fmall veffels come to take in their lading. It ha& 
 now only one church, St Mary's having been long fince 
 thrown down by the undermining of the river. The 
 oaftle, though much decayed, makes a grand appear- 
 an(;je even at this time ; and the walls of the town are 
 very Rtong and thick. The church has a fine, towcr- 
 fteeple, and the town-hall is a good ftrufture. The 
 magiflfates are ele£led every year by the majority of 
 the burgeffes. W. Long. 3. 20. Lat. 51. 30. 
 Cardiff gives title of Britifh Baron to the family of 
 Bute in Scotland. 
 
 CARDIGAN, tlie capital town of Cardiganflttre, 
 in South Wales, is feated near the mouth of the river 
 Tei-vy, on the Irifh channel. It is indifferently large 
 and well-built, containing three wards, one church, and 
 the c»unty-gaol It is governed by a mayor, 1 3 alder- 
 men, 13 common-council-men, &c. Here are the ruins 
 of a caflle which was built by Gilbert de Clare, about 
 the year 1 160. It fends one member to Parliament ; 
 and has two markets, held on Tuefdays and l^tiu day*. 
 W. Long. 4. 38, N. Lat. 52. 15. 
 
 Ihire 
 \\_ 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 "I GAR 
 
 CARDIGANSHIRE, a county of South Wales, Cardigan- 
 bounded on the north by Merionethfhire and Morvt- 
 gomeryfhire, on the eaft by RadnorfhiTe and Breck- 
 nockfliire, on the wefl by the Irifh Sea, and on the 
 fouth by Caerraarthenfhire. Its length from north- 
 wefl to fouth-eafl is about 44 miles, and its breadth 
 near 20. The air, as in other parts of Wales, varies 
 with the foil, which in the fouthern and weftern parts 
 is more upon a level than this principality generally is, 
 which renders the air mild and temperate. But as 
 the northern and eaflern parts are mountainous, they 
 are confequently more barren and bleak. However, 
 there are cattle bred in all parts ; but they have nei- 
 ther wood nor coals of their own for fuel ; they have 
 rich lead mines, and fifh in plenty, with fowls both 
 tame and wild. The principal rivers are the Teivy, 
 the Ridol, and the Iflwith. This county hath fxve 
 market-towns, vi%. Cardigan,, Aberiflwith, Llanbad- 
 arnvawn, Llanbedar, and Tregaron, with 77 parifhes ; 
 and was formerly computed to have upward of 300O: 
 houfes, and 520,000 acres of land. It fends two mem- 
 bers to parliament ; one for the county, and one for 
 Cardigan. 
 
 CARDINAL, in a- general fenfe, an appellation 
 given to things on account of their pre-eminence. The 
 word is foi-med of the Latin cardo, a hinge ; it being 
 on thefe fundamental points that all the reft of the . 
 fame kind are fuppofed to turn. Thus, juflice, pru- 
 dence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four . 
 cardinal virtues, as being the bafis of all the reft. 
 Cardinal Flower, in botany. See Lobelia. 
 Cardinal Points, in cofmography, are the four in- 
 terfeftions of the horizon with the meridian, and the 
 prime vertical circle. Of thefe, two, viz. the inter- 
 feftions of the horizon and meridian, are called North 
 and South, with regard to the poles they are dire£lcd 
 to. The other two, viz. the interfe£lions of the ho-, 
 rizon, and firfl vertical, are called Eaji and Weji. 
 
 The cardinal points, therefore, coincide with the 
 fbur cardinal regions of the heavens; and are 90° di-, 
 ftant from each other. The intermediate points arc 
 called collateral points. 
 
 Cardinal Points ^ in aflrology, are the rifing and x 
 ffctting of the fun, the zenith, and nadir. 
 
 Cardinal A^;//, in aflronomy, are Aries, Libra, 
 Cancer, and Capricorn. 
 
 Cardinal Winds, are thofe that blow from the car? - 
 dhial points. 
 
 Cardinal Numbers, in grammar^ arc the numbers 
 one, two, three, &c. which are indeclinable ; in oppo- 
 fition to the ordinal numbers, firil, fecond, third, 
 fourth, &Ci 
 
 Cardinal, an ecclefiafticar prince in the Romifh 
 church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at 
 the eleftion of a pope. Some fay the cardinals were 
 fo called from the Latin incardinatio, which fignifies 
 the adoption in any churcb made of a prieft of a fo- 
 reign church, driven thence by misfortune ; and add, 
 that the ufe of the word commenced, at Rome and 
 Ravenna ; the revenues of the churches of which cities 
 being very great, they became the common refuge of 
 the unhappy priefts of all other churches. 
 
 The cardinals compofe the pope's council or fenate : 
 in the Vatican is a conflitution of pope John, which 
 regulates the rights and titles of the cardinals ; and 
 4 which. 
 
CAR 
 
 f 1^5 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 Cardinal!. v/h.Ich declares, that as the pope reprefents Mofes, fo 
 the' cardinals reprefent the feventy elders, who, under 
 the' pontifical authority, decide private and particular 
 differences. 
 
 Cardinals, in their firll inftitution, were only the 
 primcipal priefts, or incumbents of the parifhes of Rome. 
 In the primitive church, the chief prieft of a pariih, 
 who immediately followed the bifhop, was called pref- 
 hytitr cardinalis, to diftinguifli him from the other petty 
 priefts, who had no church nor preferment ; the term 
 wa;8 firft applied to them in the year 150 others fay, 
 under pope Silvefter, in the year 300. Thefe cardi- 
 nal priefts were alone allowed to baptize, and admini- 
 fl;e]r the eucharift. When the cardinal priefts became 
 biflkops, their cardinalate became vacant ; they being 
 then fuppcfed to be raifed to a higher dignity. — Un- 
 der pope Gregory, cardinal priefts, and cardinal dea- 
 cons, were only fuch priefts or deacons as had a church 
 or chapel under their particular care : and this was the 
 ori ginal ufe of the word. Leo IV. in the council of 
 Rome, held ia^ 853, calls them preJI>yteros Jut car dims ; 
 and their churches, parocJnas cardinaler. 
 
 The cardinrils continued on this footing till the 
 eleventh century : but as the grandeur and ftate of his 
 Lolinefs became then exceedingly augmented, he -w^ould 
 have his council of cardinals make a better figure than 
 the ancient priefts had done. It 13 true, they ftill 
 preferved their ancient title ; but the thing exprefled 
 by it was no more. It was a good while, however, 
 before they had the precedence over biftiops, ^or got 
 the ele(^ion of the pope into their hands : but when 
 they were once poflefled of thofe privileges, they foon 
 had the red hat and purple ; and growing ftill in autho- 
 rity, they became at length fuperior to the bilhops, by 
 the fole quality of being cardinal*. 
 
 X)u-Cange obferves, that originally there were three 
 kinds of churches : the firft or genuine churches were 
 properly called parijhes ; the fecond, deaconries, which 
 were chapels joined to hofpitals, and ferved by dea- 
 cons ; the third were fimple oratories^ where private 
 maftes were faid, and were difcharged by local and re- 
 fident chaplains.- Htr adds, that, to diftinguifh the 
 principal or parifh churches from the chapels and ora- 
 tories, the name cardinales was given, to them. Ac- 
 cordingly, pari/h churches gave titles to cardinal priefts; 
 and fomtf^rhapek alfo, at length, ^ave the title o£ car- 
 ^nal deacons. 
 
 Others obferve, that thfe term cardinal was given not 
 only to priefts, but alfo to biftiops and deacons who 
 were attached to certain churches, to diftinguifli them 
 from thofig- wh6 only ferved them en pajfant, and by 
 commiffiofl.. Titular churches, or benefices, were a 
 kind of parifhes, i, e. churches afligned each to a cardi- 
 nal prieft } with fome ftated diftrift , depending on it, 
 and a font for adminifterlng of baptifm, in cafes where 
 the bifhop himfelf dould not adminifter it. Thefe 
 cardinals were fubordinate to the biftiops ; and ac- 
 cordingly, in councils, particularly that held at Rome 
 in 868, fubfcribed after them. 
 
 It was not, however, only at Rome, that priefts 
 bore this name } for we find there were cardinal priefts 
 in France : thus, the curate of the parifti of St John 
 rfe Vignes is called in old charters the cardinal pricji of 
 that parinik 
 
 The title of cardinal is alfo given to fome bifliops. Cardinal. 
 quatenus bishops ; e. g. to thofe of Mentz and Milan : — v— ' 
 the archbiftiop of Bourges is alfo, in ancient writings, 
 called cardinal ; and the church of Bourges, a cardinal 
 church. The abbot of Vendome calls himfelf cardinalis 
 natus. 
 
 The cardinals are divided into three clafies or ordei-sj 
 containing fix biftiops, fifty priefts, and fourteen dea- 
 cons ; making in all feventy: which conftitute what 
 they call the J'acnd college. The cardinal biftiops, who 
 are, as it were, the pope's vicars, bear the titles of the 
 biftiopricks afligned to them ; the reft take fuch titles 
 as are given them : the number of cardinal biftiops 
 has been iixed ; but that of cardinal priefts and dea- 
 cons, and confequently the facred college, itfelf, is al- 
 ways fiuftuating. Till the year 1 125, the college on- 
 ly confifted of fifty-two or fifty -three : the council of 
 Conftance reduced them to twenty-four ; but Sixtus 
 IV. without any regard to that reftridion, raifed them 
 again to fifty-three, and Leo to fixty-five. Thus, as 
 the number of cardinal priefts was anciently fixed to 
 twenty-eight, new titles were to be eftabliftied, in pro- 
 portion as new cardinals were created. As for the 
 cardinal deacons, they were originally no more than 
 feven for the fourteen quarters of Rome ; but they 
 were afterwards increafed to nineteen, aud after that 
 were again diminiftied. 
 
 According to Onuphn'us, it was pope Pius IV. who 
 firft enaded, in 1562, that the pope ftiould be chofen 
 only by the fenate of cardinals;. whereas, till that time, 
 the eledion was by all the clergy of Rome. Some 
 fay, the eleftion of the pope refted in the cardinals, 
 exclufive of the clergy, in the time of Alexander III. . 
 in n6o. Others go higher ftill, and fay, that Nicho- - 
 las II. having been eleded at Sienna,, in 1058, by the 
 cardinals alone, occafioned the right of election to be 
 taken from the clergy and people of Rome ; only lea- 
 ving them that of confirming him by their confent ; 
 which was at length, however, taken from them. Set- 
 his decree for this purpofe, ifiued in the Roman coun- 
 cil of 1059, in Hardouin's Ada ConciHorum, torn. vi. . 
 pt. i. p. 1 1 65^ Whence it appears, that the cardinals 
 who had the right of fuffrage in the eledion of his 
 fucceffbrs, were divided by this pontiff into cardinal 
 hi/hops and cardinal clerks : meaning by the former the 
 feven bifhops who belonged to the . city and territory 
 of Rome ; and by the latter, the cardnial prejbyters or 
 minifters of the twenty-eight Roman parifhes, or prin- 
 cipal churches. To thefe were added, in procefs 01 
 time, under Alexander III. and other pontiffs, new - 
 members, in order to appeafe - the tumults occafioned 
 by the edid of Nicholas II. . 
 
 At the creation of a new cardinalj the pope per- 
 forms the ceremony of opening and fhutting his mouth | 
 which is done in a private confiftory. The fhutting 
 hrs mouth implies the depriving him of the liberty of 
 giving his opinion in. congregations ; and the opening 
 his mouth, which is performed 15 days after, fignifies 
 the taking off this reftraint. However, if the pope 
 happens to die during the time a cardinal's mouth is 
 fhut, he can neither give his voice in the eledion of a 
 new pope, nor be himfelf advanced to that dignity. 
 
 The drefs of a cardinal is a red foutanne, a rocket, 
 a ftiort purple maatle, and a red hat.. 
 
 Thc- 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 166 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 Jareening. 
 
 Cardinal Tlie cardinals began to wear tlie red hat at the 
 council of Lyons, in 1243. The decree of pope Ur- 
 ban VIII. whereby it is appointed, that the cardinals 
 be addrefled under the title of etninence, is of the year 
 1630 ; till then, they were called tlhjlryjmi. 
 
 When cardinals are fent to the courts of Princes, it 
 is in quahty of legates a latore; and when they are ap- 
 pointed governors of towns, their government is call- 
 ed by the name of legation. 
 
 Cardinal has alfo been applied to fecular officers. 
 Thus, the prime minifters in the court of the emperor 
 Theodofuis, are called cardinaks. Caffiodorus, lib. vii. 
 formul. 31. makes mention of the cardinal prince of 
 the city of Rome ; and in the lift «f officers of the 
 duke of Bretagne, in 1447, we meet with one Raoul 
 de Thorel, cardinal of Quillart, chancellor, and fervant 
 -of the vifcount de Rohan : which fhows it to have been 
 an Inferior quality. 
 
 CARDIOID,in tlTC higher geometry, an algebrai- 
 cal curve, fo called from its refeniblance to an heart. 
 
 CARDIOSPERMUM,in botany: A genus of the 
 trigynia order, belonging to the oftandila clafs of 
 plants ; and In the natural method ranking under the 
 39th order, Tr'ihilatjt. The calyx is tetraphyllous, the 
 petals four, the neftarlum tetraphyllous and unequal ; 
 •the capfuies three, grown together, and inflated. Tiiere 
 are two fpecies, both natives of the Eall and Weft In- 
 dies ; but have no great beauty, or any other remark- 
 able property. 
 
 CARDIUM, or Cockle, in zoology, a genus of 
 infefts belonging to the order of vermes teftaceas. The 
 ihell conlifts of two equal valves, and the fides are e- 
 qual. There are 21 fpecies of this genus. Common 
 on all fandy coafts, lodged a little beneath the fand ; 
 their place marked by a depreffed fpot. They are 
 wholefome and delicious food. 
 
 CARDONA, a handfome town of Spain, in Cata- 
 lonia, with a ttrong caftle, and the title of a duchy. 
 Near it is an inexhauftible mountain of fait of feveral 
 colours, as red, white, carnation, and green : but when 
 wafhed, it becomes white. There are alfo vineyards 
 which produce excellent wine, and very lofty pine- 
 trees. It Is feated on an eminence, near the river Car- 
 denero. E. Long. i. 2fi. N. Lat. 41. 42. 
 
 CARDUUS, in botany: A genus of the polyga- 
 mla aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 49th order, Compnfite. The calyx Is ovate, imbricated 
 ' with pricklv fcales, and the receptacle hairy. Of this 
 genus there are 26 fpecies, ten of which are natives of 
 Britain, and being troublefome weeds require no de- 
 fcrlption. Sume few of the exotic kinds are propaga- 
 ted in gardens for the feke of variety; but even thefe 
 have neither beauty nor any other property to recom- 
 mend them. 
 
 C/iRDVvs BenecJlcfiis. See Cn ic us. 
 CAREENINCJ, in the fea-languaga, the bringing 
 a flnp to He down on one fide, in order to trim and 
 -caulk the other fide. 
 
 A flilp is faid to be brought to the careen, when, the 
 .mort of her lading being taken out ; fhe is hulled down 
 on one fide, by a fmall vefTel, aslow as neceflary ; and 
 ,there kept by the weight of the ballaft, tordnance, &c. 
 as well as by ropes, left her mafts fhould 'be ftrained 
 tijo much J in oider that her fides and bottom may be 
 
 Carew. 
 
 trimmed, feams caulked, or any thing that is faulty Career 
 under water mended. Hence, when a (hip lies on one 
 fide when fhe fails, fhe is fal<l to fail on the careen. 
 
 CAREER, in the manege, a place inclofed with a 
 barrier, wherein they run the ring. 
 
 The word is alfo ufed for the race or courfe of the 
 horfe Itfelf, provided it do not exceed 200 paces. 
 
 In the ancient circus, the career was the fpace the 
 bigae, or quadrigae, were to ran at full fpeed, to gain 
 the prize. See CiRCu«. 
 
 Career, in falconry, is a flight or tour of the bifd, 
 about 120 yards. If flie mount more, it is called a 
 double career .; if lefs, Si fani'Career. 
 
 CARELTA, the eaftern province of Finland ; di- 
 vided into Swedifh Carella, and Mufcovite Carelia. 
 The capital of the latter is Povenza, and of the for- 
 mer Welburg. 
 
 CARELSCR.OON, a fea-port town of Sweden, in 
 Bleklngia, or Bleking, on the Baltic Sea, with a very 
 good harbour defended by two forts. It was built 
 in 1679; and is very populous, w-Ith arfenals for the 
 marine : the haufe of the diredor-gencral of the admi- 
 ralty is in this town, and here the Swedes lay up their 
 royal navy. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 56. 15. 
 
 'CARENTAN, a town of France in Lower Nor- 
 maudy, and in the Contentin, with an ancient caftle. 
 W. Long. I. 14, N. Lat. 49- 20. 
 
 CARET, among grammarians, a charafter marked 
 thus A, fignlfying lhat fomething is added on the 
 margin, or interlined, which ought to come in where 
 the caret ftands. 
 
 CAREW (George), born in Devonfhire in 1557, 
 an eminent commander In Ireland, was made prefident 
 of Munfter by queen Elizabeth ; when, joining his 
 forces with the earl of Thomond, he reduced the IrifU 
 infurgents, and brought the earl of Defmond to his 
 trial. King James made him governor of Guernfey, 
 and created him a baron. As he was a vahant com- 
 mander, he was no lefs a polite fcholar ; and wrote 
 Pacata Hibern'ia., a hiftory of the late wars in Ireland, 
 printed after his death, in 1633. He made feveral 
 coUeAIons for a hillory of Henry V. which are digeft- 
 ed Into Speed's Hiftory of Great Britain. Befides 
 thefe, he collefted materials of Irilh hiftory jin four 
 large MSS. volumes, now in the Bodleian library, Ox- 
 ford. 
 
 Carevv^ (Thomas), dtfcended from, the family of 
 Carew in Gloucefterflure, was gentleman of the privy 
 chamber to Charles I. who always efteemed him one 
 of die moft celebrated wits of his court. He was much 
 refpedled by the poets of his time, particularly by Ben 
 Johnfon and Sir William Davenant ; and left behind 
 him feveral poems, and a mafque called Cwlum Br'itan- 
 n'tcum, performed at Whitehall on Shrove Tuefday 
 night, 1633, by the king, and feveral of his nobles 
 with their fons. Carew was affifted in the contrivance 
 by Inigo Jones, and the mufic was fet by Mr Henry 
 Lawes of the king's chaj>el. He died in the prime of 
 ■iife, about the year 1639. 
 
 Carew (Richard), author of the " Survey of Corn- 
 wall," was the eldeft fon of Thomas Carew of Eaft 
 Anthony, and was born in 1551. When very youngs 
 he became a gentleman commoner of Chrift-church 
 college, Oxford ; and at 14 years of age had the ho- 
 nour of dilputing, extempore, with the afterwards fa- 
 mous 
 
CAR [ 1 
 
 Garew; mou8 Sir Philip Sydney, in the prefence of the earls 
 "V \of Leicefter, Warwick, and other nobility. After 
 fpending three years at the univerfity, he removed to 
 the Middle Temple, where he relided the fame length 
 of time, and then travelled- into foreign part8. Not 
 long after his return to England, he married, in 1577, 
 Juliana Arundel, of Trerice. In 1581, Mr Carew was 
 made juftice of the peace, and in 1586 was appointed 
 high-fheriff of the county of Cornwall ; about which 
 time he was likewife queen's deputy for the miliiia. 
 In 1589, he was elecfted a member of the college of 
 Antiquaries, a diftinftion to which be wss intitled by 
 his literary abilities and purfuits. What particularly 
 engaged his attention was his native county, his '* Sur- 
 vey" of which was publiHied, in 4to, at London, in 
 1602. It hath been twice reprinted, firft in 1723, 
 and next in 1769. Of this work Cambdcn hath fpo- 
 ken in high terms, and acknowledges his obligations 
 to the author. In ihc prefent improved ftate of topo- 
 graphical knowledge, and fince Dr Borlafe's excellent 
 publications relative to the county of Cornwall, the 
 value of Carew^s " Survey" mud have been greatly di- 
 miniflied. Mr Gough remarks, that the hiftory and 
 monuments of this county were faintly touched by 
 Carew ; but it is added, that he was a perfon extreme- 
 ly capable of defcribing them, if the infancy of thofe 
 ftudles at that time had afforded light and materials. 
 Another work of our author was a tranflatLon from the 
 Italian, intituled, *' The Examination of Men's Wits. 
 In which, by difcovering the variety of natures, is 
 fhowed for what profeffion each one is apt, and how 
 far he (hall profit therein." This was publifhed at 
 London in 1594, and afterwards in 1604; and tho' 
 Richard Carew's name is prefixed to it, hath been 
 principally afcribed by fome perfons to his father. Ac- 
 cording to Wood, Carew wrote alfo, *' The true and 
 ready Way to learn the Latin Tongue," in anfwer to 
 a query, whether the ordinary method of teaching the 
 Latin by the rules of grammar be the befl; mode of 
 inftrufting youths in that language ? This trad^ is in- 
 volved in Mr Hartlib's book upon the fame fubjedl, 
 and with the fame title. It is certain that Carew was 
 a gentleman of confiderable abilities and literature, and 
 that he was held in great eftimation by fome of the 
 moft eminent fcholars of his time. He was particu- 
 larly intimate with Sir Henry Spelman, who extols 
 him for his ingenuity, virtue, and learning. 
 
 Carew (George), brother to the fubjeft of the laft 
 article, was educated in the univerfity of Oxford, after 
 which he Itudied the law in the inns of court, and then 
 travelled to foreign countries for farther improvement. 
 On his return to his native country, he was called to 
 the bar, and after fome time was appointed fecretary 
 to Sir Chriftopher Hatton loi-d chancellor of England. 
 This was by the efpecial recommendation of queen 
 Elizabeth herfeif, who gave him a prothonotaryfliip in 
 the chancery, and conferred upon him the honour of 
 knighthood. In 1597, Sir George Carew, who was 
 then a mafter in chancery, was fent ambaffador to the 
 king of Poland. In the next reign, he was one of the 
 commlffioners for treating with the Scotch concerning 
 an union between the two kingdoms ; after which he 
 was-appointed ambalfador to the court of France, where 
 he continued from the latter end of the year 1 605 till 
 
 67 1 CAR 
 
 1609. During his refidencc in that country, he form- Carew, 
 ed an intimacy with Thuanus, to whom he commu. ^ ^^ay- 
 nicated an account of the tranfaftions in Poland whilft " ~ 
 he was employed there, which was of great fervice to 
 that admirable author in drawing up the i2ifl book 
 of his hiftory. After Sir George Carew's return from 
 France, he was advanced to the important poft of ma- 
 iler of 4he court of Wards, which honourable fituation 
 he did not long live to enjoy ; for it appears from a 
 letter written by Thuanus to Cambden in the fpring, 
 of 161 3, that he was then lately deceafed. Sir George 
 Carew mai-rled Thomafine, daughter of Sir PVancis 
 Godolphin, great-grandfather of the lord treafurer Go- 
 dolphin, and had by her two fons and three daughters. 
 When Sir George Carew returned, in 1609, from his 
 French erabaffy, he drew up, and addrplfed to James 
 ** A Relation of the State of France, with the cha- 
 racters of Henry IV. and the principal Perfons of that 
 Court." The charafters are drawn from perfonal 
 knowledge and cl'ofe obfervation, and might be of fer- 
 vice to a general hiftorian of that period. The com- 
 pofition is perfpicuous and manly, and entirely free 
 from the pedantry which prevailed in the reign of - 
 James I. but this in the lefs furprifing, as Sir George- 
 Carew's tafte had been formed in a better sera, that of 
 queen Elizabeth. The valuable traft we are fpeaking 
 of lay for a long time in MS. till happily falling into 
 the hands of the earl of Hardwicke, it was communi- 
 cated by him to Dr Birch, who pubiifrted'it, in 1749, 
 at the end of his " Hiftorical View of the Negocia- 
 tions between the Courts of England, France, and 
 Bruffels, from 1592 to 1617." That intelligent and 
 induftrious writer juftly obferves, that it is a model 
 upon which ambafTadors may form and digeft their no- 
 tions and reprefentations ; and the late celebratf^d poet- 
 Mr Gray hath fpoken of it as an excellent perform- 
 ance. V 
 
 CAREY (Harry), a man diftinguifhed by both 
 poetry and mufic, but perhaps more fo by a certain 
 facetioufnefe, which made hrm agreeable to every bo- 
 dy. He publifhed in 1 720 a little coUeftion of poems ; 
 and in 1732, fix cantatas, written and compofed by 
 himfelf. He alfo compofed fundry fongs for modern 
 comedies, particularly thofe in the " Provoked Hiif- 
 band :" he wrote a farce called " The Contrivances," 
 in which were feveral little fongs to very pretty airs of 
 his own compofition : he alfo made two or three little 
 dramas for Goodman's- fields theatre, which were very 
 favourably received. In 1729, he publifhed by fub- 
 fcription his poems much enlarged ^ with the addition 
 of one intituled " Namby Pamby," in which Am- 
 brofe Philips is ridiculed. Carey's talent, fays his hi- 
 ftorian, lay in humour and unmaltvolent fatire : to ri- 
 dicule the rant and bombaft of modern tragedies he 
 wrote one, to which he gave the ftrange title of 
 ** Chrbnonhotonthologos," afted in 1734. He alfo 
 wrete a farce called " The Honeft Yorkfhireman." 
 Carey was a thorough Engltfhman, and had an unfur- 
 mountable averfion to the Italian opera and the fingers 
 in it : he wrote a burlefque opera on the fubjeA of 
 the " Dragon of Wantley ;" and afterwards a fequel 
 to it, intituled, " The Dragonefs both which wers 
 eileemed a true burlefque upon the Italian opera. Hij 
 qualities being^of the entertaining kind,, he was led hn 
 
CAR [ i68 ] GAR 
 
 Cargadors to more expences than his fiaances could bear, and weft longitude, and between 1 1 and 1 8 degrees of north Ci»ri1>l>ee 
 
 They lie in the form of a bow or ftmiciircle, tfla"^' ^ 
 
 Caribbee 
 Iflands. 
 
 thus was frequently in diftrefs. His friends however 
 were always ready to alTilt him by their little fubfcrip- 
 tions to his works v and encouraged by thcfe, he re- 
 publlflied, in 1740, all the fongs he hid ever compo- 
 ied, in a coUeftion, intituled, " The Mufical Century, 
 in 100 Englifh Ballads, &c." and, in 1 743, his drama 
 tic works, in a fmall Volume, 410. With ail his mirth 
 and good-humour, he feemg to have been at times deep- 
 ly affedled with the malevolence of fome of his oWn 
 profeffion, who, for reafons that no one can guefs at, 
 were his enemies : and this, with the preffure of his 
 circumftances, is fuppofed to have occafioned his un- 
 timely end ; for, about 1744, In a fit of defperation, 
 he laid violent hands on himfelf, and, at his houfe in 
 Warner-ftreet, Cold-bath Fields, pat a period to a 
 life, which, fays Sir John Hawkins, had been led with- 
 out reproach. It is to be noted, and it is fomewhat 
 fingular in fuch a charadler, that in all his fongs and 
 poems on wine, love, and fuch kind of fubjefts, he 
 ieems to have manifeiled an inviolable regard for de- 
 cency and good manners. 
 
 CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch g;lve to 
 thofe brokers whofe bufinefs Is to find freight for fliips 
 outward bound, and to give notice to the merchants, 
 who have commodities to fend by fea, of the fhipsthat 
 are ready to fail, and of the places for which they are 
 bound. 
 
 CARGAPOL, or Kargapol, the capital of a ter- 
 ritory of the fame name, in the province of Dwina,.in 
 'Mufcovy : E. Long. 36°. N. Lat. 63°. 
 
 CARGO denotes all the merchandifes and effefts 
 which are laden on board a (hip. 
 
 Snper-CARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to go 
 a voyage, over fee. the. cargo, and difpofe of it to the 
 beft advantage. 
 
 CARIA (anc. geog. ), a country of the ^Hither A- 
 . fia ; swhofe hmits are extended by fome, while they are 
 , contrafted by others. Mela, Pliny, extend the mari- 
 time Caria from Jafus and HalicarnalTus, to Calynda, 
 and the borders of Xycia. The Inland CarIa Ptolemy 
 extends to the Meander and beyond. Car, Cariatesy 
 iCarlatisf CarlJJa, and Cans ^ and Ci7iV«, are the genti- 
 litious names ; Carius and Car'cus the epithets. In 
 Care periculunif was a proverbial faying on a thing expo- 
 fed to danger, but of no great value. The Cares being 
 'the Swifs of thofe'days, were hired and placed in the front 
 
 latitude. 
 
 ttretching almoft from the coaft of Florida north, to 
 near the river Oroonoque. Thofe th it lie neareft the 
 eaft have been called the IVindioard IJlandt, the others 
 the Leetuard, on account of the winds blowing gene- 
 rally fiom the eaftern point in thofe quarters. Abb(5 
 Raynal conjeftures them to be the tops of very high 
 mountains formerly belonpring to the continent, vs'hich 
 have been changed Into iflduds by fome revolution that 
 has laid the flat country under water. The <liret£lionL 
 of the Caribbee Iflands, beginning from Tobago, is 
 nearly north and N. N. W. This direftion Is conti- 
 nued forming a line fomewhat curved towards the 
 north-weft, and ending at Antigua. In this place the 
 line becomes at once curved ; and extending itlelf In a 
 ftraight diredion to the weft and north-weft, meets in 
 its courfe with Porto- Rico, St Dominjro, and Cuba, 
 known by the name of the Leeward Iflands, which are 
 feparated from each other by channels of various 
 breadths. Some of thefe are fix, others 1 5 or 20 leagues 
 broad ; but In all of them the foundings are from ico 
 to 1 20 or 150 fathoms. Between Grenada and St Vin- 
 cent's thereis alfo a fmall archipelago of 30 leagues, In 
 which the foundings are not above ten fathom. The 
 mountains in the Caribbee iflands run in the fame direc- 
 tion as the iflands themfelves. The direflion is fo re- 
 gular, that if we were to confider the tops of thefe 
 mountains only, Independent of their bafes, they might 
 be looked upon as a chain of hills belonging to the 
 continent, of which Martinico would be the moft north- 
 wefterly promontory. The fprings of water which flow 
 from the mountains In the Windward Iflands, run all 
 In the weftern parts of thefe iflands. The whole eaftern 
 coaft Is without any running water. No fprings come 
 down there from the mountains : and Indeed they would 
 have there been ufelefs ; for after having run over a very 
 fhort traft of land, and with great rapidity, they would 
 have fallen into the fea. In Porto Rico, St Domingo, 
 and Cuba, there are a few rivers that difcharge them- 
 felves on the northern fide, and whofe fourccs rife in the 
 mountains running from eaft to weft, that is, thro' the 
 whole length of thefe iflands. From the other fide of 
 the mountains facing the fouth, where the fea, flowing 
 with great Impetuofity, leaves behind it marks of its 
 inundations, feveral rivers flow down, the mouths of 
 which are capable of receiving the largeft (hips. The 
 
 of the battle, (Cicero.) Cum Care Carl/fa, denoted the foil of the Caribbees confifts moftly of a layer of clay 
 behaviour of clowns. The Cares came originally from or gravel of different thicknefs ; under which is a bed 
 
 the iflands to the continent, being formerly fiibjeft to 
 Minos, and called Leieges : this the Cretans afBrm, and 
 the Cares deny, making themfelves aborigines. They 
 are of ^ common original with the Myfi and Lydi, 
 having a common temple, of a very ancient ftanding, 
 at Melafla, a town of Caria, called gov'ts Carii Delu- 
 irum, (Herodotus.) Homer calls the Carlans, barba- 
 rians in language. 
 
 of ftone or rock. The nature of fome of thofe foils is 
 better adapted to vegetables than others. In thofe 
 places where the clay Is drier and more friable, and 
 mixes with the leaves and remains of plants, a layer of 
 earth Is formed of greater depth than where the clay 
 is molfter. The fand or gravel has different properties 
 according to its peculiar nature ; wherever it is lefs 
 hard, lefs compaft, and lefs porous, fmall pieces fepa« 
 
 CARIATI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of rate themfelves from it, which, though dry, preferve 
 
 Naples, and province of Hither Cnlabria, with a hi- a certain degree of coolnefs ufeful to vegetation. This 
 
 (hop's fee, and the title of a principality. It is two foil Is called in America a pmnice-Jlone foil. Whcre- 
 
 mlles from the gulf of Taranto, and 37 north-eaft of ever the clay and gravel do not go through fuch modi- 
 
 :Cofenza. E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 30. 38. fications, the foil becomes barren, as foon as the layer 
 
 CARIBBEE ISLANDS, a clufter of iflands fituated formed by the decompofition of the original plants is 
 
 in the Atlantic ocean between 59 and 63 degrees of deftroyed.— Bj a treaty concluded in January 1660, 
 
 N% 65. between 
 
CAR 
 
 . between the French and Engh'/li, the Caribs were 
 confine-d to the iflands of St Vincent's and Domi- 
 nica, w/heie all the fcattered body of this people 
 were umited, and at that time did not exceed in num- 
 ber 6000 men. See St Vincent's and Dominica. 
 
 As the Caribbee iflands are all between the tropics, 
 their irahabitants are expofed, allowing for the varieties 
 refultinig from difference of lltuation and foil, to a per- 
 petual heat, which generally increafes from the riling 
 of the ifun till an hour after noon, and then declines in 
 proporttion as the fun declines. The variations of the 
 temperature of the air feem to depend rather on the 
 wind tlhan on the changes of the feafons. In thofe 
 places where the wind does not. blow, the air is excef- 
 fively haot, and none but the eafteily winds contribute 
 to temjper and refrefh it : thofe that blow from the 
 fouth and weft afford little relief ; but they are much 
 lefs frecquent and lefs regular than that which blows 
 from tihe eaft. The branches of the trees expofed to 
 the infliuence of the latter are forced round towards the 
 weft : Ibut their roots are ftronger, and more extended 
 under the ground, towards the eaft than towards the 
 weft; a.nd hence they are eafily thrown down by ttrong 
 weft wiinds or hurricanes from that quarter. The eaft- 
 erly wi;nd is fcarce felt in the Caribbee iflands. before 
 9 or lO) o'clock in the morning, increafes in proportion 
 as the ifun rifes above the horizon, and decreafes as - it 
 declines. Towards the evening it ceafes entirely to 
 blow om the coafts, but not on the open fea. It has 
 alfo been obferved, that it blows with more force, 
 and more regularity, in the dog-days than at any other 
 time of the year. 
 
 The nun alfo contributes to the tcKiperature of the 
 Caribbise iflands, though not equally in them all. In 
 thofe places where the eafterly wind meets with no- 
 thing t o oppofe its progrefs, it difpels the clouds as 
 they begin to rife, and caufes them to break either in 
 the woiods or upon the mountains. But whenever the 
 ftorms are too violent, or the blowing of the eafterly 
 wind is interrupted by the changeable and temporary 
 effeft o f the foutherly and wefterly ones, it then be- 
 gins to rain. In the other Caribbee iflands, where 
 this wind does not generally blow, the rains are fo fre- 
 quent and plentiful, eipecially in the winter fcafon, 
 which lafts from the middle of July to the middle of 
 Odlober, fhat, according to the moft accurate obfer- 
 vations,. as much rain falls in one week as in our cli- 
 mates in a year. Inftead of thofe mild refrefliing 
 fliowers which fall in the European chmates, the rains 
 of the Caribbee iflands are torrents, the found of which 
 might be niiftaken for hail, were not that almoft total- 
 ly unknown undergo burning a fl<y. Thefe fliowers 
 indeed refrefli the air ; but thty occafion i dampnefs, 
 the effe(£t.s of which arc not lefs difagreeable than fatal. 
 The dead miift be interred within a few hours after 
 they have expired. Meat will not keep fweet above 
 -24 hours. The fruits decay, whether they are gather- 
 ' ed ripe or-before their maturity. The bread muft be 
 made up into bifcuits, to prevent its growing mouldy. 
 Common wines turn four, and iron turns rufty, in a 
 day's time. The feeds can only be preferved by con- 
 ftant attention and care, tifl the proper feafon returns 
 for fowing them. When the Caribbee iflands were 
 firft difcovered, the corn that was conveyed there for the 
 fupport of the Europeans, was fo foon damaged, that it 
 Vol. IV. Part. I. 
 
 [ x6g ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 became neceffary to fend it out in the ears. This ne- 
 ceftary precaution fo much enhanced the price of it, 
 that few were able to purchafe it. Flour was then 
 fubftituted in Heu of corn ; which lowered indeed the 
 expences of tranfport, but had this inconvenience, that 
 it was fooner damaged. It was imagined by . a mer- 
 chant, that if the flour were entirely feparated from 
 the bran, it would have the double advantage of being 
 cheaper and keeping longer. He caufed it therefore 
 to be flfted, and put the fineft flour into ftrong cafl<;s, 
 and beat it clofe together with iron hammers, till it 
 became fo clofe a body th;it the air could fcarcely pe- 
 netrate it. This method was found to anfwer the pm-- 
 pofe ; and if, by it, the flour cannot be preferved as 
 long as in our dry and temperate climates, it may be 
 kept for flx months, a year, or longer, according to the 
 degree of care taken in the preparation. 
 
 However troublefome thefe effects of the rain mav 
 be, it is attended with fome others ftill more formi- 
 dable ; namely, frequent and dreadful earthquakes, 
 Thefe happening generally during the time or towards 
 the end of the rainy feafon, and when the tides are 
 higheft, fome ingenious naiuraHfl:s have fuppofed that 
 there might be a connexion between them. The wa- 
 ters of the flcy and of the fea undennine, dig up, and 
 ravage the earth in feveral different ways. Among 
 the various fliocks to which the Caribbee iflands are ex- 
 pofed from the fury of the boifterous ocean, there i;^ 
 one diilinguiflied by the name of raz(Ie?naree, or iv/y/-/- 
 pooL It conttantly happens once, twice, or thrice, 
 from July tb Oftober, and always on the weflern coalls, 
 becaufe it takes place after the time of the wefterly or 
 foutherly winds, or while they blow. The waves, 
 which at a diftance feem to advance gently within 400 
 or 500 yards, fuddcnly fwell againft the fliore, as if 
 afted upon in an oblique diredion by fome fuperior 
 force, and break with the greateft impetuofity. The 
 fliips which are then upon the coaft, or in the roads 
 heyond it, unable eitlier to keep their anchors or to 
 put out to fea, are daflied to pieces againft the land, 
 and all on board moft commonly perilli. The hurri- 
 cane is another terrible phenomenon in thefe iflands, 
 by which incredible damage is occafioned; but happily 
 it occurs not often. 
 
 The produce of the Caribbee iflands is exceedingly 
 valuable to the Europeans, confilling of fugar, rum, 
 molaffes, indigo, &c. a particular account of which is 
 given under the names of the refpeftive iflands as they 
 occur in the order of the alphabet. 
 
 CARIBBIANA, or Caribiana, the north eaft 
 coaft of .Terra Firma, in South America, otherwife 
 called Nciv Andalusia. 
 
 CARICA, the PAPAw; A genus of the decandria 
 order, belonging to the dioecia ckifs of plants ; and in 
 the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tri- 
 cocca. The calyx of the male almoft none ; the corol- 
 la is quinquefid and funnel-fliapcd ; the filaments in the 
 tube of the corolla, a longer and fliorter one alternate- 
 ly. The calyx of the female quinquedentated ; the co- 
 rolla is pentapetalous, with five ftigmata ; the fruit an 
 unilocular and polyfpermous berry. 
 
 Species. 1 . The papaya rifes with a thick, foft, her- 
 baceous ftera, to the height of 18 or 20 feet, naked 
 till within two or three feet of the top. The leaves 
 come out on every fide, upon very long footftalks. 
 
 Y Thofe 
 
 CarMiee 
 ii 
 
 Car ca. 
 
CAR [ 170 1 GAR 
 
 fituated undermoft are almoft hori- out in clufters on every fide, and the fruit of the female Caricatur 
 
 crowing: round the ftalks between the leaves, are lb ^ l[ 
 9.^ ° ^ 1 • r 1- J ci- Carina, 
 
 different from any thing of European production, as 
 
 well to intitle thefe plants to a place in the gardens of 
 
 hrft fpecies is by the 
 
 Carici. Thofe which are 
 
 ^ » " " zontal, but thofe on the top are ereft : thefe leaves in 
 full grown plants are very large, and divided into many 
 lobes deeply finuated. The ftem of the plant, and alfo 
 the footftalks of the leaves, are hollow. The flowers 
 of the male plant are produced from between the leaves 
 on the upper part of the plant. They have footftalks 
 near two feet long ; at the end of which the flowers 
 ftand in loofe clufters, each having a feparate ftiort 
 footftalk : thefe are of a pure white, and have an a- 
 grceable odonr. The flowers of the female papaya al- 
 fo come out from between the leaves towards the up- 
 per part of the plant, upon very ftiort footftalks, fit- 
 ting clofe to the ftem: they are large, and bell-fliaped, 
 compofed of fix petals, and arc commonly yellow ; 
 when thefe fall away, the germen fwells to a large 
 flefliy fruit, of the fize of a fmall melon. Thefe fruits 
 are of different forms : fome angular^, and comprefled 
 at both ends ; others oval, or globular ; and fome py- 
 ramidal. The fruit, and all the other parts of the 
 tree abound with a milky acrid juice, which is applied 
 for killing of ring-worms. When the roundifh fruit are 
 nearly ripe, the inhabitants of India boil and eat them 
 with their meat as v/e do turnips. They have fome- 
 what the flavour of a pompion. Previous to boiling 
 they foak them for fome time in fait and water, to ex- 
 tract the corrofive juice ; unlefs the meat they are to 
 be boiled w-ith fliould be very fait and old, and then 
 this juice being in them will make it as tender as a 
 diicken. But they moftly pickle the long fruit, and 
 thus they make no bad fuccedaneum for mango. The 
 buds of the female flowers are gathered, and made into 
 a fweet-meat ; and the inhabitants are fuch good ma- 
 nagers of the produce of this tree, that they boil the 
 fiiells of the ripe fruit into a repaft, and the inudes are 
 eaten with fugar in the manner of melons. — The ftem 
 being hollow, has given birth to a proverb in the 
 Weft-India iflands ; where, in fpeaking of a diffem- 
 bling perfon, they fay he is as hollow as a Fopo. 
 
 2. The profepofa, diff"ers from the other in having 
 a branching ftalk, the lobes- of the leaves entire, the 
 flower of a rofe colour, and the fruit ftiaped like a pear, 
 and of a fweeter flavour than the papaya. 
 
 Culture, &c. Thefe plants being natives of hot coun- 
 tries, cannot be preferved in Britain unlefs conftantly 
 kept in a warm ftove, which fliould be of a proper 
 height to contain them. They are eafily propagated 
 by feeds, which are annually brought in plenty from 
 the Weft Indies, though the feeds of the European 
 plants ripen well. The feeds ftiould be fown in a hot- 
 bed early in the fpring : when the plants are near two 
 inches high, they fliould be removed into feparate 
 fmall pots, and each plunged into a hot-bed of tanners 
 bark, carefully fliading them from the fun till they 
 have taken root ; after which, they are to be treated 
 in the fame manner as other tender exotics. When 
 thcv are removed into other pots, care muft be taken 
 as much as poflible to preferve the ball of earth about 
 them, becaufe wherever their roots are laid bare they 
 feldom furvive. When they are grown to a large fize, 
 they make a noble appearance with their ftrong up- 
 right ftems, garnifhed on every fide near the top with 
 large fliining leaves, fpreading out near three feet all 
 round the ftem : the flowers of the male . fort coming 
 
 a refemblance of the 
 formed of carua. 
 
 the curious. The fruit of the lirlt Ipecies is 
 inhabitants of the Caribbee iflands eaten with pepper 
 and fugar as melons, but is much inferior to a melon 
 in its native country ; but thofe which have ripened in 
 Britain were deteftable: the only ufe to which Mr Mil- 
 ler fays he has known them put was, when they were 
 about half grown, to foak them in fait water to get 
 out the acrid juice, and then pickle them for onangos, 
 to which they are a good fubftitute. 
 
 CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the conceal- 
 ment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of ble- 
 miflies, but ftill fo as to preferve 
 objeft. The word is ItaUan ; 
 load, burden, or the like. 
 
 CARICOUS, an epithet given to fuch tumors as 
 refemble the figure of a fig. They are frequently found 
 in the piles. 
 
 CARIES, the corruption or mortification of a bone. 
 See Medicine and Surgery, Index. 
 
 CARIGNAN, a fortified town of Piedmont, fitua- 
 ted on the river Po, about feven miles fouth of Turin. 
 E. Long. 7. 25. N. I^at. 44. 30. It was taken in 1544 
 by the French ; who demolifhed the fortifications, but 
 fpared the caftle. It was alfo taken, and retaken, ia 
 1691. 
 
 CARILLONS, a fpecies of chimes frequent in the 
 low countries, particularly at Ghent and Antwerp, 
 and played on a number of bells in a belfrey, forming 
 a complete ferles or fcale of tones and femitones, hke 
 thofe on the harpfichord and organ. There are petals 
 communicating with the great bells, upon which the 
 cariUoneiir with his feet plays the bafe to fprightly airs» 
 performed with the two hands upon the upper fpecies 
 of keys. Thefe keys are projecting fticks, wide enough 
 afunder to be ftruck with violence and velocity by 
 either of the hands edgeways, without the danger 
 of hitting the neighbouring key. The player is 
 provided with a thick leather covering for the little 
 finger of each hand, to guard againft the violence of 
 the ftroke. Thefe carillons are heard through a large 
 town. 
 
 CARINA, a Latin term, properly fignifying the keel 
 of a fliip ; or that long piece of timber running along 
 the bottom of the fliip from head to ftem, upon which 
 the whole ftrufture is built or framed. 
 
 Carina is alfo frequently ufed for the whole capa- 
 city or bulk of a ftiip ; containing the hull or all the 
 fpace below the deck. Hence the word is alfo fome? 
 times ufed by a figure for the whole fliip. 
 
 Carina is alfo ufed in the ancient arcliitedure. The 
 Romans gave the name carina to all buildings^in form 
 of a fliip, as we ftill give the name nave to the midd-le 
 or principal vault of our Gothic churches ; becaufe it 
 has that figure. 
 
 Carina, among anatomifts, is ufed to denote the 
 fpma dorft ; as likewife for the fibrous rudiments or 
 embryo of a chick appearing in an incubated egg.' 
 The carina confifts of the entire Dertebr.e, as they appear 
 after ten or twelve days incubation. It is thus called, 
 becaufe crooked in form of the keel of a fliip — Bota- 
 
 nifts 
 
CAR 
 
 lola nifts alfo, for the like reafon, ufe the word carina^ to 
 exprefs tlie lower petalum of a papilionaceous flower. 
 
 Carin^e were dfo weepers or women hired among 
 the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were 
 thus called "from Caria, the countiy whence moft of 
 them came. 
 
 CARINOLA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, and Teira di Lavoro. E. Long. 
 15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 15. 
 
 CARINTHIA, a duchy of Germany, in the circle 
 of Auftria, bounded by the archbifhopric of Saltzburg 
 on the north, and by Carniola and the Venetian terri- 
 tLiiea on the fouth, on the weft by Tyrol, and on the 
 eaft by Stiria. A part of this country was anciently 
 called Carnla, and the inhabitants Carni; but the for- 
 mer aftei-wards obtained the name oiCar'inthia, and the 
 latter Carantan't or Carinthi. The air of this country 
 is cold, and the foil in general mountainovis and bar- 
 ren ; but there are fome fruitful dales and valleys in it, 
 which produce wheat and other grain. The lakes, 
 brooks, and rivers, which are very numerous, abound 
 with lifh ; and the mountains yield lead and iron, and 
 in many places are covered with woods. The river 
 Drave, which runs aci'ofs the country, is the moft con- 
 fiderable in Carinthia. The inhabitants are partly de- 
 fcendants of the ancient Germans, and partly of the 
 Sclavouians or Wends. The ftates are conftituted as 
 In Auftria, and their affembhes are held at Clagenfurt. 
 The archbifliop of Saltzburg and the bifhop of Bam- 
 berg have confiderable territories in this country. Chri- 
 ftianity was planted here in the 7th century. The 
 only profelTion tolerated at prefent is the Roman Ca- 
 tholic. The bifliops are thofe of Gurk and Lavant, 
 who are fubjcft to the archbiftiop of Saltzburgh. This 
 duchy was fonnerly a part of Bavaria. In the year 
 1282, the emperor Rodolph I. gave It to Maynad 
 count of Tyrol, on condition that when his male ifliie 
 failed, it ftiould revert to the houfe of Auftria; which 
 happened in 1331. Carinthia has its particular go- 
 vernor or land-captain, as he Is called ; and contributes 
 annually towards the expence of the military eftablifti- 
 ment 637,695 florins. Only one regiment of foot is 
 ufually quartered in It. 
 
 CARIPI, a kind of cavalry in the Turklfh army. 
 The caripi, to the number of about 1000, are not flaves, 
 nor bred up In the feraglio, like the reft ; but are gene- 
 rally Moors or renegado Chriftians, who having follow- 
 ed adventures, being poor, and having their fortune to 
 feek by their dexterity "^^and courage, have arrived at 
 the rank of horfe-guards to the Grand Signior. 
 
 CARISSA, in botany: A genus of the monogyma 
 order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 30th order, 
 Contortte. It has two many-feeded berries. 
 
 CARITAS.— The poculum caritatu, or grace-cup, 
 was an extraordinary allowance of wine or other liquors, 
 wherein the religious at feftivals drank in commemo- 
 ration of their founder and benefaftors. 
 
 CARISBROOK-CASTLE, a caftle fituated In the 
 middle of the ifle of Wight, where king Charles I. was 
 imprifoned. W. Long. i. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40. 
 
 CARISTO, an epifcopal city of Greece, in the eaft- 
 «ern part of the Ifland of Negropont, near Cape Loro. 
 .£. Long. 24. 15. N. Lat. 3a. 6. 
 
 I 171 3 
 
 CAR 
 
 CARKE, denotes the 30th part of a sarplar of 
 wool. 
 
 CARLE. See Churl. , 
 
 CARLETON (Sir Dudley), was born in Oxford- 
 flilre, 1573, and bred in Chrift-church college. He 
 went as fecretary to Sir Ralph Winwood into the Low 
 Countries, when king James refigned the cautionary 
 towns to the States ; and was afterwards employed for 
 20 years as ambaflador to Venice, Savoy, and the U- 
 nited Provinces. King Charles created him vifcount 
 Dorchefter, and appointed him one of his principal fe- 
 cretariesof ftate ; in which oflfice he died in 163 1. He 
 was efteemed a good ftatefman, though an honeftman; 
 and publiftied feveral political works. . 
 
 CARLINA, the CARL iNE thistle: a genus of 
 the polygamia cequalis order, belonging to the fynge- 
 nefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the 49th order, Compofitte. The calyx is 
 radiated with long coloured marginal fcales. There 
 are feven fpecies, only one of which is a native of Bri- 
 tain, vi%. the vidgaris. The others are natives of th-e 
 fouth of France or Italy ; and are very eafily propa,- 
 gated in this country by feeds, which muft be fown on 
 a bed of frefti undunged earth, where they are to re- 
 main, as they do not bear tranfplanting. When the 
 plants appear above ground, they fliould be carefully 
 weeded, and afterwards thinned, leaving them about 
 ten inches or a foot afunder. The fecond year moft 
 of them will flower: but, unlefs the feafon proves dry, 
 they rarely produce good feeds in this countiy, and 
 fome of the plants decay foon after they have flowered, 
 fo that It is pretty difficult to maintain them here. 
 The roots are ufed in medicine, and for that purpofe 
 are Imported from thofe countries where the plants 
 grow naturally. As we receive them, they are about 
 an inch thick, externally of a rufty brown colour, cor- 
 roded as it were on the furface, and perforated with 
 numerous fmall holes, appearing on the furface as if 
 worm-eaten. They have a ftrong fmell, and a fub- 
 acrid, bitterifli, weakly, aromatic tafte. They are 
 looked upon to be warm alexipharmics and diapho- 
 retics. Frederic Hoffman the Elder relates that he 
 has obferved a decoftion of them in broth to occafion 
 vomiting. They have been for fome time greatly 
 efteemed among foreign phyficians ; but never wei c 
 much In ufe in this country. The prefent praftice 
 has entirely rejefted them, nor are they often to be 
 met with in the fliops. 
 
 CARLINE, or CAROLINE THISTLE. See Carli- 
 NA. It Is fald to have been difcovered by an angel to 
 Charlemagne, to cure his army of the plague ; whence 
 its denomination. 
 
 Car LINE, or Caroline, a filver coin current in the 
 Neapolitan dominions, and worth about 4^. of our 
 money. 
 
 Carlines, or Carlings, in a flilp, two pieces 
 of timber lying fore and aft, along from one beam to 
 another, directly over the keel ; ferving as a founda- 
 tion for the whole body of the fliip. On thefe the 
 ledges reft, whereon the planks of the deck and other 
 matters of carpentry are made faft. The carlines 
 have their ends let Into the beams called culver-tail- 
 ivife. 
 
 CarlinE' Knees, are timbers going athwart the fliip, 
 Y 2 from 
 
 C^rlce 
 
 Carli'nc. 
 
CAR 1 I 
 
 Carlingford from the fides to the hatch- way, ferving to fuflain the 
 . Carhfle. ^^^^ ^q^]^ fj^j^g^ 
 
 " ' CARLINGFORD, a port-town of Ireland, featcd 
 
 on Carlingford bay, in the county of Louht, and pro- 
 vince of Leinlter, 22 miles north of Drogheda. W. 
 Long. 6. 24. N. Lat. 24. 5. 
 
 CARLISLE, the capital city of the county of Cum- 
 berland, feated on the fouth of the river Eden, and be- 
 tween the Petterelj)n the eaft, and the Caude on the 
 weft. It is furrounded by a llrong flone-wall, and has 
 a pretty large caftle in the weftern part of It, as alfo a 
 citadel in the eaftern part, built by Henry VIII. It 
 flourifhed in the time of the Rom.ans, as appears from 
 the antiquiticK that are to be met with here, and the 
 Roman coins that have been dug up. At the departure 
 of the Romans this city was ruined by the Scots and 
 . Pifts; and was not rebuilt till the year 680, by Eg- 
 frid, who encrtmpalTed it with a wall, and repaired the 
 church. In the Sth and 9th centuriv^s, the whole coun- 
 try was again ruined, and the city laid defolate by the 
 incurlions of the Norwegians and Danes. In this con- 
 dition it remained till the time of WiUiam Rufus; who 
 repaired the walls and the caftle, and caufed the houfes 
 to be rebuilt. It was fortified by Henry I. as a bar- 
 rier again ft Scotland ; he alfo placed a garrifon in it, 
 and made it an epifcopal fee. It was twice taken by 
 the Scots, and afterwards burnt accidentally in the 
 reign of Richard 11. The cathedral, the fuburbs, and 
 1 500 houfes, were deftroyed at that time. It is at 
 prefent in a good condition ; and has three gates, the 
 Enghdi on the fouth, the Scotch on the north, and 
 Irlfti on the weft. It has two pari (lies, and as many 
 . churches, St Culhbert and St Mary's, the laft of 
 which Is the catliedral, and is feparated from the town 
 by a wall of its own. The eaftern part, which Is the 
 newett, Is a curious pleCe of workmanlhip. The choir 
 with the aifles is 71 feet broad ; and has a ftately eaft 
 window 48 feet high and 30 broad, adorned with cu- 
 rious pillars. The roof is elegantly vaulted with wood ; 
 and is embellllhed with the arms of England and 
 France quartered ; as alfo with Piercy's, Lucy's, War- 
 ren's, Mowbray's, and many others. In the choir are 
 the monuments of three bllhops who are buried there. 
 The fee was erefted in 1133 by king Henry I. and 
 made fuffragan to the archbiftiop of York. The ca- 
 thedral church here had been founded a ftiort time be- 
 fore by Walter, deputy In thefe parts for king William 
 Rufus, and by him dedicated to the Virgin Marj. He 
 likewife built a monaftery, and filled it with canons 
 regular of St Auguftine. This foundation continued 
 tiU the diftblution of monafteries, when its lands were 
 added to the fee, and the maintenance of a dean, &c. 
 - placed here in their room. The church was almoft 
 ruined by the ufurper Cromwell and his foldiers ; and 
 has never fince recovered its former beauty, although 
 repaired after the reftoration. This diocefe contains 
 the greateft part of the counties of Cumberland and 
 Weftmoreland, in which are only 93 parifties ; but 
 thefe (as all the northern are) exceeding large; and of 
 them 18 are impropriations. Here is one archdeacon, 
 i>iz, of Carlifle. The fee is valued in the king's books 
 at L. 530 14:1 lir, but is computed to be worth annu- 
 ally L.'zSoo. The clergy's tenth amounts only to 
 L. 161 : J : 7I. To this cathedral belong a bifhop, 
 a dean, a chancellor, an archdeacon, foar prebendaries, 
 
 Caflock 
 
 72 ] CAR 
 
 eight minor canons, &c. and other inferior officers and 
 
 fervants. _ rlfcroni 
 
 The Pi£ts wall, which was built acrofs the country 1 
 from Newcaftle, terminates near this place. Carlifle 
 was a fortified place, and ftill has its governor and 
 lieutenant-governor, but no garrifon. It was taken by 
 the rebels, Nov. 15. 1745; and was retaken by the 
 duke of Cumberland on the loth of December follow- 
 ing, and deprived of its gates. It is governed by a 
 mayor, twelve aldermen, two bailifFs, &c. and has a 
 confiderable market on Saturdays. The manufaftures 
 of Carlifle are chiefly of printed linens, for which near 
 3000/. per annum is paid in duties. It is alfo noted 
 for a great manufaAure of whips, in which a great 
 number of children are employed. — Salmons appear in 
 the Eden in numbers, fo early as the mofiths of De- 
 cember and Januarv ; and the London and even New- j 
 caftle markets are fupplled v/ith early fifti from this i 
 river : but it is remarkable, that they do not viiit the 
 Efk in any quantity ' till April ; notwithftanding the 
 mouths of the two rivers are at a fmall diftance from 
 each other. — Carlifle fends two members to parliament, 
 and gives title of Earl to a branch of the How«d 
 family. 
 
 CARLOCK, in commerce, a foit of ifinglafs, made 
 with the fturgeon's bladder, imported from Archangel. 
 The chief ufe of it Is for clarifying wine, but it is alfo 
 ui'ed by the dyers. The beft carlock comes from Aftra- 
 can, where a great quantity of fturgeon is caught. 
 
 CARLOSTAD, or Carlstad, a town of Sweden 
 in Wermeiand, featcd on the lake Warmer, In E. Long. , 
 14. 4. N. Lat. 59. 16. 
 
 Car-lostad, or Carl/ladt, a town of Hungaiy, ca- 
 pital of Croatia, and the ufual refidence of the gover- 
 nors of the province. It Is feated on the river Kulph, . 
 in E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 45. 34. 
 
 CARLOWITZ, a fmall town of Hungary, in Scla- 
 vonia, remarkable for a peace Concluded here between 
 the Turks and Chriftians in 1669. It is feated on the 
 weft fide of tke Danube, in E. Long. ig. 5. N. Lat. 
 45.25. 
 
 CARLSCRONA, or CarlscroOn, afea-port town 
 in the Baltic, belonging to Sweden. It derives its 
 origin and name from Charles Xl. who firft laid the 
 foundations of a new town in 1680, and removed the 
 fleet from Stockholm to this place, on account of its 
 advantageous fituation in the centre of the Swedifh 
 feas, and the fuperlor fecurity of its harbour. The 
 greateft part of Carlfcrona ftands upon a fmall rocky 
 ifland, which rifes gently in a bay of the Baltic ; the 
 fuburbs extend over another fmall rock, and along the 
 mole clofe to the bafon where the fleet is moored. The 
 way into the town from the main land is carried ovef 
 a dyke to an ifland, and from thence along two long 
 wooden bridges joined by a barren rock. The town 
 is fpacious, and contains about 18,000 inhabltams. 
 It is adorned with one or two handfome churches, and 
 a few tolerable houfes of brick ; but the generality of 
 buildings are of wood. The fuburbs arc fortified to- 
 wards the land by a ftone-wall. The entrance into 
 the harbour, which by nature is extremely difficult 
 from a number of flioals and rocky iflands, is ftill fur- 
 ther fecured from the- attack of an enemy'3 fleet by 
 two ftrong forts built on two iflands, under the batte- 
 ries of which all veiTels muft pafs. 
 
 Formerly 
 
CAR [ I 
 
 fCarlftadt Formerly vefleh in this port, when Careened and 
 'i repaired, were laid upon their fides in the open, har- 
 ^^"^^ ' hour, until a dock, according to a plan given by Pol- 
 heim, was hollowed in the foHd rock : it was begun 
 in 17145 and finifhed in but as it was too 
 
 fmall for the admiffion of men of war, it has Ijitely 
 been enlarged, and is how capable of receiving a (hip 
 of the firft rate. But new docks have been began 
 upon a ftupendous plan worthy of the ancient Romans. 
 According to the original fcheme, it was intended to 
 conftruft 30 docks, for buildiwg and laying up the 
 I'argeft (hips, at the extremity of the harbour. A 
 large bafon, capable of admitting two men of war, is 
 defigned to communicate, by fluices, with two fmaller 
 bafons, froni each of which are to extend, like the 
 radii of a circle, five rows of covered docks : each row 
 is to be feparated bv walls of ftone ; and each dock to 
 be provided with Iluice-gates, fo as to be filled or 
 emptied liy means of pumps. Clofe to the docks, 
 magazines for naval ftores are to be conftrycled, and 
 the whole to be inclofed with a ftone-wall. The pro- 
 jeiSh was begun in 1757; but was much neglefted until 
 the acceffion of his prefent majefty, who warmly pa- 
 tronised the arduous undertaking. At the commence- 
 ment of the works, L. 25,000 were annually expended 
 upon them ; which fum has been leiTened to about 
 •Ij. 6000 per annum, and the number of docks reduced 
 to 20. The firfi; dock was finifhed in 1779, and it 
 was computed that the whole number would be exe- 
 cuted in 20 years. 
 
 CARLSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle 
 of Franconia, and bifliopric of Wurtfburg, feated on 
 the river Maine, in E. Long. 9. 51. N. Lat. 50. o. 
 
 CARLTON, a town in Norfolk held by this te- 
 nure, that they fhall prefent 1000 herrings baked in 
 14 pies to the king, wherever he fliall be when they 
 firft come in feafon. 
 
 CARMAGNIOLA, a fortified town of Italy, in 
 Piedmont, with a good caftle. It was taken by the 
 French in 1691, and retaken by prince Eugene the 
 fame year. It Is feated in a country abounding in 
 torYi, flax, and fiik, near the river Po, in E. Long. 
 *f,. 32. Nl Lat 44. 43. 
 
 ■• CARMANIA (mc. geog.), a country of Afia, to 
 the eaft of Perfia, having Parthia to the north, Ge- 
 drofia to the eaft, to the fouth the Perfian Gulf or 
 Sea in, part, and in part the Indian, called the Carma- 
 ttian Sea, diftinguiflied into Carmania Deferta, and Car- 
 mania Propria ; the former lying to the fouth of Par- 
 thia ; and to the foyth of that, the Propria, quite to 
 the fea. Its name is from the Syriac,. Carma, figni- 
 fying a " vine," for which that country was famous, 
 yielding cluflers three feet long. Now Kerman, or 
 GARiPdANiA, a province of modern Perfia. 
 
 CARMEL, a high mountain of Paleiline, ftanding 
 ©n the flcirts of the. fea, and forming the moii re- 
 markable headrland on all that coaft. It extends eail- 
 xivard from the fea as far as the plain of Jezreel, and 
 from the city of that name quite to C«farea on the 
 fouth. It feems to have had the name of Carmel from 
 its great fertility ; this word,, according to the He- 
 brew import, fignifying the inne of God, and is ufed 
 in fcripture to denote any fruitful fpot, or any place 
 planted with fruit trees. This mountain, we are af- 
 fured, was very fertile. Mr Sandys acq^uaints us, that, 
 
 73 ] GAR 
 
 when well cultivated, it abounds with olives, vines, CafmeHtes. 
 
 and variety of fruits and herbs both medicinal and aro- ^ - 
 
 matic. Others, however, reprefent it as rattier dry 
 
 and barren ; v/hich perhaps may have happened from 
 
 the negle6l of agriculture fo common in all parts of 
 
 the T urkifli empire, efpecially where they are expofed 
 
 to the incurfions of the Arabs. Carmel is the name 
 
 of the mountain, and of a city" built on it ; as well as 
 
 of a heathen deity worfhipped in itj, but without either 
 
 temple or ftatue : though anciently there mull have 
 
 been a temple, as we are told that this mountain was 
 
 a favourite retreat of Pythagoras, who fpent a good 
 
 deal of time in the temple, without any perfon with 
 
 him. But what hath rendered mount Carmel moft 
 
 celebrated and revered both by Jews and Chriftians, 
 
 is its having been the reljdence of the prophet Elijah, 
 
 who is fuppofed to. have lived there in a cave (which 
 
 is there fhown), before he was taken up into heaven. 
 
 CARMELITES, an order of religious, making 
 one of the four tribes of mendicants or begging friars; 
 and taking its name from mount Carmel, formerly in- 
 habited by Elias, Eliiha, and the children of the pro- 
 phets ; from whom this order pretends to defcend in 
 an uninterrupted fucceffion. The manner in which they 
 make out their antiquity has fomething in, it too ridi- 
 culous to be rehearfed. Some among them pretend 
 tiiey are defcendants of JefusChrilt ; others go further, 
 and make Pythagoras a Carmelite, and the ancient 
 druids regular branches of their order. Phccas, a GrecK 
 monk, fpeaks the moft reafonably. Ht fays, that in his 
 time, 1185, Elias's cave was ftiU extant on the moun- 
 tain ; near which were the remains of a building which 
 intimated that there had been anciently a monaftery ; 
 that, fome years before, an old monk, a prieft of Ca- 
 labria, by revelation, as he pretended, from tHe pro- 
 phet Elias, fixed there, and alTembled ten brothers.— Iti 
 1209, Albert, patriarch of Jerufalem, gave the foll- 
 tarles a rigid rule, which Papebroch has-fince printed. 
 In 1217, or, according to -<Jthers, 1226, pope Hono- 
 rius III. approved and confirmed It.. This rule con- 
 tained 16 articles ; one of which confined them to theit 
 cells, and enjoined them to continue day and night iA 
 prayer ;, another prohibited the brethren having any 
 property ; another enjoined falling from the feaftof the 
 holy.crofs till Eafter, except on Sundays; abftinenceal 
 all times from flefti was enjoined by another article ; 
 one obliged them to manual labour ; another impofed a 
 ftrifl filence on them from vefpers till the tierce the 
 next day. 
 
 The peace concluded by the emperor Frederic IL 
 with the Saracens, in the year 1229, fo difadvantage- 
 o'us to Chriftendom, and fo beneficial to the infideL-J, 
 occafioned the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land, un- 
 der Alan the fifth general of the order. He firft Tent 
 fome. of the religious to Cyprus, who landed there in 
 the year 1238, and founded a monaftery in the foreft 
 of Fortania. Some Sicilians, at the fame time, leaving 
 mount Carmel, returned to their own country, where 
 they founded a monaftery in the fuburbs of Meffina. 
 Some Engliib departed out of Syria, in the year 1240, 
 to found others in England. Others of Provence, in the 
 year 1 244, founded a monaftery in the defart of Ai- 
 gualates, a league from Marfellles : and thus^ the num- 
 ber of their monaftevies increaling, they held their Eu- 
 ropean general chapter in the year 1245, at their mo- 
 naftery ■ 
 
€ A II 
 
 Garmelites 
 
 [ 174 T 
 
 CAR 
 
 rraftery of Aylcsford in England. — This order is fo 
 much Increafed, that it has, at prefent, 38 provinces, 
 befides the congregation of Mantua, in which are 54 
 monallerles, under a vicar-general ; and the congrega- 
 tions of Barefooted Carmelites in Italy and Spain, which 
 have their peculiar generals. 
 
 After the eftablifhment of the Carmelites in Europe, 
 their rule was in fome refpedls altered ; the firft time, 
 by pope Innocent IV. who added to the firft article a 
 precept of chaftity, and relaxed the i ith which enjoins 
 abftlnence at all times from flefh, permitting them, 
 when they travelled, to eat boiled flefh : this pope like- 
 wife gave them leave to eat in a common refeftory, and 
 to keep affes or mules for their ufe. Their rule was 
 again mitigated by the popes Eugenius IV. and Pius II. 
 Hence the order is divided into two branches, viz. 
 the Carmelites of the mdcnt ohfervancey called the moderate 
 or mitigated ; and thofe of the Jlrid obfervatKe, who are 
 the barefooted Carmelites ; a reform fet on foot in 1 540, 
 by S. Therefa, a nun of the convent of Avila, in 
 CaRilc : thefe laft are divided into two cong'regations, 
 that of Spain and that of Italy. 
 
 The habit of the Carmehtes was at firft white, and 
 the cloak laced at the bottom with feveral lifts. But 
 pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for 
 .that of the Minims. Their fcapulary is a fmall woollen 
 Jiabit of a brown colour, thrown over their fhouldcrs. 
 They wear no linen fhirts ; btit inftcad of them linfey- 
 .wolfey, which they change twice a-week in the fum- 
 xner, and once a-week in the winter. 
 
 If a monk of this orderlies with a woman, he is pro- 
 jiibited faying mafs for three or four yeats, is declared 
 infamous, aiid obliged to difcipline hirafelf publicly 
 once a-week. If he is again guilty of the fame fault, 
 liis penance is doubled ; and if a third time, he is ex- 
 pelled the order; 
 
 CARMEN, an ancient terra among the Latins, ufed 
 in a general fenfe to fignify a verfe ^ but more particu- 
 larly to fignify a fpell, charm, form of expiation or exe- 
 cration, couched in a few words placed in a myftic or- 
 •der, on which its efficacy depended. Pezron derives 
 the word carmen from the Celtic carm, the fiiout of 
 joy, or the verfes which the ancient bards fung to en- 
 courage the foldiers before the combat. — Carmen was 
 anciently a denomination given alfo to precepts, laws, 
 prayers, imprecations, and all folemn formulce couched 
 in a few words placed in a certain order, though writ- 
 ten in profe. In which fenfe it was that the elder Cato 
 wrote a Carmen de morlbus, which was not in vcrfe, but 
 in profe. 
 
 CARMENTALIA, a feaft among the ancient Ro 
 mans, celebrated annually upon the i ith of January, in 
 honour of Carmenta, or Carmentis, a prophetefs of 
 Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom (he came in- 
 to Italy 60 years before the Trojan war. The folem- 
 rity was alfo repeated on the 15th of January, which 
 is marked in the old calendar by Carmentalia relata. 
 This feall was eftablifhed on occafion of a great fecun- 
 dity amog the Roman dames, after a general reconci- 
 liation with their hufbands, with whom they had been 
 &t variance, in regard of the ufe of coaches being prohi- 
 .bited them by an edift of the fenate. This feaft was ce- 
 lebrated by the women : he who offered the fecrifices 
 .was called facerdos carmentalis. 
 
 CARMINATIVES, medicines ufed in colics, or 
 mother jfiatulent diforders, to difpel the wind. 
 
 The word come3 Trom the Latin carmimref to card Carmine 
 or teaze wool, and figuratively to attenuate and difcufs (-^^^^gj^jj^,, 
 wind or vapours, and promote their difcharge by perlpi- ' 
 ration. Though Dr Quincy makes it more m) iterious : 
 He fays it comes from the word carmen^ taking it in 
 the fenfe of an invocation or charm ; and makes it to 
 have been a general name for all medicines which ope- 
 i-ated like charms, i. e. in an extraordinary manner. 
 Hence, as the moft violent pains were frequently thofe 
 arifing from pent-up wind, which immediately ceafe 
 \ipon difperfion ; the term carminative became in a pe- 
 culiar fenfe applied to medicines which gave relief in 
 windy cafes, as if they cured by inchantment : but this 
 interpretation feems a little too far ftrained. 
 
 CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red co- 
 lour, bordering upon purple ; and ufed by painters in 
 miniature, though rarely on account of its great price. 
 The manner of preparing it is kept a fecret by the co* 
 lour-makers ; neither do any of thofe receipts which 
 have for a long time been pubhOied concerning the pre- 
 paration of this and other colours at all anfwer the 
 purpofe. See CoiovR-Makirig. 
 
 CARMONA, a town of Italy in Frioli, and in the 
 county of Goritz, feated on a mountain near the river 
 Indri. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria. E. I ong. 
 5. 37. N. Lat. 46. 15. 
 
 Carmona, an ancient town of Spain in Andalufia. 
 The gate towards Seville is one of the moft extraor- 
 dinary pieces of antiquity in all Spain. It is feated in 
 a fertile country, 1 5 miles eaft of Seville. W. Long. 5. 
 37. N. Lat. 37. 24.. 
 
 CARNATION, in botany. SeeDiANTHus. 
 CARNATioN-Colour, among painters, is underftood 
 of all the parts of a pidlure, in general, which reprefent 
 fledi, or which are naked and without drapery. Titian 
 and Corregio in Italy, and Rubens and Vandyke in 
 Flanders, excelled in carnations. — In colouring for flefli, 
 there is fo great a variety, that it is hard to lay down 
 any general rules for inftruftion therein ; neither are 
 there any regarded by thofe who have acquired a Ikill 
 this way : the various colouring for carnations may be 
 eafily produced, by taking more or lefs red, blue, yel- 
 low, or biftre, whether for the firft colouring, or f(tr 
 the finifhing : the colour for women fhould be bluifh, 
 for children a little red, both frefti and gay ; and for 
 the men it fhould incline to yellow, efpecially if they 
 are old. 
 
 Carnation, among dyers. To dye a carnation, or 
 red rofe colour, it is direfted to take liquor of wheat 
 bran a fufficient quantity, alum three pounds, tartar 
 two ounces ; boil them and enter twenty yards of 
 broad cloth ; after it has boiled three hours, cool and 
 wafti it : take frefti clear bran liquor a fufficient quan- 
 tity, madder five poimds ; boil and fodden according 
 to art. — The Bow dyers know that the folution of ju- 
 piter, or delved tin, being put in a kettle to the alum 
 and tartar, in another procefs, makes the cloth, &c. 
 attraft the colour into it, fo that none of the cochineal 
 is left, but the w-hole is abforbed by the cloth. 
 
 CARNEADES, a celebrated Greek philofopher, 
 was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and founder of the 
 third academy. He was fo fond of ftudy, that he not 
 only avoided all entertainments, but forgot even to eat 
 at his own table ; his maid-fervant Melifla was obliged 
 to put the victuals into his hand. He was an antago- 
 nlft of the Stoics ; and applied himfelf with great ea- 
 
 gernef® 
 
Carneia. 
 
 CAR [ I 
 
 arneades gerrtcfs to refute the works of Chryfippus, one of the 
 incil celebrated philofophers of their fcct. The power 
 of his eloquence was dreaded even by a Roman fenate. 
 The Athenians being condemned by the Romans to pay 
 a fine of 500 talents for plundering the city of Oropiis, 
 fent aunbafladors to Rome, who got the fine mitigated 
 to 1 00 talents. Carneades the academic, Diogenes 
 the Sttoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic, were charged 
 with ithis embalTy. Before they had an audience of 
 the fenate, they harangued to great multitudes in dif- 
 ferent parts of the city. Carneades's eloquence was di- 
 flinguiiflicd from that of the others by its ftrength and 
 rapidi ty. Cato the elder made a motion in the fenate, 
 that t.hefe ambafladors fhould be immediately fent back, 
 becaufe it was very difficult to difcern the truth thro' 
 the arguments of Carneades. The Athenian ambaf- 
 fadorsi (faid niany of the fenators) were fent rather to 
 force lis to comply with their demands, than to folicit 
 them by perfuafion; meaning, that it was impoflible 
 to refift the power of that eloquence with which Car- 
 neadeis addreffed himfelf to them. According to Plu- 
 tarch,, the youth at Rome were fo charmed by the fine 
 orations of this philofopher, that they forfook their ex- 
 ercifes and other diverfions, and were carried with a kind 
 of madnefs to philofophy ; the humour of philofophifing 
 fpreading like enthufiafm. This grieved Cato, who was 
 partic ularly afraid of the fubtilty of wit and ftrength of 
 argument with which Carneades maintained either fide 
 of a queftion. Carneades harangued in favour of juf- 
 tice oine day, and the next day againft it, to the admi- 
 ration of all who heard him, among whom were Galba 
 and Cato, the greateft orators of Rome. This was 
 his eltrment ; he delighted in demolifhing his own work j 
 becaujfe it ferved in the end to confirm his grand prin- 
 ciple, that there are only probabilities or refemblances 
 of truth in the mind of man ; fo that of two things 
 direftHy oppofite, either may be chofen indifferently. 
 Quintilian remarks, that though Carneades argued in 
 favour of injuftice, yet he himfelf adled according to 
 the ftridl rules of juftice. The following was a maxim 
 of Carneades : " If a man privately knew that his ene- 
 my, oir any other perfon whofe death might be of ad- 
 vantage to him, would come to fit down on grafs in 
 which there lurked an afp, he ought to give him no^- 
 tice off it, though it were in the power of no perfon 
 whate-ver to blame him for being filent." Carneades, 
 according to fome, lived to be 85 years old; others make 
 him to be 90 : his death is placed in the 4th year of 
 the i62d Olympiad. 
 
 CARNEDDE, in Britifli antiquity, denote heaps 
 of ftones fuppofed to be druidical remains, and thrown 
 together on oceafion of confirming and commemora- 
 ting a covenant. Gen. xxxi. 46. They are veiy con> 
 mon in the ifle of Anglefey, and were alfo ufed as 
 fepulcliral monuments,, in the manner of tumuli; far 
 Mr Rowland found a curious urn in one of thefe car- 
 nedde. Whence it may be inferred, that the Britons 
 had the cuftom of throwiaig ftones on the deceafed.. 
 From this, cuftom is derived the Welch proverb, Karn 
 urdyhtn, " ill betide tliee." 
 
 CARNEIA, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of 
 Apollo, furnamed Carneus, held in moft cities of 
 Greece, but efpecially at Sparta, where if was firft in- 
 ftituted. 
 
 The reafon of the name, as well as the oceafion of 
 
 75 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 the inftitution, is controverted. It laflcd nine days, 
 beginning on the 13th of the month Carneus. The 
 ceremonies were an imitation of the method of living 
 and difcipline vifed in camps. 
 
 CARNEL.— The building of fiiips firft with their 
 timber and beams, and after bringing on their planks, 
 is called carnel-'worky to diftinguifii it from chnch- 
 work. 
 
 VefTels alfo which go with mizzen-fails inftead of 
 main-fails are by fome called carnels. 
 
 CARNELIAN, in natural hiftor}--, a precious ftone, 
 of which there are three kinds, diftinguifhed by three 
 colours, a red, a yellow, and a white. The red is very- 
 well known among us ; is found in roundifli or oval 
 mafles, much like our common pebbles ; and is gene- 
 rally met with between an inch and two or three inches 
 in diameter : it is of a fine, compa£t, and clofe tex- 
 ture ; of a glofly furface ; and, in the feveral fpecimens, 
 is of all the degrees of red, from the paleft flefh-co- . 
 lour to the deepeft blood-red. It is generally free 
 from fpots, clouds, or variegations: but fometimes 
 it is yeined very beautifully with an extremely pale 
 red, or with white ; the veins forming concentric cir» 
 cles, or other lefs regular figures, about a nucleus, in 
 the manner of thofe of agatesi Tlie pieces of carne- 
 lian which are all of one colour, and perfectly free from 
 veins, are thofe which our jewellers generally mak^; 
 ufe of for feals, though the variegated ones are much 
 more beautiful. The carnelian is tolerably hard, and 
 capable of a very good polifh : it is not at all affe;£ted 
 by acid menftruums : the fire divefts it of a part of 
 its colour, and leaves it of a pale red ; and a ftrong 
 and long continued heat will reduce it to a pale dirty 
 gray. 
 
 The fineft carnelians are thofe of the Eaft Indies ; 
 but there are very beautiful ones found in the rivers of 
 Silefia and Bohemia and we have fome not defpicable 
 ones in England. 
 
 Though the ancients have recommended the carne- 
 lian as aftringent, and attributed a number of fanciful 
 virtues to it, we know of no other ufe of the ftone than 
 the cutting feals on it ; to which purpofe it is excel- 
 lently adapted, as being not too hard for cutting, and 
 yet hard enough not to be liable to accidents, to take 
 a good polifh, and to feparate eafily from the wax. 
 
 CARNERO, in geography, a name given to that - 
 part of the gulph of Venice which extends from the 
 weftern coaft of Iftria to the ifiand of Groffa and the 
 coaft of Morlachia. 
 
 Carnero is likewife the name of the cape to th? 
 weft of the mouth of the bay of Gibraltar. 
 
 CARNIFEX, among the Romans, the common 
 executioner. By reafon of the odioufnefs of his of- 
 fice, the carnifex was ertprefslj" prohibited by the laws 
 from having his dwelling-houfe within the city. In 
 middle age writers carnifex alfo denot-es a butcher. 
 
 Under tke Anglo-Danifh kings, the carnifex was an - 
 officer of great, dignity ; being ranked with the archbi- 
 fhop of Yoi-k, earl Goodwin, and the lord fteward. Flor. 
 Wigorn. ann. 1040. Rtx Hardecanutus Alfrkiim Ehor, 
 Archlep, GoaditAnum - comitem, lulrkum difp^nfaioreniy 
 Throtid fuum carnifieem, altos magna dignitatis vires 
 Londinuin mifit. 
 
 CARNIOLA, a duchy of Germany bounded on 
 the fouth by the -Adriatic fea, and that part of Ift-ria 
 
 poS'tffed 
 
 Carnel 
 
 II 
 
 Caruiola. 
 
G A R [ 17 
 
 Carniola, poffeffed by the republic of Venice ; on the i>ortli, by 
 Carnival. Cannthia and Stiria ; on the eaft, by Sclavonia and 
 ^ V""*' Croatia ; on the weft, by Friuli, the county of Gorz or 
 * Goritz, and a part of the gulph of Venice ; extending 
 in length about 110 miles, and in breadth about 50. 
 It had its ancient name Carn'ia, as well as the modern 
 one Carn'wla, from its ancient inhabitants the Carnr, a 
 tribe of Scythians, otherwlfe called Japidcs, whence 
 this and the adjacent countries were alfo called ^V"''^"^* 
 
 Carniola is full of mountains, fome of which are cul- 
 tivated and inhabited, fome covei-ed with wood, others 
 naked and barren, and others continually buried in 
 fnow. The valleys are very fruitful. Here are like- 
 wife mines of iron, lead, and copper ; but fa^t mult be 
 had from the foverelgn's magazines. There are fe- 
 veral rivers, befides many medicinal fprings and in- 
 land lakes. The common people are very hardy, 
 going barefooted in winter through the fnow, with 
 open breafts, and fleeping on a hard bench without 
 bed or bolfter. Their food is alfo very coarfe and 
 mean. In winter, w^ien the fnow lies deep on the 
 ground, the mountaineers bind either fmall baikets, or 
 long thin narrow boards, like the Laplanders, to their 
 feet, on which, with the help of a ilout ftaff or pole, 
 they defcend with great velocity from the mountains. 
 When the fnow is frozen, they make ufe of a fort of 
 irons or llcaits. In different parts of the country the 
 inhabitants, efpecially the common fort, differ greatly 
 in their drefs, language, and manner of living. In Up- 
 per and Lower Carniola they wear long beards. The 
 languages chiefly in ufe are the Sclavonian or Wendifh, 
 and German ; the firft by the commonalty, and the 
 latter by people of fafliion. The duchy is divided in- 
 to the Upper, Lower, Middle, and Inner, Carniola. 
 The principal commodities exported hence are, iron, 
 fteel, lead, quickfilver, white and red wine, oil of olives, 
 cattle, fheep, cheefe, linen, and a kind of woollen 
 ftufF called mahalan, Spanifh leather, honey, walnuts, 
 and timber ; together with all manner of wood-work, 
 as boxes, difhes, &c. — Chriftianlty was firft planted 
 here in the eighth century. — Lutheranifm made a con- 
 fiderable progrefs in it ; but, excepting the Walachians 
 or Uflcokes, who are of the Greek church, and ll;yle 
 themfelves Staraverzi, i. e. old believers, all the inha- 
 bitants at prefent are Ronian Catholics. Carniola was 
 long a marquilate or margravate ; but in the year 1 23 i 
 was ere£led into a duchy. As its proportion towards the 
 maintenance of the army, it pays annually 363,171 flo- 
 rins; but only two regiments of foot are quartered in it. 
 
 CARNIVAL, or Carnaval, a time of rejoicing, 
 a feafon of mirth, obferved with great folemnity by 
 the Itahans, particularly at Venice, holding from the 
 twelfth day till Lent. 
 
 The word is formed from the Italian CarnavaUe ; 
 which Mr Du Cange derives from Carn-a-val, by rea- 
 fon the flefli then goes to pot, to make amends for the 
 feafon of abftinence then enfuing. Accordingly, in the 
 corrupt Latin, he obferves, it was called Carneievamen, 
 and Carnifprivium; as the Spaniards ftill denominate it 
 ■carries tollendas. 
 
 Feafts, balls, operas, concerts of mufic, intrigues, 
 marriages, &c. are chiefly held in carnival time. The 
 -carnival begins at Venice the fecond holiday in Chrift- 
 mas • Then it is they begin to wear maiks, and open 
 
 6 ] CAR 
 
 their play-lioufcs and gaming houfes ; the place of Oar(,ivo« 
 St Mark is filled with mountebanks, jack-puddings, ^^^^.'^Ij^J^pji. 
 pedlars, whores, and fuch like mob, who flock thi- . ^''" ^ ' 
 ther from all parts. There have been no lefs than 
 feven fovereign princes and .3O5OOO foreigners here to 
 partake of thefe diverfions. 
 
 CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to thofe a. 
 nimals which naturally fcek and feed on ficfli. 
 
 It has been a difpute among naturalifts, whether 
 man is naturally carnivorous. Thofe who take the 
 negative fide of the queftion, infill chiefly on the 
 ftruftureofour teeth, which are moftly incifores or 
 molares ; not fuch as carnivorous animals are fur- 
 nifhed with, and which are proper to tear flefh in 
 pieces : to which it may be added, that, even when 
 we do feed on flefh, it is not without a prepara- 
 tory alteration by boiling, roafting, &c. and even then 
 that it h the hardeft of digeftion of all foods. To 
 thefe argument* Dr Wallis fubjoins another, which in 
 that all quadrupeds which feed on herbs or plants 
 have a long colon, with a ccecum at the upper end 
 of it, or iomewhat equivalent, which conveys the 
 food by a long and large progrefs, from the flomach 
 downwards, in order to its flower pafTage and longer 
 ftay in the inteftinej ; but that, in carnivorous ani- 
 mals, fuch ccecum is wanting, and inftead thereof 
 there is a more fhort and flender gut, and a quicker- 
 paflage through the inteftines. Now, in man, the 
 ccecum is very vifible : a ftrong prefumption that na- 
 ture, who is ftill confiftent with herfelf, did not in- 
 tend him for a carnivorous animal. — It is true, the 
 ccecum is but fmall in adults, and feems of little or no 
 ufe ; but in a fcetus it is much larger in proportion ; 
 And it is probable, our cuftomary change of diet, as 
 we grow up, rfiay occafion this fhrlnking. But to 
 thefe arguments, Dr Tyfon replies, that if man had 
 been by nature defigned not to be carnivorous^ there 
 would doubtlefs have been found, fome where on the 
 globe, people who do not feed on flefh ; which is not 
 the cafe. Neither are carnivorous animals always 
 without a colon and coecum ; nor are all animaii car- 
 nivorous which have thofe parts: the opoffum, for 
 inilance, hath both a colon and ccecum, and yet feeds 
 on poultry and other flefli ; whereas the hedge- hog, 
 which has neither colon nor coecum, and fo ought to 
 be carnivorous, feeds only on vegetables. Add to 
 this, that hogs, which have both, will feed upon flefh; 
 when they can get it ; and rats and mice, which have 
 large ccecums, will feed on bacon as well as bread and 
 cheele. Lallly, the human race are furnifhed with 
 teeth neceffary for the preparation of all kinds of foods; 
 fiom whence it would feem, that nature intended we 
 fliould live on all. And as the alimentary dufk in the 
 human body is fitted for digefting all kinds of food, 
 ought we not rather to conclude, that nature did not 
 intend to deny us any? 
 
 It is no lefs difputed whether mankind were carni' 
 vorous before the flood. St Jerom, Chryfoftom, The- 
 odoret, and other ancients, maintain, that all animal 
 food was then forbidden ; which opinion is alfo ftre^ 
 nuoufly fupported among the moderns by Curcellceus, 
 and refuted by Heidegger, Danzius, Bockhart, &c. 
 See Antediluvians. 
 
 CARNOSITY is ufed by fome authors for a little- 
 
 fiefliy 
 
CAR 
 
 flefliy excrcfcence, tubercle, or wen, formed in the 
 urethra, the neck of the bladder, or yard, which flops 
 the paffage of the urine. — Carnofities are very difficult 
 of cure : they are not eahly known but by introducing 
 a probe into the pafTage, which there meets with re- 
 fiftance. They ufually arife from fome venereal ma- 
 lady ill managed. 
 
 CARO (Annibal), a celebrated Italian poet, was 
 born at Civita Nuovo in 1507. He became fecretary 
 to the Duke of Parma, and afterwards to Cardinal 
 Farnefe. He was alfo made a knight of Malta. He 
 tranflated Virgil's jEneid into his own language with 
 fuch propriety and elegance of expreffion, that he was 
 allo\Jt^ed by the bed judges tp have equalled the origi- 
 nal. He alfo tranflated Arlllotle's rhetoric, two ora- 
 torios of Gregory Nazianzen, with a difcourfe of Cy- 
 prian. He wrote a comedy ; and a mifcellany of his 
 poems was printed at Venice in 1584. He died at 
 Rome in 1566. 
 
 CAROLINA, a province of North America, com- 
 prehending the moft wefterly part of Florida, and 
 lying between 29 and 36 degrees of N. Lat. It is 
 bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic, and on the weft 
 by the river Miffifipi, on the north by Virginia, on 
 the fouth by Georgia, and to the fouth of Georgia by 
 the Floridas. 
 
 This country is feated between the extremities of 
 heat and cold, though the heat is more tro«bIefoine in 
 fummer than the cold in winter ; their winters being 
 very fhort, and the frofty mornings frequently fuc- 
 ceeded by warm days. The air is generally ferene 
 and clear the greateft part of the year ; but in Fe- 
 bruary and March the inhabitants have a ctiftom of 
 burning the woods, which caafes fuch a fmoke as to 
 ftrangers would feem to proceed from a fog or thick- 
 nefs in the air. The fmoke of the tar-kilns hkewife 
 deceives ftrangers, and gives them an ill opinion of the 
 air of Carolina ; to which alfo conduces a cuftom of 
 the Indians of fetting fire to the woods in their hunt- 
 ings, for many miles round. The great rains are in 
 winter, though they are not without heavy fhowers at 
 midfummer ; add to thefe the conftant dews tliJtt fall 
 in the night, which refrefti the ground and f'.jpply the 
 plants with moifture. In North Carolina, the north- 
 weft winds in the V/intcr occafion very pinching wea- 
 ther ; but they are not of long continuance. Wefter- 
 ly winds bring very pleafant weather ; but the fouth- 
 erly are hot and unwholefome, occafioning fevers and 
 other difdrders. But this muft be underftood of fum- 
 mer, for in winter they are very comfortable. The 
 depth of winter is towards the latter end of February, 
 and then the ice is not ftrong enough to bear a man's 
 weight. In Auguft and September there are fome- 
 times great ftorms and fqualls of wind, which are fo 
 violent as to make lanes of 100 feet wide, more or lefs, 
 thro' the woods, tearing up the trees by the roots. Thefe 
 ftorms generally happen- once in about feven years; 
 and are attended with dreadful thunder, lightning, and 
 heavy rains. They commonly happen about the time 
 of the hurricanes which rage fo fatally among the 
 iflands between the tropics ; and feem to be occafioned 
 by them, or. to proceed from the fame caufe : but by 
 the time they reach Carolina, their force is much a- 
 bat€d ; and the farther north they proceed, fo much the 
 more do they decreafe in fury. The foil on the coaft 
 
 Vol. IV. Tart I. 
 
 [ ^77 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 is fandy; but farther up, the country is fo fruitful Carolins. 
 that they have not yet been at the trouble to manure ^^"^ 
 their land. The grains moft cultivated are Indian corn 
 and rice, though any fort will thrive well enough ; they 
 have alfo pulfe of feveral forts, little known in England. 
 All kinds of garden ftuff ufual in England are cultiva- 
 ted here, and may be had in great plenty. They 
 export large quantities yearly of rice, pitch, tar, tur- 
 pentine, deer-flfins, and timber for building ; cyprefs, 
 cedar, faffafras, oak, walnut, and pine. Befides thefe 
 they alfo fend out beef, pork, tallow, hides, furs, 
 wheat, peas, potatoes, honey, bees-wax, myrtle-wax, 
 tobacco, fnake-root, cotton, feveral forts of gums and 
 medicinal drugs. Indigo is alfo cultivated in this pro- 
 vince, but of an Inferior quality to that which comes 
 from the Caribbee iflands. It hath been attempted 
 in vain to cultivate vines, and produce filk, in this 
 country ; for though the frofts here do not continue 
 long without intervals of warmer weather, they are 
 fuflicient to check the growth of the vine, as well as 
 olives, dates, oranges, &c. The furs are bought of i7» 77//?. 
 the Indians with vermilion, lead, gunpowder, coarfe"^''^'' 
 cloth, iron, and fpirituous liquors. As yet they have 
 not a fufficient number of handicraftfmen ; which ren- 
 ders labour very dear, and a fupply of clothes from 
 Europe neceffary. The afpe6l of the country is very 
 fine, being adorned with beautiful rivers and creeks., 
 and the woods with lofty timber, which afford dehght- 
 ful and pleafant feats for the planters, and render the 
 fencing their lands very eafy. And as they have plenty 
 of fifh, wild fowl, and venifon, befides other neceffaries 
 which this country produces naturally, they live eafy - 
 and luxurioufly. 
 
 Their rivers are large, and navigable a great many 
 miles up the country. They rife near the mountains, 
 and abound with delicate fifh, befides water-fowl of 
 different kinds. In fome there are iflands which yield 
 good pafture, without the annoyance of wild beafts. 
 The chief mountains arc the Cherokee or Allegany 
 mountains, which are fituated north and north-weft, 
 five or fix hundred miles diftant from the fea. They 
 are very high ; and abound with trees, plants, ftonea, 
 and minerals, of different kinds. 
 
 This country is divided into North and South Ca- 
 rolina, and Georgia ; each of which, -before the late 
 revolution, was under a particular governor. The 
 North is fubdivided into four counties, Granville, Col- 
 liton, Berkley, and Craven ; and South CaroHna into 
 two, Clarendon and Albemarle. This laft is alfo di- 
 vided into 14 parlfhes or townfhips, each of which has 
 a brick or timber church. The former Hkewife has 
 the fame number of parlfhes. Charleftown is the capi- 
 tal of the whole country. 
 
 Carohna was difcovered by Sebaftian Cabot, about 
 the year 1500, in the reign of Henry VII. but the 
 fettling of it being neglefted by the Enghfh, a colony 
 of French Proteilants, by the encouragement of Ad- 
 miral Cohgni, were tranfported thither; and named 
 the place of tlveii- firft fettlement ^rx Carolina, in ho- 
 nour of their prince, Charles IX. of France : but in 
 a fhort time that colony was deftroyed by the Spa- 
 niards ; and no other attempt wa^ made by any Euro- 
 pean power to fettle there till the year 1664, when 
 800 Enghfli landed at Cape-Fear in North Carolina, 
 and took pofTelfion of the country. In 1670 Cha. II. 
 
 Z of 
 
CAR 
 
 r 178 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 Carolina; of Britain granted Carolina to the Lords Berkley, 
 """V— ' Clarendon, Albemarle, Craven, and Afhley, Sir George 
 Carteret, Sir William Berkley, and Sir John Colliton. 
 The plan of government for this new colony was drawn 
 up by the famous Mr Locke, who very wifely pro- 
 pofed an univerfal toleration in religious matters. The 
 only reftridlion in this refpeft was, that every perfon 
 claiming the proteftion of that fettlement, ihould, at 
 the age of 17, regifter himfelf in fome particular com- 
 munion. To civil hberty, however, our philofopher 
 was not fo favourable ; the code of Carolina gave to 
 the eight proprietors who founded the colony, and to 
 their heirs, not only all the rights of a monarch, but 
 all the powers of a legiflation. The court, which was 
 compofed of this fovereign body, and called the Pah' 
 tine Court, was invefted with the right of nominating 
 to all employments and dignities, and even of confer- 
 ring nobility; but with new and unprecedented titles. 
 They were, for inftance, to create in each county two 
 caciques, each of whom was to be pofTefied of 24,000 
 acres of land ; and a landgrave, who was to have 
 80,000. The perfons on whom thefe honours fhould 
 be beftowed were to compofe the upper houfe, and 
 their polTeflions were made unalienable. They had 
 only the right of farming or letting out a third part of 
 them at the moft for three lives. The lower houfe 
 was compofed of the deputies from the feveral counties 
 and towns. The number of this reprefentative body 
 was to be increafed as the colony grew more populous. 
 No tenant was to pay more than about a (hillingper acre, 
 and even, this rent was redeemable. All the inhabitants, 
 however, both flaves and freemen, were under an ob- 
 ligation to take up arms upon the lirll order from the 
 Palatine court. 
 
 It was not long before the defefts of this conftitu- 
 tion became apparent. The proprietary lords ufed 
 every endeavour to eftablifh an arbitrary government ; 
 and, on the other hand, the colonifts exerted them- 
 felves with great zeal to avoid fervitude. In confe- 
 quence of this ftruggle, the whole province, diilrafted 
 with tumults and diflentions, became incapable of 
 making any progrefs, though great things had been 
 expected from its particular advantages of fituation. 
 Though a toleration in religious matters was a part of 
 the original conftitution, diffentions arofe likewife on 
 that account. In 1 705, Carteret, now Lord Gran- 
 ville, who, as the oldeft of the proprietors, was fole 
 governor of the colony, formed a defign of obliging 
 all the non-conformifts to embrace the ceremonies of 
 the Church of England ; and this, adt of violence, 
 though difavowed and rejefted by the mother-country, 
 inflamed the minds of the people. In 1720, while this 
 animofity was ftill fubfifting, the province was attacked 
 by feveral bands of favages, driven to defpair by a 
 continued courfe of the moft atrocious violence and 
 jnjuftice. Thefe unfortunate wretches were all put to 
 the fword: but, in 1728, the lords proprietors having 
 refufed to contribute towards the expenees of an ex- 
 pedition, of which they were to (hare the immediate 
 benefits, were deprived of their prerogative, except 
 Ijord Granville, who ftill retained his eighth part. 
 The reft received a recompence of about 24,00011 The 
 colony was taken under the immediate proteAion of 
 the crown, and from that time began to floLiriffi. The 
 divifion into North and South Carolina now took place, 
 
 and the fettlement of Georgia commenced in 1732. < 
 
 See Georgia. 
 CAROLINE, See Carline, ^ 
 CAROLiNE-Books, thc uamc of four books, compofed 
 by order of Charlemagne, to refute the fecond council 
 of Nice. Thefe books are couched in very harfli and 
 fevere terms, containing 120 heads of accufation againft 
 the council of Nice, and condemning the worfhip of 
 irnages. 
 
 CAROLOSTADIANS, or Carlostadians, an 
 ancient fe6l or branch of Lutherans, who denied the 
 real prefence of Chrift in the eucharift. 
 
 They were thus denominated from their leader An- 
 drew Caroloftadius, who having originally been arch- 
 deacon of Wittemberg, was converted by Luther, and 
 was the firft of all the reformed clergy who took a 
 wife ; but difagreeing afterwards with Luther, chiefly 
 in the point of the facrament, founded a fe6t apart. 
 The Caroloftadians are the fame with what are other- 
 wife denominated Sacramentarians, and agree in moft 
 things with the Zuinglians. 
 
 CAROIjUS, an ancient Englifti broad piece of gold 
 flruck under Charles I. Its value has of late been at 
 23 ftiillings Sterling, though at the time it was coined- 
 it is faid to have been rated at 20 ftiillings. 
 
 Carolus, a fmall copper coin, with a little filver 
 mixed with it, ftruck under Charles VIII. of France. 
 The carolus was worth 1 2 deniers when it ceafed to 
 be current. Thofe which are ftill current in trade in 
 Lorrain, or in fome neighbouring provinces, go under 
 the name of French fols. 
 
 CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries of the 
 neck, which convey the blood frcfin the aorta to the 
 brain; one called the rights and the other the left,, 
 carotid. 
 
 CARP, in ichthyology, the Englifli name of a fpe- 
 cies of cyprinus. See Cyprinus ; alfo Carp-Fifing. 
 
 The carp is the moft valuable of all kinds of fifti for 
 ftocking of ponds. It is very quick in its growth, 
 and brings forth the fpawn three times a-year, fo that 
 the increafe is veiy great. The female does not begin 
 to breed till eight or nine years old ; fo that in breed- 
 ing-ponds a fupply muft be kept of carp of that age. 
 The beft judges aUov/, that, in ftocking a breeding- 
 pond, four males ftiould be allowed to twelve females. 
 The ufual growth of a carp is two or three inches in 
 length in a year ; but, in ponds which receive the fat- 
 tening of common fewers, they have been known tO' 
 grow from five inches to 1 8 in one year. A. feeding- 
 pond of one acre extent will very well feed 300 carp 
 of three years old, 300 of two years, and 400 of 
 one year old. Carp delight greatly in ponds that have 
 marley fides ; they love alfo clay-ponds well fheltered 
 from the winds, and grown with weeds and long grafs 
 at the edges, which they feed on, in the hot months. 
 Carp and tench thrive veiy faft in ponds and rivers near 
 the fea, where the water is a little brackifh ; but they 
 are not fo well tafted as thofe which live in frefh wa- 
 ter. Grains, blood, chicken-guts, and the like, may at 
 times be thrown into carp-ponds, to help to fatten the 
 fifti. To make them grow large and fat, the growth 
 of grafs under the water ftiould by all means poflible 
 be encouraged For this purpofe, as the water de- 
 creafes in the fummer, the fides of the pond left naked, 
 and dry fhould be well raked witih an iron rake, to de-=- 
 
 3 ^^^Y: 
 
 Carp. 
 
CAR 
 
 Carpates ftro>y all the weeds, and cut up the 
 
 II earth : hay-feed fiiould then be fown plentifully in 
 ^''P^""'^' thefe places ; and more ground prepared in the fame 
 manner, as the water falls more and more away. By 
 this means there will be a fine and plentiful growth of 
 young grafs along the fides of the pond to the water's 
 edg-e ; and when the rains fill up the pond again, this 
 will be all buried under the water, and will make a 
 feeding-place for the fifli, where they will come early 
 in the morning, and will fatten greatly upon what they 
 find there. 
 
 CARPATES,orALPEsBASTARNiCAE,(anc.geog.) 
 a range of mountains, running out between Poland, 
 Hungaiy, and Tranfylvania. Now called the Carpa- 
 thian Mountains. 
 
 CARPATHIUM (Mare, Horace, Ovid) ; the fea 
 that wafhes the ifland Carpathus. 
 
 CARPATHUS, an iiland on tlie coaft of Afia, two 
 hundred ftadia in compafs, and an hundred in length. Its 
 name is faid to be from its fituation on the coaft of 
 Caria. It lies between Rhodes and Crete, in the fea 
 which, from this illand, is called the Carpathian Sea, 
 and has to the north the Ionian, to the fouth the 
 Egyptian, to the weft the Cretan and African feas. 
 It is two hundred furlongs in compafs, and a hundred 
 in length. It had anciently, according to Strabo, four 
 cities; according to Scylax only three. Ptolemy 
 mentions but one, which he calls Pofidiurn. This 
 ifland is now called Scarpanto. 
 
 CARP-SI A, a kind of dance anciently in ufe among 
 the Athenians and Magnefians, performed by two 
 perfons, the one afting a labourer, the other a robber. 
 The labourer, laying by his arms, goes to ploughing 
 and fowing, ftill looking .'. arily about him as if afraid 
 of being furprifed : the robber at length appears, and 
 the labourer, quitting his plough, betakes himfelf to 
 his arms, and fights in defence of his oxen. The 
 whole was perfonned to the found of flutes, and in 
 cadence. Sometimes the robber was overcome and 
 fometimes the labourer ; the viftor's reward being the 
 oxen and plough. The defign of the exercife was to 
 teach and accuitom the peafants to defend themfelves 
 againft the attacks of ruf&ans. 
 
 CARPENTER, a perfon who praftifes Carpen- 
 try. The word is formed from the French charpen- 
 tier, which fignifies the fame, formed of charpente, 
 which denotes timber ; or rather from the Latin car- 
 pentariusy a maker of carpenta, or carriages. 
 
 Carpenter of a Shlpj an officer appointed to exa- 
 mine and keep in order the frame of a fliip, together 
 with her mails, yards, boats, and all other wooden 
 machinery. It is his duty in particular to keep the 
 fhip tight ; for which purpofe he ought frequently to 
 review the decks and fides, and to caulk them when 
 it is neceffary. In the time of battle, he is to exa- 
 mine up and down, with aU poflible attention, in the 
 lower apartments of the ftiip, to ftop any holes that 
 may have been made by fhot, with wooden plugs pro- 
 vided of feveral fizes. 
 
 CARPENTRAS, an epifcopal town of Provence 
 in France, and capital of Venaiifin. It is fuhjcft to 
 ^he pope ; and is feated on the river Aufon, at the 
 foot of a mountain. E. Long, 5'. 6. N. Lat. 44. 4. 
 
 CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and 
 joining large pieces of wood, for the ufes of building. 
 
 [ 179 ] C A R 
 
 furface of the It is one of the arts fubfervient to archite£lure, and Is Cafpentuci 
 divided into houfe-carpentry and fltip-carpentry : the il 
 firft is employed in raifing roofing, flooring of houfes, ^-arpi. 
 ^c. and the lecond in the building of fliips *, barges, ^ 
 Sif c. The rules in carpentry are much the fame with i,u^fding, ^ 
 thofe of Joinery ; the only difference is, that car- 
 pentry is ufed in the larger and coarfer work, and 
 joinery in the fmaller and curious. 
 
 CARPENTUM, in antiquity, a name common to 
 divers forts of vehicles, anfwering to coaches as weU 
 as waggons, or even carts, among us. The carpentum 
 was originally a kind of car or vehicle in which the 
 Roman ladies were carried ; though in after times it 
 was alfo ufed in war. Some derive the word fi-om 
 cnrro ; others from Cannenta the mother of Evander, 
 by a converfion of the m into^. 
 
 CARPET, a fort of covering of fluff, or other ma- 
 terials, wrought with the needle or on a loom, which 
 is part of the furniture of a houfe, and commonly 
 fpread over tables, or laid upon the floor. 
 
 Perfian and Turkey carpets are thofe moft; efteem* 
 ed ; though at Paris there is a manufaftory after the 
 manner of l''erfia, where they make them little inferior, 
 not to fay finer than the true Perfian carpets. They 
 are velvety, and perfectly imitate the carpets which 
 come from the Levant. There are alfo carpets of 
 Germany, fome of which are made of woollen fluffs, 
 as fergcs, l5c. and called fquare carpets : others are 
 made of wool alfo, but wrought with the needle, and 
 pretty often embellilhed with filk ; and, laftly, there 
 are fome made of dogs hair. We have likewife car- 
 pets made in Britain, which are ufed either as floor- 
 carpets, or to cover chairs, &c. It is true, we are 
 not arrived at the like perfeftion in this raanufafture 
 with our neighbours the French ; but may not this be 
 ovv'ing to the want of a like public encouragement ? 
 
 CARPET-Knights, a denomination given to gown-men 
 and others, of peaceable profeffions, who, on account 
 of their birth, office, or merits to the public, or the 
 like, are, by the prince, raifed to the dignity of knight- 
 hood. 
 
 They take the appellation carpet y becaufe they ufually 
 receive their honours from the king's hands in the 
 court, kneeling on a cai-pet. By which they are di- 
 ftinguiflied from knights created in the camp, or field 
 of battle, on account of their military prowefs. Car- 
 pet-knights poffefs a medium between thofe called 
 truck, or dunghill'knights , who only purchafe or merit 
 the honour by their wealth, and knights-bachelors, wh» 
 are created for their fervices in the war. 
 
 CARPI, a principality of Modena in Italy, lying 
 about four leagues from that city. It formerly be- 
 longed to the houfe of Pio ; the elder fons of which 
 bore the title of Princes of St Gregory. In the be- 
 ginning of the 14th century Manfroy was the firft 
 prince of Carpi ; but in the i6th, the em.peror Cha. V, 
 gave the principality to Alfonzo duke of Ferrara. 
 This nobleman, in recompence, gave to Albert Pio, 
 to whom the principality of Carpi belonged of right, 
 the town of Saifuolo and forae other lands. Albert 
 was, however, at laft obliged to retire to Paris ; where, 
 being ftrlpped of all his ettates, he died in 1538, with 
 the reputation of being one of the beft and braveft men 
 of his age. The family of Pio is yet in being, and 
 continues attached to the French couit. Some of 
 Z 2 them 
 
CAR [ 1 
 
 Can i, them liave even been raifed to the purple, and flill 
 Carpiruis. ^ figure in Europe. 
 
 " Carpi, a town of Italy in the duchy of Modena, 
 
 and capital of the laft mentioned principality. It has 
 a ftrong caille, and is fituated in E. Long. ii. 12. 
 N. Lat. 44. 45. 
 
 Carpi, a town of the Veronefe in Italy, memorable 
 for a viftoiy gained by the Imperiahlls over the French 
 in 1 701. It is fubjeft to the Venetians; and is fi- 
 tuated on the river Adige, in E. Long. 11. 39. N. 
 Lat. 45. TO. 
 
 CARPI (Ugo da), an Italian painter, of no very con- 
 fiderable talents in that art, but remarkable for being the 
 inventorof that fpecies of engraving on wood, diftinguifh- 
 ed by the name of chiaro-fcuro, in imitation of drawing. 
 This is perfonned by ufing more blocks than one ; 
 and Ugo da Carpi ufually had three ; the firft for the 
 outhne and dark fhadows, the fccond for the lighter 
 fhadows, and the third for the half tint. In that 
 manner he Ifruck off prints after feveral dcfigns, and 
 cartons of Raphael ; particularly one of the Sybil, a 
 Defcent from the Crofs, and the Hiftory of Simon 
 the Sorcerer. He died in 1500. This art was brought 
 to a ftill higher degree of perfeftion by Balthafar Pe- 
 ruzzi of Siena, and Parmigiano, who publilhed feveral 
 excellent defigns in that manner. 
 
 Carpi (Girolamo da), hiftory and portrait painter, 
 was born at Ferrara in 1 50 1, and became a difciple of 
 Garofalo. When he quitted that mafter, he devoted 
 his whole time, thoughts, and attention, to ftudy the 
 works of Correggio, and to copy them with a moft 
 critical care and obfervation ; in which labour he fpent 
 feveral years at Parma, Modena, and other cities of 
 Italy, where the beft works of that exquifite painter 
 were preferved. He acquired fuch an excellence in 
 the imitation of Correggio's ftyle, and copying his 
 pidtures, that many paintings finifhed by him were ta- 
 ken for originals, and not only admired, but were ea- 
 gerly purchafed by the connoiffeurs of that time. Nor 
 is It improbable that feveral of the paintings of Giro- 
 lamo da Carpi pafs at this day for the genuine work 
 of Correggio himfelf. He died in 1556. 
 
 CARPINUS, the horn-beam, in botany; A ge- 
 nus of the polyandria order, belonging to the monce- 
 cia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 50th order, Amentacete. The calyx of the 
 male is monophyllous and ciliated ; there is no corolla, 
 but 20 ftamina The calyx of the female is monophyl- 
 lous and ciliated ; no corolla ; two germens, with two 
 ftyles on each. The fruit is an egg-lhaped nut. There 
 are two fpecies, viz, 
 
 1 . The betulus, or common hornbeam ; a deciduous 
 tree, native of Europe and America. Its leaves are of 
 a darkifh green, and about the the fize of thofe of the 
 beech, but more pointed and deeply ferrated. Its branch- 
 es are long, flexible, and crooked ; yet in their general 
 appearanc-e very much refemble thofe of the beech : in- 
 deed there is fo great a likenefs between thofe two 
 trees, efpecially in the fhrubby and underwood ftate, 
 that it would be difficult to diftinguirti them at the firft 
 glance, were it not for that gloffy varnifh with which 
 the leaves of the beech are ftrongly marked. In the 
 days of Evelyn, when topiary work was the garden- 
 er's idol, the hornbeam might be conhdered as deferving 
 of thofe endearing expreffions which_ that enthufiaftic 
 
 !o ] CAR 
 
 writer has been pkafed to lavifii upon it : neverthelefs, Carpintis. 
 «s an ornamental in modern gardening it ftands low ; ^ 
 and its prefent ufes are few. As an undemood it af- 
 fords ftakes and edders, fuel and charco •!. Its timber 
 ranks with that of the beech and the fycamore; and the 
 inner bark is faid to be much ufed in Scandinavia to. 
 dye yellow. The only fuperior excellency of the horn=«- 
 beam lies in its fitnefs for flcreen fences for fheltering 
 gardens, nurferies, and young plantations from the fc- 
 verities of the winter fcafon. It may be trained to 
 almoft any height, and by keeping it trimmed on the 
 fides it becomes thick of branches, and confequently 
 thick of leaves ; which being by their nature retained , 
 upon the plant after they wither, a hornbeam hedge 
 occafions a degree of ftielter nearly equal to that given 
 by a brick wall Indeed, be'ng lefs rcfleilive than 
 that expenfive ilcreen, it affords a more uniform tem^ 
 perature of air to the plants which ftand near it. In 
 this point of view, too, the hornbeam is ufeful to be 
 planted promifcuoufly, or in alternate rows, amongil 
 more tender plants in expofed fituations, in the fame 
 manner as the birch ; to which it has more than one 
 preference : namely, it is warmer in winter, — and 
 Hanbury fays, the hornbeam is peculiarly giateful to 
 hares and rabbits ; confequently it may prevent their 
 injuring its more vahiable neighbours : yet, like Eve- 
 lyn, he feems to be of opinion tliat it is difaffefted by 
 deer. If this be really the cafe, the hornbeam may 
 upon many occafions be introduced into deer-parks 
 with fingular propriety. 
 
 Of this fpecies there are three varieties : The 
 Eaftern Hornbeam, Flowering Hornbeam, Americaa 
 Hornbeam. The eaftern hornbeam arrives to the 
 leaft height of all the forts : about ten feet is the far- 
 theft of its growth, and it looks pretty enough with 
 trees of the fame growth. The leaves are by no means 
 fo large as the common fort ; and as the branches are 
 always clofer in proportion to the fmallnefs of the 
 leaves, where a low hedge is wanted of the deciduous 
 kind, this would not be an improper tree for the pur- 
 pofe, either to be kept fheered, or fuffered to grow in 
 its natural ftate. The bark of this fort is more fpotted 
 than that of the common. The flowering horn- 
 beam is the moft free fliooter of any of the forts ; and 
 will arrive to be the highett, the common hornbeam 
 only excepted. It will grow to be thirty qr forty 
 feet high. The branches of this tree are lefs fpotted 
 with greyifh fpots than any of the other forts. The 
 leaves are very rough, of a dark-green colour, and are 
 longer than the common fort. The property which 
 the common hornbeam is poflefled of, of retaining its 
 leaves all winter, does not belong to this fort, the leaves 
 of which conftantly fall off" in the autumn with other 
 deciduous trees. American hornbeam is a more elegant 
 tree than any of the former forts. The branches are 
 flender, covered with a brownifh fpeckled bark, "and 
 are more fparingly fent forth than from any of the 
 others. The leaves are oblong, pointed, and of a 
 pahfli green, and are not nearly fo rough as the com- 
 mon hornbeam, though the flowers and fruit are pro- 
 duced in the fame manner. 
 
 2. The oftrya, or hop-hornbeam, a native of Italy 
 and of Virginia. This is of taller growth than the 
 eaftern kind. It will arrive to the height of twenty 
 feet, or more. The leaves are -nearly the fize of the 
 
 commoa 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 
 
 InuB common fort, and fome people admire this tree on ac- 
 
 '■ count of the fingular appearance it makes with its 
 feeds, before they begin to fall. There is a variety 
 which grows to thirty feet high, (lioots freely, has 
 long rough leaves like thofe of the elm, and longifh 
 vellow-coloured flowers, called the Virginian Jlo'UJdnng 
 hop-hornbeam. 
 
 Propagation. The common hornbeam may be pro- 
 pagated either by layering (at almoil any time of the 
 year), or from feeds in the following manner : In the 
 autumn the feeds will be ripe ; when, having gathered 
 a fufficient quantity for the purpofe, let them be fpread 
 upon a mat a few days to dry. After this, they ihould 
 be fowa in the feminary-ground, in beds four feet wide, 
 with an alley of about two feet, and from one to two 
 Inches deep. In this bed they mud remain tiU the 
 fecond fpring before thty make their appearance ; and 
 all the fumincr they lie concealed, the weeds fliould 
 conilantly be plucked up as foon as they peep ; for if 
 tiiey are negletled, they will get fo ilrong, and the 
 fibres of their roots will be fo far ftruck down' among 
 the feeds, as to endanger the drawing many feeds out 
 witlr them, on weeding the ground. After the young 
 plants appear, they fliould conftantly be kept clear of 
 weeds during the next fummer ; and if they were to. 
 be now and then gently i-efreihed with water in dry 
 weather, it would prove ferviceable to them. In the 
 fpring following they may be taken out of thefe beds, 
 and planted in the nurfery, in which fituation they 
 may remain till they are of a fufficient fize to plant 
 out for Itandards. 
 
 The other forts are to be propagated by layers j 
 for which purpofe a few plants for flools mull be pro- 
 cured. The Itools of the eaftern hornbeam (hould be 
 planted a yard, and the other forts a yard and a half 
 or two yards afunder. After thefe plants have made 
 fome young fhoots, they fliould be layei-ed in. the au- 
 tumn, and by that time twelvemonth they will have 
 llruck root ; at which time, or any time in the winter, 
 or early in the fpring, they fliould be taken off", and 
 planted in the nurfery-way, obfervlng always to brufh 
 up the llool, that it may afford fine young ihoots for 
 frefli layering by the autumn following. The diftance 
 the plants fliould be allowed in the nurfery need be no 
 more than one foot, in rows that are two feet afunder; 
 and here they may ftand, with the ufual nurfery care 
 of weeding and digging the rows in winter, until they 
 are to be finally planted out ; though the Virginian 
 hornbeam will frequently fend forth two flioots, which 
 will feem to ftrive for maftery in tlie lead. When this 
 is obferved, the weakeft fliould always be taken away, 
 otherwife the tree will grow forked. 
 
 CARPOBALSAM, in the Materia Medica, the 
 fruit of the tree which yields the true oriental balfam. 
 The carpobalfam is ufed in Egypt, according to Prof- 
 per Alpinus, in all the intentions in which the balfam 
 itfelf is applied : but the. only ufe the Europeans make 
 of it is in Venice treacle and mithridiite ; and in thefe 
 not a great deal, for cubebs and juniper-berries are 
 generally fubftituted in its place. 
 
 CARPOCRATIANS, a branch of the ancient 
 Gnoftics, fo called from Carpocrates^ v/ho in the fe- 
 cond century revived and improved upon the errors of 
 -Simon Magus, Menandtr, Saturninus, and other 
 
 8i ] CAR 
 
 Gnoftics. He owned, with them, one fole principle Carpolithi 
 and father of all things, whofe name as well as nature Q^^jj^j.^ 
 Vv'as unknown. The world, he taught, was created by 'j , 
 angels, vailly inferior to the firfl; principle. He op- 
 pofed the divinity of Jefus Chriil ; making him a mere 
 man, begotten carnally on the body of Mary by Jo- 
 feph, though pofleffed of uncommon gifts which fef 
 him above other creatures. He indicated a commu- 
 nity of women ; and taught, that the foul could not 
 be purified, till it had committed all kinds of abomi- 
 nations, making that a necelTary condition of perfec- 
 feftion. 
 
 Cx^RPOLITHI, or Fruit-stone Rocks of the 
 Germans, are compofed of a kind of jafper, of the na-' 
 ture of the amygdaloides, or almond-itones. Bertrand 
 aflerts that the latter are thofe which appear to be 
 compofed of elliptical pieces like petrified almonds, 
 though in truth they are only fmall oblong pieces of 
 calcareous Itone rounded by attrition, and fometimes. 
 fmall mufcle-fliells connected by a flony concretion. 
 The name of carpolithi, however, is given in general 
 by writers on foffils to all forts of itony concretions 
 that have any refeniblance to fruit of whatever kind. 
 
 CARPUS, the wrift. See Anatomy, N° 53. 
 
 CARR, a. kind of roUing throne, ufed in triumphs, 
 and at the fplendid entries of princes. See Chariot. 
 
 The word is from the ancient Gaulifli, or Celtic, 
 Carr ; mentioned by Ccefar, in his commentaries, un- 
 der the name Carrus. Plutarch relates,, that Camillus 
 having entered Rome in triumph, mounted on a cari;. 
 drawn by four white horfes, it was looked on as too 
 haughty an innovation. 
 
 Carr is alfo ufed for a kind of light open chariot. 
 The carr, on medals, drawn either by horfes, liona,- 
 or elephants, ufually fignifies either a triumph or an 
 apotheofis : fometimes a procelfioh of the images of 
 the gods at a folemn fuppHcation, and fometimes of 
 thofe of fome illuilrious family at a funeral. The carr. 
 covered, and drawn by mides, only fignifies a confe- 
 cration, and the honour done any one of having his 
 image carried at the games of the circus. See Con 
 
 SECRATION, &C. 
 
 CARRAC, or Carraca, a name given by the Por- 
 tuguefe to the veflels they fend to Brafil and the Eafl;- 
 Indies ; being very large, round built, and fitted for 
 fight as well as bui'den. Their capacity lies in their 
 depth, which is very extraordinary. They are nar- 
 rower above than underneath, and have fometimes fe- 
 ven or eight floors ; they cany about 2000 tons, and 
 are capable of lodging 2000 men ; but of late they are 
 little ufed. Formerly they were alfo ia ufe among 
 the knights of Rhodes,, as well as among the Ge- 
 noefe, and other Itahans. It is a cuilom among the 
 Portuguefe, when the carracs returned from India, 
 not to bring any boat or floop for the fervice of the 
 fliip beyond the ifland of St Helena ; at which place 
 they fink them on purpofe, in order to take from the 
 crew all hopes or poffibihty of faving themfelves, in 
 cafe of fliipwi-eck. 
 
 CARRARA MARBLE, among our artificers, th^ 
 name of a fpecies of white marble, which is called mar-' 
 mor lunenfe, and Ugujirium by the ancients : it is dif- 
 tinguiflied from the Parian, now called the ftatuary 
 marble, bv being harder and lefs bright, 
 
 CAE.' 
 
€ A R T 18 
 
 Ca'ravelra CAIIRAVEIRA, a town of Turkey in Europe, 
 
 „ II. , with a Greek archbifhop's fee. E. Long. 22. 25". N. 
 Carrick. - ^ o > 
 
 ■ ^ ^ Lat. 40. 27. 
 
 CARRIAGE, a vehicle ferving to convey perfons, 
 goods, merchandizes, and other things, from one 
 place to another. 
 
 For the conftroftion and mechanical principles of 
 wheel-carriages, fee Mechanics. 
 
 Carruge of a cannon, the frame or timber work on 
 which it is mounted, ferving to point it for (hooting, 
 or to carry it from one place to another. It is made 
 of two planks of wood, commonly of one-half the 
 Jength of the -gun, called the cheeks, and joined by 
 three wooden tranfums, ftrengthened with three bolts 
 cf iron. It is mounted on two wheels, but on a 
 march has two fore-wheels with limbers added. The 
 principal parts of a carriage are the cheeks, tranfums, 
 'bolts, plates, train, bands, bridge, bed, hooks, trun- 
 nion holes, and capfquare. 
 
 Block-CARRiAGK, a cart made on purpofe for carry- 
 ing mortars and their beds from place to place. 
 
 'Truck-CARRiAGE, two fliort planks of wood, fnp- 
 ported on two axle-trees, having four trucks of folid 
 wood for carrying mortars or guns upon battery, where 
 their own carriages cannot go. They are drawn by 
 men. 
 
 CARRICK, the fouthern divifion of the fhire of 
 Ayr in Scotland. It borders on Galloway ; ftretches 
 32 miles in length ; and is a hilly counti7 fit for paf- 
 -turage. The chief rivers are the Stench er and Gir- 
 Tcn, both abounding with falmon ; here are alfo feve- 
 ral lakes and forefts ; and the people on the coaft em- 
 ploy themfelves in tlie herring-fifhery, though they 
 have no harbour of any confequence. The only towns 
 of this diftria are Bargeny and Maybole, two incon- 
 - fiderable villages, yet the firft gave the title ( now ex- 
 tinft) of baron to a branch of the Hamilton family. 
 The prince of Wales, as prince of Scotland, is earl of 
 Carrick. 
 
 Carrick on the Sure, a town of Ireland, in the county 
 of Tipperary and province of Munfter. W. Long. 7. 
 J4. N. Lat. 52. 16. 
 
 CARRJCK-Fergus, a town of Ireland, in the county 
 of Antrim and province of Ulfter. It is a town and 
 county in itlelf, and fends two members to parliament. 
 It is very rich and populous, with a good harbour ; 
 «nd is governed by a mayor, recorder , and fherifFs. — It 
 has, however, been of far greater confequence than at 
 yrefent, as appears from the mayor having been admi- 
 Tal of a confiderable extent of coaft in the counties of 
 Down and Antrim, and the corporation enjoying the 
 cuftoms paid by all vcfTcls within thefe bounds, the 
 creeks of Belfaft and Bangor excepted. This grant 
 was repurchafed, and the cuftom-houfe transferred to 
 Belfaft. — Here is the fkeleton of a fine houfe built by 
 Lord Chicherter in the reign of James I. an old Go- 
 thic church with many family monuments, and a very 
 large old caftle. The town was formerly walled round, 
 and fome part of the walls is ftill remaining entire. — 
 Carrick-fergus is feated on a bay of the fame name in 
 the Irifli channel ; and is noted for being the landing 
 place of king William in 1690. Here alfo Thurot ir.ade 
 a defcent in 1 759, took pofTeflion of the cattle, and car- 
 tied away hoftages for the ranfom of the town ; but 
 
 2 ] GAR 
 
 being foon after purfued by commodore Elliot, his three d^r r'^* 
 fhips were taken, and he himfelf was killed. '"""^ 
 
 CARRIER, is a perfon that carries goods for others 
 for hire. A common carrier, having the charge and 
 carriage of goods, is to anfwer for the fame, or 
 the value, to the owner. And where goods are de- 
 livered to a carrier, and he is robbed of them, he 
 fhall be charged and anfwer for them, becaufe of the 
 hire. If a common carrier who is offered his hire, 
 and who has convenience, refufes to carry goods, 
 he is liable to an aAion, in the fame manner as an 
 4nn -keeper who refufes to entertain a guefl;. See 
 Assumpsit. 
 
 One brought a box to a carrier, with a large fum oiJaaVt 
 money, and the carrier demanded of the owner what 
 was in it ; he anfwered, that it was filled with filks, 
 and fuch like goods : upon which the carrier took it, 
 and was robbed, and adjudged to make it good ; but 
 a fpecial acceptance, as, provided there is no charge of 
 money, would have excufed the carrier. — A perfon de- 
 livered to a carrier's book-keeper two bags of money 
 fealed up, to be carried from London to Exeter, and 
 told him that it was L. 200, and took his receipt for 
 the fame, with promife of delivery for 10 3. per cent. 
 carriage and rifle : though it be proved that there was 
 L. 400 in the bags, if the carrier be robbed, he fhall 
 anfwer only for L. 20c, becaufe there was a particu- 
 lar undertaking for that fum and no more ; and his re- 
 ward, which makes him anfwerable, extends no farther. 
 If a common carrier lofes goods which he is intrufled 
 to carry, a fpecial aftion on the cafe lies againfl him, 
 on the cuftom of the realm, and not trover ; and fo of 
 a common carrier by boat- An acSlion will lie againtl 
 a porter, carrier, or barge-man, upon his bare receipt of 
 the goods, if they are loft through negligence, Alfo 
 a lighter-man fpoiling goods he is to carry, by letting 
 water come to them, aftion of the cafe liesagainll him, 
 on the common cuftom. 
 
 CARRiF.R-Pigeon, or courier-pigeon, a fort of .pigeon 
 ufed, when properly trained, to be fent with letters 
 from one place to another. See Columba. 
 
 Though you carry thefe birds hood- winked, 20, 
 i^o, nay, 60 or 100 miles, they will find their way in 
 a very little time to the place where they were bred. 
 They are trained to this fervice in Turkey and Pcrfia ; 
 and are carried firft, while young, fhort flights of half 
 a mile, afterwards more, till at length they will re- 
 turn from the fartheft part of the kingdom. Every 
 Baftiaw has a bafliet of thefe pigeons bred in the fera- 
 glio, which, upon any emergent occafion, as an infur- 
 reftion, or the like, he difpatches, with letters braced 
 under their wings, to the fcraglio ; which proves a more 
 fpeedy method, as well as a more fafe one, than any 
 other ; he fends out more than one pigeon, however, 
 for fear of accidents. Lithgow affurcs us, that one of 
 thefe birds will carry a letter from Babylon to Aleppo, 
 which is 30 days journey, in 48 hours. This is alio a 
 very ancient pradlice ; Hirtiusand Brutus, at the fiege 
 of Modena, held a correfpondence with one another by 
 means of pigeons. And Ovid tells us, that Tauro- 
 fthenes, by a pigeon ftained with purple, gave notice to 
 his father of his viftory at the Olympic Games, fend- 
 ing it to him at JEgim. 
 
 In modern times, the moft noted were the pigeons of 
 
 Aleppo, 
 
CAR 
 
 Carnin. 
 
 Aleppo, which ferved as courien at Alexandretta and 
 Bagdad. But this ufe of them has been laid afide for 
 the laft 30 or 40 years, becaufe the Curd robbers kill- 
 ed the pigeons. The manner of fending advice by 
 thetn was this : they took, pairs which had young ones, 
 and carried them on horfeback to the place from whence 
 they wifhed them to return, taking care to let them 
 have a full view. When the news arrived, the cor- 
 refpondent tied a billet to the pigeon's foot, and let 
 her Iloofe. The bird, impatient to fee Its young, flew 
 off Like lightning, and arrived at Aleppo in ten hours 
 frons Alexandretta, and in two days from Bagdad. It 
 was not difKcult for them to find thtir way back, lince 
 Aleppo may be difcovered at an immenfe diftance. 
 This pigeon has nothing peculiar in its form, except its 
 noftrils, which, inftead of being fmooth and even, are 
 fwelled and rough. 
 
 C ARRON, a fmall but remarkable river in Scot- 
 land, rifing about the middle of the Ifthmns between 
 the friths of Forth and Clyde. Both its fource, and 
 the place where it emptieth itfelf into the fea, are 
 witKin the (hire of Stirling, which it divides Into two 
 nearly equal parts. The whole length of its courfe, 
 which is from weft to caft, is not above 14 miles. 
 It falls into the frith of Forth about three miles to the 
 north-eaft of Falkirk. The ftream thereof is but 
 fmall, and fcarce deferves the notice of a traveller; 
 yet there is no river in Scotland, and fewr in the 
 whole ifland of Britain, whofe banks have been the 
 fcene of fo many memorable tranfaftions. When 
 the Roman empire was In all its glory, and had its 
 eaftern "frontiers upon the Euphrates, the banks of 
 Carron were its boundaries upon tbe north-weft ; for 
 See /f/i/o-the wall of Antoninus*, which was raifed to mark the 
 'nus'sH^all.Vitnhs of that mighty empire, ftood in- the neighbour- 
 hood of this river, and ran parallel to it for feveral 
 miles. 
 
 Near the middle of its courfe, in a pleafant valley, 
 ftand two beautiful mounts, called the //ills of Duni- 
 pacCf which are taken notice of by moft of the Scot- 
 tifh hiilorians as monuments of great antiquity. The 
 whole ftrudture of thefe mounts is of earth ; but they 
 are not both of the fame form and dimenfions. The 
 more eafterly one is perfectly round, refembllng an 
 oven, and about fifty feet in height : And that this is 
 an artificial work does not admit of the leaft doubt ; 
 but we cannot affirm the lame, with equal certainty, 
 of the other, though it has been generally fuppofed 
 to be fo too. It bears no referablance to the eaftern 
 one either in fhape or fize. At the foundation it is 
 nearly of a triangular form ; but the fuperftrufture is 
 quite irregular ; nor does the height thereof bear any 
 proportion to the extent of its bafe. Thefe moimts 
 are now planted with firs, which, with the parifh- 
 church of Dunipace ftanding in the middle between 
 them, and the river running hard by, give this valley 
 a very romantic appearance. The common account 
 given of thefe mounts is, that they were ere£led as 
 monuments of a peace concluded in that place be- 
 tween the Romans and the Caledonians, and that their 
 name partakes of the language of both people ; Dun 
 fignifying a hill in the old language of this ifland, and 
 Fax " peace" in the language of Rome. The com- 
 pound word, Dunipace, fignifies " the hills of peace." 
 And we find in hiftory, that no lefs than three treaties 
 
 [ "83 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 of peace were, at different periods, entered Into between 
 the Romans and Caledoniatvs ; the firft, by Severus, *" 
 about the year 210 ; the fecond, foon after, by his fon 
 Caracalla ; and the third, by the ufurper Caraufius, 
 about the year 280 ; but of which of thofe treaties 
 Dunipace is a monument, we do not pretend to deter- 
 mine. If the concurring teftimony of hiftorians and. 
 antiquaries did not agree in giving this original to thefe 
 mounts, we would be tempted to conjefturc that they 
 are fepulchral monuments. Human bones and urns 
 have been difcovered in earthen fabrics of this kind 
 in many parts of this ifland, and the little mounts or 
 barrows, which are fcattered in great numbers about 
 Stonhenge in Saliftury plain are generally fuppofed to 
 have been the fepulchres of the ancient Britons. Sec 
 Barrows. 
 
 From the valley of Dunipace, the river runs for 
 fome time In a deep and hollow channel, with fteep 
 banks on both fides : here It pafTes by the foundation* 
 of the ancient Roman bridge ; not far from which, 
 as is generally thought, was the fcene of the memo- 
 rable conference betwixt the Scottiih patriot William- 
 Wallace and Robert Bruce, father to the king of that 
 name, which firft opened the eyes of the latter to a 
 juft view, both of his own true intereft and that of 
 his country. 
 
 After the river has left the village and bridge of 
 Larbert, it foon comes up to another fmall valley, 
 through the midft of which it has now worn out to 
 itfelf a ftraight channel; whereas, in former ages, 
 it had taken a confiderable compafs, as appears by 
 the traft of the old bed, which Is ftill vifible. The 
 high and circling banks upon the fouth-fide, give to 
 this valley the appearance of a fpaclous bay ; and, 
 according to the tradition of the country, there was 
 once an harbour here : nor does the tradition feem 
 altogether groundlefs ; pieces of broken anchors having 
 been found here, and fome of them within the me- 
 mory of people yet alive. The ftream-tides would 
 ftill flow near the place, if they were not kept back 
 by the dam-head built acrofs the river at Stenhoufe y 
 and there is reafon to believe, that the frith flowed 
 confiderably higher in former ages than it does at 
 prefent. In the near neighbourhood of this valley, 
 upon the fouth, ftand the ruins of ancient Camelon ; 
 which, after it was abandoned by the Romans, was 
 probably inhabited, for fome ages, by the natives of 
 the country. 
 
 Another ancient monument, called Arthur'^ Oven,, 
 once ftood upon the banks of Carron ; but was, with 
 a fpirit truly Gothic, entirely demolifiled about 40 
 years ago. The ccrner of a fmall inclofure between 
 Stenhoufe and the Carron iron- works. Is pointed out 
 as the place of its fituation. This Is generally fuppo- 
 fed to have been a Roman work ; though it is not 
 eafy to conceive what could be their motive for ereft- 
 ing fuch a fabric, at fo great a diftance from any other 
 of their works, and in a fpot which, at that time, muft 
 have been very remote and unfrequented. The form 
 of it is faid to have been perfe£tly round, and rifing 
 perpendicular for fome yards at firft, but afterwards 
 gradually contrafted, till it terminated in a narrow ori- 
 fice at the top. Antiquaries are not agreed whether 
 it had been a temple, or a trophy, or a raaufoleuai ; but 
 the moft common opinion is, that it had been a temple, 
 
 and,. 
 
 Carron. 
 
CAR 
 
 t 1B4 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 Catron, and, Buchanan thinks, a tei)nple of Terminus. Heflor 
 — V "™" ' Boetius fays, that there were benches of ftone all around 
 it, upon the infide ; and that there had been a large 
 Itone for facrificing upon, or an altar, upon the fouth 
 fide. 
 
 As Carron extends over the half of the ifthmus, 
 and runs fo near the ancient boundaries of the Ro- 
 man empire, the adjacent country fell naturally to 
 be the fcene of many battles and rencounters. Hif- 
 torians mention a bloody battle fought near this river 
 between the Romans and the confederate army of the 
 Scots and Pifts in the beginning of the 5th century. 
 The fcenesof fome of Offian's poems were, in the opi- 
 nion of the tranflator, upon the banks of this river. 
 Here Fingal fought with Caracal, the fon of the king 
 of the world, fuppofed to have been the fame with 
 Caracalla the fon of the Roman emperor Severus. 
 Here alfo young Ofcar, the fon of Offian, performed 
 fome of his heroic exploits. Hereabout was the 
 flream of Crona, celebrated in the ancient compo- 
 litions of the Gaelic bard ; pofiibly that now called 
 the water of Bonny, which runs in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Roman wall, and difchargeth itfelf into 
 Carron at Dunipace. In thofe poems, mention is 
 made of a green vale upon the banks of this river, 
 with a tomb ftanding in the middle of it, where 
 young Ofcar's party and the warriors of Caros met. 
 We only take notice of this as it ftrengthens the 
 conjefture hazarded above, that the mounts of Du- 
 nipace, efpecially the more eafterly of them, were 
 fepulchral monuments. — About the diftance of half a 
 mile from the river, and near the town of Falkirk, 
 lies the field of that battle which was fought by Wil- 
 liam Wallace and the Englifli in the beginning of the 
 14th century. It goes by the name of Graham's muirf 
 from the valiant John Graham, who fell there, and 
 •whofe grave-ftone is ftill to be feen in the church-yard 
 of Falkirk. 
 
 The river Carron, though it hath long fince ceafed 
 to roll its ftream amidft the din of arms, ftill preferves 
 its fame, by lending its aid to trade and manufaftures ; 
 (fee the next article. ) — The river is navigable for fome 
 miles near its mouth, and a confiderable trade is carried 
 on upon it by fmall craft ; for tlie convenience of which, 
 its channel has of lat« years been ftraightened and 
 * See the ™uch fliortened, and the great Canal * has its entrance 
 article Ca- from it. 
 
 nal. Carron- Worh,zhrgc irGn foundery,two miles north 
 
 from Falkirk in Scotland. They are conveniently fitu- 
 ated on the banks of the Carron, three miles above its 
 entry into the frith of Forth. Above 100 acres of 
 land have been converted into rtfervoirs and pools, for 
 ■water diverted from the river, by magnificent dams built 
 about two miles above the works, which, after turning 
 1 8 large wheels for the feveral purpofes of the manu- 
 fafture, falls into a tide-navigation that conveys their 
 caftings to the fea. 
 
 Thefe works are the greateft of the kind in Europe, 
 and were eftabHftied in i 760. At prefent, the build- 
 ings are of vaft extent ; and the machinery, conftruc- 
 ted by Mr Smeaton, is the firft in Britain, both in 
 elegance and correftnefs : there are 1 600 men em- 
 ployed, to whom is paid weekly above 650 1. Sterling ; 
 which has greatly enriched the adjoining country : 
 65CO tons of iron are fmelted annually from the 
 N° 65. 2 
 
 mineral with pit-coal, and caft ifito cannon, cylin- Carrot 
 ders, tffc. — In the founding of cannon, thefe works II 
 have lately arrived at fuch perfedlion, that they make Carrucate. 
 above 5000 pieces a-year, many of which are ex- 
 ported to foreign ftatcs ; and their guns of neiv coti" 
 Jiru8ion are the lighteft and neateft now in ufe, not 
 excepting brafs guns; the 32 pounder ftiip-gun 
 weighing 42 hundred-weight, the 6 pounder 8 hun- 
 dred-weight and one half, and the other calibers in 
 proportion. 
 
 The prefent proprietors are a chartered company, 
 with a capital of 150,0001. Sterling, a common feal, 
 iffc. but their flock is coHfine<l to a very few indivi- 
 duals. 
 
 CARRONADE, a fliort kind of ordnance, capa- 
 ble of carrying a large ball, and ufeful in clofe engage- 
 ments at fea. It takes its name from Carron, the 
 place where this fort of ordnance was firft made, or 
 the principle applied to an improved conftruftion. See 
 the article Gunnery, n° 45, 46. 
 
 CARROT, in Botany. See Daucus. 
 
 Deadly-CARROT. See Thapsia. 
 
 CARROUSAL, a courfe of horfes and chariots, 
 or a magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes 
 on fome public rejoicing. It confifts in a cavalcade of 
 feveral gentlemen, richly dreffed and equipped after 
 the manner of ancient cavaliers, divided into fqua- 
 drons, meeting in fome public place, and praftifing 
 jufts, tournaments, &c. The laft carroufals were in 
 the reign of Louis XIV. — The word comes from the 
 Italian word carofello, a diminutive of carro, " chariot." 
 TertuUian afcribes the invention of carroufals to Circe j 
 and will have them inftituted in honour of the Sun, her 
 father ; whence fome derive the word from carrus or 
 currus Jolts. The Moors introduced cyphers, liveries, 
 and other ornaments of their arms, with trappings, 
 &c. for their horfes. The Goths added crefts, plumes, 
 &c. 
 
 CARRUCA, in antiquity, a fplendid kind of carr, 
 or chariot, mounted on four wheels, richly decorated 
 with gold, filver, ivory, &c. in which the emperors, 
 fenators, and people of condition, were carried. The 
 word comes from the Latin carrus, or Britifh carr, 
 which is ftill the Irifti name for any wheel-carriage. 
 
 Carruca, or Caruca, is alfo ufed in middle-age 
 writers for a plough. 
 
 Carru OA was alfo fometimes ufed for carrucata. See 
 Carrucate. 
 
 CARUCAGE, [carucaglum,) a kind of tax anciently 
 impofed on every plough, for the public fervice. See 
 Carrucate and Hidage. 
 
 Carrucage, Carucage, or Caruage, in huf- 
 bandry, denotes the ploughing of ground, either ordi- 
 nary, as for grain, hemp, and flax ; or extraordinary, 
 as for woad, dyers weed, rape, and the like. 
 
 CARRUCATE, {carrucata,) in our ancient laws 
 and hiftory, denotes a plough-land, or as much arable 
 ground as can be tilled in one year with one plough. 
 
 In Doomfday Inquifition, the arable land is ettima- 
 ted in carrucates, the pafture in hides, and meadow in 
 acres. Skene makes the carrucata the fame with hllday 
 or hida terra ; Littleton the fame with foe. 
 
 The meafure of a carrucate appears to have differ- 
 ed in refpeft of place as well as time. In the reign 
 of Richard I. it was eftimated at 60 acres, and in a- 
 
 nother 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 
 
 notKer charter of the fame relgti at loo acres : in the 
 time of Edward I. at 1 80 acres : and in the 23d of 
 Edward III. a carrucate of land in Burcefter contain- 
 ed 1 12 acres, and in Middleton I50 acres. 
 
 By a ftatute under William III. for charging per* 
 fons to the repair of the highways, a plough-land is 
 rated at a fifty pounds per annurriy and may contain 
 houfes, mills, wood, pallure, &c. 
 
 CARRYING, in falconry, fignifies a hawk's fly- 
 ing away with the quarry. Carrying is one of the ill 
 qualities of a hawk, which ftie acquires either by a 
 diflike of the falconer, or not being fufficiently broke 
 to the lure. 
 
 Carrying, among huntfmen. When a hare runs 
 on rotten ground (or even fometimes in a froft)^ and 
 it llicks to her feet, they fay flie carries. 
 
 Carrying, among riding-mafters. A horfe is fald 
 to carry low, when having naturally an ill-fhaped neck, 
 he lowers his head too much. All horfes that arm 
 themfelves carry low, but a horfe may carry low with* 
 out arming. A French branch, or gigot, is prefcribed 
 as a remedy againft carrying low. 
 
 A horfe is faid to carry well, when his neck is rai- 
 fed, or arched, and he holds his head high and firm, 
 without conflraint. 
 
 Carrying Wind, a term ufed by our dealers in hor- 
 fes to exprefs fuch a one as frequently toITes his nofe 
 as high as his ears, and does not carry handfomely. 
 This is called carrying •wind; and the difference be- 
 tween carrying in the wind, and beating upon the 
 hand, is this : that the horfe who beats upon the 
 hand, lliakes the bridle and refiils it, while he fhakes 
 his head ; but the horfe that carries in the wind puts 
 up his head without fhaking, and fometimes beats up- 
 on the hand. The oppofite to carrying in the wind, 
 is arming and carrying low ; and even between thcfe 
 two theie is a difference in wind. 
 
 CARS, or Kars, a confiderable and ftrong town of 
 Afia, in Armenia, feated on a river of the fame name, 
 with a caftle almofl impregnable. E. Long. 43. 50. 
 N. Lat. 41. 30. 
 
 CARSE, or Carfe of Goiury, a diflrift of Perthfhire 
 in Scotland. It lies on the north fide of the Tay, and 
 extends 14 miles in length from Dundee to Perth, and 
 is fiom two to four in breadth. It is a rich plain 
 country, cultivated like a garden, and producing as 
 good harvefts of wheat as any in Great Britain. It 
 abounds with all the neceffaries of life ; but from its 
 low damp fituation, the inhabitants are fubjedt to a- 
 gues, and the commonalty are in great want of firing. 
 In this diftrift, not far from the Tay, flands the houfe 
 of Errol, which formerly belonged to the Earls of that 
 name, the chiefs of the ancient family of Hay, here- 
 ditary conftables of Scotland. 
 
 CARSTAIRS (Wilham), an eminent Scots Divine, 
 "whofe merit and good fortune called him to adl in 
 great fcenes, and to affociate with men to whofe fo- 
 ciety and intercourfe his birth gave him few preten- 
 fions to afpire. A fmall village, in the neighbourhood 
 of Glafgow, was the place of his nativity. His fa- 
 ther, of whom Httle is known, exercifed the fundtions 
 of a clergyman. 
 
 Young Carflairs turned his thoughts to the profef- 
 fion of theology ; and the perfccutions and oppref- 
 Cons of government, both in regard to civil and reli- 
 
 VoL. IV. Part L 
 
 85 ] CAR 
 
 gious liberty, having excited his ftrongefl indignation, Carftalw. 
 it became a matter of prudence that he fhould profe- — — v~-^ 
 
 cute his fludies in a foreign univerfity. He went ac- 
 cordingly to Utrecht ; and his induftry and attention 
 being directed with flcill, opened up and unfolded thofe 
 faculties which he was about to employ with equal 
 honour to his country and himfelf. 
 
 During his refidence abroad, he became acquainted 
 with Penfionary Fagel, and entered with warmth in- 
 to the intereil of the Prince of Orange. On his re- 
 turn to Scotland to procure a licenfe to teach doc- 
 trines which he had ftudied with the greateft care, he 
 became difgufted with the proud and infolent condudl 
 of Archbifhop Sharp, and prepared to revifit Holland; 
 where he knew that religious liberty was refpefted, 
 and where he hoped he might better his condition by 
 the connedtions he had formed. 
 
 His expedtations were not vain. His prudence, his 
 referve, and his political addrefs, were ilrong recom- 
 mendations of him to the Prince of Orange; and he was 
 employed in perfonal negociations in Holland, England, 
 and Scotland. Upon the elevation of his mailer to the 
 Englifli throne, he was appointed the King's chap- 
 lain for Scotland, and employed in fettling the affairs 
 af that kingdom. William, who carried politics into 
 religion, was folicitous that epifcopacy fhould prevail 
 there as univerially as in England. Carflairs, more 
 verfant in the affairs of his native country, faw all the 
 impropriety of this projedl, and the danger that would 
 arife from the enforcing of it. His reafonings, his re- 
 monflrances, his intreaties, overcame the firmnefs of 
 king William. He yielded to confiderations founded 
 alike in policy and in prudence; and to Carflairs, Scot- 
 land is indebted for the full eftablifhment of its church 
 in the Prefbyterian form of government. 
 
 The death of King William was a fevere afflidlion 
 to him ; and it happened before that Prince had pro- 
 vided for him with the liberality he deferved. He 
 was continued, however, in the oflice of chaplain for 
 Scotland by Queen Anne; and he was invited to ac- 
 cept the Principality of the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 
 He was one of the miniflers of the city, and four times 
 moderator of the general affembly. Placed at the 
 head of the church, he profecuted its intercfl with 
 zeal and with integrity. Nor were his influence and 
 activity confined to matters of religion. They were 
 exerted with fuccefs in promoting the culture of the 
 arts and fciences. The univerfities of Scotland owe 
 him obligations of the highefl kind. He procured, in 
 particular, an augmentation of the falaries of their 
 profeffors ; a circumflance to which may be afcribed 
 their reputation, as it enabled them to cultivate with 
 fpirit the different branches of knowledge. 
 
 A zeal for truth, a love of moderation and order, 
 prudence and humanity, diflinguifhed Principal Car- 
 flairs in an uncommon degree. His rehgion had no 
 mixture of aullerity; his fecular tranfadlions were at- 
 tended with no imputation of artifice; and the verfa- 
 tility of his talents made him pafs with eafe from a 
 court to a college. He was among the lail who fuf- 
 fered torture before the privy-council, in order to make 
 make him divulge the fecrets intrufled to him, which 
 he firmly refilled ; and after the revolution, that in- 
 human inflrument the thumb-fcrew was given to him 
 in a prefent by the council — This excellent perfoo 
 A a died 
 
Carte. 
 
 CAR [ 
 
 Carfughi died in 1715 ; and in 1774 His State-papers and Letters, 
 with an account of his life, were publilhcd in one vol. 
 4to, by the Rev. Dr M'Cormick. 
 
 CAPvSUGHI (Rainier), a Jefuit, born at Citerna 
 in Tufcany, in 1647, was the author of a Latin poem, 
 entitled, Jirs bene fcr'tbendi, which is efteemed both for 
 the elegance of the ftyle and for the excellent prece])ts 
 it contains. He alfo wrote fome good epigrams. He 
 died in 1709. 
 
 CART AM A, a town of Spain in the kingdom of 
 Grenada, formerly veiy confiderable. It is feated at 
 the foot of a mountain, near the river Guadala-Me- 
 dina, in W. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 36. 40. 
 
 CART, a land-carriage with two wheels, drawn 
 commonly by horfes, to carry heavy goods, &c. from 
 one place to another. The word feems formed from 
 the French charrette, which fignifiesthe fame, or rather 
 the Latin carreta, a diminutive of carrus. See Carr. 
 
 In London and Weftmlnfter carts fhall not carry 
 more than twelve facks of m.eal, feven hundred 
 fifty bricks, one chaldron of coals, &c. on pain of for- 
 feiting one of the horfes, (6 Geo. I. cap. 6.) By the 
 laws of the city, carr-men are forbidden to ride either on 
 Iheir carts or horfes. They are to lead or drive them 
 on foot through the ftreets on the forfeiture of ten 
 ftiiUings, (Stat, i Geo. I. cap. 57.) Criminals ufed 
 to be drawn to execution in a cart. Bawds and other 
 malefaftors are whipped at the cart's tail. 
 
 Scripture makes jnention of a fort of carts or drags 
 ufed by the Jews to do the office of threfhing. They 
 were fupported on low thick wheels, bound with iron, 
 which were rolled up and down on the fheaves, to 
 break them, and force out the corn. Something of 
 the like kind alfo obtained among the Romans, under 
 the denomination of plaii/Ira, of which Virgil makes 
 mention, (Georg. L) 
 
 T ardaque Elevjinie matr'is vol-vent'ia plaujlra, 
 T ribulaque^ traheaque. 
 
 On which Servius obferves, that trahca denotes a cart 
 Avithout wheels, and tribida a fort of cart armed on all 
 fides with teeth, ufed chiefly in Africa for thrediing 
 The Septuagint and St Jerome reprefent thefe 
 
 186 ] CAR 
 
 in 1686. When he was reader in the abbey-church 
 at Bath, he took occafion, in a 30th of January fer- 
 mon, 1714, to vindicate Charles I. with refpedl to 
 the Irlfh maffacre, which drew him into a controver- 
 fy with Mr Chandler the diffenting miniller ; and on 
 the acceffion of the prefent royal family he refufed 
 to take the oaths to government, and put on a lay 
 habit. He is faid to have afted as a kind of fecre- 
 tary to Bifliop Atterbury before his troubles ; and in 
 the year 1723, being accufed of high treafon, are- 
 ward of 1 000 /. was offered for apprehending him : 
 but Queen Caroline, the great patronefs of learned 
 men, obtained leave for him to return home in fecu- 
 rity. He publifhed, i. An edition of Thuanus, in 
 feven volumes folio. 2. The Life of the fir(l Duke of 
 Ormond, three volumes, folia. 3. The Hiftory of 
 England, four volumes, folio. 4. A Colle£lion of Ori- 
 ginal Letters and Papers concerning the affairs of Eng- 
 land, two volumes oclavo ; and fome other works. 
 
 carts as furnifhed with faws, infomaich that their furface 
 was befet with teeth. David having taken Rabbah, 
 the capital of the Ammonites, ordered all the inhabi- 
 tants to be crufhed to pieces under fuch carts, moving 
 on Avheels fet with iron teeth ; and the king of Da- 
 mafcLis is faid to have treated the Ifraelltes of the land 
 of Gilead in the fame manner. 
 
 Cart- Bote, in law, fignifies wood to be employed 
 in making and repairing inftruments of hufbandry. 
 
 Carts of War, a peculiar kind of artillery anciently 
 in ufe among the Scots. They are thus dcfcribed in 
 an aft of parliament, A. D. 1456: " It is thocht 
 fpeidfuU, that the King mak requeiil to certain of the 
 great burrous of the land that are of ony myght, to 
 mak carts of weir, and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk 
 ane to have twa chalmers, with the remanent of tlie 
 graith that efftirs thereto, and an cunnand man to 
 (hut thame." By another aft, A. D. 1471, the pre- 
 lates and barons are commanded to provide fuch carts 
 of war againft their old enemies the Englifh. 
 
 CARTE (Thomas), the hiftorlan, was the fon of 
 Mr Samuel Carte prebendary of Litchfield, and born 
 
 and He died in April 1754. — His hiftory of England en ds^ 
 in 1654. His defign was to have brought it down 
 to the Revolution ; for which p^urpofe he had taken 
 great pains in copying every thing valuable that could 
 be met with in England, Scotland,^ France, Ireland, 
 &c.— He had (as he ?iimfelf fays, p. 43. of his Vindi- 
 cation of a full anfwer to a letter from a byllander), 
 " read abundance of colleftions relating to the time of 
 King Charles II. and had in his power a feries of me- 
 moirs from the beginning to the end of that reign ; in 
 which all thofe intrigues and turns at court, at the 
 latter end of that king's life, which bifliop Burnet, 
 with all his gout for tales of fecret hiftor)^, and all his 
 genius for conjeftures, does not pretend to account for, 
 are laid open in the cleareft and nwft convincing man- 
 ner ; by the perfon who was moft affefted by them, 
 and had the beft reafon to know them." — At his 
 death, all his papers came into the hands of his widow, 
 who afterwards married Mr Jernegan, a member of the 
 church of Rome. They are now depofited in the Bod- 
 leian library, having been delivered by Mr Jernegan to 
 the univerfity, 1778, for a valuableconfideration. Whilft 
 they were in this gentleman's poffeffion, the earl of 
 Hardwicke paid 200/. for the perufal of them. For 
 a conlideration of 300/. Mr Macpherfon had the ufe of 
 them ; and from thefe and other materials compiled 
 his hiftory and ftate-papers. Mr Carte was a man of 
 a ftrong conititution and indefatigable application. 
 When the ftudies of the day were over, he would eat 
 heartily ; and in converfation was cheeiful and enter- 
 taining. 
 
 CARTE-BIanche, a fort of white paper, figned at 
 the bottom with a perfon's name, and fometimes alfo 
 fealed with his feal, giving another perfon power to 
 fuperfcribe what conditions he pleafes. Much like 
 this is the French blanc Jigne, a paper without wri- 
 ting, except a fignature at the bottom, given hj con- 
 tending parties to arbitrators or friends, to fill up 
 with the conditions they judge reafonable, in order to 
 end the difference. 
 
 CARTEL, an agreement between two ftates for 
 the exchange of their prifoners of war. 
 
 Cartel fignifies alfo a letter of defiance or a chal- 
 lenge to decide a controverfy either in a tournament or 
 in a fingle combat. See Duel. 
 
 CARrEL-Sb':p, a fliip commiflioned in time of war to 
 
 exchange. 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 187 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 exchange the prifonersof any two hoftlle powers; alfo 
 to carry any particular requeft or propofal from one to 
 another : for this reafon, the officer who commands 
 her is particularly ordered to carry no cargo, ammuni- 
 tion, or implements of war, except a fingle gun for the 
 purpofe of hring fignals. 
 
 CARTES (Rene des), defcended of an ancient fa- 
 mily in Touraine in France, was one of the moll 
 eminent philofophers and mathematicians in the 17th 
 century. At the Jefuits College at la Fleche, he 
 made a very great progrefs in the learned languages 
 and poHte literature, and became acquainted with 
 Father Marfenne. His father defigned him for the 
 army ; but his tender conftitution then not permitting 
 him to expofe himfelf to fuch fatigues, he was fent 
 to Paris, where he launched into gaming, in wliich he 
 had prodigious fuccefs. Here Marfenne perfuaded 
 him to return to ftudy ; which he purfued till he went 
 to Holland, in May 161 6, where he engaged as a vo- 
 lunteer among the prince of Orange's troops. While 
 he lay in garrifon at Breda, he wrote z. ireatife on miijlc, 
 and laid the foundation of feveral of his works. He 
 was at the fiege of Rochelle in 1628 ; returned to 
 Paris ; and, a few days after his return, at an aflembly 
 of men of learning in the houfe of Monfignor Bagni 
 the Pope's Nuncio, was prevailed upon to explain his 
 fentiments with regard to philofophy, when the nuncio 
 urged him to publifh his fyltem. Upon this he went 
 to Amfterdam, and from thence to Franeker, where 
 he began his metaph\}fical meditations, and drew up his 
 difcourfe on meteors. He made a (hort tour to England ; 
 and not far from London, made fome obfervations 
 concerning the dechnation of the magnet. He re- 
 turned to Holland, where he finifliied his treatife on the 
 tuorJd. 
 
 Flis books made a great noife in France ; and Hol- 
 land thought of nothing but difcarding the old philo- 
 fophy, and following his. Voetius being chofen rec- 
 tor of the univerfity of Utrecht, procured his philo- 
 fophy to be prohibited, and wrote againft him ; but 
 he immediately publifhed a vindication of himfelf. In 
 1 647, he took a journey into France, where the king 
 fettled a penfion of 3000 hvres upon him. Chriftina, 
 queen of Sweden, having invited him into that king- 
 dom, he went thither, where he was received with the 
 greateft civility by her majelly, vv'ho engaged him to 
 attend her every morning at live o'clock, to inftru6l 
 her in pliilofophy, and delired him to revife and digefl 
 all his writings which were unpubhfhed, and to form 
 a complete body of philofophy from them. She hke- 
 wife propofed to allow him a revenue, and to form an 
 academy of which he was to be the director. But 
 thele defigns were broken off by his death in 1650. 
 His body was interred at Stockholm, and 17 years af- 
 terwards removed to Paris^ where a magnificent monu- 
 ment was erefted to him in the church of St Gene- 
 vieve du Mont. The great Dr Halley, in a paper 
 concerning optics, obferves, tliat though fome of the 
 ancients mention refraction as an effeel of tranfpa- 
 rent mediums, Des Cartes was the firfl. who difcovered 
 the laws of refrattion, and reduced dioptrics to a fci- 
 ence. As to his philofophy, Dr Keil, in his introduc- 
 tion to his examination of Dr Burnet's thcoiy of the 
 earth, fays, that Des Cartes was fo far froni applying 
 
 geotnetr)' to natural philofophy, that his whole fydem Cifte^ia(ij»» 
 is one continued blunder on account of his negligence ^'^''t^^gs- 
 in that point; the laws obferved by the planets in their '^'^ ^ 
 revolutions round the fun, not agreeing with his theory 
 of vortices. His philofophy has accordingly given way 
 to the more accurate difcoveries and demonilrations of 
 the Newtonian fyftem. 
 
 CARTESIANS, a fed of philofophers, who ad^ 
 hered to the fyltem of Des Cartes, founded on the 
 two following principles, the one metaphyseal, the 
 other phyfical. The metaphyfical one 19, / think ^ 
 therefore I am: the phyfical principle is, that nothing 
 exi/ls but fubjlance. Subftance he makes of two kinds ; 
 the one a fubllance tliat thinks, the other a fubftance 
 extended ; whence aftual thought, and adlual exten- 
 fion, are the elfence of fubllance. 
 
 The effence of matter being thus fixed in exten- 
 fion, the Cartefians conclude that there is no vacuum, 
 nor any poffibihty thereof in nature ; but that th<: 
 univerfe is abfolutely full : mere fpace is excluded 
 by this principle; becaufe extenfion being implied in 
 the idea of fpace, matter is fo too. Upon thefe prin- 
 ciples, the Cartefians explained mechanically how the 
 world was formed, and how the prefent celeilial phe- 
 nomena came to take place. See Astronomy, n°2^2, 
 CARTHAGE, a famed city of antiquity, the capi- 
 tal of Africa Propria; and which, for many years, 
 difputed with Rome the fovereignty of the world. 
 According to Velleius Paterculus, this city was built ' 
 65, according to Juftin and Trogus 72, according to foundeJ. 
 others loo or 140 years before the foundations of 
 Rome were laid. It is on all hands agreed that the 
 Phoenicians were the founders. 
 
 The beginning of the Carthaginian hiftory, like 
 that of all other nations, is obfcure and uncertain. 
 In the 7th year of Pygmahon king of Tyre, his filler 
 Ehfa, or Dido, is fald to have fled, with fome of her Elira*)rDI- 
 companions and vaffals, from the cruelty and avarice do, dcaiies 
 of her brother Slchsus. f om her 
 
 She firll touched at the ifland of Cyprus, where {he 
 met with a priell of Jupiter, who was defirous of 
 attending her ; to which fiie readily confented, and 
 fixed the prieflhood in his family. At that time, it 
 was a cullom in the ifland of Cyprus, for the youn^-- 
 women to go on certain Hated days, before marriage, 
 to the fea-iide, tiiere to look for ilrangers, that might 
 poffibly arrive on their coafts, in order to prollitute 
 themfelves for gain, that they might thereby acquire a 
 dowry. Out of thefe, the Tyrians felefted 80, whom 
 they carried along with them. From Cyprus they 
 failed direftly for the coaft of Africa; and at lalt 
 fafely landed in the province called Jjrica Propria, not 
 far from Utica, a Phoenician city of great aiitiqultv. 
 The inhabitants received their countrymen Vv'ith p-reat 
 demonilrations of joy, and invited them to f|L-ttle amon;>- 
 them. The common fable is, that the Pha^niciaas im^ 
 pofed upon the Africans in the following' manner : 
 They defired, for their intended fettlement, only as 
 much ground as an ox's hide would encompafs. Tliis 
 requeft the Africans laughed at : but were furprifed, 
 \vhen, upon their granting it, they faw Ehfa cut the 
 hide into the fmallelt fhreds, by which means it fur- 
 rounded a large territory ; ia which Ihe built the cita- 3 
 del called B^jvfcu The learned, however, are now un- ^"'^1 L^" 
 
 animousfa. 
 
CAR [ 
 
 Carthage, animous in exploding this fable ; and it is certain that 
 ^-"•"y-— the Carthaginians for many years paid an annual tri- 
 bute to the Africans for the ground they poffeffed. 
 
 The new city foon became populous and flourifhing, 
 by the acceffion of the neighbouring Africans, who 
 came thither at firft with a view of traiiic. In a fhort 
 time it became fo confiderable, that Jarias, a neigch- 
 
 i88 1 e A R ^ 
 
 Carthaginians entered into a treaty with the Romans. Carthagre. 
 It related chiefly to matters of navigation and com- v— 
 merce. From it we learn, that the whole ifland of p. 
 Sardinia, and part of Sicily, were then fubje£l ^o 1,^^^'^^^*' 
 Carthage ; that they were very well acquainted with Cartilage 
 
 the coails of Italy, and had made fome attempts up- and Rome^ 
 on them before this time ; and that, even at this early 
 
 bouring prince, thought of making himfelf mafter of period, a fpirit of jealouiy had taken place between 
 
 it without any effufion of blood. In order to this, he 
 defired that an embafiy of ten of the moil noble Car- 
 thaginians might be fent him; and, upon their arrival, 
 propofed to them a marriage with Dido, threatening 
 war in cafe of a refufal. The ambaffadors, being 
 afraid to deliver this melfage, told the queen that 
 Jarbas defired fome perfon might be fent him who 
 was capable of civilizing his Africans ; but that there 
 was no pofTibility of finding any of her fubjefts who 
 would leave his relations for the converfation of fuch 
 barbarians. For this they were reprimanded by the 
 queen ; who told them that the)'- ought to be afhamed 
 
 the two republics. Some time near this period, the 
 Carthaginians had a mind to difcontinue the tribute 
 they had hitherto paid the Africans for the ground on 
 which their city ftood. But, notwithftanding all their 
 power, they were at prefent unfuccefsful j and at 
 lafl; were obfiged to conclude a peace, one of the ar- 
 ticles of which was, that the tribute fliould be conti- 
 nued. 
 
 By degrees the Carthaginians extended their power -;i^.;iy jpy^^ 
 overall the iflands in the Mediterranean, Sicily ex- ile J by the 
 cepted ; and for the entii-e conquefl: of this, they made CarthagUu- 
 vaft preparations, about 480 years before Chrift. Their ^"^* 
 
 of refu'fing to live in any manner for the benefit of army confifted of 300,000 men ;^ their fieet^ was com 
 
 4 
 
 She kills 
 hcrfelf. 
 
 5- 
 
 Spanifh 
 mines of 
 vaft fervice 
 to the Car- 
 thfiginians. 
 
 their country. Upon this, they informed her of the 
 true nature of their meffage from Jarbas ; and that, 
 according to her own decifion, fhe ought to facrifice 
 herfelf for the good of her country. The unhappy 
 queen, rather than fubmit to be the wife of fuch a 
 barbarian, caufed a funeral pile to be erefted, and put 
 an end to her life with a dagger. 
 
 This is Juftin's account of the death of Queen Di- 
 do, and is the moll probable ; Virgil's ftory of her 
 amour with jEneas,. being looked upon as fabulous, 
 even in the days of Macrobius, as we are informed 
 by that hiftorian. How long monarchical government 
 continued in Carthage, or what happened to this ilate 
 in its infancy, we are altogether ignorant, by reafon 
 of the Punic Archives being defl;royed by the Romans; 
 fo that there is a chafm in the Carthaginian hiftory 
 for above 300 years. It, however, appears, that from 
 the very beginning, the Carthaginians applied them- 
 felves to maritime affairs, and were formidable by fea 
 in the time of Cyrus and Cambyfes. From Diodorus 
 Siculus and Juftin, it appears, that the principal fiip- 
 port of the Carthaginians were the mines of Spain, in 
 which country they feem to have eftabhfhed themfelves 
 very early. By means of the riches drawn from thefe 
 mines, they were enabled to equip fuch formidable 
 fleets as we are told they fitted out in the time of 
 Cyrus or Cambyfes. Juftin infinuates, that the firft 
 Carthaginian fettlement in Spain happened when th« 
 city of Gades, now Cadis, was but of late ftanding, or 
 even in its infancy. The Spaniards finding this new 
 colony begin to flourifli, attacked it with a numerous 
 army, infcmuch that the inhabitants were obliged to 
 call in the Carthaginians to their aid. The latter 
 
 pofed of upwards of 2000 men of war, and 3*000 ti-anf- 
 ports ; and with fuch an immenfe armament, they 
 made no doubt of conqueiing the whole ifland in a 
 fingle campaign. In this, however, they found them 
 felves miferably deceived. Hamilcar their general 
 having landed his numerous forces, invefted Himera, 
 a city of confiderable importance. He carried on his 
 attacks with the greateft affiduity ; but was at laft at- 
 tacked in his trenches by Gelon and Theron, the ty- 
 rants of Syracufe and Agrigentum, who gave the 
 Carthaginians one of the greateft overtlu-ows mention- g 
 ed in hiftory. An hundred and fifty thoufand were They are 
 killed in the battle and purfuit, and all the reft taken utterly de-f 
 prifoners ; fo that of fo mighty an army, not a fingle ^royed. 
 perfon efcaped. Of the 2000 fliips of war and 3000 
 tranfports, of v\'hich the Carthaginian fleet confifted, 
 eight ftiips only, which then happened to be out at 
 fea, made their efcape : thefe immediately fet fail for 
 Carthage ; but were all caft away, and every foid 
 periflied, except a few who were faved in a fmall boat, 
 and at laft reached Carthage with the difmal news of 
 the total lofs of the fleet and army. No words can 
 exprefs the confternation of the Carthaginians upon 
 receiving the news of fo terrible a difafter. Ambaf- . 
 fadors were immediately difpatched to Sicily, with 
 orders to conclude a peace upon any terms. They 
 put to fea without delay ; and landing at Syracufe, 
 threw themfelves at the conqueror's feet. They beg- pg^^.^^!^ 
 ged Gelon, with many tears, to receive their city into eluded, 
 favour, and grant them ^ peace on whatever terms he 
 ftiould choofe to prefcribe. He granted their requeft 
 upon condition that Carthage fiiould pay him 2000 
 talents of filver to defray the expences of the war ; that 
 
 very readily granted their requeft, and not only repul- they fliould build two temples, where the articles of 
 
 fed the Spaniards, but made themfelves maftcrs of al- the treaty fliould be lodged and kept as facred ; and 
 
 moft the whole province in which their new city ftood. that for the future they fliould abftain from human fa- 
 
 By this fuccefs, they were encouraged to attempt the crifices. Tliis was not thought a dear purchafe of a 
 
 conqueft of the whole country: but having to do with peace for which there was fuch occafion ; and to fliow 
 
 very warUke nations, they could not pufli their con, their gratitude for Gelon's moderation, the Cartha- 
 
 quefts to any great length at firft; and it appears from ginians-comphmentedhis wife Demarata with a crowa 
 
 the accounts of Livy and Polybius, that the greateft of gold worth 100 talents. 
 
 part of Spain remained unfubdued till the times of From this time we find little mention of the Car- 
 
 Hamilcar, Afdrubal, and Hannibal. thaginians for 70 years. Some time during this pe- 
 
 About 503 years before the birth of Chrift, the riod, however, they had greatly extended their do-. 
 ■ ' . minions 
 
CAR 
 
 ^ 13, 
 
 llmporium 
 
 minions in Africa, and likewife Hiaken off the tribute 
 which gave them fo much uneafinefs. They had 
 warm difputes with the inhabitants of Cyrene the ca- 
 pital of Cyrenaica, about a regulation of the limits 
 of their refpeftive territories. The confequence of 
 thefe difputes was a war, which reduced both nations 
 fo low, that they agreed firft to a ceiTation of arms, 
 and then to a peace. At laft it was agreed, that 
 each ftate fhould appoint two commifTaries, who 
 fhould fet out from their refpeftive cities on the fame 
 day, and that the fpot on which they met fhould be 
 the boundary of both ftates. In confequence of this, 
 two brothers called Ph'iUni were fent out from Car- 
 thage, who advanced with great celerity, while thofe 
 from Cyrene were much more flow in their motions. 
 Whether this proceeded from accident or defign, or 
 perfidy, we are not certainly informed ; but, be this 
 as it will, the Cyrene^ms finding themlelves greatly 
 cutftripped by the Philasni, accufed them of breach 
 of faith, afferting ihat they had fet out before the 
 time appointed, and confequently that the convention 
 between their principals was broken. The Philaeni 
 defired them to propofe fome expedient whereby 
 their differences might be accommodated ; promifing 
 to fubmit to it, whatever it might be. The Cyreneans 
 then propofcd, either that the PhilsenI fhould retire 
 from the place where they were, or that they fhould be 
 buried alive upon the fpot. With this laft condition 
 the brothers immediately complied, and by their death 
 gained a large extent of territory to their country. 
 The Carthaginians ever after celebrated this as a mofl 
 brave and heroic aftion ; paid them divine honours ; 
 and endeavoured to immortalize their names by ereA- 
 ing two altars there, with fuitable infcriptions upon 
 them. 
 
 About the year before Chrift 412, fome difputes 
 happening between the Egeflines and Selinuntines, 
 inhabitants of two cities in Sicily, the former called 
 in the Carthaginians to their afliflance ; and this occa- 
 fioned a new invafion of Sicily by that nation. Great 
 prepaiations were made for this war ; Hannibal, 
 whom they had appointed general, was empowered to 
 raife an army equal to the undertaking, and equip a 
 fuitable fleet. They alfo appointed certain funds for 
 defraying all the expences of the war, intending to ex- 
 ert their whole force to reduce the ifland under their 
 fubjeftion. 
 
 The Carthaginian general having landed his forces, 
 
 189 ] CAR 
 
 After the reduftion of Selinus, Hannibal laid fiegc Carthage, 
 to Himera ; that city he defired above all things to be- "v~— ^ 
 come mailer of, that he might revenge the death of 14 
 
 nc! Seljrius immediately marched for Selinus. In his way he took 
 Emporium, a town fituated on the river Mazara ; and 
 having arrived at Selinus, he immediately invcfled it. 
 The befieged made a very vigorous defence ; but at 
 lail the city was taken by florm, and the inhabitants 
 were treated with the utmofl cruelty. All were mal- 
 facred by thefavage conquerors, except the women who 
 fled to the temples ; and thefe efcaped, not through the 
 merciful difpofition of the Carthaginians, but becaufe 
 they were afraid, thati f driven to defpair they would 
 fet fire to the temples, and by that means eonfumethe 
 treafure they expedlcd to find in thofe places. Six- 
 teen thoufand were maffacred ; 2250 efcaped to Agii- 
 gentum ; and the women and children, about 5C00 in 
 number, were carried away captives. At the fame time 
 the temples were plundered, and the city raft d to the 
 ground. 
 
 »5 
 
 Agrigcn- 
 
 his grandfather Hamilcar, who had been flain before 
 it by Gelon. His troops, fiufned with their late fuc- 
 cefs, behaved with undaunted courage ; but finding his 
 battering engines not to anfwer his purpofe fufficient- 
 ly, he undermined the wall, fupporting it with large 
 beams of timber, to which he afterwards fet lire, and 
 thus laid part of it flat on the ground. Notwithftand- 
 ing thig advantage, however, the Carthaginians were 
 feveral times repulfed with great flaughtcr ; but at laft 
 they became mafters of the place, and treated it in the 
 fame manner as they had done Selinus. After this, .. 
 Hannibal, difmiffing his Sicilian and Italian allies, re- 
 turned to Africa. 
 
 Trie Carthaginians were now fo much elated, that 
 they meditated the reduftion of the whole ifland. 
 But as the age and infirmities of Hannibal rendered 
 him incapable of commanding the forces alone, they 
 joined in commillion with him Imilcar the fon of 
 Hanno, one of the fame family. On the landing of 
 the Carthaginian army, all Sicily was alarmed, and 
 the principal cities put themfelves Into the beft ftate 
 of defence they were able. The Carthaginians im- 
 mediately marched to Agrigentum, and began to bat- turn befie»- 
 ter the walls with great fury. The befieged, how-E^^« 
 ever, defended themfelves with incredible refolution, 
 in a fally burnt all the machines ralfed agalnfl their 
 city, and repulfed the enemy with great flaughter. 
 The Syracuiians in the mean time, being alarmed at 
 the danger of Agrigentum, fent an army to its re- 
 lief. On their approach they were immediately at- 
 tacked by the Carthaginians ; but after a fharp dif- 
 pute the latter were defeated, and forced to fly to the. 
 very walls of Agrigentum, with the lofs of 6000 men. 
 Had the Agrlgentine commanders now fallied out, and 
 fallen upon the fugitives,, in all probability the Car- 
 thaginian army muft have been deftroyed ; but either 
 through fear or corruption, they refufed to flir out of j^, 
 the place, and this occafioned the lofs of it. Immenfe And taken*:, 
 booty was found in the city ; and the Carthaginians 
 behaved with their ufual cruelty, putting ail the inha- 
 bitants to the fword, not excepting even thofe who had 
 fled to the temples. 
 
 The next attempt of the Carthaginians was defign- 
 ed agalnfl the city of Gela : but the Geleans, being 
 greatly alarmed, implored the protection of Syracufe ; 
 and, at their lequefl, Dionyfius was fent to afliil them 
 with 2000 foot and 400 horfe. The Geleans were' 
 fo well fatisfied with his condudl, that they treated.-, 
 him with the highefl; marks of diilinftlon ; they even, 
 fent ambafladors to Syracufe to return thanks for the^ 
 important fervices done them by fendirig him thi- 
 ther ; and foon after he was appointed generaliflimo 
 of the Syracufian forces and thofe of their allies agalnfl 
 the Carthaginians. In the mean time Imilcar, having 
 rafed the city of Agrigentum, made an incurfion 
 into the territories of Gela and Comarina ; which 
 having ravaged in a dreadful manner, he carried off 
 fuch immenfe quantity of plunder, as filled his whole 
 
 camp. He then marched agalnfl the city : but thou?rh «^ , V /- 
 
 ^ , . -i-cc 1 r •(- 1 1 • ^ ° Gela belies - 
 
 It was but mditierently tortihed, he met with a veryg^;^^ 
 
 vigorous rcfiflance ; and the place held out for a long 
 
 time without receiving any affiftance from .its allies, . 
 
 4, At. 
 
C A R 
 
 [ 190 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 bitants 
 
 19 
 
 Peace con 
 eluded. 
 
 earthage. At lad DIonyfius came to its affiftance with an army 
 of 50,000 foot and 1 ooo hprfe. With thefe he at- 
 tacked the Carthaginian camp, but was repulfed with 
 great lofs ; after which, he called a council of war, the 
 refult of whofedeliberationswas, that fmce theenemy was 
 fo much fnperior to them in ftrength, it would be high- 
 ly imprudent to put all to the iffue of a battle; and 
 therefore, that the inhabitants fhould be perfuaded to 
 abandon the country, as the only means of faving their 
 lives. In confequence of this, a trumpet was fent to 
 Imilcar to defire a ceHation of arms till the next day, 
 in order, as was pretended, to bury the dead, but in 
 jg reality to give the people of Gela an opportunity of 
 Abandoried making their efcapc. Towards the beginning of the 
 hy its ii ha- night the bulk of the citizens left the plate ; and he 
 hi mfelf with the army followed them about midnight. 
 To amufe the enemy, he left 2000 of his light arm- 
 ed troops behind him, commanding them to make 
 fires all night, and fet up loud fliouts as though the 
 army Hill remained in town. At day -break thefe 
 took the fame route as their companions, and purfued 
 their march with great celerity. The Carthaginians 
 finding the city deferted by the greateft part of its 
 inhabitants, immediately entered it, putting to death 
 all who had remained ; after which, Imilcar having 
 thoroughly plundered it, moved towards Camarina. 
 The inhabitants of this city had been like wife drawn 
 oiF by Dionyaus, and it underwent the fame fate with 
 Gcla. 
 
 Notwiihftanding thefe fuccelTes, however, Imilcar 
 finding his army greatly weakened, partly by the ca- 
 fualties of war, and partly by a plague which broke 
 out in it, fent a herald to Syracufe to offer terms of 
 peace. His unexpeiled arrival was very agreeable 
 to the Syracufians, and a peace was immediately con- 
 cluded upon the following terms, viz. That the Car- 
 thaginians, btfidcs their ancient acquifitions in Sicily, 
 fhould Hill poflefs the countries of the Silicani, the Se- 
 linuntines, the Himereans, and Agrigentlnes ; that 
 the people of Gela and Camarina fiiould be permitted 
 to refide in their refpeftlve cities, which yet (hould 
 be difmantled, upon their paying an annual tribute to 
 the Carthaginians ; that all the other Sicilians fhould 
 preferve their independency except the Syracufians, 
 who (hould continue in fubjedion to DIonyfius. 
 
 The tyrant of Syracufe, however^, had concluded 
 breaks'the ^^'^ peace with no other view than to gain time, and 
 treaty. to put himfelf in a condition to attack the Cartha- 
 ginian territories with greater force. Having ac- 
 jcomplinied this, he acquainted the Syarcufians with 
 bis dtfign, and they immediately approved of it; upon 
 which, he gave up to the fury of the populace the per- 
 fons and poffcfiions of the Carthaginians who relided 
 in Syracufe, and traded there on the faith of treaties. 
 As there were many ot their fliips at that time in the 
 harbour, laden with cargoes of great value, the people 
 immediately plundered them; and, not content with 
 this, ranfacked all their houfes in a moll outrageous 
 ■manner. This exainple was followed throughout the 
 whole Ifland; and in the mean time' Dionyfius dif- 
 patched a herald to Carthage with a letter to the fe- 
 nate and people, telling them, that if they did not im 
 mediately withdraw tlieir garrifons horn all the Greek 
 cities in Sicily, the people of Syracufe would treat them 
 .as enemies. With this demand, however, he did not al- 
 
 DIonyfius 
 
 low them to comply ; for without waiting for any an- cartilages 
 fwer from Carthage, he advanced with his army to — — v"" 
 Mount Eryx, near which flood the city of Motya, a 
 Carthaginian colony of great importance, and this he 
 immediately invcfted. But foon after, leaving his bro- 
 ther Leptines to carry on the attacks, he himfelf went 
 with the greatell part of his forces to reduce the cities 
 In alliance with the Carthaginians. He dellroyed 
 their territories with fire and fvvord, cut down all their 
 trees ; and then he fat down before Egella and Entella, 
 moil of the other towns having opened their gates at 
 his approach i but thefe baffling his utmoft efforts, he 
 returned to Motya, and pulhed on the iiege of that 
 place with the utmoll vigour. 
 
 The Cartha.ginians, in the mean time, though alarm.- 
 ed at the meffage fent them by Dionyfius, and though 
 reduced to a miferable fituation by the plague which 
 had broke out in their city, did not defpond, but fent 
 officers to Europe, with conliderable fums, to raife troops 
 with the utmoll diligence. Ten gallies were alfo fent 
 from Carthage to dellroy all ih; fiiips that were found ^^.■"^^"H^'f^ 
 in the harbour of Syracufe. The admiral, according fl-^Q^ej^^ 
 to his orders, entered the harbour in the night, with- 
 out being difcerned by the enemy ; and having funk 
 moil of the fliips he found there, returned without the 
 lofs of a man. 
 
 All this vi'hile the Motyans defended themfelver with , 
 
 . LM u • • J r ^Motyata-; 
 
 incredible vigour; while their enemies, defirous orj^^„^ytijQ 
 
 revenging the cruelties exercifed upon their country- Greeks, 
 men by the Carthaginians, fought like lions. At laft 
 the place was taken by ftorm, and the Greek foldiers 
 began a general maffacre. For feme time Dionyfius 
 was not able to reftrain their fury : but at laft he 
 proclaimed that the Motyans Oiould fly to the Greek 
 temples ; which they accordingly did, and a fiop was 
 put to the llaughter ; but the ioldlers took care tho- 
 roughly toplunder the tov>'n, in which they found a great 
 treafure. 
 
 The following fpring, Dionyfius Invaded the Cartha- 
 ginian territories, and made an attempt upon Egelle ; 
 but here he was again difappointed. The Carthagi- 
 nians were greatly alarmed at his progrefs ; but, next 
 year, notwithftauding a confiderable lofs fuilalned in 
 a fea-fight with Leptines, Himilco their general land- 
 ed a powerful aimy at Panormus, feized upon Eryx, 
 and then advancing towards Motya, made himfelf ma- 
 tter of it, before Dionyfius could fend any forces to its 
 relief. He next advanced to MelTana, which he iike- 
 wile befieged and took ; after which moil of the Siculi 
 revolted from Dionyfius, 
 
 Notwithllanding this defection, Dionyfius, hi^di^g Crct^k' de 
 his forces lliU amount to 30,000 foot and 3000 horle, feated at Ita 
 advanced ;igainil tlie enemy. At the fame lime, Eep-by iheCai 
 tines was feut with the Svraculian fleet againll that of '^'-S""^"*' 
 the Carthaginians, but with pofitive orders not to 
 break the line of battle upon any account whatever. 
 But, notwithilanding thefe orders, he thought proper 
 to divide his fleet, and the confequence of this was a 
 total defeat; above 100 of the Syracufian galleys being 
 funk or taken, and[ 20, Ooo of their men killed In the 
 battle or in the purfuit. Dionyfius difheartened bv this , 
 misfortune, returned with his army to Syracufe, being [^^.-j^^^^.j |,y 
 afi aid that the Carthaginian fleet might become ma- thgC'ai thi- 
 Hers of that city, if he ihould advance to fight the land 
 army, Himilco did not fail immediately ;o invell the 
 6 capital ; 
 
CAR [ I 
 
 ?arthage, capital ; and had certainly become mafter of it, and 
 confequeiuly of the whole ifland, had not a moft ma- 
 lignant pertilence obliged him to defift from all further 
 operations. This dreadful malady made great havock 
 among his forces both by fea and land ; and to com- 
 plete his misfortunes, Dionyfius attacked him unexpec- 
 tedly, totally ruined his fleet, and made himlelf malter 
 of h is camp. 
 
 H imilco finding hinifclf altogether unable to faflain 
 another attack, was obliged to come to a private 
 agreement with Dionyfius ; who for 300 talents con- 
 fentcd to let him efcape to Africa, with the fliattered 
 remains of his fleet and army. The unfortunate ge- 
 neral arrived at Carthage, clad in mean and fordid 
 attire, whfre he was niet by a great number of peo- 
 ple bewni]ing their fad and inaufpicious fortune. Hi- 
 milco joined them in their lamentations; and being 
 unable to furvive his misfortunes, put an end to his 
 own life. He had left Mago in Sicily, to take care 
 of the Carthaginian interelts in the heft manner he 
 could. Tn order to this, Mago treated all the Sicilians 
 fubjeft to Carthage with the grcateft humanity ; and 
 having received a coufiderable number of foldiers 
 from Africa, he at laft fotmed an army with which 
 he ventured a battle : in this he was defeated, and 
 driven out of the field, with the lofs of 800 men ; 
 which obliged him to defift from farther attempts of 
 that nature. 
 
 Notwithftanding all thefe terrible difafters, the Car- 
 thaginians could not forbear making new attempts up- 
 on the ifland of Sicily ; and about the year before 
 Chriifl: 392, Maoo landed in it with an army of 80,000 
 men. This attempt, however, was attended with no 
 better fuccefs than before ; Dionyfius found means to 
 reduce him to fuch llraits for want of provifions, that 
 he was obliged to fue for peace. This continued for 
 nine years, ?.t the end of which the war was renewed 
 with various fuccefs. It continued with little interrup- 
 tion till the year before Chrift 367, when, the Syra- 
 cufian (late being rent by civil diflentions, the Car- 
 thaginians thought it a proper time to exert them- 
 ftlrcs, in order to become mafters of the whole ifland. 
 They fitted out a great fleet, and entered into alliance 
 with Icetas, tyrant of Leontini, wlio pretended to have 
 taken Syracufe under his proteftion. By this treaty, 
 the two powers engaged to affifl: each other, in order to 
 expel Dionyfius II. after which they were to divide 
 racufians the ifland between them. The Syracufians applied for 
 ifted by fuccours to the Corinthians; and they readily fent 
 them a body of troops under the command of Timo- 
 leon an experienced general. By a fl^ratagem, h.^ got 
 his forces landed at Taurominiiim. The whole of 
 them did not exceed 1200 in number: yet with 
 thefe he marched againft Icetas, who was at the 
 head of 5(^00 men ; his army he furprifed at fup- 
 per, put 300 of them- to the fword, and took 600 
 prifoners. He then marched to Syracufe, and broke 
 into one part of the town before the enemy had any 
 notice of his approach : here he took poft, and defend- 
 ed himfelf with fuch refolution, that he could not be 
 diflodged by the united power of Icetas and the Car- 
 thaginians. 
 
 In this place he remained for fome time, in expec- 
 ^, ,j. ;j^l_tation of a reinforcement from Corinth; till the arri- 
 i uurairal. val of which, he did i.ot judge it pradticabie to extend 
 
 27 
 
 -2S 
 
 iliih can- 
 ( of the 
 
 91 ! CAR 
 
 his Conquefls.—The Carthaginians being apprifed that Carthage 
 
 the Corinthian fuccours were detained by tempeftuous ^ 
 
 weather at Thurium, polled a flirong fquadron, under 
 Hanno their admiral, to intercept them in their paf- 
 fage to Sioily. But that commander, not imagining 
 the Corinthians would attempt a paffage to Sicily in 
 fuch a ftormy feafon, left his fl:ation at Thurium, and 
 ordering his feamen to crown themfelves with garlands, 
 and adorn their veflels with bucklers both of the Greek 
 and Carthaginian form, failed to Syracufe in a triumph- 
 ant manner. Upon his arrival there, he gave the troops 
 in the citadel to underftand, that he had taken the fuc- 
 cours Timoleon expefted, thinking by this means to 
 intimidate them to furrender. But, while he thus 
 trifled away his time, the Corinthians marched with 
 great expedition to Rhcgium, and, taking the advan- 
 tage of a gentle breeze, were eafily wafted over into 
 Sicily. Mago, the Carthaginian general, was no fooner Cowardice 
 informed of the arrival of this reinforcement, than he of Mago. 
 was llruck with terror, though the whole Corinthian 
 army did not exceed 4000 men ; and, foon after, fear- 
 ing a revolt of his mercenaries, he weighed anchor, in 
 fpite of all the rcmonftrances of Icetas, and fet fail for 
 Atrica. Here he no fooner arrived, than, overcome 
 with grief and fliame for his unparalleled cowardice, he 
 laid violent hands on himfelf. His body was hung up- 
 on a gallows or crofs, in order to deter fucceeding ge- 
 nerals from forfeiting their honour in fo flagrant a man- 
 ner. _ 30 
 
 After the flight of Mago, Timoleon carried all be- Exploits of 
 fore him. He obliged Icetas to renounce his alliance '"i"l<-'o"- 
 with the ftate of Carthage, and even depofed him, and 
 continued his mihtary preparations with the greateft 
 vigour. On the other hand, the Carthaginians pre- 
 pared for the enfuing campaign with the greatefl; ala- 
 crity. An army of 70,000 men was fent over, with a 
 fleet of 200 fliips of war, and 1000 tranfports laden 
 with warlike engines, armed chariots, horfcs, and all 
 other forts of provifions. This immenfe multitude, 
 however, was overthrown on the banks of the Crime- 
 fus by Timoleon : 10,000 were left dead on the field 
 of battle ; and of thefe, above 3000 were native Car- 
 thaginians of the befl families in the city. Above 
 15,000 were taken prifoners ; rail their baggage and 
 provifions, with 200 chariots, 1000 coats of mail, and 
 10,000 fliields, fell into Timoleon's hands. The fpoil, 
 which confifl;ed chiefly of gold and filver, was- fo im- 
 menfe, that the whole Sicilian army was three days in 
 collefting it and fliripping the flain. After this fignal 
 victory, he left his mercenary forces upon the frontiers 
 of the enemy, to plunder and ravage the countrv ; 
 while he himfelf returned to Syracufe with the reft; of 
 his army,, where he v/as received with the greateft de- 
 raonftratious of joy. . Soon after, Icetas, grown weary 
 of his private ftation, concluded a new peace with the 
 Carthaginians ; and, having aflerabled an army, ven- - 
 tured an engagement with Timoleon : but in this he 
 M'as utterly defeated ; and himfelf, with Eupolemus 
 his fon, and Euthymus general of his horfe, were 
 brought bound to Timokon by their own foldiers. 
 The two firft were immediately executed as tyrants 
 and traitors, and the laft murdered in cold blood ; Ice- 
 tas's wives and daughters were likewife cruelly put to 
 death after a public trial. In a fliort time after, Ma- 
 mercus, another of the Carthaginian confederates, was 
 
CAR 
 
 [ ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 3» 
 War re- 
 newed. 
 
 Carthage, overthrown by Timoleon, with the \o(s of 2000 men. 
 ' Thefe misfortunes induced the Carthaginians to con- 
 
 Pcacc'con- elude a peace on the following terms : That all the 
 eluded. Greek cities (hould be fet free ; that the river Halycus 
 fhould be the boundaiy between the territories of both 
 parties ; that the natives of the cities fubjeft to the 
 Carthaginians fliould be allowed to withdraw, if they 
 pleafed, to Syracufe, or its dependencies, with their 
 families and efFefts ; and laftly, that Carthage ftiould 
 not, for the future, give any affiftance to the remain- 
 ing tyrants againft Syracufe. 
 
 About 316 years before Chrift, we find the Car- 
 thaginians engaged in another bloody war with the 
 Sicilians, on the following occaiion. Sofiilratus, who 
 had ufurped the fupreme authority at Syracufe, having 
 been forced by Agathocles to raife the fiege of Rhe- 
 gium, retm-ned with his fliattered ti-oops to Sicily. 
 But foon after this unfuccefsful expedition, he was ob- 
 liged to abdicate the fovereignty and quit Syracufe. 
 VVith him were expelled above 600 of the principal 
 citizens, who were fufpefted of having formed a de- 
 fign to overturn the plan of government which then 
 prevailed in the city. As Sofiftratus and the exiles 
 thought themfelves ill treated, they had recourfe to 
 the Carthaginians, who readily efpoufed their caufe. 
 Hereupon the Syracufians having recalled Agathocles, 
 who had before been banifhedby Sofiftratus, appointed 
 him commander in chief of all their forces, principally 
 on account of the known averfion he bore that tyrant. 
 The war, however, did not then continue long ; for 
 Sofiftratus and the exiles were quickly received again 
 into the city, and peace was concluded with Carthage: 
 the people of Syracufe, however, finding that Aga- 
 thocles wanted to make himfelf abfolute, exafted an 
 oath from him, that he would do nothing to the pre- 
 Apathocles judice of the democracy. But, notwithftanding this 
 raifes him- oath, Agathocles purfued his purpcfe, and by a ge- 
 neral maflacre of the principal citizens of Syracufe 
 raifed himfelf to the throne. For fome tim.e he was 
 obliged to keep the peace he had concluded with Car- 
 thage ; hut |at laft finding his authority eftabliflaed, 
 and that his fubjefts were ready to fecond his ambiti- 
 ous defigns, he paid no regard to his treaties, but im- 
 mediately made war on the neighbouring ftates, which 
 he had exprefsly agreed not to do, and then carried 
 his arms into the very heart of the ifland. In thefe 
 expeditions he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that in 
 two years time he brought into-fubjedlion all the 
 Greek part of Sicily. This being accomplifiied, he 
 committed great devaftations in the Carthaginian ter- 
 ritories, their general Hamilcar not offering to give 
 him the leaft difturbance. This perfidious conduft 
 greatly incenfed the people of thofe driftri£ls againft 
 Hamilcar, whom they accufed before the fenate. He 
 died, however, in Sicily ; and Hamilcar the fon of 
 Gifco was appointed to fucceed him In the command 
 of the forces. The laft placQ that held out againft 
 Agathocles was Meffana, whither all the Syracufian 
 exiles had retired. Pafiphllus, Agathocles's general, 
 found means to cajole the inhabitants into a treaty ; 
 which Agathocles, according to cuftom, paid no re- 
 gard to, but, as foon as he wa§ in poffeffion of the 
 town, cut off all thofe who had oppofed his govern- 
 ment. For, as he intended to profecute the war with 
 ■the utmoft vigour againft Carthage, he thought it a 
 N°65. 
 
 33 
 
 felf to the 
 ■throne of 
 -Syracufe. 
 
 icis He iBV.idci 
 
 point of good policy to deftroy as many of his Sicilian Caitiiagai 
 enemies as pofiible. 1 
 The Carthaginians in the mean time having landed ^^^^^^^^ { 
 a powerful arnvy in Sicil)'-, an engagement foon enfued, 
 in which Agathocles was defeated with the lofs of thaginians, 
 7000 men. After this defeat he was obhged to fliut and befie- 
 himfelf up in Syracufe, which the Carthaginians im- f^^^^^ 
 mediately invefted, and moft of the Greek ftates in the 
 ifland fubmitted to them. 
 
 Agathocles feeing himfelf ftrlpped of almoft all his 
 dominions, and his capital itfclf in danger of falling 
 into the hands of the enemy, formed a defign which, 
 were it not attefted by writers of undoubted authority, 
 would feem abfolutely incredible. This was no 
 than to transfer the v/ar into Africa, and lay fiege to /Vfnca. 
 the enemy's capital, at a time when he himfelf was 
 befieged, and only one city left to him in all Sicily. 
 Before he departed, however, he made all the necef- 
 fary pteparations for the defence of the place, and ap- 
 pointed his brother Antandrus governor of it. He alfo 
 gave permiflion to all who were not willing to ftand 
 the fatigues of a fiege to retire out of the city. Many 
 of the pilncipal citizens, Juftin fays 1600, accepted 
 of this offer ; but they were no fooner got out of the 
 place, than they were cut oft by parties pofted on the 
 road for that purpofe. Having feized upon their 
 eftates^ Agathocles raifed a coniiderable fum, which 
 was intended in fome mealuie to defray the expence 
 of the expedition ; however, he carried with him only 
 50 talents to fupply his prefent wants, being well af- 
 fured that he fhould find in the enemy's country what- 
 ever was neceffary for his fubfiitence. As the Cartha- 
 ginians had a much fuperior fleet, they for fom.e time 
 kept the mouth of the harbour blocked up : but at 
 laft a fair opportunity off"ered ; and Agathocles holft- 
 ing fail, by the activity of his rowers foon got clear 
 both of the port and city of Syracufe. The Cartha- 
 ginians purfued him with ail pofiible expedition ; but, 
 notwithftanding their utmoft efforts, Agathocles got 
 his troops landed with very little oppofition. 
 
 Soon after his forces were landed, Agathocles burnt He burn! 
 his fleet, probably that his foldlers might behave with his ficet, 
 the greater refolutlon, as they faw no pofiibllity of 
 flying from their danger. He firft advanced to a place 
 called the Great City, This, after a feeble refiftance, 
 he took and plundered. From hence he marched to 
 Tunis, which furrendered on the firft furamons ; and 
 Agathocles levelled both places with the ground. 
 
 The Carthaginians were at firft thrown into the 
 greateft confternation ; but foon recoveving themfelves, 
 the citizens took up arms with fo much alacrity, that 
 in a few days they had on foot an army of 40,000 
 foot and 1000 horfe, with 2000 armed chariots. The 37 
 command of this army they entrufted to Hanno and C^arthagu 
 Bomilcar, two generals between whom there fublifted 
 a great animofity. This occafioned the defeat of their 
 whole army with the lofs of their camp, though all 
 the forces of Agathocles did not exceed 14,000 in 
 number. Among other rich fpoils the conqueror found 
 many chariots of curious workmanfliip, which carried 
 20,000 pair of fetters and manacles that the enemy 
 had provided for the Sicilian prifoners. After this de- Their m 
 feat, the Carthaginians, fuppofing themfelves to have thod of 
 fallen under the difpleafure of their deities on account ^^^j'^^^"^ 
 of their neglefting to facrifice children of noble fami- ^^^^^ 
 
 lies 
 
GAR [ 
 
 lies to them, refolved to expiate this guilt. Accord 
 iiijgly 200 children of the firft rank were facrificed to 
 thieir bloody gods, befides 300 other perfons who vo- 
 himtariJy offered themfelves to pacify the wrath of thefe 
 deities. 
 
 After thefe expiations, Hamilcar was recalled from 
 Siicily. When the picffengers arrived, Hamilcar com- 
 manded them not once to mention the viftory of A- 
 ga.thoclcs ; but, on the contrary, to give out am.ong 
 th e troops that he had been entirely defeated, his forces 
 all cut off, and his fleet deftroyed by the Carthagini- 
 an.s. This threw the Syracufians into the utmoft de- 
 fpair ; however, one Eurymnon, an Etohan, prevailed 
 up)on Antandrus, not to confent to a capitulation, but 
 to Hand a general affault. Hamilcar being informed 
 of this, prepared his battering engines, and made all 
 thie neceffary preparations to ilorm the town without 
 delay. But while matters remamed in this fituation, 
 a galley, which Agathocles had caufed to be built im- 
 mediately after the battle, got into the harbour of Sy- 
 racufe, and acquainted the inhabitants with the cer- 
 tainty of Agathocles's victory. Hamilcar obferving 
 that the garrifon flocked down to the port on this oc- 
 cafion, and expefting to find the walls unguarded, or- 
 dered his foldiers to ere6l fcaling-ladders, and begin 
 the intended affault. The enemy having left the ram- 
 parts quite expofed, the Carthaginians mounted them 
 without being difcerned, and had almoft poffeffed them- 
 felves of an entire part lying between two towers, when 
 the patrol difcovered them. Upon this a warm difpute 
 enfued; but at laft the Carthaginians were repulfed 
 with lofs. Hamilcar, therefore, finding it in vain to 
 continue the fiege after fuch glad tidings had reftored 
 life and foul to the Syracufians, drew off his forces, 
 and fent a detachment of 5000 men to reinforce the 
 troops in Africa. He ftlU entertained hopes, how- 
 ever, that he might oblige Agathocles to quit Africa, 
 and return to the defence of his own dominions. He 
 fpent fome time in making himfelf mafter of fuch ci- 
 ties as fided with the Syracufians ; and after having 
 brought all their allies under fubjeftion, returned again 
 to Syracufe, hoping to furprlfe it by an attack in the 
 night-time. But being attacked while advancing thro' 
 narrow paffes, where his numerous army had not room 
 to afisi he was defeated with great daughter, and him- 
 felf taken prlfoner, carried into Syracufe, and put to 
 death. 
 
 In the mean time the Agrigentines, finding that 
 the Carthaginians and Syracufians had greatly weak- 
 ened each other by this war, thought it a proper op- 
 portunity to attempt the fovereignty of the whole 
 Ifland. They therefore commenced a war againft 
 both parties ; and profecuted it with fuch fuccefs, that 
 in a {hovt time they wrefted many places of note both 
 •out of the hands of the Syracufians and Carthagi- 
 nians. 
 
 In Africa the tyrant carried every thing before 
 him. He reduced moft of the places of any note in 
 the territory of Caathage ; and hearing that Elyraas 
 king of Libya had declared agalnll him, he immedi- 
 ately entered Libya Superior, .and in a great battle 
 overthrew that prince, putting to the fword a good 
 part of his troops, and the general who commanded 
 them ; after which he advanced agalnll the Carthagi- 
 nians with fuch expedltio)!, that he furprlfed and de- 
 . Vol. IV. Part 1. 
 
 193 1 CAR 
 
 fcated them, with the lofs of 2O00 killed, and a great Ca:thafre. 
 number taken prlfoners. He next prepared for the — v— 
 fiege of Carthage itfelf; and in order thereto advanced 
 to a poft within five miles of that city. On the other 
 hand, notwithftanding the great loffes they had al- 
 ready fuftalned, the Carthaginians, with a powerful 
 army, encamped between him ahd their capital. In 
 this fituation Agathocles received advice of the defeat 
 of the Carthaginian forces before Syracufe, and the 
 head of Hamilcar their general. Upon this he imme- 
 diately rode up to the enemy's camp, and fliowing thera 
 the head, gave them an account of the total deftruc- 
 tlon of their army before Syracufe. This threw them 
 into fuch confternatlon, that in all human probabiUty 
 Agathocles would have made himfelf mafter of Car- 
 thage, had not an unexpedted mutiny arifen in his 
 camp, which gave the Carthaginians an opportunity 
 of recovering from their terror. 
 
 The year following an engagement happened, in He make; 
 which neither party gained any great advantage : but a", alliance 
 foon after, the tyrant, notwithftanding all his vido- ^'tJ^Ol'l^e^- 
 rles, found himfelf unable to carry on the war alone ; ' 
 and therefore endeavoured to gain over to his interell 
 Ophelias, one of the captains of Alexander the Great. 
 In this he perfeftly fucceeded ; and, to fuccour his 
 new ally the more effeftually, Ophelias fent to Athens 
 for a body of troops. Having finiftied his military 
 preparations, Ophelias found his army to confift of 
 10,000 foot and 600 horfe, all regular troops, be- 
 fides 100 chariots, and a body o£ 10,000 men, at- 
 tended by their wives and children, as though he had 
 been going to plant a new colony. At the head of 
 thefe forces he continued his march towards Agatho- 
 cles for 1 8 days ; and then encamped at Automolae, 
 a city about 3000 ftadla dlftant from the capital of his 
 dominions. From thence he advanced through the 
 Reglo Syrtlca ; but found himfelf reduced to fuch ex- 
 tremities, that his army was in danger of perifliing for 
 want of bread, water, and other provifions. They 
 were alfo greatly annoyed by ferpents and wild beafts, 
 with which that defert region abounded. The ferpents 
 made the greateft havock among the troops ; for, be- 
 ing of the fame colour with the earth, and extremely 
 venomous, many foldiers, who trod upon them with- 
 out feeing them, were ftuag to death. At laft, after 
 a very fatiguing march of two months, he approached 
 Agathocles, and encamped at a 'fmall diftance from 
 Jilm, to the no fmall terror of the Carthaginians, who 
 apprehended the moft fatal confequences from this 
 jundioil. Agathocles at firft carcffed him, and ad- whom he 
 vlfed him to take all poffible care of his troops that treacher- 
 Irad undergone fo many fatigues ; but foon after cut ""^5' 
 him off by treachery, and then by fair words and pro- 
 mlfes perfuaded his troops to ferve under himfelf. 
 
 Agathocles now finding himfelf at the head of a 
 numerous army, . affumed the title of King of Africa, 
 intending foon to complete his conquefts by the re- 
 duftion of Carthage. He began vvlth the fiege of 
 Utica, which was taken by affault. After this he 
 marched againft Hippo Dlarrhytus, the Biferta of the 
 moderns, which was alfo taken by .'ftorni ; and after 
 this moft of the people bordering upon the fea-coafts, 
 and even thofe who inhabited the Inland parts of the 
 country, fubmitted to him. But in the midft of thisjs obli'-ed 
 career of fuccefs, the Sicilians formed an affoclation in to return 
 B b favour ^"nue. 
 
Car.hage. 
 
 47 
 
 Succefs of 
 Archaga- 
 thus. 
 
 He is red«< 
 ced to the 
 litmofl di- 
 ftrefe. 
 
 CAR [ 19 
 
 favour of liberty ; wliich obliged tbe tyrant to return 
 home, leaving his fon Archagathus to carry on the 
 war in Africa. 
 
 Archagathus, after his father's departure, greatly 
 extended the African conquefls. He fent Eumachus 
 at the head of a large detachment to invade fome of 
 the neighbouring provinces, wliile he himfelf, with 
 the greateft part of his army, obfefved the motions 
 of the Carthaginians. Eumachus falling into Numi- 
 dia, firft took the great city of Tocas, and conquer- 
 ed feveral of the .Numidian cantons. AfteiAvards he 
 befieged and to«k Phellina ; which was attended with 
 the fubmifiion of the Afphodelodians, a nation, accor- 
 ding to Diodorus, as black as the Ethiopians. He 
 then reduced feveral cities ; and being at lall elated 
 with fuch a run of good fortune, refulved to penetrate 
 iH-to the more remote parts of Africa. Here he at 
 firft met with fuccefs; but hearing that the barbarous 
 nations were advancing in a formidable body to give 
 him battle, he abandoned his conquefts, and retreated 
 with the utmoft precipitation towards the fea-coaits. 
 after having \oi\ abundance of men. 
 
 This unfortunate expedition made a great altera- 
 tion for the worfe In the affairs of Archagathus. The 
 Carthaginians being informed of Eumachas's bad fuc- 
 cefs, refolved to exert themfelves in an extraordinary 
 manner to repair their former loffes. They divided 
 their forces Into three bodies: one of thefe they fent 
 to the fea-coafts, to keep tlie towns there In awe ; 
 another they difpatched into the Medlteiranean parts, 
 to preferve the allegiance of the Inhabitants there ; 
 and the laft body they ordered to the Upper Africa, 
 to fupport their confederates In that country, Arclia- 
 gathus being apprifed of the motions of the Cartha- 
 ginians, divided his forces hkewlfe Into three bodies. 
 One of thefe he fent to obferve the Carthaginian 
 troops on the fea-coafts, with orders to advance af- 
 terwards into the Upper Africa ; another, under the 
 command of jEfchrlon, one of his generals, he pofted 
 at a proper diftance In the heart of the country, to 
 have an eye both on the enemy there and the barba- 
 rous nations ; and with the Ml, which he led In per- 
 fon, he kept nearer Carthage, preferving a commu- 
 nication with the other two, in order to fend them 
 fuccours, or recal them, as the exigency of affairs 
 fhould require. — The Carthaginian troops fent mto 
 tli€ heart of the country, were commanded by Han- 
 no, a general of great experience, who being inform- 
 ed of the approach of jEfchrion, laid an ambufcade 
 for him, into which he was drawn and cut off with 4000 
 foot and 200 horfe. Hlmllco, who commanded the 
 Carthaginian forces in Upper Africa, having advice 
 of Eumachus's march, immediately advanced agalnft 
 him. An engagement enfued, in which the Greeks 
 were almoft totally cut off, or perlfhed with thirft af- 
 ter the battle, out of 8000 foot only 30, and of 800 
 horfe only 40, having the good "fortune to make their 
 efcape. 
 
 Archagathus receiving the melancholy news of 
 thefe two defeats, immediately called In the detach- 
 ments he had fent out to harafs the enemy, which 
 ■would otherwife have been Inftantly cut off. He was, 
 however, In a fhort time hemmed in on all fides In 
 fuch a manner as to be reduced to the laft extremity 
 for want of prcvifions, and ready every moment to 
 
 5 
 
 4. ] CAR 
 
 be fwallowed up by the numerous forces which fur- Caithagc:. 
 
 rounded him. In this deplorable fituation Agathocles /-— ' 
 
 received an exprefs from Archagathus, acquainting 
 him of the loffes he had fuftained and the fearclty of 
 provifions he laboured under. Upon this the tyrant, 
 leaving the care of the Sicilian war to one Leptlnes, 
 by a ftratagem got 18 Etrufcan (hips that came to 
 his afllftance out of the harbour ; and then engaging 
 the Carthaginian fquadron v/hich lay in its neighbour- 
 hood, took five of their fhips, and made all their 
 men prifoners. By this means he became mafter of 
 the port, and fecured a pafTage into It for the mer- 
 chants of all nations, which foon reftored plenty to 
 that city, where the famine before had begun to make 
 great havock. Supplying himfelf, therefore, with a 
 fufhclent quantity of neceffarles for the voyage he 
 was going to undertake, he immediately fet fail for 
 Africa. 49 
 
 Upon his arrival In this country, Agathocles re- Agathoclej 
 viewed his forces, and found them to confift .of 6000 arrives in 
 Greeks, as many Samnites, Celtes, and Etrufcans ; ^^"ca. 
 befides 10,000 Africans, and 1500 horfe. As he 
 found his troops almoft in a ftate of defpair, he thought 
 this a proper time for offering the enemy battle. The 
 Carthaginians, however, did not think proper to ac- 
 cept the challenge ; efpeclally as by keeping clofe in 
 their camp, Vv^here they had plenty of every thing, 
 they could ftarve the Greeks to a furrender without 50 
 ftriking a ftroke. Upori this Agathocles attacked the Attacks th 
 Carthaginian camp with great bravery, made a con- <:a™P «W 
 fiderable impreffion upon it, and might perhaps have "^^^^J^^ 
 carried It, had not his mercenaries deferted him almoft fuccefs. 
 at the firfl onfet. By this piece of cowardice he was 
 forced to retire with precipitation to his camp, whither 
 the Carthaginians purfued him veiy clofely, doing 
 great execution In the purfuit. . 
 
 The next night, tlie Carthagl-nians facrificed all the Difafter 
 prifoners of dlftlnftlon as a grateful acknowledgment in the C ir 
 to the gods for the vlftory they had gained. While J^^P:'^'^'* 
 they were em.ployed in this inhuman work, the wind, 
 fuddenly rifing, carried the flames to the facred ta- 
 bernacle near the altar, which was entirely confumed, 
 as well as the general's tent, and thofc of the princi- 
 pal officers adjoining to It. A dreadful alarm took 
 place through the whole camp, which was heightened 
 by the great progrefs the fire made. For the foldiers 
 tents confifting of very combuftlble materials, and the 
 wind blowing in a moft violent manner, the whole 
 camp was almoft entirely laid in afhes ; and many of 
 the foldiers endeavouring to carry off their arms, arid 
 the rich baggage of their ofiicers, perifhed in the 
 flames. Some of thofe who made their efcape met 
 with a fate equally unhappy : For, after Agathocles 
 had received the lail blow, the Africans deferted him, 
 and were in that inftant coming over in a body to the 
 Carthaginians. Tliefe, the perfons who were flying 
 from the flames took to be the whole Syracufian ar- 
 my advancing In order of battle to attack their cajmp. 
 Upon this a dreadful confufion enfued. Some took 
 to their heels j others fell down in heaps one upon 
 another; and others engaged their comrades, mif- 
 taklng them for the enemy. Five thoufand men lofl 
 their lives in this tumult, and the reft thought proper 
 to take refuge within the walls of Carthage ; nor 
 could the appearance of day-light, for fomc time, dlf- 
 
 iipats 
 
CAR 
 
 5* 
 
 inorher in 
 lat of A- 
 athocles. 
 
 fipate their terrible apprehenfions. In the mean 
 time, the African deferters, obferving the great con- 
 fufion the Carthaginians- were in, and not knowing 
 the meaning of it, were fo terrified, that they thought 
 proper to return to the place from whence they came. 
 The Syracufians feeing a body of troops advancing 
 towards them in good order, concluded that the ene- 
 my were marching to attack tliem, and therefore im- 
 mediately cried out " To arms." The flames afcend- 
 ing out of the Carthaginian camp into the air, and 
 the lamentable outcries proceeding from thence, con- 
 firmed them in this opinion, and greatly heightened 
 their confufion. The confequence was much the 
 fame as in the Carthaginian camp ; for coming to 
 blows with one another iaftead of the enemy, they 
 fcarce recovered their fenfes upon the return of light, 
 and the inteftine fray was fo bloody, that it coll Aga- 
 thocles 4000 men. 
 
 This laft difafter fo dilheartened the tyrant, that he 
 immediately fet about conti'iving means for making 
 his efcape privately ; and this he at laft, though with 
 great difliculty, effefted. After his departure, his 
 two fons were immediately put to death by the fol- 
 diers, who, choofing a leader from among themfelves, 
 made peace with the Carthaginians upon the following 
 conditions : i. That the Greeks (hould deliver up all 
 the places they held in Africa, receiving from them 
 300 talents ; 2. That fuch of them as were willing to 
 ferve in the Carthatginian army fhould be kindly treat- 
 ed, and receive the ufual pay; and, 3. That the reft 
 ftiould be tranfported to Sicily, and have the city of 
 Selinus for their habitation. 
 
 From this time, to that of their firft war with the 
 Romans, we find nothing remarkable in the hiftory 
 of the Carthaginians. The firfl Punic war, as it is 
 commonly called, happened about 256 years before 
 Chrift. At that time, the Carthaginians were poflef- 
 fed of extenfive dominions in Africa ; they had made 
 confiderable progrefs in Spain ; were mafters of Sar- 
 dinia, Corfica, and all the iflands on the coaft of Italy; 
 and had extended their conquefts to a great part of 
 Sicily. The occafion of the firft rupture between the 
 two rep\jblics was as follows. The Mamertines be- 
 ing vanqiiiihed in battle, and reduced to great ftraits 
 by Hiero king of Syracufe, had refolved to deliver up 
 Meffina, the only city they now poffeffed, to that 
 prince, with whofe mild government and ftri£l pro- 
 bity they were well acquainted. Accordingly, Hiero 
 was advancing at the head of his troops to take pof- 
 feffion of the city, when Hannibal, who at that time 
 commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily, prevent- 
 ed him by a ftratagem. He came to meet Hiero, 
 as it were to congratulate him on his viilory ; and 
 amufed him, while feme of the Carthaginian troops 
 filed off towards Meffina. Hereupon the Mamer- 
 tines, feeing their city fupported by a new reinforce- 
 ment, >were divided into fcvcral opinions. Some 
 were for accepting the proteftion of Carthage; others 
 were for furrendering to the king of Syracufe ; but 
 the greater part were for calling in the Romans to 
 their affiftance. Deputies were accordingly difpatch- 
 ed to Rome, offering the poffeflion of the city to the 
 Romans, and in the moft moving terms imploring 
 proteftian. This, aft<r fome debate, was agreed to ; 
 
 95 ] .CAR 
 
 and the conful Appius Claudius received orders to at- Ca'-thagc. 
 tempt a paflage to Sicily, at the head of a powerful 
 army. Being obliged to ftay fome time at Rome, 
 however, one Caius Claudius, a perfon of great intre- 
 pidity and refolution, was difpatched with a few vef- 
 fels to Rhegium. On his arrival there, he obferved 
 the Carthaginian fquadron to be fo much fuperior to 
 his own, that he thought it would be little better than 
 madnefs to attempt at that time to tranfport forces to 
 Sicily. He crofted the ftraits, however, and had a 
 conference with the Mamertines, in which he prevail- 
 ed upon them all to accept of the protection of Rome ; 
 and on this he made the neceffary preparations for 
 tranfporting his forces. The Carthaginians being in- 
 formed of the refolutions of the Romans, fent a ftrong 
 fquadron of galhes under the command of Hanno, to Hanno in- 
 intercept the Roman fleet ; and accordingly the Car- ^^^^ 
 thaginian admiral, coming up with them near the ^^^^ 
 coaft of Sicily, attacked them with great fury. Du- 
 ring the engagement, a violent ftorm arofe, which 
 daflied many of the Roman veftels againft the rocks, 
 ' and did a vaft deal of damage to their fquadron ; by 
 which means Claudius was forced to retire to Rhegium, 
 and this he accomplifhed with great difiieulty. Han- 
 no reftored all the veftels he had taken ; but ordered 
 the deputies fent with them, to expoftulate with the 
 Roman general upon the infraftion of the treaties fub- 
 fiiling between the two republics. This expoftulation, 
 however juft, produced an open rupture ; Claudius 
 foon after poffelftng himfelf of Mefiina. ^(5 
 
 Such was the beginning of the firft Punic war, Carthaglni- 
 which is fa id to have lafted 24 years. The firft year,*"' ^X" 
 the Carthaginians and Syracufians laid fiege to Meflina; defeated* by 
 but, not afting in concert as they ought to have done, the Ro- 
 were overthrown by the Conful Appius Claudius; and mans, 
 this defeat fo much difgufted Hiero with the Cartha- 
 ginians, that he foon after concluded an alliance with 
 the Romans. After this treaty, having no enemy to 
 contend with but the Carthaginians, the Romans made 
 themfelves matters of all the cities on the weftern coaft 
 of Sicily, and at the end of the campaign carried back 
 moft of their troops with them to take up their win- 
 ter-quarters in Italy. 
 
 The fecond year, Hanno the Carthaginian general A?»"'gen- 
 fixed his principal magazine at Agrigentum. Thi,- '""^j^^*'^^" 
 place was very ftrong by nature, had been rendered xnans. 
 almoft impregnable by the new fortifications raifed by 
 the Carthaginians durirf'g the preceding wmter, and 
 was defended by a numerous garrifon commanded by 
 one Hannibal, a general of great experience in wm-. 
 For five months the Romans attempted to reduce the 
 place by famine, and had aftually brought the inhabi- 
 tants to great diftrefs, when a Carthaginian army of 
 50,000 foot, 6000 horfe, and 60 elephants, landed at 
 Lilybxum, and from thence marched to Heraclea, 
 within 20 niiles of Agrigentum. There the general 
 received a deputation from fome of the inhabitants of 
 Erbeffa, where the Romans had their magazines, offer- 
 iHg to put the town into his hands. It was according- 
 ly delivered up ; and by this means the Romans be- 
 came fo much diftrefied ; that they had certainly been 
 obliged to abandon their enterprize, had not Hiero 
 fupplied them with provifions. But all the alliftancc 
 he was able to give ceuld not long have fupported 
 B b 2 them, 
 
 Ro- 
 
 ♦ 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 196 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 C^i thage. them, as their array was fo much weakened by difor- 
 '■""v ders occafioned by famine, that, out of 100,000 men of 
 whom it originally coniifted, fcarce a fourth part re- 
 mained fit for fervice, and could no longer fubfill on 
 fuch parfimoaious fupplies. But In the mean time 
 Hannibal acquainted Hanno that the city vi'as reducexl 
 to the utmolt diftrefs ; upon which he refolved to ven- 
 ture an engagement, which he had before declined. 
 In this the Romans were viftorlous, and the city fur- 
 rendered at difcretlon, though Hannibal with the 
 greatett part of the garrifon made their efcape. This 
 ended the campaign ; and the Carthaginians being 
 gi-eatly chagrined at their bad fuccefs, fined Hanno 
 of an Immenfe fum of money, and deprived him of his 
 command, appointing Hamilcar to fucceed him in the 
 command of the land army, and Planuibal In that of 
 the fleet. 
 
 The third year, Hannibal received orders to ravage 
 the coails of Italy ; but the Romans had taken care 
 to poll detachments in fuch places as were moft pro- 
 58 per to prevent his landing, fo that the Carthaginian 
 They build found it Impoffible to execute his orders. At the fame 
 a fleet, time, the Romans, perceiving the advantages of being 
 mailers of the fea, fet about building 1 20 galleys. 
 While this was doing, they made themfelves mafters of 
 moft of the inland cities, but the Carthaginians redu- 
 ced or kept fteady in their Interell moft of the mari- 
 time ones ; fo that both parties were equally fuccefs- 
 fnl during this campaign. 
 
 The fourth year, Hannibal by a ftratagem made 
 himfelf mafter of 17 Roman galleys ; after which he 
 committed great ravages on the coaft of Italy, whither 
 he had advanced to take a view of the Roman fleet. 
 And defeat But he was afterwards attacked In his turn, loft the 
 the Cartha- greateft part of his fhlps, and with great difficulty 
 gimans at ^^^^ j^ig own efcape. Soon after he was totally de- 
 feated by the conful DuiUIus, with the lofs of 80 fhlps 
 taken, thirteen funk, 7000 men killed, and as many 
 taken prifoners. • After this vIAory DuIUius landed 
 in Sicily, put himfelf at the head of the land forces, 
 relieved Segefta befieged by Hamilcar, and made him- 
 £elf mafter of Macella, though defended by a nume- 
 rous garrifon. 
 
 Sicilians de- The fifth year, a difference arofe between the Ro- 
 Teated by jnans and their Sicilian allies, which came to fuch an 
 the Cartha- lieJght, that they encamped feparately. Of this Ha- 
 milcar availed himfelf, and attacking the Sicilians in 
 their entrenchments, put 4000 of them to the fword. 
 He then drove the Romans from their pofts, took fe- 
 veral cities from them, and over-ran the greateft part 
 of the country. In the mean time, Hannibal, after 
 his defeat, failed with the {battered remains of his fleet 
 to Carthage : but In order to fecure himfelf from pu- 
 nifliment, he fent one of his friends with all fpecd, be- 
 fore the event of the battle was known there, to ac- 
 quaint the fenate, that the Romans had put to fea 
 with a good number of heavy lU-buIlt veffels, each 
 ©f them carrying fome machine, the ufe of which 
 the Carthaginians did not underftand } and alk- 
 ed whether it was the opinion ofj the fenate that 
 Hannibal fliould attack them. Thefe machines were 
 the corvi, which were then newly invented, and 
 by means of which, chiefly, Duillius had gained the 
 victory. The fenate were unanimous in their opinion, 
 that the Romans fhould b€ attacked ; upon which the 
 
 guuans. 
 
 meffenger acquainted them with the unfortunate event Carthage. < 
 of the battle. As the fenators had already declared — — y-" 
 themfelves for the engagement, they fpared their ge- 
 neral's Hfe, and, according to Polybius, even continued 
 him in the command of the fleet. In a fliort time, 
 being reinforced by a good number of galleys,, and at - 
 tended by fome officers of great merit, he failed for the 
 coaft of Sardinia. He had not been long here, before 
 he was furprifed by the Romans, who carried oft' many 
 of his (hips, and took great numbers of his men pri- 
 foners. This fo Incenfcd the reft, that they fciztd 
 their unfortunate adm.Iral, and crucified him ; but who 
 was his immediate fucceflor does not appear. 6x 
 
 The fixth year, the Romans made diemfelves ma- Corfica ami 
 fters of the iflands of Corfiea and Sardinia. Hanno, ' 
 who commanded the Carthaginian, forces in the latter, fh "lli'^ 
 defended himfelf at a city called Olbia with incredible majis. 
 bravery ; but being at lait killed in one of the attacks, 
 the place was furrendered, and the Romans focn be- 
 came mafters of the whole ifland. 
 
 The feventh year, the Romans took the town of The Ro- 
 Myteftratum, in Sicily, from whence they marchtd™^" ^'"'"y 
 towards Camarina, but In their way were furrounded ^J^" 
 in a deep valley, and in the moft Imminent danger of * 
 being cut off" by the Carthaginian army. In t^^i^ ex- j^^j.^^^^ . 
 tremity, a legionary tribune, by name M. 6'rt//5z/r/.'i?/j ,he'braverj 
 i^^wfWi?, defired the generd to give him 300 chofen of a legion 
 men ; promifing, with this fmall company, to find"^'y 
 the enemy fuch employment as ihould oblige them to*^""^' 
 leave a paffage open for the Roman army. He per- 
 formed his promife with a bravery truly heroic ; for, 
 having feized. In fpite of all oppofitlon, an eminence, 
 and entrenched himfelf on it, the Carthaginians, jea- 
 lous of his defign, flocked from all quarters to drive 
 him from his poft. But the brave tribune kept their 
 whole army In play, till the conful, taking advantage 
 of the diverfion, drew his army out of the bad li- 
 tuatlon in which he had imprudently bi'oaght it. 
 The legions were no fooner out of danger, than they 
 haftened to the relief of their brave companions : but 
 all they could do was to fave their bodies from the in-' 
 fults of their enemies ; for they found them all dead 
 on the fpot, except Calpurnlus, who lay under an heap 
 of dead bodies all covered with wounds, but ftill 
 breathing. His wounds were immediately dreffed, 
 and It fortunately happened that none of them proved 
 mortal ; and for this glorious enterprife he received a 
 crown o{ gramen. After this the Romans reduced fe- 
 veral cities, and drove the enemy quite out of the 
 territory of the Agrlgentines ; but were repulfed with 
 great lofs before LIpara. 
 
 The eighth year, Regulus, who commanded the Carthagini 
 Roman fleet, obferving that of the Carthaginians lying ^'^s defeat.^ 
 along the coaft in diforder, failed with a fquadron ^^g^p 
 ten galleys to obferve their number and ftrength, or- nians.^ 
 dering the reft of the fleet to follow him with all ex- 
 pedition. But as he drew too near the enemy, he 
 was furrounded by a great number of Carthaginian 
 galleys. The Romans fought with their ufual bravery ; 
 but, being overpowered with numbers, were obliged ta 
 yield. The conful, however, found means to make 
 his efcape, and join the reft of the fleet ; and then 
 had his full revenge of the enemy, 1 8 of their {hip6 
 being taken, and eight funk. 
 
 The ninth year, the Romans made preparations for 
 
 invading 
 
CAR 
 
 artliage. invadirag Africa. Their fleet for this purpofe confid- 
 ed of 330 galleys, each of them having on board 120 
 foldiens and 300 rowers. The Carthaginian fleet con- 
 des'Afri-^^^"^ of 3 60 fail, and was much better manned than 
 that olF the Romans. The two fleets met near Ecno- 
 mus, a. promontory in Sicily ; where, after a bloody 
 engagement which laited the greater part of the day, 
 the Carthaginians were entirely defeated, with the 
 lofs of 30 galleys funk, and 63 taken with all their 
 men. The Romans loit only 24 galleys, which were 
 all funk. — After this vi6lory, the Romans having re- 
 fitted their fleet, fet fail for the coafl; of Africa with 
 all exp>cdition. Tlie hril land they got fight of was 
 Cape Hermea, where the fleet lay at anchor for forae 
 time waiting till the galleys and tranfports came up. 
 From thence thev coafted along till they arrived be- 
 fore Cllupea, a city to the ead of Carthage, where 
 the)' made their firft defcent. 
 
 No words can exprefs the conllernation of the Car- 
 
 r 197 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 66 
 
 srthagini- 
 
 67 
 liccefs of 
 Leguius. 
 
 ){i eat thagin ians, on the arrival of the Romans in Africa, 
 erna- r^^^^ inhabitants of Chipea were fo terrified, that, ac- 
 cording to Zonaras, they abandoned the place, which 
 the Romans immediately took poflellion of. Having 
 left there a ilrong garrifon to fecure their fliipping, 
 and keep the adjacent territory in awe, they moved 
 nearer Carthage, taking a great number of towns ; 
 they likewife plundered a prodigious number of vil- 
 lages, laid valt numbers of noblemens feats in aflies, 
 and took above 20,000 prifoners. In Ihort, having 
 plundered and ravaged the whole country, almofl: to 
 the gates of Carthage, they returned to Clupea loaden 
 with the immenfe booty they had acquired in the ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 The tenth year, Regulus piiflied on his conquefl;s 
 with great rapidity. To oppofe his progrefs, Hamil- 
 car was recalled from Sicily, and with him Boftar and 
 Afdrubal were joined in command. Hamilcar com- 
 manded an army juil equal to that of Regulus. The 
 other two commanded feparate bodies, which were 
 to join him or aft apart as occafion required. But, 
 before they were in a condition to take the field, Re- 
 gulus, purfuing his conquefls, arrived on the banks of 
 the Bragada, a river which empties itfelf into the fea 
 le kills a fmall diilance from Carthage. Here he had a 
 
 Knftrous monftrous ferpent to contend with, which, according 
 irj ent. iq the accounts of thofe days, infefted the waters of 
 the river, polfoncd the air, and killed all other ani- 
 mals with its breath alone. When the Romans went 
 to draw water, this huge dragon attacked them ; and, 
 twilling itfelf round their bodies, either fqueezed them 
 to death, or fv/allowed them alive. As its hard and 
 thick fcales were proof againft their darts and arrows, 
 they w^ere forced to have recomfe to the balifl^ae, which 
 they made ufe of in fieges to throw great Hones, and 
 to beat down the walls of befieged cities. Witii thefe 
 they difcharged fliowers of huge ftones againft this 
 new enemy, and had the good luck, with one of them, 
 to break his back-bone ; which dilabled him from 
 twifl:ing and winding lu's immenfe body, and by that 
 means gave the Romans an opportunity of approach- 
 ing and difpatching him with their darts. But his 
 dead body corrupted the air and the water of the ri- 
 ver ; and fpread fo great an infe(?i:ion over the whole 
 country, that the Romans were obliged to decamp. 
 We ai:e told that Regulus fent to Rome the fivin of 
 
 68 
 
 this monfter, which was 120 feet long; and that it Carthage, 
 was hung up in a temple, where it was preferved to — ^r——^ 
 the time of the Numantine war. 69 
 
 Having paffed this river, he befieged Jd'/s, or Adda, Defeats the 
 not far from Carthage, which the enemy attempted ^j^J'^^^^'"'" 
 to reheve ; but as they lay encamped among hills and ' ' 
 rocks, where their elephants, in which the main ilrength 
 of their army confiiled, could be of no ule, R.egulus 
 attacked them in their camp, killed 17,000 of them, 
 and took 5000 prifoners, and 18 elephants. Upon 
 the fame of this viftory, deputations came from all 
 quarters, iufomuch that the conqueror in a fev/ days 
 became mafter of 80 towns ; among which were the 70 
 city and port of Utica. This increafed the alarm at -'^nd reda- 
 Carthage ; which was reduced to defpair, when Re- ^^^^ 
 gulus laid fiege to Tunis, a great city about nine miles defpalrT 
 from the capital. The place was taken in fight of the 
 Carthaginians, who, from their walls, beheld all the 
 operations of the fiege, without making the leaft at- 
 tempt to relieve it. And to complete their misfor-- 
 tunes, the Numidians, their neighbours, and impla- 
 cable enemies, entered their territories, committing 
 every where the moft dreadful devaftations, which foon 
 occafioned a great fcarcity of provifions in the city. 
 The public magazines were foon exhaufted : and, as 
 the city was full of felfifli merchants, who took ad- 
 vantage of the pubHc diftrefs, to fell- provifions at an 
 exorbitant price, a famine enfued, with all the evils 
 which attend it. ••r 
 
 In this extremity Regulus advanced to the very His propo* 
 gates of Carthage ; and having encamped under the ^^'^ '^^ 
 walls, fent deputies to treat of a peace with the fe-j^g'^ied/'^* 
 nate. The deputies were received with inexprefiible 
 joy ; but the conditions they propofed were fuch that 
 the fenate couJ^ not hear them without the greatelt 
 indignation. They were, i. That the Carthaginians- 
 fliould rclinquifh all claims to Sardinia, Corfica, and 
 Sicily. 2. That they fliould reftore to the Romans 
 all the prifoners they had taken from them fince the 
 beginning of the war. 3. That if they cared to re- 
 deem any of their own prifoners, they fliould pay fo 
 much a-head for them as Rome fliould judge reafon- 
 able. 4. That they fliould for ever pay the Romans 
 an annual tribute. 5. That for the future they fliould- 
 fit out but one man. of war for their own ufe, and 50 
 triremes to ferve in the Roman fleet, at the expence 
 of Carthage, when required by any of the future con- 
 fuls. Thefe extravagant demands provoked the fe- 
 nators, who loudly and unanimoufly rejefted them ; 
 the Roman deputies, however, told them that Regu- 
 lus would not alter a fingle letter of the propofals, 
 and that they muft either conquer the Romans or 
 obey them. 
 
 In this extreme diftrefs, fome mercenaries arrived Xanthipfnia- 
 from Greece, among whom was a Lacedemonian, by appointed 
 name Xanthippus, a man of great valour and experi- 
 ence in war. This man, having informed hinifelf ofQ^^^^f^^^^^^^j,. 
 the circumftances of the late battle, declared pubhcly, an arniy.. 
 that their overthrow was more owing to their own 
 mifconduA than to the fuperiority of the enemy. This 
 difcourfe being fpread abroad, came at laft to the 
 knowledge of the fenate ; and by them, and even by 
 the defire of the Carthaginian generals thcmfelvtfj, 
 Xanthippus was appointed commander in chief of theic 
 forcef!. His firft care was to difcipline his troops in.-i 
 
 proper 
 
CAR 
 
 I 
 
 Ortliape. proper Tnanner. He taught them how to march, en- 
 *'~"'V— ' camp, widen and dofc their ranks, and rally after the 
 Lacedemonian manner under their proper colours. 
 He then took the field with 12,000 foot, 4000 horfe, 
 and 100 elephants. The Romans were furprifed at 
 the fudden alteration they obferved in the enemy's 
 conduft ; but Regulus, elated with his lall fuccefs, 
 came and encamped at a fmall diftance from the Car- 
 thaginian army in a vaft plain, where their elephants 
 and horfe had room to aft. The two armies were 
 parted by a river, which Regulus boldly pafTed, by 
 which means he left no room for a retrekt in cafe of 
 any misfortune. The engagement began with great 
 ■ fury ; but ended in the total defeat of the Romans, 
 
 dus taken. 
 
 74 
 
 cd by fea 
 %nd land. 
 
 73 
 The Ro. 
 mans utter- 
 
 ia^Rel'u-' ^'^^^P*^ 2000 that efcaped to Clupea, were all 
 killed or taken prifoners, and among the latter was 
 Recrulus himfelf. The lofs of the Carthaginians fcarce 
 exceeded 800 men, 
 
 The Carthaginians remained on the field of battle 
 till they had firipped the llain ; and then entered their 
 metropolis, which was ahnoft the only place left them, 
 -He is Jruel- g^^^^ triumph. They treated all their prifoners 
 ly ufcd. with great humanity, except Regulus ; but as for him, 
 he had fo infulted them in his profperity, that they 
 could not forbear fhewing the highell marks of their 
 refentment. According to Zonaras and others, he 
 was thrown into a dungeon, where he had only fufte- 
 nance allowed him barely fufficient to keep him alive. 
 Nay, his cruel mafters, to heighten his other torments, 
 ordered an huge elephant (at the fight of which ani- 
 mal, it feems, he was greatly terrified) to be conftantly 
 placed near him ; which prevented him from enjoying 
 any tranquillity or repofe. 
 'Carthaglnl- The eleventh year of this war, the Carthaginians, e- 
 ans defeat- Jated with their viftory over Regulus, began to talk in 
 a very high ftrain, threatening Italy itfelf with an in- 
 vafion. To prevent this, the Romans took care to 
 garrifon all their maritime towns, and fitted out a new 
 fleet. In the mean time, the Carthaginians befieged 
 Clupea and Utica in vain, being obHged to abandon 
 their enterprize, upon hearing that the Romans were 
 equipping a fleet of 350 fail. The Carthaginians ha- 
 ving with incredible expedition refitted their old vef- 
 fels, and built a good number of new ones, met the 
 Roman fleet off" Cape Hermea. An engagement en- 
 fued, in which the Carthaginians were utterly defeated; 
 104 of their fhips being funk, 30 taken, and 15,000 
 of their foldiers and rowers killed in the aftion. The 
 Romans purfued their courfe to Clupea, where they 
 were no fooner landed, than they found themfelves at- 
 tacked by the Carthaginian army, under the two 
 Hanno's, father and fon. But, as the brave Xanthip- 
 pus no longer commanded their army, notwithftanding 
 the Lacedemonian difcipline he had introduced among 
 them, they were routed at the very firlt onfet, with 
 the lofs of 9000 men, and among them many of their 
 chief lords. 
 
 Notwithftanding all their viftories, however, the 
 Romans found themfelves now obhged, for want of 
 provifions, to evacuate both Clupea and Utica, and 
 abandon Africa akogether. Being defirous of figna- 
 lizing the end of their confulate by fome important 
 conqueft on Sicily, the confuls fleered for that ifland, 
 contrary to the advice of their pilots, who reprefented 
 their danger, on account of the fcafon being fo far ad- 
 
 76 
 ?lomans 
 vfibliged to 
 abandon 
 Africa. 
 
 198 1 CAR 
 
 vanced. Their obftinacy proved the: deftru£lion of CartliSgci 
 the whole fleet ; for a violent florm arifing, out of 
 370 veffels, only 80 efcaped fliipwreck, the reft hdng .-^^JJ ^^^J 
 fvvallowed up by the fea, or daflied againft the rocks, totally de- | 
 This was by far the greateft lofs that Rome had ever ftrnyed by | 
 fuftained ; for befides the fliips that were caft away ^ ftorm. |! 
 with their crews, a numerous army was deftroyed, 
 with all the riches of Africa, which had been by Re- 
 gulus amaffed and jlepofited in Qupea, and were now 
 from thence tranfporting to Rome. The whole coall 
 from Pachinum to Camerina was covered with dead 
 bodies and wrecks of fliips ; fo that hiftory can fcarce 
 afford an example of fuch a dreadful difailei-. 
 
 The twelfth year, the Carthaginians hearing of this 
 misfortune of the Romans, rcHewed the war in Sicily 
 with freffi fury, hoping the whole iiland, which was 
 now left defencelefs, would fall into their hands. Caf- 
 thalo, a Carthaginian commander, befieged and took 78 
 Agrigentum. The town he laid in alhes and demo- Agrigen 
 liflied the walls, obliging the inhabitants to fly to O- ^^^'^ ^^^'f^^ 
 lympium. Upon the news of this fuccefs, Afdrubal ^royed'by 
 was fent to Sicily with a large reinforcement of troops, the Cartha 
 and 150 elephants. They likewife fitted out a fqua- ginians. 
 dron, with which they retook the ifland of Cofyra, 
 and marched a ftrong body of forces into Mauritania 
 and Numidia, to punifli the people of thofe countries 
 for fliewing a difpofition to join the Romans. In Si- 
 cily the Romans poflefled themfelves of Cephalodium 
 and Panormus, but were obhged by Carthalo to raifc 
 the fiege of Drepanum with great lofs. 
 
 The 13th year, the Romans fent out a fleet of 260 The Ro 
 galleys, which appeared oft' Lilybaeum in Sicily; but ''^oi 
 finding this place too ftrong, they fteered from thence * 
 to the eailern coaft of Africa, where they made feve- 
 ral defcents, furprifed fome cities, and plundered feve- 
 ral towns and villages. They arrived fafe at Panormus, 
 and in a few days fet fail for Italy, having a fair wind 
 till they came off" Cape PaHnurus, where fo violent a which is 
 ftorm overtook them, that 160 of their galleys and a again de- 
 great number of their tranfports were loft ; upon which ^''"yeii* 
 the Roman fcnate made a decree, that, for the future, 
 no more than 50 vefl"els ftiould be equipped ; and that 
 thefe Ihould be employed only in guarding the coaft 
 of Italy, and tranfporting the troops Into Sicily. 
 
 The 14th year, the Romans made themfelves ma- 
 fl:ers of Himera and Lipara in Sicily ; and the Car- 
 thaginians conceiving new hopes of conquering that 
 ifland, began to make frelh levies in Gaul and Spain, 
 and to equip a new fleet. But their treafures being 
 exhaufted, they applied to Ptolemy king of Egypt, 
 intreating him to lend them 2000 talenta : but he be- 
 ing refolved to ftand neuter, refufed to comply with 
 their reqxieft ; telling them, that he could not with- 
 out breach of fidelity aflift one friend againft another. 
 However, the republic of Carthage making an effort, 
 equipped a fleet of 200 fail, and raifed an army of 
 30,000 men, horfe and foot, and 140 elephants, ap- 
 pointing Afdrubal commander in chief both of the 
 fleet and army. The Romans then finding the great They fit 
 advantages of a fleet, refolved to equip one notwith- 
 ftanding all former difafters ; and while the vefl"el3 
 were building, two confuls were chofen, men of va- 
 lour and experience, to fuperfede the a6tlng ones in 
 Sicily. Metellus, however, one of the former con- 
 fuls, being continued with the title of proconful, found 
 
 xaczai 
 
IS utterly 
 bfeated. 
 
 83 
 
 .tlybseum 
 
 CAR ( I 
 
 hirthage. means to draw Afdrubal into a battle on difadvan- 
 -■r-^ tageous terrr.s near Panormus, and then fallying out 
 _ . . i?pon him, gave him a mod terrible overthrow. 
 I'JiltSv" '^^'^"^y thoiifand of the enen>y were killed, and 
 many elephants. An hundrtd and four elephants 
 were taken with their leaders, and fent to Rome, 
 where they were hunted and put to death in the 
 circus 
 
 The 15th y^ar, the Romans befieged Lilybasum ; 
 cfieji;cdby and the fiege continued during the reft of the firft 
 Punic war, and was the only thing remarkable that 
 '^^"^* happened during that time*. The Carthaginians, 
 See Lily o„ j;^g f^rft news of its being befieged, fent Regulus 
 with fome deputies to Rome to treat of a peace : but 
 inflead of forwarding the negociation, he hindered it ; 
 and notwithftanding he knew the torments prepared 
 for him at Carthage, could not be prevailed upon to 
 84 flay at Rome, but returning to his enemies country, 
 hey are was put to a moit cruel death- During this fiege, 
 sfeated at Roman fleet under Claudius Pulcherwas utterly de- 
 artha''i- ^^^^^'^ Adherbal the Carthaginian admiral. Ninety 
 ians. ■ of the Roman galleys were loft in the aftion, 8000 of 
 their men either killed or drowned, and 20,000 taken 
 and fent prifoners to Carthage ; and the Carthaginians 
 gained this fignal viftory without the lofs of a fingle 
 \ Roman fliip, or even a fingle man. Another Roman fleet met 
 leet utterly a ftiU feverer fate. It confifted of 1 20 galleys, 
 i^'a^ftorm tranfports, and was laden with all forts of military 
 ^ ^ ' ftores and provifions. Every one of thefe veffels were 
 loft by a ftorm, vpith all they contained, not a fingle 
 plank being faved that could be ufed again ; fo that 
 the Romans found ihemfelves once more deprived of 
 their whole naval force, 
 amdkar I" the mean time, the Carthaginian foldiery having 
 ircas fent flaown a difpofition to mutiny, the fenate fent over 
 ito Sicily. Hamilcar Barcas, father of the famous Hannibal, to 
 Sicily. He received a chai'te blanche from the fenate 
 to a£t as he thought proper ; and by his excellent 
 conduft and refolution, fhowed himfelf the greateft 
 general of his age. He defended Eryx, which he had 
 taken by furprife, with fuch vigour, that the Romans 
 would never have been able to make themfelves matters 
 of it, had they not fitted out a new fleet at the ex- 
 pence of private citizens, which, having utterly defeat- 
 ed that of the Carthaginians, Hamilcar, notwithftand- 
 ' 87 ing all his valour, was obliged to yield up the place 
 |cace with which he had fo long and fo bravely defended. The 
 following articles of a peace were immediately drawn 
 up between the two commanders, i. The Carthagi- 
 nians fhall evacuate all the places which they have in 
 Sicily, arrd entirely quit that iffand. 2. They fhall, 
 in 20 years, pay the Romans, at equal payments every 
 year, 2200 talents of filver, that is, L. 437,250 Ster- 
 ling. 3» They fhall reftore the Roman captives and 
 dcferters without ranfom, and redeem their own pri- 
 foners with money. 4 They ftiall not make war up- 
 on Hiero king of Syracufe, or his allies. Thefe ar- 
 ticles being agreed to, Hamilcar furrendered Eryx u- 
 pon condition that all his foldiers fhould march out with 
 him upon his paying for each of them 1 8 Roman denarii. 
 Hoft'ages were given on both fides, and deputies were 
 fent to Rome to procure a ratification of the treaty 
 by the fenate. After the fenators had thoroughly 
 informed themfelves of the ftate of affairs, two more 
 articles were added, viz. i. That J 000 talents fhould 
 
 ke R 
 pans. 
 
 99 ) GAR 
 
 be paid immediately, and the 2200 in the fpace of 10 Carthage; 
 
 years at equal payments. 2. That the Carthaginians v 
 
 fhould quit all the little iflands about Italy and Sicily, 
 
 and never more come near them with fhlps of war, or 
 
 ralfe mercenaries in thofe places. NecefTity obliged 
 
 Hamilcar to confent to thefe terms ; but he returned 
 
 to Carthage with an hatred to the Romans, which he 
 
 did not even fuffer to die with him, but tranfmitted 
 
 to his fon the great Hannibal. 88 
 
 The Carthaginians were no fooncr got out of this Caufcs of 
 bloody and expenfive war, than they found themfelves ^^51^^^^""^ 
 engaged in another which was like to have proved fa- mercena- 
 tal to them. It is called by ancient hlftorians theZi-ries. 
 byan war, or the luar tvith the mercenaries. The prin- 
 cipal occafion of It was, that when Hamilcar returned 
 to Carthage, he found the republic fo much impover- 
 ifhed, that, far from being able to give thefe troops 
 the largefTes and rewards promlfed them, it could not 
 pay them their ar-reai"s. He had committed the care 
 of tranfporting them to one Gifco, who, being an of- 
 ficer of great penetration, as though he had forefeen 
 what would happen, did not fhip them off all at once, 
 but in fmall and feparate parties, that thofe who came 
 firlt might be paid off and fent home before the arrival 
 of the reft. The Carthaginians at home, however, did 
 not adl with the fame prudence. As the ftate was al- 
 moft entirely exhaufted by the laft war, and the im- 
 menfe fum of money, in confequence of the peace, paid 
 to the Romans, they judged it would be a laudable ac- 
 tion to fave fomething to the public. They did not 
 therefore pay off the mercenaries in pr-oportlon as they 
 arrived, thinking it more proper to wait till they 
 all came together, with a view of obtaining fome 
 remiflion of their arrears. But being foon made fen- 
 fible of their wrong conduct on this occafion, by • 
 the frequent diforders thefe barbarians committed in. 
 the city, they with fome dlfSculty prevailed upon; 
 the officers to take up their quarters at Sicca, and 
 canton their troops in that neighbourhood. To in- 
 duce them to this, however, they gave them a fum 
 of money for their prefent fubfiftence^ and promifed 
 to comply with their pretenfions when the remainder 
 of their troops arrived from Sicily. Here, being whol- 
 ly immerfed in idlenefs, to which they had long been 
 flrangers, a negleft of difcipline enfued, and of courfs 
 a petulant and licentious fpirit immediately took place. 
 They were now determined not to acqulefce in recei- 
 ving their bare pay, but to infift upon the rewards Ha- 
 milcar had promifed them, and even to compel the 
 ftate of Carthage to comply with their demands by j» 
 force of arms. The fenate being informed of the jj^pr^jg^^- 
 mutinous difpofition of the foldiery, difpatched Han-condud of; 
 no, one of the fuffetes,. to pacify them. Upon hisHanno. 
 arrival at Sicca, he expatiated largely upon the po^ 
 verty of the ftate, and the heavy taxes with which 
 the citizens of Carthage were loaded and therefore, 
 inftead of anlwering their high expeftations, he de- 
 fired them to be fatlsfied with receiving part of their 
 pay, and remit the remainder to ferve the preffing 
 exigencies of the republic. The mercenaries being 
 highly provoked, that neither Hamilcar, nor any 
 other of the principal officers- who commanded them 
 in Sicily, and were the beft judges of their meritj 
 made their appearance on this occafion, but only 
 Hanno, a perfon utterly unknown, and above all'' 
 
 others. 
 
CAR 
 
 200 
 
 ;arthag;c. otliers utterly difagretable to them, immediately had 
 recourfe to arms. Affembling therefore in a body 
 to the number of 20,000, they advanced to Tunis, 
 and immediately encamped before that city. 
 
 The Carthaginians being greatly alarmed at the 
 approach of fo formidable a body to Tunis, made 
 large conceflions to the mercenaries, in order to bring 
 them back to their duty : but, far from being foften- 
 ed, they grew more infolent upon thefe conceflions, 
 taking them for the efFeAs of fear ; and therefore 
 were altogether averfe to thoughts of accommoda- 
 tion. The Carthaginians, making a virtue of ne- 
 ctfiity, fhowed a difpofition to fatisfy them in all 
 points, and agreed to refer themfelves to the opinion 
 of fome general in Sicily, which they had all along 
 dcfired ; leaving the choice of fuch commander entire- 
 ly to them. Giico was accordingly pitched upon to 
 inediate this affair, the mercenaries believing Hamllcar 
 to have been a principal caufe of the ill treatment they 
 met with, fince he never appeared among them, and, 
 according to the general opinion, had voluntarily re- 
 figned his comraiflion. Gifco foon arrived at Tunis 
 with money to pay the troops ; and after conferring 
 with the officers of the feveral nations apart, he ha- • 
 rangued them in fuch a manner, that a treaty was 
 "Upon the point of being concluded, when Spendius and 
 Mathos, two of the principal mutineers, occafioned a 
 tumult in every part of the camp. Spendius was by 
 nation a Campanian, who had been a flave at Rome, 
 and had fled to the Carthaginians. The apprehen- 
 fions he was under of being delivered to his old maftef, 
 by whom he was fure to be hanged or crucified, 
 prompted him to break off the accom.modation. ~ Ma- 
 thos was an African, and free born ; but as he had 
 been a£live in raifing the rebellion, and vcas well ac- 
 quainted with the implacable difpofition of the Car- 
 thaginians, he knew that a peace mufl; infallibly prove 
 his ruin. He therefore joined with Spendius, and in^ 
 finuated to the Africans the danger of concluding a 
 treaty at that junfture, but which could not leave them 
 fingly expofed to the rage of the Carthaginians. This 
 fo incenfed the Africans, who were much more nu- 
 ■meroua than the troops of any other nation, that they 
 immediately aflembled in a tumultuous manner. The 
 •foreigners foon joined them, being infpircd by Spen- 
 dius with an equal degree of fury. Nothing was now 
 to be heard but the moft horrid oaths and impre- 
 cations againfl; Gifco and the Carthaginians. Who- 
 ever off^ered to make any remonfl:rance, or lend an ear 
 to temperate counfels, was ftoned to death by the en- 
 raged -multitude. Nay, marry perfons loft their lives 
 barely for attempting to fpeak, before it could be 
 known w'liether they were in the inteieil of Spendius 
 or the Carthaginians. 
 
 In the midft of thefe commotions, Gifco behaved 
 with great firmnefs and intrepidity. He left no me- 
 thods untried to foften the officers and 'calm the 
 minds of the foldiery ; but the torrent of fedltion was 
 now fo ftrong, that there was no pofiibihty of keeping 
 it within bounds. They therefore fcized upon the 
 military cheft, dividing the money among themfelves 
 in part of their arrears, put the perfon of Gifco un- 
 der an arreft, and treated him as well as his attend- 
 ants with the utmoft indignity. Mathos and Spen- 
 dius, to deftroy the reraoteft hopes of an accommo- 
 
 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 datlon with Carthage, applauded the courage and re- Carth&.ge| 
 
 folution of their men, loaded the unhappy Gifco and — | 
 
 his followers with Irons, and formally declared war , 9° » 
 . , „ , . . \ 11 1 • • f A r • 1 nemerca 
 
 againlt the Carthaginians. All the cities or Atrica^^j.jgj 
 
 to whom they had fent deputies to exhort them tOc]arewar.| 
 recover their liberty, foon came over to them, ex- *i 
 cept Utica and Hippo Diarhytus. By this means 
 their army being greatly Increafed, they divided it 
 into two parts, with one of which they moved to- 
 wards Utica, whilft the other marched to Hippo, in 
 order to befiege both places. The Carthaginians, in 
 the mean time, found themfelves ready to fink under 
 the prefliire of their misfortunes. After they had 
 been harafled 24 years by a moft cruel and deftruc- 
 tive foreign war, they entertained fome hopes of en- 
 joying repofe. The citizens of Carthage drew their 
 particular fubfiftence from the rents or revenues of 
 their lands, and the public expences from the tribute 
 paid from Africa ; all which they were not only de- 
 prived of at once, but, what was worfe, had it diretlly 
 turned againft them. They were deftltute of arms 
 and forces either by fea or land ; had made no pre- 
 parations for the fuftaining of a fiege, or the equip- 
 ping of a fleet. They fuffered all the calamities in- 
 cident to the moft ruinous civil war ; and, to com- 
 plete their mifery, had not the leaft profpeft of re- 
 ceiving afiiftance from any foreign friend or ally. 
 Notwithftanding their deplorable fituation, however, 
 they , did not defpond, but purfued all the meafure-s 
 neceflary to put themfelves into a pofture of defence. 
 Hanno was appointed commander in chief of all their 
 forces ; and the moft ftrenuous efforts were made, not 
 only to repel all the attempts of the mutineers, but e* 
 ven to reduce them by force of arms. 
 
 In the mean time Mathos and Spendius laid fiege 
 to Utica and Hippacra at once ; but as they were 
 carried on by detachments drawn from the army for 
 that purpofe, they remained with the main body of 
 their forces at Tunis, and thereby cut off all commu- 
 nication betwixt Carthage and the continent of Afri- 
 ca. By this means the capital was kept in a kind of 
 blockade. The Africans likewife harafled them by 
 perpetual alarms, advancing to the very walls of Car- 
 thage by day as well as by night, and treating with 
 the utmoft cruelty every Carthaginian that fell into 
 their hands. 
 
 Hanno was difpatched to the relief of Utica with a They are 
 good body of forces, 100 elephants, and a large ^'^f'^^^^^^ 1 
 train of battering engines. Having taken a view of ^'^^"'lO' 
 the enemy, he immediately attacked their intrench- 
 ments, and, after an obftinate difpiite, forced them. 
 The mercenaries loil a vaft number of meil ; and con- 
 fequently the advantages gained by Hanno were fo 
 great,, that they might have proved decifive, had he 
 made a proper ufe of them : But becoming fecure af- He is in I 
 ter his viftory, and his ti-oops being every where ofF'"''"deiea 
 their duty, the mercenaries, having rallied their for-^ 
 ces, fell upon him, cut off many of his men, forced the 
 reft to fly into the town, retook and plundered the 
 camp, and feized all the provifions, military ftores, &c. 
 brought to the relief of the befieged. Nor was this 
 the only inftance of Hanno's military incapacity. 
 Notwithftanding he lay encamped in the moft advanta- 
 geous manner near a town called Gorza, at which 
 place he twice overthrew the enemy, and had it in his 
 
 power 
 
 9t 
 
Carthage, 
 
 . 9.1 
 
 ^amiicar 
 Jarcas ap- 
 ointed to 
 mrnand 
 .gain ft 
 ihem. 
 
 le defeats 
 
 CAR I 20 
 
 power to have totally ruined them, he yet neglefted to 
 impirove thofe advantages, and even fuifered the mer- 
 cenaries to poflefs themfelves of the ifthmus which 
 joirjied the peninfula on which Carthage ftood, to the 
 con tinent of Africa* 
 
 Xhefe repeated miftake? induced the Carthaginians 
 onoe more to place Hamilcar Barcas at the head of 
 theur forces. He marched againft the enemy with 
 1 0,000 men, horfe and foot ; being all the troops the 
 Carthaginians could then affemble for their defence ; a 
 full proof of the low ftate to which they were at that 
 timie reduced. As Mathos, after he had poflefled 
 himifelf of the ifthmus, had ported proper detachments 
 in two paffes on two hills facing the continent, and 
 guarded the bridge over the Bngrada, which through 
 Hamno's negle£t he had taken, Hamilcar faw little 
 -prolbability of engaging him upon equal terms, or in- 
 dee(d of coming at htm. Obferving, however, that 
 on the blowing of certain winds the mouth of the ri- 
 ver was choaked up wnih fand, fo as to become paf- 
 fable, though with no fmall difficulty, as long as thefe 
 winds continued ; he halted for fome time at the 
 river's mouth, without communicating his defign to 
 any perfon. As foon as the v/ind favoured his intend- 
 ed project, he pafled the river privately by night, and 
 immediately after his paflage he drew up the troops 
 in order of battle, and advancing into the plain where 
 his elephants were capable of acting, moved towards 
 Mathos, who was pofted at the village near the 
 bridge. This daring adlion greatly furprifed and in- 
 timidated the Africans. However, Spendius recei- 
 ving intelligence of the enemy's motions, drew a bo- 
 dy of 10,000 men out of Mathos's camp, with which 
 he attended Hamilcar oh one fide, and ordered 1 5,000 
 from Utica to obferve him on the other, thinking by 
 this, means to furround the Carthaginians, and cut 
 theiTi all off at one ftroke. By feigning a retreat, 
 Hamilcar found ineans to engage them at a difadvan- 
 fage; and gave them a total overthrow, with the lofs 
 of 6000 killed and 2000 taken prifoners. The reft 
 fled, fome to the town at the bridge, and others to 
 the camp at Utica. He did not give them time to 
 recover from their defeat, but purfued them to the 
 town near the bridge before mentioned ; which he 
 entered without oppofition, the mercenaries flying in 
 great confufion to Tunis ; and upon this many towns 
 fubmitted of their own accord to the Carthaginians, 
 whilft others were reduced by force. 
 
 Notwithftanding thefe difafters, Mathos pulhed on 
 the fiege of Hippo with great vigour, and appointed 
 Spendius and Autaritus, commanders of the Gauls, with 
 a ftrong body, to obferve the motions of Hamilcar. 
 Thefe two commanders, therefore, at the head of a 
 choice detachment of 6000 men drawn out of the 
 camp at Tunis, and 2000 Gallic horfe, attended the 
 Carthaginian general, approaching him as near as 
 they could with fafety, and keeping clofe to the fkirts 
 of the mountains. At laft Spendius, having received 
 a ftrong reinforcement of Africans and Numidians, 
 ■and poflefling himfelf of all the heights furrounding 
 the plain in which Hamilcar lay encamped, refolved 
 r.ot to let flip fo favourable an opportunity of attack- 
 ing him. Had a battle now enfued, Hamilcar and 
 his army muft in all probability have been cut off; 
 
 Vou JV. Part 1. 
 
 I ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 but by the defertlon of one Naravafus, a young Nu- Carthag*. 
 
 midian nobleman, with 2600 men, he found himfelf vr— ' 
 
 enabled to offer his enemies battle. The fight was - - 95 
 obftinate and bloody ; but at laft the mercenaries were 
 
 Mercena- 
 ries agaia 
 
 entirely overthrown, with the lofs of 1 0,000 men kill- defeated, 
 ed and 4000 taken ptjfoners. All the prifoners that 
 were wiUing to inhft in the Carthaginian fervice, Ha- 
 milcar received among his troops, fupplying them with 
 the arms of the foldiers who had fallen in the engage- 
 ment. To the reft he gave full Hberty to go where 
 they pleafed ; upon condition that they ftiould never 
 for the future bear arm.s againft the Carthaginians; in- 
 forming them at the fame time, however, that as 
 many violators of this agreement as fell into his hands 
 muft expeft to find no mercy. ^5 
 
 Mathos and his aflbciates, fearing that this afFefted Tbey put ■ 
 lenity of Hamilcar might occafion a defection among '° ^^^'^^ 
 the troops, thought that the beft expedient would be-g^j^if^ "J^^ 
 to put them upon fome adtion fo execrable in its na-foners. 
 ture that no hopes of reconciliation might remain. By 
 their advice, therefore, Gifco and all the Carthagi- 
 nian prifoners were put to death ; and when Hamil- 
 car fent to demand the remains of his countrymen, he 
 received for anfwer, that whoever prefumed hereafter 
 to come upon that errand, fliould meet with Gifco's 
 fate : after which they came to a refolution to treat 
 with the fame barbarity all fuch Carthaginians as 
 fliould fall into their hands. In return for this enor- 
 mity, Hamilcar threw ah the prifoners that fell into 
 his hands to be devoured by wild beafts ; being con- 
 vinced that compaflion ferved only to make his ene- 
 mies more fierce and untraAable. 
 
 The war was now carried on generally to the ad- 
 vantage of the Carthaginians; neverthelefs, the male- 
 contents ftill found themfelves in a capacity to take 
 the field with an army of 50,000 men. They watch- 
 ed Hamilcar's motions ; but kept on the hills, care- 
 fully avoiding to come down into the plains, on ac- 
 count of the Numidian horfe and Carthaginian ele- 
 phants. Hamilcar, being much fuperior in flcill to 
 any of their generals, at laft flint them up in a poft 
 fo fituated that it was impoflible to get out of it. Here 
 he kept them ftrictly befieged : and the mercenaries^ 
 not daring to venture a battle, began to fortify their 
 camp, and furround it with ditches and intrenchments. 
 They were foon prefled by famine fo forely, that they They are 
 were obliged to eat one another: but they were driven befieged by 
 defperate by the confcioufnefs of their guilt, and there- 
 fore did not defire any terms of accommodation. At 
 lalt, being reduced to the utmoft extremity of mifery, 
 they infifted that Spendius, Autaritus, and Zarxas, 
 their leaders, fliould in perfon have a .conference with 
 Hamilcar, and make propofals to him. Peace was' 
 accordingly concluded upon the following terms, 'viz. 
 That ten of the ringleaders of the malecontents fliould 
 be left entirely to the mercy of the Carthaginians ; and 
 that the troops fliould all be difarmed, every man re- 
 tiring only in a fingle coat. The treaty was no fooner 
 concluded, than Hamilcar, by virtue of the firft article, 
 feized upon the negociators themfelves, and the army 
 being informed that tJieir chiefs were under arreft, had 
 immediately recourfe to arms, as fufpefting they were -o 
 betrayed ; but Hamilcar, drawing out his army in or- 40,000 oS 
 der of battle, furrounded them, and either cut them to them de- 
 
 C c 
 
 pieces, 
 
 ftroyed. 
 
99 
 
 Hannibal 
 taken and 
 
 GAR [20 
 
 Carthage, pieces, or trod them to death with his elephants. The 
 ^-'-~\'-^ number of wretches who perifhed on this occafion a- 
 mounted to above 40,000. 
 
 After the deftru6lion of this army, Hamilcar in- 
 vefted Tunis, whither Mathos had retired with all 
 his remaining forces. Hamilcar had another general, 
 named Hannibal, joined in the command with him. 
 Hannibal's quarter was on the road leading to Car- 
 thage, and Hamilcar's on the oppofite fide. The 
 army was no fooner encamped, than Hamilcar caufed 
 Spendius, and the reft of the prifoners, to be led out 
 in the view of the befieged, and crucified near the 
 walls. Mathos, however, obferving that Hannibal did 
 not keep fo good a guard as he ought to have done, 
 made a fally, attacked his quarters, killed many of his 
 men, took feveral prifaners, among whom was Hanni- 
 bal himfelf, and pliindered his camp. Taking the 
 crucified by body of Spendius from the crofs, Mathos immediately 
 Mathos. fubftituted Hannibal in its room ; and 30 Carthagi- 
 nian prifoners of diftindlion were crucified around him. 
 Upon this difafter, Hamilcar immediately decamped, 
 and pofted himfelf along the fea-coaft, near the mouth 
 of the river Bagrada. 
 
 The fenate, though greatly terrified by this unex- 
 pefted blow, omitted no means neceffary for their 
 prefervation. They fent 30 fenators, with Hanno 
 at their head, to confult with Hamilcar about the 
 proper meafures for putting an end to this unnatural 
 war, conjuring, in the moil preffing manner, Hanno 
 to be reconciled to Hamilcar, and to facrifice his pri- 
 vate refentment to the public benefit. This, with 
 fome difficulty, v,'as effedled ; and the two generals 
 came to a full refolution to a£l in concert for the 
 good of the pubHc. The fenate, at the fame time, 
 ordered all the youth capable of bearing arms to be 
 prefTcd into the fervice : by which means a ftrong rein- 
 100 forcement being fent to Hamilcar, he foon found him- 
 Mathos en-felf in a condition to a£l offenfively. He now defeat- 
 fe^fedl^iid enemy in all rencounters, drew Mathos into fre- 
 
 taken prl- ambufcades, and gave him one notable over- 
 
 fcncr. throw near Leptis. This reduced the rebels to the 
 neceffity of hazarding a decifive battle, which proved 
 fatal to them. The mercenaries fled almoft at the firft 
 onfet ; moft of their army fell in the field of battle, 
 and In the purfuit. Mathos, with a few, efcaped to a 
 Reighbouring town, where he was taken alive, carried 
 to Carthage, and executed ; and then, by the reduc- 
 tion of the revolted cities, an end was put to this war, 
 which, from the excelTes of cruelty committed in it, 
 according to Polybius, went among the Greeks by the 
 l»me of the inexpiable tvar. 
 
 During the Lyblan war, the Romans, upon fome 
 abfurd pretences, wrefted the IfTand of Sardinia from 
 the Carthaginians ; which the latter, not being able to. 
 Hamilcar's refift, were obliged to fubmit to. Hamilcar finding 
 fcheme to feis country not in a coudition to enter into an imme- 
 «qual Car- diate war with Rome, formed a fcheme to put it on a 
 Rome^"*^ level with that haughty republic. This was by making 
 an entire conquell of Spain, by which means the Car- 
 thaginians might have troops capable of coping with 
 tlie Romans. In order to facilitate the execution of 
 this fcheme, he infpired both his fon-in-law Afdrubal, 
 and his fon Hannibal, with an implacable averfion to 
 the Romans, as the great oppofers of his country's 
 grandeur. Having completed all the necelTary prepa- 
 
 1 
 
 CAR 
 
 rations, Hamilcar, after having greatly enlarged the Carth'.ge. 
 Carthaginian dominions in Africa, entered Spain, » — ' 
 where he commanded nine years, during which time 
 he fubdued many warlike nations, and amafled an im- 
 menfe quantity of treafure, which he diftributed partly 
 amongft his troops, and partly amongft the great men 
 at Carthage ; by which means he fupported his interefts 
 with thefe two powerful bodies. At laft, he was 
 killed in a battle, and was fucceeded by his fon-in-law His deatli. 
 Afdrubal. This general fully anfvvered the expedla- 
 tions of his countrymen ; greatly enlarged their do- 
 minions in Spain ; and built the city of New Carthage, 
 now Carthagena. He made fuch progrefs In his con- 
 quefts, that the Romans began to grow jealous. They 
 did not, however, choofe at prefent to come to an open 
 rupture, on account of the apprehenfions they were 
 under of an invafion from the Gauls. They judged 
 It moft proper, therefore, to have recourfe to milder 
 methods ; and prevailed upon Afdrubal to conclude a Afdrubal's 
 new treaty with them. The articles of it were, '""^^'y ^itii 
 
 1 . That the Carthaginians fiiould not pafs the Iberus. ^^an^'^' 
 
 2. That the Saguntines, a colony of Zacynthians, and 
 a city fituated between the Iberus and that part of 
 Spain fubjeft to the Carthaginians, as well as the other 
 Greek colonies there, fhould enjoy their ancient rights 
 
 and privileges. ^04 
 
 Afdrubal, after having governed the Carthaginian He is mur- 
 dominions In Spain for eight years, was treacheroufly '^'^"'^'i* 
 murdered by a Gaul whofe mafter he had put to death. 
 Three years before this happened, he had written to 
 Carthage, to defire that young Hannibal, then twenty- 
 two years of age, might be fent to him. This requeft 
 was complied with, notwithftanding the oppofition of 
 Hanno ; and from the firft arrival of the young man 
 in the camp, he became the darling of the whole army. 
 The great refemblance he bore to Hamilcar, rendered 
 him extremely agreeable to the troops. Every talent 
 and qualification he feemed to poflefs that can con- 
 tribute towards forming a great man. After the 
 death of Afdrubal, he was faluted general by the 
 army with the higheft demonftratlons of joy. He Im- Succeeded 
 mediately put himfelf in motion: and. In the firft by Haimi- 
 campaign, conquered the Olcades, a nation feated near|^^^,^^^J^^^j^ 
 the Iberus. The next year he fubdued the Vaccael, ^.Q^quefts 
 another nation in that neighbourhood. Soon after, in Stjaiiu 
 the Carpa;tani, one of the moft powerful nations in 
 Spain, decJared againft the Carthaginians. Their ar» 
 my^onfifted of 100,000 men, with which they pro^ 
 pofed to attack Hannibal on his return from the 
 Vaccaei j but by a ftratagem they were utterly defeat- 
 ed, and the whole nation obliged to fubmit. 
 
 Nothing now remained to oppofe the progrefs of 
 the Carthaginian arms but the city of Saguntum. 
 Hannibal, however, for fome time, did not think pro- 
 per to come to a rupture with the Romans by attack- 
 ing that place. At laft he found means to embroil 
 fome of the neighbouring cantops, efpecially the Tur- 
 detani, or, as Applan calls them, the Torboleta^ with He attacks 
 the Saguntines, and thus furnifhed himfelf with a pre Saguntum^ 
 tence to attack their city. Upon the commencement 
 of the fiege, the Roman fenate difpatched two am- 
 baffadors to Hannibal, vrith orders to proceed to Car- 
 thage In cafe tlie general refufed to give them fatisfac— 
 tion. They were fcarce landed, when Hannibal, who< 
 was carrying on the fiege of Saguntunj with great. 
 S vigour,. 
 
CAR 
 
 107 
 
 T08 
 
 Jart^age. vigour, fent them word that he had fomething elfe to 
 do) than to give audience to ambafladors. At laft, 
 however, he admitted them ; and, in anfwer to their 
 remonftrances, told them, that the Saguntines had 
 dr awn their misfortunes upon themfelves, by commit- 
 ting hoftilitits againft the allies of Carthage ; and at 
 th e fame time defired the deputies, if they had any 
 co)mplaints to make of him, to carry them to the fe- 
 naite of Carthage. On their arrival in that capital, 
 th.ey demanded that Hannibal might be delivered up 
 tO' the Romans to be puniflied according to his deferts ; 
 anid this not being complied with, war was immedi- 
 ately declared between the two nations. 
 
 The Saguntines are faid to have defended the- - 
 fe.lves for eight months with incredible braveiy. At 
 Andiakes ^^-^t however, the city was taken, and the inhabitants 
 were treated with the utmoft cruelty. After this con- 
 queft, Hannibal put his African troops into winter- 
 quarters at New Carthage ; but in order to gain their 
 affedlion, he permitted the Spaniards to retire to their 
 rei^eftive homes. 
 
 The next campaign, having taken the neceffary 
 meafures for fecuring Africa and Spain, he pafTed the 
 Iberus, fubdued all the nations betwixt that river and 
 the Pyrenees, appointed Hanno commander of all the 
 e i'ets out new conquered diftrift, and immediately began his 
 r Italy, miarch for Italy. Upon muftering his forces, after 
 they had been weakened by fieges, defertion, morta- 
 lity, and a detachment of 10,000 foot and icoo horfe 
 left with Hanno to fupport him in his new poft, he 
 fo)und them to amount to 50,000 foot and 9000 horfe, 
 all veteran troops, and the beft in the world. As 
 they had left their heavy baggage with Hanno, and 
 wiere all light armed, Hannibal eafily crofTed the Py- 
 renees ; pafled by Rufcino, a frontier town of the 
 Gauls; and arrived on the banks of the Rhone with- 
 out oppofition. This river he pafTed, notwithftand- 
 ing of fome oppofition from the Gauls ; and was for 
 fome time in doubt whether he (hould advance to en- 
 gage the Romans, who, under Scipio, were bending 
 their march that way, or continue his march for Italy. 
 But to the latter he was foon determined by the ar- 
 rival of Magilus prince of the Boii, who brought rich 
 prefents with him, and offered to condu£t the Cartha- 
 ginian army over the Alps. Nothing could have hap- 
 pened more favourable to Hannibal's affairs than the 
 arrival of this prince, fince there was no room to doubt 
 the fincerity of his intentions. For the Boii bore an 
 innplacable enmity to the Romans, and had even come 
 to an open rupture with them upon the firil news that 
 Italy was threatened with an invafion from the Car- 
 thaginians. 
 
 It is not known with certainty where Hannibal 
 began to afcend the Alps. As foon as he began his 
 march, the petty kings of the country affembled their 
 forces in great numbers ; and taking poffeflion of the 
 eminences over which the Carthaginians muft neceffa- 
 rily pafs, they continued harafling them, and were no 
 fooner driven from one eminence than they felzed on 
 another, difputing every foot of land with the enemy, 
 and deflroying great numbers of them by the advan- 
 tage they had of the ground. Hannibal, however, 
 having found means to poffefs himfelf of an advanta- 
 geous pofl, defeated and difperfed the enemy ; and 
 foon after took their capital city, where he found the 
 
 [ J 
 
 CAR 
 
 109 
 
 Ffe crofles 
 he Alps. 
 
 prifoners, horfes, Sec. that had before fallen into the Carthage* 
 han^ds of the enemy, and likewlfe corn fufncient to v— 
 ferve the army for three days. At laft, after a moil 
 fatiguing march of nine days, he arrived at the top of 
 the mountains. Here he encamped, and halted two 
 days, to give his wearied troops fome repofe, and to 
 wait for the ftragglers. As the fnow was lately fallen 
 in great plenty, and covered the ground, this fight ter- 
 rified the Africans and Spaniards, who were much af- 
 fefted with the coldi In order therefore to encourage 
 them, the Carthaginian general led them to the top of 
 the higheft rock on the fide of Italy, and thence gave 
 them a view of the large and fruitful plains of Infu- 
 bria, acquainting them that the Gauls, whofe country 
 they faw, were ready to join them. He ahb pointed 
 out to them the place whereabout Rome ftood, telKngf 
 them, that by climbing the Alps, they had fcaled the 
 walls of that rich metropolis ; and having thus anima- 
 ted his troops, he decamped, and began to defcend the 
 mountains. The difficulties they met with In their 
 defcent were much greater than thofe that had occur- 
 red while they afcended. They had indeed no enemy 
 to contend with, except fome fcattered parties that came 
 to fteal rather than to fight ; but the deep fnows, the 
 mountains of ice, craggy rocks, and frightful preci- 
 pices, proved more terrible than any enemy. After they 
 had for fome days marched through narrow, fleep, and 
 flippery ways, they came at laft to a place which nei- 
 ther elephants, horfes, nor men, could pafs. The way 
 which lay between two precipices was exceeding nar- 
 row ; and the declivity, which v/as very fteep, had be- 
 come more dangerous by the falling away of the 
 earth. Here the guides flopped ; and the whole ar- 
 my being terrified, Hannibal propofed at firft to march 
 round about, and attempt fome other way : but all 
 places round him being covered with fnow, he found 
 himfelf reduced to the neceffity of cutting a way into 
 the rock itfelf, through which his men, horfes, and 
 elephants, might defcend. This work was accom- 
 plifhed with Incredible labour; and then Hannibal^ 
 having fpent nine days in afcending, and fix In de- 
 fcending, the Alps, gained at length Infubria ; and, 
 notwithftanding all the difafters he had met with by 
 the way, entered the country with all the boldnefs of 
 a conqueror. 
 
 Hannibal, on his entry Into Infubria, reviewed his 
 army, when he found that of the 50,000 foot with 
 whom he fet out from New Carthage five months and 
 15 days before, he had now but 20,000, and that his 
 9000 horfe were reduced to 6000. PIIs firft care, 
 after he entered Italy, was to refrefa his troops ; who 
 after fo long a march, and fuch Inexpreffible hard- 
 fhips, looked like as many flceletons raifed from the 
 dead, or favages born in a defert. He did not, how- 
 ever, fuffer them to languifh long In idlenefs ; but, 
 joining the Infubrlans, who were at war with thcTaurinum 
 Taurlnians, laid fiege to Taurlnum, the only city in taken, 
 the country, and in three days time became matter of 
 it, putting all who refifted to the fword. This ftruck 
 the neighbouring barbarians with fuch terror, that of 
 their own accord they fubniltted to the conqueror, and 
 fupplied his army with all forts of provifions. 
 
 Scipio, the Roman general, In the mean time, who 
 had gone in queft of Hannibal on the banks of the 
 Rhone, was furprlfed to find his antagonift had crof- 
 C c i ed 
 
CAR [ 204 ] 
 
 Caf thagc. fed the Alps and entered Italy. He therefore return- viaory 
 ed with the utmoft expedition. An engagement en- 
 fued near the river Ticinus. in which the Romans 
 were defeated. The immediate confequence was, that 
 Scipio repaired that river, and Hannibal continued his 
 -march to the banks of the Po. IrTere he ftaid two 
 
 CAR 
 
 Hannibiil in the mean time kept on, ftiH Carthage.' 
 advancing towards Rome, having Cortona on the 
 left hand, and the lake Thrafymenus on the right ; 
 and at lalt, having drawn Flaminius into an ambu- 
 fcade, entirely defeated him. The general hiinfelf, 
 with 15,000 of his men, fell on the field of battle. 
 
 days; before he could crofs that river over a bridge of A great number were likewife taken prifoners, and 
 
 They are a 
 gain defeat 
 ed. 
 
 boats. He then fent Mago in purfuit of the enemy, 
 who having rallied their fcattered forces, and repafled 
 the Po, were encamped at Placentia. Afterwards 
 having concluded a treaty with feveral of the Gallic 
 cantons, he joined his brother with the reft of the 
 army, and again offered battle to the Romans : but 
 this they thought proper to decline ; and at laft the 
 conful, being intimidated by the defertion of a body 
 of Gauls, abandoned his camp, pafTed the Trebia, and 
 pofted himfelf on an eminence near that river. Here 
 he drew lines round his camp, and waited the arrival 
 of his colleague with the forces from Sicily. 
 
 Hannibal being apprifed of the conful's departure, 
 fent out the Numidian horfe to harafs him on his 
 march ; himfelf moving with the main body to fup- 
 port them in cafe of need. The Numidians arriving 
 before the rear of the Roman army had quite paf- 
 fed the Trebia, put to the fword or made prifoners 
 all the ftragglers they found there. Soon after, Han- 
 nibal coming up, encamped in fight of the Roman 
 army, on the oppofite bank. Here having learned 
 •the character of the conful Sempronius lately arrived, 
 he foon brought him to an engagement, and entirely 
 
 a body of 6000 men, who had fled to a town in Etru-- 
 ria, furrendered to Maherbal the next day. Hanni- 
 bal loll only 1 500 men on this occafion, moft of 
 whom were Gauls ; though great numbers, both of 
 his foldiers and of the Romans, died of their wounds.- 
 Being foon after informed that the conful Servilius had A Roman ■ 
 detached a body of 4000, or, according to Appian, ^''^'■^-'I'^tn 
 8000 horfe from Ariminum, to reinforce his colleague ^j'^^^^^ 
 in Etruria, Hannibal fent out Maherbal, with all the taken, 
 cavalry, and fome of the infantry, to attack him. 
 The Roman detachment confifted of chofen men, and 
 was commanded by Centenius a Patrician. Maher- 
 bal had the good fortune to meet with him, and after 
 a fhort difpute entirely defeated him. Two thoufand 
 of the Romans were laid dead on the fpot ; the reft,, 
 retiring to a neighbouring eminence, were, furround-^ 
 ed by Maherbal's forces, and obliged next day to fur- 
 render at difcretion ; and this difafter, happenings 
 within a few days after the defeat at the lake Thrafy- 
 menus, almoft gave the finifhing ftroke to the Roman 
 affairs. 
 
 The Carthaginian army was now fo much troubled, 
 with a fcorbutic diforder, owing to the unwholefome 
 
 defeated him. Ten thoufand of the enemy retired encampments they had been obliged to make, and 
 to Placentia ; but the reft were either killed or taken the moralfes they had pafTed through, that Hanmbal 
 
 3x3 
 They are 
 litter! y de- 
 feated near 
 the lake 
 Thrafyme- 
 nus. 
 
 found it abfolutely neceffary to repofe them for fome 
 time in the territory of Adria, a moll pkalanl and 
 fertile country. In his various engagements, v/itli the. 
 Romans, he had taken a great number of their arms^ 
 with which he nov/ armed his men after the Roman- 
 manner. Being now Hkewife mafter of that part of 
 the country bordering on the fea, he found means to. 
 fend an exprefs to Carthage with the news of tb?; glo- ■ 
 rious progrcfs of his arras. The citizens received 
 this news with the moft joyful acclamations, at the 
 fame time coming to a refolution to reiirforx;e their ar- 
 mies both in Italy and Spain with a proper number of 
 troops. 
 
 The Romans- being now in the utmoft confterna- Fahius M- 
 tion, named a dictator, as was their cuftom in times ^'^^'^^.'^-^ 
 of great danger. The pcrfon they-chofe to this of- j.^^.^ 
 fice was Fabius Maximus, furnamed Verrucofus ; a. 
 man as cool and cautious as Sempronius and Flaminius; 
 were warm and impetuous. He fet out with a defign 
 
 prifoners. The Carthaginians purfued the flying Ro- 
 mans as far as the Trebia, but did not think pro- 
 per to repafs that river on account of the exceffive cold. 
 
 Hannibal, after this aftion upon the Trebia, or- 
 dered the Numidians, Celtiberians, and Luhtanians, 
 to make ineurfions into the Roman territories, where 
 they committed great dcvaftationsi . During his ftate 
 of inaftion, he endeavoured to win the-affeftions of 
 the Gauls, and Hkewife of the allies of the Romans ; 
 declaring to the Gallic and Itahan prifoners, tliat he 
 had no intention of making war upon them, being 
 determined to reftore them to their liberty, and pro- 
 ted them againft the Romans : and to confirm them 
 in their good opinion of him, he- difmifled them all 
 without ranfom. 
 
 Next year, having Grofled the Apennines, and pe* 
 netrated intt) Etruria, Hannibal received intelligence 
 that the new conful Flaminius lay encamped with 
 
 the Roman army under the walls of Arretium. Ha- _ , l. ■ • 
 
 ving learned the true charader of this general, that not to engage Hannibal, but only to watch his motions, 
 he was of an haughty, fierce, and rafli difpofition, he and cut off his provifions,;which he knew was the moft 
 doubted not of being foon able to bring him to a proper way to deftroy him in a country fo iar from 
 battle. To inflame the impetuous fpirit of Flami- his own. Accordingly he followed him through Urn-; 
 nius, the Carthaginian general took the road to Rome,, bria and Picenum, into the territory ol Adna, and 
 and, leavincr the Roman army behind him, deftroyed then through the territories of the Marrucini and Fren-, 
 all the country through which he pafl'ed with fire and tani into Apulia. When the enemy marched,, he fol-; 
 fword ; and as that part of Italy abounded with all lowed them ; when they encamped, he did the. fame ; 
 the elegancies as well as necefl"ar-ies of life, tiie Ro- but for the moft part on eminence's, and at fome dif-. 
 mans and their allies fuffered an incredible lofs on tance from their camp, watcliing all their motions,, 
 this occafion. The rafh conful was inflamed with cutting off their ftragglers, and keeping them in a con-, 
 the utmoft rage on feeing the ravages committed by tinual alarm. This cautious method of proceeding, 
 the Carthaginians ; and therefore immediately ap- greatly diftreffed the Carthaginians, but at the fama 
 prouched tbem with great temerity, as if certain of time- raifcd difcoiatents in hi& own army. Butiieith^x 
 
CAR r 
 
 th'efe difcontents, nor the ravages committed by Han- 
 nibal, could prevail upon Fabius to alter his meafures. 
 The former, therefore, entered Campania, one of the 
 fineft countries of Italy. The ravages he committed 
 there, raifed fuch complaints in the Roman army, that 
 the diftator, for fear of irritating his foldiers, was 
 obliged to pretend a defire of coming to an engage- 
 ment. Accordingly he followed Hannibal with more 
 expe dition than ufual ; but at the fame time avoided, 
 under various pretences, an engagement with more 
 care than the enemy fought it. Hannibal finding he 
 could not by any means bring the diftator to a battle, 
 refolved to quit Campania, which he found abound- 
 ing more with fruit and wine than corn, and to re- 
 turn to Samnium through the pafs called Eribanus. 
 Fab£us concluding from his march that this was his 
 defi^n, got there before him, and encamped on Mount 
 Callicula, which commanded tlie pafs, after having 
 placed feveral bodies in all the avenues leading to 
 it. 
 
 Hannibal was for fome time at a lofs what to do ; 
 but at laft contrived the following ftratagem, which 
 Fabius could not foi efee nor guard againft. Being 
 encamped at the foot of Mount Callicula, he ordered 
 Afdrubal to pick out of the cattle taken in the coun- 
 try, 2000 of the ftrongeft and nimbleft oxen, to tie 
 faggots to their horns, and to have them and the 
 herdfmeu ready without the camp. After fupper, 
 when all was quiet, the cattle were brought in good 
 order to the hill, where Fabius had placed fome Ro- 
 man parties in arabufh tcT Hop up the pafs. Upon a. 
 lignal given, the faggots on the horns of the oxen 
 were fet on fire ; and the herdfmen, fuppoited by 
 fome battalions. armed with fmall javelins, drove them 
 on quietly. The Romans feeing the light of the 
 fires, imagined that the Carthaginians were marching 
 by torch-light. However, Fabius kept clofe in his 
 camp, depfending on the troops he had placed in am- 
 bufcade ; but when the oxen, feeling the fire on their 
 heads, began to run, up and down the hills, the Ro- 
 mans in ambuili thinking themfelves furrounded on all 
 fides, and climbing the ways where they faw leall 
 light, returned to their camp leaving the pafs. open to 
 Hannibal. Fabius, though ralHed by his foldiers for 
 being thus over-reached by the Carthaginian, ftill con- 
 tinued to purfue the fame plan, marched direftly after 
 Hannibal, and encamped on fome eminences near 
 him. 
 
 Soon after this, the diftator was recalled to Rome ; 
 and as Hannibal, notwithltanding the terrible ravages 
 he had committed, had all along fpared the lands of 
 Fabius, the latter was fufpeAed of holding a fecret cor.- 
 rcfpondence with the enemy. In his abfence, Minu- 
 cius, the general of the horfe, gained fome advantages, 
 which greatly tended to increafe the difcontent with 
 the dictator, infomuch that before his return Minur 
 cius was put upon an equal footing with himfelf. The 
 general of the horfe propofed that each Ihould com- 
 mand his day ; but the diftator chofe rather to divide 
 the army, hoping by that means to fave atleaft a part 
 iiiuciusin^^ it. Hannibal foon found means to draw Minucius 
 at dan- to an engagement, and, by his mafterly fliill in laying 
 > '■e- ambufhes, the Roman general was furrounded on tive- 
 )iir^^ ry fide, and would have been cut off with all his troops, 
 had not Fabius. haftened to his aliiftanccj aad relieved 
 
 205 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 him. Then the two armies uniting, advanced in good Carthage. 
 
 order to renew the fight : but Hannibal, not caring ' ' 
 
 to venture a fecond adion, founded a retreat, and re- 
 tired to his camp ; and Minucius, being afhamed of 
 his rafhnefs, refigned the command of the army to 
 Fabius. 
 
 118 
 
 The year following, the Rom.ans augmented their The Ro- 
 army to 87,000 men,, horfe and foot; and Hannibal m^^"' ^'t'fP" 
 being reduced to the greatell flraits for want of pro- defeated 
 yilions, v^lolved to leave Samnium, and penetrate ' 
 into the heart of Apulia. Accordingly he decamped 
 in the night ; and by leaving fires burning, and tents 
 Handing in his camp, made the . Romans' beHeve for 
 fome time that his retreat was only feigned. V/hen 
 the truth was difcovered, ^milius was againft pur- 
 fuing him : but Terentius, contrary to the opinion of 
 all the officers in the army, except the proconful Ser- 
 vilius, was obftinatcly bent on following the enemy ; 
 and overtook them at Cannae, till tliis time an obfcure' 
 village in Apuha*. A battle enfued in this place, as * See Ca«^ - 
 memorable as any mentioned in hittory ; in which the.'"** 
 Romans, though ahnoft double in number to the Car- 
 thaginians, were put to flight with mofl; terrible llaugh- 
 ter ; at leall 45,000 of them being left dead on the 
 field of battle, and 10,000 taken priloners in the aftion 
 or purfuit. The night was fpent in Hainiibal's camp 
 in feaiting and rejoicings, and next day in ftripping 
 the dead bodies of the uniiappy Romans ; alter which 
 the vidtorious general in vefted .their two camps, where 
 he found 4000 men. 
 
 The immediate confequence of this vidory, as Han^ConSuen^. 
 nibal had forefeen, was a difpofition of that part of I- ces of th» 
 taly called the Old province, Magna Grecia, Tarcn-viiilory^ 
 tum, and part of the territory of Capua, to fubmit to 
 him. The neighbouring provinces hkewife ^difcovered 
 an incliuation to fhake off the Roman yoke, but want-- 
 ed firft to fee whether Hannibal was able to protctl; 
 them. His firft march was into Samnium, being in- 
 formed that the Hirpini and other neighbouring na- 
 tions were difpofed to enter into an alliance with the 
 Carthaginians. He advanced to Compfa, which opened 
 its gates to him. In this place he left his heavy bag- 
 gage, as well as the immcnfe plunder he had ac 
 quired. After which he ordered his brother Mago 
 with a body of troops deftined for that purpofe to pof- 
 fefs himfelf of all the fortreffes in Campania, the mofl 
 delicious province of Italy. The humanity Hannibal 
 had all along fhown the Italian prifoners, as well as 
 the fame of the complex vidtory he had lately obtain- 
 ed, wrought fo powerfully upon the Lucani, Brutii, 
 and Apuhans, that they expreffed an eager defire of 
 being taken under his procedlion. Nay, even the 
 Campanians themfelves, a nation m.ore obliged to the 
 Romans than any in Italy, except the l.atins, difco- 
 vered an inchnation to -abandon their natural friends. 
 Of this the Carthaginian general receiving intelligence, capuffub»^ 
 he bent his- march towards Capua, not doubting, butmitiito 
 tliat,, by means of the popular fadfion there, he fhould HannibaL- 
 eafiiy make himfelf mafler of it ; which accordingly 
 happened. Soon after this place had made its fub- 
 million, many cities of the Brutii opened their gates 
 to Hannibal, who ordered his brother Mago to take 
 poffefiion of _ them. Mago was then difpatched to 
 Carthage, with the important news of the victory at 
 Canna, and the confcquences attending iL Upor. 
 
GAR t 206 1 CAR 
 
 Oerthage. his arrival there, he acquainted the fenatc, that Hanni- 20,000 foot and 4000 hotfe there. Had this ample CartTiage, 
 
 bal had defeated fix Roman generals, four of whom fapply been fent with proper expedition, it is by no v '■' 
 were confuls, one diftator, and the other general of means probable that the Romans would have had any 
 horfe to the diftator : that he had engaged fix con- occafion to refleft upon Hannibal's conduft at Capua. 
 
 That general would undoubtedly have obliged the 
 haughty republic to fubmit to the fupcrior force of hia 
 arms the next campaign. But, notwithftanding the 
 influence of the Barcinian faftion at Carthage, Hanno 
 and his adherents found means not only to retard the 
 march of the fupplies intended, but even to diminirtl 
 
 fular armies, killed two confuls, wounded one, and 
 driven another out of the field with fcarce 50 men to 
 attend him: that he had routed the general of the 
 horfe, who was of equal power with the confuls ; and 
 that the dictator was edeemed the only general fit to 
 command an army, merely becaufe he had not the 
 
 courage to engage him ; and as a demonftrative proof their number. Mago, through the artifices of that 
 
 Hannibal 
 fuperior to 
 every other 
 general 
 mentioned 
 ia hiftory. 
 
 »i3 
 
 Caufe of 
 the decline 
 of his af- 
 fairs. 
 
 of whAt he advanced, he produced, according to fome 
 authors, three bafliels and an half of gold rings, taken 
 from knights and fenators who had been killed in the 
 various engagements. 
 
 Hitherto we have feen Hannibal furprifingly vlflo- 
 rious ; and, Indeed, if we confider what he had already 
 done, we (hall find his exploits fuperior to thole of 
 any other general, either ancient or modern. Ocher 
 commanders have been celebrated for viftories gained 
 over barbarous and uncivilized nations. Alexander 
 the Great invaded and over-ran the empire of Perfia ; 
 but that kingdom was then funk in floth and effemi- 
 nacy, fo as to be an eafy conqueft : but had the 
 great commander turned his arms againil the weftern 
 nations, who were of a more martial difpofition, it is 
 more than probable he had not conquered fo eafily. 
 Hannibal, on the other hand, lived at a time when 
 the Romans Vere not only the moll powerful, but the 
 molt warlike nation in the whole wprld. That nation 
 he attacked with an army of only 26,000 men, with- 
 out refourccs either for recruits, money, or provi- 
 Tions, except what he could procure in the enemies 
 country. With thefe he had for three years refilled 
 the Roman armies, which had been hitherto invinci- 
 ble by all other nations. Their armies had been com- 
 manded by generals of dilferent tempers, difpofitions, 
 and abilities : the lofles they fuftained are by the 
 Roman writers Imputed to the faults of the generals 
 themfelves ; but experience had abundantly Ihown, 
 that thefe commanders, with all their faults, were able 
 to conquer the moft warlike nations, when command- 
 ed by another than Hannibal. In the battleb fought 
 with the Romans he had deftroyed 200,000 of their 
 men, and taken 50,000 prifonera; yet from the time 
 of the battle of Cannse, the affairs of this great man 
 totally declined. The reafon of this Is, by the Roman 
 hlftorians, faid to be, that when he put his army into 
 winter-quarters in Capua, he fo enervated himfelf and 
 his army by debaucheries in that place, that he be- 
 came no longer capable of coping with the Roman 
 forces. But this feems by no means to have been the 
 cafe ; for the Roman hlftorians themfelves own, that, 
 after the battle of Cannas, he gave their armies many 
 and terrible defeats, and took a great number of towns 
 in their fight. 
 
 The true reafon of that reverfe of fortune which 
 Hannibal now experienced, was his not having luf- 
 Eclent refources for recruiting his army. On the firft 
 news, indeed, of his fuccefs at Carthage, a body of 
 4000 Numidian cavalry, 40 elephants, and loco talents 
 of filver, were granted by the fenate. A large de- 
 tachment of Spanilh forces was alfo appointed to fol- 
 low them ; and that thefe laft might be ready in due 
 time, Mago fet out immediately for Spain to raife 
 
 infatuated party, could obtain an order for only 
 12,000 foot and 250c horfe, and even with this incon- 
 fiderable body of troops he was fent Into Spain. Han- 
 nibal being thus deferted by his country, found him- 
 felf obhged to a6l on the defenfive ; his army amount- 
 ing to no more now than 26,000 foot and 9000 horfe. 
 But though obliged to aft in this manner, he was 
 only hindered from conquering ; the utmoft efforts of 
 the whole Roman power not being able to drive this 
 fmall army out of Italy for more than 14 years. j^^- 
 
 The Romans, though greatly reduced, were not Meafures 
 yet exhaufted. They were able Hill to fend two con- taken by 
 fular armies into the field, fully recruited and in good*^^^ 
 order ; and as neither the Gauls nor Italians were na-"*'^'^*" 
 tural allies of the Carthaginians, they did not fail to 
 abandon them on the firft reverfe of fortune. After 
 the Romans had recovered from the confternatlon in- 
 to which they were thrown by the defeat at Cannae, 
 tliey chofe a dictator, and recalled Marcellus, the con- 
 queror of Syracuie, from Sicily. All the young Ro- 
 mans, above 17 years of age, of what rank foever, 
 were obliged to inlift themfelves ; as were alfo thofe 
 who had already fcrved their legal time. By this means 
 four legions and 1 0,000 horfe were foon raifed in the 
 city. The allies of Rome, the colonics, and the mu- 
 nicipla, furnifhed the contingence as ufual. To thefe 
 were added 8000 of the youngeft and ftrongeft flaves 
 in the city. The republic purchafed them of their 
 matters, but did not oblige them to ferve without their 
 own confent, which they gave, by anfwering F'ohf 
 *• I am willing whence they were called wlones, to ■» 
 dlftlngullh them from the other troops. As the Ro- 
 mans, after the lofs of fo many battles, had no fwords, 
 darts, or bucklers, left In their magazines, the volones 
 were fupplled with the arms which had been formerly 
 taken from the enemy, and hung up in the public 
 temples and porticoes. The finances of Rome were 
 no lefs exhaufted ; but this defeft was fupplled by the 
 liberality of her citizens. The fenators (bowing the ex- 
 ample, were followed firft by the knights, and after- 
 wards by all the tribes ; who ftripping themfelves of 
 all the gold they had, brought it to the public trea- 
 fury. The fenators only referved their rings, and the 
 bulla about their childrens necks. As for the filver 
 coin, it was now, for the firft time, alloyed with cop- 
 per, and increafed in its value. Thus the finances 
 were put into a good condition, and a competent army 
 raifed. 
 
 This was plainly the laft effort the Romans could 
 make ; and could Hannibal have procured a fufficlent 
 fupply of men and money to enable him to cope with 
 this army, and to break it as he had done the others 
 before, there could have been no more refiftance made 
 oil their part. He began> however, to be in want of 
 
 money • 
 
»f peace. 
 
 ia6 
 
 Afdrubal 
 
 mans 
 Spain, 
 
 CAR [2 
 
 Carthige. money ; and to procure it, gave the Roman prifoners 
 '> leave to redeem themfelves. Thefe unhappy men a- 
 greed to fend ten of their body to Rome to negociate 
 125 their redemption ; and Hannibal required no other fe- 
 riiey refufe curit.y for their return but their oath. Carthalo was 
 to treat c^^^f aj- jj^g head of them to make propofals of peace ; 
 
 but upon the firft news of his arrival, the didlator fent 
 a liftor to him, commanding him immediately to de- 
 part the Roman territory ; and it was refolved not to 
 redeem the captives. Upon this Hannibal fent the 
 moft confiderable of them to Carthage ; and of the 
 reft he made gladiators, obliging them to fight with 
 one another, even relations with relations, for the en- 
 tertainment of his troops. 
 
 All this time Cjielus and Publius Sclpio had car- 
 defeated by ried on the war in Spain with great fuceefs agalnft 
 the Ro- Carthaginians. Afdrubal had been ordered to en- 
 
 ter Italy with his army to aflift Hannibal ; but being 
 defeated by the Romans, was prevented. The dila- 
 tor and fenate of Rome, encouraged by this news, 
 carried on the preparations for the next campaign 
 with the greateft vigour, whilft Hannibal remained in- 
 aftive at Capua. This inaflion, however, feems to 
 have proceeded from his expeftatlon of fuccours from 
 Africa, which never came, and which delay occafioned 
 his ruin. The Roman diftator now releafed from 
 prifon all criminals, and perfons confined for debt, 
 who were willing to inlift themfelves. Of thefe he 
 formed a body of 6000 foot, armed with the broad 
 fwords and bucklers formerly taken from the Gauls. 
 Then the Roman army, to the number of about 
 25,000 men, marched out of the city, under the com- 
 » Hiand of the dlAator ; while Marcellus kept the re- 
 
 mains of Varro's army, amounting to about 15,000 
 men, at Cafillnum, in readinefs to march whenever 
 there fhould be occafion. 
 
 Thus the Roman forces were ftlU fuperlor to thofe 
 of Hannibal ; and as they now faw the neceffity of 
 following the example of Fabius Maximus, no engage- 
 ment of any confequence happened the firft year after 
 the battle of Cannae. Hannibal made a fruitlefs at- 
 137 tempt upon Nola, expefting it would be delivered up 
 iiTarcellus to him ; h&t this was prevented by Marcellus, who had 
 airi5 an ad- entered that city, and fallying unexpcftedly from three 
 irer Hanrii- S^^^^ "P°" Carthaginians, obhged them to retire 
 lal. in great confufion, with the lofs of 5000 men. This 
 
 was the firft advantage that had been gained by the 
 Romans where Hannibal had commanded in perfon, 
 and raifed the fpirits of the former not a little. They 
 were, however, greatly dejefted, on hearing that the 
 confol Pofthumlus Alblnus, with his whole army, had 
 been cut off by the Boli, as he was crolTing a foreft. 
 Upon this it was refolved to draw all the Roman for- 
 ces out of Gaul and other countries, and turn them 
 agalnft Hannibal ; fo that the Carthaginian ftood daily 
 more and more in need of thofe fuppHes, which yet 
 never arrived from Carthage. He reduced, however, 
 the cities of Nuceria, Cafillnum, Petelia, Confentla, 
 Croton, Locri, and feveral others in Great Greece, 
 before the Romans gained any advantage over him, ex- 
 cept that before Nola already mentioned. The Cam- 
 panians^ who had efpoufed the Carthaginian intereft, 
 raifed an army of 14,000 of their own nation in fa- 
 vour of Hannibal, and put one Marlus Alfius at the 
 head o£ it ; but he was furgrifed by the conful Sem- 
 
 07 ] CAR 
 
 pronius, who defeated and killed him, with 2000 of C'^rfhage. 
 his men. It was now found, that Hannibal had con- ' 
 eluded a treaty of alliance, ofFenfive and defenfive, with 
 Philip king of Macedon ; but to prevent any diftur- 
 bance from that quarter, a Roman army was fent to ,29 
 Macedon. Soon after this Marcellus defeated Han- He is <!e- 
 nibal in a pitched battle, having armed his men with f-^^'ef' ''y 
 long pikes ufed generally at fca, and chiefly in board- 
 ing of (hips ; by which means the Carthaginians were 
 pierced through, while they were totally unable to 
 hurt their adverfaries with the fiiort javelins they car- 
 ried. Marcellus purfued them clofe; and, before they 
 got to their camp, killed 5000, and took 6co pri- 
 foners ; lofing himfelf about 1000 men, who were trod 
 down by the Numidlan horfe, commanded by Han- 130 
 nibal in perfon. After this defeat the Carthaginian 
 general found himfelf deferted by 1200 of his beft '^"'jf^^^'^Jf 
 horfe, partly Spaniards, and partly Numidians, who horfe.' 
 had croffed the Alps with him. This touched him fo 
 fenfibly, that he left Campania, and retired into A- 
 pulia. 
 
 The Romans ftlU continued to increafe their forces; 
 and Hannibal, not having the fame refources, found It 
 Impnlfible to a£l agalnft fo many armies at once. Fa- 
 bius Maximus advanced into Campania, whither Han- 
 nibal was obliged to return in order to fave Capua. 
 He ordered Hanno, however, at the head of 1 7,000 
 foot and 1700 horfe, to feize Beneventum ; but he 
 was utterly defeated, fcarce 2000 of his men being left He is again 
 aKve. Hannibal himfelf, in the mean time, advanced c'eftated, 
 to Nola, where he was again defeated by Marcellus. 1^^^'''* 
 He now began to lofe ground; the Romans retook '"^j^i^j 
 Cafil mum, Accua in Apulia, ArpI, and Aternum ; 
 but the city of Tarentum was delivered up to him by 
 Its inhabitants. The Romans then entered Campa- 
 nia, and ravaged the whole country, threatening Ca- 
 pua with a fiege. The inhabitants immediately ac- 
 quainted Hannibal with their danger ; but he was fo 
 intent upon reducing the citadel of Tarentum, that he 
 could not be prevailed upon to come to their afliftance. 
 In the mean time Hanno was again utterly defeated by 
 Fulvius, his camp taken, and he himfelf forced to fly 
 into Brutlum with a fmall body of horfe. The con- 
 fuls then advanced with a defign to befiege Capua in 
 form. But in their way, Sempronlus Gracchus, a 
 man of great bravery, and an excellent general, was 
 betrayed by a Lucanlan and killed, which proved a ,3^: 
 very great detriment to the republic. Capua, how- Capua be* 
 ever, was foon after Invefted on all fides; and the be-^"^:<«=^ ^7 
 fieged once more fent to Hannibal, who now came to'^^ 
 their afliftance with his horfe, his light-armed infantry,'"^"*" 
 and 33 elephants. He found means to inform the be-„ 
 fieged of the time he defigned to attack the Romans, f^^^^jjj** ' 
 ordering them to make a vigorous fally at the fame Jmemptsta 
 The Roman generals, Applus and Fulvius, relieve it. 
 
 time. 
 
 m8 
 
 annlbal 
 kes feve- 
 J cities. 
 
 upon the firft news of the enemy's approach, divided 
 their troops, Appius taking upon him to make 'head 
 agalnft" the garrifon, and Fulvius to defend the in- 
 trenchments agalnft Hannibal. The former found no 
 difficulty in repulfing the garrifon ; and would have 
 entered the city with them, had he not been wounded 
 at the very gate, which prevented him from purfuing 
 his defign. Fulvius found it more difficidt to with- 
 ftand Hannibal, whofe troops behaved themfelves with 
 extraordinary refolution. A body of Spaniards and 
 
 Numidians. 
 
CAR [20 
 
 C-arthage. Numidians had even the boldnefs to pafs the ditch, 
 ^""^ and, in fpite of all oppolkion, cUmbing the ramparts, 
 penetrated into the Roman camp ; but not being pro- 
 perly feconded by the reft, they were all to a man cut 
 in pieces. The Carthaginian gcncrtil was fo diflicart- 
 ened at this, efpecially after the garrifon was vepulfed, 
 that he founded a retreat, which was made in good 
 He marches order. His next attempt for the relief of Capua was 
 to Rome, to march to Rome, where he hoped his approach 
 would ftrike fo much terror, that the armies would be 
 called from before Capua; and that the Capuans might 
 not be difheartened by his fudcfen departure, he found 
 means to acquaint them wich his defigni The news 
 of his approach caufed great confternation in the me- 
 tropolis. Same of the fenators were for calling all che 
 armies in Italy into the neighbourhood of Rome, as 
 thinking nothing lefswas able to refill the terrible Car- 
 thaginian. But Fabius told them that Hnnnibal'-s de- 
 fign was not to take Rome, but relieve Capua 5 upon 
 which Fulvius was recalled to Rome with 15,000 foot, 
 
 135 and 1000 horfe ; and this obliged Hannibal again to 
 Hefurpnfes Fie then returned before Capua fo fuddenly 
 A*^ kfs^^^'^* that he furprifed Appius in his camp, drove him out 
 
 of it with the lofs of a great number of men, and ob- 
 liged him to- entrench himfelf on fome eminences) 
 
 136 where he expefted to be foon joined by his colleague 
 Capua fub- JTyjyjjjg^ Hannibal, however, now expeftcd to 
 
 have all the Roman forces upon him, he could do no- 
 thing more for the relief of Capua, which was, of con* 
 fequence, obliged to fubmit to the Romans. 
 
 A little before the funender of Capua, Hannibal 
 came up with a Roman army commanded by one M. 
 Centenius'Penula, who had fignalized himfelf on many 
 occafions as a- centurion. This rafli man, being intro- 
 duced to the fenate, had the affurance to tell them, 
 that if they would truft him with a body of only 9000 
 mefl, he would give a good account of Hannibal. They 
 gave him 8000, and his army was foon increafed to 
 double that number. He engaged the Carthaginians 
 on Hannibal's firll offering him battle ; but after an 
 J' 8 engagement of two hour^, was defeated, himfelf and 
 Asaifothe all his men being flain, except about looo. Soon 
 after, having found means to draw the prsetor Cneius 
 Fulvius into an ambufcade, Hannibal cut in pieces 
 almoft his whole army, con filling of iS.ooo men. 
 In the mean time MarccUus was making great pro- 
 grefs in Samnium. The city of Salapia was be- 
 trayed to him ; but he took other two by alTault. In 
 the lall of thefe he found 3000 Carthaginians, whom 
 he put to the fword ; and carried off 240,000 bufhels 
 of wheat, and iio,oco of barley. This, however, 
 pro-conful was by no means a compenfation for the deleat which 
 Tulvius Hannibal foon after gave the proconful Fulvius Cen- 
 Centuma- tumalus, whom he furprifed and cut off, with 13,000 
 of his men. 
 
 After this defeat, the great Marcellus advanced with 
 his array to oppofe Hannibal. Various engagements 
 happened without any thing decifive. In one of them 
 the Romans are faid to have been defeated, and in an- 
 other Hannibal ; but, notwithftanding thefe, it was 
 140 neither in the power of Marcellus, nor any other Ro- 
 Marcellus man general, totally to defeat or difperfe the army 
 drawn into commanded by Hannibal in perfon. Nay, in the 
 cade^and" eleventh year of the war, Hannibal found means to de- 
 kilkd. coy into an ambufcade, and cut off, the great Marcel- 
 
 W66. : 
 
 mits to the 
 Romans. 
 
 »37 
 
 Centenins 
 Penula de- 
 feated by 
 Hannibal, 
 
 prsetor 
 rfulvius, 
 
 »39 
 
 And the 
 
 8 ] GAR 
 
 lus himfelf ; the confequence of. which was, that the Cartl rag^ 
 Romans were obliged to raile the fiege of Locri, with /— *^ 
 the lofs of all their military engines 14 r 
 
 Hitherto the Carthaginians, though no longer the Carfhatrinl« 
 favourites of fortune, had loft but little ground; but^"^^^'" 
 now they met with a blow which totally ruined their by^the 
 affairs. This was the defeat of Afdrubal, Hannibal's defeat of 
 brother, who had left Spain, and was marching to his Afdrubal. 
 affiftance. He croffed tlie Pyrenees without any dif- 
 ftcuUy ; and, as the filver mines had fupplied him 
 with a very confiderable quantity of treafure, he not 
 only prevailed upon the Gauls, to grant him a paffage 
 through their territories, but likewife to furnifn him 
 with a confiderable number of recruits. Meeting with 
 many favourable circumftances to expedite his march, 
 he arrived at Placentia fooner than the Romans, or 
 even his brother Hannibal, expedltd. Had he conti- 
 nued to ufe the fame expedition with which he fet 
 out, and haftened to join his brother, it would have 
 been utterly impoffible to huve faved Rome ; but, fit- 
 ting down before Placenlia, he gave the Romans an 
 opportunity of affembling all their forces to attack 
 hirn. At laft he was obliged to raife the fiege, and 
 began his march for Umbria. He fent a letter- to ac* 
 quaint his brother of his intended motion ; but the 
 meffenger was intercepted ; and the two confuls, join* 
 ing their armies, with united, forces fell upon the 
 Carthaginians. As the latter were inferior both in 
 numbers and refolution, they were utterly defeated, 
 and Afdrubal was killed. About the fame time, Han- 
 nibal himfelf is faid to have fuffered feveral defeats, 
 and was retired to Canufuim : but, on the fatal news 
 of his brother's defeat and death, he was filled with 
 defpair, and retired to the extremity of Brutium j 
 where, affembhng all his forces, he remained for a 
 confiderable time in a ftate of inaftion, the Romans 
 not daring to difturb him, fo formidable did they 
 efteem him alone, though every thing about him went 
 to wreck, and the Carthaginian affair?^ feemed not 
 far from the verge of deftruftion. LIvy tells us, that 
 it was difficult to determine whether his conduct was 
 moi-e wonderful in profperity or in adverfity. Not- 
 withftanding which, Brutium being but a fmall pro* 
 vince, and many of its inhabitants being either forced 
 into the fervice, or forming themfelves into parties of 
 banditti, fo that a great part of it remained unculti- 
 vated, he found it a difficult matter to fubfift there, 
 efpecially as no manner of fupplies were fent him from 
 Carthage. The people there were as fohcitous about 
 preferving their poffeffions in Spain, and as little con- 
 cerned about the lituation of affairs in Italy-, as if Han- 
 nibal had met with an uninterrupted courfe of fuccefs, 
 and no difafter befallen him fince he firft entered that 
 country. 14a 
 
 All their folicitude, however, about the affairs ofThc great 
 Spain, was to no purpoi''e ; their generals, one after i,'"?S' '^^^"f 
 another, were defeated by the Romans. 1 hey had ^.^^^3^ 
 indeed cut off the two Sclpios ; but -found a much 
 more formidable enemy in the young Scipio, after- 
 wards furnamed ylfrlcanus. He overthrew them in 
 conjunAIon with Mafiniffa king of Numidia ; and the 
 latler, thereafter, abandoned their intereft. Soon af- 
 ter, Syphax, kiug of the Mafasfyhi, was likewife per- 
 fuaded to abandon their party. Scipio alfo gave the 
 Spanifli Reguli a great overthrow .j and reduced the 
 4 cities 
 
ill Africa. 
 
 145 
 
 CAR [2 
 
 Carthage, cities of New Carthage, Gades, and many other im- 
 ^''-—y—-^ poitant places. At lail the Carthaginians bep^an to 
 open their eyes when it was too hite. Mago was or- 
 dered to abandon Spain, and fail with all expedition 
 Mago hnds^° Italy. He landed on the coaft of Ligiiria with an 
 in Itaiy, army of 12,000 foot and 2000 horfe ; where he fur- 
 prifed Genoa, and alfo feized upon the town and port 
 of Savo. A reinforcement was fent him to this place, 
 and new levies went on very brifldy in Liguria ; but 
 the opportunity was paffed, and could not be recalled. 
 Scipio having carried all before him in Spaia, paffed 
 T44 over into Africa, where he met with no enemy cap- 
 Scipio lands aljl^, of oppofing his progrefs. The Carthaginians 
 then, feeing themfelves on the brink of deftruftion, 
 were obliged to recal their armies from Italy, in or- 
 der to fave their city. Mago, who had entered Infa- 
 bria, was defeated by the Roman forces there ; and ha- 
 ving retreated into the maritime parts of Liguria, 
 Mago and met a courier who brought him orders to return 
 Hannibal ^jj-eftly to Carthage. At the fame time, Hannibal 
 reca ed. .was likewife recalled. When the meflengers acquaint- 
 ed him with the fenate's pleafure, he exprefled the ut- 
 moft indignation and concern, groaning, gnafhing his 
 teeth, and fcarce refraining from tears. Never banifh- 
 ed man, according to Livy, fhowcd fo much regret in 
 quitting his native country, as Hannibal did at going 
 j^f, out of that of the enemy. 
 Hannibal's The Carthaginian general was no fooner landed 
 pnceed- in Africa, than he fent out parties to get provifions 
 h^^ar^r^Tl army, and buy horfes to remount the cavalry. 
 
 iirAfrica. He entered into a league with the Regulus of the 
 Areacidas, one of the Numidlan tribes. Four thoufand 
 of Syphax's horfe came over in a body to him ; but 
 as he did not think proper to repofe any confidence 
 in them, he put them all to the fword, and diftrl- 
 buted their horfes among his troops. Vermina, one 
 of Syphax's fons, and Mafetulus, another Numidian 
 prince, likewife joined him with a confiderable body 
 of horfe. Moft of the fortreffes in Mafiniffa's king- 
 dom either furrendered to him upon the firil fummons, 
 or were taken by force. Narce, a city of confider- 
 able note there, he made himfelf mailer of by ilrata- 
 gem. Tychaeus, a Numidian Regulus, and faithful 
 ally of Syphax, whofe territories were famous for an 
 excellent breed of horfes, reinforcing him alfo with 
 2000 of his befl cavalry, Hannibal advanced to Zama, 
 a town about five days journey diftant from Carthage, 
 where he encamped. He thence fent out fpies to 
 obferve the pcfliive of the Romans. Thefe being 
 hvousht to Scipio, he was fo far from infliding any 
 puniflimcnt upon them, which he might have done by 
 the laws of war, that he commanded them to be led 
 about the camp, in order to take an exaft furvey of 
 it, and then difmifled them. Hannibal, admiring the 
 noble affurance of his rival, fent a meffenger to dtfire 
 with Scipio. an interview with him ; which, by means of MafinifTa, 
 he obtained. The two generals, therefore, efcorted by 
 equal detachments of horfe, met at Nadagara, where, 
 by the affillance of two interpreters, they held a pri- 
 vate conference. Hannibal flattered Scipio in the moft 
 refined and artful manner, and expatiated upon all 
 ■thofe topics which he thought could influence that ge- 
 neral to grant his nation a peace upon tolerable terms ; 
 amongft other things, that the Carthaginians would 
 willingly confine themfelves to Africa, fince fucU was 
 Vol. IV. Part. L 
 
 147 
 
 Jle has an 
 infer view 
 
 09 ] GAR 
 
 the will of the gods, in order to procure a lafting peace, Cr.ttliage* 
 whilft the Romans would be at liberty to extend their /— 
 conqueft to the remoteft nations. Scipio anfwered, 
 that the Romans were not prompted by ambition, or 
 any finiller views, to undertake either the former or 
 prefent war againft the Carthap^inians ; but by juftice, 
 and a proper regard for their allies. He alfo obierved, 
 that the Carthaginians had, before his arrival in Africa, 
 not only made him the fame propofals, but likewife 
 agreed to pay the Romans 5COO talents of filver, re- 
 fl^ore all the Roman prifoners without ranfom, and de- 
 liver up all their galleys. He infilled on the perfidious 
 conduft of the Carthaginians, who had broke a truce 
 concluded with them ; and told him, that, fo far from 
 granting them more favourable terms, they ought to 
 expeft more rigorous ones ; which if Hannibal would 
 fubmit to, a peace would enfue ; if not, the decifion of 
 the difpute mu-ft be left to the fword. 
 
 This conference, betwixt two of the grcateft gene- The battle 
 rals the world ever produced, ending without fuc-ofZama. 
 ctfs, they both retired to their rcfpeftive camps ; 
 where they informed their troops, that not only the 
 fate of Rome and Carthage, but that of the whole 
 world, was to be determined by them the next day. 
 An engagement enfued*, in which, as Polybius i"- 'See Z««j, 
 forms us, the furprifing military genius of Hannibal 
 difplayed itfelf in an extraordinary manner. Scipio 
 likewife, according to Livy, pafltd an high encomium 
 upon hill), on account of his uncommon capacity in 
 taking advantages, the excellent arrangement of his 
 forces, and the manner in which he gave his orders 
 during the engagement. The Roman general in- 
 deed, not only approved his conduft, but openly de- 
 clared that it was fuperior to his own.' Neverthelefs, 
 being vaftly inferior to the enemy in horfe, and the 
 ftate of Carthage obliging him to hazard a battle with 
 the Romans at no fmall difadvantage, Hannibal was Hannibal 
 utterly routed, and his camp taken. He fled firft to totally 
 Thon, and afterwards to Adrumentum, from whence ''°"'^^* 
 he was recalled to Carthage ; whei-e being arrived, 
 he advifed his countrymen to conclude a peace with 
 vScipio on whatever terms he thought proper to pre- 
 fcribe. r^d 
 
 Thus was the fecond war of the Carthaginians with Peace con. 
 the Romans concluded. The conditions of peace '^'^^'cJ* 
 were very humiliating to the Carthaginians. They 
 were obliged to deliver up all the Romans defevteis, 
 fugitive flaves, prifoners of war, and all the Italians 
 whom Hannibt l had obliged to follow him. They 
 alfo delivered up all their (hips of war, except ten 
 triremes, all their- tame elephants, and were to train 
 up no more of thefe animals for the fervice. They 
 were not to engage in any war without the confent 
 of the Romans. They engaged to pay to the Ro- 
 mans, in 50 years, 1 0,000 liuboic talent;-*, at equal 
 payments. They were to reftore to Mafiniffa all 
 they had ufur-ped from hiin or his anceftors, and to 
 enter into an alliance with him. They were alfo to 
 aflift the Romans both by fea and land, whenever 
 they were called upon fo to do, and never to make 
 any levies either in Gaul or Liguria. Thefe terms 
 appeared fo intolerable to the populace, that they 
 threatened to plunder and burn the houfes of the 
 nobihty ; but Hannibal having alTembled a body of 
 6000 foot and 500 horfe at Marthaxna, prevented an 
 D d infur- 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 
 
 210 
 
 CAR 
 
 Carthage. 
 
 »5« 
 
 Carthaijini' 
 ans oppref- 
 fed by Ma- 
 fiiiifTa. 
 
 fl:c-:o An- 
 tiochus. 
 
 Iniqi'itoup 
 proceed- 
 ings of Ma 
 fiiuffa and 
 the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 infurreAion, and by his influence completed the accom- 
 modation. 
 
 The peace between Carthage and Rome was fcarce 
 figned, when Mafiniffa unjuftly made himfelf raafter 
 of part of the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, un- 
 der pretence that thefe formerly belonged to his fa- 
 mily. The Carthaginians, through the villanous me- 
 diation of the Romans, found themftlves under a ne- 
 ceffity of ceding thefe csuntries to that ambitious prince, 
 and of entering into an alliance with him. The 
 good underftanding between the two powers continued 
 for many years afterwards ; but at lad MnfmilTa vio- 
 lated the treaties fubfiiling betwixt him and the Car- 
 thaginian republic, and not a little contributed to its 
 fubverfion. 
 
 After the conclufion of the peace, Hannibal ftill 
 kept up his credit among his countrymen. He was 
 intrufted with the command of an army againft fome 
 neighbouring nations in Africa ; but this being difa- 
 greeable tn the Romans, he was removed from it, and 
 raifed to the dignity of prcetor in Carthage. Here 
 he continued for fome time, reforming abufes, and 
 putting the affairs of the republic into a better condi- 
 tion ; but this I'kewife being difagrceable to the Ro- 
 
 '.ns, he was obliged to fly to Antiochus king of Sy- 
 ria. After his flight, the Romaris began to look up- 
 on the Carthaginians with a fufpicious eye ; though, 
 to prevent every thing of this kind, the latter had or- 
 dered two fhips to purfue Hannibal, had confifcated 
 his effefts, raied his houfe, and by a public decree 
 declared him an exile. Soon after, difputes arifing 
 between the Carthaginians and Mafiniffa, the latter, 
 notwithftanding the manifeft iniquity of his proceed- 
 'ings, was fupported by the Romans. That prince, 
 grafping at further conqucfts, endeavoured to embroil 
 the Carthaginians with the Romans, by afferting that 
 the former had received ambaffadors from Perfeus 
 king of Macedon ; that the fenate affembled in the 
 temple of ^fculapius in the night-time in order to 
 confer with them ; and that ambaffadors had been dif- 
 patched from Carthage to Perfeus, in order to con- 
 clude an alliance with him. Not long after this, Ma- 
 finiffa made an irruption into the province of Tyf- 
 ca, where he foon poffeffed himfelf of 70, or, as Ap- 
 pian will have it, 50 towns and cafl;les. This obliged 
 the Carthaginians to apply with great importunity to 
 tht Roman fenate for redrefs, their hands being fo 
 tied up by an article in the laft: treaty, that they could 
 not repel force by force, in cafe of an invafion, with- 
 out their confent. Their ambaffadors begged, that 
 the Roman fenate would fettle once for all what do- 
 minions they were to have, that they might from 
 thenceforth know what they had to depend upon ; 
 cr if their ftate had any way offended the Romans, 
 they begged that they would punifh them themfelves, 
 rather than leave them expofed to the infults and vex- 
 ations of fo mercilefs a tyrant. Then proftrating 
 themfelves on the earth, they burft out into tears. 
 But, notwithftanding the imprelDon their fpeech made, 
 the matter was left undecided ; fo that Mafiniffa had 
 iiberty to purfue his rapines as much as he pleafed. 
 But whatever villanous defigns the Romans might 
 have with regard to the republic of Carthage, they 
 affefted to ffiow a great regard to the principles of 
 JuHice and honour. They therefore fent Cato, a mao 
 
 famous for committing enormities under the fpecious Carthage, 
 pretence of public fpirit, into Africa, to acco;ni'nodate 
 all differences betwixt Mafiniffa and the Carthagini- 
 ans. The latter very well knew their fate, had they 
 fubmitted to fuch a medi'.tion ; and therefore appeal- 
 ed to the treaty concluded with Scipio, as the only 
 rule by which their conduft and that of their adver- 
 fary ought to be examined. This unreafonahle appeal 
 fo incenfed the righteous Cato, that he pronounced 
 them a devoted people, and from that time refolvcd 
 upon their deftniftion. For fome time he was oppo- 
 fed by Scipio Nafica ; but the people of Carthage, 
 knowing the Romans to be their inveterate enemies, 
 and reflefting upon the iniquitous treatment they had 
 met with from them ever fince the commencement of 
 their difputes with Mafiniifa, were under great ap- 
 prehenfions of a vifit from them. To prevent a rup- 
 ture as much as poflible, by a decree of the fenate, 
 they impeached Afdrnbal general of the army, and 
 Carthalo commander of the auxiliary forces, together 
 with their accomplices, as guilty of high treafon, for 
 being the authors of the war againft the king of Nu- 
 midla. They fent a deputation to Rome, to difcover 
 what fentiments were entertained there of their late 
 conduft, and to know what fatisfaftion the Romans 
 required. Thefe meffengers meeting with a 'cold re- 
 ception, others were difpatched, who returned with 
 the fame fuccefs. Tliis made the unhappy citizens of 
 Carthage believe that their dcftruiilion was refolved 
 upon ; which threw them into the utmoft; defpair. 
 And indeed they had but too juft grounds for fuch a 
 melancholy apprehenfion, the Roman fenate now dif- 
 covering an inclination to fall in with Cato's meafures. 
 About the fame time, the city of Utica, being the fe- 
 cond in Africa, and famous for its immenfe riches, as ' 
 well as its equally commodious and capacious port, « 
 fubmitted to the Romans. Upon the poffeffion of fo 
 important a fortrefs, which, by reafon of its vicinity 
 to Carthage, might ferve as a place of arms in the at- War decla-: 
 tack of that city, the Romans declared war againft the-ed by rhe 
 Carthaginians without the leaft hefitation. In confe- ^" 
 quence of this declaration, the confuls M. Manlius Ne-^^^" 
 pos, and L. Marcius Cenforinus, were difpatched with 
 an army and fleet to begin hoftihties with the utmofi. 
 expedition. The land forces confifled of 80,000 foot 
 and 4000 cho'"en horfe; and the fleet of 50 quinqueremes, 
 befides a vaft number of tranfports. The confuls had 
 fectet orders from the fenate not to conclude the ope- 
 rations but by the deftruftion of Carthage, without, 
 which, it was pretended, the republic could not but 
 look upon all her poffeffions as infecure. Purfuant to 
 the plan they had formed, the troops were firft landed 
 at Lilybceum in Sicily, from whence, after receiving a 
 proper refrefhment, it was propofed to tranfport them 
 to Utica. 1SS 
 
 The anfwer brought by the laft ambaffadors to Car- Ambaflb- 
 thage had not a little alarmed the inhabitants of that ^^'"^ 
 city. But they were not yet acquainted with the re- 
 folutions taken at Rome. They therefore fent frefh 
 ambaffadors thither, whom they invefted with full, 
 powers to aft as they thought proper for the good, 
 of the republic, and even to fubmit themfelves with- 
 out referve to the pleafure of the Romans. But the 
 moft fenfible perfons among them did not expeft any 
 great fuccefu from this coiidefccnftoii, fince the early 
 6 fab- 
 
156 
 The Ro- 
 mans de- 
 mand 300 
 hoilages, 
 
 CAR [21 
 
 Carthag?. fubmifiion of the Uticans had rendered It infinitely 
 lefs meritorious than it would have been before. How- 
 ever, the Romans feemed to be in fome mcafure fatis- 
 fied with it, fince they promifed them their liberty, 
 the enjoyment of their laws, and in fhort every thing 
 that was dear and valuable to them. This threw them 
 into a tranfport of joy, and they wanted words to ex- 
 tol the moderation of the Romans. But the fenate 
 immediately dafhed all their hopes, by acquainting 
 them, that this favour was granted upon condition 
 that they would fend 300 young Carthaginian noble- 
 men of the firft diftinftion to the praetor Fabius at 
 LilybcEum, within the fpace of 30 days, and comply 
 with all the orders of the confuls. Thefe hard terms 
 filled the whole city with inexpreflible grief : but the 
 hoftages were delivered ; and as they arrived at Lily- 
 baeum before the 30 days were expired, the ambafla- 
 dors were not without hopes of foftening their hard- 
 hearted enemy. But the confuls only told them, that 
 upon their arrival at Utica they fhould learn the far- 
 ther orders of the republic. 
 
 The minifters no fooner received intelligence of the 
 Roman fleet appearing off Utica, than they repaired 
 thither, in order to know the fate of their city. The 
 confuls, however, did not judge it expedient to com- 
 municate all the commands of their republic at once, 
 left they {hould appear fo harfh and fevere, that the 
 Carthaginians would have refufed to comply with them. 
 '57 ^ They firft, therefore, demanded a fufficient fupply of 
 At da t »e ^^^^^ ^j^^ fubfiftence of their troops. Secondly, 
 Carthagini- r„ n 1 1 1 i- • 1 • 1 1 n 1 
 
 an arms. ^ hat they Ihould deliver up into their hands all the 
 
 triremes they were then mafters of. Thirdly, That 
 they Ihould put them in pofTeirion of all their mihtary 
 machines. And fourthly. That they Ihould immediate- 
 ly convey all their arms into the Roman camp. 
 
 As care was taken that there fhould be a conve- 
 nient interval of time betwixt every one of tliefe de- 
 mands, tlie Carthaginians found themfelves cnfnared, 
 and could not rejeft any one of them, though they 
 fubmittcd to the laft wIlIi the utrncft rclutlance and 
 concern. Cenforinus now imagining them incapable 
 They i^ora- of fullaining a fiege, commanded them to abandon 
 niand them ^^^^^ ^-^^^^ .^^ Zonaras will have it, to demolifh it ; 
 
 permitting tiiem to build another 80 ftadia from the 
 lea, but without walls or fortifications. 1'his terrible 
 decree threw the fenate and every one elfe into defpair ; 
 and the whole city became a fcene of horror, madnefs, 
 and confuaon. The citizens curfed their anceftors for 
 not dying glorioufly in the defence of their country, 
 rather than concludinar fuch ifj-nominious treaties of 
 peace, that had been the caufe of the deplorable con- 
 dition to which their pofterity was then reduced. At 
 length, v\'hen the firft commotion was a little abated, 
 the fenatcrs affembled, and refolved to fuftain a fiege. 
 They were ftripped of tlieir arms and dettiture of pro- 
 vifions ; but defpair raifed their courage, and made 
 them find out expedients. They took care to Ihut 
 the gates of the city ; and gathered together on the 
 ramparts great heaps of ftones, to ferve them infteadof 
 arms in cafe of a furprife. . They took tlie mal'^fudlors 
 out of prifcn, gave the flaves their liberty, and incor- 
 porated them in the militia. Afdrubal was recalled, 
 who had been fentenced to die only to pleafe the Ro- 
 m;ins ; and he was invited to employ 20,000 men he 
 had raikd aguinft his country, in defence of it. An- 
 
 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 an arms, 
 inllitary 
 siiachines, 
 &c. 
 
 to deftroy 
 their city. 
 
 ^59 
 
 The Car- 
 tha-.'ii idii 
 refclve to 
 fui.aiii a 
 fiec-e. 
 
 other Afdrubal was appointed to command in Car- Carthage, 
 thage ; and all feemed refolute, either to fave their city ' ^ 
 or perifh in its ruins. They wanted arms ; but, by 160 
 order of the fenate, the temples, porticoes, and all They make 
 public buildings, v/ere turned into workhoufes, where "^^ arms, 
 men and women were continually employed in making 
 arms. As they encouraged one another in their work, 
 and loft no time in procuring to themfelves the necef- 
 faries of life, which were brought to them at ftated 
 hours, they every day made 144 bucklers, 300 fwords, 
 1 000 darts, and 500 lances and javelins. As to ba- 
 hftsE and catapultas, they wanted proper materials for 
 them ; but their induftry fupplied that defeft. Where 
 iron and brafs were wanting, they made ufe of filver 
 and gold, melting down the ftatues, vafes, and even 
 the utenfils of private families ; for, on this occafion, 
 even the moft covetous became liberal. As tow and 
 flax were wanting to make cords for working the ma- 
 chines, the women, even thofe of the firft rank, freely- 
 cut off their hair and dedicated it to that ufe. With- 
 out the walls, Afdrubal employed the troops in getting 
 together provifions, and conveying them fafe into Car- 
 thage ; fo that there was as great plenty there as in 
 the Roman camp. 
 
 In the mean time the confuls delayed drawing near 
 to Carthage, not doubting but the inhabitants, whom 
 they imagined deftitute of neceflaries to fuftain a fiege, 
 would, upon cool refleftion, fubmit ; but at length, 
 finding themfelves deceived in their expeftation, they 
 V:ame before the place and invefted it. As they were 
 ftill perfuaded tliat the Carthaginians had no arms, 
 they flattered themfelves that they Ihould eafily carry The cityat- 
 the city by aflault. Accordingly they approached tacked by 
 
 the walls in order to plant their fcahng-ladders ; but 
 
 ^ .1 • ^ f •/ ^1 jT 1 r • mans, who 
 
 to their great iurpriie they diicoverea a prodigious j epul- 
 
 multitude of men on the ramparts, fliining in the ar- fed. 
 mour they had newly made. The legionaries were fo 
 terrified at this unexpefted fight, that they drew back, 
 and would have retired, if the confuls had not led 
 them on to the attack : which, however, proved un- 
 fuccefsful ; the Romans, in fjnte of their utmoil ef- 
 forts, being obliged to give over the enterprize, and 
 lay afide all thoughts of taking Carthage by affault. 
 In the mean time Afdrubal, having collected from all 
 places , fubjeft to Carthage a prodigious number of 
 troops, came and encamped withm reach of the Ro- 
 mans, and foon reduced them to great ftraits for want 
 of provifions. As Marcius, one of the Roman con- 
 fuls, was pofted near a marfli, the exhalations of the 
 ftagnating waters, and the heat of the feafon, infefted 
 the air, and caufed a general ficknefs among his men. 
 Marcius, therefore, ordered his fleet to drav/ as near 
 the fiiore as poflible, in order to tranfport his troops 
 to an healthier place. Afdrubal being infofmed of 
 this motion, ordered all the old barks in the harbour 
 to he filled with faggots, tow, fulpliur, bitumen, and 
 other combuftible materials ; and then taking advan- P.-.rt of the 
 tage of the wind, which blew towards the enemy, let Rom^n fleet 
 tl'.em drive upon their fhips, which were for the moll: 
 part confumed. After this difafter, Marcius was call- 
 ed home to prefide at the eleclions ; and the Cartha- 
 ginians looking upon the abfencj of one of the con- 
 fuls to be a good omen, made a brill: fally in the night; 
 and would have furprifed the conful's caraj:), had not 
 .flirailianus, v.'ith fome fquadrons, marched out of the 
 D d 2 gate 
 
1-63 
 The Ro- 
 man army, 
 in great 
 danjjer, is 
 faved l)y 
 Scipio JE- 
 miiianus. 
 
 CAR [21 
 
 CartKage. gate oppofite to the place where the atttack was made, 
 — ' and, coming round, fell unexpeftedly on their rear, 
 and obliged them to return in diforder to the city. 
 
 Afdrubal had pofted himfelf under the walls of a 
 city named Nepheris, 24 miles diftant from Carthage, 
 and fituated on an high mountain, which feemed inac- 
 cefTible on all fides. From thence he made incurfions 
 into the neighbouring country, intercepted the Roman 
 convoys, fell upon their detachments fent out to forage, 
 and even ordered parties to infult the confular army in 
 their cam.p. Hereupon the conful refolved to drive 
 the Carthaginian from this advantageous poft, and fet 
 out for Nepheris. As he drew near the hills, Afdru- 
 bal fuddenly appeared at the head of his army in order 
 of battle, and fell upon the Romans with incredible 
 fuiy. The confular army fuftalncd the attack with 
 great refolution ; and Afdrubal retired in good order 
 to his poft, hoping the Romans would attack him 
 there. But the conful being now convinced of his 
 danger, refolved to rftire. This Afdrubal no fooner 
 perceived, than he ruflied down the hill, and falling 
 upon the enemy's rear, cut a great number of them in 
 pieces. The whole Roman army was now faved by 
 the bravery of Scipio j'Emilianus. At the head of 300 
 horfe, he fuftained the attack of all the forces com- 
 manded by Afdrubal, and covered the legions, while 
 they pafled a river in their retreat before the enemy. 
 Then he and his companions threw themfelves into 
 the ftream, and fwam acrofs it. When the army had 
 croffed the river, it was perceived that four manipul? 
 were wanting ; and foon after they were informed that 
 they had retired to an eminence, where they refolved 
 to fell their lives as dear as poffible. Upon this news 
 ^milianus, taking with him a chofen body of horfe, 
 and provifions for two days, crolfed the river, and flew 
 to the affiftance of his countrymen. He feized an 
 bill over againft that on which the four manipnli were 
 pofted ; and, after fome hours repofe, marched againll 
 the Carthaginians who kept them inverted, fell upon 
 them at the head of his fquadron with the boldnefs of 
 a man determined to conquer or die, and in fpite of 
 all oppofition opened a way for his fellow-foldiers to 
 efcape. On his return to the army, his companions, 
 wlio had given him over for loft, carried him to his 
 quarters in a kind of triumph ; and the manipuli he 
 liad faved gave him a crown of gramen. By thefe and 
 fome other exploits, TEmihanus gained fiich reputation, 
 that Cato, who is faid never to have commended any 
 body before, could not refufe him the praifes he defer- 
 red ; and is faid to have foretold that Carthage would 
 never be reduced till Scipio JEmihanus was employed 
 in that expedition. 
 
 The next year, the war in Africa fell by lot to the 
 conful L Calpurnius Pifo ; and he continued to em- 
 ploy iEmilianus in feveral important enterprifes, in 
 which he was attended with uncommon fuccefs. He 
 took feveral caftles ; and in one of his excurfions, found 
 means to have a private conference with Phameas, ge- 
 neral, under Afdrubal, of the Carthaginian cavalry, 
 and brought him over, together with 2200 of his 
 horfe, to the Rom.an intereft. Under the conful Cal- 
 purnius Pifo himfelf, however, the Roman arms were 
 unfuccefsful. He inverted Clupea ; but was obliged 
 to abandon the enterprife, with the lofs of a great 
 number of men killed by the enemy in their fallies,. 
 
 ] 
 
 CAR 
 
 164 
 
 He gains 
 
 over ihs 
 Carthajjrini 
 an general 
 «f hoife. 
 
 From this place he went to vent his rage on a city Carfhage. 
 
 newly built, and thence called Neapolis, which pro- ' ^ 
 
 fefled a ftrift neutrality, and had even a fafeguard from 
 
 the Romans. The conful, however, plundered the 
 
 place, and ttripped the inliabitants of all tlieir efFafts. 
 
 After this he laid ficge to Hippagreta, which employed 
 
 the Roman fleet and army the whole fummer ; and, 
 
 on the approach of winter, the conful retired to Utica, 
 
 without performing a fingle adtion worth notice during 
 
 the whole campaign. 165 
 
 The next year Scipio ^Emilianus was chofen ^^'"'^"'> f^jj coufuT 
 and ordered to pafs into Africa ; and upon his arrival, 
 the face of affairs was greatly changed. At the time 
 of his entering the port of Utica, 3500 Romans were 
 in great danger of being cut in pieces before Carthage. 
 Thefe had feized Megaha, one of the fuburbs of the 
 city : but as they had not furniihed themfelves with 
 provifions to fubfiil there, and could not retire, being 
 clofely inverted on all fides by the enemy's troops', the 
 prtEtor Mancimis, who commanded this detachment, 
 ieeing the danger into which he had brought himfelf, 
 difpatched a light boat to Utica, to acquaint the Ro- 
 mans theie with his fituation. jEmilianus received this 
 letter a few hours after his landing ; and immediately 
 flew to the relief of the befieged Romans, obliged the 
 Carthaginians to retire within their walls, and fafely 
 conveyed his countrymen to Utica. Having then 
 drawn together all the troops, ^milianus apphed him- 
 felf wholly to the fiege of the capital. 
 
 His firft attack was upon Megalia ; which he car- 
 ried by aflault, the Carthaginian garrifon retiring into 
 the citadel of Byrfa. Afdrubal, who had comanauded 166 
 the Cai-thaginian forces in the field, and was now go- Cruelties of 
 vernor of the city, was fo enraged at the lofs of Me- afdrubal. 
 galia, that he caufed all the Roman captives taken in 
 the two years the war lafted, to be brought upon the 
 ramparts, and thrown headlong, in the fight of the 
 Roman army, from tlie top of the wall ; after having, 
 with an excefs of cruelty, commanded their hands and 
 feet to be cut off, and their eyes and tongues to be 
 torn out. He was of a temper remarkably inhuman, 
 and it is faid that he even took pleafure in feeing fome 
 of thefe unhappy men flayed alive, ^milianus, in the 
 mean time, was bufy in drawing lines of circumvalla- 
 tion and contravallation crofs the neck of land which 
 joined the iflhmus on which Carthage ftood to the 
 continent. By this means, all the avenues on the land- Car*ha>re 
 fide of Carthage being ftiut up, the city could receive blocked up 
 no proviJions that way. His next care was to raife a ^ea and 
 mole in the fea, in order to block up the old port, the '^^'^* 
 new one being already ftiut up by the Roman fleet ; 
 and this great work he effefted with immenfe labour. 
 The mole reached from the weftern neck of land, of 
 which the Romans were mafters, to the entrance of the. 
 port ; and was 90 feet broad at the bottom and 80 at 
 the top. The befieged, when the Romans firft began 
 this furprifing work, laughed at the attempt ; but 
 were no^lefs alarmed than furprifed, when they beheld 
 a vaft mole appearing above water, and by that means 
 the port rendered inacceffible to fliips, and quite ufe- 
 lefs. Prompted by defpair, however, the Carthagi- -pf^J^^j^ 
 nians, with incredible and almoft miraculous induftry, ed dia;^'^^ 
 dug a new bafon, and cut a paffage into the fea, by new bafon. 
 which they could receive the provifions that were fent 
 them by their troops in the field. With the fame di- 
 ligence 
 
Carthage. 
 ■~v— - 
 
 169 
 
 rhey fet 
 'ire to the 
 R.oman ma- 
 hines. 
 
 fo 
 Vaft fliugli 
 er of the 
 Carthagi- 
 nians. 
 
 171 
 
 Cotlio ta- 
 ken. 
 
 CAR [2 
 
 Ugence and expedition, they fitted out a fleet of 50 
 triremes ; which, to the great furpriie of the Romans, 
 appeared fuddenly advancing into the fea through this 
 new canal, and even ventured to give the enemy battle. 
 The adlion lafted the whole day, with little advantage 
 on either fide. The day after, the conful endeavoured 
 to make himfelf mafter of a terrace which covered the 
 city on the fide next the fea ; and on this occafion the 
 befieged fignalized themfelves in a mod remarkable 
 manner. Great numbers of them, naked and unarmed, 
 went into the water in the dead of the night, with un- 
 lighted torches in their hands ; and having, partly by 
 fwimming, partly by wading, got within reach of the 
 Roman engines, they ftruck fire, lighted their torches, 
 and threw them with fury aguinft the machines. The 
 fadden appearance of thefe naked men, who looked 
 like fo many monfters Itarted up out of the fea, fo ter- 
 rified the Romans who guarded the machines, that 
 tliey began to retire in the utrnofl confufion. The 
 conful, who commanded the detachment in perfon, 
 and had continued all night at the foot of the teiTace, 
 endeavoured to Itop his men, and even ordered thole 
 who fled to be killed. But the Carthaginians, per- 
 ceiving the confufion the Romans were in, threw them- 
 felves upon them like fo many wild beafts ; and having 
 put them to flight only with their torchesf^they fet 
 jirc to the machines, and entirely confumed them. 
 This, however, did not difoourage the conful : he re- 
 newed the attack a few days after, carried the terrace 
 by affault, and lodged 4000 men upon it. As this 
 was an important po'l, becaufe it pent in Carthage on 
 thj fea-fide, jEmilianus took care to fortify and fe- 
 cure it againft the failles of the enemy ; and then, 
 winter approaching, he fufpended all further attacks 
 upon the place till the return of good weather. Du- 
 ring the winter feafon, however, the conful was not 
 InaAive. The Carthaginians had a very numerous 
 army under the command of one Diogenes, ftrongly 
 encamped near Nepheris, whence convoys of provifions 
 were fent by fea to the befieged, and brought into the 
 new bafon. To take Nepheris, therefore, was to de- 
 prive Carthage of her chief magazine. This yEmili- 
 anus undertook, and fucceeded in the attempt. He 
 "firft forced the enemy's entrenchments, put 70,000 of 
 them to the fword, and made 10,600 prifoners ; all 
 the inhabitants of the country, who could not retire 
 to Carthage, having taken refuge in this camp. After 
 this, he laid fiege to Nepheris, which was reduced in 
 22 days. Afdrubal being diflieartened by the defeat 
 of the army, and touched with the mifery of the be- 
 fieged now reduced to the utmoft extremity for want 
 of provifions, offered to fubmit to what conditions the 
 Romans pleafed, provided the city was fpared ; but 
 this was abfolutely refufed. 
 
 Early in, the fpring, iEmilianus renewed the fiege 
 of Carthage ; and in order to open himfelf a way into 
 the city, he ordered Ltellus to attempt the redudlion 
 of Cotho, a fmall ifland which divided the two ports. 
 iEmilianus himfelf made a falfe attack on tlie'citadel,, 
 in order to draw the enemy thither. This ftratagem 
 had the defired effeft ; for the citadel being a place of 
 the greateft importance, moil of the Carthaginians 
 haftened thither, and made their utmoft efforts to re- 
 pulfe their aggreffors. But in the mean time Laelius 
 liaving, with inctedible expedition, built a wooden 
 
 13 ] C A R 
 
 bridge over tlie channel which divided Cotho from the Cart hage;^ 
 ifthinus, entered the ifland, foaled the walls of the ^'"^ 
 fortrefs which the Carthaginians had built there, and 
 made himfelf mafter of that important poft. The pro- 
 conful, who was engaged before Byrfa, no fooner un- 
 derftood, by the loud fliouts of the troops of LaeHus, 
 that he hud made himfelf mafter of Cotho, thap he ^ 
 abandoned the falfe attack, and unexpeftedly fell on j^^^^;^^ ^^^^ 
 the neighbouring gate of the city, which he broke ter the city, 
 down, notwithftanding the fliowers of darts that were 
 inceflantly difcharged upon his men from the ramparts. 
 As night coming on prevented him from proceeding 
 farther, he made a lodgment within the gate, and 
 waited there for the return of day, with a defign to 
 advance through the city to the citadel, and attack it 
 on that fide which was but indifferently fortified. Pur- 
 fiiant to this defign, at day-break he ordered 4000 
 frefh troops to be fent from his camp, and, having fo- 
 lemnly devoted to the infernal gods the unhappy Car- 
 thaginians, he began to advance at the head of his 
 men, through the ftreets of the city, in order to at- 
 tack the citadel. Having advanced to the market- 
 place, he found that the way to the citadel lay through, 
 three exceeding fleep ftreets. The houfes on both, 
 fides were very high, and filled with Carthaginians, 
 who overwhelmed the Romans as they advanced with 
 darts and ftones ; fo that they could not proceed till 
 they had cleared them. To this end jEmihanus in 
 perfon, at the head of a detachment, attacked the firft 
 houfe, and made himfelf mafter of it fword in hand. 
 His example was followed by the officers and foldiers, 
 who went on from houfe to houfe, putting all they 
 met with to the fword. As faft as the houfes were 
 cleared on both fides, the Romans advanced in order of 
 battle towards the citadel ; but met v/ith a vigorous re- 
 fiftance from the Carthaginians, who on this occafion 
 behaved with uncommon refolution. From the market- 
 place to the citadel, two bodies of men fought their 
 way every ftep, one above on the roofs of the houfes, 
 the other below in the ftreets. The flaughter was in- 
 expreffibly great and dreadful. The air rung with 
 fhrieks and lamentations. Some were cut in pieces, 
 others threw themfelves down from the tops of the 
 houfes ; fq that the ftreets were filled with dead and 
 mangled bodies. But the deftruftion was yet greater, wi^jc^f 
 when the proconful commanded fire to be fet to that fet on fire^ 
 quarter of the town which lay next to the citadel. 
 Incredible multitudes, who had efcaped the fwords of 
 the enemy, perifhed in the flames, or by the fall of the 
 houfes. After the fire, which lafted fix days, had de- 
 moHlhed a fufficlent number of houfes, jEmilianus or- 
 dered the rubbifh to he removed, and a large area to 
 be made, where all his troops might have room to 
 aft. Then he appeared v/ith his whole army before 
 Byrfa; which, fo terrified the Carthaginians, who had 
 fled thither for refuge, that firft of all 25,000 women, 
 and then 30,000 men, came out of the gates in fuch- 
 a conditit)n as moved pity. They threw themfelves 
 proftrate before the Romair- general, aflcing no favour 
 but life. This was readily granted, not only to them, 
 but to all that were in Byrfa, except the Roman de- 
 ferters, whofe number amounted to 900. Afdrubal's 
 wife earneftly intreated her hufljand to fuffer her toCruebyand 
 join the fuppliants, and carry with her to the pro- cowardic-.. 
 conful her two fons, who v>'ere as yet very young ; ^^j'^^''^'' 
 
CAR [ 214 ] 
 
 Carthage, but tlie barbarian denied her requell, and rejefted her quired 
 ^""^ remonftrances with menaces. The Roman deferters 
 feeing themfelves exchided from mercy, refolved to die 
 f>vord in hand, rather than dchVer themfelves up to the 
 vengeance of their countrymen. Then Afdrubal, find- 
 ing them all refolved to defend themfelves to the lafl 
 breath, committed to their care his wife and children ; 
 after which he, in a moft cowardly and mean-fpirited 
 manner, came and privately threw himfclf at the con- 
 queror's feet. The Carthaginians in the citadel no 
 fooner underftood that their commander had abandoned 
 
 CAR 
 
 on fuch occafions : he firft facrlficed to the Carthage, 
 gods, and then caufed a plough to be drawn round 
 the walls of the city. After this, the towers, ramparts, 
 walls, and all the works which the Cnrthagfinians had 
 
 175 
 
 wife de- 
 llroy= her- 
 felf and two 
 chiidiei'. 
 
 176 
 
 Ca- tliage, 
 j-'Iiindcred, 
 
 the place, than they threw open the gates, and put 
 the Romans in pofTeflion of Byrf;'. They had now 
 no enemy to contend with but the 900 deferters ; who, 
 being reduced to defpair, retreated into the temple of 
 JEfculapius, which was as a fecond temple within the 
 firtt. There the proconiul attacked them ; and thefe 
 unhappy wretches, finding there was n * way to efcape, 
 fet fire to the temple. As the flames h.rcad, they re- 
 treated from one part of the building to another, till 
 they got to the roof. There Afdrubal's wife appeared 
 in her bell apparel, and having uttered the moit bitter 
 imprecations againil her hufband, whom flie faw Hand- 
 ing below with yEmiUanus, " Bafe coward (laid ihe), 
 the mean things thou haft done to fave thy life fhall 
 not avail thee : thou fhalt die this inftant, at leaft in 
 thy tvvo children." Having thus fpoken, ^he ftabbed 
 both the infants with a dagger; and while tliey were 
 yet ilruggling for hi^, threw them both from the top 
 of the ten^ple, and then leaped down after them into 
 the flames. 
 
 jlimihanus dehvered up the city to be plundered, 
 but in t})e manner prefcribed by the Roman military 
 law. Tie foldiers were allowed to appropriate to 
 themfeh-cs all the furniture, utenfils, and brafs money, 
 they fliould find in private houfes : but all the gold 
 and filver, the ftatues, pidures, &c. were referved to 
 be put into the hands of the qujeftors. On this occa- 
 fion the cities of Sicily, which had been often plundered 
 by the Carthaginian armies, recovered a number of 
 ftatues, pitlures, and other valuable monuments : a- 
 inong the reft, the famous brafen bull, which Phalaris 
 had ordered to be caft, and ufed as the chief inftru- 
 ment of his cruelty, was reftored to the inhabitants of 
 Agrigentum. As jEmiliaiuis was greatly incfined to 
 fpare what remained of this ftately metropolis, he wrote 
 to the iVnate on the fubjed, from ^vhom he received 
 the following orders: i. The city of Carthage, w^ith 
 Byrfa, and Megaiia, fliall be entirely deftroyed, and 
 flo traces of them left. 2. Ail the cities that have 
 lent Caithage any affiftance fliall be difmantled. 3. 
 The territories of thofe cities which have declared for 
 the Romans, fliall be enlarged with lands taken from 
 the enemy. 4. All the lands between Hippo and 
 Carthage fliall be divided among the inhabitants of 
 Utica. 5. All the Africans of tlie Carthaginian Hate, 
 both men and women, fliall pay an annual tribute to 
 -the Romans at fo much per head. 6. The v.'hole 
 country, which was fubjedl to the Cartliaginian ftate, 
 fliaU be turned into a Roman province, and be governed 
 by a prffitor, in the fame manner as Sicily. Lalcly, 
 ■Rome flaall fend commifii oners into Africa, there to 
 fettle jointly Avith the proconful the ftate of the new 
 provinre. Before iEmihanus deftroyed the city, he 
 performed thofe religious ceremonies vvhicli were rc- 
 
 177 
 And utter 
 
 railed in the courie of many ages, and at a vaft ex- ed. 
 pence, were levelled with the ground ; and laftly, fire 
 was let to the edifices of the proud metropolis, which 
 confumed them all, not a fingle houfe efcaping the 
 flames. Though the fire began in all quarters at the 
 fame time, and burnt with incredible fui:y, it con- 
 tinued for 17 days before all the buildings were con- 
 fumed. 
 
 Thus fell Carthage, about 146 years before the 
 birth of Chrift ; a city whofe deftruftion ought to be 
 attributed more to the intrigues of an abandoned fac- 
 tion, compofed of the moft profligate part of its citi- 
 zens, than to the power of its rival. The treafure 
 ^mihanus carried off, even after the city had been 
 delivered up to be plundered by the foldiers, was im- 
 menie, Pliny making it to amount to 4,470,000 pounds 
 weight of filver. The Romans ordered Carthage ne- 
 ver to be inhabited again, denouncing dreadful im- 
 precations againft thofe who, contrary to this pro- 
 hibition, fliould attempt to rebuild any part of it, e- 
 fpecially Byrfa and Megaiia. Notwithftanding this, 
 however^^about 24 years after, C. Gracchus, tribune Rebuilt, 
 of the people, in order to ingratiate himfelf with them, 
 undertook to rebuild it ; and, to that end, conduced 
 thither a colony of 6000 Roman citizens. The work- 
 men, according to Plutarch, were terrified by many 
 unlucky omens at the time they were tracing the limits 
 and hying the foundations of the new city ; which 
 the fenate being informed of, would have fufpended 
 the attempt. But the tribune, httle affefted with fuch 
 prefages, continued to carry on the work, and finiflied 
 it in a few days. From hence it is probable that only 
 a flight kind of huts were ereft ed ; but, whether 
 Gracchus executed liis defign, or the work was entire- 
 ly difcontinued, it is certain, _that Cai thage was the 
 firft Roman colony ever fent out of Italy. According 
 to fome authors, Carthage was rebuilt by Juhus Ca;far ; 
 and Strabo, who flourifiied in tlie reign of Tiberius, 
 affirms it in his time to have been equal if not fupe- 
 rior to any other city in Africa. It was looked upon 
 as the capital of Africa for feveral centuries after the 
 commencement of the Chrlftian rera. IMaxentius laid 
 it in aflies aboutlhe fixth or feventh year of Conftan- 
 tine's reign. Genferie, king of the Vandals, took it ITttcrl . .3 
 
 afterwards it was'-''"y " ' 
 
 renowned ^^^'^ 
 under Mohammed's 
 
 hy the 
 
 A. D. 439 ; but about a century 
 re-annexed to the Roman empire 
 Ikhfarins. At laft the Saracens, 
 fuccelTors, towards the clofe of the feventh century, 
 lo completely dellroyed it, that there are now fcarce 
 any traces remaining. 
 
 At the conmiencement of the third Punic war, 
 Carthage appears to have been one of the firft cities in ^g^^ 
 the v\".-rld. — It was feated on a peninfula 36oftadia orit^ ancient 
 45 mile^s in circumference, joined to the continent by grandeur, 
 an ifthmus 23 ftadia or three miles and a furlong in 
 breadth. On the weit fide there projefted from it a 
 long tra£l ox land lialf a ftadium broad ; which flioot- 
 ing out into the fea, feparated it from a lake er mo- 
 rais, and was ftrongly fortified on all fides by recks and 
 a iingle wall, in the mJddle of the city ftood the ci- 
 tadel of Byrfa, having on the top of it a temulf facred 
 
 to 
 
CAR [ 21 
 
 Carth?^e. to ^fculapius, feated upon rocks on a very high LllI, 
 ''V~~~' to which the afceat was by 60 fteps. On the fouth 
 fide the city was furrounded by a triple wall, cu- 
 bits high ; flanked all round by parapets and towers, 
 placed at equal ditlances of 480 feet. Every tower 
 had its foundation funk 32 feet deep, . and was four 
 ftories high, though the walls were but two : they 
 were arched ; and, in the lower part, con-efponding 
 in depth with the foundations above mentioned, were 
 ftails large enough to hold 300 elephants with their 
 fodder, &c. Over thefe were flails and other conve- 
 niences for 4000 horfes; and there was likewife room 
 for lodging 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry, without 
 in the kali incommoding the inhabitants. There were 
 two harbours, fo difpofed as to have a communication 
 with one another. They had one common entrance 
 70 feet broad, and fhut up with chains. The firil was 
 appropriated to the merchants ; and included in it a 
 vaft number of places of refrefhment, and all kinds of 
 accommodations for feamen. The fecond, as well as 
 the ilJand of Cothon, in the midft of it, was lined 
 with large keys, in which were diftinft receptacles for 
 fecuring and fheltering from the weather 220 iliips of 
 war. Over thefe were magazines of all forts of naval 
 Itores. The entrance into each of thefe receptacles 
 was adorned with two marble pillars of the Ionic or- 
 der ; fo that both the harbour and ifland reprefented 
 on each fide two magnificent galleries. Near this 
 ifland was a tem.ple of Apollo, in which was a ftatue of 
 the god all of mafTy gold; and the inlide of the temple 
 all lined with plates of the fame metal, weighing 1 000 
 talents. The city was 23 miles in circumference, and 
 at the time we fpeak of contained 700,000 inhabitants. 
 Of their power we may have fome idea, by the quan- 
 tity of arms they delivered up to the Roman confuls. 
 The whole army was aflonifhed at the long train of 
 carts loaded witn them, which were thought fufBcient 
 to have armed all Africa. At leaft it is certain, that 
 on this occafion were put into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, 2000 catapults, 200,000 complete fuits of ar- 
 mour, with an innumerable quantity of fwords, darts, 
 javelins, arrows, and beams armed with iron which 
 were thrown from the ramparts by the baliftas. 
 
 The characler tranfmitted of the Carthaginians is 
 extremel)' bad; but we have it only on the authority 
 of the Romans, who being their implacable enemies 
 cannot be much relied upon. As to their religion, 
 manners, &c. being much the fame with the Phoeni- 
 cians of which they were a colony, the reader is re- 
 ferred for an account of thefe things to tke article 
 Phoenicia. 
 
 On the ruins of Carthage there now Hands only a 
 linall village called Melcha. The few remains of Car- 
 thage conlifl only of fome fragments of walls and 1 7 
 cifterns for the reception of rain-water. 
 
 There are three eminences, which are fo many maf- 
 fes of fine marbles pounded together, and were in all 
 probability the lites of temples and other difiinguifh- 
 ed buildings. The prefent ruins are by no means the 
 remains of the ancient city deftroyed by the Romans ; 
 who after taking it entirely erafed it, and ploughed up 
 the very foundations: fo truly they adhered to the 
 well-known advice perpetually inculcated by Cato the 
 Elder, Delenda eft Carthago. It was again rebuilt by 
 the Gracchi family, who conduced a colony to re- 
 people it ; and continually increafing. in fplendour, it 
 
 si CAR 
 
 became at length the capital of Africa under the Ro- New-Car- 
 man emperors. It /ublifted near 700 years after its,, '''^S*^' , 
 r n ^ \- • m • • i i ii 11 1 Carthaecnaa 
 
 nrit demolition, until it was entirely deltroyecl by the ^ ' , 
 
 Saracens in the beginning of the 7th century. 
 
 It is a fingular circiimllance that the two cities of 
 Carthage and Rome flrould have been built juft op- 
 pofite one to the other ; the bay of Tunis and the 
 mouth of the Tiber being in a direil line. 
 
 I/ittora liitoribus corJraria, Jludlbus nnclasy 
 
 Anna armis. Virg. Mn. i. 4. 
 
 ARTHAGEf a confiderablc town of Mexico, in 
 the province of Collarica. It is a very rich trading 
 place. W. Long. 86. 7. N. Lat. 9. 5. 
 
 CARTHAGENA, a province of South America^ 
 and one of the moft confiderable in New Cafiile, oa 
 account of the great trade carried on by the capital ; 
 for the country itfelf is neitlier fertile, rich, nor popu- 
 lous. 1'he capital city, called likewife Cartbagcna, i$ 
 fituated in W. Long. 77. N. Lat. 11. on a fandy ifland, 
 by moil writers called a peninfula ; which, forming a 
 narrow paffage on the fouth-weft, opens a communi- 
 cation with that called Tierra Bomha, as far as Bocca 
 Ch'ica. The little ifland which now joins them was- 
 formerly the entrance of the bay ; but it having been 
 filled up by orders of the court, Bocca Chica became 
 the only entrance : this, how^ever, has been filled up- 
 fince the attempt of Vernon and Wentworth, and the 
 old paffage again opened. On the north fide the 
 land is fo narrow, that, before the wall was begun, 
 the diflance from fea to fea was only 35 toifes ; but 
 afterwards enlarging, it forms another ifland on this 
 fide ; fo that, excepting thefe two places, the whole 
 city is entirely furrounded by falt-water. To the eaft- 
 ward it has a communication, by means of a wooden 
 bridge, with a large fuburb called Xeniarn, built on 
 another ifland, which is alfo Joined to the continent 
 by a bridge of the fam.e materials. The fortifications 
 both of the city and fuburbs are built after the mo- 
 dern manner, and lined with free-ftone ; and, in tfrne 
 of peace, the garrifon conlifls of ten companies of 77 
 men each, befides militia. The city ar^d fuburbs are 
 well laid out, the ftreets ftraight, broad, imlform, and- 
 well paved. All the houles are built of flone or brick, 
 only one ftor3/ high, well contrived, neat, and furnifh- 
 ed with balconies and lattices of wood, which Is more 
 durable in that climate than iron, the latter being f ioa 
 corroded by the acrimonious quality of the iitmo-- 
 fphere. The climate is exceedingly unhealthy., Tha 
 Europeans are particularly fubjeft to the terrible dif— 
 eafe called the black Vivvit, which fweeps off' multitudes 
 annually on the arrival of the galleons. It feldoni 
 continues above three or four days; in which time the 
 patient is either dead or out of danger,, and if he reco- 
 vers is never fubjeft to a return of the fame diflemper. 
 — This dif cafe has hitherto foiled all the art of th-2- 
 Spanifh phyficians ; as has alfo the ieprofy, which is 
 very common here. At Carthagena, likewife, that 
 painful tumour in the legs, occafioned by the entrance 
 of the Dracvnculus or Guinea-worm, is veiy commoit 
 and troublefome. Another diforder peculiar to this 
 country, and to Peru, is occafioned by a httle infeft 
 called N'lgua, fo extremely minute, as fcarce to be vi- 
 fible to the naked eye. Thisinfedl breeds in the daft, 
 inflnuates itfelf into the foles of the feet and the legs, 
 piercing the Ikin with fuclx fubtilty, that there is no 
 
CAR [ 2 
 
 Carthag-err. Ijeing aware of" it, before it lias made it s way to tlie 
 Carthannis fl^fli, Jf Jt is perceived in the begianing, it is extrafted 
 ""^^ with little pain ; but having once lodged its head, and 
 pierced the flcin , the patient muft undergo the pain of an 
 incifion, without which a nodus would be formed, and 
 a multitude of infefts ingendered, which would foon 
 overfpread the foot and leg. One fpccies of the ni^ua 
 is venomous ; and when it enters the toe, an inflam- 
 matory fwelling, greatly refem.bling a vencrealbubo, takes 
 place in the groin. 
 
 CarthactEna, a fea-port town of Spain in the 
 kingdom of Murcia, and capital of a territory of the 
 fame name; built by Afdrubal, a Carthaginian general, 
 and named after Carthage. It has the heft liarbour 
 in all Spain, but nothing elfe very confiderable ; the 
 bifhop's fee being transferred to Toledo. In 1706 
 iit was taken by Sir John Leak ; but the Duke of 
 J3cnvick retook it afterwards. W.Long. 0.58. N. 
 Lat. 37. 36. 
 
 CARTHAMUS, in botany : A genus of the or- 
 der of polygamia fpqualis, belonging to the fyngenefia 
 clafs of plants, and in the natural method ranking un- 
 der the 49th order, Compoftte. The calyx is ovate, 
 imbricated with fcales, clofe below, and augmented with 
 Tubovate foliaceous appendices at top. — Of this genus 
 there are nine fpecies ; but the only remarkable one is 
 the tinftorius, with a fafPron-coloured flower. This 
 is a native of Egypt and fome of the warm parts of 
 Afia. It is at prefent cultivated in many parts of Eu- 
 rope, and alfo in the Levant, from whence great quan- 
 tities of it are annually imported into Britain for the 
 purpofes of dyeing and painting. It is an animal 
 plant, and rifes with a ftffF ligneous ftalk, about two 
 feet and a half or three feet in height, dividing up- 
 wards into many branches, garniflied with oval point- 
 ed leaves fitting clofe to the branches. The flowers 
 grow fingle at the extremity of each branch ; the heads 
 of the flowers are large, inclofed in a fcaly empalement; 
 each fcale is broad at the bafe, flat, and formed like 
 a leaf of the plant, terminating in a fharp fpine. 'The 
 lower part of the empalement fpreads open ; but the 
 fcales above clofely embrace the florets, which ai'e of 
 a fine faffron colour, and are the part ufed for tlie 
 purpofes above mentioned. The good quality of tlu's 
 commodity is in the colour, which is of a bright faf- 
 fron hue : and in this the Britifh carthamus veiy oft- 
 en fails ; for if there happens much rain during the 
 time the plants are in flower, the flowers change to 
 a dark or dirty yellow, as they likewife do if the 
 flowei"S are gathered with any moifl:ure remaining upon 
 them. — The plants are propagated by feeds, which 
 fhould be fown in drills, at two feet and a half diilance 
 from one another, in which the feeds fhould be fcat- 
 tered fingly. The plants will appear in lefs than a 
 month ; and in three weeks or a month after, it will 
 be proper to hoe the ground ; at which time the plants 
 fhould be left fix inches diftant : after this they will 
 require a fecond hoeing ; vi'hen they muft be thinned 
 to the diftance at which they are to remain. If after 
 this they are hoed a third time, they will require no 
 farther care till they come to flower ; when, if the 
 fafilower is intended for ufe, the florets fhould be cut 
 off from the flowers as they come to perfeftion : but 
 this muft be performed when they are perfeftly diy ; 
 5\nd then they flmuld be dried in a kiln with a mode- 
 rate fire, in the fame manner as the true faffron. But 
 
 N 66. 5 
 
 6 ] CAR 
 
 in thofe flowers which are propagated for feeil?, the CarthuH 
 florets mufl be cut oft", or the feeds will prove abor- 
 tive. — The feeds of carthamus have been celebrated as 
 a cathartic ; but they operate very flowly, and for the 
 moft part diforder the ftomach and bowels, efpecially 
 when given in fubftance : triturated with dillilled aro- 
 matic waters, they form an emulfion lefs offenfive, yet 
 inferior in efficacy to the more common purgatives. 
 They are eaten by a fpecies of Egyptian parrot, which 
 is very fond of them ; to other birds or beafts they 
 would prove a mortal poifon. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS, a religious order founded in 
 the year 1080, by One Brudo. The Carthufians, fo 
 called from the defert of Chartreiix, the place of their 
 inftitution, are remarkable for the auflei-ity of their 
 rule. They ai-e not to go out of their cells, except ti> 
 church, without leave of their fuperior j nor fpeak to 
 any perfoa without leave. They mufl not keep any 
 portion of their meat or drink till next day ; their beds 
 are of ftraw, covered with a felt ; their cloathing two 
 hair-cloths, two cowls, two pair of hofe, and a cloke, 
 all coarfe. In the refeftory, they are to keep their 
 eyes on the difh, their hands on the table, their atten- 
 tion on the reader, and their hearts fixed on God. 
 Women are not allowed to come into their churches. 
 It is computed that there are 172 houfes of Carthu- 
 fians ; whereof five are of Nuns, who praAife the fame 
 aufterities as the Monks. They are divided into 16 
 provinces, each of which has two vifitors. There have 
 been feveral canonized faints of this order, four cardi- 
 nals, 70 archbifhops and bifhops, and a great many 
 very learned writers. 
 
 CARTHusiAN-Poivder, the fame with kennes-mincral. 
 See Kermes. 
 
 CARTILAGE, in anatomy, a body approaching 
 to the nature of bones ; but lubricous, flexible, and 
 elattic. See Anatomy. 
 
 CARTILAGINOUS, in ichthyology, a title given 
 to all fifh whofe mufcles are fupported by cartilages Br'it. Zx 
 inftead of bones ; and comprehends the fame genera HI 75. 
 of fifli to which iinnceus has given the name of am- 
 ph'ilia nantcs : but the word amphil'ia ought properly 
 to be confined to fuch aniraals as inhabit both ele- 
 ments ; and can live, without any inconvenience, for 
 a confiderable time, eitlier on land or in water ; fuch 
 as tortoifes, frogs, and feveral fpecies of lizards ; and, 
 among the quadrupeds, hippopotami, <^c. iffc. 
 
 Many of the cartilaginous fiih are viviparous, being 
 excluded from an egg, which is hatched within them. 
 The egg confifts of a white and a yolk ; and is lodged 
 in a cafe formed of a thick tough fubftance, not unlike 
 foftened horn : fuch are the eggs of the raj and JJoark 
 kinds. Some again differ in this refpeft, and arc ovi- 
 parous ; fuch is the Jlurgeon, and others. 
 
 They breathe either through certain apertures be- 
 neath, as in the rays ; on their fides, as in the Jharksf \ 
 8cc. ; or on the top of the head, as in the pipe-Jijlo : 
 for they have not covers to their gills like the bony 
 fifli. 
 
 CARTMEL, a town of LancaO-iire in England. 
 It is feated among the hills called Carmel-fells, not far 
 from the fea, and near the river Kent ; adorned with 
 a very handfome churcli, built in the form of a crofs 
 like a cathedral. The market is well fupplied with 
 corn, fheep, andfifli. W. Long. 2. 43. N. Lat, 54. 15. 
 
 CARTON, or Cartoon, in painting,^ a defiga 
 
 draw a 
 
CAR { n 
 
 Curfon, drawn on flrong paper, to be afterwards calked through, 
 touc e. ^j^j transferred on the frefh plafter of a wall to be 
 painted in frefco. It is alfo ufed for a defign coloured, 
 for working in mofaic, tapeftry, is'c. The word is 
 from the Italian Cartoni, (carta " paper," and oni 
 " large,") denoting many flieets of paper palled on 
 canvas, on which large defigns are made, whether co- 
 loured or with clialks only. Of thefe many are to be 
 feen at Rome, particularly by Domenichino. Thofe by 
 Andrea Mantegna, which are at Hampton Court, were 
 made for paintings in the old ducal palace at Mantua. 
 Eut the moll famous performances of this fort are. 
 
 The Cartoons of Raphael, fo defervedly applauded 
 throughout Europe by all authors of refined tatte, and 
 all true admirers of the art of defign, for their various 
 and matchlefs merit, particularly with regard to the 
 invention, and to the great and noble expreflion of 
 fuch a variety of charadlers, countenances, and moll 
 exprefilve attitudes, as they are differently affedled and 
 properly engaged, in every compofition. Thefe car- 
 toons are feven in number, and form only a fmall part 
 of the facred lullorical defigns executed by this great 
 artill, while engaged in the chambers of the Vatican 
 under the aufpices of Popes Julius II. and Leo X. 
 When finillied, they were fent to Flanders, to be co- 
 pied in tapeftry, for adorning the pontifical apartments : 
 which tapeftries were not fent to Rome till feveral 
 years after the deceafe of Raphael, and even in all 
 probability were not finifhed and fent there before the 
 terrible fack of that city in the time of Clement VII. 
 when Raphael's fcholars were fled from thence, and 
 none left to enquire after the original Cartoons, which 
 lay negleAed in the ftore-rooms of the manufadlory. 
 The great revolution alfo which followed in the Low 
 Countries prevented their being noticed amidll the en- 
 tire negleft of the works of art. It was therefore a 
 moft fortunate circumllance that thefe feven efcaped 
 the wreck of the others, which were torn in pieces, 
 and remain difperfed as fragments in dilferent collec- 
 tions. Thefe feven were purchafed by Rubens for 
 Charles I. and they have been fo roughly handled 
 '* from the firft, that holes were pricked for the weavers 
 to pounce the outlines, and other parts almoll cut 
 through in tracing alfo. In this ftate perhaps they as 
 fortunately efcaped the fale amongft the royal collec- 
 tion, by the difproportioned appraifement of thefe 
 feven at 300 1. and the nine pieces, being the Triumph 
 of Julius Casfar, by Andrea Mantegna, appraifed at 
 loool. They feem to have been taken fmall notice 
 of till King William built a gallery, purpofely to re- 
 ceive them, at Hampton Court ; whence they were 
 moved, on their fuffering from damps, to the Queen's 
 Palace. They are now at Windfor Caftle, and open 
 to public infpeftion. 
 
 CARTOUCHE, in architeftufe and fculpture, an 
 ornament reprefenting a fcroll of paper. It is ufually 
 a flat member, with wavings, to reprefent fome in- 
 fcription, device, cipher, or ornament of armoury. 
 They are, in architedlm'e, much the fame as modil- 
 iions ; only thefe are fet under the cornice in wainf- 
 cotting, and thofe under the cornice at the eaves of a 
 houfe. 
 
 Cartouche, in the military art^ a cafe of wood, 
 ;.bout three inches tlaick at the bottom, girt with mar- 
 lin, holding about four hundred mu fleet-balls, befides 
 
 VouIVPartL 
 
 17 ) GAR 
 
 fix or eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to be Cartridge 
 fired out of a hobit, for the defence of a pafs, csf^. Car'ler 
 
 A cartouche is fometimes made of a globular form, ^ . ' . 
 and filled with a ball of a pound weight ; and fome- 
 times it is made for the guns, being of a ball of half 
 or quarter a pound weight, according to the nature of 
 the gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a tom- 
 pion of wood, and coated over. Thefe were made in 
 the room of partridge-lhot. 
 
 CARTRIDGE, in the militaiy art, a cafe of pafte* 
 board or parchment, holding the exa6l charge of a 
 fire-arm. Thofe for muflcets, carabines, and pillols, 
 hold both the powder and ball for the charge ; and 
 thofe of cannon and mortars are ufually in cafes of 
 palleboard or tin, fometimes of wood, half a foot long, 
 adapted to the caliber of the piece. 
 
 CiRTRiDGE-Boxy a cafc of wood or turned iron, co- 
 vered with leather, holding a dozen muflcet-cartridges. 
 It is wore upon a belt, and hangs a little lower than 
 the right pocket-hole. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT (WiUiam) an eminent divine 
 and poet, born at Northway, near Tewklbury, in 
 Gloucellerfliire, in September 161 1. He finiflied his 
 education at Oxford ; afterwards went into holy or- 
 ders, and became a moft florid preacher in the univer- 
 fity. In 1642, he had the place of fuccentor in the 
 church of Salilbury ; and, in 1643, was chofen junior 
 pro6lor in the univerfity. He was alfo metaphyfical 
 reader there. Wit, judgment, elocution, a graceful 
 perfon and behaviour, occafioned that encomium of 
 hira from dean Fell, " That -he was the utmoft that 
 " man could come to." He was an expert linguilt ; 
 an excellent orator ; and at the fame time was elteem- 
 ed an admirable poet. There are extant of his, four 
 plays, and fome poems. He died in 1643, aged 33. 
 
 CARVAGE, car-vagium, the fame with Carru- 
 
 CAGE. 
 
 Henry III. is fald to have, taken carvage, that is 
 two marks of filver of every knight's fee, towards the 
 marriage of his fifter Ifabella to the emperor. Car- 
 vage could only be impofed on the tenants in capite. 
 
 Carvage alfo denotes a privilege whereby a man 
 is exempted from the fervice of carrucage. 
 
 CARUCATURIUS, in ancient law books, he that 
 held land in foccage, or by plough tenure. 
 
 CARUCATE. See Carrucate. 
 
 CARVER, a cutter of figures or other devices in 
 wood. See Carving. 
 
 Carvers anfwer to what the Romans called fculptoresf 
 who were different from c^elatores, or engravers, as thefe 
 laft wrought in metal. 
 
 Carver is alfo an officer of the table, whofe bufi- 
 nefs is to cut up the meat, and diftribute it to the 
 guefts. The word is formed from the Latin carptor^ 
 which fignifies the fame^ The Romans alfo called 
 him carpus.^ fometimes fcjjfor^ fcindendi magijler^ and 
 JlruBor. 
 
 In the great families at Rome, the carver was an 
 officer of fome figure. There were mailers to teach 
 them the art regularly, by means of figures of animals 
 cut in wood. The Greeks alfo had their carvers, cal- 
 led SixTpoi, q. d, deribitores, or dijlribuiors . In the pri- 
 mitive times, the mailer of the feall carved for all his 
 guefts. Thus in Homer, when Agamemnon's ambaf- 
 fadors were entertained at Achilles's table, the hero 
 E e himfeW 
 
Carul 
 f( 
 
 Carum. 
 
 GAR [21 
 
 himfelf carved the meat. Of later times, the fame of- 
 fice on folemn occafions was executed by fomc of the 
 chief men of Sparta. Some derive the cuftom of dif- 
 ttibuting to every gueft his portion, from thofe eaily 
 ages when the Greeks firft left off feeding on acorns, 
 and learned the ufe of corn : The new diet was fo 
 great a delicacy, that to prevent the guells from quar- 
 relling about it, it was found neceffary to make a fair 
 diilribution. 
 
 In Scotland, the king has a hereditary carver in the 
 family of Anftruther. 
 
 CARUI, or Carvi, In botany. See Carum. 
 
 CARVING, in a general fenfe, the art or a£l; of 
 cutting or fafhionlng a hard body, by means of fome 
 lharp inftrument, efpecial'y a chlffel. In this fenfe 
 carving includes ftatuary and engraving, as well as cut- 
 ting in wood. 
 
 Carving, in a more particular fenfe, is the art of 
 engraving or cutting figures in wood. In this fenfe 
 carvingy according to Pliny, is prior both to ftatuary 
 and painting. 
 
 To carve a figure or defign, it muft be firft drawn 
 or pafted on the wood ; which done, the reft of the 
 block, not covered by the lines of the defign, are to 
 be cut away with little narrow-pointed knives. The 
 wood fitteft for the ufe is that which is hard, tough> 
 and clofe, as beech, but efpecially box : to prepare 
 it for drawing the defign on, they wafh it over with 
 white- lead tempered in water; which better enables 
 k either to bear ink or the crayon, or even to take 
 the imprelTion by chalking. When the defign is-to 
 be pafted on the wood, this whitening is omitted, and 
 they content themfelves with feeing the wood well 
 planed. Then wiping over the printed fide of the fi- 
 gure with gum tragacanth dlflblvcd in water, they dap 
 it fmooth on the wood, and let it dry ; which done, 
 they wet it flightly over, and fret off the furface of the 
 paper gently, till all the fttokes of the figrure appear 
 diftinftly. This done, they fall to cutting or car- 
 vlrg, as above. 
 
 CARUM, in botany: A genus of the digynia order, 
 belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and m 
 the natural method ranking under the 45th order, 
 Umlellatte. The fruit is ovate, oblong, and ftriated ; 
 the involucrum monophyllous ; the petals are carinated 
 or keel-ftiaped below, and emarginated by their in- 
 flexion. 
 
 Species, &c. I. The carui, or caraway of the fhops, 
 grows naturally in many places of Britain. It is a bien- 
 nial plant, which rifes from feeds one year, flowers the 
 next, and perifhes foon after the feeds are ripe. It 
 hath a taper root like a parfnip, but much fmaller, 
 which runs deep into the ground, fending out many 
 fmall fibres, and hath a ftrong aromatic tafte. From 
 the root arifes one or two fmooth, folid, channelled 
 ftalks, about two feet high, garnifhed with winged 
 leaves, having long naked foot-ftalks. 2. The hif- 
 panicum is alfo a biennial, and is a native of Spain. 
 It rifes with a ftronger ftalk than the former, which 
 feldom grows more than a foot and half high ; but is 
 clofely garnifhed with fine narrow leaves like thofe of 
 dill. Both thefe plants are propagated by feeds, 
 which ought to be fown in autumn. Sheep, goata, 
 and fwine, eat this plant ; cows and horfes are not 
 fond of it. Parkinfon fays, the young roots of cara- 
 
 Gary. 
 
 8 ] CAR 
 
 way are better eating than parfnips. The tender Caruncula 
 leaves may be boiled with pot herbs. The feeds have 
 an aromatic ftnell, and a warm pungent tnfte. They _ 
 are ufed in cakes, incrufttd with Ir.gar, as fweet-medts, 
 and diftilled with fpiritnous liquors, for the fake of the 
 flavour they afford. They are in the number of the 
 four greater hot feeds ; and frequently employed, as :i 
 ftomachic and carminative, in flatulent colics and the 
 hke. 
 
 CARUNCULA, or caruncle, m anatomy, a term 
 denoting a little piece of fleih, and applied to feveral 
 parts of the human body. Thus, 
 
 Caruncula Myrtlformes, in anatomy, fleftiy knobs 
 about the fize of a myrtle -berry, fuppofed to owe their* 
 origin to the breaking of the hymen. See Anatomy, 
 n° 108. 
 
 Carunclks in the urethra, proceeding from a go- 
 norrhoea, or an ulceration of the urethra, may be re- 
 duced by introducing the bougie. 
 
 CARUS, a fudden deprivation of fenfe and motion, 
 affefting the whole body. See (the Inddx fubjoiued to) 
 Mfdicinf,. 
 
 Car us (Marcus Aurelius), was raifed from a low 
 ftation, by his great merit, to be emperor of Rome iti 
 282. He ftiowed himftlf woithy of the empire ; fub- 
 dued its enemies ; and gave the Romans a profped. of 
 happy days, when he waii unfortunately killed by light- 
 ning in 2-84. 
 
 CARWAR, a town of Afia, on the coaft of Mala- 
 bar in the Eaft Indies, and where the Eaft India com- 
 pany have a faftory, fortified with two baftions. The 
 valleys about it abound in corn and pepper, which 
 laft is the beft in the Eaft Indies. The woods on 
 the mountains abound with quadrupeds, fach as ty- 
 gers, wolves, monkeys, wild hogs, deer, elks, and a fort 
 of beeve:> of a prodigious fize. The religion of the 
 natives is Paganifm ; and they have a great many 
 ftrangs and fuperftitious cuftoms. E. Long. 7^. 7. 
 N. Lat. I 5. o. 
 
 CARYA-A-E, (Stephanas); Carya, d;rwOT,(Paufanias); 
 a town of Laconia, between Sparta and the borders of 
 Meflcnia : where ftood a temple of Diana, thence call- 
 ed Caryatlsy idis ; whofe annual feftival, called CaryUf 
 orum, was celebrated by Spartan virgins with dances. 
 An inhabitant, Caryates, and Caryatis ; Caryat'is ap'is^ a 
 Laconian bee, (Stephanus.) 
 
 CARrAF.-artm, (anc. geog. ), a place in Arcadia, to- 
 wards the borders of I^aconia. Whether from this 
 of Arcadia, or that of Lacoaia, the Colmma Carja- 
 ^/V/ifj of Vltruvius and Pliny (which were ftatues of 
 matrons In ftoles or long robes) took the appellation. 
 Is difputed. 
 
 CARY (Lucius), Lord vlfcount Falkland, was born 
 in Oxfordfliire, about the year 1610 \ a young noble- 
 man of great abilities and accomplifliments. Abou^ . 
 the time of his father's death in 1633, he was made 
 gentleman of the privy chamber to king Charles 1. 
 and afterwards fecretary of ftate. Before the afiem- 
 bling of the long parliament, he had devoted himfelf 
 to literature, and every pleafure which a fine genius, 
 a generous difpofition, and an opulent fortune, could 
 afford : when called into public hfe, he ftood foremoft 
 In all attacks on the high prerogatives of the crown ; 
 but when civil convulfions came to an extremity, and 
 it was neceffary to choofe a fide, he tempered lus zeal. 
 
CAR 
 
 [ 
 
 zni defended the Itmited powers that remained to mo- 
 narchy. Still anxious however for his country, he 
 feems to have dreaded equally the profperity of the 
 royal party, or that of the parliament ; and among 
 his intimate friends, often fadly reiterated the word 
 peace. This excellent nobleman freely expofed his per- 
 f in for the king in all hazardous enterprizes, and was 
 killed in the 34th year of his age at the battle of New- 
 berry. In Welwood's memoirs we are told, that whilH 
 he was with the king at Oxford, his majefty went one 
 day to fee the public library, where he was fhown a- 
 rnong other books a Virgil, nobly printed, and exqui- 
 fitely bound. The lord Falkland, to divert the king, 
 would have hi* majeily make a trial of his fortune by 
 the Sortes Virgiltanae, an ufiial kind of divination in 
 ages paft, made by opening a Virgil. The king open- 
 ing the book, the palfage which happened to come up, 
 was that part of Dido's imprecation againlt iEneas, 
 iv. 615, &c. which is thus tranflated by Dryden. 
 
 ** Opprefs'd with numbers in th' unequal field, 
 " His men difcourag'd, and himfelf expell'd ; 
 ** Let him for fuccour fue from place to place, 
 " Torn from his fubjeds and his fon's embrace," &c. 
 
 King Charles feeming concerned at this accident, the 
 lord FcJkland, who obferved it, would likewife try his 
 own fortune In the fame manner ; hoping he might fall 
 upon fome paffage that could have no relation to his 
 cafe, and thereby divert the king's thoughts from any 
 imprtflion the other might make upon him : but the 
 place lord Falkland ftumbled upon was yet more fuit- 
 ed to his deftiny than the other had been to the king's; 
 being the following exprelTions of Evander, upon the 
 untimely death of his fon Pallas, -/En. xl, 152. 
 
 *■ O Pallas ! thou haft fail'd thy plighted word. 
 
 ** To fight with caution, not to tempt the fword, 
 
 *' I warn'd thee, but In vain : for well I knew 
 
 *' What perils youthful ardour would purfue ; 
 
 *' That boiling blood would carry thee too far; 
 
 " Young as thou wert in dangers, raw to war. 
 
 " O curft effay of arms, difaft'rous doom, 
 
 " Prelude of bloody fields and fights to come !" 
 
 He wrote feveral things, both poetical and political ; 
 and In fome of the king's declarations, fuppofed to be 
 penned by lord Falkland, we find the firft regular de- 
 finition of the Englifh conftitution that occurs in any 
 compofition publifiied by authority. His predeceffor, 
 the firft vifcount Cary, was ennobled for being the firfl 
 who gave king James an account of queen Elizabeth's 
 tieath. 
 
 Cary (Robert), a learned Enllrti chrnnologer, born 
 in DevonfliIre about the year 1615. On the refto- 
 lation, he was preferred to the archdeaconry of Exe- 
 ter; but on fome pretext was ejefted in 1664, and 
 fpent the re.1 of his days at his reflory of Portle- 
 mouth, where he died In 1688. He pubhfhed Pala- 
 hgia Chronica, a chronology of ancient times, In three 
 parts, didaftical, apodeiftical, and canonical ; and 
 tranflated the hymns of the church into Latin verfe. 
 
 CARYATES, In antiquity, a fellival In honour of 
 Diana furnamed Caryat'is, held at Caryum, a city of La- 
 conia. The chief ceremony was a certain dance faid 
 lo have been invented by Caflor and P*..'IIux, and per- 
 
 19 ] CAR 
 
 formed by the virgins of the place. During Xerxes's Caf'yatides 
 
 invafion, the Laconlans not darlncf to appear and cele-\-, " , , 
 , 1 n r 1 • fc> rr , . Carj'ophyl- 
 
 brate the cultomary iolemnity, to prevent mcurrmg 
 
 the anger of the goddefs by fuch an intermlffion, the — — y^— j 
 
 neighbouring fwarns are faid to have alfemhled and 
 
 fung paftorals or bucollfmiy which is faid to have been 
 
 the origin of l;ucolic -poetry. 
 
 CARYATIDES, or Caraites. See Architec- 
 ture, n"^ ^6. 
 
 CARYL (Jofeph), a divine of the laft century, bred 
 at Oxford, and fome time preacher to the fociety of 
 Lincoln's inn, an employment he filled with much ap- 
 plaufe. He h^cume a frequent preacher before the 
 long parliament, a licenfer of their books, one of the 
 affembly of divines, and one of the triers for the ap- 
 probation of minifters ; In all which capacities he 
 fhowed himfelf a man of conliderable parts and learn- 
 ing, but with great zeal again (l the king's perfon 
 and caufe. On the reftoration of Charles 11. he was 
 filenced by the a£t of uniformity, and lived privately 
 in London, where, befides other works, he diflinguifh- 
 ed himfelf by a laborious Expofit'ion of the Booh of Job; 
 and died in 1672. 
 
 CARYLL (John), a late Engllfli poet, was of the 
 Roman Catholic perfuafion, being fecretary to queen 
 Mary the wife of James II. and one who followed the 
 fortunes of his abdicating mafter ; who rewarded him, 
 firft with knighthood, and then with the honorary 
 titles of carl Caryll and baron Dartford. How long 
 he continued in that fervlce Is not known ; but he 
 was In England In the reign of queen Anne, and re- 
 commended the fubjeft of the Rape of the Lock" 
 to Mr Pope, who at Its publication addrelTed it to him. 
 He was alfo the intimate friend of Pope's " Unfor- 
 tunate Lady." He was the author of two plays: 
 I. " The Englifh Princefs, or the Death of Richard 
 III. 1667," 4to. ; 2. " Sir Salomon, or the Cautious 
 Coxcomb, 1671," 4to. ; and In 1700, he publiftied 
 ** The Pfalms of David, tranflated fro n the Vulgat," 
 i2mo. In Tonfon's edition of Ovid's EpIftles, that 
 of '< Brlfeis to Achilles" is faid to be by Sir John 
 Caryll ; and in Nichols's Seled CoUeaion of Mif- 
 cellany Poems, vol. 1 1, p. i . the firft Eclogue of Vir- 
 gil is tranflated by the fame ingenious poet. He was 
 hving in 17 17, and at that time mull have been a very 
 old man. See three of his letters in the " Additions 
 to Pope," vol. II. p. 114. 
 
 CARYOCAR, in botany: A genus of the tetragy- 
 nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. 
 The calyx is quinquepartite, the petals five, the ftyles 
 more frequently four. The fruit is a plum, with 
 necleuffes, and four furrows netted. 
 
 C ARYOPHYLL^I, In botany, the name of a ve- 
 ry numerous family or order in Llnmeu^'s fragments of 
 a natural method: containing, befides the clafs of the 
 fame name in Tournefort, many other plants, which 
 from their general appearance feem pretty nearly al- 
 lied to It. The following are the genera, vi%. Agio- 
 ftema, Cucubalus, Dianthus, Drypis, Gypfophila, 
 Lychnis, Saponaria, Silene, Velazia, Alfine, Arenaria, 
 Bufonia, Ceraftium, Cherleria, Glinus, Holofteum, 
 Loefldngia, Moehringia,Polycarpon, Sagina, Spergula, 
 Stellaria, Minuartia, Mollugo, Ortegia, Pharnaceum, 
 Qixeria. All the plants of this ordc-r are heibaceous, 
 E e 2 and 
 
CAR [22 
 
 Caryophyl- and moftly annual. Some of the creeping kinds do 
 . ^ . not rife an inch, and the talleil exceed not feven or 
 eight feet. See Botany, fe£l. vl. 22. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLUS, the pink, in botany. See 
 
 DiANTHUS. 
 
 Caryophyllus, the clove-tree, in botany : A 
 genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the poly- 
 andria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the 1 9th order, Hefpendete. The corolla is 
 tetrapetalous ; the calyx tetraphyllous ; the berry 
 monofpermous below the receptacle of the flower. 
 Of this there is but one fpecies, viz. the aroma- 
 ticus, which is a native of the Molucca iflands, par- 
 ticularly of Amboyna, where it is principally cul- 
 tivated. The clove-tree refembles, in its bark, the 
 olive ; and is about the height of the laurel, which it 
 alfo refembles in its leaves. No verdure is ever feen 
 under it. It has a great number of branches, at the 
 extremities of which are produced vaft quantities of 
 flowers, that are firft white, then green, and at laft 
 pretty red and hard. When they arrive at this de- 
 gree of maturity, they are, properly fpeaking, cloves. 
 As they dry, they afliime a dark yellowifh cafl: ; and, 
 when gathered, become of a deep brown. The fea- 
 fon for gathering the cloves Ts from Oftober to Fe- 
 bruary. The boughs of the trees are then ftrongly 
 fhaken, or the cloves beat down with long reeds. 
 Large cloths are fpread to receive them, and they are 
 afterwards either dried in the fun or in the fmoke of 
 the bamboo-cane. The cloves which efcape the no- 
 tice of thofe who gather them, or are purpofely left 
 upon the tree, continue to grow till they are about an 
 inch in thicknefs ; and thefe falling off, produce new 
 plants, which do not bear in lefs than eight or nine 
 years. I'hofe which are called mother-cloves are infe- 
 rior to the common fort ; but are preferved in fugar 
 by the Dutch ; and, in long voyages, eat after their 
 meals, to promote digeftion. 
 
 The clove, to be in perfeftion, mud be full fized, 
 heavy, oily, and eafily broken ; of a fine fmell, and of 
 a hot aromatic talte, fo as almoft to burn the throat. 
 It fliould make the fingers fmart when handled, and 
 leave an oily moifture upon them when preflTed. In 
 the Eafl; Indies, and in fome parts of Europe, it is fo 
 much admired as to be thought an indifpenfable ingre- 
 dient in almoft every difh. It is put into their food, 
 liquors, wines, and enters likewife the compofition of 
 their perfumes. Confidered as medicines, cloves are 
 very hot, ftimulating, aromatics ; and pofTefs in an 
 eminent degree the general virtues of fubfl;ances of 
 this clafs. Their pungency refides in their refin ; 
 or raihcr in a combinat?on of refin with eflential oil : 
 for the fpirituous e.xtraft is very pungent ; but if the 
 oil and the refin contained in this extradl are fepa- 
 vated from each other by didtllation, the oil will be 
 very mild ; and any pungency which it does retain, 
 proceeds from fome fmall portion of adhering refin, 
 and the remaining rcfin will be infipid. No plant, or 
 part of any plant, contains fuch a quantity of oil as 
 cloves do. From 16 ounces Newman obtained by di- 
 flillation two ounces and two drams, and Hoffman 
 obtained an ounce and an half of oil from two ounces 
 of the fpice. The oil is fpccifically heavier than wa- 
 ter. Cloves acquire weight by imbibing water ; and 
 this they will do at fome confiderable dillance. The 
 
 o ] CAS 
 
 Dutch, who trade in cloves, make a confiderable ad C?.ryo{a 
 vantage by knowing this fccret. They fell them al- , il 
 ways by weight ; and when a bag of cloves is order- ^i^..^" ^"^^ 
 ed, they hang it, for feveral hours before it is fent in, 
 over a vefiel of water, at about two feet diftance froni 
 the furface. This will add many pounds to the weight, 
 which the unwary purchafer pays for on the fpot. 
 This is fometimes praftifed in Europe, as well as in 
 the fpice iflands : but the degree of moiftare muft be 
 more carefully watched in the latter ; for there a bag 
 of cloves will, in one night's time, attraft fo much wa- 
 ter, that' it may be prefled out of them by fqueezlng 
 them with the hand. 
 
 The plove tree is never cultivated in Europe. At 
 Amboyna the company have allotted the inhabitants 
 4000 parcels of land, on each of which they were at 
 firft allowed, and about the year 1720 compelled, to 
 plant about 125 trees, amounting in all to 500,000. 
 Each of thefe trees produces annually on an average 
 more than two pounds of cloves ; and confequently 
 the colledtive produce muft weigh more than a mil- 
 lion. The cultivator is paid with the fpecie that is 
 conftantly returned to the company, and receives fome 
 unbleached cottons which are brought from Coromau- 
 deL 
 
 CARYOTA, in botany: A genus belonging to the 
 natural order of Palrme. The male calyx is common, 
 the carolla tripartite ; the ftamina very numerous : tlie 
 female calyx the fame ; the corolla tripertite ; one 
 peftil, and a difpermous berry. 
 
 CASA, in ancient and middle-age writers, is ufed 
 to denote a cottage or houfe. 
 
 Casa Santa, denotes the chapel of the holy virgin at 
 Loretto. — The Santa Cafa is properly the houfe, or 
 rather chamber, in which the bleffed virgin is faid to 
 have been born, where fhe was betrothed to her fpoufe 
 Jofeph, where the angel faluted her, the Holy Gho!l 
 overfhadowed her, and by confequence where the Son 
 of God was conceived or incarnated. Of this building 
 the Catholics tell many wonderful ftories too chi!di(h 
 to tranfcribe. The Santa Cafa or holy chamber con- 
 fifts of one room, forty-four fpaus long, eighteen 
 broad, and twenty-three high. Over the chim.ney, ia 
 a niche, Hands the image called the great Madona or 
 Lady, four feet high, made of cedar, and, as they fay, 
 wrought by St Luke, who was a carver as well as a 
 phyfician. The mantle or robe fhe has on, is covered 
 with innumerable jewels of ineftimable value. She 
 has a crown, given her by Louis XIII. of France, and 
 a little crown for her fon. 
 
 CASAL, a ftrong town of Italy in Mountferrat,. 
 with a citadel and a bifuop's fee. It was taken by 
 the French from the Spaniards in 1640; and the duke 
 of Mantua fold it to the French in 168 1. In 1695 it 
 was taken by the allies, who deraoliilied the fortifica- 
 tions ; but the French retook it, and fortified it 
 again. The king of Sardinia became mafter of it in 
 1706, from whom the French took it in 1745 ; how- 
 ever, the king of Sardinia got pofTeffion again in 1746. 
 It is feated on the river Po, in E, Long. 8. 37. N. Lat. 
 54-7. 
 
 CASAL-Magg'iore, a fmall ftrong tow^i of Italy, in 
 the duchy of ?/Iilan, feated on the river Po. E. Long, 
 1 1. 5. N. Lat, 45. 6. 
 
 C ASA-NOVA (Marc Antony), a Latin poet, born 
 I at 
 
GAS [2 
 
 at Rome, fuccecded particularly in epigrams. Tlie 
 poems he compofed in honour of the ilkiftrious 
 men of Rome are alfo much cfleemed. He died in 
 1527. 
 
 CASAN, a confiderable town of Afia, and capital 
 of a kingdom of the fame name in the Ruffian em- 
 pire, with a ftrong caftle, a citadel, and an archbi- 
 ftiop's fee. The country about it is very fertile in all 
 forts of fruits, corn, and pulfe. It carries on a great 
 trade in furs, and fumifhes wood for the building of 
 Ihips. The kingdom of Cafan is bounded on the north 
 by Peimia, on the cafl by Siberia, on the fouth by the 
 river Wolga, and on the weft by the province of Mof- 
 cov.'. E. Long. 53. 25. N. Lat. 55. 38. 
 
 CASAS (Bartholomew de las), bifhop of Chiapa, 
 diftinguifhed for his humanity and zeal for the conver- 
 iion of the Indians, was born at Seville in 1474; and 
 went with his father, who failed to America with 
 Chriftopher Columbus in 1493. At his return to 
 Spain he embraced the ftate of an ecclefiattic, and ob- 
 tained a curacy in the ifland of Cuba ; but fome time 
 after quitted his cure in order to procure liberty for 
 the Indians, whom he faw treated by the Spaniards 
 in the moft cruel and barbarous manner, which natu- 
 rally gave them an unconquerable averfion to Chrifti- 
 anity. Bartholomew exerted himfelf with extraor- 
 dinaiy zeal, for 50 years together, in his endeavours 
 to perfuade the Spaniards that they ought to treat the 
 Indians with equity and mildnefs ; for which he dif- 
 fered a number of perfecutions from his countr)''men. 
 At laft the court, moved by his continual remon- 
 ftrances, made laws in favour of the Indians, and gave 
 orders to the governors to obferve them, and fee 
 them executed*. He died at Madrid in 1566, aged 
 92. He wrote feveral works, which breathe nothing 
 but humanity and virtue. The principal of them are, 
 I. An account of the deftruftion of the Indies. 2. Se- 
 veral treatifes in favour of the Indies, againft Dr Se- 
 pulyeda, who wrote a book to juftify the inhuman bar- 
 barities committed by the Spaniards. 3. A very curi- 
 ous, and now fcarce, work in Latin, on this queftion, 
 " Whether kings or princes can, confiftently with 
 confcience, or in virtue of any right or title, ahenate 
 their fubjeds, and place them under the dominion of 
 another fovereign ?" 
 
 CASATI (Paul), a learned Jefuit, born at Placentia 
 in 161 7, entered early among the Jefuits ; and, after 
 having taught mathematics and divinity at Rome, was 
 fent into Sweden to queen Chriftina, whom he pre- 
 vailed on to embrace the popifh religion. He wrote, 
 I. V acuum profcriptum. 2. Terra machinis mota. 3. Me- 
 chanicorum, libri oSo. 4. De Igne D'lffertationes ; which 
 is much efteemed. 5. De JugeUs Dlfputatio Theolog. 
 6. Hydrojlaticx DiJJertat'iones. 7. Optlcde Difputationes : 
 It is remarkable that he wrote this treatife on optics 
 at 88 years of age, and after he was blind. He alfo 
 wrote feveral books in Italian. 
 
 CASAUBON ( Ifaac) , was born at Geneva in 1559 ; 
 and Henry IV. appointed him his library-keeper in 
 1603. ^ After this prince's death, he went into Eng. 
 land with Sir Henry Wotton, ambaffador from King 
 Jam^s I. where he was kindly received and engaged 
 in writing againft Baronius's annals : he died not long 
 after this, in 16 14; and was interred in Weftminfter- 
 
 21 T CAS 
 
 abbey, where a monument was eredled to him. He Cafd^iO 
 was greatly Ikilled in the Greek, and in critlcifm ; ^^1-^ 
 
 pubhllied feveral valuable commentaries ; and recei- . * 
 
 ved the higheft elogiums from all his cotemporaries. 
 
 Casaubon (Meric), fon of the preceding, was born 
 at Geneva in 1599. Pie was bred at Oxford, and 
 took the degree of mafter of arts in 1621. The fame 
 year he publiftied a book in defence of his father againft 
 the calumnies of certain Roman Catholics ; which 
 gained him the favour of King James I. and a confi- 
 derable reputation abroad. He was made prebendary 
 of Canterbuiy by archbiftiop Laud. In the beginning, 
 of the civil war he loft all his fpiritual promotions, but 
 ftill continued to pubhfh excellent works. Oliver Crom- 
 well, then lieutenant-general of the parhament's forces, 
 would have employed his pen in writing the hiftory of 
 the late war ; but he declined it, owning, that his 
 fubjeft would oblige him to make fuch reftedlions aj 
 would be ungrateful, if not injurious, to his lordfhip. 
 Notwithftanding this anfwer, Cromwell, fenfible of hio- 
 worth, ordered three or four hundred pounds to be 
 paid him by a bookfeller in London whofe name was 
 Cromwell, on demand, without requiring from him 
 any acknowledgment of his benefaftor. But this offer 
 he rejefted, though his circumftances were then mean. 
 At the fame time it was propofed by his friend Mr 
 Greaves, who belonged to the library at St James's, 
 that, if Cafaubon would gratify Cromwell in the re- 
 queft above mentioned, all his father's books which 
 were then in the royal library, having been purchafed 
 by King James, ftiould be reftored to him, and a pen- 
 fion of 300 /. a-year paid to the family as long as the 
 youngeft fon of Dr Cafaubon ftiould hve; but this alfo 
 was refufed. He hkewife refufed handfome offers 
 from Chriilina queen of Sweden, being determined to 
 fpend the remainder of his life in England. At the 
 rettoration he recovered all his preferments, and con- 
 tinued writing till his death in 1671. He was the au- 
 thor of an EngHfh tranflation of Marcus AureHus An- 
 toninus's meditations, and of Lucius Florus; editions 
 of feveral of the claflics, with notes ; a treatife of ufe 
 and cuftom ; a treatife of enthullafm : with many- 
 other works ; and he left a number of MSS. to the 
 univerfity of Oxford. 
 
 CASAURINA, in botany : A genus of the mo- 
 nandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of 
 plants. The male has the calyx of the amentum ; thi: 
 corolla a bipartite fmall fcale. The female has a caly.-; 
 of the amentum, no corolla ; the ftyle bipartite. 
 
 CASCADE, a fteep fall of water from a higher in- 
 to a lower plajce. The word is French, formed of the 
 Italian cafcaia, which fignified the fame ; of cafcare^ 
 to fall ; and that from the Lathr caclere. 
 
 Cafcades are either natural, as that at Tivoli, 8cc. 
 or artificial, i., hofe of Verfaille&, &c. and either fal- 
 hng with gentle defcent, as thofe of Sceaux ; or in 
 form of a buffet, as at Trianon.; or down fteps, in 
 form of a perron, as at St Clou ; or from bafon to • 
 bafon, &c. 
 
 CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura in Portugal, fi- 
 tuated at the mouth of the river Tagus, 17 miles eaff 
 of Lifbon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 38. 40. 
 
 CASCARILLA. See Clutia and Croton. 
 
 CASE, among grammarians, impUes the different 
 
Gafe 
 11 
 
 Calhel. 
 
 GAS [ 22 
 
 infleftlons or terminations of nouns, ferving to e:c- 
 prefs the different relations they bear to each other, 
 and to tlie things they reprefent. See Grammar. 
 
 Case alfo denotes a receptacle for various articles ; 
 as a cafe of knives, of lancets, of pidols, &c. 
 
 Case, in printing, a large flat oblong frame plv 
 ced aflope, divided into feveral compartments or little 
 fquare cells ; in each of vi hich are lodged a number of 
 types or letters of the fame kind, whence the compoll- 
 tor takes them out, each as he needs it, to compofe his 
 matter. See Printing. 
 
 Case is alfo ufed for a certain numerous quantity 
 of divers tilings. Thus a cafe of crown-glafs contains 
 ufually 24 tables, each table being nearly circular, 
 and about three feet fix inches diameter;, of Newcaftle 
 glafs, 35 tables; of Normandy glafs, 25. 
 
 CASF.-Hardm'ing of Iron, is a fuperficial converfion 
 of that metal into Heel, by the ordinary method of 
 converfion, namely by cementation with vegetable or 
 animal coals. This operation is generally praftifed 
 upon fmall pieces of iron wrought into tools and in- 
 ftruments to which a fuperficial converfion isfufficient; 
 and it may be performed conveniently by putting the 
 pieces of iron to be cafe-hardened, together with the 
 cement, into an iron box, which is to be clofelyfliut and 
 expofed to a'red heat during fome hours. By this 
 cementation a certain thicknefs from the farface of 
 •the iron will be converted into fteel, and a proper hard- 
 nefs may be afterwards given by fudden extindlion of 
 the heated pieces of convei-ted iron in a cold fluid. 
 See Steel. 
 
 CA^F.-Shot, in ihc military art, muflcet-balls, ftones, 
 old iron, &c. put into cafes, and flrot out of great 
 guns. 
 
 CASEMENT, or Casemate, in architefture, a 
 lioUow moulding, v/hich fome architefts make one- 
 fixth of a circle, and others one-fourth. 
 
 Casement is alfo ufed in building, for a little 
 moveable window, ufually within a larger, being made 
 to open or turn on hinges. 
 
 CA.SERN, in fortification, lodgings built in garri- 
 fon-towns, generally near the rampart, or in the wafl:e 
 places of the town, for lodging foldiers of the garrifon. 
 There are ufually two beds in each cafern for fix fol- 
 diers to lie, who mount the guard alternately; the 
 third part being always on duty. 
 
 CASERTA, an epifcopal town of Italy in the kii j;- 
 dom of Naples, and in tlie Terra di-Lavoro, with the 
 title of a duchy, feated at the foot of a mountain of 
 the fame name, in K. Long, i^, 5. N. Lat. 41.5. 
 
 CASES (Peter- James), of Paris, the moll eminent 
 painter of the French fchool ; the churches of Paris 
 and of VerfaiUes abound with his works. He died in 
 1754, aged 79. 
 
 CASH, in a commercial fiyle, fignifies the flock or 
 ready money which a merchant or other perfon has in 
 Ills prefent difpofal to negociate ; fo called from the 
 French term calfe, 1. e. chejl or coffer for the keeping 
 of money. 
 
 M. Savaiy fliows, that the management of the cafli 
 of a company is the mofl: confiderable article, and that 
 whereon its good or ill fuccefs chiefly depends. 
 
 Cash-BooL See Book-keeping. 
 
 CASHEL, or Cashil, a town of Ireland in the 
 county of Tipperary, and province of Munfter, with 
 
 2 1 G A S 
 
 an archbiikop's fee. The nun? of the old cathedral CaAcl 
 tellify its having been an extenfive as well as handfome !! 
 Gothic fl;rufture, boldly towering on the celebrated ^aflinilre 
 rock of Cafliel, which taken together form a magni- 
 ficent objeft, and bear honoui-able telHmony to the la- 
 bour and ingenuity, as well as the piety and zeal, of 
 its former inhabitants. It is feen at a great diltance, 
 and in many diredions. Adjoining it are the ruins 
 of the chapel of Cormac M'Culinan, at once king and 
 archbiikop of Cafliel, fiippofed to be the firft Itone 
 building in Ireland ; and feems, by its rude imitation 
 of pillars and capitals, to have been copied after the 
 Grecian architedure, and long to have preceded that 
 which is ufually called Gothic, Cormac M'Culinan 
 was a prince greatly celebrated by the Irifii hifliorians 
 for his learning, piety, and valour. He wrote, in his 
 native language, a hiilcry of Ireland, commonly called 
 the Pfalter of Cajhel, which is ftill extant, and contains ' 
 the mofl: authentic account we have of the annals of 
 the country to that period, about the year 90b. On the 
 top of the rock of Cafhel, and adjoining the cathedral, 
 is a lofty round tower, which proudly defied the too 
 fuccefsful attempts of archbifliop Price, who in this 
 century unroofed and thereby demoliflied the ancient 
 cathedral founded by St Patrick. In the choir are 
 the monuments of Myler Magrath, archbiflrop of this 
 fet^ in the reign of queen Elifabeth, and fome other 
 curious remains of antiquity. Cafliel was formerly the 
 royal feat and metropolis of the kings of Munfter ; 
 and on the afcent to the cathedral is a large fl:one on 
 which every new king of Munfl:er was, as the inhabi- 
 tants report from tradition, folemnly proclaimed. Ca- 
 fliel is at prefent but fmall to what we may fuppofe it 
 to have been in ancient days. The ai-chbifliop's pa- '\ 
 lace is a fine building. Here is a very handfome mar- 
 ket houfe, a feflions houfe, the county infirmary, a 
 charter fchool for twenty boys and the fame number 
 of girls, and a very good barrack for two companies of 
 foot. The prefent archbifliop Dr Agar hath finiflied 
 a very elegant church begun by his predeceflbr. W. 
 Long. 7. 36. N. Lat. 52. 16. 
 
 CASHEW-NUT. See Anacardium. 
 
 CASHIER, the cafli-keeper ; he who is charged 
 with the receiving and paying the debts of a fociety. — 
 In the generahty of foundations, the cafliier is called 
 tn-afurev. 
 
 CAstmRs of the Bank, are officers who fign the notes 
 that are iflued out, examine and mark them when re- 
 turned for payment, tff. 
 
 CASHMIRE, a province of Afia 111 the dominions 
 of the Mogul. It is fituated at the extremity of Hin- 
 doilan, northward of Lahore, and is bounded on the 
 one fide by a ridge of the great Caucafus, and on the 
 other by the little Tartarian Thibet and Moultan. 
 The extent of it is not very confiderable ; but being 
 girt in by a zone of hills, and elevated very confider- 
 ably above an arid plain, which fliretches many miles 
 around it, the fcenes which it exhibits are wild and 
 pifturefque. Rivers, hills, and valleys, charmingly di- 
 verfify the landfcape. Here, Mr Sulhvanf informs us,-|. puu/o. 
 a cafcade ruOies from a foaming precipice; there Aphic.il 
 tranquil fl;ream glides placidly along; the tinkling rill, ^^^Z/"- 
 too, founds amidft the groves ; and the feathered cho-'^'"* 
 rifters fing the fong of love, clofe flieltered in the 
 glade. 
 
 At 
 
CAS 
 
 Cafamlre At wKat time Cafhm'rc came under the dominion 
 of the Mogul government, and liow long, and in wliat 
 ^ " ^' manner it was independent, before it was annexed to the 
 territories of the houfe of Timur, are points that are 
 beyond our prefent purnofe. Though inconfiderabic as 
 to its revenues, it was uniformly held in the higheit 
 eftimation by the emperors of Hiadoftan. Thither 
 they repaired, in the plenitude of their greatnefs, when 
 the affairs of ftate would admit of their abfence ; and 
 there they diverted tliemfelvcs of form and all the op- 
 preffive ceremony of Hate. The ro^yal manner of tra- 
 velling to Cafhmire was grand, though tedious and un- 
 wieldy, and fhowed, in an eminent degree, the fplcn- 
 dour and magnificence of an eaftern potentate. Au- 
 rungzebe, we are told, feldom began his march to 
 that country'-, for a march certainly it was to be cal- 
 led, without an efcort of 80,000 or 100,000 fighting 
 men, befides the gentlemen of his houfehold, the at- 
 tendants of liis feraglio, and moil of his officers of 
 Jtate. Thefe all continued with him during the time 
 he was on the road, which generally was a month : 
 but no fooner was he arrived at the entrance of thofe 
 aerial regions, than, with a feledl party of friends, he 
 feparated from the rell of his retinue, and with them 
 aicended the defiles which led him to his Eden. 
 
 The temperature of the air of Cafhmire, elevated 
 as it is fo much above the adjoining country, together 
 with the ttreams which continually pour from its moun- 
 tains, enables the hufbandman to cultivate with fuccefs 
 the foil he appropriates to agriculture ; whilft the gar- 
 dener's labour is amply repaid in the abundant produce 
 of his fruit. In fhort, nature wears her gayefl cloath- 
 ing in this enchanting fpot. The rivers fupply the in- 
 habitants with almoft every fpecies of fifli ; the hills 
 yield fweet herbage for the cattle; the plains are co- 
 vered with grain of different denominations ; and the 
 woods are ilored with variety of game. The Cafli- 
 mireans, according to our author, feem a race diflinft 
 from all others in the Eaft : their perfons are more 
 elegant, and their complexions more delicate and more 
 tinged with red. 
 
 On the decadence of the Mogul pow«r in Hindo- 
 ftan, Cafhmire felt fame of the ravages of war. It is 
 now however in peace ; and the inhabitants are defi- 
 rous of keeping it fo. They are fprightly and inge- 
 nious ; and have feveral curious manufadlures much 
 valued in India. They are all Mahometans or Idolaters. 
 Cafamire is the capital town. 
 
 CASIMIR, the name of feveral kings of Poland. 
 See (Hijlory of) Poland. 
 
 Casimir (Matthias Sorbiewfld), a Polifli Jefuit, 
 born in 1597. He was a mofl excellent poet; and 
 is, fays M. Baillet, an exception to the general rule 
 of Ariilotle and the other ancients, which teaches us 
 "to expert nothing ingenious and delicate from northern 
 climates. His odes, epodes, and epigrams, have been 
 thought not inferior to thofe of the finefl wits of 
 Greece and Rome. Dr Watts has tranflated one or 
 two of his fmall pieces, which are added 10 his J.yric 
 Poems. He died at Warfaw in 1640, aged 43. There 
 have been many editions of his poems, the befl of which 
 is that of Paris, 1759. 
 
 CASING 0/ TiMBER-v/ORK, among builders, is 
 the plailering the houfe all over the outfide with mor- 
 tar, aud then ftriking it while wet by a ruler, with 
 
 [ 223 j CAS 
 
 the corner of a trowel, to make It refemble the joints 
 of free-ftone. Some direct It to be done upon heart- 
 laths, becaufe the mortar would, in a little ^ime, de- 
 cay the fap-laths ; and to lay on the n-idrfaPin two 
 thickneffes, ^'1%. a fecond before the iiril is dry. 
 
 CASK, a piece of defenlive annoiir wherewitli to 
 cover the head and neck-, otherwife called the head- 
 piece and helmet'^ . The word is French, cafqxie, from ' See 
 cajicum or cafficus^ a diminutive of cajfis a helmet, Le ^'"''^f^-' 
 Gendre obferves, that anciently, in France, the gens 
 d'arms all wore crjhs. The king wore a cafh gilt; the 
 dukes and counts filvered ; gentlemen of extraction 
 polifhed Iteel ; and the reft plain iron. 
 
 The call-: is frequently feen on ancient medals, where 
 we may obferve great varieties in the form and fafhion 
 thereof; as the Greek faflilon, the Roman fafhion, £ff^, 
 F. Joubert makes it the moft ancient of all the co- 
 verings of the head, as well as the m.oft unlverfal. 
 Kings, emperors, and even gods themfelves, are feen 
 therewith. That which covers the head of Rome has 
 ufually two wings like thofe of Mercury : and that of 
 fome kings Is furnifhed v/ith horns like thofe of Jupiter 
 Ammon; and fometimes barely bidls or rams horns, to 
 exprefs uncommon force. 
 
 Cask, in heraldry, the fame with helmet. See 
 Heraldry, n"' 45. 
 
 Cask, a veffel.of capacity, for preferving liquors of 
 divers kinds ; and fbmetimes alfo dry goods, as fugar, 
 almonds, Iffc.—- A. caflc of fugar Is a barrel of that 
 commodity, containing fi-om eight to eleven hundred 
 weight. A cafic of almonds Is about three hundred 
 weight. 
 
 Ci\JSKET, In a general fenfe, a little coffer or ca- 
 binet. See Cabinet. 
 
 Cx\SKET.s, in the fea language, are fmall ropes made 
 of finnet, and faftened to gromets, or little rings upon 
 the yarda ; their ufe is to make fait tlie fail to the yard 
 when it is to be fui'led. 
 
 CASLGN (WiUIam), eminent In an art of the i!?r/V 
 greatefl confequence to literature, the art of letter- ^"'^ 
 founding, was born In 1692, in that part of the t"wn g^'^^^^^. 
 of Hales Owen which is iituated In Shropfhire. Tho' i,y N;_ ' 
 he juftly attained the charafter of being the Coryphas- chols. 
 us in that employment, he was not brought up to the 
 bufinefs ; and: It Is obferved by Mr Mores, that this 
 handy-work is fo concealed among the artificers of ;it, 
 that he could not difcover that any one had taught it 
 to another, but every perfon who had ufed it had' ■ 
 learned It of his own genuine inclination. Mr Cafloa 
 ferved a regular apprenticefliip to an engraver of orna- 
 ments on gun-barrels ; and after the expiration of his ■ 
 term, carried on this trade iu Vine-ltreet, near the 
 Minorles. He did not, however, folely confine his 
 ingenuity to tliat inflrument ; but- employed himfelf 
 likewife in making tools for the book-binders, and fcr 
 the chafing of 'filver plate. Whilft he was engaged in 
 this bufinefs, the elder Mr Bowyer accidentally faw, in 
 a bookfeller's fhop, the lettering of a book uncam- 
 monly neat; and inquiring who the artiil was by whom 
 the letters were made, was hence Induced to feek an 
 acquaintance with Mr Caflon. Not long after, Mr 
 Bowyer took Mr Caflon to Mr James's faundery, in 
 Bartholomew- clofe. Caflon had never before that time 
 feen any part of the bufinefs; and being aflced by his' 
 friend, if he thought he could undertake to cut typefi>. 
 
 8 hi- 
 
GAS 
 
 Citflon, 
 
 [ 1 
 
 CAS 
 
 he requefted a fingle day to coiifider the matter, and 
 then replied that he had no doubt but he could. Upon 
 this anfwer, Mr Bowyer, Mr Bcttenham, and Mr Watts 
 had fufeh^-ft confidence in his abihties, that they lent 
 him 500I. to be^in the undertaking, and he applied 
 himfelf to it with equal affiduity and fuccefs. In 1 720, 
 the fociety for promoting Chriftian knowledge, in con- 
 fequence of a reprefentation from Mr Solomon Negri, 
 a native of Damafcus in Syria, who was well ikilled in 
 the Oriental tongues, and had been profeffor of Ara- 
 bic in places of note, deemed it expedient to print, for 
 the ufe of the Eaflern churches, the New Ttllament 
 and Pfalter in the Arabic language. Thefe were in- 
 tended for the benefit of the poor Chriftians in Palef- 
 tlne, Syria, Mefopotamia, Arabia, and Egypt, the 
 conftitution of which countries did not permit the ex- 
 ercife of the art of printing. Upon this occafion Mr 
 Caflon was pitched upon to cut the fount ; in his fpe- 
 cimens of which he dlftingulflied it by the name of 
 Englifh Arabic. Under the farther encouragement of 
 Mr Bowyer, Mr Beitenham, and Mr Watts, he pro- 
 ceeded with vigour in his employment ; and he arri- 
 ved at length to fuch perfedllon, that he not only 
 ifreed us from the neceffity of importing types from 
 Holland, but in the beauty and elegance of thofe made 
 by him he fo far exceeded the produftions of the beft 
 artificers, that his workmanfiilp was frequently export- 
 ed to the Continent. In fliort, his foundcry became^ 
 in procefs of time, the moft capital one that exifts in 
 this or in foreign countries. Having acquired opu- 
 lence in the courfe of his employment, he was put into 
 the commiflion of the peace for the county of Middle- 
 sex. Towards the latter end of his life, his eldeil fon 
 being In partnerfliip with him, he retired In a great 
 .meafure from the aftlve execution of bufinefs. His 
 death happened in January 1766. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA, a large lake of falt-water in Afia, 
 bounded by the {irovince of Aftrakan on the north, 
 and by part of Perfia on the fouth, eaft, and weft. 
 It Is upwards of 400 miles long from fouth to north, 
 and 300 broad from eaft to weft. This fea forms fe- 
 veral gulfs, and embraces between Aftrakan and A- 
 ilrabad an incredible number of fmall iflands. Its bot- 
 tom Is mud, but fometlmes mixed with fhells. At the 
 diftance of fome German miles from land it Is 500 fa- 
 thoms deep ; but on approaching the fhore it Is every 
 where fo (hallow, that the fmalleft veflels, If loaded, 
 are obliged to remain at a diftance. 
 
 When we confider that the Cafpian is inclofed on 
 all fides by land, and that its banks are in the neigh- 
 bourhood of very high mountains, we eafily fee why 
 the navigation In It ftiould be perfectly different from 
 that In every other fea. There are certain winds that 
 domineer over it with fuch abfolute fway, that veflels 
 are often deprived of every refource ; and In the whole 
 extent of it there Is not a port that can truly be called 
 fafe. The north, north eaft, and eaft winds, blow moft 
 frequently, and occafion the moft violent tempefts. A- 
 loFig the eaftern ftiore the eaft winds prevail ; for which 
 reafon veflels bound from Perfia to Aftrakan always di- 
 left their courfe along this fhore. 
 
 Although the extent of the Cafpian Sea is immenfe, 
 ;fche variety of Its produdlions Is exceedingly fmall. 
 This undoubtedly proceeds from its want of communi- 
 cation with the ocean, whidi cannot impart to it any 
 
 portion of its Inexliaullible ftores. But the animals Cafpian. 
 which this lake nourifhes multiply to fuch a degree, >— — v-*- 
 that the Ruflians, who alone are In condition to make 
 them turn to account, juftly confider them as a never 
 falling foujce of profit and wealth. It will be under- 
 ftood that we fpeak of the fifti of the Cafpian and of 
 its fifiierles, which make the fole occupation and prin- 
 cipal trade of the people inhabiting the banks of the 
 Wolga and of the Jaik. Tlils bufinefs is dlftingulflied 
 Into the great and lefler fiflierles. The M\ compre- 
 hended under the firft divifion, fuch as the ftiirgeon and 
 others, abound in all pans of the Cafpian as well as in 
 the rivers that communicate with it, and which they 
 afcend at fpawning-time. The fmall fifties, fuch as the 
 falmon and many others, obferve the general law of 
 quitting the fait waters for the frefti, nor Is there an 
 inftance of one of them remaining conftanlly in the 
 fea. 
 
 ^ Seals are the only quadrupeds that inhabit the Caf- 
 pian; but they are there in fuch numbers as to afford 
 the means of fubfiftence to many people in that coun- 
 try as well as In Greenland. The varieties of the fpe- 
 cles are numerous, diverfified, however, only by the 
 colour. Some are quite black, others quite white ; 
 there are fome whitifli, fome yellowifli, fome of a moufe- 
 colour, and fome ftreaked like a tiger. They crawl by 
 means of their fore-feet upon the iflands, where they 
 become the prey of the fifliermen, Avho kill them with 
 long clubs. As foon as one is difpatched, he Is fuc- 
 ceeded by feveral who come to the afliftance of their 
 unhappy companion, but come only to fliare his fate. 
 They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and endure 
 more than thirty hard blows before they die. They 
 will even live for feveral days after having received 
 many mortal wounds. They arc moft terrified by fire 
 and fmoke ; and as foon as they perceive them, retreat 
 with the utmoft expedition to the fea. Thefe animals 
 grow fo very fat, that they look rather like oil-bags 
 than animals. At Aftrakan is made a fort of grey foap 
 with their fat mixed with pot-afhes, which Is much va- 
 lued for Its property of cleanfing and taking greafe 
 from woollen ftuffs. The greateft numbers of them are 
 killed In fpring and autumn. Many fmall vefTels go 
 from Aftrakan merely to catch feals. 
 
 If the Cafpian has few quadrupeds, it has in pro- 
 portion ftill fewer of thofe natural produftlons which 
 are looked upon as proper only to the fea. There 
 have never been fousd in it any zoophytes, nor any 
 animal of the order of molufca. The fame may al- 
 moft be faid of fliells; the only ones found being three 
 or four fpecles of cockle, the common mufcle, fome 
 fpecles of fnalls, and one or two others. 
 
 But to compenfate this fterility. It abounds in birds 
 of different kinds. Of thofe that frequent the fhures 
 there are many fpecles of the goofe and duck kind, 
 of th^ ftork and heron, and many others of the wader 
 tribe. Of birds properly aquatic, it contains the 
 grebe, the crefted diver, the pehcan, the cormorant, 
 and almoft every fpecles of gufl. Crows are fo fond 
 of fifli, that they haunt the fhores of the Cafpian in 
 prodigious multitudes. 
 
 The waters of this lake are very Impure, the preat 
 number of rivers that run into it, and the nature of Its 
 bottom, aff"eAIng It greatly. It Is true, that In general 
 the waters are fait j but though the whole weftern fliore 
 
 extends 
 
CAS [ 2 
 
 Cafpiati. extends from tlie 46th to the 3 jth degree of north lan*- 
 tude, and though one might conclude from analogy 
 that thefe waters would contain a great deaf of fait, 
 yet experiments prove the contrary: and it is certain 
 that the faltnefs of this fea is diminifhed by the north, 
 north-eaft, and north-weft winds ; although we may 
 with equal reafon conclude, that it owes its faltnefs to 
 the mines of fait which lie along its two banks, and 
 which are either already known or will be known to 
 pofterity. The depth of thefe waters alfo diminifhes 
 gradually as you approach the Hiores, and their faltnefs 
 in the fame way grows lefb in proportion to their proxi- 
 mity to the land, the north winds not unfrequently 
 caufmg the rivers to difcharge into it vaft quantities of 
 troubled water impregnated with clay. Thefe varia- 
 tions which the fea is expofed to are more or lefs con- 
 fiderable according to the nature of the winds ; they 
 afPeft the colour of the river waters to a certain dift- 
 ance from the fhore, till thefe mixing with thofe of the 
 fea, which then refume the afcendency, the fine green 
 colour appears, which is natural to the ocean, and to 
 all thofe bodies of water that communicate with it. 
 
 It is well known, that befides its fait tafte, all fea- 
 water has a fenfible bitternefs, whijh muft be attri- 
 buted not only to the fait itfelf, but to the mixture of 
 different fubftances that unite with it, particularly to 
 different forts of alum, the ordinary effeft of different 
 combinations of acids. Befides this, the waters of the 
 Cafpian have another tafte, bitter too, but quite di- 
 ftinft, which affedts the tongue with an impreflion 
 fimilar to that made by the bile of animals ; a property 
 which is peculiar to this fea, though not equally fen- 
 fible at aU feafons. When the north and north-weft 
 winds have raged for a confiderable time, this bitter 
 tafte is fenfibly felt; but when the wind has been fouth, 
 very imperfedlly. We ftiall endeavour to account for 
 this phenomenon. 
 
 The Cafpian is furrounded on its weftern fide by the 
 mountains of Caucafus, which extend from Derbent 
 to th^ Black Sea. Thefe mountains make a curve 
 rear Aftrakan, and directing their courfe towards the 
 eaftern fhore of the Cafpian, lofe themfelves near the 
 mouth of the Jaik, where they become fccondary 
 mountains, being difpofed in ftrata. As Caucafus is 
 an inexhauftible mag'^zineof combuftible fubftances, it 
 conf< quently lodges an aftonifhing quantity of metals 
 in its bowels. Accordingly, along the foot of this im- 
 menfe chain of mountains, we fometimes meet with 
 warm fprings, fometimes fprings of naphtha of dif- 
 ferent quality ; fometimes we find native fulphur, 
 mines of vitriol, or lakes heated by internal fires. Now 
 the foot of mount Caucafus forming the immediate 
 weftern fhore of the Cafpian Sea, it is very eafy to 
 imagine that a great quantity of the conftituent parts 
 of the former muft be communicated to the latter : 
 but it is chiefly to the naphtha, which abounds fo much 
 in the countries which furround this fea, that we muft 
 attribute the true caufe of the bitternefs peculiar 
 to its waters ; for it is certain that this bitumen flows 
 from the mountains, fometimes in all its purity, and 
 fometimes mixed with other fubftances which it ac- 
 quires in its paffage through fubterranean channels, 
 from the moft interior parts of thefe mountains to the 
 fea, where it falls to the bottom by its fpecific gravity. 
 It is certain too, that the north and north-vveil winds 
 Vol. IV. Fakt I. 
 
 25 ] GAS 
 
 detach the greatefl quantities of this naphtha ; whence Cifpitn 
 it is evident that the bitter tafte muft be mofl fenfible q.^^^^ 
 when thefe winds prevail. We may alfo comprehend , 
 why this tafte is not fo ftrong at the furface or in the 
 neighbourhood of the fhore, the waters there being 
 lefs impregnated with fait, and the naphtha which is 
 united with the water by the fait, being then either 
 carried to a diftance by the winds or precipitated to the 
 bottom. 
 
 But it is not a bitter tafte alone that the naphtha 
 communicates to the waters of the Cafpian : thefe wa- 
 ters were analyfed by M. Gmelian, and found to con- 
 tair, befides the common fea- fait, a confiderable pro- , 
 portion of Glauber-falt, intimately united with the 
 former, and which is evidently a produ£lion of the 
 naphtha. 
 
 As the waters of the Cafpian have no outlet, they 
 are difcharged by fubterranean canals through the , 
 earth, where they depofit beds of fait ; the furface of 
 which correfponds with that of the level of the fea. 
 The two great defarts which extend from it to the eaft 
 and weft are chiefly compofed of a faline earth, in 
 which the fait is formed by efHorefcence into regular 
 cryftals ; for which reafon fait fhowers and dews are 
 exceedinprly common in that neigbourhood. The fait 
 of the marfhes at Aftrakan, and that found in efHore- 
 fcence in the defarts, is by no means pure fea-falt, but 
 much debafed by the bitter Glauber fait we mentioned 
 above. In many places indeed it is found with cryftals 
 of a lozenge fhape, which is peculiar to it, without 
 any cubical appearance, the form peculiar to cryftals of 
 fea-falt. 
 
 A great deal has been written on the fuccefllve aug- 
 mentation and decreafe of the Cafpian fea, but with 
 little truth. There is indeed to be perceived in it a 
 certain rife and fall of its waters; in which, however, 
 no obfervation has ever difcovered any regularity. 
 
 Many fuppofe (and there are ftrong prefumptions in 
 favour of the fuppofition), that the fhores of the Caf- 
 pian were much more extenfive in ancient times than 
 they are at prefent, and that it once communicated 
 with the Black Sea. It is probable too, that the level 
 of this laft fea was once much higher than it is at pre- 
 fent. If then it be allowed, t-iat the waters of the 
 Black Sea, before it procured an exit by the Straits of 
 Conftantinople, rofe feveral fathoms above their pre- 
 fent level, which from many concurring circumftances 
 may eafily be admitted ; it wall follow, that all the 
 plains, of the Crimea, of the Kuman, of the Wolga, 
 and of the Jaik, and thofe of Great Tartary beyond 
 the lake of Arat, in ancient times formed but one fea, 
 which embraced the northern extremity of Caucafus 
 by a narrow ftrait of little depth ; the veftiges of which 
 are ftill obvious in the river Mantyfch. 
 CASSADA. SeejATROPHA 
 CASSANA (Nicolu), called Nicoletto, an emi- 
 nent Itahan painter, was born at Venice in 1659, and 
 became a dilciple of his father Giovanni Francefco 
 Caffano, a Genoefe, who had been taught the art of 
 painting by Bernardino Strozzi. He foon diftinguifh- 
 ed himfelf not only by the beauty of his colouring, 
 but by the gracefulnefs of his figures in hiftorical com- 
 pofitions, as well as in portrait. The moft eminent 
 perfonages f -.licited him to enrich their cabinets with 
 fome of his performances ; and were more particularly 
 t f defirous 
 
C A. S [ ^: 
 
 OafTafta; clefirous to obtain their portraits, becaufe in that branch 
 "■"V"" he excelled beyond competition. The Grand Duke of 
 Tufcany, who was an excellent judge of merit in all 
 profeffions, and as liberal an encourager of it, invited 
 Nicoletto to his court ; and he there painted the por- 
 traits of that prince and the princefs Violante his con- 
 tort. Thofe performances procured him uncommon 
 applaufe, as well as a noble gratuity, and he was em- 
 ployed and carefTed by the principal nobility of Flo- 
 rence. Befide feveral hiftorical fubjefts painted by 
 this matter while he relided in that city, one was a 
 very capital defign : The fubjcft of it was the Con/pi- 
 racy of Catiline; it conlifted of nine figures as large as 
 life, down to the knees; and the two principal figiu-es 
 were reprefented as with one hand joined in the pre- 
 fence of their companions, and in their other hand hold- 
 ing a cup of blood. Some of the Eiiglifli nobility on 
 3, their travels fat to him for their portraits ; which being 
 
 fent to London, and highly admired, Nicoletto was 
 invited to England, with ftrong afTurances of a ge- 
 nerous reception ; and on his arrival he experienced 
 the kindnefs, the refpeft, and the liberahty, fo peculiar 
 to the natives of that kingdom. He had the honour 
 of being introduced to the prefence of queen Anne, 
 and to paint her portrait ; in which he fucceeded fo 
 happily, that the queen diftinguifhed him by many 
 marks of favour and honour ; but he had not the hap- 
 pinefs to enjoy his good fortune for any length of 
 time, dying in London, univerfally regretted, in the 
 year 1713. 
 
 Cassana (Giovanni Agoftino), called L' Abate Caf- 
 fana, was brother to the preceding, and born in 
 1664. He was educated along with him by their fa- 
 ther Franccfco Caffana ; and he finiflied his ftudies at 
 Venice, where his brother Nicolo refidcd for fomc time. 
 Although he compofed and defigned hiftorical fubjefts 
 with expertnefs, and with a correttnefs of outline equal 
 to his brother ; yet from prudence and fraternal aftec- 
 tion, he declined to interfere with him, and chofe 
 therefore to defign and paint all forts of animals and 
 fruits. In that ftyle he arrived at a high degree of 
 excellence, imitating nature with exaftnefs, beauty,, 
 and truth ; expreffing the various plumage of his birds, 
 and the hairs of the different animals with fuch tender- 
 nefs and delicacy as rendered them eftimable to all 
 judges and lovers of the art. His works were admit- 
 ted into the coUeftions of thofe of the firft rank, and' 
 accounted ornaments of thofe repofitories of what is 
 curious or valuable. He alfo painted fruits of thofe 
 kinds which were the moil uncommon, or naturally of 
 odd and fingular colours; and fuch fifties as feemed^ 
 worthy to excite admiration by their unufual form, 
 colour, or appearance. But befides thofe fubjefts, he 
 fometimes painted the portraits of particular perfons 
 of diftiniSlion, Avhich he defigned, coloured, and touch- 
 ed, svith the fame degree of merit that was vifiblein all 
 his other performances. At laft he determined to 
 vifit Genoa, where his family had lived in efteem; and 
 took with him feveral pictures which he had already 
 finifhed. His intention was to difplay his generofity, 
 and to appear as a perlbn of more wealth and of great- 
 er confequence than he really was;- and to fupport.that 
 character, he beftowed his piftures to feveral of the 
 principal nobility of ' that city. Bat, unhappily, he 
 exjjerienced no grateful return for all tliat prodigal 
 
 6 ] GAS 
 
 munificence ; he reduced himfelf by that vain liberality Caffande 
 to the moft; neceifitous circumftances ; was deprived of f' 
 the means to procure for himfelf even the common ne- 
 ceflaries of life ; and wafted away the remainder of his 
 days in the bitternefs of poverty, mifery, and negleft. 
 
 CASSANDER, king of Macedon after Alexander 
 the Great, was the fon of Antipater. He made fe- 
 veral conquefts in Greece, aboliftied democracy at 
 Athens, and gave the government of that ftate to 
 the orator Demetrius. Olympias, the mother of Alex- 
 ander, having caufed Aridjeus and his wife Euridyce, 
 with others of CaiTander's party, to be put to death ; 
 he befieged Pydne, whither the queen hnd retired, took 
 it by a ftratagem, and caufed her to be put to death. 
 He married Theftalonica the fifter of Alexander the 
 Great ; and killed Roxana and Alexander, the wife 
 and fon of that conqueror. At length he entered into 
 an alliance with Seleucus and Lyfimachus, againft An- 
 tigoBus and -Demetrius ; over whom he obtained a 
 great vitilo'ry near Ipfus in Phiygia, 301 years before 
 the Chriftian sera, and died three years after, in the 19th 
 year of his reign. 
 
 CASSANDRA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter 
 of Priam and Hecuba, was beloved of Apollo, who 
 promifed to beftow on her the fpirit of prophccv, pro- 
 vided ftie would confent to his love. Caffandra feemed 
 to accept the propofal ; but had no fooner obtained 
 that gift, than flie laughed at the tempter, and broke 
 her word. Apollo, being enraged, revenged himfelf 
 by caufing no credit be given to her predidlions ; 
 htncc ftie in vain pr6phefied the ruin of Troy. Ajax, 
 the fon of Oileus, having ravithed her in the temple of 
 Minei-va, he was ftruck with thunder. She fell into 
 the hands of Agamemnon, who loved her to diilrac- 
 tion ; but in vain did ftie predict that he would be af- 
 faffinated in his own country. He was killed, with 
 her, by the intrigues of Clytemneftra; but their death 
 was avenged by Oreftes. 
 
 CASSANO, a town of Italy in the diicliy of Milanj 
 rendered remarkable by an obftinate battle fought 
 theVe between the Germans and French in 1 705. It 
 is fubjefh to the Houfe of Auftria, and is. feated on the 
 river Adda, in E. Long. id. o. N. Lat. 45. 20. 
 
 CASSANO, a town of Italy in Calabria citerior, in 
 the k'ngdom of Naples, with a biftiop's fee. E. Long.. 
 16. 30. N. Lat. 39. 55. 
 
 CASSAVI, or Cassada. See Jatropha. 
 
 CASSEL, a town of French Flanders^ and capital- 
 of a chatellany of the fame name : It is feated on a 
 mountain, where the terrace of the caftle is ftill to 
 be feen ; and from whence there is one of the finefl: 
 profpefts in the world ; for one may fee no lefs than 
 32 towns, with a great extent of the fea, from whence 
 it is diftant 1 5 miles. E. Long. 2. 2 7. N. Lat. 50. 48. 
 
 Cassel, the capital city of the landgravate of 
 Hefle-cafiel, in the circle of the Upper Rhine in Ger- 
 many ; (fee Hesse-cassel). It is divided into the 
 Old, New, and High towns. The New Town is belt 
 built, the houfes being of ftone, and the ftreets broad. . 
 The houfes of the Old Town, which is within the 
 walls, are moftly of timber ; but the ftreets are broad, 
 and the market-places fpacious. The place is ftrongly 
 fortified, but the fortifications are not regular. Ii con- 
 taais about 32,000 inhabitants, of whom a great pro- 
 portion. are French Proteftants. Thefe have eftablifti- 
 
€ A S [ 22 
 
 "CaCia. ed fevcral manufadlories in the place, particularly in 
 ""V"""' the woollen branch. It is featcd on the declivity of a 
 
 hill near the river Fulva, in E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 
 
 51.20. 
 
 CASSIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia 
 order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 33d or- 
 der, Lomentacea. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; petals 
 five ; antheras upper, three barren ; lower, three-beaked : 
 a leguminous plant. There are 30 fpecies, all of them 
 natives of warm climates. The moil remarkable are, 
 
 I. The fiftula or purging cafTia of Alexandria. It 
 is a native of Egypt and both Indies, where it rifcs to 
 the height of 40 or 50 feet, with a large^ trunk, di- 
 viding into many branches, garnilhed with winged 
 leaves, compofed of five pair of fpear-fliaped lobes, 
 which are fmooth, having many tranfverfe nerves from 
 the midrib to the border. The flowers are produced 
 in long fpikes at the end of the branches, each Handing 
 upon a pretty long foot-ftalk ; thefe are compofed^ 
 like the former, of fine yellow concave petals, which 
 are fucceeded by cylindrical pods from one to two 
 feet long, with a dark brown woody fliell, having a 
 longitudinal feam on one fide, divided into many cells 
 by tranfverfe partitions, each containing one or two 
 oval, fmooth, compreffed feeds, lodged in a blackifli 
 pulp, which is ufed in medicine. There are two forts 
 of this drug in the fiiops ; one brought from the Eaft 
 Indies, the other from the Well: the canes or pods of 
 the latter are generally large, rough, thick-rinded, and 
 the pulp naufeous ; thofe of the form.er are lefs, 
 fmoother, the pulp blacker, and of a fweeter tafte ; 
 this fort is preferred to the other. Such pods ftiould 
 be chofen as are weighty, new, and do not make a 
 rattling noife (from tlie feeds being loofe within them) 
 when fhaken. The pulp fliould be of a bright fhining 
 •black colour, and a fweet tafte, not harfh, which hap- 
 pens from the fruit being gathered before it has grown 
 fully ripe, or fourifh, which it is apt to turn upon keep 
 ing: it fliould neither be very dry nor very moift, nor 
 at all mouldy ; which, from its being kept in damp 
 cellars or moiftened, m order to increafe its weight, it 
 is very fubjeft to be. Greateft part of the pulp dif- 
 folves both in water and in redlified fpirit ; and may 
 be extrafted from the cane by either. The fliops em- 
 ploy water, boihng the bruifed pod therein, and after- 
 wards evaporating "the folution to a due confifcence. 
 This pulp is a gentle laxative medicine, and frequently 
 given, in a dofe of fome drams, in coftive habits. Some 
 direft a dofe of two ounces or more as a cathartic, in 
 inflammatory cafes, where the more acrid purgatives 
 have no place ; but in thefe large quantities it gene- 
 rally naufeates the fl:omach, produces flatulencies, and 
 fometimes gripmgs of the bowels, efpecially if the caflia 
 be not of a very good kind : thefe elFeds may be pre- 
 vented by the addition of aromatics, and exhibiting it 
 in a liquid form. Geoffroy fays, it does excellent fer- 
 vice in the painful tenfion of t]^e belly, which fome- 
 times follows the imprudent ufe of antimonials ; and 
 that it may be advantageoufly acuated with the more 
 acrid purgatives, or antimonial emetics, or employed to 
 abate their force. Valhfnieri relates, that the purga- 
 tive virtue of this medicine is remarkably promoted 
 by manna ; that a mixture of four drams 'of cafiia and 
 two of manna, purges as much as twelve drams of caflia 
 
 7 ] CAS 
 
 or thirty-two of manna alone. Sennertus obferves, Caflin, 
 that the urine is apt to be tui-ned of a green colour , 
 by the ufe of caffia : and fometimes, where a large " 
 quantity has been taken, blackifh. This drug gives 
 name to an officinal eleftuary, and is an ingredient alfo - 
 in another. 
 
 2. The caffia fenna is a flirubby plant cultivated in 
 Perfia, Syria, and Arabia, for the leaves, which form a 
 confiderable article of commerce. They are of an ob- 
 long figure, fliarp-pointed at the ends, about a quartc't 
 of an hich broad, and not a full inch in length, of a 
 lively yellowiih green colour, a faint not very difagree« 
 ble fmell, and a fubacrid, bitterifli, nauieous tafte. 
 They are brought from the above places, dried and 
 picked from the llalks, to Alexandria in Egypt, and 
 thence imported into Europe. Some inferior forts are 
 brought from TripoH and other places ; thefe may 
 eafily be diftinguifiied by their being either narrower, 
 longer, and fliarper pointed ; or larger, broader, and 
 round pointed, with fmall prominent veins ; or largfe 
 and obtufe, of a irelh green colour, without any yellow 
 caft. Senna is a very ufeful cathartic, operating mild- 
 ly, and yet effeclually ; and, if judicioufly dofed and 
 managed, rarely occafioning the ill confequences which 
 too frequently follow the exhibition of the ftronger 
 purges. The only inconveniences complained of in 
 this drug are, its being apt to gripe, and its naufeous 
 flavour. The griping quality depends upon a refinous 
 fubftance, which, hke the other bodies of this clafs, is 
 naturally difpofed to adhere to the coats of the intef- 
 tines. The more this refin is divided by fuch matters 
 as take off its tenacity, the lefs adhefive, and confe- 
 quently the lefs irritating and griping it will prove j 
 and the lefs it is divided, the more griping : hence 
 fenna given by itfelf, or infufions made in a very fmall 
 quantity of fluid, gripe feverely, and purge lefs than 
 when diluted by a large portion of fuitable menftruum, 
 or divided by mixing the infufion with oily emulfions. 
 The ill flavour of this drug is faid to be abated by the 
 greater water-figwort : but we cannot conceive that 
 this plant, whofe fmell is manifeftly fetid and its tafte 
 naufeous and bitter, can at all improve thofe of feniia i 
 others recommend bohea tea, though neither has this 
 any confiderable effeft. The fmell of fenna refides in 
 its more volatile parts, and may be difcliarged by 
 lightly boiling infufions of it made in water : the li- 
 quor thus freed from the peculiar flavour of the fenna, 
 may be eafily rendered grateful to the tafte, by the 
 addition of any proper aromatic tindlure or diftilled 
 water. The colleges both of London and Edinburgh 
 have given feveral formulae for the exhibition of this 
 article, fuch as thofe of infufion, powder, tincture, and 
 ele£luar}^ The dofe of fenna in fubftance, is from a 
 fcruple to a dram : in infufion, from one to three or 
 four drams. It has been cuftomary to rejc6l the pe- 
 dicles of the leaves of fenna as of little or no ufe: 
 Geoffroy however obferves, that they are not much in- 
 ferior in efficacy to the leaves themfelves. The pods 
 or feed-veffels met with among the fenna brought to 
 us, are by the college of Bruflels preferred to the leaves : 
 they are lefs apt to gripe, but proportionably kfs pur- 
 gative. 
 
 CjissiA-Lignea. See Laurus. 
 CASSIDA, in botany. Scutellaria. 
 Cassida, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging 
 Ff2 to 
 
C aflim cr 
 II 
 
 Caffine. 
 
 Plate 
 CXVI. 
 
 CAS [2 
 
 to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are like threads, 
 but thicker on the outfide; the elytra are marginated; 
 J and the head is hid under the thorax ; from which laft 
 circumftance is derived the name of the genus. Fo- 
 reign countries afford many fine fpecies of them. 
 Thofe we meet with in thefe parts have fomething 
 fmgular. Their larva, by the help of the two prongs 
 which are to be found at its hinder extremity, makes 
 itfelf, with its own excrements, a kind of umbrella, 
 that fhelters it from the fun and rain. When this 
 umbrella grov/s over-dry, it parts with it for a new one. 
 This larva calls its flough feveral times. Thiflles and 
 yerticillated plants are inhabited by thefe infefts. There 
 is one fpecies, of which the remarkable chryfalis re- 
 fcmbles an armorial efcutcheon. It is that which pro- 
 duces our variegated cafTida, and is a very fmgular one. 
 Numbers of them are found on the fide of ponds, up- 
 on the wild elecampane. 
 
 CASSIMER,orCAs iMER, the name of a thin tweel- 
 cd woollen clotli, much in fiifliion for fummer ufe. 
 CASSIMIRE or Cashmire. See Cashmire. 
 CASSINE, in botany: A genus of the trigynia or- 
 der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 23d order, 
 DumoJ^. The calyx is quinquepartite ; the petals are 
 five ; and the fruit is a trifpermous berry. There are 
 three fpecies, all of them natives of warm climates. 
 
 Of thefe the moft remarkable is the yapon^ wliich is 
 a native of the maritime parts of Virginia and Caroli- 
 na. It rifes to the height of ten or twelve feet, fend- 
 ing out branches from the ground upward, garniihed 
 with fpear-fhaped leaves placed alternately, which con- 
 tinue green through the year. The flowers are pro- 
 duced in clofe whorls round the branches, at the foot- 
 ilalks of the leaves ; they are white, and divided into 
 five parts, almoft to the bottom. The berries are of 
 a beautiful red colour, and as they continue moil part 
 of the winter upon the plants without being touched 
 by the birds, we may reafonably conclude that they are 
 pofTeffed of a poifonous. quality ; as few of the whole- 
 fome innocent fruits efcape their depredations. The 
 Indians, however, have a great veneration for this 
 plant, and at certaia fcafons of the year come in great 
 numbers to fetch away the leaves. On fuch occaiions 
 their ufual cuftom, fays Miller, is to make a fire upon 
 the ground, and, putting on it a great kettle full of 
 water, they throw, in a large quantity of yapon leaves; 
 and when tlK: water has boiled fufficiently, they drink 
 large draughts of the decoftion out of the kettle ; 
 which feldom fails to vomit them very feverely. In 
 this manner, however, they continue drinking and vot 
 miting for three days together, until they imagine 
 themfelves fufliciently cleanfed ; they then gather eve- 
 ry one a bundle of the flirub,. and carry it home with 
 them. — In the operation of thefe leaves by vomiting, 
 thofe who have talkd of thsm fay, that- there is no 
 uneafy fenfatlon. or fjain. The matter difcharged 
 comes away in a full ftream by the mouth> without 
 any violence, or fo much as difpofing the patient to 
 reach, or decline his head. The Spaniards who live 
 near the gold m.ines of Peru, are frequently obliged to 
 drink an ihfufion of this herb in order to moilten their 
 breails; without which they are liable to a fort of 
 iuffocation, from >the ilrong metallic exhalations that 
 ase coininually proceeding from the mines. In 
 
 ^ira- 
 
 28 ] CAS 
 
 guay, the Jefuits make a great revenue by importing CdffinI 
 the leaves of this plant into many countries under the Jl 
 name of Paraguay or South-fea tea, which is there ^'^'"P^'^' 
 drank in the fame manner as that of China or Japan ' 
 is with us. It is with difficulty preferved in England. 
 
 CASSINI (Johannes Dominicus), a moil excellent" 
 aftronomer, born at Piedmont in 1635. ^^^s early 
 proficiency in aftronomy procured him an invitatioQ 
 to be mathematical profelTor at Bologna when he was 
 no more than 15 years of age: and a comet appear- 
 ing in 1652, he dilcovered that comets were not ac- 
 cidental meteors, but of the fame nature, and proba- 
 bly governed by the fame laws, as the planets. In 
 the fame year he folved a problem given up by Kep- 
 ler and Bullialdus as infolvable, which v/as, to deter- 
 mine geometrically the apogee and eccentricity of a 
 planet from its true and mean place. In 1663, he 
 was appointed infpeftor-general of the fortifications of 
 the caftle of Urbino, and had afterwards the care of 
 all the rivers in the ecclefiailical ftate : he ilill however 
 profecuted his aftronomical ftudies, by difcovering the 
 revolution of Mars round his own axis ; and, in 1 666, 
 publifTied his theory of Jupiter's fatellites. Caffini 
 was invited into France by Louis XIV. in 1 669, where 
 he fettled as the firft profeifor In the royal obferva- 
 tory. In 1677 he demonftrated the line of Jupiter's 
 diurnal rotation ; and in 1 684 difcovered four more 
 fatellites belonging, to Saturn, Pluygens having found 
 •one before. He inhabited the royal obfervatory at 
 Paris more than forty years ; and when he died in 
 17 1 2, was fucceeded by his only fon James Caffini. 
 
 CASSIODORUS (M arcus Aurelius), fccrctary of 
 ftate toTheodoric king of the Goths, was born at Squil- 
 lace, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year 470. 
 He was conful in 514, and was in great credit under 
 the. reigns of Athalaric and Vltiges ; but at feventy 
 years of age retired into a monaftery in Calabria, where 
 he amufed himfelf in making fun-dials, water hour- 
 glaffes, and perpetual lamps. He alfo formed a libra- 
 r/ ; and compofed fsveral v;orks, the beft edition of 
 which is that of father Garet, printed at Rouen ia 
 1679. Thofe moft efteemed are his Divine Inftitu- 
 tions, and his treatife on the Soul. Pie died about the 
 year 562. 
 
 CASSIOPEIA,, in fitbi ilous hiftorv, wife to Ces- . 
 phcus king of Ethiopia, ' and mother of Andromeda. 
 She thought herfelf more beautiful than the Nereides, 
 who dcfired Neptune to revenge the aftront ; fo that ; 
 he feat a lea-monfter into the country, which did much 
 hariB. To iippeafe the god, her daughter Andi'ome- 
 da was expoled to the monfter, but was refcued by 
 Perfeus ; who obtained of Jupiter, that CaffioiJeia 
 might be placed after his death among the ilars: hence 
 the conttellatlon of that name. 
 
 Cassiopeia, in aftronomy, one, of the conftellations 
 of the northern hemifphere, fituated next to Cepheus,, 
 In 1572, there appeared a new ftar in this conftella-^ - 
 tion, which at firft furpafted in magnitude and bright- 
 ntis Jupiter himfelf.; but it diminifhed by degrees, and 
 at laft difappeared, at the end of eighteeu months. It 
 alarmed all -the aftronomers of that age, many of whom 
 wrote diffiertation^ on it ; among the reil Tycho Bralie, 
 Kepler, Maurolycus, Lycetus, Gramincus, &c. Beza, 
 the landgrave of Heffc, Rofa, &c. wrote to prove it a 
 CQmct, and the, fa^ne v. hich appeared to the IMagi iit 
 
 the . 
 
CAS [229 
 
 C.ffis the birth of Jefns Chrift, and that it came to declare 
 II hia fecond coming : they were anfwered on this fub- 
 Caffumar Tycho. The ftars in the conftellation Caffio- 
 
 ' » ' peia, in Ptolemy's Catalogue, are thirteen ; in Heve- 
 
 lius's,thirty-feven; inTycho's, forty-fix; butin the Bri- 
 tannic Catalogue, Mr Flamftead makes them fifty-five. 
 
 CASSIS, in antiquity, a plated or metalline helmet; 
 different from the galea, which was of leather. 
 
 CASSITERIA, in the hiftory of foffils, a genus 
 of cr)'llal8, the figures of which are influenced by an 
 admixture of fome particles of tin. ^ 
 
 The caffiteria are of two kinds ; the whitilh pellu- 
 cid caffiterion, and the brown cafiiterion. The firft 
 is a tolerably bright and pellucid cryllal, and feldom 
 fubjea to the common blemifiies of cryilal : it is of a 
 perfed and regular form, in the figure of a quadrila- 
 teral pvramid ; and is found in Devonfhire and Cornwall 
 principally. The brown caffiterion is like the former in 
 figure : it is of a very fmooth and glolfy furface, and is 
 alfo found in great plenty in Devonftiire and Cornwall. 
 
 CASSITERIDES (auc. geog.), a duller of illands 
 to the well of the Land's End ; oppofite to Celtiberia, 
 (Pliny) ; famous for their tin, which he calls candidum 
 plumbum ; formerly open to none but the Phoenicians ; 
 who alone carried on this commerce from Gades, con- 
 cealing the navigation from the reft of the world, 
 (Strabo.) The appellation is from Cqffiteros, the 
 name for tin in Greek. Now thought to be the Scil- 
 ly Iflands, or Sorlings, (Camden). 
 
 CASSIUS (Spurius), a renowned Roman general 
 and conful, whofe enemies accufing him of aipiring to 
 royalty, he was thrown down from the Tarpeian rock, 
 485 years before Chrift ; after having thrice enjoyed 
 the confiilar dignity, been once general of the horfe 
 \inder the firft diftator that was created at Rome, and 
 twice received the honour of a triumph. 
 
 Cassius (Longinus), a celebrated Roman law7er, 
 flourifhcd 1 1 3 years before Chrift. He was lo in- 
 flexible a judge, that his tribunal was called the Rock 
 of the impeached. It is from the judicial feverity of 
 this Caffius, that very fevere judges have been caUed 
 
 Ca/Tiant. , r t v 
 
 Cassius (Caius), one of the murderers of Julius 
 Cf^far : after his defeat by Mark Anthony at the bat- 
 tle of Philippi, he ordered one of his freed-men to put 
 him to death with his own fword, 41 years before 
 Chrift. See Rome. 
 
 CASSOCK, or Cassula, a kind of robe or gown, 
 wore over the reft of the habit, particularly by the 
 clergy. The word caffock comes from the French 
 cafaque, an horfeman's coat. 
 
 CASSONADE, in commerce, caflc fugar, or fugar 
 put into cafks or chefts, after the firft purification, but 
 which has not been refined. It is fold either in pow- 
 der or in lumps ; the-whiteft, and that of which the 
 lumps are largeft, is the belt. Many imagine it to 
 fweetcn more than loaf lugar ; but it is certam that it 
 yields a great deal more fcum. 
 
 CASSOWARY, in ornithology. See Struthio. 
 
 CASSUMAR, in the Materia Medica, a root ap- 
 proaching to that of zedoary. 
 
 It is cardiac and fudorific, and famous in nervous 
 cafes ; it is alfo an ingredient in many compofitions, 
 and is prefcribed in powders, bolufcs, and infufions. 
 Its doXe is from five to fifteen grains. 
 
 1 CAS 
 
 CASSUMBAZAR, a town of India, in Afia, fi- Caffumba^ 
 tuated on the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal: 
 E. Long. 37. and N. Lat. 24. Caftigno. 
 
 CAST is peculiarly ufed to denote a figure or fmall ^r— J 
 
 flatue of bronze. See Bronze. 
 
 Cast, among founders, is applied to tubes of wax 
 fitted in divers parts of a mould of the fame matter ;. 
 by means of which, when the wax of the mould is re- 
 moved, the melted metal is conveyed into all the parta 
 which the wax before poffeffed. 
 
 Cast, alfo denotes a cylindrical piece of brafs or 
 copper, flit in two, lengthwife, ufed by the founders 
 in fand, to form a canal or conduit in their moulds, 
 whereby the metal may be conveyed to the different 
 pieces intended to be caft. 
 
 Cast, among plumbers, denotes a little brazen fun- 
 nel at one end of a mould, for cafting pipes without 
 foldering,by means of which the melted metahs pour- 
 ed into the mould. . 
 
 Cast, or Cap, in fpeaking of the eaftern attairs, 
 denotes a tribe, or number of families, of the fame 
 rank and profefiion. The divifion of a nation ^mto 
 cafts chiefly obtains in the dominions of the Great 
 Mogul, kingdom of Bengal, ifland of Ceylon, and the 
 grea't peninfula oppofite thereto. In each of thefe 
 there are, according to father Martin, four pnncipal 
 cafts, viz. the caft of the bramins, which is the firfl 
 and moft noble ; the caft of the rajcu, or princes, who 
 pretend to be defcended from divers royal families ; 
 the caft of the choutres, which comprehends all the 
 artificers ; and that of the parias, the lovveft and moft 
 contemptible of all : though Henry Lord, it muft be * 
 obferved, divides the Indians about Surat into four cajls, 
 fomewhat diff"ereatly from Martin, vi%. into bramins^ 
 or priefts ; cuttery, or foldiers ; Jhuddery, which we call 
 banians, or merchants ; and ivyfi, the mechanics or 
 artificers. Every art and trade Is confined to its pro- 
 per call, sor is allowed to be exercifed by any but thofe 
 whofe fathers profefTed the fame. So that a taylor's 
 fon can never rife to be a painter, nor a painter's fun 
 fall to be a taylor ; though there are fome employ- 
 ments that are proper to all the cafts, e. g. eveiy body 
 may be a foldier, or a merchant. There are alfo di- 
 vers cafts which are allowed to till the ground, but not 
 all. The caft of parias is held infamous, in fo much 
 that it is a difgrace to have any dealings or _ convcrfa- 
 tion with them ; and there are fome trades m the caft 
 oi choutres, which debafe their profeflbrs almoft to the 
 fame rank. Thus fhoemakers, and all artificers in lea- 
 ther, as alfo fifhermen, and even fhepherds, are reputed 
 no better than parias. 
 
 CASTAGNO (Andrea Dal), hlftorical pamter, was 
 born at a imall village called Caftagno, belonging to 
 the territory of Tufcany, in 1409 ; and being depri- 
 ved of his parents, was employed by his uncle to at- 
 tend the heids of cattle in the fields ; but, having ac- 
 cidentally feen an ordinary painter at work in the 
 country, he obferved him for fome time with furprife 
 and attention, and afterwards made fuch efforts to imi- 
 tate him, as aftoniflied all who faw his produdions. 
 The extraordinary genius of Andrea became at laft a 
 commen topic of difcourfe in Florence; and fo far 
 excited the curiofity of Bernaidetto de Medici, that 
 he lent for Andrea ; and perceiving tkat he had pro- 
 mifing talents, he placed him under die care cf the 
 ^ f f 3 beit 
 
C A S [ 230 
 
 ciaalTo"' who were at that ti'me in Florence. An- 
 
 — ^ - 1 drea diligently purfued his ihidies, devoted himfelf en- 
 tirely to praftice under the Jtreaion of his inftruftors, 
 became particularly eminent in defign, and in a few 
 years made fo great a progrefs, that he found as much 
 tmployment as he could pofTibly execute. Pie painted 
 only in diftemper, and frefco, with a manner of colour- 
 ing that was not very agreeable, being rather dry and 
 hard; till he learned the fecret of painting in oil from 
 Domenico Venetiano, who had derived his knowledge 
 of that new' difcovery from iVntonello da Meffina. An- 
 drea was the firft of the Florentine artitts who painted 
 in oil ; but although he was in the higheft degree in- 
 debted to Domenico for difclofmg the fecret, yet he 
 fecretly envied the merit of the man who taught him 
 
 the art ; and becaufe his own works feemed to be 
 much lefs admired than thofe of Domenico, he deter- 
 mined to aflaffinate his friend and benefaftor. Ke 
 executed his defign with the utmoft ingratitude and 
 treachery (for Domenico at that time lived with hhn, 
 anri painted in partnerfhip with him), and he ftabbed 
 him at a corner of a ftreet fo fecretly, that he efcaped 
 unobferved, and urifufpefted, to his own houfe, where 
 he compofedly fat down to work ; and thither Dome- 
 nico was foon after conveyed, to die in the arms of his 
 murderer. The real author of fo inhuman a tranfac- 
 tion was never difcovered, till Andrea, through re- 
 morfe of confcience, difclofed it on his death-bed, in 
 1480. He finifhed feveral confiderable works at Flo- 
 rencei by which he gained great riches, and as great a 
 reputation ; hut when his villanous mifcondudl became 
 public, his memory was ever after held in the utmoil 
 deteftation. The moft noted work of this mafttr is 
 in the hall of juftice at Floience, reprefenting the 
 execution of the confpirators againll the houfe of 
 Medici. 
 
 CASTALIO (Sebaftian), was born at Chetillon, 
 on the Rhone, in fSie year 15 15. Calvin conceived 
 fuch an e'teem and friendfhip for him, during the ftay 
 he made at Strafburg in 1540 and 1541, that he lodg- 
 ed him foine days at his houfe, and procured him a re- 
 gent's place in the college of Geneva. Caftalio, after 
 continuing in this office near three years, was forced 
 to quit it in the year 1 544, on account of fome parti- 
 Kulai ninions which he held concerning Solomon's 
 fong, aiit' Chrift's defcent into hell. He retired to 
 Bafil, where he was made Greek profelTor, and died 
 in that place in 1564, aged 48. He incurred the 
 high difpleafure of Calvin and Theodore Beza, for 
 differing with them concerning predeftination and the 
 puni/hmeni of heretics. His works are very confi- 
 derable both on account of their quality and number. 
 In 1545, he printed at Bafil four books of dialogues, 
 containing the principal hiftories of the bible in ele- 
 gant Latin ; fo that youth might thereby make a pro- 
 ficiency ill piety and in the Latin tongue at the fame 
 time. But his principal work is a Latin and French 
 trauHation of the fcriptures. He began the Latin 
 tranflation at Geneva in 1542, and finifhed it at Bafil 
 in 1550. It was printed at Bafil in 1551', and dedi- 
 cated by the author to Edward VI. king of England. 
 The French verfion was dedicated to Henry II. of 
 France, and printed at Bafil in 1555. The fault which 
 has been moll generally condemned in his Latin tranf- 
 iation, ia the aifed^ation of ufmg only claffical terms. 
 
 ] CAS 
 
 CASTALIUS FONS, (Strabo, Paufanlas) ; Cti/?a- Caftallus 
 /ia, (Pindar, Virgil) : A fountain at the foot of mount II 
 ParnafTus, in Phocis, near the temple of Apollo, or p^^-J^S' 
 near Delphi ; facred to the Mufes, thence called Caja- ^"^'^^ 
 /ides. Its murmurs were thought prophetic, (Nona us, 
 Lucian). 
 
 CASTANEA, in botany. See Fagus. 
 CASTANETS, Castagnettes, or Castanet- 
 TAs, a kind of mufical inrtrument, wherewith the 
 Moors, Spaniards, and Bohemians, accompany their 
 dances, farabands, and guittars. It confitts of two 
 little round pieces of wood dried, and hollowed in 
 manner of a fpoon, the concavities whereof are placed 
 on one another, fattened to the thumb, and beat from 
 time to time with the middle finger, to direft their 
 motion and cadences. The cajianets may be beat eight 
 or nine times in the fpace of one meafure, or fecond 
 of a minute. 
 
 CASTANOVITZ, a town of Croatia, fituated on 
 the river Unna, which divides Chrillendom from 
 Turkey. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 41^. 40. It is 
 fubjeft to the Houfe of Aullria. 
 
 CASTEL (Lewis Betrand), a learned Jefuit, was 
 born at Montpellier in 1688, and entered among the 
 Jefuits in 1703. He lludied pohte literature in his 
 youth ; and at length applied himfelf entirely to the 
 lludy of mathematics and natural philofophy. He 
 diftinguiflied himfelf by writing on gravity ; the ma- 
 thematics; and on the mufic of colours, a very whim- 
 fical idea, which he took great pains to reduce to 
 practice. His piece on gravity, entitled T raite de la 
 Pejifateur unlverfelk^ was printed at Paris, in 1724. 
 He afterwards - publiflied his Mathematique umverfelle ; 
 which occalioned his being unanimoufiy chofen a fel- 
 low of the Royal Society of London, without the 
 leaft folicitation. He was alfo a member of the aca- 
 demies of Bourdeaux and Rouen 
 
 but his Clavecin 
 
 ocidaire made the moft noife ; and he fpent much 
 time and expence in making an harpfichord for the 
 eye, but without fuccefs. He alfo wrote for and a- 
 gainft Sir Ifaac Newton, and pubhfhed feveral other 
 works; the principal of which are, Le Plan du Ma- 
 thematique abregte, and a treatife entitled Optique des 
 Colours. He led a very exemplary life, and died in 
 1757. 
 
 CASTELAMARA, a town of Italy, in the king- 
 dom of Naples, and in the hither Principato, with a 
 bifhop's fee and a good harboi^. E. Long. 14. 25. 
 N. Lat. 41 . 40. 
 
 CASTEL-ARAGONESH, 3 ftrong town of Italy, in 
 the ifland of Sardinia, with a bifhop's fee, and a good 
 harbour. It is feated on the N. W. coaft of the illand, 
 in E. Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 40. 56. 
 
 C^&rEL-Branco, a town of Portugal, and capital 
 of the province of Beira; feated on the river Lyra,. 
 35 miles N. W. of Alcantara. W. Long. 8. o. N. Lat» 
 39- 35- 
 
 CASTEL-Franco, a very fmall, but well-fortified fron- 
 tier town of the Bolognefe, in Italy, belonging to 
 the Pope. 
 
 C AST EL-de- Vide y z' fmall ftrong town of Alentejo. 
 It was taken by Philip V. W. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 
 39- 15- 
 
 CASTEL-Folit, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feat- 
 ed on an inacctlTible eminence, between Gironne and 
 
 Campredonj. 
 
C A S 
 
 [ 231 ] 
 
 C A S 
 
 ilel Gun- Campredon, about 15 miles from each, and near the 
 dolpho Fulva. 
 
 'aftellatio CASTEL-Gandolphof a town of Italy, in the terri- 
 'tory of the church, with a caftle, to which the Pope 
 retires in the fummer feafon ; 10 miles S. by E. of 
 Rome. E. Long. 1 2. 46. N. Lat. 41. 44. 
 
 CASTRL-NovOf a Itrong town of Dalmatia, fubjeft 
 to the Venetians ; feated on the gulph of Cataio, in 
 E. Long. 18. 45. N. Lat. 42. 25. 
 
 C.isTB.L-RodngOy a town of Portugal, in the pro- 
 vince of Tra-los-Montes, in W. Long. 7. i. N. 41. o. 
 
 CASTf L-Novo'dc-Carfagnmiaf a town of Italy, in the 
 Modenefe, with a ftrong fortrefs. It is the capital of 
 the valley of Carfagnana ; and feated on the river Ser- 
 chio, 17 miles above Lucca. 
 
 Caste L del Ovo, a fmall ifland in the Tufcan Sea, 
 in the gulph of Naples, near a town of that name, to 
 which it is joined by a ftone bridge. The fortrefs is 
 called Caftel del Ovo, in which there is always a good 
 garrlfon. 
 
 Ci^STELBAR, a town of Ireland, in the county 
 of Mayo, and province of Connaught, 35 miles N. of 
 Galway. W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 53. 45-. 
 
 CASTELL (Edmund) D. D. a learned Englifli di- 
 vine of the 1 7th centuiy, diftinguifhcd by his fldll in 
 tlie eaftern languages. He was educated at Cam- 
 bridge ; where he was mailer of Catharine hall, and 
 Arabic profeffbr ; and was at length canon of Canter- 
 bury. He had the greateil fliare in the Poly glott bible 
 of London ; and v/rote the Heptaglotton pro feptem Or'ien- 
 taUhusy ^c. On this excellent work, which occupied 
 a great part of his life, he beftowed incredible pains 
 and expence, 'even to the breaking of his conftitution, 
 and exhauftlng of his fortune, having expended no 
 lefs than 12,000/, upon that work. At length, when 
 it was printed, the copies remained unfold upon his 
 hands. He died in 1685 ; and lies buried in the 
 church-yard of Higham Gobyon in Bedfordfhire, of 
 which he was reflor. It appears from the infcription 
 on his monument, which he erefted in his hfetime, 
 fcliat he was chaplain to Charles II. He bequeathed 
 all his oriental manufcripts to the univerfity of Cam- 
 bridge, on condition that his name fhould be written 
 on every copy in the colleftion. 
 
 CASTELLA, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy, 
 about five miles north-eall of the city of Mantua. E. 
 Long. 1 1. 15. N. Lat. 45. '30. 
 
 CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or charge 
 in Poland : The caftellans are fenators of the king- 
 ■dom, but fenators only of the lower clafs, who, in 
 diets, fit on low feats, behind the palatines, or great 
 fenators. Tlicy are a kind of lieiitenants of pro\"in- 
 oes, and command a part of the palatinate under the 
 palatine. 
 
 CASTELLANY, the territory belonging to any 
 oity or town, cliiefly ufed in France and Flanders; 
 Thus we fay, the caftellany of Lifle, Ypres, &c 
 
 CASTELLARIUS, the keeper, or curator, of a 
 oaftelliim. Gruter gives an ancient fepulchral infcrip- 
 tion in memory of a cojlellarlus. 
 
 CASTELLATIO, in middle age writers, the 
 aft of building a caftle, or of fortifying a houfe,. 
 and rendering it a caftle. — By the ancient Englifh 
 laws, caftellation was prohibited without the king's 
 efpeciai licence. 
 
 CASTELLI (Bernard), an Italian painter, was 
 born at Genoa in 1557; and excelled in colouring and- 
 in portraits. He was the intim.ate friend of Tafib, 
 and took upon himfelf the tafk of defigning and etch- 
 ing the figures of his Jerufalem Delivered. He died 
 at Genoa in 1629. 
 
 Valerio Caftelli, one of his fons, was born at Ge- 
 noa in 1625, and furpafled his father. He particu- 
 larly excelled m painting battles \ whicn he compofed 
 with fpirit, and executed them with fo pleafing a va- 
 ritjty, and fo great freedom of h^nd, as gained him 
 univerfal applaufe. His horfes are admirably drawn, 
 thrown into attitudes that are natural and becoming, 
 full of motion, aftion, and life. In that ftyle of 
 painting he Ihowed all the fire of Tintoretto, united 
 Virith the fine tafte of compofition of Paolo Veronefe. 
 He died in 1659. The works of this mafter are not 
 very frequent ; but they are defervedly held in very 
 high eftt^cm. It is believed that a greater number of 
 his eaftl pictures are In the coUeftions of the nobility 
 and gentry of England, than in any other part of 
 Europe. 
 
 _ CASTELLORUM operatic, caftle-work, orfer- 
 vice and labour done by inferior tenants for the build- 
 ing and upholding of caftles of defence; toward which 
 forne gave perfonal afliftance, and others paid their 
 contributions. This was one of the three neceflaiy 
 charges to which all lands among the Anglo-Saxons 
 were exprtfsly fubjeft. 
 
 CASTELVETRO (Lewis), a native of Modena, 
 of the 1 6th century,, famous for his Comment on Ari- 
 Jiotle's Poetics. He was profecuted by the inqulfition 
 for a certain book of Melanfthon, vv'hich he had tranf- 
 lated into Italian. He retired to Bafil, where lie 
 died. 
 
 CASTIGATION, among the Romans, the puni/h- 
 ment of an offender by blows, or beating with a wand 
 or fwitch. Caftigation was chiefly a military punilli- 
 ment; the power of inflifting which on the foldiery 
 was given to the tribunes. Some make it of two kinds ; 
 one v»-ith a ftick or cane called fujiigailo ; the other 
 with rods, called jlagellatio : the latter was the moll 
 di (honourable. 
 
 CASTIGATORY for Scolds. A woman indic- 
 ted for being a common fcold, if convifted, fliall be- 
 placed in a certain engine of correftion, called the. 
 treimckety caJI'igaiory y or cuching-Jlool ; which, in the. 
 Saxon language, {\'gxvS\t% xki(t fcold'ing-Jlcol ; though now 
 it is frequently coiTupted into the duchng-Jiool ; be- 
 caufe the refidue of the judgment is, that, when fhe 
 is placed therein, ftie lhall be plunged in water for her 
 puniftiment. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE (Giovanni Benedetto), a cele« 
 brated painter, was born at Genoa in :6i6. His 
 firft mafter was Gio-Battifta Paggi. Afterwards he 
 ftudied under Andrea Ferrari; andlaftly perfected him- 
 felf from the inftruftions of Anthony Vandyck, who 
 at that time refided at Genoa. He painted portraits, . 
 hiftorical pieces, landfcapes,.and caftles : In the latter of" 
 which he isfaid chiefly to have excelled; asalfo in fairs, 
 markets, and all kinds of rured fcenes. By this mafter 
 we have alfo a great number of etchings, which are all 
 fpirited, free, and full of tafte. The eflfeft is, in general, 
 powerful and pleafing ; and many of them have a more 
 harmonized and finifhed appearance, than is ufual from, 
 
 ths: 
 
CAS 
 
 [ 232 1 
 
 CAS 
 
 "CalllgHone the point, fo little affifted by the graver. Hia draw- 
 Caftile-de- '^^^ °^ ^^^^ naked figure, though by no means corred, 
 is notwithftanding managed in a ilyle that indicates 
 
 ^Mxy— the hand of the mafter. 
 
 His fon, Francefco, was bred under hirafelf, and 
 excelledinthe fame fubjefts; and it is thought that many 
 good paintings which are afcribed to Benedetto, and 
 are frequently feen at fales, or in modern colleftions, 
 are copies after him by his fon Francefco, or perhaps 
 originals of the younger Cafliglione. 
 
 Castiglione, a fmall, but ftrong town of Italy, 
 in Mantua, with a caftle. It w^as taken by the Ger- 
 mans in 1701, and the French defeated the Im- 
 periaHfls near it iu 1706. E. Long. lo. 29. N. Lat. 
 43- 23. 
 
 CASTIGLIONI (Balthazar), an eminent Italian 
 nobleman, defceuded from an illuftrious and ancient 
 •family, and born at his own villa at Cafalico in the 
 duchy of Milan in 1478. He ftudied painting, fculp- 
 ture, and arch'teclure, as appears from a book he 
 wrote in favour of thefe arts ; and excelled fo much 
 in them, that Raphael Urbino, and Buonaroti, though 
 incom.parable artifts, never thought their works com- 
 plete w^ithout the approbation of Count Caftiglioni. 
 When he was 26 years of age, Guido Ubaldo, Duke 
 of Urbino, fent him ambalfador to Pope Julius II. 
 He was fent upon a fecond embaffy to Louis XII, of 
 France, and upon a third to Henry VII. of England. 
 After he had difpatched his bufinefs here, he return- 
 ed, and began his celebrated work intitled the Cour- 
 tier ; which he completed at Rome in 15 16. This 
 work is full of moral and political inftruftion ; and if 
 we feek for the Italian tongue in perfeftion, it is faid 
 •♦o be nowhere better found than in this performance. 
 A verfion of this work, together with the original I- 
 taHan, w^as publ filed at London in 1727, by A. P. 
 Caftiglioni, a gentleman of the fame family, who re- 
 fided there under the patronage of Dr Gibfon biHiop 
 of London. Count Caftiglioni was fent byCIementVII. 
 to the court of the Emperor Charles V. in quality of 
 legate, and died at Toledo in 1529. 
 
 CASTILE (NEw),orTHE King DOM OF Toledo, 
 a. province of Spain, bounded on the north by Old 
 Caftile, on the eaft by the kingdoms of Arragon and 
 Valencia, on the fouth by that of Murcia and Anda- 
 lufia, and on the weft by the kingdom of Leon. It 
 is divided into three parts ; Argaria to the north, 
 Mancha to the eaft, and Sierra to the fouth. Madrid 
 is the capital. Both thefe provinces are very well wa- 
 tered with rivers, and the air is generally pure and 
 healthy ; but the land is mountainous, dry, and uncul- 
 tivated, through the lazinefs of the inhabitants. The 
 north part produces fruits and wine, and the fouth 
 good paftures and fine wool. Thefe provinces are di- 
 vided by a long chain of mountains, which run from 
 eaft to weft. 
 
 Castile (OU), a province of Spain, with the title of 
 a kingdom. It is about 192 miles in length, and 115 
 in breadth ; bounded on the fouth by New Caftile, 
 on the eaft by Arragon and Navarre, on the north by 
 Bifcay and Afturia, and on the weft by the kingdom 
 of Leon. Burgos is the capital town. 
 
 CASTiLE-de-Oro, a large and fertile country in 
 South America, lying to the weft of Oroonoko. It 
 comprehends eight governmente j viz. Terra Firma, 
 
 4 
 
 Proper Carthagcna, St Martha, Rio de la Hacha, 
 Veniiuela, New Andalufia,Popayan, and the new king- 
 dom of Granada. 
 
 CASTILLAN, or Castillane, a gold coin, cur- 
 rent in Spain, and w^orth fourteen rials and fixtecn 
 deniers. 
 
 Castillan is alfo a weight ufed in Spain for weigh- 
 ing gold. It is the hundredth part of a pound Spa- 
 nifli weight. What they Commonly call a weight of 
 gold in Spain, is always underftood of the caftillan. 
 
 CASTILLARA, a town of the Mantuan in Italy, 
 fituated fix m.iles north-eaft of the city of Mantua, 
 E. Long. II. 29. N. Lat. 45. 20. 
 
 CASTILLON, a town of Perigort, in the pro- 
 vince of Guienne in France, fituated on the river Dor- 
 donne, 16 miles eaft of Bourdeaux. W. Long. 2.40, 
 N. Lat. 44. JO. 
 
 CASTING, in foundery, the running a metal into 
 a mould, prepared for that purpofe. 
 
 Casting of Metals, of Letters, Bells, is'c. See the 
 article Foundery. 
 
 Casting in Sand or Earth is the running of metals be- 
 tween tv/o frames, or molds, filled with fand or earth, 
 wherein the figure that the metal is to take has been 
 imprefted en creux, by means of the pattern, 
 
 Casting, among fculptors, implies the taking of 
 cafts and impreflions of figures, bufts, medals, leaves, &c« 
 
 The method of taking of cafts of figures and bufts 
 is moft generally by the ufe of plafter of Paris, i. e. 
 alabafter calcined by a gentle heat. The advantage of 
 ufing this fubftance preferably to others, is, that not- 
 withftanding a flight calcination reduces it to a pul- 
 verine ftate, it becomes again a tenaeiousand cohering 
 body, by being moiftened with water, and afterwards 
 fuffered to dry ; by which means either a concave or 
 a convex figure may be given by a proper mold or 
 model to it when wet, and retained by the hardnefs 
 it acquires when dry : and from thefe qualities, it is 
 fitted for the double purpofe of making both cafts, and 
 molds for forming thofe cafts. The particular manner 
 of making cafts depends on the form of the fubje<St to 
 be taken. Where there are no projediing parts, it is 
 very fimple and eafy ; as likewife where there are fuch 
 as form only a right or any greater angle with the 
 principal furface of the body ; but where parts project 
 in Icfler angles, or form a curve inclined towards the 
 principal furface of the body, the work is more difficult. 
 
 The firft ftep to be taken is the forming the mold. 
 In order to this, if the original or model be a bafs re- 
 lief, or any other piece of a flat form, having its fur- 
 face firft well greafed, it muft be placed on a proper 
 table, and furrounded by a frame, the fides of which 
 muft be at fuch a diftance from it as will allow a pro- 
 per thicknefs for the fides of the mold. As much 
 plafter as wull be fufficient to cover and rife to fuch a 
 thicknefs as may give fufficient ftrength to the mold, 
 as alfo to fill the hoUow betwixt the frame and the 
 model, muft be moiftened with water, till it be juit 
 of fuch confiftence as will allow it to be poured unon 
 the model. This muft be done as foon as polhble ; 
 or tlie plafter would concrete or fet, fo as to become 
 more troublefome in the working, or unfit to be ufed. 
 The whole muft then be fuffered to remain in this 
 condition, till the plafter has attained its hardnefs ; 
 and then the frame being taken away, the preparatory 
 
 call 
 
 Ciifl:illafl 
 
 (f 
 
CAS [ 233 1 CAS 
 
 CaftlT^e, call or mold thus formed may be taken off from the that where imder-workmgs, as they are called, occm, 
 
 ■ that is, wherever a ftraight line drawn fronv the bafis 
 
 or infertion of any projeftion, would be cut or croffed 
 by any part of fuch projedlion, fuch part cannot be 
 taken off' without a divifion ; which mull be made ei- 
 
 fubjefl entire. 
 
 Where the model or original fubjeit is of a round 
 or creft form, a different method muft be purfued ; 
 and the mold mufl be divided into feveral pieces : or 
 if the fubjeft confifls of detached and proje6ling parts, 
 it is frequently mofl expedient to cafl fuch parts fepa- 
 rately, and afterwards join them togethei-- 
 
 Wliere the original fubjc6t or mold forms a round, 
 or fpheroid, or any part of fuch round or fpheroid, 
 more than one half the plafter mufl be ufed without 
 any frame to keep it round the model ; and mufl be 
 tempered with water to fuch a confiflence, that it may 
 be wrought with the hand like very foft pafle ; but 
 though it mufl not be fo fluid as when prepared for 
 flat figured models, it mufl yet be as moifl as is com- 
 patible with its cohering fufficiently to hold together : 
 •and being thus prepared, it mufl be put upon the mo- 
 del, and compreffed with the hand, or any flat inflru- 
 ment, that the parts of it may adapt themfelves, in the 
 mofl perfeft manner, to thofe of the fubjeft, as well 
 lis be corapaft with refpeft to themfelves. When the 
 model is fo covered to a convenient thicknefs, the 
 whole muft be left at refl till the plafter be fet and 
 firm, fo as to bear dividing without falling to pieces, 
 or being hable to be put out of its form by flight vio- 
 lence ; and it mufl then be divided into pieces, in or- 
 der to its being taken off from the model, by cutting 
 It with a knife with a very thin blade ; and being di- 
 vided, mufl be cautioufly taken off, and kept till dry : 
 but it mufl be always carefully obferved, before the 
 feparation of the parts be made, to notch them crofs 
 the joints, or lines of the divifion, at proper dillances, 
 that they may with eafe and certainty be properly con- 
 joined again ; which \vov\d be much more precarious 
 and troulalefome without fuch directive marks. The 
 art of properly dividing the m.olds, in order to make 
 them fejiavate from the rr.odel, requires more dexterity 
 and fldll than aijy other thing in the art of cafling ; 
 aud does rot admit of rules for the mofl advantageous 
 CDuduft of it in every cafe. Where the fubjcft is of 
 a round or fpheroidal forni, it is befl to divide the 
 mold into three parts, which will then eafdy come off 
 from thf model; and tlie fune will hold good of a 
 cylinder or any regular curve figure. 
 
 The mold being thus form.ed, and dry, and the 
 parts put together, it mufl be fait greaftd, and placed 
 in fuch a poiition that the hollow may lie upwards, 
 and then ililed with platler mixed with water, in the 
 fame proportion and manner as v.-as diretted for the 
 cafling the .mold : and when the cafl: is perfeftly fet 
 and dry, it mufl be taken out of the mold, and re- 
 paired where it is necefTary ; which finifnes the ope- 
 ratiou^ 
 
 This is all that is required with rcfpeCl to fubjetts 
 ■where the farfaces have the regularity above men- 
 tiojied : but wliere .they form curves which interfedl 
 aih\i ether, the condtidt of the operation mufl; be va- 
 ried with refpeft to the manner of taking the cafl of 
 the mold from off the fubjeA or model ; and where 
 there are long projefting parts, fuch as legs or arms, 
 they flioiild be wrought in feparate cafls. The operator 
 may eafily judge from the original fubjedls, what parts 
 M ill come off together, and what require to be fepa- 
 rated : the principle of the whole confifls only in this. 
 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 ther in the place where the projeAion would crofs the 
 flraight line ; or, as that is frequently difficult, the 
 whole projeftion muft be feparated from the maia 
 body, and divided alfo lengthwife into two parts : and 
 where there are no projections from the principal fur- 
 faces, but the body is fo formed as to render the fur- 
 face a compofltion of fuch curves, that a fl;raight line 
 being drawn parallel to the furface of one part would 
 be cut by the outline, in cue or more places, of ano- 
 ther part, a divifion of the whole fhonld be made, fa 
 as to reduce the parts of it into regular curves, which 
 mufl. then be treated as fuch. 
 
 In larger mafles, where there would otherwife be A 
 great thicknefs of the plafl:er, a corps or body may be 
 put within the mold, in order to produce a hollow in 
 the cafl; ; which both faves the expence of the plu«-1er, 
 and renders the cafl lighter. 
 
 This corps may be of wood, where the forming % 
 hollow of a fl;raight figure, or a conical one with the 
 bafis outward, will anfwer the end : but if the cavity 
 require to be round, or of any curve figure, the corps 
 cannot be then drawn while entire ; and confequently 
 fhoiild be of fuch matter as may be taken out piece- 
 meal. In this cafe, the corps is beft formed of clay; 
 which mufl; be worked upon wires to give it tenacity, 
 and fufpended in the hollow of the mold, by crofs 
 wires lying over the mouth ; and when the plafter is 
 fufhciently fet to bear handling, tiie clay mufl; be 
 picked out by a proper inftrument. 
 
 Where it is defired to render the plafl;er harder, the 
 water with which it is tempered foould be mixed with 
 parchment fize properly prepared, which will make it 
 very firm and tenacions.. 
 
 In the fame manner, figures, bufts, b'fr. may be 
 cafl of lead, or any other metal, in the molds of pla- 
 fter : only the expence of plafter, and the tedioufnefs 
 of its becoming fuihciently dry, when in a very large 
 mafs, to bear the heat of melted metal, render the ufc 
 of clay, compounded with fome other proper materials, 
 preferable where large fubjcAs are in qucftion. The 
 clay, in this cafe, fliould be waflicd over till it be per- 
 fcctly free from gravel or ftones ; and then mixed with 
 a third or more of fine fand to prevent its cracking ; 
 or, inftead of fand, coal-aflits fifted fine may be ufed. 
 Whether plafter or clay be employed for the cafling in 
 metal, it is extremely nccefTaiy to have the mold per- 
 feftly dry ; otherwife the moifture, being rarified, will 
 make an explofion that will blow the mttal out of the 
 mold, and endanger the operator, or at leaft crack the 
 mold in fuch a manner as to frnftrate the operation. 
 Where the parts of a mold are larger, or piojedl much, 
 and confequently require a greater tenacity of the 
 matter they are formed of to keep them together, 
 flocks of cloth, prepared like thofe defigned for pa- 
 per-hangings, or fine cotton plucked or cut till it ii- 
 very flrort, fliould be mixed with the afliee or fand be- 
 fore they are added to the clay to make the compofi-- 
 tion for the mold. The proportion flrould be accord- 
 ing to the degree of cohefiun required : but a imall 
 quantity will anfwer the end, if the other Ingredients 
 Gg of 
 
CAS { 23. 
 
 Cafting. of the compofition be good, and the parts of the mold 
 '''~'^r'^ properly linked together by means of the wires above 
 direfted. 
 
 There is a method of taking cafts in metals from 
 fmall animals, and the- parts of vegetables, which may 
 be praftifed for feme purpofes with advantage : par- 
 ticularly for the decorating grottoes or rock-work, 
 where nature is imitated. The proper kinds of animals 
 are lizards, fnakes, frogs, bitds, or infcAs ; the cafls 
 of which, if properly coloured, will be exaft reprefen- 
 tations of the originals. 
 
 This is to be performed by the following method. 
 A coffin or proper cheft for forming the mold being 
 prepared of clay, or four pieces of boards fixed toge- 
 ther, the animal or parts of vegetables mud be fufpend- 
 ed in it by a firing ; and the leaves, tendrils, or other 
 detached parts of the vegetables, or the legs, wings, 
 tffc. of the animals, properly feparated and adjufted 
 in their right pofition by a fmall pair of pincers : a due 
 quantity of plafter of Paris and calcined talc, in equal 
 quantities, with fome alumen phimofum, muft then 
 be temptrfd with water to the proper confiftence for 
 calling ; and the fubjedl from whence the call is to 
 be taken, as alfo the fv\'-;s of the coffin, moiilened 
 "with fpirit of wine. The coffin or cheft muft then be 
 filled with the tempered compofition of the plafter 
 and talc, putting at the fame time a piece of ftraight 
 ilick or wood to the principal part of the body of the 
 fubjedl, and pieces of thick wire to the extremities of 
 the other parts, in order that they may form, when 
 drawn, out after the matter of the mold is properly 
 let and firm, a channel for pouring in the melted me- 
 tal, and vents for the air ; which otherwife, by the 
 rarefafdon it would undergo from the heat of the me- 
 tal, would blow it out or burft the mold. In a fhort 
 time the plafter and talc will fet and become hard, 
 when the ftick and wires may be drawn out, and the 
 frame or coffin In which the mold was call taken away : 
 and the mold muft then be put firft into a moderate 
 heat, and afterwards, when It is as dry as can be ren- 
 dered by that degree, removed into a greater ; which 
 may be gradually Increafed till the whole be red-hot. 
 The animal, or part of any vegetable, which was In- 
 cluded In the mold, will then be burnt to a coal ; and 
 may be totally calcined to afhes, by blowing for fome 
 time gently into the channel and palfages made for 
 pouring In the metal, and giving vent to the air, which 
 will, at the fame time that It deftroys the remainder 
 of the animal or vegetable matter, blow out the alhes. 
 The mold muft then be fuffered to cool gently ; and 
 will be perfeft ; the deftrudllon of the fubftance of the 
 ainimal or vegetable having produced a hollow of a 
 figure correfpondent to It: but It may be neverthelefs 
 proper to (hake the mold, and turn It upfide down, 
 as alfo to blow with the bellows Into each of the air- 
 vents. In order to free it wholly from any remainder of 
 the afties ; or, where there may be an opportunity of 
 filling the hollow with quickfilver without expence. It 
 will be found a very efFedlual method of cleai-ing the 
 cavity, as all duft, afhes, or fmall detached bodies will 
 necelFarily rife to the furface of the quickfilver, and be 
 poured out with It. The mold being thus prepared. It 
 iDuilbe heated very hot when u fed. If the caft be made 
 with copper or brafs : but a lefs degree will ferve for 
 lead or tin.; and the matter being poured in, the mold 
 
 ^ ) CAS 
 
 muft be gently ftruck : and then fuffered to reft till it Calling, 
 be cold : at which time It muft be carefully taken from — — ^ 
 the caft, but without the leaft force ; for fuch parts of 
 the matter as appear to adhere more ftrongly, mulft be 
 foftened by foaking In water, till they be entirely loo fen- 
 ed, that none of the more delicate parts of the caft may- 
 be broken off or bent. 
 
 Where the alumen plumofum, or talc, cannot eafi- 
 ly be procured, the plafter may be ufed alone ; but it 
 is apt to be calcined by the heat ufed In burning the ani- 
 mal or vegetable from whence the caft is taken, and to 
 become of too incohering and crumbly a textn^ire : or, 
 for cheapnefs, Sturbridge or any other good clay, wafh- 
 ed over till it be perfeAly fine, and mixed with an equal 
 part of fand, and fome flocks cut fmall, may be employ- 
 ed. Pounded pumlce-ftone and plafter of Paris, taken 
 In equal quantities, and mixed with wafhed clay in the 
 fame proportion. Is fald to make excellent molds for this 
 and parallel uies. 
 
 Cafts of metals, or fiich fmall pieces as are of a fiml- 
 lar form, may be made in plailer by the method directed 
 for bafs relievos. 
 
 Indeed there Is nothing more required than to form 
 a mold by laying them on a proper board ; and having 
 furrounded them by a rim made of a piece of a card, or 
 any other paileboard, to fill the rim with foft tempered 
 plafter of Paris ; which mold, when dry, will ferve for 
 feveral cafts. It is neverthelefs a better method to form 
 the mold of melted fulphur ; which will produce a 
 fharper Impreffion in the caft, and be more durable lhau 
 thofe made of plailer. 
 
 The cafb are likewlfe frequently made of fulphur, 
 which being melted mull be treated exaftly In the fame 
 manner as the plafter. 
 
 For taking cafts from medals, Dr Lewis recom - j)/^;^^^^^ 
 mends a mixture of flowers of brimflone and red Comment 
 lead: equal parts of thefe are to be put over the iire Arts. 
 in a laddie, till they foften to the confiftence of pap ; 
 then they are kindled with a piece of paper, and ftlr- 
 red for fome time. The veffel being afterwards co- 
 vered clofe, and continued on the fire, the mixture 
 grows fluid in a few minutes. It is then to be poured 
 on the metal, previoufly oiltd and wiped clean. The 
 cafts are very neat ; their colour fomctlmes a pretty- 
 deep black, fometlmes a dark grey : they are very du- 
 rable ; and when foiled, may be wafhed clean in fpirlts 
 of wine. 
 
 Dr Letfom recommends tin-foil for taking off c&^s N'aturai;j}'t 
 from medals. The thinneft kind is to be ufed. It Gom^aniQn. 
 fhould be laid over the fubjeA from which the impref- 
 fion Is to be taken, and then rubbed with a brufh, the 
 point of a flcewer, or a pin, till It has perfedlly re- 
 ceived the Impreffion. The tin-foil fhould now be 
 pared clofe to the edge of the medal, till it Is brought 
 to the fame ^f^ymference : the medal muft then be 
 reverfed, and the tin-foil will drop off into a chip-box 
 or mold placed ready to receive it. Thus the coh- 
 cave fide of the foil will be uppermoft, and upon tjj^s 
 plafter of Pairs, prepared In the ufual manner, may- 
 be poured. When dry, the whole Is to be taken 
 out, and the tin-foil fticking on the plafter will give 
 a pcrfedl reprefentatlon of the medal, almofl equal in 
 beauty to filver. If the box or mold is a little larger 
 than the medal, the plafter running round the tin-foll 
 will give the appearance of a white frame or circular 
 
 border 5 
 
CAS [ 
 
 Gafting. border ; whence the new made medal will appear more 
 neat and beautiful. 
 
 Cafts may be made like wife with iron, prepared 
 in the following manner : " Take any iron-bar, or 
 piece of a fimilar form ; and having heated it red- 
 hot, hold it over a veflel containing water, and 
 touch it very flightly with a roll of fulphur, which 
 will immediately diflolve it, and make it fall in drops 
 into the water. As much iron as may be wanted 
 being thus dilTolved, pour the water out of the vel- 
 fel ; and pick out the drops formed by the melted 
 iron from thofe of the fulphur, which contain little 
 or no iron, and will be ditlinguifhable from the other 
 hy their colour and weight." The iron will, by 
 this means, be rendered fo fufiblc, that it will run 
 with lefs hcBt than is required to melt lead ; and may 
 be employed for making calls of medals, and many 
 other fuch purpofes, with great convenience and ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 Impreflions of medals, having the fame effeft as 
 calls, may be made alfo of Ifinglafs glue, by the fol- 
 lowing means. Melt the ifinglafs, btaten, as when 
 commonly ufed, in an earthen pipkin, with the ad- 
 dition of as much water as will cover it, ftlning it 
 gently till the whole is dilTolved : then with a brulh 
 of camel's hair, cover the medal, which fhould be 
 previoufly well cleanfed and warmed, and then laid 
 horizontally on a board or table, greafed in the part 
 around the medal. Let them reft afterwards till the 
 glue be properly hardened ; and then, with a pin, 
 raife the edge of it ; and feparate it carefully from 
 the medal : the caft will be thus formed by the glue 
 as hard as horn ; and fo light, that a thoufand will 
 fcarcely weigh an ounce. In order to render the re- 
 lief of the medal more apparent, a fn.rJl quantity of 
 carmine may be mixed with the melted iiinglafs ; or 
 the medal may be previoufly coated with leaf- gold 
 by breathing on it, and then laying it on the leaf, 
 which will by that means adhere to it : but the ufe of 
 leaf-gold is apt to Impair a little the fliarpnefs of the 
 impreflion. 
 
 Impreflions of medals may be likewlfe taken in 
 putty ; but it (hould be the true kind made of calx of 
 tin, and drying oil. Thefe may be formed in the 
 molds, previoufly taken in plafter or fulphur; or 
 molds may be made in its own fubftance, in the man- 
 ner diiefted for thofe of the plafter. Thefe impref- 
 fions win be very fliarp and hard ; but the greateft 
 difadvantage that attends them, "is their drying very 
 flowly, and being liable in the mean time to be da- 
 maged. 
 
 Impreflions of prints, or other engravings, may be 
 . taken, from copper-plates, by cleanfing them thorough- 
 ly, and pouring plafter upon them : but the tRe£t in 
 this way is not ftrong enough for the eye ; and there- 
 fore the following method is preferable, where fuch 
 impreflions on plafter are dcfircd. 
 
 Take vermilion, or any other coloured pigment, fine- 
 ly powdered, and rub it over the plate : then pafa a 
 folded piece of paper, or the flat part of the hand, over 
 the plate, to take off the colour from the lights or parts 
 where there is no engraving : the proceeding muft then 
 be the fame as where no colour is ufed. This laft 
 method is alfo applicable to the making of impreflions 
 of copper-platco on paper with dry colours : for the 
 
 235 ] CAS 
 
 plate being prepared as here direfted, and laid on the Caflin 
 paper properly moiftened, and either pafled under the — ^-y-" 
 roUIng-prefs, or any other way ftrongly forced down 
 on the paper, an impreflion of the engraving will be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Impreflions may be likewlfe taken from cop- 
 per-plates, either on plafter or paper, by means of 
 the fmoke of a candle or lamp : if, inftead of rub- 
 bing them with any colour, the plate be held over 
 the candle or lamp till the whole furface become- 
 black, and then wiped off by the flat of the hand, or 
 
 Thefe methods are not, however, of great ufe in the 
 cafe of copper-plates, except where impreflions may 
 be dcfired on occafions where printing-ink cannot be 
 procured : but as they may be applied likewlfe to the 
 taking impreflions from fnufi'-boxes, or other engraved 
 fubjedts, by which means defigns may be inftantly bor- 
 rowed by artifts or curious perfons, they may in fuch 
 inftances be very ufeful. 
 
 The expedient of taking impreflions by the fmoke 
 of a candle or lamp may be employed alfo for bota- 
 nical purpofes in the cafe of leaves, as a perfeft and 
 durable reprefentation of not only the general figure, 
 but the contexture and difpofition of the larger fibres, 
 may be extcmporaneoufly obtained at any time. The 
 fame may be neverthelefs done in a more perfeft man- 
 ner, by the ufe of llnfeed oil, either alone, or mixed 
 with a fmall proportion of colour, where the oil can be 
 conveniently procured : but the other method is valu- 
 able on account of Its being prafticable at almoft all fea- 
 fons, and in all places, within the time that the leaves 
 will keep frefh and plump. In taking thefe in^.preflions, 
 it Is proper to bruife the leaves, fo as to take off" the 
 projedllons of the large ribs, which might prevent the 
 other parts from plying to the paper. 
 
 Leaves, as alfo the petals, or flower-leaves, of 
 plants, may themfelves be preferved on paper, with 
 their original appearance, for a confiderable length of 
 time, by the following means. — Take a piece of paper, 
 and rub it over with ifinglafs glue treated as above di- 
 refted for taking Impreflions from medals ; and then 
 lay the leaves In a proper pofitlon on the paper. The 
 glue laid on the paper being fet, brufh over the leaves 
 with more of the fame ; 'and that being dry likewife, 
 the operation will be finlflied, and the leaves fo fecured 
 from the air and molfture, that they will retain their 
 figure and colour much longer than by any other treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Butterflies, or other fmall animals of a flat figure, 
 may alfo be preferved In the fame manner. 
 
 Casting Is alfo fometlmes ufed for the quitting, 
 laying, or throwing afide any thing ; thus deer calt 
 their horns, fnakes their fl<ins, lobfters their Ihells, 
 hawks their feathers, ^r. annually. 
 
 CaJIlng of feathers is more properly called moulting or 
 mewing. 
 
 , A horfe cnfis his hair, or coat, at leaft once a-year, 
 viz. in the fpring when he cafts his winter coat ; and 
 fometlmes, at the clofe of autumn, he cafts his fummer 
 coat, in cafe he has been 111 kept. Horfes alfo fome- 
 tlnaes cafi their hoofs, which happens frequently to 
 coach-horfes brought from Holland : thefe, being bred 
 in a molft marfhy country, have their hoofs too flabby : 
 fp that coming into a drier foil, and lefs juicy proven- 
 Gg J der. 
 
Calllc. 
 
 CAS [ 236 3 CAS 
 
 der, their hoofs fall olF, and others that are firmer fuc- of king Stephen, who had fefzed upon the ftrong CafHe. 
 
 Grofe s An- 
 tiquities of 
 Mnglan i 
 and Wales', 
 Vol I. 
 Preface. 
 
 ceed. 
 
 CjsriNS a Colt, denotes 
 tive. 
 
 CjsTiNG-Net, a fort of fifhlng-net fo called, becaufc 
 it is to be rajl, or thrown oiit ; which when exaftly 
 done, nothing efcapes it, but weeds and every thing 
 within its exttnt are brought away.* 
 
 CASTLE, a fortrcfs, or place rendered defenfible 
 either by nature or art. It frequently lignilles with 
 us the principal manfion of noblemen. In the time 
 of Henry II. there were no icfs than 11 15 caftleS'in 
 England, each of which contained a . manor. 
 
 Castles, walled with ftone, and defigned for refi- 
 dence as well as defence, are, for the moil part, ac- 
 cording to Mr Grofe, of no higher antiquity than the 
 conqutll: for although the Saxons, Romans, and even, 
 according to feme writers on antiquity, the ancient 
 Britons, had caftles built with ftone ; yet thefe were 
 both few in number, and, at that period, through ne- 
 gleft or invafions, either deilroyed, or fo much decayed, 
 that little more than their ruins were remaining. This 
 is aflerted by many of our hiftorians and antiquaries, 
 and afiigncd as a reafon for the facility with which 
 William made himfclf mafter of this country. 
 
 This circumftance was not overlooked by fo good 
 a general as the Conqueror ; who, cfFeftually to guard 
 agalnft invafions from without, as well as to awe his 
 newly acquired fuhjefts, immediately began to erecl 
 caftles all over the kingdom, and likewife to repair and 
 augment the old ones. Befides, as he had parcelled 
 out the lands of the Englifh aniongft his followers, 
 they, to proteft themfelves from the refentment of 
 thole fo defpoiled, built ftrong-holds and caftles on 
 their eftates. This llkewile caufed a confiderable in- 
 creafe of thtfe fortrtflcs ; and the turbulent and un- 
 fettled ftate of the kingdom in the fucceeding reigns, 
 ferved to multiply them prodigioudy, every baron or 
 leader of a party building caftles ; infomuch, that to- 
 wards the latter end of the reign of king Stephen, 
 they amounted to the almoft incredible number of 
 J I 15. 
 
 As the feudal fyftem gathered flrength, thefe caRles 
 became the heads of baronies. Each caftle was a ma- 
 nor : and its caftelain, owner, or governor, the lord cf 
 that manor. Markets and fairs were diretied to be 
 held there ; not only to prevent frauds in the king's 
 duties or cuftoms, but alfo as they vi'ere efteemed places 
 where the laws of the land were obferved, and as fuch 
 had a very particular privilege. But this good order did 
 not long laft : for the lords of caftles began to arrogate 
 to themfelves a royal power, not only within their 
 caftles, but likewife its environs ; exercifing judicature 
 both civil and criminal, coining of money, and arbitra- 
 rily feizing forage and provlfion for the fubfiftence of 
 their garrifons, which they afterwards demanded as a 
 right : at length their infolence and oppreflion grew 
 to fuch a pitch, that, according to WiUiam of New- 
 bury, " theie were in England as many kings, or ra- 
 ther tyrants, as lords of caftles and Matthew Paris 
 ftylcs them, very nefts of devils and dens of thieves. 
 Caftles were not folely in the pofleffion of the crown 
 and the lay barons, but even bifhops had thefe fortreftes ; 
 though It feems to have been contrary to the canons, 
 from a plea made ufe of in a general council, in favour 
 
 caftles of the bifhops of Lincoln and Salifbury. This ' 
 a mare's proving abor- . prohibition (if fuch exifted) was however very little 
 regarded ; as in the following reigns many ftrong 
 places were held, and even defended, by the ecclefia- 
 ftlcs : neither was more obedience afterwards paid to 
 a decree made by the Pope at Viterbo, the lifth of 
 the kalends of June 1220, wherein it was ordained, 
 that no perfon in England fliould keep in his hands 
 more than two of the king's caftles. 
 
 The licentious behaviour of the garrifons of thefe 
 places becoming intolerable, in the treaty between king 
 Stephen and Henry II. when only duke of Normandy, 
 it was agreed, that all the caftles built within a certain 
 period fliould be demohfhed ; in confequence of which 
 many were aftually razed, but not the number ftipu- 
 lated. 
 
 The few caftles in being under the Saxon govern- 
 ment, were probably, on occafion of war or Invafions, 
 garrifoned by tlie national militia, and at other times 
 flightly guarded by the domeftics of the princes or 
 great perfonagts who refided therein ; but after the 
 conqucft, when all the eftates were converted into ba- 
 ronies held by knight's fervlce, caitle-guard coming 
 under that denomination, was among the duties to 
 which particular tenants were liable. From thefe 
 fervlces the bifhops and abbots, who till the time of 
 the Normans had held their lauds in frank almoign, 
 or free alms, were, by this new regulation, not exempt- 
 ed ; they were not indeed, like the laity, obliged to 
 perfonal fervice, It being fufRcIent that they provided fit 
 and able perfons to officiate in their ftead. Thlswashow- 
 ever at firft ftoutly oppofed by Anfclra archblfhop of 
 Canterbury ; who being obliged to find fome knighto to 
 attend king W'lllam Rufus in liis wars In Wales, com- 
 plained of it as an innovation and infringement of the 
 rights and immunities of the church. 
 
 It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror and 
 the kings of thofe days, to grant eftates to men of ap- 
 proved fidelity and valour, on condition that they 
 fhould perform caftle-guard in the royal caftles, with 3 
 certain number of men, for fome fpecified time ; and 
 fometimes they were likewife bound by their tenures 
 to keep in repair and guard fome particular tower or 
 bulwark, as was the cafe at Dover caftle. 
 
 In procefs of time thefe fei vices were commuted for 
 annual rents, fometimes ftyled ward-penny, and wayt- 
 fee, but commonly cajile-guard rents, payable on fixed 
 days, under prodigious penalties called furfizes. At 
 Rochefter, if a man failed in the payment of his rent of 
 caftle-guard on the feaft of St Andrew, his debt was 
 doubled every tide during the time for which the pay- 
 ment was delayed. Thefe were afterwards reftrained 
 by an z€t of parliament made in the reign of king 
 Henty VIII. and finally annihilated, with the tenures 
 by knight's fervice, in the time of Charles II. Such 
 caflles as were private property were guarded either by 
 mercenary foldiers, or the tenants of the lord or owner. 
 
 Caftles which belonged to the ciown, or fell to it 
 either by forfeiture or efcheat (circumftances that fre- 
 quently happened in the diftradted reigns of the feudal 
 times), were generally commiti, d to the cuftody of fome 
 truity perfon, who f ccriis to have been indifferently ftyled 
 governor and conftable. Sometimes alio they were 
 put into the poffclfion of the IherifF of the county, who 
 
 oftea 
 
CAS [ i 
 
 Caftle. often converted them into prifons. That officer was 
 — then accountable at the exchequer, for the farm or 
 prodace of the lands belonging to the places entrulled 
 to his care, as well as all other' profits : he was like- 
 wife, in cafe of war or invafion, obliged to viaual and 
 furniih them with munition out of the ilfues of his 
 * county ; to which he was direfted by writ of privy 
 feal. 
 
 The materials of which caftles were budt, varied 
 according to the places of their eredion ; but the 
 manner of their conitruftlon feems to have been pretty 
 uniform. The outfides of the walls were generally 
 built with the ftones neareft at hand, laid as regularly 
 as their fhapcs would admit ; the infides were filled up 
 with the like materials, mixed v/ith a great quantity 
 of fluid mortar, which was calkd by the workmen 
 grout-work. 
 
 The general lliape or plan of thefe caRIes depended 
 entirely on the capiice of the architects, or the form 
 of the ground intended to be occupied : neither do 
 they feem to have confined themfclves to any particular 
 figure in their towers ; fquare, round, and poligonal, 
 oftentimes occurring in the original parts of the fame 
 building". 
 
 The fituation of the cadles of the Anglo-Norman 
 kings and baron?, was moli commonly on an eminence, 
 and near a river ; a fituation on feveral accounts eli- 
 gible. The whole fite of the caftle (v/hich was fre- 
 quently of great extent and irregular figure) was fur- 
 rounded by a deep and broad ditch, fometimes filled 
 with water, and fometimes dry, called the fo/fe. Be- 
 fore the great gate was an outwork, called a barhacan, 
 or nntemuraU which was a (Irong and high wall, with 
 tuiTCts upon it, defigned for the defence of the gate 
 and draw-bridge. On the infide of the ditch ftood the 
 wall of the caiUe, about eight or ten feet thick, and 
 between 20 and 30 feet high, with a parapet, and a 
 kind of embrafures, called crennels, on the top. On 
 this wait at proper diftances fquare towers of two or 
 three ftorics high were built, which ferved for lodging 
 fome of the principal officers of the proprietor of the 
 caftle, and for other purpofes ; and on the infide were 
 erefted lodgings for the common fervants or retainers, 
 grasaries, ilorehoufes, and other neceflary offices. On 
 the top of this wall, and on the flat roofs of thefe 
 buildings, flood the defenders of the caftle, when it 
 was befieged, and from thence difcharged arrows, darts, 
 and ftones, on the befiegers. The great gate of the 
 caftle ftood in the courfe of this wall, and was ftrongly 
 fortified with a tower on each fide, and rooms over the 
 paflage, which v/as clofed with thick folding-doors of 
 oak, often plated with iron, and with an iron portcullis 
 or grate let down from above. Within this outward 
 wall was a large open fpace or court, called, in the 
 largfcft and moft peifedt caftles, the mier hayle, or bal- 
 lium, in which ftood commonly a church or chapel. 
 On the infide of this outer bayle was another ditch, 
 wall, gate, and towers, inclofing the inner bayle or 
 court, within which the chief tower or keep was built. 
 This was a very large fquare fabric, four or five ftones 
 high, having fmall windows in prodigious thick walls, 
 which rendered the apartments within it dark and 
 gloomy. This great tower was the palace of the prince, 
 prelate, or baron, to whom the caftle belonged, and the 
 refidence of the conllable or governor. Under ground 
 
 37 1 CAS 
 
 were dilmal dark vaults, for the confinement of prifon- 
 crs, which made it fometimes be called the dungeon. 
 In this btillding alio was the great hall, in which the 
 owner difplayed his hcfpitality, by entertaining his 
 numerous friends and followers. At one end of the 
 great halls of caftles, palaces, and monafteries, there 
 was a place raifed a little above the reft of the floor, 
 called the clelsy where the chief table ftood, at which 
 perfons of the higheft rank dined. Though there was 
 unqueftionably great variations in the ftrudlure of 
 caftles, yet the moft perfecl and magnificent of them 
 feem to have been conftrudted nearly on the above plan. 
 Such, to give one example, was the famous caftle of 
 Bedford, as appears from the following account of the 
 manner in v»hich it was taken by Henry Iff. A. D, 
 1224. The caftle was taken by four alTaults. " la 
 the firft was taken the barbican ; in the fecond the 
 outer ballia ; at the third attack, the wall by the old 
 tower was thrown down by the miners, where, with 
 great danger, they poffeffed themfelves of the inner ba- 
 lia, through a chink ; at the fourth aflault the miners 
 fet fire to the tower, fo that the fm.oke burft out, and 
 the tower itfelf was cloven to that degree, as to fliow 
 vifibly fome broad chinks : whereupon the enemy fur- 
 rendered." See a reprefentation of a caftle in Plate 
 CXXVII. where i is the barbacan, 2 the ditch or 
 moat, 3 the wall of the outer ballium, 4 the outer bal- 
 lium, 5 the artificial mount, 6 the wall of -the inner bal« 
 lium, 7 the inner ballium, 8 the keep or dungeon. 
 
 Before the acceffion of James VI. to the throne of 
 England, the fituation of Scotland was fuch, that eve- 
 ry baron's houfe was more or lefs fortified, according' 
 to the power and confcquence of its lord, ©r according 
 to the fituation of the caftle. Near Edinburgh or 
 Stirling, where the inhabitants were more poliflred in 
 their manners, and overawed by the leat of government:, 
 no more was neceffary than towers capable of refifting- 
 the curfory attack of robbers and thieves, who never 
 durft rtop to make a regular invtftment, but plundered 
 by furprilo, and, if repulfed, inilanily fled avray. Such 
 was Melville Caftle. It anciently confifted of a ftrong 
 built tower of three ftories, embattled at the top, and 
 was fufficiently ftrong to refift a fudden attack, unaid- 
 ed by artillery, or other engines of war. But, when 
 further removed, as in Perthfliire, Invernefsftiire, or 
 Abcrdeenfliire, then it was neceffary to be better defend- 
 ed, and the aids of a peel or dungeon, with outer walla, 
 moat, and wet ditch, barnakin, &c. added to enable 
 the powerful lord to refift the formidable attack of 
 his powerful adverfary. The hiftory of Scotland, 
 fo late as the reign of the Stuart family, affords a num- 
 ber of melancholy inftances of inveterate feuds among 
 the greater and lelTer barons of that period ; by whicti 
 every mode of fortification then in ufe was fcldom ad- 
 equate to the defence of the caftle againft the ftonn 
 or blockade of the enraged chieftain. The caftle of 
 Doun feems to anfwer this defcription of fortification, 
 and has made feveral gallant defences, in the annals of 
 Scotland. The third kind of fortreffes we meet with 
 in Scotland are thofe fituated on the borders of Eng- 
 land, or on the fea-coafts of the kingdom, and in the 
 weflern ifles, and very remote places. Many of the old 
 caftles in Scotland were fituated on an ifland, in a deep 
 lake, or on a peninfula, which by a broad deep cut was 
 made an ifland. Of this kind was Lochraaben, in the 
 
 ftewartry 
 
Caftle. 
 
 CAS [ 238 
 
 ficwartry of Annandale, the caftle of Clofeburn in the 
 Ihire of Nithfdale, the caftle of the Rive, fltuated on 
 the river Dee, in the (hire of Gaiioway, Lochieven 
 callle, and many others. 
 
 This kind of fortrefs was only acceflihle in a hard 
 froft, or by boats which were not eafily tranfported, 
 by a people delHtute of good roads and wheel-carriages. 
 In fa£l, they could only be taken by furprife or block- 
 ade ; the firft very difficult, the fecond very tedious ; 
 fo that, before the ufe of artillery, they might be deem- 
 ed almofl impregnable. On that account, their fitua- 
 tion was very defirable in the inland parts of Scotland. 
 
 On the fea-eoalls of Scotland we generally find the 
 ftrongeft and moft ancient, as well as the moft impreg- 
 nable caftles. Thefe had to defend themfclves from 
 the invafion of the foreign enemy, as well as the at- 
 tacks of the domeftic foe. Thus wc find the barons, 
 whofe lands extended to the fea-co(t, perched, like the 
 eagle, on the moft inacceffible rocks that lay within 
 their poffefTions. Of this kind were Slains caftle, Tan- 
 tallon, and Dunotter on the eaft coaft, and Dunvegan in 
 the ifle of Sky, with Dunolly on the weft coaft. Thefe 
 niuft have been moft uncomfortable retreats, except to 
 a barbarous people, or when a preffing danger forced 
 the baron to feek his fafety in the only poffible retreat 
 kft him. 
 
 Castle, in ancient writers, denotes a town or vil- 
 lage furroundcd with a ditch and wall, furnifiied with 
 towers at intervals, and guai-ded by a body of troops. 
 The word is originally Latin, cajlellum, a diminutive 
 from cqftrum. Cajldlum originally feems to have figni- 
 fied a imaller fort for a little garrifon : though Sueto- 
 Kius ufes the word where the fortification was large 
 cnougli to contain a cohort. The cajiella, according 
 to Vegetius, were often like towns, built on the bor- 
 ders of the empire, and where there were conftant 
 guards and fences againft the enemy. Horfley takes 
 them for much the fame with what were otherwife 
 • denominated Jlat'ions. 
 
 Castle, or Cajile-Jleed, is alfo an appellation given 
 by the country-people in the north to the Roman cnf- 
 itila, as diftingiiifaed from the caftra Jlafiva which 
 they ufually call chcjlers. Horfley reprefents this as 
 an ufeful criterion, whereby to difcover or diftinguifti 
 a Roman camp or ftation. There are feveral of thefe 
 caftella on Severus's wall : they are generally 60 feet 
 fqu ire ; tlieir north fide is formed by the wall itfelf 
 which falls in with them ; the intervals between them 
 are from fix furlongs and an half to feven ; they feem 
 to have ftood clofeft where the ttations are wideft. 
 The neighbouring people call them cnjlles or cajlle- 
 Jleech, by which it feems probable that their ancient 
 Latin name had been cajlellum. Some modern writers 
 call them m'lk-cajlks, or military cajldla : Horfley 
 fometimes exploratory caftles. In thefe cajiella the a- 
 reans had their ftations, who were an order of men 
 whofe bufinefs was to make incurfions into the ene- 
 mies country, and give intelligence of their motions. 
 
 Castle, in the fea language, is a part of the ihip, 
 of which there are two : the forecaftle, being the ele- 
 vation at the prow, or the uppermoft deck towards the 
 mizen, the place where the kitchens are. Hindcaftle 
 is the elevation which reigns on the ftern, over the 
 laft deck, where the olEcers cabins and places of tf- 
 fembly are. 6 
 
 II 
 
 Caftor. 
 
 ] CAS 
 
 Castle (Edmund). See Castel. 
 CASTLE-Bar^ a borough and market-town, csrpital 
 of the county of Mayo in Ireland, is a well-inhabited 
 place, and carries on a brifl? trade : it has a barrack ^ 
 for a troop of horfe ; and there is here a charter-fchool 
 capable of receiving fifty children, and endowed with 
 two acres of land, rent-free, by the Right Honour- 
 able Lord Lucan, who has alfo granted a leafe of 
 twenty acres more at a pepper-corn yearly. 
 
 CASTLE-Cary, a remarkable Roman ftation about 
 four miles weft from Falkirk on the borders of Stir- 
 lingfliire in Scotland. It comprehends feveral acres 
 of ground, is of a fquare form, and is furrounded 
 with a wall of ftone and mortar : all the fpace within 
 the walls has been occupied by buildings, the ruins of 
 which have raifed the earth eight or ten feet above 
 its natural furface ; fo that the fort now feems like an 
 hill-top furrounded with a funk fence. In i 770, fome 
 workmen employed in fearching for ftones for the 
 great canal which pafTes very near it, difcovered fe- 
 veral apartments of itonne; and in one of them a great 
 number of ftones about two feet in length, and ftand- ^ 
 ing ereft, with marks of fire upon them, as if they 
 had been employed in fupporting fome veflcl under 
 which fire was put. In a hollow of the rock near this 
 place, in 1 7 7 1 , a confiderable quantity of wheat quite 
 black with age was found, with fome wedges and ham- 
 mers fuppofed to be Roman. 
 
 CASTLE-R'iJing, a borough-town of Norfolk in Eng-.. 
 land, which fends two members to parliament. E, 
 Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 46. 
 
 CASTLF.-ivork, fervice or hibour done by inferior te- 
 nants, for the building and upholding caftles of de- 
 fence, toward which fome gave their perfonal affift- 
 ance, and others paid their contributions. This was 
 one of the three neceflary charges to which the Anglo- 
 Saxons were exprefsly fubjeft. 
 
 CASTLETOWN, the capital of the ifle of Man, 
 feated on the fouth-weft part of the ifland. It has a 
 ftrong caftle ; but of no great importance, on account 
 of its diftance from the rocky and fliallow harbour. 
 W. Long. 4. 39. N. Lat. 53. 30. 
 
 CASTOR, the Bea VER, in zoology, a genus of 
 quadrupeds belonging to the order of glires. The 
 fore-teeth of the upper jaw are truncated, and hollow- 
 ed in a tranfverfe angular diredion. TJie tops of 
 the fore-teeth of the lower jaw lie in a tranfve'^le di- 
 redlion; and the tail is depreffed. There are three 
 fpecies of caftor, viz. 
 
 I. The fiber, or common beaver, with a plain ovated 
 tail, is found on the banks of the rivers in Europe, Afia, 
 and America. It has fliort ears hid in the fur; a blunt 
 nofe ; the fore-feet fmall, the hinder large : its length 
 from nofe to tail about three feet, tail about one foot. It Plate 
 is from the inguinal glands of this animal that the caf- CXXXI, 
 tor is obtained ; it is contained in cods or pouches i-e- 
 fembling a dog's tefticlcs. Nothing equals the art 
 with which t'lefe animals conftruft their dwellings. 
 They choofe a level piece of ground, with a fmall ri- 
 vulet running through it. This they form into a 
 pond, by making a dam acrofs ; firft by driving into 
 the ground ftakes of five or fix feet in length, placed 
 in rows, wattling each row with pliant twigs, and fil- 
 ling the interftices with clay, ramming it down clofe. 
 The fide next the water is flopod, the other perpendi- 
 
 cular; 
 
CAS 
 
 [ 239 ] 
 
 CAS 
 
 iftor. cular; tKetottom is from ten to twelve feet thick ; 
 but the thicknefs gradually diminilhes to the top, 
 which is about two or three : the length of thefe dams 
 is fometimes not lefs than 100 feet. 
 
 Their houfes are made in the water coUefted by 
 njeans of the dam, and are placed near the edge of 
 the fhore. They are built on piles ; are either round 
 or oval ; but their tops are vaulted, Jo that their in- 
 fide refembles an oven, the top a dome. The walls 
 are two feet thick, made of earth, Itones, "nd fticks, 
 molt artilicially laid together ; and the walls within 
 as neatly plaftered as if with a trowl. In each houfe 
 are two openings, the one into the water, the other 
 toAvards the land. The height of thefe houfes above 
 the water is eight feet. They often make two or 
 three ftories in each dwelling, for the convenience of 
 change in cale of floods. Elach houfe contains from 
 20 to 30 beavers ; and the number of houfes in each 
 pond is from 10 to 25. Each beaver forms its bed 
 of raofs ; and each family forms its magazine of win- 
 ter provifions, which confift of bark and boughs of 
 trees. Thofe they lodge under water, and fetch in- 
 to their apartments as occafion requires. Lawfon 
 fays, they are fondell of the faffafras, afh, and fweet 
 gum. Their fummer food is leaves, fruits, and fome- 
 times crabs and craw fifh ; but they are not fond of fifh. 
 
 To effeft thefe works, a community of two or 
 three hundred alfembies ; each bears his fliare in the 
 labour ; fome fall to gna\ving with their teeth trees 
 of gi-eat fi/e, to form beams or piles ; others roll the 
 pieces along i.o the water; others dive, and with 
 their feet fcrape holes in order to place them in ; 
 while others exert their efforts to rear them in their 
 proper places : another party is employed in collec- 
 ting twigs to wattle the piles with ; a third in collec- 
 ting earth, Hones, and clay ; a fourth is bufied in 
 beating and tempering the mortar ; others in carry- 
 ing it on their broad tails to proper places, and with 
 the fame inllrument ram it between the piles, or plaf- 
 ter the infide of their houfes. A certain number of 
 fmart ftrokes given with their tails, is a fignal made 
 by the overfeer for repairing to fuch and fuch places, 
 tither for mending any defers, or at the approach of 
 an enemy ; and the whole fociety attend to it with 
 the utmoll afliduity. Their time of building is early 
 in fummer ; for in winter they never ftir but to their 
 magazines of provifions, and during that feafon are very 
 fat. They breed once a-year, and bring forth at the 
 latter end of the winter two or three young at a birth. 
 
 Befides thefe alTociated beavers, is another fort call- 
 ed ferriersy which either want induitry or fagacity to 
 form houfes like the others. They burrow in the 
 banks of rivers, making their holes beneath the 
 freezing depth of the water, and work up for a great 
 number of feet. Thefe alfo form their winter itock 
 of provifion. 
 
 Beavers vary in their colours; the fineft are black, 
 but the general colour is a chefnat brown,- more or 
 lefs dark : fome have been found, but very rarely, 
 white. I'he ll<ins are a prodigious article of trade, 
 being the foimdation of the hat-manufaftory. In 1 763 
 were fold, in a fingle fale of the Hudfon's bay com- 
 pany, 54,670 llcins. They are diftinguifhed by dif- 
 ferent names. Coat-beaver is what has been Avorn as 
 coverlets by the Indians : Fanhment-kaver, bccaufe 
 
 the lower fide refembles it : Stage-beaver is the worft, Caftor. 
 and is that which the Indians kill out of feafon, on 
 their ilages or journeys. 
 
 In hunting the beavers, the favages fometimes fhoot 
 them, always getting on the contrary fide of the wind; 
 for they are very fhy, quick in hearing, and of a keen 
 fcent. This is generally done when the beavers are at 
 work, or on fhore feeding on poplar bark. If they 
 hear any noife when at work, they immediately jump 
 into the water, and continue there fome time ; and 
 when they rife, it is at a diitance from the place wdiere 
 they went in. 
 
 They fometimes are taken with traps : thefe are n 
 thing but poplar fticks laid in a path near the Aba- 
 ter; which when the beaver begins to feed upon, they 
 caufe a large log of wood to fall upon their necks, 
 which is put in motion by their moving of the fticks, 
 and confequently requires an ingenious contrivance. 
 The favages generally prefer this way of taking them, 
 becaufe it does not damage their flcins. 
 
 In the winter-time they break the ice in two pla- 
 ces at a diftance from the houfe, the one behind the 
 other. Then they take away the broken ice with a 
 kind of racket, the better to fee where to place their 
 ftakes. They faften their nets to thefe, which have 
 large mefties, and fometimes are eighteen or twenty 
 yards in length. When thefe are fixed, they pro- 
 ceed to demolifti the houfe, and turn a dog therein j 
 which terrifying the beaver, he immediately leaves it, 
 and takes to the water ; after which, he is foon en- 
 tangled by the net. 
 
 2. The molchatus, with a long, compreffed, lan- 
 ceolated tail, and palniated feet. It has a long flen- 
 der nofe like that of a ftirew-moufe ; no external 
 ears, and very fmall eyes. Length from nofe ta 
 tail, feven inches; of the tail, eight. It is the water- 
 rat of Clufius; and inhabits Lapland, RulTia, the 
 banks of the rivers Wolga and the Yaick. It never 
 wanders far from the fides ; is very flow in its pace ;- 
 makes holes in the cliffs, with the entrance far be- 
 neath the lowefl fail of the water ; works upv/ards, but 
 never to the furface, only high enough to be beyond 
 the higheft flow of the river: feeds on fifh; is devour- 
 ed by the pikes and fiJuri, and gives thofe fifh fo ftrong 
 a flavour of muflc as to render them not eatable ; has 
 the fame fcent as the former, efpecially about the 
 tail, out of which is expreffed a fort of muflc very 
 much refembhng the genuine kind. The flcins are 
 put into chefts among clothes, to drive away moths. 
 At Orenburgh the flcins and tails fell for 15 or 2C cq- 
 -pets per hundred. They are fo common near Niz- 
 ncy Novogorod, that the peafants bring 500 a-piece 
 to market, where they are fold for one ruble ^>fr hun- 
 dred. The German name for thefe animals is biefem- 
 ralz-e ; the Ruffian, tuychn'z,hoI. 
 
 3. The zribethicus, or muHc-rat, with a long, com- 
 preffed, lanceolatcd tail, and the toes of the f^tet fepai- 
 rated from each other. Length from nofe to tail, 
 one foot ; of the tail, nine inches. This fpecies in- 
 habits North America, breeds three or four times ia 
 a year, and brings from three to fix young ones at a 
 time : during fummer the male and female confort 
 together : at the approach of winter they unite ia 
 families, and retire into fmall round edifices covered 
 with a dome, formed of herbs and reeds cemented 
 
 with 
 
CAS 
 
 [ 240 1 
 
 CAS 
 
 Cartor. .i^.lth clay : at the bottosn are feveral pipes through 
 •""-^r"^ which they pafs in fearch of food; for they do not 
 form magazines like the beavers : during winter tlieir 
 habitations are covered many feet deep with fnow 
 and ice ; but they creep out and feed on the roots be- 
 neath : they quit their old habitations annually, and 
 form new ones: the fur is foft and much efteemed : 
 the whole animal, during funvmer, has a moll exoui- 
 fite fmell of mufk, which it lofes in winter : perhaps 
 the fcent is derived from the calam.us aromaticus, a 
 favourite food of this animal. Lefcarbot fays they 
 arc very good to eat. 
 
 CASTOR, in aftronomy, a moiety of the conil:eI- 
 lalion Gemini ; called alfo Apollo. Its latitude 
 northwards, for the year 1 700, according to Hevelius, 
 was 10*^4' 23"; and its longitude, of Cancer, 16^ 4' 
 14". It is alfo called Rafalgenze, Apollo, Aphellan, 
 Avellar, and Anelar. 
 
 Castor and Pollux, in Pagan mythologv. Jupiter 
 }\zy\0^ an amom* whh Leda, the v/ife of Tyndarua 
 king of Sparta, in the form of a fwan, flie brought 
 forth two eggs, each containing twins. From, that 
 impregnated by Jupiter proceeded Pollux and Helena, 
 who were both immortal ; from the other Caftor and 
 Clytemneftra, who being begot by Tyndarus were 
 both mortal. They were all, however, called by the 
 common name of TynJarid/e. Thefe two brothers en- 
 tered into an inviolable friendfhip : they v/ent with the 
 other noble youths of Greece in the expedition to 
 Colchis, and, on feveral occafions, fignalized them- 
 felves by their courage ; but Caftor being at length 
 killed, Pollux obtained leave to (hare his own immor- 
 tality with him ; fo that they are faid to live and die 
 alternately every day : for, being tranflated into the 
 Ikies, they form the conftellatioii of gemini, one of 
 which ftars rifes as the other fets. 
 
 A martial dance, called the Pyrrhic or Ctiflonan 
 dance, was invented in honour of thofe deities whom 
 the Cephelenfes placed among the Dii Magni, and of- 
 fered to them white lambs. The Romans alfo paid 
 them particular honours on account of the afii'tance 
 they are faid to have given them in an engagement 
 againft the Latins; in which, appearing mounted on 
 white horfes, they turned the fcale of victory in their 
 favour, for which a temple was erefted to them in 
 the forum. 
 
 Castor and Pollute, a fiery meteor, which at fea ap- 
 pears fometimes fticking to a part of the fhip, in form 
 of one, two, or even three or four fu-e-balls : when 
 one is feen alone, it is more properly called Helena ; 
 two are denominated Caftor and Pollux, and fometimes 
 Tyndarids. Caftor and Pollux are called by the Spa- 
 niards, San Elmo; by the French, St Elrne, St Ni- 
 cholas, St Clare, St Helene ; by the Italians, Her- 
 mo ; by the Dutch, Vree Vuuren. 
 
 Caftor and Pollux ai-e commonly judged to portend 
 a ceftation of the ftorm, and a future calm ; being 
 rarely feen till the tempeft is nigh fpent. Helena 
 alone portends ill, and witneffes tlie fevereft part of 
 the ftorm yet behind. When the meteor fticks to the 
 mafts, yards, &c. they conclude, from the air's not 
 having motion enough to diffipate this flame, that a 
 profound calm is at hand ; if it flutter about, it indi- 
 cates a ftorm. 
 
 N°66. 
 
 CASTOREUM, in the Materia Medica, CASfOR ; C ifloreum 
 the inguinal glands of the beaver. The ancients had "! 
 a notion that it was lodged in the tefticles ; and that "^"^ 
 the animals, when hard preffed, would bite them ofi", 
 and leave them to its purfuers, as if ctrnfcious of what 
 they wanted to deftroy him for. The beft fort of 
 caiior is what comes from Ruffia. So much is Ruf- 
 fian caftor fuperior to the American, that two gui- 
 neas per Dound is paid for the fortper, and only 8s. 6d, 
 for the Inttcr. 'Ilie Ruffian caftor is in large hard 
 round cods, wliich appear, when cut, full of a brittle, 
 red-, liver-coloured fabftance, interi"perfed with mem- 
 branes and fibres exquifitcly interwoven. An inferior 
 fort is broaglit from Dantzic, and is genei-ally fat and- 
 moill. The American cailor, which is the worft of 
 all, is in longifli thin cods. Ruffia caftor has a ftrong 
 
 and an acrid, bitterifli, and naufe- 
 extrafts the naufeous part, with 
 
 difagreeable fmell ; 
 ons tatte. Water 
 
 little of the iiner bitter; reiSlified fpirit extrafts this 
 lalt without much of the naufeous ; proof-fpirit both : 
 water elevates the whole of its flavour in diftillation ; 
 reftified fpirit brings over nothing. Caftor is looked 
 upon as one of the capital nervine and antihyfteric 
 medicines : fome celebrated pra6litioners, neverthe- 
 lefs, have doubted its virtues ; and Newman and Stahl 
 declare it infignilicant. Experience, however, has 
 fliown that the virtues of caftor are confiderable, tho' 
 lefs than they have been generally fuppofed. 
 
 CASTRATION, in furgery, the operation or 
 gelding, e. of cutting off the tefticles, and putting 
 a male animal out of a capacity of generation. 
 
 Caftration is much in ufe in Afia, efpecially am.ong 
 the Turks, ■ who praftife it on their flaves, to prevent 
 any commerce with their v/omen. The Turks often 
 make a general amputation. 
 
 Caftration alfo obtains in Italy, where it is ufed with a 
 view to preferve the voice for fmging. See Eunuch. 
 
 The Pcrfiaiis, and other eaftern nations, have di- 
 vers methods of making eunuchs, different fi-om thofe 
 which obtain in Europe : wc fay, of making eunuchs, 
 for it is not always done among them by cutting, or 
 even coUifton. Cicuta and other poifonous herbs do 
 the fame office, as is (hewn by Paulus -ZSgineta. Thofe 
 eunuchifed in this manner are called ihlibia. Befides 
 wliich there is another fort \vi.mc(S. thlafun, in whom the 
 genitals are left entire, and only the veins which ffiould 
 feed them are cut ; by which means the parts do in- 
 deed remain, but fo lax and weak, as to be of no ufe. 
 
 Caftration was ftn- fome time the pnnifliment of 
 adultery. By the laws of the Vifigoths, fodomitcs 
 underwent the fame jjuniHiment. 
 
 By the civil law, it is made penal in phyficians and 
 furgeons to caftrate, even with confent of the party, 
 wlio is himfclf included in the fame penalty, and his 
 effefts forfeited. The offence of Mayhem by caftra- 
 tion is, according to all our old writers, felony ; tho* 
 committed upon the higheft provocation. See a re- 
 cord to lIus purpofe of Henry HI. tranfcribed by Sir 
 Edward Coke, 3 Inft. 62. or Blackftone's Com. vol. 
 iv. p. 206. 
 
 Caftration is fometimes found neceflary on medicinal 
 confiderations, as in moitifications, and fome other 
 difeafes of the tefticles, efpecially the farcocele and vu' 
 r'icocde. Some have alfo ufed it in maniac cafes. 
 5 Cas- 
 
CAS 
 
 Ciftratlon Castration is alfo in fome fort pradifed on wo- 
 Caftruccio. men. Athenaeus mentions, that king Andramytes 
 "—sf—^ was the firft who caftrated women. Hefychiiis and 
 Suidas fay Gyges did the fame thing. Galen obferves, 
 that women cannot be caftrated without danger of 
 life : and Dalechampius, on the forementioned paffage 
 of Athenaeus, holds, that it is only to be underftood 
 of fimple padlocking. 
 
 Castration, in refpc£l of brutes, is called Geld- 
 ing and Spaying. 
 
 Castration alfo denotes the art of retrenching, or 
 cutting away any part of a thing from its whole. — Caf- 
 trating a book, among bookfellers, is the taking out 
 fome leaf, flieet, or the like, which renders it imper- 
 fe£t and unfit for fale. The term is alfo applied to 
 the taking away particular paffages, on account of 
 their obfcenity, too great freedom with refpeft to go- 
 vernment, &c. 
 
 Castration, among botanifts, a term derived from 
 the fancied analogy betwixt plants and animals. The 
 caftration of plants confifts in cutting off the untheray 
 or tops of the ftamina, before they have attained ma- 
 turity, and difperfed the pollen or fine dull contained 
 within their fubftance. This operation has been fre- 
 quently praftifed by the moderns, with a view to efta- 
 blifli or confute the doftrine of the fexes of plants; the 
 antheraj or tops being confidered by the fexualifts as 
 the male organs of generation. The experiment of 
 caftration fucceeds principally on plants which, like 
 the melon, have their male flowers detached from the 
 female. In fuch as have both male and female flowers 
 contained within the fame covers, this operation can- 
 not be eafily performed without endangering the neigh- 
 bouring organs. The refult of experiments on this 
 fubjedl by Linnaeus, Alfton, and other eminent bota- 
 nifts, may be feen under the article Botany, fedl, iii. 
 
 CASTREL, a kind of hawk refembling the -lanner 
 in ftiape, but the hobby in fize. The caftrcl is alfo 
 called keftrel, and is of a flow arid cowardly kind ; her 
 game Is the grous, though ihe will kill a partridge. 
 
 CASTRES, a city of Languedoc in France, about 
 35 miles eaft of Thouloufe. E Long. 2. and N. Lat. 
 43. 40. It is a bifliop's fee. 
 
 CASTRO, the capital of the ifland of Chiloe, on 
 the coaft of Chili in South America. W.Long. 82. 
 6. Lat. 4'3. 
 
 Castro Is alfo the capital of a duchy of the fame 
 name in the Pope's territories in Italy, fituated on the 
 confines of Tufcany. E. Long. 12. 35. N, L^t. 
 42. 30, 
 
 Castro (Pietro de), a celebrated painter, who 
 flourlHied about the middle of the 17th century. The 
 fubje6ts which this great artift chofe to paint, were what 
 are diftinguiflied by the name offtill Ufe ; vafes, fliells, 
 mufical inftruments, gems, veflels of gold, filver, and 
 Cryftal, books, and rich bracelets ; and in thofe fub- 
 je6ls his choice and difpofition were elegant, and his 
 execution admirable. 
 
 CASTRUCCIO (Caftracani), a cfelebrated Italian 
 general, was born (nobody knows of whom) at Luc- 
 ca in 'Florence in 1284, and left in a vineyard cover- 
 ed with leaves, where he was found by Dianora a 
 widow lady, the filler of Antonio, a canon of St Mi- 
 chael in Lucca, who was defcendcd from the illuftri- 
 VoL. IV. Part L 
 
 [ 241 ] 
 
 CAS 
 
 ous family of the Caftracani. The lady having tio Caftiiiccl<5» 
 children, they refolved to bring iiim up, and educated — -v— — 
 him as carefully as he had been their own. They in- 
 tended him for a prieft ; but he was fcarcely 14 years 
 old when he began to devote himfelf to military fports, 
 and thofe violent exerclfes which fuited his great 
 ftrength of body. The factions named the Guelfs and 
 Gibelines then flaared all Italy between them ; divided 
 the popes and the emperors ; and engaged in their dif- 
 ferent interefts not only the members of the fame town, 
 but even thofe of the fame family. Francifco, a con- 
 fiderable perfon on the fide of the Gibelines, obfer- 
 vlng Caftruccio's uncommon fpirit and great qualities, 
 prevailed with Antonio to let him turn foldler ; on 
 which Caftruccio foon became acquainted with every 
 thing belonging to that profeflion, and was made a 
 lieutenant of a company of foot by Francifco Guinigi. 
 In his firft campaign he gave fuch proofs of his cou- 
 rage and condudt as fpread his fame all over Lombardy ; 
 and Guinigi, dying foon after, committed to him the 
 care of his fon and the management of his eftate. Still 
 diftingulfliing himfelf by his exploits, he filled his com- 
 mander in chief with fuch jealoufy and envy, that he 
 was imprifoned by ftratagem in order to be put to 
 death. But the people of Lucca foon releafed him, 
 and afterwards chofe him for their fovereign prince. 
 The Gibelines confidered him as the chief of their 
 party ; and thofe who had been baniftied from their 
 country fled to him for prote<9;ion, and unanimoufly 
 promifed, that if he could reftore them to their eftatof , 
 they would ferve him fo effieMijally that the fovereign- 
 ty of their country fliould be \is reward. Flattered 
 by thefe promifes, he entered into a league with the 
 prince of Milan. He kept his army conftantly on 
 foot, employing it as beft fuited his own defigns. For 
 fervices he had done tlie pope, he v/as made fenator of 
 Rome with more than ordinary ceremony ; but while 
 there, received news which obliged him to haften back 
 to Lucca. The Florentines entered into a war with 
 lilm, but Caftruccio fought his way through them ; 
 and the fuprcme authority of Tufcany was ready to 
 fall into his hands, when a period was put to his life. 
 In May 1328, he gained a complete viftory over his 
 enemies, who amounted to 30,000 foot and 10,000 
 horfe ; in which 22,000 of them wer-^ flain, with the 
 lofs of not quite 16,000 of his own men: but as he 
 was returning from the field of battle, tired with the 
 aftion, and covered with fweat, he halted a Utile, ia 
 order to thank and carefs his foldlers as they pafled ; 
 when, the north wind blowing upon him, he was im- 
 mediately feized with an ague, which he at firft ne- 
 glected, but it carried him off" in a few days, in the 
 44th year of his age. 
 
 Machiavel, who has written the life of Caftruccio, 
 fays, that he was not only an extraordinary man iii his 
 own age, but would have been fo in any other. He 
 was of a noble afpeCt, and of the moft winning addrefs. 
 He had all the qualities that make a man great ; was 
 grateful to his friends, juft to his fubje<3:s, terrible to 
 his enem.ies. No man was more forward to encounter 
 dangers ; no man more careful to efcape them. He 
 had an uncommon prefence of mind, and often made 
 rapartees with great fmartnefs. Some of them are rci- 
 corded, which difcover a fingular turn of humour ; 
 
 H h andj 
 
GAS [ 242 
 
 Caftruccio and, for a Specimen, we ftiall mention three or four of by 
 „ J." , them. — Faffing one driy through a ftreet where there 
 1 I ^ , was a houfe of bad fame, he furprifed a young man,^ 
 who wasjuft coming out, and who, upon feeing him, 
 was all over bluihes and confufion : " Friend, you 
 fhould not be afhamed when you come out, but when 
 you go in." — One alking a favour of him with a thou- 
 sand impertinent and fuperfluous words : " Hark you, 
 friend ; when you would have any thing with me for 
 the future, fend another man to aflt it." — Another 
 great talker having tired him with a tedious difcourfe, 
 cxcufed himfelf atlaft, by faying, he was-afraidhe had 
 been troublefome. " No indeed, (replied he), for I 
 did not mind one word you faid." — He was forced to 
 put a citizen of Lucca to death, who had formerly 
 been a great inftrument of his advancement; and being 
 reproached by fomebody for having dealt fo feverely 
 with an old friend, replied, " No, you are miftaken, 
 it was with a new foe." — One of his courtiers, defi- 
 TDUs to regale him, made a ball and invited him to it. 
 Caftruccio came, entertained himfelf among the ladies, 
 danced, and did other things which did not feem to 
 comport with the dignity of hi« rank. One of his 
 firiends intimating that fuch freedoms might diminifti 
 the reverence that ought to be paid him : " 1 thank 
 you for your caution ; but he who is reckoned wife all 
 the day, vnH never be reckoned a fool at night," 
 
 CASTRUM DOLORis, in middle-aged writers, 
 denotes a c^tafalco, or a lofty tomb of ftate, erefted 
 in honour of fome perfon of eminence, ufually in the 
 church where his body is interred; and decorated with 
 arms, emblems, lights, and the like. 
 
 Ecclefiaftical writers fpeak of a ceremony of confe- 
 CTViting a cq/irum cloloris ; the edi6ce was to be made 
 to reprefent the body of the deceafed, and the prieft 
 and deacon were to take their pofts, and fay the pray- 
 ers after the fame. manner as if the corpfe were aftually 
 ' prefent. 
 
 CASTS. See Casting. 
 
 CASU coNSiMiLi, in law, a writ of entry granted 
 xvhere a tenant, by courtefy or for life, aHens either 
 in fee, in tail, or for the term of another's life- It h 
 brought by him in reverfion agaiaft the perfon to 
 whom fuch tenant does .fo alien to the prejudice of the 
 reverfioner in the tenant's life-time. 
 
 CAsv-Prov'tfo, in law, a writ of entry founded on the 
 ftatute of Gloucefter, where a tenant in dower aliens 
 the la.ids /he fo holds in fee, or for life ; and lies for 
 the party in reverfion againft the alieuce. 
 
 CASUAL, fomething that happens fortuitoufly, 
 without any defign, or any meafures taken to bring it 
 to pafs. 
 
 Casual- Re-venues, ate thofe which arife from for- 
 feitures, confifcations, deaths, attainders, i5c. 
 
 CASVAL-Theology, di denomination given to, what is 
 more frequently called Casuistry. 
 
 CASUALTY, in a general fenfe, denotes an acci- 
 dent, or a thing happening by chance, not defign. It 
 is particularly ufed for an accident producing unna- 
 tural death. 
 
 Casualty, in Scot's few. Cafualtks of a fupsr'ior^ 
 arc thofe duties and emoluments wliich a fuperi- 
 
 ©r has right to demand out of his 
 and befides the conftant yearly 
 
 vafTal's eftate, over 
 duties eftabliihed 
 
 1 CAT 
 
 the reddendo of his charter upon certain cafual 
 events. 
 
 Casualty, in Metallurgy. SeeCAusALTY. 
 CASUIST, a perfon who propofes to refolve cafes 
 of confcience. ECcobar has made a coUeAion of the 
 opinions of all the cafuifts before hira. M. Le Feore, 
 preceptor of Louis XIII. called the books of the ca- 
 fuifts the art of quibbling with God ; which does not 
 feem far from ti'uth, by reafon of the multitude of di- 
 ftinftions and fubtleties they abound withal. Mayer 
 has publiihed a bibliotheca of cafuiits, containing an 
 account of all the writers on cafes of confcience, ran- 
 ged under three heads, the lirft comprehending the 
 Lutheran, the fecond the Calvinift, and the third the 
 Romifh, cafuifts. 
 
 CASUISTRY, the dodlrine and fcience of con- 
 fcience and its cafes, with the rules and principles of 
 refolving the fame ; drawn partly from natural reafon . 
 or equity ; partly from authority of fcripture, the ca- 
 non law, councils, fathers, i^c. To cafuiftry belongs 
 the decifion of all difficulties arifing about what a man ■ 
 may lawfully do or, not do ; what is fin or not fin ; 
 what things a man is obliged to do in order to dif- 
 charge his duty, and what he may let alone without- 
 breach of it. 
 
 CASUS AMissiONis, in Scots law, in a&ions pro- 
 ving the tenor of obligations inextinguifliable by the 
 debtors retiring or cancelling them, it is neceffary for 
 the puifuer, before he is allowed a proof of the tenor, 
 to condefcend upon fuch a cafus amijjionts, or accident 
 by which the writing was dellroyed, as (hows it was. , 
 loft while in the writer's pofieffion. ' 
 CAT, in zoology. See Felis. 
 Cat, in fea -affairs, a ftiip employed in the coal- 
 trade, formed from the Norwegian model. It is dif- 
 tinguilhed by a narrow ftern, projefiing quarters, a 
 deep fufa'tfle, and by having ornamental figures on the 
 prow. Tliefe veflels are generally built remarkably 
 ftrong, and carry from four to fix hundred tons, or, 
 in the language of their own mariners, from 20 to 30 
 keels of coals. 
 
 Cat, is alfo a fort of ftrong tackle, or combination , 
 of piiUies, to hook and draw the anchor perpendicu- 
 larly up to the cat-head. See C4T-Heads. 
 
 Cat's Eye, or Sun-JIone of the Turks, a kind of gem 
 found chiefly in Siberia. Cat's-tye is by the Latins 
 called occulus cati, and fometimes onycopahs, as having 
 white zones or rings like the onyx ; and its colours 
 variable like opal, from which laft it differs chiefly by 
 its fuperior hardnefs. It is very hard, and femitranf- . 
 parent, and has different points, from whence the light 
 is refle£led with a kind of yellowifti radiation fome- 
 what fimikr to the eyes of cats, from whence* it had 
 its name.. The beft of them are very fcarce, .and- 
 jewellers cut them round to the greateft advantage. 
 One ©f thefe ftones, an irich in diameter, was in the 
 ppffeffion of the duke of Tufcany. 
 
 CAT-F'i/hy in ichthyology* See StiUALUS. 
 CAT-Guf, a denomination given to fmall ftrings for 
 fiddles, and other inftruments, made of the inteftines 
 of ftieep or lambs, dried and tv/ifted together, either 
 fingly, or feveral together. Thefe are fometimes co- 
 loured red, fometimes blue, but are commonly left 
 whitifli or browniffi, the natural colour of the gut» 
 
 They 
 
C A t [143 
 
 Cat-harp- They are alfo uiTed by watch -mkkers, cutlers, turners, 
 »"g* and other artificers. Great quantities are imported 
 Catacomb England, and other northern countries, from Ly- 
 ons and Italy. 
 
 CAT-HarplngSy a purchafe of ropes employed to 
 brace in the flirowds of the lower mafts behind their 
 yards, for the double purpofe of making the (hrowds 
 more tight, and of affording room to draw in the 
 yards more obliquely, to trim the fails for a fide- wind, 
 when they are faid to be clofe hauled. 
 
 CAT-Heads, two ftrong fliort beams of timber, which 
 projedl alraoll horizontally over the fhip's bows on 
 each fide of the bow-fprit ; being like two radii which 
 extend from a centre taken in the direction of the 
 bow-fprit. That part of the cat-head which refts upon 
 the forecaftle, is fecurely bolted to the beams : the 
 other part projects like a crane as above defcribed, and 
 carries in its extremity two or three fmall wheels or 
 Jheaves of brafs or ftrong wood, about which a rope 
 called the cat-fall paffes, and communicates with the 
 cat-block, which alfo contains three fheaves. The 
 machine formed by this combination of puUies is called 
 the Cat, which fei-ves to pull the anchor up to the cat- 
 head, without tearing the fhip's lides with its flukes. 
 The cat-head ajfo ferves to fufpend the anchor clear of 
 the bow, when it is neceffary to let it go : it is fup- 
 ported by a fort of knee, which is generally ornament"- 
 ed with fculpture. See Plate CXXVIII. 
 
 The cat-block is filled with a large and ftrong hood, 
 which catches the ring of tlie anchor when it is to be 
 tlrawn up. 
 
 CAT-Mint, See Mentha. 
 
 CAT-Salt, a name given by our falt-workcrs to a 
 very beautifully granulated kind of common fait. It 
 is formed out of the bittern, or leach-brine, which runs 
 from the fait when taken out of the pan. When they 
 draw -out the common fait from the boiling pans, they 
 put it into long wooden troughs, with holes bored at 
 the bottom for the brine to drain out ; under thefe 
 troughs are placed veflels to receive this biine, and a- 
 rrofs them fmall fticks to which the cat-falt affixes it- 
 felf in very large and beautiful cryftals. This fait 
 contains feme portion of the bitter purging fait, is 
 very fharp and pungent, and is white when powder- 
 rd, though pellucid in the mafs. It is ufed by fome 
 for the table, but the greateft part of what is made 
 lof it is ufed by the makers of hard-foap. 
 CAT-Silver. See MiOA. 
 
 CATAC AUSTIC curves, in the higher geometry, 
 that fpecies of cauftic curves which are formed by re- 
 fieftlon. See Fluxions. 
 
 CATACHRESIS, in rhetoric, a trope which bor- 
 tows the name of one thing t.< exprefs another. Thus 
 Milton, defcribing Raphael's defcent from the empy- 
 real heaven to paradife, fays, 
 
 ** Down thither prone in flight, 
 *' He fpeeds, and through the vaft etherial fl<;y 
 " Sails between worlds and worlds." 
 CATACOMB, a grotto, or fubterraneous place for 
 the burial of the dead. 
 
 Some derive the word catacomb from the place where 
 
 I CAT 
 
 anciently wrote catatumbas. Others fetch the word Gatac ottAs. 
 from the Greek •'■^t^> and r.^n-^®--, a hollow, cavity, or ' ' ' 
 
 the like. 
 
 Anciently the word catacomb was only underftood 
 of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul ;• and M. Chafte- 
 laln obferves, that, among the more knowing of the 
 people of Rome, the word catacomb is never applied to 
 the fubterraneous burying-places hereafter mentioned, 
 but only to a chapel in St Sebaftian, one of the feven 
 ftational churches ; where the ancient Roman kalen- 
 dars fay the body of St Peter was depofited> under 
 .the confulate of Tufcus and BafTus, in 258. 
 
 Catacombs of Italy ; a vafl affemblage of fubter- 
 raneous fepulchres about Rome, chiefly at about three 
 miles from that city in the Via Appia ; fuppofed to 
 be the fepulchres of the martyrs ; and which are vifi- 
 ted accordingly out of devotion, and relics thence ta* 
 ken and difperfed throughout the catholic countries, 
 after having been firft baptized by the pope under the 
 name of fome faint. Thefe catacombs are faid by ma- 
 ny to be caves or cells wherein the primitive Chri- 
 ftians hid and affembledthemfelves together, and where 
 they interred fuch among them as were martyred. 
 Each catacomb is three feet broad, and eight or ten 
 high ; running iii form t)f an alley or gallery, and 
 communicating with others : in many places they ex- 
 tend within a league of Rome. There is no mafomy 
 or vaulting therein, but each fupports itfelf : thg two 
 fides, which we may look on as the parietes or walls, 
 were the places where the dead were depofited ; which 
 were laid lengthwife, three or four rows over one an- 
 other, in the fame catacomb, parallel to the alley. They 
 were commonly clofed with large thick tyles, and 
 fometimes pieces of marble, cemented in a manner in- 
 imitable by the moderns. Sometimes, though very 
 rarely, the name of the deceafed is found on the tyle : 
 frequently a palm is feen, painted or engraven, or the 
 cipher Xp, which is commonly read pro Chrijlo. The 
 opinion held by many Proteftant authors is, that the 
 catacombs are. heathen fepulchres, and the fame with the 
 puticuli mentioned by Feftus Pompeius ; maintaining, 
 that whereas it was the practice of the ancient Ro- 
 mans to burn their dead, the cuftom was, to avoid 
 expence, to throw the bodies of their flaves to rot 
 in holes of the ground ; and that the Roman Chri- 
 ftians, obferving, at length, the great veneration paid 
 to relics, refoJved to have a ftock of their own : enter- 
 ing therefore the catacombs, they added what ciphers 
 and infcriptions they pleafed; and then fhut them up 
 again, to be opened on a favourable occalion. Thofe 
 in the fecret, add they, dying or removing, the con- 
 trivance was forgot, till chance opened them at laft. But 
 this opinion has even lefs of probability than the former. 
 Mr Monro, in the Philojophical Tranfa£lions, fuppofes 
 the catacombs to have been originally the common fe- 
 pulchres of the firft Romans, and dug in confequence 
 of thefe two opinions, w'z. That fliades hate the light; 
 and that they love to hover about the places where the 
 bodies are laid. 
 
 Though the catacombs of Rome have made the 
 greateft noife of any in the world, there are fuch be- 
 longing to many other cities. Thofe of Naples, ac- 
 
 jhips are laid up, which the modern Latins and Greeks 
 
 call cumba. Others fay, that cata was ufed for ad, and cording to bifliop Burnet, are much more noble and 
 f*/tff««i3<zj for ij<//«»j^iw accordingly, Dadin fays, they ifpacious than the catacombs of Rome. Catacombs 
 
 H h, 2 have 
 
CAT [ 2 
 
 Catacombs, have alfo been difcovered at Syracufe, and Catanea in 
 — gj(.jiy^ and in the ifland of Malta. The Roman cata- 
 combs take particular names from the churches in their 
 neighbourhood, and feem to divide the circumference 
 of the city without the walls between them, extending 
 their galleries every where under, and a vail way from 
 it ; fo that all the ground under Rome, and for many 
 miles about it, fome fay 20, is hollow. The largeft, 
 and thofe commonly fliown to ftrangers, are the cata- 
 combs of San Sebaftiano, thofe of Saint Agnefe, and 
 the others in the fields a little off Saint Agnefe. Wo- 
 men are only allowed to go into the catacombs in the 
 church-yard of the Vatican on Whitfun-Monday, un- 
 der pain of excommunication. There are men kept 
 conftantly at work in the catacombs. As foon as thefe 
 labourers difcover a grave with any of the fuppofed 
 marks of a faint upon it, intimation is given to the 
 cardinal Gomerlingo, who immediately fends men of 
 reputation to the place, where finding the palm, the 
 monogram, the coloured glafs, life, the remains of the 
 body are taken up with great refpeft, and tranflated to 
 Rome. After the labourers have examined a gallery, 
 they flop up the entry that leads to it ; fo that moll 
 of them remain thus clofed up ; only a few being 
 left open to keep up the trade of fhowing them to 
 ilrangers. This they fay is done to prevent people 
 from lofing themfelves in thefe fubterraneous labyrinths, 
 which indeed has often happened ; but more probably 
 to deprive the public of the means of knowing whither 
 and how far the catacombs are carried. 
 
 The method of preferving the dead in catacombs 
 feems to have been common to a number of the ancient 
 nations. The catacombs of Egypt are ftill extant 
 about nine leagues from the city of Grand Cairo, and 
 two miles from the city of Zaccara. They extend 
 from thence to the pyranaids of Pharaoh, which are 
 about eight miles diftant. They lie in a field covered 
 with a fine running fand, of a yellowifti colour. The 
 country is dry and hilly ; the entrance of the tomb is 
 choaked up with fand j there are many open, but more 
 that are ftiB concealed. 
 
 The bodies found in catacombs, efpecially thofe of 
 Egypt, are called mummies ; and as their flelh was for- 
 merly reckoned an efficacious medicine, they were much 
 fought after. In this work the labourers were often 
 obliged to clear away the fand for weeks together, 
 without finding what they wanted. Upon coming to 
 a little fquare opening of about 18 feet in depth, they 
 defcend into it by holes for the feet, placed at proper 
 intervals ; and there they are fure of finding a mummy. 
 Thefe caves, or ivells as they call them there, are hol- 
 lowed out of a white free-ftone, which is found in all 
 this country a few feet below the covering of fand. 
 When one gets to the bottom of thefe, which are 
 fometimes 40 feet below the furface, there are feveral 
 fquare openings on each fide into palfages of 10 or 15 
 feet wide ; and thefe lead to chambers of 15 or 20 feet 
 fquare. Thefe are all hewn out in the rock ; and 
 in each of the catacombs are to be found f.;veral of 
 thefe apartments communicating with one another. 
 They extend a great way under ground, fo as to be 
 under the city of Memphis, and in a manner to under- 
 mine its invirons. In fome of the chambers the walls 
 are adorned with figures and hieroglyphics } io others 
 
 44 1 CAT 
 
 the mummies are found In tombs, round the apart- Catacombs, 
 ment hollowed out in the rock. ^ |' 
 
 The Egyptians feem to have excelled in the art of ^-•'^^P 
 embalming and preferving their dead bodies; as the 
 mummies found in the Egyptian catacombs are in a 
 better ftate than the bodies found either in the Italian^ 
 catacombs or thofe of any other part of the world. Sec 
 Embalming and Mummy. 
 
 Laying up the bodies in caves, is certainly the ori- 
 ginal way of difpofing of the dead ; and appears ta 
 have been propagated by the Phoenicians thcoughout 
 the countries to which they fent colonies : the inter- 
 ring as we now do in the open air or in temples was- 
 firit introduced by the Chriilians. When an ancient 
 hero died or was killed in a foreign expedition, as his. 
 body was liable to corruption, and for that reafon un- 
 fit to be tranfported entire, they fell on the expedient 
 of burning, in order to bring home the afhes, to oblige 
 the maties to follow ; that fo. his country might not be 
 deftitute of the benefit of his tutelage. It was thu& 
 burning feems to have liad its original; and by degrees 
 it became common to all who could b ear the expences 
 of it, and took place of the ancient burying : thus 
 catacombs became difufed among the Romans, after, 
 they had borrowed the manner of burning from the 
 Greeks, and then none but flaves were laid in the 
 ground.. See Burial, Sif^:. 
 
 CATALAUNI, called alfo Dnrocatalami, a towa 
 of Gallia Belgica : Gatalawii, the people. A name 
 tather of the lower age than of ciaffical antiquity. 
 Now Chalons fur Marne, in Champaign. E. Long^ 
 4. 35. N. Lat. 48. 55. 
 
 CATADROMUS (from >^c.U and ^f^/^=^, I run), m 
 antiquity, aftixtched floping rope in the theatres, down 
 which the funambuH walked to fhow their fltill. 
 
 Some have taken the word to fignify the hippodrome 
 or decurforium wherein the Roman knights ufed to 
 exercife themfelves in running and fighting on horfe-r 
 back. But the moft natural meanmg is that of a rope 
 faftened at one end to the top of the theatre, and at 
 the other to the bottom, to walk or run down, which 
 was the highefl. glory of the ancient fchanobates or fu- 
 nambul't. Elephants were alfo taught to run down the 
 catadromus. Suetonius fpeaks of the exploit of a Ro- 
 man knight, who palfed down the catadrmus mounted 
 on an elephant's back. 
 
 CATAGOGION, a heathen fellival at Ephefus> 
 celebrated on the 22d of January, in which the devo- 
 tees run about the ftreets, drefTed in divers antic and 
 unfeemly manners, with huge cudgels in their hands, 
 and carrying with them the images of their gods ; 
 in which guife they raviflied the wQmen they met 
 with, abufed and often killed the men, and committed 
 many other diforders, to which the religion of the day- 
 gave a fandlion. < 
 
 CATAGRAPHA, in antiquity, denote oblique 
 figures or views of mens faces; anfwering to what 
 the moderns profiles. 
 
 Catagrapha are faid to be the invention of Simon 
 CleontEus, who firft taught painters to vary the looks 
 of their figures, and fometimes direft them upwards, 
 fometimes downwards, and fometimes fidewards cw 
 backwards. 
 
 CATALEPSIS, or Catalepsy, in medicine, a 
 
 kind 
 
CAT [2 
 
 'Catalogue, kind of apoplexy or a drowfy difeafe wherein the patient 
 ■~v~— ' is taken fpeechlefs, fenfelefs, and fixed in the fame 
 poflure wherein the difeafe firft feized him ; his eyes 
 open, without feeing or underftanding. See Medi- 
 ci me -/nc/ex. 
 
 CATALOGUE, a lift or enumeration of the names 
 of feveral books, men, or other things, difpofed ac- 
 cording to a certain order. 
 
 Catalogues of books are digefted in different man- 
 ners, fome according to the order of the times when 
 the books were printed, as that of Mattaire j others 
 according to their form and fize, as the common book- 
 fellers-catalogues ; others according to the alphabetical 
 order of the authors names, as Hyde's catalogue of 
 the Bodleian library ; others according to the alpha- 
 betical order of matters or fubjedls, which are called real 
 or clafftcal catalogues, zs thofe of Lipeniusand Draudiusj 
 iaftly, others are digelted in a mixed method, partaking 
 of feveral of the former, as de Seine's catalogue of cardi- 
 nal Slufms's library, which is firft divided according to 
 the fubjefts or fciences, and afterwards the books ia 
 each are i-ecited alphabetically. 
 
 The moft applauded of all catalogues 13 that of Thu- 
 anus's library, in which are united the advantages o£ 
 all the reft. It was firll drawn up by the two Puteani 
 in the alphabetical order, then digefted according to 
 the fciences and fubjedls by Iftm. BuUialdus, and 
 pubhftied by F. Quefnel at Paris in 1679; and re- 
 printed, though incorrectly, at Hamburg, in 1704. 
 The books are here ranged with juftnefs under their 
 feveral fciences and fubjefts, regard being ftill had to> 
 the nation, feA, age, &c. of every writer. Add, that 
 only the beft and choiceft books in every fubjedt 
 are found here, and the moft valuable editions. Yet 
 the catalogue of M. le Telliers archbiftiop of Rheim's 
 library, made by M. Clement, is not inferior to any 
 publifhed in our age, either on account of the number 
 and choice of the books, or the method of its difpo- 
 lition. One advantage peculiar to this catalogue is, 
 the multitude of anonymous and pfeudony mous authors 
 detected in it, fcarce to be met with elfevvhere.^ Some 
 even prefer it to Thuanas's catalogue, as containing a 
 greater variety of claffes and books on particular fuh- 
 jefts. 
 
 The conditions required iiv a catalogue are, that it 
 indicate at the fame time the order of the authors and 
 of the matters, the form of the book,, the number 
 of volumes, the chronological order of the editions, 
 the language it is written in, and its place in the li- 
 brary ; fo as that allthefe circumftances may appear at 
 once in the fhorteft, cleareft, and exafteft manner pof- 
 fible In this view, all the catalogues yet made will 
 be found to be defedlive. 
 
 An anonymous French writer has laid down a new 
 plan of a catalogue, which ftiall unite all the advan- 
 tages, and avoid all the inconveniences of the reft. 
 
 The Jefuits of Antwerp has given us a catalogue of 
 tlie popes; which makes what they call their Propylaum. 
 
 Catalogue of the Stars, is a lift of the fixed ftars, 
 difpofed in their feveral conftellations ; with the lon- 
 gitudes, latitudes. Sec. of each. 
 
 The firft who undertook to reduce the fixed ftars 
 into a catalogue was Hipparchus Rhodius, about 120 
 years before Chrift ; in v.'hich he made ufe of the ob- 
 
 45 1 CAT 
 
 fervations of Timocharis and Ariftyllus for about 180 Cataloguo, 
 years before him. Ptolemy retained Hipparchus's ca- Cacalmna. 
 talogue, containing 1026 fixed ftars ; though he him- ^ - 
 felf made abundance of obfervations, with a view to a 
 new catalogue, A. D. 140. About the year of Chrift 
 880, Albategni, a Syrian, brought down the fame to 
 his time. Anno 1437, Ulugh Beigh, king of Parthia 
 and India, made a new catalegue of 10Z2 fixed ftars,- 
 fince tranflated out of Perfian into Latin by Dr Hyde.- 
 The third who made a catalogue from his own obfer- 
 vations was Tycho Brahe, who determined the places 
 of 777 ftars for the year 1600, which Kepler from 
 other obfervations of Tycho afterwards increafed to 
 the number of 1000 ia the Rudolphine tables; adding, 
 thofe of Ptolemy omitted by Tycho, and of other au- 
 thors, fo that his catalogue amounts to above 1 160. 
 At the fame time, WilUam landgrave of Heffe, with 
 his mathematicians Chriftopher Rothmannus and Ju- 
 ftus Byrgius, determined the places of 400 fixed ftars 
 by his own obfervations, with- their places reftified for 
 the year 1593 ; which Hevelius prefers, to thofe o£ 
 Tycho's. Ricciolus, in his AJlrmomla Reformata, de- 
 termined the places of loi ftars for the year 1700, 
 from his own obfervations ; for the reft he followed 
 Tycho's catalogue ; altering it where he thought fit. 
 Anno 1667, Dr Halley, in the ifland of St Helena,, 
 obferved 35.0 fouthern ftars not vifible in our horizon. 
 The fame labour was repeated by F. Noel in 17 10, 
 who publifhed a new catalogue of the fame ftars con- 
 ftrufted for tlie year 1687. 
 
 Bayer, in his Uranometria, pubfifhed a catalogue of 
 I i.6q flars, compiled chiefly from Ptolemy and Tycho, 
 in which every ftar is marked with fome letter of the 
 Greek alphabet ; the biggeft ftar in any conftellation 
 being .denoted by the firft letter, the next by the fe- 
 cond, &c. and if the number exceeds the Greek alpha- 
 bet, the remaining ftars are marked by letters of the 
 Roman alphabet, which letters are preferved by Flam- 
 jftead, and by Senex on his globes. The celebrated 
 Hevehus compofed a catalogue of 1888 ftars, 1553 of 
 which, were obferved by hirafelf ; and their places 
 were computed for the year 1 660. 
 
 The laft and greateft is the Britannic catalogue, 
 compiled from the obfervations of the accurate Mr 
 Flamftead ; who for a long feries of years devoted 
 himfelf wholly thereto. As there was nothing want- 
 ing either in the obferver or apparatus, we may 
 look on this as a perfedi, work fo far as it goes. It is 
 to be regretted the impreffion had not paffed through- 
 his own hands : that now extant, was publifhed by 
 authority, but without the author's confent : it con- 
 tains 2734 ftars. There was another pubhfhed in 
 1725, purfuant to his teftament ; containing no lefs 
 than 3Q00 ftars, with their places redlified for the year 
 1689 : to which is added Mr Sharp's catalogue of the 
 fouthern. ftai-8 not vifible in our hemifphere, adapted to- 
 the year 1726. 
 
 CATALONIA, a province of Spain, bounded on 
 the north by the Pyrenean mountains, which divide 
 it from France ; by the kingdom of Arragon and Va- 
 lencia on the weft; and by the Mediterranean fea on 
 the fouth and eaft. It is 155 miles in length, and loO 
 in breadth. It is watered by a great number of rivers; 
 the principal of which are the Lgbregat, the Ter, aiid 
 
 the^ 
 
CAT 
 
 [ 246 ] 
 
 GAT 
 
 Catalonia 
 
 u 
 
 Catanan- 
 che. 
 
 tlic Scgra. "The ai'r is temperate and healthy ; but 
 the land is mountainous, except in a few places. It 
 produces, however, corn, wine, oil, pulff, flax, and 
 hemp, fufficient for the inhabitants. The mountains 
 are covered with large fofefls of tall trees, fuch as the 
 oak, the ever-green oak, the beech, the pine, the fir, 
 the chtfmit, and many others; with cork-trees, fln-ubs, 
 and medicinal plants. There, are feveral quarries of 
 marble of alt colours, cr^^ftal, alabafter, amethyfts, and 
 lapis lazuli. Gold dull has been found among the 
 fands of one or two of the rivers ; and there are mines 
 of tin, iron, lead, alum, vitriol, znd fait. They like- 
 wife fifh for coral on the eaflern coaft. The !nha!)i- 
 tants are hardy^ courageous, aftive, vigorous, and good 
 foldiers, but apt to be difcontented. The miquelets 
 are a fort of foldiers which guard the pafles over the 
 mountains, and ought to prote'61 travellers ; but if they 
 are not paid to their minds, 'they feldom fail to pay 
 themfelves. The river Lobregat divides Catalonia in- 
 to two parts, the eaft and weft, according to their fi- 
 tuation. This province comprehends 17 vigueries or 
 territories; two of which are in Roufillon, and'helotig 
 to the French. The reft are fubjeft to the Spaniards. 
 The principal towns are Barcelona the capital, Tarra- 
 gonaj Tortofa, Lerida, Solfonia, Cardo.na Vich, Gi- 
 rona, Seu d'Urgel, Pui Cerda, and Cervera. Cata- 
 lonia was the laft province in Spain which fubmitted 
 to Philip in the fucceffion-war. 
 
 CATAMENIA, in medicine. See Menses. 
 
 CATAMITE, a boy kept for fodomitical prac- 
 *tlces. 
 
 CAT ANA, or Catjna (anc. geog.), a town of Si- 
 cily, fituated oppofite to^tna, to the fouth-eaft ; one 
 t£ the five Roman colonies : anciently built by the 
 people of Naxus feven years after the building of Sy- 
 racufe, 728 years before Chrill. It was the country of 
 •Charondas, the famous lawgiver. The town is ftill called 
 "Catanea. See Cjtakea. 
 
 CATANANCHE, Candia lions-foot: A genus 
 ©f the polygamia sequalis order, belonging to the fyn- 
 genefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method 
 tanking under the 49th order, Compnfita. The recep- 
 tacle is paleaceous ; the calyx imbricated ; the pappus 
 furnifhed with awns by a caliculus of five ftiff hairs. 
 There are three fpecies, of which the cerulea is the 
 moft remarkable. This fends out many long, narrow, 
 liairy leaves, which are jagged on their edges like thofe 
 of the buckfhorn plantain, but broader ; the jags are 
 deeper, and at greater diftances : thefe lie flat on the 
 ground, turning their points upwards. Between the 
 leaves com.e out the flower ftalks, which are in num- 
 ber proportionable to the fize of the plants ; for, from 
 an old thriving root, there are frequently eight or ten, 
 while ycung plants do not fend out cibov(r two or three. 
 Thefe ftalks rife near two feet high, dividing into 
 many fmall branches upward, garnifhed with leaves 
 like tbofe below, butfmaller, and v.'ithout jags on their 
 edges ; each of thefe fmaller branches are terminated 
 %>y fingle heads of flowers, of a fine blue colour. This 
 is a. perennial plant, and may be propagated by feeds 
 or flips. The feeds may be fown in the fpring on a 
 i)ed of common earth ; and in the autumn following 
 the plants may be removed to the places where they 
 «ir to iremain. The feeds ripen in Auguft. This 
 
 3 
 
 pknt is a pretty ornament in gardens, and is eafily Catarca. 
 kept within bounds. . v"^ 
 
 CATANEA, or Catania, a city of Sicily, feated 
 on a gulph of the fame name, near the foot of Mount 
 -(Etna or Gib*;!. It was founded by the Chalcidians 
 foon after the fettlement of Syracufe, and enjoyed 
 ^reat tranquillity till Hiero I. expelled the whole body 
 of citizens; and after replenifliing the town with a nev/ 
 ftock of inhabitants, gave it the name of Mtna : im- 
 mediately after his deceafe, it regained its ancient 
 name, and its citizens returned to their abodes. Ca- 
 tania fell into the hands of the Romans, among their 
 earheft acquifitlons in Sicily, and became the refideiice 
 of a prnstoi. To make it worthy of fuch an honour, 
 it was adorned with fumptuous buildings of all kinds, 
 and every convenience v/as procured to fupply the na- 
 tural and artificial wants of life. It was deftrbyed by 
 Pompey's fon, but rettored with fuperior magnificence ^ 
 by Augufl;us. The reign of Decius is famous in the 
 hiftory of this city for the martyrdom of its patronefs 
 St Agatha. On every emergency her interceflion is 
 implored. She is pioufly beheved to have preferved 
 Catania from being overwhelmed by torrents of lava, 
 or fliaken to pieces by earthquakes ; yet, its ancient 
 edifices are covered by repeated ftreams of volcanic 
 matter; and almoft every houfe, even her own church, 
 has been thrown to the ground. In the reign of Wil- 
 liam the Good, 20,000 Catanians, with their paftor at 
 their head, were deftroyed before the facred veil could 
 be properly placed to check the flames. In the laft 
 century the eruptions and earthquakes raged with re- 
 doubled violence, and Catania was twice deraoHflied. 
 See .Etna. 
 
 The prefent prince of Bifcari has been at infinite 
 pains, and fpent a large fum of money, in working 
 down to the ancient town, which on account of the 
 numerous torrents of lava that have flowed out of 
 Mount -(Etna for thefe laft thoufand years, is now to be 
 fought for in dark caverns many feet below the pre- 
 fent furface of the earth. Mr Swinburne informs us 
 that he defcendcd into baths, fepulchres, an amphithe- 
 atre, and a theatre, all very much injured by the va- 
 rious cataftrophes that have befallen them. They were 
 eredted upon old beds of lava, and even built with 
 fquare pieces of the fame fubftance, which in no in* 
 ttance appears to have been fufed by the contad of 
 new lavas : The fciarra or ftones of cold lava, have 
 conftantly proved as ftrong d barrier againft the flow- 
 ing torrent of fire as any_other ftone could have been, 
 though fome authors were of opinion that the hot 
 matter vi'ould melt the old mafs and incorporate with it. 
 
 This city has been frequently defended from the 
 burning ftreams by the folid mafs of its own ramparts, 
 and by the air comprefled between them and the lava ; 
 as appears by the torrent having ftopt within a fmall 
 diftance of the walls, and taken another direftion. 
 But when the walls were broken or low, the lava col- 
 lefted itfelf till it rofe to a great height, and then 
 poured over in a curve. A fimilar inftana^ is feen at 
 the Torre del Greco near Naples, where the ftr^am of 
 liquid fire from Vefuvius divided itfelf into two branch- 
 es, arid left a church untouched in thcmiddle. There 
 is a well at the foot of the old walls of Catania, where 
 the lava, after running along the parapet, and then 
 
 falling 
 
CAT [ 24 
 
 Catanea falling forwards, has produced a very complete lofty 
 
 II arch over the fpring. , 
 ataphrac- r^^^ church here is a noble fkSrlc, It is accounted 
 ^.—^^l— the largeft in Sicily, though neither a porch nor cu- 
 pola has been eredlcd, from a doubt of the folidity of 
 the foundations, which are no other than the bed of 
 lava that ran out of iEtna in 1669, and is fuppofed to 
 b.e full of cavities. The organ is much efteemed by 
 connoilfeurs in mufical inftruments. 
 ^ Catania, according to Mr Swinburne's account, is 
 
 reviving with great fplendor. " It has already (he 
 fays) much more the features of a metropolis and 
 royal reiidence than Palermo ; the principal llreets are 
 wide, ftraight, and well paved with lava. An obcliflc 
 of red granite, placed on the back of an antique ele- 
 phant of touchftone Hands in the centre of the great 
 fquare, which is formed by the town-haU, femiwary, 
 and cathedral. The cathedral ere£led by the abbot 
 Angerius in the year 1094, was endowed by<;arl Roger 
 with the territories of Catania and jEtna, for the 
 fmall acknowledgment of a glafs of wine and a loaf 
 of bread offered once a-year. It has fuffered fo much 
 by earthquakes, that little of the original ilrufture re- 
 mains, and the modern parts have hardly any thing ex- 
 cept their materials to recommend them. The other re-- 
 ligious edifices of the city are profufely ornamented, but 
 in a bad tafte. The fpirit of building feems to have feized 
 upon this people, and the prince of Bifcari's example 
 adds frefh vigour. It were natural to fUppofe men would 
 be backward in erefting newhabitations, efpecially with 
 any degree of hixury, on ground f» often (haken to its 
 centre, and fo often buried under the afiies of a volca- 
 no ; but fuch is their attachment to their native foil, 
 and their contempt of dangers they are habituated to, 
 that they rebuild their houfes on the warm cinders of 
 Vefuvius, the quaking plains of Calabria, and the black 
 mountains of Sclarra at Catania; it is however farprifing 
 to fee fuch embellifhrnents lavifhed in fo dangerous a 
 fituation. There is a great deal of aftivity in the 
 difpofition of this people : they know by tradition 
 that their anceflors carried on a flourirning commerce ; 
 and that, before the fiery river filled it up, they had a 
 fpaclous convenient harbour, where they now have 
 fcarce a creek for a felucca : they tliercfore wifh to 
 reftore thofe advantages to Catania, and have often ap- 
 plied to government for affiftance towards forming a 
 mole and port, an undertaking their Itrength alone is 
 unequal to ; but whether the rcfufal originates in the 
 d<;ficiencies of the public-, treafury or the jealoufy of 
 other cities, all their projefts have ended in fruitlefs 
 applications. The number of inhabitants dwelling in 
 Catania amounts to 30,000 ; the Catanians make it 
 double : A confiderable portion of this number apper- 
 tains to the univerfity, the only one in the ifland, and 
 the nurfery of all tlte lawyers." E. Long. 15. 1 9. 
 N. Lat. 37. 30. . 
 
 CATANZARO, a city in the kingdom of Napksj 
 the capital of Calabria Ulterior, with a bifhop's fee. 
 It is the ufual refidence of the governor of the pro- 
 vince, and is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 18. 20. 
 N. Lat. 38. 58. 
 
 CATAPHONiCS, the fcience which coniidersthe 
 properties of reflefted founds. See Acoustics. 
 
 CATAPHORA, in medicine, the fame as Coma. 
 
 CATAPHRACTA (from >c«?^, and ?p«^^^, I for- 
 
 J ] ] GAT 
 
 tify or arm), in the ancient military art, a piece of Cataphr: 
 heavy defenfive armour, formed of cloth or leathef, *^ 
 fortified with iron fcales or links, wherewith _ fome- Catapla 
 times only the breaft, fometimes the whole body, and m-a. 
 fometimes the horfe too, was covered. It was in ufe ^— — v*" 
 among the Sarmatians, Perfians, and other barbarians. 
 The Romans alfo adopted it early for their foot; aud» 
 according to Vegetius, kept to it till the time of Gra- 
 tlan, when the military difcipline growing remifs, and 
 field exercifes and labour difcontinued, the Roman 
 foot thought the cataphradta as well as the helmet toa. 
 great a load to bear, and therefore threw both hy^ 
 choofing rather to march againit the enemy bare-? 
 breailed ; by which, in the war with the Goths, mul- 
 titudes were dellroyed. 
 
 Cataphractm Naves, fiilps armed and covered ia. 
 fight, fo that they could not be eafily damaged by ths 
 enemy. They were covered over with boards or 
 planks, on which the foldiers were placed to defencr 
 them ; the rowers fitting underneath,; thus fcreened 
 from the enemy's weapons. 
 
 CATAPHRACTUS, denotes a thing defended or 
 covered on all fides with armour. , 
 
 Cataphractus, or Cataphractarlus, more particu- 
 larly denotes a horfeman, or even horfe, armed with 
 cataphrafta. The cotaphraSa equites were a fort of 
 cuiraffiers, not only fortified with armour tliemfelves, 
 but having tlieir horfes guarded with foHd plates of 
 brafs or other metals, ufually lined with flcins and 
 wrought into plumes or other forms. Their ufe was 
 to bear wn all before them, to break in upon the 
 enemies ranks, and fpread terror and havock wherever 
 they came, as being themfelves invulnerable and fecure 
 from danger. But their difadvantage was their un- 
 wieldinefs, by which, if once unhorfed or on the • 
 ground, they were unable to rife» and thus fell a prey 
 to the enemy », 
 
 CATAPHRYGIANS, a fed in the fecond cen- 
 tury, fo called as beiiig of the country of Phrygia. 
 They were orthodox, in every thing, fetting afide this, 
 that they took Montanus for a prophet, and Piifcilla 
 and Maximiila for true propheteffes, to be confulted in . 
 every thing relating to religion ; as fuppofing the Holy 
 fpirit had abandoned the church. See Montan irt. 
 
 CATAPLASMA, a poultice ; from xai^tsrA-ac-c-^j, . 
 ilUno, to fpread like a plafter. Gataplafms take their 
 name fometimes from the part. to which they are ap- 
 plied, or efFe&s thfcy produce ; fo are called anacollema, , 
 frontale, ep'icarp'ium., epifpafllcum, vejicatorium ; and when 
 muftard is an ingredient, they are called finapijms. 
 
 Thefe kind of applications are fofter and more eafy 
 than plafters or ointments. They are formed of fome - 
 vegetable fubllances, and applied of fuch a confiftence 
 as neither to adhere nor run : they are alfo more ufe- 
 ful when the intention is effedled by the perpetuity of 
 the heat or cold which they contain, for they retain- 
 them longer than any other kind of compofition.- 
 
 When defigned to relax, or to promote fuppura- 
 tion, they fhould be applied warm. Their warmth, 
 moifturc, and the obftruAion they give to perfpira- 
 tion, is the method of their anfwering that end. The 
 proper heat, when applied warm, is no more than to 
 promote a kindly pleafant fenfation ; for great heat 
 prevents the defign for which they are ufed. They 
 ftiould be renewed as often as they cool. For relaxing . 
 
 and 
 
C A T 
 
 Catapulti. atid fuppurating, none excel the vvhlte-bread poultice, 
 ^ ♦"' made with the crumb of an old loaf, a fufficient quan- 
 tity of milk to boil the bread in until it is foft, and 
 a little oil ; which laft ingredient, befides preventing 
 the poultice from drying and flicking to the fkin, 
 alfo retains the heat longer than the bread and milk 
 alone would do. To preferve the heat longer, the 
 poultice, when applied, may be covered with a ftrong 
 ox's bladder. 
 
 When defigned to repel, they fhould be applied cold, 
 and ought to be renewed as oft as they become warni. 
 A proper compofrtion for this end is a mixture of oat- 
 meal and vinegar. 
 
 CATAPULTAj in antiquity, a military engine 
 contrived for the throwing of arrows, darts, and ftones 
 upon the enemy.-^Some of thefe engines were of fuch 
 force that they would throw ftones of an hundred 
 weight. Jofephus takes notice of the furprifmg effefts 
 of thefe engines, and fays, that the ftones thrown out 
 of them beat down the battlements, knocked off the 
 angles of the towers, and would level a whole file of 
 •men from one end to the other, was the phalanx ever 
 fo deep. This was called the 
 
 Battering Catapulta, and is reprefented on Plate 
 CXXVII. This catapulta is fuppofed to carry 
 a ftone, l^c. of an hundred weight, and therefore 
 a defcription of it will be fufficient to explain the 
 'do6lrine of all the reft ; for fuch as threw ftoneg of 
 500 and upwards were conftrudled on the fame prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 The bafe is compofed of two large beams a, 3. The 
 length of thofe beams is fifteen diameters of the bore 
 •of the capitals 9. At the two extremities of each 
 beam, two double mortifes are cut to receive the 
 eight tenons of two crofs beams, each of them four of 
 the diameters in length. In the centre of each of 
 • the beams of the bafe, and near two thirds of their 
 length, a hole, perfeftly round, and 16 inches in diame- 
 ler, fliould be bored : thefe holeis muft be exadlly opi- 
 |)ofite to each other, and ftiould increafe gradually to 
 the infide of the beams, fo that each of them, being 
 16 inches on the outfide towards the capitals 9, 
 Ihould be 1 74- at the opening on the infide, and the 
 edges carefully rounded off". The capitals 9 are, in 
 a manner, the foul of the machine, and ferve to twift 
 and ftrain the cordage, which forms its principle or 
 .power of motion. 
 
 The capitals are either of caft brafs or iron ; each 
 confifting of a wheel with teeth, C 10, of 24- inches 
 thick. The hollow or bore of thefe wheels fliould be 
 1 1 ^ inches in diameter, perfeftly round, and the edges 
 fmoothed down>> As the fr46lion would be too great, 
 if the capitals rubbed agalnft the beams, by the extreme 
 ftraining of the cordage, which draws them towards 
 thefe beams, that inconvenience is remedied by the 
 means of eight friftion- wheels, or cylinders of brafs, 
 about the 13th of an inch in diameter, and an inch 
 and one fixth in length, placed circularly, and turning 
 upon axes, as reprefented at D 13, B 12. One of 
 thefe frlAIon- wheels at large with its fcrew, by which 
 it Is fattened into the beam, is reprefented at A. 
 
 Upon this number of cylindrical wheels the capitals 
 g muft be placed in the beams, 2, 3, fo that the cylin- 
 ders do not extend to the teeth of the wheels, which 
 muft receive a ftrong pinion 14. By the means of this 
 
 K° 67. 2 
 
 r 248 ] 
 
 CAT 
 
 pinion the wheel of the capital is made to turn fol* Catapto^f<^. 
 ftraining the cordage with the key 15. The capital v 
 wheel has a ftrong catch 1 6, and another of the fame 
 kind may be added to prevent any thing from giving 
 way through the extreme and violent force of the 
 ftralned cordage. 
 
 The capital-piece of the machine is a nut or crofs- 
 pln of iron, 17, feen at C, and hammered cold into 
 its form. It divides the bore of the capitals exaftly in 
 two equal parts, and fixed in groves about an inch 
 deep. This piece, or nut, ought to be about two in- 
 ches and one-third thick at the top 18, as reprefented 
 in the feftlon at B ; and rounded off and pollfhed as 
 much as poffible, ihat the cords folded over it may not 
 be hurt or cut by the roughnefs «r edges of the iron. 
 Its height ought to be eight inches, decreafing gra- 
 dually in thicknefs to the bottom, where it ought to be 
 only one Inch. It muft be very exa£lly inferted in the 
 capitals. 
 
 After placing the two capitals in the holes of the 
 two beams in a right line with each other, and fixing 
 the two crofs diametrical nuts or pieces over virhlch 
 the cordage Is to wind, one end of the cord is reeved 
 through a hole in one of the capitals in the bafe, and 
 made faft to a nail within-fide of the beam. The 
 other fide of the Cord is then carried through the hole 
 in the oppofite beam and capital, and fo wound over 
 the crofs pieces of iron in the centre of the two capi- 
 tals, till they are full, the cordage forming a large 
 ilcaln. The tenfion or ftraining of the cordage ought 
 to be exaftly equal, that is, the feveral foldings of the 
 cord over the capital-pieces ftiould be equally ftralned, 
 and fo near each other as not to leave the leaft fpace 
 between them. As foon as the firft folding or fliain 
 cord has filled up one whole fpace or breadth of the 
 capital pieces, another muft be carried over it ; and fo 
 on, always equally ftraining the end till no more will 
 pafs through the capitals, and the llcain of cordage en- 
 tirely fills them, obferving to rub it from time to tlnie 
 with foap. 
 
 At three or four inches behind the cordage, thus 
 wound over the Capital pieces, two very ftrong upright 
 beams 21 are raifed : thefe are pofts of oak 14 inches 
 thick, croffed over at top by another of the fame foli- 
 dity. The height of the upright beams is 74- diame- 
 ters ; each fupported behind with very ftrong props 
 25;, fixed at bottom in the extremities of the bafe 2, 3. 
 The crofs beam 24 is fupported in the fame manner by 
 a prop in the centre. 
 
 The tree, arm, or ftylus 22, fhould be of found 
 afh. Its length is from 15 to 16 diameters of the bore 
 of the capitals. The end at the bottom, or that fixed 
 in the mMdle of the flcain, is 10 inches thick, and 14 
 broad. To ftrengthen the arm or tree, it fhould be 
 wrapped round with a cloth dipped in ftrong glue like 
 the tree of a faddle, and bound very hard with waxed 
 thread of the fixth of an inch in diameter from the 
 large end at bottom, almoft to the top, as reprefented 
 in the figure. 
 
 A,t the top of the arm, j lift under the iron-hand or 
 receiver 27, a ftrong cord is faftened, with two loops 
 twifted one within another, for the greater ftrength. 
 Into thefe two loops the hook of a brafs pulley 28 is 
 put. The cord 29 is then reeved through the pulley, 
 and faftened to the roll 30. The cock or trigger 31, 
 
 which 
 
CAT 
 
 Fig- a- 
 
 vvhicK ferves as -a ftay, is then brought to it, and 
 made fall by its hook to the extrtmity of the hand 
 27, in which the body to be difcharged 13 placed. 
 ' The pulley atlhe neck of the arm is then unhooked ; 
 and when the trigger is to let it off, a ftroke muft be 
 given upon it with an iron- bar or crow of about an 
 inch in diameter; on which the arm flies up with a 
 force almoft equal to that of a modern mortar. The 
 aifhion or ftomacher 23, placed exaAly in the middle 
 of the crofs beam 24, fhould be covered with tanned 
 ox-hide, and rtufFed with hair, the arm ftriking againft 
 it with inconceivable force. It is to be obferved, that 
 the tree or arm 22 defcribes an angle of 90 degrees, 
 beginning at the ccck, and ending at the ftomacher or 
 cufhion. 
 
 Catapvlta for Jrroivs, Spears, or Darts. Some of 
 the fpears, ^c. thrown by thefe engines, are faid to 
 have been 18 feet long, and to have been thrown with 
 fuch velocity as to take fite in their courfe. 
 
 A B C D is the frame that holds the tkrts or ar- 
 rows, which may be of different numbers, and placed 
 ^n different direftions. E F is a large and ftrong 
 iron fpring, which is bent by a rope that goes over 
 three puUies, I, K, L ; and is drawn by one or feveral 
 men ; this rope may be fattened to a pin- at M. The 
 rope, therefore, being fet at liberty, the fpring muft 
 Itrike the darts with great violence, and fend them, 
 with furprifing velocity, to a great diftance. This in- 
 ftrument differs in fome particulars from the defcription 
 we have of that of the ancients ; principally in the 
 throwing of feveral darts at the fame time, one only 
 being thrown by theirs. 
 
 CATARACT, in hydrpgraphy, a precipice In the 
 channel of a river, caufed by rocks, or other obftacles, 
 flopping the courfe of the ftream, from whence the 
 water falls with a greater noife and Impetuofity. The 
 word comes from x-aTappxa-au, '< I tumble down with 
 violence compounded of ""tk, «' down," and pac-c-c-, 
 dejicio, " I throw down." — Such are the catarafts of 
 the Nile, the Danube, Rhine, &c. In that of Niagara, 
 the perpendicular fall of the water \^ 137 feet: and 
 in that of Piftlll Rhaladr, yin North Wales, the fall 
 of water is near 240 feet from the mountain to the 
 lower pool. 
 
 Strabo calls 'that a cataraS which we call a cafcade; 
 and what we call a cataraBy the ancients ufually called 
 a catadupa. 'Herminius has an exprefs differtation, 
 " De admlrandls mundi Cataraftis fupra et fubter- 
 ranels where he ules the word in a new fenfe ; 
 fignifylng, by catarad, any violent motion of the 
 elements. 
 
 Cataract, in medicine and furgery, a diforder 
 of the humours of the eye, by which the pupllla, 
 that ought to appear tranfparent and black, looks 
 opaque, blue, grey, brown, &c. by which vifion is 
 varioufly impeded, or totally deftroyed. See Sur- 
 gery. 
 
 CATARO, a town of Dalmatia, and capital of the 
 territory of the fame name, with a ftrong caftle, and 
 a biOiop's fee. It is fubjecSl to Venice, and feated on 
 a gulph of the fame name. E.Long. 19. 19. N. Lat. 
 42. 25. 
 
 CATARACTES, m ornithology, the trivial name 
 of a fpecles of Larus. 
 
 CATARRH, in medicine, a diftillation or defluxlon 
 Vox. IV. Parti. 
 
 49 ] ' Gat 
 
 from the head upon the mouth and afpera arteria, and CataflaCs 
 through them upon the lungs. See (the Index fub- Catcchefis. 
 joined to) Medicine. ; 
 
 CATASTASIS, In poetry, the third part of the 
 ancient drama ; being that wherein the intrigue, or 
 aftion, fet forth in the epitafis, is fupported, carried on, 
 and heightened, till it be ripe for the unravelling in 
 the cataftrophe. Scaliger defines it, the full growth of 
 the fable, while things are at a ftand in that confufiou 
 to which the poet has brought them. 
 
 CATASTROPHE, in dramatic ptjctry, the fourth 
 and laft part in the ancient drama ; or that immediate- 
 ly fucceeding the cataftafis : or, according to others, 
 the third only ; the whole drama being divided into 
 protafis, epitafis, and cataftrophe ; or in the terms of 
 Ariftotle, prologue, epilogue, and exode. 
 
 The cataftrophe cleard up every thing, and Is nothing 
 elfe but the difcovery or winding up of the plot. It 
 has its peculiar place : for it ought entirely to be con- 
 tained, not only In the kil aft, but in the very concla- 
 fion of it; and when the plot is finifhed, the play 
 Ihould be fo alfo. The cataftrophe ought to turn upon 
 a fingle point, orftart up on a fudden. 
 
 The great art In the cataftrophe is, that the clear» 
 Ing up of all difficulties may appear wonderful, and yet 
 eafy, fimple, and natural. 
 
 It Is a very prepofterous artifice of fome writers to 
 fhow the cataftrophe in the very title of the play. Mr 
 Dryden thinks that a cataftrophe refulting from a mere 
 change in the fentiments and refolutlons of a perfon, 
 without any other machinery, may be fo managed as to 
 be exceedingly beautiful. 
 
 It Is a difpute among the critics, whether the cata- 
 ftrophe fhould always fall out favourably on the fide of 
 virtue or not. The reafons on the negative fide feem 
 the ftrongeft. Ariftotle prefers a fhocking cataftrophe to 
 a happy one. — The cataftrophe is either fimple or com- 
 plex. The firft is that In which there is no change in 
 the ftate of the principal perfons, nor any difcovery 
 or unraveUIng, the plot being only a mere paffage out 
 of agitation into quiet repofe. In" the fecond, the 
 principal perfons undergo a change of fortune, in the 
 manner already defined. 
 
 CATCH, In the mufical feiife of the word, a fugue 
 in the unifon, wherein, to humour fome conceit In the 
 words, the melody is broken, and the fenfe Interrupted 
 in one part, and caught again or fupported by another ; as 
 in the catch in Shakefpeare's play of theTwelfth-night, 
 where there is a catch fung by three perfons, in which the 
 humour Is, that each who fings, calls and Is called hiwue 
 in turn : Or, as defined by Mr Jackfon, ** a catch is a 
 pIece*for three or more voices, one of which leads, and 
 the others follow in the fame notes. It muft be fo 
 contrived, that refts (which are made for thatpurpofe) 
 in the mufic of one line be filled up with a word or 
 two from another hne j thefe form a crofs purpofe, or 
 catch, from whence the name." 
 
 CATcn-FIy, in botany. See Lychnis. 
 
 CATCH-Pvky (quafi one that catches by the pole), it 
 term ufed, by way of reproach, for the bailiff's follow- 
 er or afliftant. 
 
 CATCii-lVord, among printers, that placed it the bot- 
 tom of each page, being always the firft word of the fol- 
 lowing page. 
 
 CATECHESrS, In a general fenfe, denotes an in- 
 I i " ftruftlon 
 
CAT 
 
 [ 250 ] 
 
 CAT 
 
 Catechctic ftruAioa given any perfon in the firft rudiments of an 
 art or fcience ; but more particularly of the Chriftian 
 religion. In the ancient church, catechefis was an 
 inftrudion given viva voce, either to children, or adult 
 heathens, preparatory to their receiving of baptifm. In 
 this fenfe, catechefis {lands contradiftinguiOied from 
 myjlagogica, which were a higher part of inftruftion 
 given to thofe already initiated, and containing the 
 myfteries of faith. Thofe who give fuch inftruftions 
 are called catech'ijls. ; and thofe who receive them, cate- 
 chumens. 
 
 CATECHETIC, or Catechetical, fomething 
 that relates to oral inftruftion in the rudiments of Chri- 
 ftianity. — Catechetic fchools were bu!ldinj:^s appointed 
 for the office of the catechift, adjoining to the church, 
 and called catechumena : fuch was that in which Origen 
 and many other famous men read catechetical leftures 
 at Alexandria. See Catechumen. 
 
 CATECHISM, in its primary fenfe, an inftrue- 
 tion, or inilitution, in the principles of the Chriftian 
 religion, delivered viva voce, and fo as to rer|uire fre- 
 quent repetitions, from the difciple or hearer, of what 
 has been faid. The word is formed from y-amx-'^^ a 
 c?ornpound of "^ .^ Zin^L ^x®'-> ({. d. circumfono, alluding 
 to the noife or din made in this fort of exercife, or to 
 the zeal and earneltnefs wherewith things are to be in- 
 culcated over and over on the learners. — Anciently the 
 candidates for baptifm were only to be inftrudled in 
 the fecrets of their religion by tradition viva voce, 
 without writing ; as had alfo been the cafe among the 
 Egyptian priefts, and the Britifli and Gaulifh druids, 
 who only communicated the myfteries of their theo- 
 logy by word of mouth. 
 
 Catechism is more frequently ufedin modern times 
 for an elementary book, wherein the principal articles 
 ©f rehgion are fummarily delivered in the way of quef- 
 tion and anfwer, 
 
 tATECHIST, ^ocTix'r»c, catecheta, he that cate- 
 chifes,. i. e^ he that inftrufts novices in the principles 
 of religion.. 
 
 Catechist more particularly denotes a perfon ap- 
 pointed by the church to inftruft thofe intended for 
 feaptiim, by word of mouth, in the fundamental ar- 
 ticles of the Cliriftian faith. — The catechifts of churches 
 were rainifters ufually diftindl from the bilhops and 
 preft)yters, and had their auditories or catechumena 
 apart. Their bufinefs was to inftruft the catechu- 
 mens, and prepare them for the reception of baptifm. 
 But the catechifts did not conilitute any diftinft or- 
 der of the clergy, but were chofen out of any other 
 order. The biihop himfelf fometimes perfornied the 
 office ; at other times preft)yters, or even readers or 
 deacons, were the catechifts. Origen feems to have 
 had no higher degree in the church than reader, when 
 he was made catechift at Alexandria, being only 1 8 
 years of age, and confequently incapablt of the deacon- 
 fhip. 
 
 CATECHU, in the materia medica, the name of a 
 troche confifting of Japan eaith and guai arable, each 
 two ounces, and of fugar of rofes fixteen ounces, 
 beat together with a- little water. It is recommended 
 as a mild rcttringent, &c. 
 
 CATECHUMEN, a candidate for baptifm, or one 
 ■who prepares himfelf for the receiving thereof. 
 
 The catechumens, in church-hiftory, were the low- 
 
 eA order of Chriftians In the primitive. church. They Categorlcali 
 had fome title to the common name of Chriftian, ^si"g Vj^^g ' ^^-^ 
 a degree above pagans and heretics, though not con- j 
 fummated by baptifm.. They were admitted to the 
 ftate of catechumens by the impofition of hands, and. 
 the fign of the crofs.. The children of believing pa- 
 rents were admitted catechumens, as foon as ever 
 they were capable of inftrutlion : but at what age 
 thofe of heathen parents might be admitted, is not fo 
 clear.. As to the time of their continuance in this- 
 ftate, there were no general rules hxed about it ; but 
 the practice varied according to the difference of times 
 and places, and the readinefs and proficiency of the 
 catechumens themfelves. 
 
 There were four orders or degrees of catechumens;, 
 the firft were thofe inftmfted privately without the 
 church, and kept at a diftance for fome time from the 
 privilege of entering the church, to make them the 
 more eager and defirous of it. The next degree were: 
 the aadientes, fo called from their being admitted to 
 hear fermons, and the fcriptures read in the church,, 
 but v^^ere not allowed to partake of the prayers. The 
 third fort of catechumens were the gemi-Jle3entes , fo^ 
 called becaufe they received impofition of hands kneel'- 
 ing. The fourth order was the competentes ekSi, de*~ 
 noting the immediate candidates for baptifm, or fuch. 
 as were appointed to be baptized the next approach- 
 ing feftival ; before which, ftriil examination was 
 made into their proficiency under the feveral ftages of 
 catehetical exercifes. 
 
 After examination, they were exercifed for twen- 
 ty days together, and were obhged to fafting and 
 confeffion : fome days before baptifm they went veil- 
 ed ; and it was cuftomary to touch their ears, fay- 
 ing, Ephatha, i. e. Be opened; as alfo to anoint their 
 eyes with clay; both ceremonies being in imitation of 
 our Saviour's practice, and intended to fhadow out to 
 the catechumens their condition both before and after 
 their admiflion into the Chriftian church. 
 
 CATEGORICAL, in a general fenfe, is applied- 
 to thofe things ranged under a Category. < 
 
 Categorical alfo imports a thing to be abfolute,. 
 and not relative ; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to 
 hypothetical. We fay, a categorical propofition, a ra- 
 ft?^onVa/ fyllogifm, ^c, 
 
 A categorical anfwer denotes, an exprefs and per* 
 tinent anfwer made to any queftion or objeflion pro^^ 
 pofed. 
 
 CATEGORY, in logic, a feries or order of all the: 
 predicates or attributes contained under any genus. 
 
 The fchool-philofophers diftribute all the objefts o£ 
 our thoughts and ideas into ctxX.i\n. genera or claffes,. 
 Hot fo much, fay they, to learn what they do not 
 know, as to communicate a diftinft notion of what 
 they do [^know ; and thefe claffes the Greeks called- 
 categories', and the Latins predicaments.^ 
 
 Ariftotle made ten categories, viz. quantity, qua* 
 lity, relation, aftion, paffion, time, place, fituation, 
 and habit, which are ufually expreffed by the foUoWfi 
 ing technical diftich : 
 
 Arbor, f ex, firvos, ardore, refrigerat, ttjlosf 
 
 Rure eras Jlabo, nec tunicatus ero, 
 
 CATEK. See Bengal, no 15. 
 
 CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name 
 of a curve -line formed by a rope hanging freely from 
 6 twa 
 
CAT 
 
 Caterpillar two points of fufpenfion, whether the points be hori 
 "'"v^ zontal or not. See Fluxions. 
 
 CATERPILLAR, in zoology, the name of all 
 winged infefts when in their reptile or worm-ftate. 
 See Eruca. 
 
 Method of Dejlroying Caterpillars on Trees. — 
 Take a chafing difh with lighted charcoal, and pla- 
 ^ cing it under the branches that are loaded with ca- 
 terpillars, throw fome pinches of brimftone upon the 
 coals. The vapour of the fulphur, which is mortal 
 to thefe infefts, will not only deilroy all that are on 
 the tree, but prevent it from being infefted with 
 them afterwards. A pound of fulphur will clear as 
 many trees as grow on feveral acres. This method 
 has been fuccefsfully tried in France. In the Journal 
 Oecononiique, the following is faid to be infallible a- 
 gainft the caterpillars feeding on cabbage, and per- 
 haps may be equally ferviceable againft thofe that in- 
 feil other vegetables. Sow with hemp all the bor- 
 ders of the ground where you mean to plant your 
 cabbage ; and, although the neighbourhood is infefted 
 with caterpillars, the fpace inclofed by the hemp will 
 be perfedtly free, not one of the vermin will approach 
 it. 
 
 CATERPjiLAR-Eafersy a name given by fome au- 
 thors to a fpecies of worms bred in the body of the 
 caterpillar, and which eat its flefh : thefe are owing 
 to a certain kind of fly that lodges her eggs in the 
 body of this animal, and they, after their proper 
 changes, become flies like their parents. 
 
 Mr Reaumur has given us, in his hiftory of infedls, 
 fome very curious particulars in regard to thefe little 
 worms. Every one of them, he obferves, fpins itfelf 
 a very beautiful cafe of a cylindric figure, made of a 
 very ftrong fort of filk ; thefe are the cafes in which 
 this animal fpends its ilate of chryfalis ; and they have 
 a mark by which they may be known from all other 
 animal productions of this kind, which is, that they 
 have always a broad ftripe or band furrounding their 
 middle, which is black when the rcil of the cafe is 
 white, and white when that is black. Mr Reaumur 
 has had the pains and patience to find out the reafon 
 of this Angularity, which is this : the Avhole fliell is 
 fpun of a filk produced out of the creature's body ; 
 this at firft runs all white, and towards the end of 
 the fpinning turns black. The outfide of the cafe 
 muft neceliarily be formed firft, as the creature works 
 from within : confequently this is truly white all over, 
 but it is transparent, and fliows the laft fpun or black 
 filk througli it. It might be fuppofed that the whole 
 infide of the ftiell fliouid be black ; but this is not the 
 cafe : the whole is fafliioned before this black filk 
 comes ; and this is employed by the creature, not to 
 line the whole, but to fortify certain parts only ; and 
 therefore is all applied either to the middle, or to the 
 two ends omitting the middle ; and fo gives either a 
 black band in the middle, or a blacknefs at both ends, 
 leaving the white in tlie middle to appear. It is not 
 unfrequent to find a fort of fmall cafes, lying about 
 garden-walks, which move of themfelves; when thefe 
 are opened, they are found to contain a fmall living 
 worm. This is one of the fpecies of thefe caterpillar- 
 eaters ; which, as foon as it comes out of the body of 
 that animal, fpins itfelf a cafe for its transformation 
 long before that happens, and lives in it without food 
 
 CAT 
 
 till that change comes on ; and it becomes a fly like 
 that to which it owed its birth. 
 
 CATERVA, in ancient military writers, a term 
 ufed in fpeaking of the Gaulifh or Celtiberian armies, 
 denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word ca~ 
 terva, or catervarius, is alfo frequently ufed by ancient 
 writers to denote a party or corps of foldiers in difor- 
 der or difarray : by which it ftands diftinguilhed from 
 cohort or turma, which were in good order. 
 
 CATESBiEA, the lily-thorn : A genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 28th order, Lurida. The corolla is monopetalous, fun- 
 nel-fliaped, very long above the receptacle of the fruit i 
 the ftamina are within its throat ; the fruit a polyfper- 
 mous berry. There is only one fpecies, viz. the fpinofa, 
 which was difcovered in the ifland of Providence by- 
 Mr Catefby, who gathered the feeds, and brought 
 them to England. It rifes to the height of ten or 
 twelve feet, and is covered with a pale ruflfet bark ; 
 the branches come out alternately, and are garniftied 
 with fmall leaves refembling thofe of the box-tree, 
 coming out in clufters all round the branches at cer- 
 tain diftances ; the flowers hang downward, and come 
 out from the fide of the branches : they are tubulous 
 and near fix inches long, very narrow at their bafe, 
 but widening upwards towards the top, w^here it is 
 divided into four parts which fpread open, and are re- 
 flexed backward. They are of a dull yellow colour. 
 This plant is propagated by feeds which muft be pro- 
 cured from the country where it grows. The feeds 
 muft be fown on a hot-bed, and are to be treated ia 
 the fame manner as other tender exotics. 
 
 CATHjERETICS, in pharmacy, medicines of a 
 cauilic nature, ferving to eat off proud flefti. 
 
 CATHARINE, Knights of St Catharine of Mount 
 Sinai, an ancient iniHtary order, erefted for the alTift- 
 ance and proteftion of pilgrim.s going to pay their 
 devotions to the body of St Catharine, a virgin of A- 
 lexandria, diftinguiflied for her learning, and faid to 
 have fuffered martyrdom under Maximin. The body 
 of the martyr having been difcovered on mount Sinai, 
 caufed a great concourfe of pilgrims ; and travelling 
 being very dangerous, by reafon of the Arabs, an or- 
 der of knighthood was ei-efted in 1063, on the mo- 
 del of that of the holy fepulchre, and under the pa- 
 tronage of St Catharine : the knights of which ob- 
 liged themfelves by oath to guard the body of the 
 faint, keep the roads fecure, obferve the rule of St 
 Bafil, and obey their grand mafter. Their habit was 
 white, and on it were reprefented the inftruments of 
 martyrdom whereby the faint had fuffered ; viz. a half- 
 wheel anned with fpikes, and traverfed with a fword 
 ftained with blood. 
 
 Catharine, Fraternity of St Catharine at Sienna, .a, 
 fort of religious fociety inftituted in that city, in 
 honour of St Catharine, a faint famous for her re- 
 velations, and for her marriage with Jefus Chrift, 
 whofe wedding ring is ftill preferred as a valuable re- 
 lick. This fraternity yearly endows a certain num- 
 ber of deftitute virgins, and has tlie privilege of re- 
 deeming annually two criminals condemned for mur- 
 der, and the fame number of debtors, by paying their 
 debts. 
 
 CATHARTICS, in medicine, remedies which pro- 
 I i 2 mote 
 
 Caterta 
 II 
 
 Catharticy, 
 
CAT 
 
 Cathecu 
 
 1 
 
 Cathetine. 
 
 [ ] 
 
 CAT 
 
 mote evacuation by ftool. See Materia Medica. 
 
 CATHECU, in botany. SeeARECA. 
 
 CATHEDRA, in a general fenfe, a chair. — The 
 word is more particularly ufed for a profeflor's chair, 
 and a preacher's pulpit. 
 
 Cathedra is alfo ufed for the bifhop's fee, or 
 throne, in a church. 
 
 CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a bifhop's 
 fee or feat : See Church, and Bishop. The word 
 comes from the Greek x«6£j"^a, '"chair," of y-oc&ilofixi^ 
 fedeOf " I fit." The denomination cathedral feems to 
 have taken its rife from the manner of fitting in the 
 ancient churches, or affemblies of primitive Chriftians : 
 in thefe, the council, i. e. the elders and priefts, was 
 called Prejhyter'wm ; at their head was the bifhop, who 
 held the place of chairman, Cathedralis, or Caihedra- 
 tlcus ; and the prefbyters, who fat on either fide, were 
 alfo called by the ancient fathers, AJfeJfores Ep'ifcoporum. 
 The epifcopal authority did not refide in the bilhop 
 alone ; but in all the prefbyters, whereof the bifliop 
 was prefident. A cathedral .therefore, originally, was 
 different from what it is now ; the Chriftians, till the 
 time of Conftantine, having no liberty to build any 
 temple : by their churches they only meant their affem- 
 blies; and by ea'hedrals, nothing more than confiilories. 
 
 CATHERINE Parr. See Parr. 
 
 Catherine I. Emprefs of Rujfia, a moll extraor- 
 dinary perfonage, whofe hiftory deferves to be given 
 in detail. She was the natural daughter of a country 
 girl ; and was born at Ringen, a fmall village upon the 
 lake VirtcherA'C, near Dorpt, in Livonia. The year 
 of her birth is uncertain; but, according to her own 
 account, fiie came into the world on the 5th of April, 
 1687. Her original name was Martha, which fhe 
 changed for Catherine when flie embraced the Greek 
 religion. Count Rofen, a lieutenant-colonel in the 
 Swedifh fervice, who owned the village of Ringen, 
 fupported, according to the cufl;om of the country, 
 both the mother and the child ; and was, for that rea- 
 fon, fuppofed by many perfons to have been her fa- 
 ther. She loft: her mother when fhe was but three 
 years old ; and, as count Rofen died about the fame 
 time, fhe was left in fo deftitute a fituation, that the 
 parifh-clerk of the village received her into his houfe. 
 Soon afterwards Gluck, Lutheran minifter of Marien- 
 burgh, happening, in a journey through thofe parts, 
 to fee the foundling, took her under his protection, 
 brought her up in his family, and employed her in at- 
 tending his children. In 1 701, and about the 14th 
 year of her age, fhe efpoufed a dragoon of the Swedifli 
 garrifon of Marienburgh. Many different accounts 
 are given of this tranfaftion : one author of great cre- 
 dit affirms that the bride and bridegroom remained to- 
 gether eight days after their marriage ; another, of 
 no lefs authority, aflerts, on the contrary, that on the 
 morning of the nuptials her hufband being fent with a 
 detachment for Riga, the marriage was never con- 
 fummated. Thus much is certain, that the dragoon 
 was abfeat when Marienburgh furrendered to the Ruf- 
 fians } and Catherine, who was referved for a higher 
 fortune, never faw him more. 
 
 General Bauer, upon the taking of Marienburgh, 
 faw Catherine among the prifoners ; and, being fmit- 
 tcn with her youth and beauty, took her to his houfe, 
 
 where fhe fuperin tended his domeilic affairs, and was Catherine^ 
 fuppofed to be his miilrefs. Soon afterwards fhe was — v— ^ 
 removed into the family of prince Menzikof, who was 
 no lefs ftruck with the attractions of the fair captive. 
 With hira fhe hvcd until 1704; when, in the 17th 
 year of her age, flie became the miftrefs of Peter the 
 Great, and won fo much upon his affections, that he 
 efpoufed her on the 29th of May 1711. The cere- 
 mony v/as fecretly performed at Jawerof in Poland,, 
 in the prefence of General Bruce ; and on the 20th of 
 February 1712, it was pubUcly folcmnized with 
 great pomp at Peterfburgh. 
 
 Catherine, by the moil unwearied afiiduity and un- 
 remitted attention, by the foftnefs and complacency 
 of her difpofition, but above all by an extraordinary 
 llvellnefs and gaiety of temper, acquired a vvonderful 
 afcendency over the mind of Peter. The latter was 
 fubjeft to occafional horrors, which at times rendered 
 him. gloomy and fufpicious, and raifed his pafiions to 
 fuch an height as to produce a temporary madnefs. 
 In thefe dreadful moments Catherine was the only per- 
 fon who durft venture to approach him ; and fuch was 
 the kind of fafcination fne had acquired over his fenfes, 
 that her prefence had an inftantaneous effeft, and tlie 
 firft found of her voice compofed his mind and calmed 
 his agonies. From thefe circumftances fhe feemed nc- 
 ceffary, not only to his comfort, but even to his very . 
 exiftence ; fhe became his infeparable companion on 
 his journeys into foreign countries, and even in all his 
 military expeditions. 
 
 The peace of Pruth, by which the Ruflian army 
 was refcued from certain deftruclion, has been wholly 
 attributed to Catherine, though fhe was little more 
 tlian an inllrument in procuring the confent of Peter. 
 The latter, in his campaign of 1 7 1 1 againll the Turks, . 
 having imprudently led his troops into a difadvantage- 
 ous fituation, took the defperate refolution of cutting, 
 his way through the Turkifh army in the night. With 
 this refolution he retired to his tent in an agony of 
 defpair, and gave pofitive orders that no one ilioukl be 
 admitted under pain of death. In this important 
 juncture the principal officers and the vice-chancellor 
 Shaffirof afTembkd in the prefence of Catherine, and 
 drew up certain preliminaries in order to obtain a truce 
 from the grand vizir. In confequence of this de- 
 termination, plenipotentiaries were immediately dif- 
 patched, without the knowledge of Peter, to the grand 
 vizir, and a peace obtained upon more reafonable 
 conditions than could have been expefted. With thefe 
 conditions Catherine, notwithflanding the orders if- 
 fued by Peter, entered his tent, and prevailed upon 
 him to fign them. Catherine, by her conduct on this 
 occafion, acquired great popularity ; and the emperor 
 particularly fpeclfies her behaviour -at Pruth as one of 
 the reafons which induced him to crown her publicly 
 at Mofcow with his own band. This ceremony was 
 performed in 1724; and although defigned by Peter 
 only as a proof of his aflTeftion,. was the principal caufe 
 of her fubfequent elevation. 
 
 Her influence continued undiminifhed until a fhort 
 time before the death of the emperor, when foine circura- 
 flances happened which occafioned fuch a coolnefs be- 
 tween them as would probably have ended in a total rup- 
 ture, if his death had not fortunately Intervened. The 
 
 original 
 
CAT [ 253 . ] CAT 
 
 athevine. original caufe of this mifunderftanding arofe from the which you fhall approve in my name." Baffevitz, find- Catherine. 
 
 —y——- following difcovery of a fecret conneftion between Ca- ing Menzlkof afleep, awakened and informed him of """"v ' 
 
 therine and her f.-rll chamberlain, whofe name was the preffing danger which threatened the emprefs and 
 
 Mons. The emperor, v/ho was fufpicious of this con- her party. As no time remained for long deliberation, 
 
 reftion, quitted Peterfburgh under pretence of remo- the prince inftantly feized the treafure, fecured the 
 
 ving to a villa for a few days, but privately returned fortrefs, gained the officers of the guards by bribes- 
 
 to- his winter palace in the capital. From thence he and promifes, alfo a few of the nobility, and the prin- 
 
 occafionally fent one of his confidential pages with a cipal clergy. Thefe partizans being convened in the 
 
 complimentary meffage to the emprefs, as if he had palace, Catherine miade her appearance : fhe claimed 
 
 been in the country, and with fecret orders to obferve the throne in right of her coronation at Mofcow ; fhe 
 
 her raotions. From the page's information the em- expoied the ill effc&s of a m.inority ; and promifed, 
 
 peror, on the third night, furprized Catherine in an that, " fo far from depriving the great-duke of the 
 
 arbour of the gardsn with her favourite Mons ; while crown, fiie would receive it only as a iacred depofit, 
 
 his filler, Madame Balke, who was firft lady of the to be reftored to him when flie Ihould be united, in a- 
 
 bed-chamber to tlie emprefs, was, in company with a nother world, to an adored hufband, whom (he was 
 
 page, upon the watch without the arbour. now upon the point of lofing." 
 
 Peter, whofe violent temper was inflamed by this The pathetic manner with which fhe uttered this 
 
 difcovety, ftruck Catherine with his cane, as well as addreis, and the tears which accompanied it, added to 
 
 the page, who endeavoured to prevent him from en- the previous diftribution of large fums of money and 
 
 tering the arbour, and then retired without uttering jewels, produced the defired effcft : at the clofe of this 
 
 a fingle word either to Mons or his filler. A few days meeting the remainder of the night was employed in 
 
 after this tranfadlion thefe perfons were taken iiito making the necelTaiy preparations to infure her accef- 
 
 . cullody, and Mons was carried to the winter palace, fion in cafe of the emperor's death, 
 where no one had admiffion to him but Peter, who Peter at length expired in the morning of the 28th 
 
 himfelf brought him his provifions. A report was at of January 1725. This event being made known^ . 
 
 the fame time circulated, that they were imprifoned the fenate, the generals, the principal nobility and 
 
 for having received bribes, and making their influence clergy, haftened to the palace to proclaim the new fo- 
 
 over the emprefs fubfervient to their own mercenary vereign. The adherents of the great-duke feemed fe- 
 
 views. Mons being examined by Peter, in the pre- cure of fuccefs, and the friends of Catherine were 
 
 fence of major-general Ufchakof, and threatened with avoided as perfons doomed to dellruftion. At this 
 
 the torture, confeffed the corruption which was laid juncture BalTevitz wliifpered one of the oppofite 
 
 to his charge. He was beheaded ; his filler received party, *' The emprefs is miftrefs of the treafure 
 
 five llrokes of the knout, and was baniflied into Sibe- and the fortrefs ; fhe has gained • over the guards and 
 
 ria ; two of her foiis, who were chamberlains, were the fynod, and many of the chief nobility ; even here 
 
 alfo degraded, and fent as common foldiers among the fhe has more followers than you imagine ; advife there- 
 
 Ruihan troops in Perfia. On the day fubfequent to fore your friends to make no opposition as they value 
 
 tlie execution of the fentence, Peter conveyed Cathe- their heads." This information being rapidly circu- 
 
 rine in an open carriage under the gallows, to which lated, BafTevitz gave the appointed fignal, and the two 
 
 was nailed the head of Mons. The emprefs, without regiments of guards, who had been gained by a largefs 
 
 changing colour at this di-eadful fight, exclaimed, to declare for Catherine, and had already furroundcd 
 
 " What a pity it is. that there is fo much corruption the palace, beat to arms. " Who has d^ued (ex- 
 
 among courtiers!" claimed prince Repnin, the commander in chief) to 
 
 This event happened in the latter end of the year order out the troops without my knov/ledge ?" " 1, ., 
 
 1724; and as it was foon followed by Peter's death, (returned general Butterlin), without pretending to 
 
 and Catherine, upon . her acceffion recalled Madame difpute your authority, in obedience to the commands 
 
 Balke, it has been fufpe£lcd that fhe fhortened the of my moil gracious miftrefs." This fhort repl)- was 
 
 days of her hufband by poifon. But notwithftanding followed by a dead filence. In this moment of fuf- 
 
 the critical iituation for Catherine ia which he died^ pence and anxiety Menzikof entered, .preceding Ca- 
 
 cmd her fubfequent elevation, this charge is totally de- therine, fupported by the duke of Holftein. She at- 
 
 flitute of the leall fhadow of proof : for the circum- tempted to fpeak,butwas prevented by fighs and tearv^s ■ 
 
 ilances of Peter's diforder were too well known, and from giving utterance to her words : at length, reco- • 
 
 the peculiar fymptoms of his laft illnefs fulficiently ac- vering herfelf, " I come (flie faid)^ notwithftanding 
 
 count for his death, without the neceflity of recurring the grief which now overwhelms me, to aflfure you, thatj , 
 
 to poifon. fubmiffive to the will of my departed hufband, whofe 
 
 While Peter was yet lying in the agonies of death, memory will be ever dear to me, I atn ready to devote 
 
 feveral oppofite parties were caballing to difpofe of the my days to the paiiiful occupations of government un-- 
 
 crown. At a confiderable m.eeting of many among til Providence fliallfummon me to follow him." Then,, 
 
 the principal nobility, it was fecretly determined, on after a fhort paufe, fhe artfully added, " If the great- 
 
 the moment of his diflblution, to arreft Catherine, and duke will profit by my inftruftions, perhaps I ftialL 
 
 to place Peter Alexievitch upon the throne. BafTevitz, have the confolation, during my wretched Widowhood, 
 
 apprized of this refolution, repaired in perfon to the of forming for you an emperor worthy of the blood 
 
 emprefs, although it was already night. " My grief and and the name of him whom you have now irretrievably 
 
 confternation," replied Catherine, " render me inca- loft." " As this crifis (rephed Menzikof) is a mo-- 
 
 pable of afting myfelf: do you and prince Menzikof ment of fuch importance to the good of the empires , 
 
 confult together, and I will embrace the meafures and requires the moft mature deliberation, your ma- 
 
 4 je%/ 
 
CAT I 2 
 
 Gafherine. jtfty will permit us to confer, without reftraint, that 
 this whole alFair may be tranfafted without reproach, 
 as well in the opinion of the prefent age as' in that of 
 •pofterity." " AAing as I do (anfwered Catherine!, 
 more for the public good than for my own advantage, 
 1 am not afraid to fubmit all my concerns to the judg- 
 ment of fuch an enlightened aflembly : you have not 
 only my permiflion to confer with freedom ; but I lay 
 my commands upon you all to deliberate maturely on 
 this important fubjeft, and I promife to adopt what- 
 ever may be the refult of your decifions." At the 
 concluilon of thefe words the aflembly retired into 
 another apartment, and the doors were locked. 
 
 It was previoully fettled by Menzikof and his party 
 -that Catherine fhould be emprefs ; and the guards, 
 ■who furrounded the palace with drums beating and 
 jcoloyrs flyin^^, effeftually vanquilhed all oppofition. 
 The only circumflance, therefore, which remained, 
 ■was to give a jufl colour to her title, by perfuading the 
 alfembly that Peter intended to have named her his 
 fucceflbr. For this purpofe Menzikof* demanded of 
 that emperor's fecretary, whether his late m_aller had 
 left any v^'ritten declaration of his intentions? The fe- 
 cretary replied, " That a httle before his laft journey 
 to Mofcow he had deftroyed a will ; and that he had 
 frequently exprelTed his defign of making another, 
 but had always been prevented by the refledion, that 
 if he thought his people, whom he had raifed from a 
 ftate of barbarifm to an high degree of power and 
 glory, could be ungrateful, he would not expofe his 
 .final inclinations to t^aa infult of a refufal ; and that 
 'if they recolle£ted what they owed to his labours, they 
 would regulate their condu£l by his intentions, which 
 he had difclofed with more folemnity than could be 
 manifefted by any writing." An altercation now be- 
 gan in the aflembly; and fome of the nobles having 
 the courage to oppofe the acceffion of Catherine, 
 Theophanes archbifhop of Plefcof called to their re- 
 colleftion the oath which they had all taken in 1722 
 to acknowledge tlie fucceflbr appointed by Peter ; and 
 added, that the ientiments of that emperor delivered 
 by the fecretary were in eSeSt an appointment of Ca- 
 therine. The oppofite party, however, denied thefe 
 fentiments to be fo clear as the fecretary chofe to in- 
 finuate ; and inliittd, that as their late monarch had 
 failed to nominate his heir, the eleftion of the new 
 fovereign Ihould revert to the Hate. Upon this the 
 archbifliop farther teftified, that the evening before 
 the coronation of the emprefs at Mofcow, Peter had 
 declared, in the houfe of an Englilh merchant, that 
 • he Ihould place the crown upon her head with no other 
 -view than to leave her miflirefs of the empire after his 
 deceafe. This atteftation being confirmed by many 
 perfons prefent, Menzikof cried out, " What need 
 have we any teitament ! A refufal to conform to 
 1 the inclination of our great fovereign, thus authenti- 
 cated, would be both unjuit and criminal. Long live 
 the emprefs Catherine!" Thefe words being inft;an- 
 taneoufly repeated by the greatell part of thofe who 
 were prefent, Menzikof, fjiluting Catherine by the 
 title of emprefs, paid his firil obeifarice by kifiing her 
 hand ; and his example was followed by the whole af- 
 fembly. She next preftnted herfelf.at the window to 
 the guards, and to the people, who fhouted acclama- 
 tions of " Long live Catherine !" while -Menzikof" 
 
 ;4 ] C A T 
 
 fcattered ampngft them handfuls of money. Thus Catherine, 
 (fays a contemporary) the emprefs was raifed to the 
 throne by the guards, in the fame manner as the Ro- 
 man emperors by the praetorian cohorts, without ei- 
 ther the appointment of the people or of the legions. 
 
 The reign of Catherine' may be confidered as the 
 reign of Menzikof, that emprefs having neither incli- 
 nation or abihties to direft the helm of government ; 
 and flie placed the moft; implicit confidence in a man 
 who had been the original author of her good for- 
 tune, and the fole inih ument of her elevation to the 
 throne. 
 
 During her fliort reign her life was very irregular ; 
 fhe was extremely averfe to bufinefs ; would frequently^ 
 when the weather was fine, 'pafs whole nights in the 
 open air ; and was particularly intemperate in the ufe 
 of tokay-wine. Thefe irregularities, joined to a cancer 
 and a dropfy, haftened her end ; and (he expired oh 
 the 17th of May 1727, a little more than two years 
 after her acceflion to the throne, and in about the 
 40th year of her age. 
 
 As the deaths of fovereigns in defpotic countries are 
 feldom imputed to natural caufes, that of Catherine 
 has alfo been attributed to poifon ; as if the diforders 
 which preyed upon her frame were not fufficient to 
 bring her to her grave. Some aflert, that {he was 
 poifoned in a glafs of fpirituous liquor ; others, by a 
 pear given her by general Diever. Sufpicions alfo 
 fell upon prince Menzikof, who, a fhort time before 
 her deceafe, had a trifling mifunderftanding with her, 
 and who was accufed of haftening her deatli, that he 
 might reign with fl:ill more abfolute power during the 
 minority of Peter IL But thefe reports deferve not 
 the lealt credit, and were merely diftated by the fpi- 
 rit of party or by popular rumour. 
 
 Catherine was in her pcrfon under the middle-fize, 
 and in her youth dehcate and well-foi-med, but incH- 
 ned to corpulency as flie advanced in years. She had 
 a fair complexion, dark eyes, and light hair, which 
 flie was always accuilomed to dye with a black coloui-. 
 She could neither read nor write : her daughter Eli- 
 zabeth ufually figned her name for her, and particu- 
 larly to her Lift will and tefl:ament ; and count Oiler- 
 man generally put her fignature to the public decrees 
 and difpatches. Her abilities have been greatly ex- 
 aggerated by her panegyntts. Gordon, who had fre- 
 quently feen her, feems, of all writers, to have repre- 
 fented her charafter with the greatell juftnefs, whea 
 he fays, " She was a very pretty well-look'd woman, 
 of good fenfe, but not of that fublimity of wit, or 
 rather that quicknefs of imagination, which fome peo- 
 ple have believed. The great reafon. why ihe czar was 
 fo tond of her, was her exceeding good temper ; (he 
 never was feen peevifli or out of humour ; obliging 
 and civil to all, and never forgetful of her former con- 
 dition ; withal, m.ighty grateful." Catherine main- 
 tained the pomp of majeity with an air of eafe and 
 grandeur united ; and Peter ufed frequently to exprefs 
 his admiration at the propriety with which flie fup- 
 ported her high ilation, without forgetting that (he 
 was not born to that dignity. 
 
 The following anecdotes will prove that flie bore 
 her elevatiou meekly ; and, as Gordon aflerts, was 
 never forgetful of her former condition. When 
 Wurjub., who had been tutor to Gluck's children at 
 
 the 
 
CAT [2 
 
 tht time tKat Catherine was a domeftic In that cler- 
 gyman's family, prefented himfelf before her after her 
 marriage with Peter had been publicly folemnized, 
 (he recoUefted and addreffed him with great compla- 
 cency, " What, thou good n>an, art thou Hill alive ! 
 I will provide for thee." And fhe accordingly fettled 
 upon him a penfion. She was no lefs attentive to the 
 family of her benefaftor Gluck, who died a prifoner 
 at Mofcow : fhe penfioned his widow ; made his fon 
 a page ; portioned the two eldeit daughters ; and ad- 
 vanced the youngeft to be one of her maids of honour. 
 If we may believe Weber, fht frequently enquired af- 
 ter her firft hufband ; and, when flie lived with prince 
 Menzikof, ufed fecretly to fend him fmall fums of mo- 
 ney, until, in i 705, he was killed in a ll<irmifh with 
 the enemy. 
 
 But the moft noble part of her charafter was her 
 peculiar humanity and compaflion for the unfortunate. 
 Motraye has paid an handfome tribute to this excel- 
 lence. She had, in fome fort, the government of 
 all his (Peter's) paflions ; and even faved the lives of 
 a great many more perfons than Le Fort was able to 
 do : {he infpired him with that humanity, which, in 
 the opinion of his fubjedls, nature feemed to have de- 
 nied him. A word from her mouth in favour of a 
 wretch, juft going to be facrificed to his anger, would 
 difarm him ; but if he was fully refolved to fatisfy that 
 paffion, he would give orders for the execution when 
 file was abient, for fear flie fhould plead for the viftim." 
 In a word, to ufe the exprefiion of the celebrated Mu- 
 nich, *' £/Ie etoit propremenf la mediatrice entre le mo- 
 narque et fes fujets." 
 
 Catherine (Ordey of St), in modern hiftory, belongs 
 to ladies of the firft quality in the Ruffian court. It 
 was inftituted in 1714 by Catherine wife of Peter the 
 Great, in memory of his fignal efcape from the Turks 
 in 1711. The emblems of this order are a red crofs, 
 fupported by a figure of St Catherine, and faftened to 
 a fcarlet ftring edged with filver, on which are infcri- 
 bed the name of St Catherine, and the motto, Pro jide 
 et patria. ' 
 
 CATHERLOUGH, atown of Ireland, in the coun- 
 ty of Catheilough, and province of L»einfter ; feated 
 on the river Barrow, 16 miles N. E. of Kilkenny. 
 W.Long. 7. I. N. Lat. 52. 45. 
 
 Catherlough, a county of Ireland, about 28 miles 
 in length, and eight in breadth ; bounded on the eaft 
 by Wicklow and Wexford, on the weil by Qaeen's- 
 county, on the north by Klldare, and on the fouth and 
 fouth-weft by Wexford. It contains 5600 houfes, 42 
 parifhes, five baronies or boroughs, and fends fix mem- 
 bers to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for 
 Catherlough, and two for Old Leighlen. 
 
 CATHETER, in furgery, a fiftulous inftrument, 
 ufually made of filver, to be introduced into the blad- 
 der, in order to fearch for the ftone, or difcharge the 
 urine when fupprelTcd. See Surgery. 
 
 CATHETUS, in geometry, a line or radius falling 
 perpendicularly on another line or furface ; thus the 
 catheti of a right-angled triangle, are tha two fidss 
 that include the right angle. 
 
 Cathetvs of Incidence, in catoptrics, a right line 
 drawn from a point of the object, perpendicular MS 
 the reflefting line. 
 
 CdTBETus of Refexion, or of the Eye, a right line 
 
 55 1 CAT 
 
 drawn from the eye perpendicular to the reflefting Cathetus 
 plane. C^^to 
 
 Cathetus of Obliquation, a right line drawn perpen- „ 
 dicular to the fpeculum, in the point of incidence or , 
 reflexion. 
 
 Cathetus, in archltefture, -a perpendicular line» 
 fuppofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical- 
 body, as a ballufler, column, i^c. 
 
 CATHNESS. See Caithness. 
 
 CATHOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing- 
 that is univerfal or general. 
 
 Catholic Church. The rife of herefies induced the. 
 primitive Chriftian church to affume to itfelf the appel- 
 lation of catholic, being a charafterittic to diftinguiHi it- 
 felf from all fedts, who, though they had party names^ 
 fometimes (heltered themfelves under the name of 
 Chrifiians. 
 
 The Romilh church diftinguifhes itfelf now by the 
 name of catholic, in oppofition to all thofe who have 
 feparated from her communion, and whom fhe confi= 
 ders as heretics and fchifmatlcs, and herfelf only as the 
 true and Chriflian church. In the ftrid fenfe of the 
 word, there is no catholic church in being, that is, no 
 univerfal Chriflian communion. 
 
 Catholic King, is a title which has been long here- 
 ditary to the king of Spain. Mariana pretends, that 
 Reccarede firft received this title after he had deftroy- 
 ed Arianifm in his kingdom, and that it is found in 
 the council of Toledo for the year 589. Vafce afcribes 
 the origin of it to Alphonfus in 738. Some allege 
 that it has been ufed only fince the time of Ferdinand 
 and Ifabella. Colombiere fays, it was given them on 
 occafion of the expulfion of the Moors. The Bollan- 
 difts pretend it had been borne by their predecefFors 
 the Vifigoth kings of Spain ; and that Alexander VI. 
 only renewed it to Ferdinand and Ifabella. Others 
 fay, that Philip de Valois firft bore the title ; which 
 was given him after hi» death by the ecclefiaftics, on 
 account of his favouring their interefts. 
 
 In fome epiftles of the ancient popes,. the title catho'- 
 lie is given to the kings of France and of Jerufalem,, 
 as well as co feveral patriarchs and primates. 
 
 CATHOLICON, in pharmacy, a kind of foft pur- 
 gative eledluary, fo called, as being fuppofed an uni- 
 verfal purger of all humours. 
 
 CATILINE (Lucius), a Roman of a noble family, 
 who having Ipent his whole fortune in debauchery, 
 formed the defign of opprefling his country, deftroy- 
 ing the fenate, feizing the pubhc treafury, letting 
 Rome on fire, and ulurplng a fovereign power over his- 
 fellow-citizens. In order to fucceed in this defign, he 
 drew fome young noblemen into his plot ;. whom he.;, 
 prevailed upon, it is faid, to drink human blood as a 
 pledge of their union. His confpiracy, howt ver, was ■ 
 difcovered by the vigilance of Cicero, who was then 
 conful. Upon which, retiring from Rome, he put 
 himfelf at the head of an army, with feveral of the 
 confpirators, and fought with incredible valour againft 
 Petreius, lieutenant to Anthony, who was colleague 
 with Cicero in the confulfhip ; but was defeated and 
 killed in battle.^ See (.Hflory of) RoME.^Salluft has - 
 given an excellent hiftory of this conipiracy. 
 
 CATO (Maicus Portias), the Cenlor, one of the 
 greateft men among the ancients, was born at Tufcu^ 
 ium in the year of Rome 519, about the 23 2d before 
 
 Chrift. 
 
CAT [ 2j 
 
 Chrlft. He began to b:;ar arms at 1 7 ; and, on all oc- 
 cafions, fliowed extraordinaty courage. He was a man 
 of great fobriety, and reckoned no bodily exercife un- 
 worthy of him. He had but one horfe for himfelf and 
 his baggage, and he looked after and dreffed it him- 
 felf. At his return from his canipaigns, he betook 
 himfelf to plough his ground ; not that he was with- 
 out flaves to do it, but it was his. inclination. He 
 drelTed alfo like his flaves, fat down at the fame table 
 with them, and partook of the fame fare. He did 
 not in the mean while negleA to cultivate his mind, 
 efpecially in regard to the art of fpeaking ; and he em- 
 ployed his talents, which were very great, in gene- 
 roufly pleading caufes in the neighbouring cities with- 
 out fee or reward. Valerius Flaccus, who had a coun- 
 try-feat near Cato, conceiving an efteem for him, per- 
 .fuaded him to come to Rome ; where Cato, by his own 
 merit, and the influence of fo powerful a patron, was 
 foon taken notice of, and promoted. Hy was firft of 
 all elefted tribune of the foldiers for the province of 
 Sicily. He was next made queftor in Africa under 
 Scipio. Having in this laft office reproved him for his 
 profufenefs to his foldiers, the general anfwered, that 
 " he did not want fo exaft a queftor, but would make 
 war at what expence he pleafed ; nor was he to give 
 an account to the Roman people of the money he 
 fpent, but of his enterprifes, and the execution of 
 them." Cato, provoked at this anfwer, left Sicily, and 
 returned to Rome. 
 
 Afterwards Cato was made praetor, when he fulfilled 
 the duties of his office with the ftridleft juftice. He 
 conquered Sardinia, governed with admirable modera- 
 tion, and was created conful. Being tribune in the 
 war of Syria, he gave dlftinguiflicd proofs of his va- 
 lour againft Antlochus the Great ; and at his return 
 ftood candidate for the office of cenfor. But the no- 
 bles, who not only envied him as a neiv man, but 
 dreaded his feverity, fet up againft him feven power- 
 ful competitors. Valerius Flaccus, who had Introdu- 
 ced him Into public life, and had been his colleague in 
 the confulftiip, was a ninth candidate, and thefe two 
 imited their interefts. On this occafion Cato, far from 
 employing foft words to the people, or giving hopes of 
 gentlenefs or complaifance in the execution of his of- 
 fice, loudly declared from the roftra, with a threaten- 
 ing look and voice, '* That the times required firm 
 and vigorous magiftrates to put a ftop to that growing 
 luxury which menaced the republic with ruin ; cenfors 
 who would cut up the evil by the roots, and reftore 
 the rigour of ancient difcipline." It is to the honour 
 of the people of Rome, that, notwithftanding thefe ter- 
 rible intlmtitions, they preferred him to all his com- 
 petitors, w^ho courted them by promifes of a mild 
 and eafy adminiftration : the comitia alfo appointed 
 his friend Valerius to be his colleague, without whom 
 he had declared that he could not hope to compafs the 
 reformations he had in view. Cato's, merit, upon the 
 whole, was fuperior to that of any of the great men 
 who ftood againft him. He was temperate, brave, and 
 indefatigable ; frugal of the public money, and not to 
 be corrupted. There Is fcarce any talent requifite for 
 public-or private life which he had not received from 
 nature, or acquired by induftry. He was a great fol- 
 ■dier, an able ftatefraan, an eloquent orator, a learned 
 hiilorian, and verv knowing In rural affairs. Yet, with 
 
 6 ] CAT 
 
 all thefe accompliniments, he had very great faults. 
 His ambition being poifoned with envy, difturbcd both 
 his own peace and that of the whole city as long as he 
 lived. Though he would not take bribes, he was un- 
 merciful and unconfcionable in amaffing wealth by all 
 fuch means as the law did not punilh. 
 
 The firft aft of Cato in his new office, was naming 
 his colleague to be prince of the fenate : after which 
 the cenfors ftruck out of the lift of the fenators the 
 names of feven perfons ; among whom was Lucius the 
 brother of T. Flaminius. Lucius, when conful, and 
 commanding In Gaul, had with his own hand mur- 
 dered a Boian of diftinftion, a deferter to the Romans; 
 and he had committed this murder purely to gratify 
 the curlofity of his pathic, a young Carthaginian, who 
 longing to fee fome body die a violent death, had re- 
 proached the general for bringing him away from 
 Rome juft when there was going to be a fight of gla- 
 diators. Titus Flaminius, full of indignation at the 
 diffionour done to his brother, brought the affair be- 
 fore the people ; and Infilled upon Cato's giving the 
 rcafon of his proceeding. The cenfor related the fto- 
 ry ; and when Lucius denied the faft, put him to his 
 oath. The accufed, refufing to fwear, was deemed 
 guilty; and Cato's cenfure was approved. But no 
 part of the cenfor's conduit feemed fo cruel to the 
 nobles and their wives as the taxes he laid upon luxu- 
 ry In all Its branches ; drefs, houfehold furniture, wo- 
 mens toilets, chariots, flaves, and equipage. Thefe 
 articles were all taxed at three j^^-r cent, of the real va- 
 lue. The people, however, in general, were pleafed 
 with his regulations ; infamuch that they ordered a 
 ftatue to be erefted to his honour In the temple of 
 Healthy with an infcription that mentioned nothing of 
 his viftorles or triumph, but Imported only that by his 
 wife ordinances in his cenforfhip he had reformed the 
 manners of the republic. Plutarch relates, that be- 
 fore this, upon fome of Cato's friends expreffing their 
 furprife, that while many perfons without merit or 
 reputation had ftatues, he had none ; he anfwered, 
 " I had much r-ather It fhould be alked why the people 
 have not eretled a ftatue to Cato, than why they 
 have." Cato was the occafion of the third Punic war-. 
 Being difpatched to Africa to terminate a diffrrence 
 between the Carthaginians and the king of Numidia, 
 on his return to Rome he reported, that Carthage was 
 grown exceifively rich and populous, and he wannly 
 exhorted the fenate to deftroy a city and republic, du- 
 ring the exiftence of which, Rome could never be fafe. 
 Having brought from Africa fome very large figs, he 
 fliowed them to the confcript fathers in one of the lap- 
 pets of his gown. " The country (fays he) where 
 this fine fruit growls, is but a three days voyage from 
 Rome." We are told, that from this time he never 
 fpoke in the fenate upon any fubjeft, without conclu- 
 ding with thefe words, " I am alfo of opinion, that 
 Carthage ought to be deftroyed." He judged, that, 
 for a people debauched by profperity, nothing was 
 more to be feared than a rival ftate, always powerful, 
 and now from its misfortunes grown w^fe and circuin- 
 fpeft. He held it neceflaiy to remove all dangers that 
 could be apprehended from vjlthout, when the republic 
 had w'ltlnn io many diftempers threatening her deftruc= 
 tion. 
 
 From the cenfor dignified and fevcre, the reader 
 
 will 
 
C«to, 
 
 CAT [ 257 
 
 v;ill not perhaps be difplcafed to turn his view upon it. 
 
 Cato fociable andTclaxed. For we fhould have a falfe 
 notion of him, if we imagined that nothing but a fad 
 auflerity prevailed in his fpeech and behaviour. On 
 the contrary, he was extremely free ; and often with 
 his friends at table intermixed the converfation with 
 lively difcourfes and witty fayings. Of thefe Plutarch 
 has colleftcd a pretty large number ; we fhall relate 
 Oeiivrss di- but One, and make ufe of Balzae's paraphrafe, and the 
 wr/f/,p.49.pj,gfaj,g ^,Jth which he introduces it. " The very 
 cenfors, though fadncfs feeraed to be one of the func- 
 tions of their office, did not altogether lay afide rail- 
 lery. They were not always bent upon feverity ; and 
 the firft Cato, that troublefome and intolerable honeft 
 man, ceafed fometimes to be troublefome and intole- 
 rable. He had fome glimpfes of mirth, and fome in- 
 tervals of good humour. He dropped now and then 
 fome words that were not unpleafant, and you may 
 judge of the reft by this. He had married a very hand- 
 fome wife ; and hiftory tells us that (he was extremely 
 afraid of the thunder, and loved her hufband well. 
 Thefe two paffions prompted her to the fame thing ; 
 flie always pitched upon her hufband as a fanftuary a- 
 gainft thunder, and threw herfelf into his arms at the 
 firft noife (he fancied fhe heard in the flcy. Cato, who 
 was well pleafed with the ftorm, and very willing to 
 "be careffed, could not conceal his joy. He revealed 
 that domeftic fecret to his friends ; and told them one 
 day, fpeaking of his wife, " that (he had found out 
 a way to make him love bad weather ; and that he ne- 
 ver was fo happy as when Jupiter was angry." It is 
 worth obferving, that this was during his cenforfhip ; 
 v^tn he degraded the fenator Manlius, who would 
 probably have been conful the year after, only for gi- 
 ving a kifs to his wife in the day-time, and in the pre- 
 fence of his daughter. 
 
 Cato died in the year of Rome 604, aged 85. He 
 wrote feveral works. I. A Roman Hiftory. 2. Con- 
 cerning the art of war. 3. Of rhetoric. 4. A trea- 
 tife of huftandry. Of thefe, the laft only is extant. 
 
 Cato (Marcus Fortius), commonly called Cato Mi- 
 nor, or Cato of Utica, was great grandfon of Cato 
 the Venfor. It is faid, that from his infancy he difco- 
 vered by his fpeech, by his countenance, and even his 
 childifh fportsand recreations, an inflexibility of mind; 
 for he would force himfelf to go through with what- 
 ever he had undertaken, though the taik was ill fuited 
 to his ftrength. He was rough towards thofe that 
 flattered him, and quite intradable when threatened ; 
 was rarely feen to laugh, or even to fmile ; was not 
 eafily provoked to anger ; but if once incenfed, hard 
 to be pacified. Sylla having had a friendfhip for the 
 father of Cato, fent often for him and his brother, 
 and talked familiarly with them. Cato, who was then 
 about 14 years of age, f.:cing the heads of great men 
 brought there, and -obferving the lighs of thofe that 
 v.'ere prefent, ailed his preceptor, *' Why does no body 
 kill this man ?" Becaufe, faid the other, he is more 
 feared than he is hated. The boy repHed, Why then 
 did you not give me a fword when you brought me 
 hither, that I might have ftabbed him, and freed my 
 country from this llavcry? 
 
 He learned the principles of the Stoic philofophy, 
 which fo well fuited his cliarafter, under Antipater of 
 Tyre, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of 
 Vol.. IV. Part L 
 
 ] CAT 
 
 Eloquence he likcwife ftudied, as a neceilary means 
 
 to defend the caufe of juftice, and he made a very 
 confiderable proficiency in that fcience. To increafe 
 his bodily ftrength, he inured himfelf to fuffer the ex- 
 tremes of heat and cold ; and ufed to make journeys 
 on foot, and bare-headed in all feafons. When he was 
 fick, patience and abftinence were his only remedies : 
 he fliut himfelf up, and would fee no body till he was 
 well. Though remarkably fober in the beginning of 
 his life, making it a rule to drink but once after fup- 
 per, and then retire, he infenlibly contracted a habit 
 of drinking more freely, and of fitting at table till 
 morning. His friends endeavoured to excufe this, by 
 faying that the aiTairs of the public engrofl'ed his at- 
 tention all the day ; and that, being ambitious of 
 knowledge, he pafl'ed the night in the converfation of 
 philofophers. Casfar wrote that Cato was once found 
 dead drunk at the corner of a ftree-t, early in the morn- 
 ing, by a great number of people who were going to 
 the levee of fome great man ; and that when, by un- 
 covering his face, they perceived who it was, they 
 bluflied for ftiame : " You would have thought (added 
 Casfar), that Cato had found them drunk, not they 
 him." PHny obferves, that by this reflcftion C2efar 
 praifes his enemy at the fame time that he blames him. 
 And Seneca, his extravagant panegyrift, ventures to 
 aftert, that it is eafier to prove drunkennefs to be a 
 virtue, than Cato to be vicious. He affefted fingu- 
 larity, and, in things indifferent, to a6l diieClly con- 
 trary to the tafte and faftiioas of the age. Magnani- 
 mity and conflancy are generally afcribed to him ; and 
 Seneca would fain make that haughtinefs and contempt 
 for others which, in Cato, accompanied thofe virtues, a 
 matter of praife. Cato, fays Seneca, having received a 
 blow in the face, neither took revenge nor was angry ; he 
 did not even pardon theajfront, but denied that he had rece'i- 
 ued It. His virtue railed him fo high, that injury could 
 not reach him. He is reputed to have been chafte in 
 his youth. His firft love was Lepida ; but when the 
 marriage was upon the point of being concluded, Me- 
 tellus Scipio, to whom ftie had been ptomlfed, inter- 
 fered, and the preference was given to him. This af- 
 front extremely exafperated our Stoic. He was for 
 going to law with Scipio ; and when his friends had 
 diverted him from that defign, by fliowing him the ri- 
 dicule of it, he revenged himlelf by making verfes up- 
 on his rival. When this firft flame fubfided, he mar- 
 ried Attilia the daughter of Scrranus, had two children 
 by her, and afterwards divorced her for her very in- 
 difcrec t conduft. 
 
 He ferved as a volunteer under Gallius in the war 
 of Spartacus; and when militaiy rewards were offered 
 him by the commander, he refufed them, becaufe he 
 thought he had no right to them. Some years after, 
 he went a legionary tribune into Macedonia under the 
 prsetor Rubrius : in which ftation he appeared, in his 
 drefs, and during a march, more like a private foldier 
 than an officer : but the dignity of his manners, the 
 elevation of his fentiments, and the fuperiority of his 
 views, fet him far above thofe who bore the titles of 
 generals and proconfuls. It is faid, that Cato's defign 
 in all his behaviour was to engage the foldiers to the 
 love of virtue ; whofe affcftions he engaged thereby to 
 himfelf, without his having that in his intention, 
 *' For the fincere love of virtue, (adds Plutarch), im- 
 K k plies 
 
 Cato. 
 
CAT 
 
 r 258 1 
 
 CAT 
 
 Cxto. plies an affeftlon for the virtuous. Thofe who praife 
 ""v^— the worthy without loving them, pay homage to their 
 glory ; but are neither admirers nor imitators of their 
 virtues." When the time of his fervice expired, and 
 he was leaving the army, the foldiers were all in tears ; 
 fo effeftually had he gained their hearts by his conde- 
 fcending manners, and fharing in their labours. After 
 his return home, he was chofen to the queftorfhip ; 
 and had fcarce entered on his charge, when he made a 
 great reformation in the queftor's office, and particu- 
 larly with regard to the regifters. Thefe regifters, 
 whofe places were for life, and through whofe hands 
 paffed incelTantly all the public accounts, being to aft 
 under young magiftrates unexperienced in bufinefs, af- 
 fumed an air of importance ; and, inftead of aflcing or- 
 ders from the queftors, pretended to dire6t and govern 
 as if they themfelves were the queftors. Cato redu- 
 ced them to their proper fphere. 
 
 One thing by which Cato extremely pleafed the 
 people, was his making the aflaffins to whom Sylla had 
 given confiderable rewards out of the treafury, for 
 murdering the profcribed, difgorge their gains. Plu- 
 tarch tells us, that Cato was fo exaft in difcharging 
 the duties of a fenator, as to be always the firft who 
 came to the houfe, and the laft who left it ; and that 
 he never quitted Rome during thofe days when the 
 fenate was to fit. Nor did he fail to be prefent at 
 every affembly of the people, that he might awe thofe 
 who, by an ill-judged facihty, beflowed the public mo- 
 ney in largefTes, and frequently, through mere favour, 
 granted remiflion of debts due to the ftate. At firft 
 liis aufterity and ftifFnefs difpleafed his colleagues ; 
 but afterwards they were glad to have his name to 
 oppofe to all the unjuft folicitations, againft which 
 they would have found it difficult to defend them- 
 felves. Cato very readily took upon him the taflc of 
 refufing. 
 
 Cato, to keep out a very bad man, put in for the 
 tribunate. He fided with Cicero againft Catiline, 
 and oppofed Caefar on that occafion. His enemies 
 fent him to recover Cyprus, which Ptolemy had for- 
 feited, thinking to hurt his reputation by fo difficult 
 an undertaking ; yet none could find fault with his 
 conduft. 
 
 Cato laboured to bring about an agreement between 
 Casfar and Pompey ; but feeing it in vain, he fided 
 with the latter. When Pompey was llain, he fled to 
 Utica ; and being purfued by Caefar, advifed his 
 friends to be gone, and throw themfelves on Casfar's 
 demency. His fon, however, remained with him ; 
 and Statilius, a young man, remarkable for his hatred 
 to Casfar. 
 
 The evening before the execution of the purpofe 
 he had formed with regard to himfelf, after bathing, 
 he fupped with his friends and the magiftrates of the 
 eity. They fat late at table, and the converfation 
 was lively. The difcourfe falling upon this maxim of 
 the Stoics, that " the wife man alorwe is free, and that 
 the vicious are Oaves;" Demetrius, who was a Peripa- 
 tetic, undertook to confute it from the maxims of his 
 fchool. Cato, in anfwer, treated the matter very am- 
 ply ; and with fo much earneftnefs and vehemence of 
 voice, that he betrayed himfelf, and confirmed the fu- 
 Ipicions of his friends, that he defigned to kill himfelf. 
 When he had done fpeaking, a melancholy filence en- 
 
 fued ; and Cato perceiving it, turned the difcourfe to 
 the prefent fituation of aff livs, expreffing his concern 
 for thofe who had been obliged to put to fea, as wtU 
 as for thofe who had determined to make tlieir efcnpe 
 by land, and had a dry and fandy defart to pafs. After 
 fupper, the company being difmifferi, he walked for 
 fome time with a few friends, and gave his orders to 
 the officers of the guard : and going Into his chamber, 
 he embraced his fon and his friends with more than 
 ufual tendernefs, which farther confirmed the fufpi- 
 cions of the refolutlon he had taken. Then laying 
 himfelf down on his bed, he took up Plato's Dialogue 
 on the immortality of the Soul. Having read for fome 
 time, he looked up, and mifiing his fword, vvhich his 
 fon had removed while he was at fupper, he called a 
 flavc, and aOced who had taken it away ; and receiving 
 no pertinent anTwer, he refumed his reading. Some 
 time after, he allced again for his fword ; and, without 
 fliowing any impatience, ordered it to be brougb.t to 
 him : but, having read out the book, and finding no- 
 body had brought him his fword, he called for all his 
 fervants, fell into a rage, and ftruck one of them on the 
 mouth with fo much violence, that he very much hurt 
 his ownhandjcryingoutin a pafiionate manner, "What! 
 do mj own fon and family confpire to betray me, 
 and deliver me up naked and unarmed to the enemy 
 Immediately his fon and friends ruftied into the room ; 
 and began to lament, and to befeech him to change 
 his refolutlon. Cato raifing himfelf, and looking fierce- 
 ly at them, " How long is it," faid he, " fince I have loft 
 my fenfes, and my fon is become my keeper ? Brave 
 and generous fon, why do you not bind your father's 
 hands, that when Caefar comefi, he may find me un- 
 able to defend myfelf ? Do you imagine that without 
 a fword I cannot end my life ? Cannot I deftroy my- 
 felf by holding my breath for fome moments, or by 
 ftriking my head againft the wall ?" His fon anfwer- 
 ed with his tears, and retired. ApoUonides and De- 
 metrius remained with him, and to them he addreffed 
 himfelf in the following words : " Is it to watch over 
 me that ye fit filent here ? Do yoii pretend to force 
 a man of my years to live ? or can you bring any 
 reafon to prove, that it is not bafe and unworthy of 
 Cato to beg his fafety of an enemy ? or why do you 
 not perfuade me to unlearn what I have been taught, 
 that, rejetting all the opinions I have hitherto de- 
 fended, I may now, by Casfar's means, grow wifer, 
 and be yet more obhged to him than for life alone ? 
 Not that I have determined any thing concerning my- 
 felf ; but I would have it in my power to perform 
 what I fhall think fit to refolve upon : and I fhall not 
 fail to afk your counfel, when I have occafion to a£t 
 up to the principles which your philofophy teaches. 
 Go tell my fon, that he ftiould not compel his father 
 to what he cannot perfuade bim." They withdrew, 
 and the fword was brought by a young (lave. Cato 
 drew it, and finding the point to be ftiarp ; " Now, 
 (faid he), I am my own mafter :" And, laying it 
 down, he took up his book again, which, it is re- 
 ported, he read twice over. After this he flept fo 
 foundly that he was heard to fnore by thofe who were 
 near him. About midnight he called two of his freed- 
 men, Cleanthes his phyficlan, and Butas whom he 
 chiefly employed in the management of his affairs. 
 The laft he fent to the. portj to fee whether all the 
 
 Romans 
 
 Catn, 
 
C A T O P 
 
 RoiTians were gone } to the phyiiciau he gave his 
 hand to be dreffed, which was fvvelled by the blow he 
 had given his flave. This being an intimation that 
 he intended to live, gave great joy to his family. Bu- 
 tas foon returned, and brought word that they were 
 all gone except CrafTus, who had ftaid upon feme bu- 
 finefs, but was juil ready to depart. He added, that 
 the wind was high, and the fea rough. Thefe words 
 drew a figh from Cato. He fent Butas again to the 
 port, to know whether there might not be fome one, 
 who, in the hurry of embarkation, had forgot iome 
 necelTary provifions, and had been obliged to put back 
 to Utica. It was now break of day, and Cato flept 
 yet a little more, till Butas returned to tell him, that 
 all was pe'rfeftly quiet. He then ordered him to fhut 
 his door ; and he flung himfelf upon his bed, as if he 
 meant to -iinifh his night's refl: ; but immediately he 
 took his fword, and ftabbed himtelf a little below his 
 chefl: ; yet not being able to ufe his hand fo well by 
 reafon of the fwelling, the blow did not kill him. It 
 threw him into a convuUion, in which he fell from his 
 bed, and overturned a table near it. The noife gave 
 
 TRIGS. 
 
 the alarm ; and his fon, and the reft of the family, 
 
 entering the room, found him weltering in his blood, 
 and his bowels half out of his body. The furgeon, 
 upon examination, found that his bowels were not cut; 
 and was preparing to replace them, and bind up the 
 wound, when Cato, recovering his fenfes, thrull the 
 furgeon from him, and, tearing^ out his bowels, imme- 
 diately expired, in the 48th year of his age. 
 
 By this rafli aft, independent of all moral or reli- 
 gious confiderations, he carried his patriotifm to the 
 highefk degree of political frenzy : for Cato, dead, 
 could be of no ufe to his country ; but had he prefer- 
 ved his Hfe, his counfel might have moderated Casfar'g 
 ambition, and (as Montefquieu obferves) have given a 
 different turn to pubhc affairs. 
 
 CATOCHE, or Catochus, a difeafe, by which 
 the patient is rendered in an infliant as immoveable as 
 a fl:atue, without either fenfe or motion, and continues 
 in the fame pofl;ure he was in at the moment of his 
 being feized. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medi' 
 
 CINE. 
 
 CATOP TRICS. 
 
 CATOPTRICS is that part of optics which explains 
 the properties of refle6led light, and particularly 
 that which is reflefted from mirrors. 
 
 As this and the other branches of Optics are fully 
 treated under the colleflive word, we fliall, in the pre- 
 fent article, ijl, Jull give a fummary of the principles 
 of the branch, in a few plain aphorifms, with fome pre- 
 liminary definitions ; and, 2i//y, Infert a fet of enter- 
 taining experiments founded upon them. 
 
 Sect. I. Definitions. 
 
 T 
 
 Paiitions. i. Every poliflied body that reflefts the rays of 
 light is called a mirror, whether its furface be plane, 
 fpherical, conical, cylindric, or of any other form 
 whatever. 
 
 Plate ^' mirrors there are three principally ufed in 
 
 sCXXVin. optical experiments : The plane mirror, G H I, (fig. 
 
 I.); the fpherical convex mirror, GHI, (fig. 2.)j 
 and the fpherical concave mirror, GHI, (fig. 3.) 
 
 3. Th.t point K, (fig. 2, 3.) round which the re- 
 flefting furface of a fpherical' mirror is defcribed, is 
 called its centre. The line KH, drawn from its cen- 
 tre perpendicular to its two furfaces, is the axis of the 
 mirror ; and the point H, to which that line is drawn, 
 is its vortex. 
 
 4. The difl;ance between the lines AG and BG, 
 (fig. I.) is called the angle of incidence, and the di- 
 itance between BG and CG is the angle of refledtion. 
 
 Sect. 11. Aphorifms. 
 
 K.ln aplain . ^' (^g- ^0 ^''^^ ^PP^^"" far be- 
 
 mirior. ^i"^ mirror, as the objeft AC is before it. 
 
 2. The image will appear of the fame fize, and in 
 the fame pofition as the objeft. 
 
 3. Every fuch mirror will reflefl the image of an 
 obje£l of twice its own length and breadth. 
 
 4. If the objeft; be an opque body, and its rays fall 
 
 on the mirror nearly in diredl lines, there will be only 
 one image vifible, which will be reflefted by the inner 
 furface of the glafs. But, 
 
 5. If the objeA be a luminous body, and its rayp 
 fall very obliquely on the mirror, there will appear, to 
 an eye placed in a proper pofition, feveral images ; the 
 firll of which, reflected from the outer furface of the 
 glafs, will not be fo bright as the fecond, reflected from 
 the inner furface. The following images, that are pro- 
 duced by the repeated reflexions of the rays between 
 the two furfaces of the glafs, will be in proportion lefs 
 vivid, to the eighth or tenth, which will be fcarce vi- 
 fible. 
 
 1. The image DF, (fig. 2.) will always j^pear be- n. in a 
 hind It. fpherical 
 
 2. The image will be in the fame pofition as the convex 
 objea. n<v:vox. 
 
 3. It will be lefs than the objeft. 
 
 4. It will be curved, but not, as the mirror, fpheri- 
 cal. 
 
 5. Parallel rays falling on this mirror will have the 
 focus or image at half the dillance of the centre K, 
 from the mirror. 
 
 6. In converging rays, the dillance of the objeft 
 mull be equal to half the diftance of the centre, to 
 make the image appear behind the mirror. 
 
 7. Diverging rays will have their image at lefs than 
 half the diftance of the centre. If the objeft be placed 
 in the centre of the mirror, its image will appear at 
 one-eighth of that dillance behind it. 
 
 1. That point where the image appears of the famCjjj ^ 
 dimegfions as the objeft, is the centre of that mirror, fpherical 
 
 2. ^Parallel rays will have their focus at one half thetoncave 
 diftance of the centre. mirrur. 
 
 3. Converging rays will form an image before the 
 mirror. 
 
 4. In diverging rays, if the objedl be at lefs than 
 one half the diftance of the centre, the image will be 
 behind the mirror, ereft, curved, and magnified, as 
 
 K k 2 DEF, 
 
26o C A T O 
 
 * DEF, (fig. 3.) but if the diftaace of the objed be 
 greater, the image will be befor;. the mirror, inverted 
 and diminiihtd, as DEF, (fig. 4.) 
 
 5. The fun's rays fallir'g on a concave mirror, and 
 being parallel, will be coUcded in a focus e\i half the 
 diftance of its centre, where tl.eir heat will be aug- 
 mented in proportion of the furface of the mirror to 
 that of the focal fpot. 
 
 6. If a luminous body be placed in the focus of a 
 concave mirror, its rays being refledted in parallel lines 
 will ftrongly enlighten a Ipace of the lame dimenlion 
 with the mirror, at a great dillance. If ihe luminous 
 objeft be placed nearer than the focus, its rays will di- 
 vergf, and coutcquencly enlighten a larger ipace. It 
 is on this principle that reverbei'ators are conllruc- 
 ted. 
 
 IV. In all plane and fpherical mirrors the angle of 
 incidence is equal to the angle of reflediion. 
 
 Sect. III. Enterta'mhig Experiments, 
 
 ^ ^S- I, Of all our ftnfes the fight is certainly fubjefh to 
 
 tical^illufi- greateft illuhon. The various writers on optics 
 have deicribed a great number of inltancto in which 
 it deceives us, and have conftantly endeavoured to in- 
 veftigatc the caufcs, to explain their effeels, and to re- 
 concile appearance with reality. We every day dif- 
 cover new phenomena, and doubtlefs many more are 
 referved for poilerity. It frequently happens, more- 
 over, that a difcovery which at hrft fcemed of little 
 confequence, has led to matters of the higheil import- 
 ance. 
 
 Take a glafs bottle A (fig, 14.) and fill it with wa- 
 ter to the point h ; leave the upper part BC empty, 
 and cork it in the common manner. Place this bottle 
 oppofite a concave mirror, and beyond its focus, that 
 it may appear revcrfed, and before the mirror (lee 
 fedt. ii. aphor. 4. of a fpher. concave mirror,) place 
 yourfelf itill further diftant from the bottle, and it will 
 appear to you in the fitnation, a, i>, c, (fig. 15.) 
 
 Now ii is remarkable in this apparent bottle, that 
 the water, which, according to all the laws of catop- 
 trics, and all the experiments made on other objedts, 
 fliould appear at a appears on the contrary at h c, 
 and confequently the part a b appears empty. 
 
 If the bottle be inverted and placed before the mir- 
 ror (as in fig. 16.), its image will appear in its natu- 
 ral, eredt pofition ; and the water; v/hich is in reality 
 at BC, will appear at a h. 
 
 If while the bottle is inverted it be uncorked, and 
 the water run gently out, it will appear, that while the 
 part BC is. emptying, that oi a h'm the image is fill- 
 ing ; and what is likewife very remarkable, as foon as 
 the bottle is empty the illufion ceafes, the image alfo 
 appearing entirely empty. If the bottlf likewife be 
 quite full there is no illulion. 
 
 If while the bottle is held inverted, and partly emp- 
 ty, fome drops of water fall from the bottom A to- 
 wards BC, it feems in the image as if there were form- 
 ed at the bottom of the part a /», bubbles of air that 
 rofe from a to ^ ; which is the part that feems full of 
 water. AU thefe phenomena conltantly appear. 
 ^ The remarkable circumftances in this experiment, 
 
 are, firft, not only to fee an object where it is not, but 
 •alfo where its image is not j and fecondly, that of two 
 
 P T R I G S. 
 
 objects which are really in the fame place, as the fur- 
 face of t)ie bottle and the water it contains, the one is 
 ieen at one place, and the other at another ; and to 
 fee the bottle in the place of its image, and the water 
 where neither it nor ifs image are. ^ 
 
 II. Conttrudl a box AB, of about a foot long, eight n, Appear- 
 inches wide, and fix high ; or what other dimenfion ance i f a 
 you fliall think fit, provided it does not greatly vary ^"uudlefs 
 from thefe proportions. 
 
 On the infide of this box, and againfl; each of its 
 oppofite ends A and B, place a mirror of the fame 
 fize. Take'uff the quickfilver from the mirror that 
 you place at B, for about an inch and an half, at the 
 part C, where you are to make a hole in the box of 
 the fime fize, by which you may eafily view its infide. 
 Cover the top of the box with a frame, in which muft 
 be placed a tranlparent glafs, covered with gauze, on 
 the lide next the inner part of the box. Let there be 
 two grooves at the parts E and F to receive the two 
 painted fcenes hereafter mentioned. On two pieces of 
 cut palleboard let there be fliilfully painted on both 
 fides (fee fig. 6. and 7.) any lubjedl you think pro- 
 per ; as woods, gardens, bowers, colonades, i^c. and 
 on two other paitcboards, the fame fubjcdts on one fide 
 only ; obferving that there ought to be on one of them 
 fome objedt relative to the fubjeft placed at A, that 
 the mirror placed at D may not refleft the hole at C 
 on the oppofite fide. 
 
 Place the two boards painted on both fides in the 
 grooves E and F ; and thofe that are painted on one 
 fide only, againft the oppofite mirrors C and D ; and 
 then cover the box with its tranfparent top. This 
 box fhould be placed in a fbong light to have a good 
 effett. 
 
 When the eye is placed at C, and views the objedls 
 on the infide of the box, of which fome, as we have 
 faid, are painted on both fides, they are fucceflively 
 refledted from one mirror to the other ; and if, for 
 example, the painting confifts of trees, they will ap- 
 pear like a very long vifta, of which the eye cannot 
 difcern the end : for each of the mirrors repeating the - 
 objedls, continually more faintly, contribute greatly to 
 augment the illufion. 
 
 III. Take a fquare box ABCD, of about fix inch- Qf^ 
 es long, and twelve high ; cover the infide of it with fortificaticni 
 four plane mirrors, which muft be placed perpendicu- of immenfe 
 lar to the bottom of the box CHFD. 
 
 Place certain objedls in relief on the bottom of this ^' ' 
 box ; fuppofe, for example, a piece of fortification,, 
 (as fig. 9.) with tents, foldiers, ^c. or any other fub- 
 jedt that you judge will produce an agreeable effedl by 
 its difpofition when repeatedly refledied by the mir- 
 rors. 
 
 On the top of this box place a frame of glafs, in 
 form of the bottom part of a pyramid, whofe bafe 
 AGEB is equal to the fize of the box : its top ILN, 
 muft form a fquare of fix inches, and fhould not be 
 more than four or five inches higher than the box» 
 Cover the four fides of this frame with a gauze, that 
 the infide may not be vifible but at the top ILN, 
 which fftould be covered with a tranfparent glafs. 
 
 When you Look into this box through the glafs 
 ILN, the mirrors that are diametrically oppofite each 
 other, mutually refiedting the ligures inclofed, the eye 
 beholds a boimdlefs extent, completely covered with 
 
 thefe 
 
CATOPTPvICS. 
 
 ^5 1 
 
 fhefe objeAs ; and if they are properly difpofed, the 
 illufion will occafion no fraall furprize, and afford great 
 entertaiment. 
 
 Note, The nearer the opening ILN is to the top of 
 the box, the greater will be the apparent extent of the 
 fubjeft. The fame will happen if the four mirrors 
 placed on the fides of the box be more elevated. The 
 objects, by either of thefe difpofitions will appear to be 
 repeated nine, twenty-hve, forty-nine times, ^c. by 
 taking always the fquare of the odd numbers of the 
 arithmetical progreffion 3, 5, 7, 9, is'c. as is very eafy 
 to conceive, if we remember that the fubjeft enclofed 
 in the box is always in the centre of a fquare, corapo- 
 fed of feveral others, equal to that which forms the 
 bottom of the box. 
 
 Other pieces of the fame kind (that is viewed from 
 above) may be contrived, in which mirrors may be 
 placed perpendicular on a triangular, pentagon, or 
 hexagon, (that is, a three, five, or fix-fided) plane. 
 All thefe different difpofitions, properly direfted, as 
 well with regard to the choice as pofition of the ob- 
 jt£tsy will conftautly produce very remarkable and 
 plealing illufions. 
 
 If inftead of placing the mirrors perpendicular, they 
 were to incline equally, fo as to form part of a rever- 
 fed pyramid, the fubjeft placed in the box would then 
 have the appearance of a very extenlive globular or 
 many-fided figure. 
 
 IV. On the hexagonal or fix-fided plane ABCDEF 
 ring muiti- draw fix femi-diameters GA, GB, GC, GD, GE, 
 plication of GF ; and on each of thefe place perpendicularly two 
 |l5je6l:s, . plane mirrors, which mufl join exadtly at the centre 
 ig 10. which placed back to back mufl be as thin as 
 
 poflible. Decorate the exterior boundary of this piece 
 (which is at the extremity of the angles of the hexa- 
 gon) with fix columns, that at the fame time ferve to ' 
 fupport the mirrors, by grooves formed on their inner 
 fides. (See the profile H). Add to thefe columns their 
 entablatures, and cover the edifice in fuch manner as 
 you fhall think proper. 
 
 In each one of thefe fix triangular fpaces, contained 
 between two mirrors, place little figures of pafleboard, 
 in relief, reprefenting fuch objecls as when feen in an 
 hexagonal form will produce an agreeable effedl. To 
 thefe add fmall figures of enamel ; and take particular 
 care to conceal, by fome objedl that has relation to 
 the fubjeft, the place where the mirrors join, which, 
 ^ as we have faid before, all meet in the common centre 
 G. 
 
 When you look into any one of tlie fix openings of 
 this palace, the obje£ls there contained being repeated 
 fix times, will feem entirely to fill up the whole of 
 the building. This illufion will appear very remark- 
 able ; efpeclally if the objecls made choice of are pro- 
 perly adapted to the effecl that is to be produced by 
 the mirrors. 
 
 Note, if you place between two of thefe mir- 
 rors part of a fortification, as a curtain and two demi- 
 
 IV. Siirp'i- 
 
 baftions, you will fee an entire citadel, with its fix ba- 
 flions. Or if you place part of a ball-room, ornament- 
 ed with chandeliers and figures in enamel, all thofe ob- 
 je6ls being here multiplied, will afford a very pleafing 
 profpett. _ _ 5, 
 
 V. Within the cafe ABCD, place four mirrors, V. Opaque 
 O, P, Q, R, fo difpofed that they may each of them bodies 
 make an angle of forty-five degrees, that is, that they 
 may be half way inclined from the perpendicular, aS(.^-^nfpaj.ejjf^ 
 in the figure. In each of the two extremities AB, lig.n. 
 malce a circular overture, in one of which fix the tube 
 GL, in the other the tube MF, and obferve that in 
 each of thefe is to be inferted another tube, as H 
 and 1(a). 
 
 Furniih the fiifl of thefe tubes with an obje£l-gIafs 
 at G, and a concave eye-glafs at F. You are to ob- 
 ferve, that in regulating the focus of thefe glaffes, with, 
 regard to the length of the tube, you are to fuppofe 
 it equal to the line G, or vif'ual pointed ray, which 
 entering at the overture G, is refledled by the four 
 mirrors, and goes out at the other overture F, where 
 the ocular glafs is placed. Put any glafs you will inta 
 the two ends of the moveable tubes H and I ; and 
 laflly place the macliine on a fhmd E, moveable at the 
 point S, that it may be elevated or deprefl'cd afe plea"- 
 fure. 
 
 When the eye is placed at. F, and you look througli 
 the tube, the r^ys of fight that proceed from the objed; 
 T, paffing through the glafs G, are f'ucceffively refleft- 
 ed by the mirrors, O, P, and R, to the eye at F, 
 and there paint the objecl; T, in its proper fituation, 
 and thefe rays appear to proceed direftly from that 
 obje£l. 
 
 The two moveable tubes H and I, at the extremi- 
 ties of each of which a glafs is placed, ferve only the 
 more to difguife the ilhifion, for they have no commu- 
 nication with the interior part of tiie m:ichine. This 
 inflrument being moveable on the flund E, may be 
 direfted to any objedl ; and if furnifhed with proper 
 glaffes will anfwer the purpofe of a common perfpec- 
 tive. 
 
 The two moveable tubes H and I beiiig brought 
 together, the machine is direfled toward any objedl, 
 and defiring a perfon to look in at the end F, you aflc 
 him if he fee diflinflly that object. You then fepa- 
 rate the two moveable tubes, and leaving a fpace be- 
 tween them fufiicient to place your hand, or any other 
 folid body, you tell him that the machine has the pow- 
 er of making objefts vifible through the mofl opaque 
 body ; and as a proof you defire him then to look at 
 the fame objedl, when, to his great furprize, he will 
 fee it as diflinft as when there was no folid body placed 
 between the tubes. 
 
 Note, This experiment is the more extraordinary,, 
 as it is very difficult to. conceive how the effedl is pro- 
 duced. The t\^ o, arms of the cafe appearing to be 
 made to fupport the perfpeftive glafs ; and_ to what- 
 ever object it is dire£led, the effedl is flill the fame. 
 
 VI. 
 
 (a) Thefe four tubes mufl terminate in the fubflance of the cafe, and' not enter the infide, that they may not. 
 hinder the effe£l of the mirrors. The fourfold- refleflion of the rays of light from the mirrors, darkens in foraer 
 xiegree the brightnefs of the objeft ; fome light is alfo loft by the magnifying power of the perfpeftive : If,, 
 therefore, inftead of the objeft-glafs at G, and concave eye^-glafs at F, plain glaffes were fubflituted the mag- 
 arifying power of the perfpe^tive will be taken away, and the objedl will appear brighter... 
 
lO 
 
 VI.Vll T 
 •'.-irrors, 
 
 rij. 13. 
 
 C A T O P 
 
 'VJ. In the partition AB, make two overtures, CD, 
 ,'^^and EF, of a fort high, and ten inches wide, and 
 about a foot dillant from each other. Let them be 
 at the common height of a man's head ; and in each 
 of them place a tranfparent glafs, furrounded with a 
 frame, hke a common mirror. 
 
 Behind this partition place two mirrors H and I, 
 inclined to it in an angle of forty-five degrees : that 
 is, half-way between a line drawn perpendicular to the 
 ground and its furface : let them be both 1 8 inches 
 fquare : let all the fpace between them be inclofed by 
 boards or pafteboard painted black, and well clofed, that 
 no light may enter: let there be alfo two curtains to 
 ■cover them, which may be drawn afide at pleafure. 
 
 When a perfon looks into one of thefe fuppofed 
 mirrors, inftead of feeing his own face, he will per- 
 ceive the objeft that is in front of the other : fo tliat 
 if two perfons prefent themfelves at the fame time 
 before thefe mirrors, inftead of each one feeing himfelf, 
 they will reciprocally fee each other. 
 
 Note, There fliould.be afconce with a candle placed 
 on each fide of the two glalTes in the wainfcot, to en- 
 lighten the faces of the perfons who look in them, 
 otherwife this experiment wiU have no remarkable ef- 
 feft. 
 
 This experiment may be confiderably improved by 
 placing the two glalfes in the partition in adjoining 
 rooms, and a number of perfons being previoufly pla- 
 ced in one room, when a ttranger enters the other, 
 you may tell him his face is dirty; and defire him to 
 look in the glafs, which he will naturally do ; and on 
 feeing a ftrange face he will draw back : but return- 
 ing to it, and feeing another, another, and another, 
 like the phantom kings in Macbeth, what his furprize 
 will be is more eafy to conceive than exprefs. After 
 this, a real mirror may be privately let down on the 
 back of the glafs ; and if he can be prevailed to look 
 in it once more, he will then, to his further aftonifh- 
 ment, fee his own face ; and may be told, perhaps per- 
 fuaded, that all he thought he faw before was mere 
 imagination. 
 
 How many tricks, lefs artful than this, have paffed 
 in former times for forcery ; and pafs at this time, in 
 fome countries, for apparitions ? 
 
 Note, When a man looks in a mirror that is pla- 
 ced perpendicular to another, his face will appear 
 entirely deformed. If the mirror be a little inclined, 
 fo as to make an angle of 80 degrees (that is, one- 
 ninth parts from the perpendicular), he will then fee 
 all the parts of his face, except the nofe and forehead. 
 If it be inclined to 60 degrees (that is, one-third part), 
 he will appear with three nofes and fix eyes : in fhort, 
 the apparent deformity will vary at each degree of in- 
 clination ; and when the glafs comes to 45 degrees 
 (that is, half way down), the face will vanifh. If, in- 
 ftead of placing the two mirrors in this fituation, they 
 are fo difpofed that their junftion may be vertical, 
 their different inclinations will produce other effefts ; 
 as the fituation of the object relative to thefe mirrors 
 is quite different. The effefls of thefe mirrors, though 
 remarkable enough, occafions but little furprife, as 
 there is no method of conceahng the caufe by which 
 they are produced. 
 
 VII. Make a box of wood, of a cubical figure, 
 
 TRIG S. 
 
 fixed on the pede^ P, at the ufual height of a man'« 
 head. In each fide of this box let there be an open- 
 ing of an oval form, of ten inches high, and feven 
 wide. 
 
 In this box place two mirrors A, D, with their 
 backs againil each other ; let them crois the box in a 
 diagonal Jine, and in a vertical pofition. Decorate 
 the openings in the fides of this box with four ovai 
 frames and tranfparent glaffes, and cover each of tligni 
 with a curtain, fo contrived that they may all draw 
 up together. 
 
 Place four perfons in front of the four fides, and at 
 equal diftances from the box, and then draw up the 
 curtains that they may fee themfelves in the mirrors ; 
 when each of them, inftead of his own figure, will 
 fee that of tlie perfon who is next him, and wjio, at 
 the fame time, will feem to him to be placed on the 
 oppofite fide. Their confufion will be the greater, as 
 it will be very difficult for them to difcover the mirrors- 
 concealed in the box. The reafon of this ph-jenome- 
 non is evident ; for though the rays of light may be 
 turned afide by a mirror, yet, as we have before faid, 
 they always appear to proceed in right lines. 
 
 VIII. Provide a box ABCD of about two feet long, V[!I. The 
 15 inches wide, and 12 inches high. At the end perfpedivc 
 AC place a concave mirror, the focus of whofe paral- "'ifror, 
 lei rays is at 18 inches from the refleding furface. At ^' ^' 
 IL place a pafteboard blacked, in which a hole is cut 
 fuf&ciently large to fee on the mirror H the objed 
 
 placed at BEFD. 
 
 Cover the top of the box, from A to I, clofe, that 
 the mirror H may be entirely darkened. The other - 
 part IB, muft be covered with a glafs, under which 
 is placed a gauze. 
 
 Make an aperture at G, near the top of the fide E B ; 
 beneath which, on the infide, place, in fucceffion, paint- 
 ings of diff'erent fubjcds, as viftas, landicapes, l^c. fo 
 that they may be in fronc of the mirror H. Let the 
 box be fo placed that the objed may be ftrongly illu- 
 minated by the fun, or by wax hghts placed under the 
 enclofed part of the box AI. 
 
 By this fimple conllrudion the objeds placed at GD 
 will be thrown into their natural perfpedlve ; and if 
 the fubjeds be properly chofen, the appearance will be 
 altogether as pleafing as in optical machines of a much 
 more complicated form. 
 
 Note, A glafs mirror fiiould be always here ufed, 
 as thofe of metal do not reprefent the objeds with 
 equal vivacity, and are befide fubjed to tarnifh. It is 
 alfo neceflary that the box be fufficiently large, that 
 you may not be obliged 10 ufe a mirror whole focu« 
 is too fhort ; for in that cafe, the right lines near the 
 border of the pidure will appear bent in the mirror, 
 which will have a difagreeable effed, and cannot be 
 avoided. 
 
 IX. The rays of a luminous body placed in the fo- ^3 
 cus of a concave mirror being refleded in parallel hues, ^^^.J ^ 
 if a fecond mirror be placed diametrically oppofite the combu;tibIe 
 firft, it will, by coUedlng thofe rays in its focus, fetbody by the 
 fire to a combuftible body. , ^ . u .^woctncavc 
 
 Place two concave mirrors, A and n, at aoout mirrors, 
 12 or 15 feet diitance from each other, and letpig. 18. 
 of each of them be in the fame line. In 
 
 the axis _ 
 
 the focus C of one of them, place a live coal, and 
 ABCD, of about 1 5 inclies every way. Let it be in the focus D of the other, fome gun-powder. With 
 
 ' I a 
 
C A T O P 
 
 a pair of double Uellows, which make a continual blaft, 
 keep conftantly blowing the coal, and notwithftanding 
 tlie diftance between them, the powder will prefently 
 take fire. 
 
 It is not neceffary that thefe mirrors be of metal 
 or brafs, thofe made of wood or paileboard, gild- 
 ed, will produce the explofion, which has fometimes 
 taken effeft at the diftance of 50 feet, when mirrors 
 of 18 inches, or two feet diameter, have been 
 ufed. 
 
 This experiment fucceeds with more difficulty at 
 great diftances ; which may proceed from the moi- 
 fture in a large quantity of air. It would doubtlefs 
 take effeft more readily, if a tin tube, of an equal dia- 
 meter with the mirrors, were to be placed between 
 them. 
 
 '4 X. Behind the partition AB, place, in a pofition 
 
 erealap- fomething oblique, the concave mirror EF, which muft 
 '"9"' be at leall ten inches in diameter, and its diftance from 
 
 the partition equal to thtee-fourihs of the diftance of 
 
 its centre. 
 
 In the partition make an opening of feven or eight 
 Inches, either fquare or circular: it muft face the mir- 
 ror, and be of the fame height with it. Behind this 
 partition place a ftrong light, fo difpofed that it may 
 not be feen at the opening, and may Illumine an ob- 
 jedl placed at C, without throwing any light on the 
 mirror. 
 
 Beneath the aperture in the partiti? 1 place the ob- 
 Jeft C, that you intend ftiall appear on the outfide of 
 the partition, in an inverted pofition ; and which ^ we 
 will fuppofe to be a flower. Before the partition, 
 and beneath the aperture, place a little flower-pot D, 
 the top of which fliould be even with the bottom of 
 the aperture, that the eye, placed at G, may fee the 
 flower in the fame pofition as if its ftalk came out of 
 the pot. 
 
 Take care to paint the fpace between the back part 
 of the partition and the muror black, to prevent any 
 refleftions of light from being thown on the mirror ; 
 in a word, fo difpofe the whole that it may be as little 
 tnhghtened as poflible. 
 
 When a perfon is placed at the point G, he will 
 perceive the flower that is behind the partition, at the 
 top of the pot at D, but on putting out his hand to 
 pluck it, he will find that he attempts to grafp a fha- 
 dow. 
 
 If in the opening of the partition a large double 
 convex lens of a fliort focus be placed, or, which is not 
 quite fo well, a bottle of clear water, the image of the 
 flower refledted thereon will appear much more vivid 
 and diftinft. 
 
 'irvaiicn. The phenomena that may be produced by means 
 of concave mirrors are highly curious and aftonifliing. 
 By their aid, fpeftres of various kinds may be exhi- 
 bited, Suppofe, for example, a perfon with a drawn 
 fword places himfelf before a large concave mirror, but 
 farther from it than its focus ; he will then fee an in- 
 verted image of himfelf in the air, between him and 
 the mirror, of a lefs fize than himfelf. If he fteadily 
 prefent the fwwd towards the centre of the mirror, 
 an image of the fword.vvill come out therefrom towards 
 
 FRIGS. 
 
 the fword in his hand, point to point, as it were to 
 fence with him ; and by his pufliing the fword nearer, 
 the image will appear to come nearer him, and alrnoft 
 to touch his breaft, having a fti iking effeft upon him. 
 If the mirror be turned 45 degrees, or one eighth 
 round, the reflefted image will go out perpendicular to 
 the direftion of the fword prefented, and apparently 
 come to another perfon placed in the direction of the 
 motion of the image. If that perfon is unacquainted 
 with the experiment, and does not fee the original 
 fword, he will be much fuiprifed and alarmed. — This 
 experiment may be another way diverfified, by telling 
 any perfon, that at fuch an hour, and in fuch a place, 
 he fliould fee the apparition of an abfent or deceafecf 
 friend (of whofe portrait you are in poflefiion). In 
 order to produce this phantom, inftead of the hole ia 
 the partition AB in the laft figure, there muft be a 
 door which opens into an apartment to which there is 
 a confiderable defcent. Under that door you are to- 
 place the portrait, which muft be inverted and ftrongly 
 illuminated, that it may be lively reflefted by the mir- 
 ror, which muft be large and well poliflied. Then ha- 
 ving introduced the incredulous fpeftator at another 
 door, and placed him in the proper point of vihv, you 
 fuddenly throw open the door at AB, when, to his 
 great aftonifhment, he will immediately fee the appa- 
 rition of his friend. 
 
 It will be objefted, perhaps, that this is not a per- 
 fcft apparition, becaufe it is only vifible at one point 
 of view, and by one perfon. But it fliould be remem- 
 bered, that it was an eftabliflied maxim in the laft cen- 
 turies, that a fpeftre might be vifible to one perfon and 
 not to others. So Shakefpeare makes both Hamlet 
 and Macbeth fee apparitions that were not vifible to 
 others, prefent at the fame time. It is not unlikely, 
 moreover, that this maxim took its rife from certain ap- 
 paritions of this kind that were raifed by the monks>- 
 to ferve fome purpofes they called i-eligious ; as thty^ 
 alone were in poflefiion of what little learning there 
 then was in the world. 
 
 Opticians fometimes grind a glafs mirror concave in 
 one direftion only, as it is faid longitudinally ; it is in 
 faft a concave portion of a cylinder, the breadth of 
 which may be confidered tliat of the mirror. A per- 
 fon looking at his face in this mirror, in the dire&ion 
 of its concavity, will fee it curioufly diftorted in a very 
 lengthened appearance ; and by turning the cylin- 
 drical mirror a quarter round, his vifage will appear di- 
 ftorted another way, by an apparent increafe in width 
 only. Another curious and Angular property attends 
 this fort of mirrors : If in a very near fitnation before 
 it, you put your finger on the right-hand fide of 
 your nofe, it will appear the fame in the mirror ; but 
 if in a diftant fituation, fomewhat beyond the centre 
 of concavity, you again look at your face in the mirror, 
 your finger will appear to be removed to the other cr 
 left-hand fide of your nofe. This, though foracthing 
 extraordinary, will in its caufe appear very evident from 
 a fmall confideration of the properties of fpherical con- 
 cave mirrors. 
 
 CATOPTROMANCY^ 
 
Cato; tro- 
 mancy 
 II 
 
 Cattivel- 
 launi 
 
 CAT I 2 
 
 CATOPTROMANCY, K..ro^Tf.^«vr««, a kind of 
 divination among the ancients ; fo called, becaufe con- 
 fiding in the application of a mirror. The word is 
 formed from y-ccTo^rlpov, Jpgculum, " mirror," and 
 Tf<a, dlv'matio, "divination." Paufanias fays, it v^as 
 in life among the Achaians ; where thofe who were 
 fick, and in danger of death, let down a mirror, or 
 looking- glafs faftened by a thread, into a fountain be- 
 fore the temple of Ceres ; then, looking in the glals, 
 if they faw a ghallly disfigured face, they took it as a 
 fure fign of death : on the contrary, if the flefli ap- 
 peared frefh and healthy, it was a token of recovery. 
 Sometimes glaffes were ufed without watei*, and the 
 images of things future reprefented in them. See 
 Gastromancy. 
 
 CATROU (Francis), a famous Jefuit,born at Paris 
 in 1659. Pie was engaged for 12 years in the 
 Journal de Trevoiix, and applied himfelf at the fame 
 time to other works, which diftinguifhed him among 
 the learned. He wrote a general Hiflory of the 
 Mogul empire, and a Roman hiftory, in which he was 
 aflifted by Father Rouille a brother Jefuit. Catrou 
 died in 1737 ; and this laft hiftory was continued by 
 >Ronille, who died in 1740, 
 
 CATTERTHUN, a remarkable Caledonian poft, 
 a few miles north of the town of Brechin in the county 
 of Angus in Scotland. Mr Pennant defcribes it as of 
 uncommon ftrength. *' It is (fays he) of an oval 
 form, made of a ftupenduous dike of loofe white ftones, 
 whofe convexity, from the bafe ..within to that with- 
 out, is 122 feet. On the outfide a hollow, made by 
 the difpofition of the ftones, furrounds the whole. 
 Round the bafe is a deep ditch, and below that about 
 •100 yards, are veftiges of another, that went round 
 the hill. The area within the ftony mound is flat ; 
 the axis, or length of the oval, is 436 feet, the tranf- 
 verfe diameter 200. Near the eaft fide is the foun- 
 dation of a redSangular building; and on mofl parts 
 are the foundations of others fmall and circular : all 
 which had once their fuperftruftures, the (helter of the 
 poffefTors of the poft : there is alfo a hollow, now al- 
 TOoft filled with ftones, the well of the place." There 
 is another fortification, but of inferior ftrength, in the 
 neighbourhood. It is called the Broivn Catterthun, 
 from the colour of the ramparts which are compoled 
 only of earth. It is of a circular form, and confifts of 
 various concentric dike«. On one fide of this rifejj a 
 fmall rill, which, running down the hill, has formed a 
 deep gully. From the fide of the fortrefs is another 
 rampart, which extends parallel to the rill, and then re- 
 verts, forming an additional poft or retreat. The mean- 
 ing of the word Catter-thun is Camp-toiun ; znd Mr 
 Pennant thinks thefe might pr- bably be the pofts occu- 
 pied by the Caledonians before their engagement at the 
 foot of the Grampian Mountains with the celebrated 
 Agricola. See (Hi/lory of) Scotland. 
 
 CATTI, a people of Germany, very widely fpread, 
 on the eaft reaching to the river Sala, on the north to 
 Weftphalia ; occupying, befides Heffe, the Wetterau, 
 and part of the traft on the Rhine, and on the banks 
 "of the river Lohne. The Hercynian foreft began and 
 ended in their country. 
 
 CATTIVELLAUNI, anciently a people of Bri- 
 tain, feated in the country which is now divided into 
 ihe counties of Hertford, Bedford, and Bucks. The 
 
 ^° 67. 5 
 
 64 3 CAT 
 
 name of this ancient Britifli people is written in feveral 
 different ways by Greek and Roman authors, being 
 fonietimescalled Catti, Caflii, Catticuclani, Cattidudani, 
 Catticliidani, iSc. That they were of Belgic origin 
 cannot be doubted, and it is not improbable, that they 
 derived their name of Catti from the Belgic word 
 Katten, which fignifies illuftrious or noble, and that 
 the addition of Vellauni, which means on the banks 
 of rivers, might be given them after their arrival in 
 Britain, as defcriptive of the fituation of their coun- 
 try. However this may be, the Cattivellauni formed 
 one of the moft brave and warlike of the ancient Bri- 
 tifli natiorhs when Cvefar invaded Britain, and long af- 
 ter. Caflibelanus, tlieir prince, was made commander 
 in chief of the confederated Britons, not only on ac- 
 count of his own perfopal qualities, but alfo becaufe he 
 was at the head of one of their braveftand moft power- 
 ful tribes. In the inverval between the departure of 
 Casfar and the next invafion under Claudius, the Cat- 
 tivellauni had reduced feveral of the neighbouring ftates 
 under their obedience ; and they again took the lead 
 in the oppofition to the Romans at their fecond inva- 
 fion, under their brave but unfortunate prince Carac- 
 tacus. The country of the Cattivellauni was much 
 frequented and improved by the Romans, after it came 
 undertheirobedience. Verulamium, their capital, which 
 flood near where St Alban's now ftands, became a place 
 of great confideration, was honoured with the name 
 and pivileges o^ a municipium or free city, and had 
 magiftrates after the model of the city of Rome." This 
 place was taken and almoft deftroyed by the infurgents 
 under Boadicia ; but it was afterwards rebuilt, reftored 
 to its form.er fplendor, and furrounded with a ftrong 
 wall, fome veftiges of which are ftill remaining. Du- 
 rocobrivae and Magiavintum, in the fecond iter of An- 
 toninus, were probably Dunftable and Fenny-Stracford, 
 at which places there appear to have been Roman 
 ftations. The Salense of Ptolemy, a town in the coun- 
 try of the Cattivellauni, was perhaps fituated at Salndy, 
 in Bedfordfliire, where feveral Roman antiquities have 
 been found. There were, befides thefe, feveral other 
 Roman forts, ftations, and towns in this country, which 
 it would be tedious to enumerate. The territories of 
 the Cattivellauni made a part of the Roman province 
 called Britannia Prima. 
 
 CATTLE, a coUeftive word, which fignifies the 
 fourfooted animals, which ferve either for tilling the 
 ground, or for food to men. They are diftinguiftied 
 into large, or black cattle ; and into fmall cattle : of 
 the former are horfes, bulls, oxen, cows, and even 
 calves and heifers ; amongfl the latter are rams, ewes, 
 flieep, lambs, goats, kids, ^c. Cattle are the chief 
 ftock of a farm : they who deal in cattle are ftyled 
 graziers. 
 
 CATULLUS (Cains Valerius), a Latin poet, born 
 at Vorona, in the year of Rome 666. The harmony 
 of his numbers acquired him the efteem and friend- 
 ^ fliip of Cicero, and other great men of his time. Ma- 
 ny of his poems, however, abound with grofs obfceni- 
 ties. He wrote fatlrical verfes againft Cajfar, under 
 the name of Marmoro. He fpent his whole life in a* 
 ftate of poverty ; and died in the flower of his age, and 
 the height of his reputation. Jofeph Scaliger, Paf- 
 ferat, Muret, and Ifaac Vofiius, have written learned 
 notes on this poet. 
 
 CATZ 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Catullus, 
 
Catz 
 
 tl 
 
 avalcaiite 
 
 • CAT [ 26:5 ] C A 
 
 CATZ (James), a great civilian, politician, and fome verfes \vhich are efleemed. 
 Dutch poet, was born at Browerflaaven, in Zealand, 
 
 V 
 
 poet 
 
 , in the year 1577. After having made feveral voy- 
 ages, he fixed at Middleburg ; and acquired by his 
 pleadings fuch reputation, th:it the city of Dort chofe 
 him for its penfionary ; as did alfo, fome time after, 
 that of Middleburg. In 1634, ^^'^ ^"'^^ nominated pen- 
 fionary of Holland and Weil Frielland ; and in 1648, 
 he was eledied keeper of the feal of the fame Hate, and 
 lladtholder of the fiefs : but fome time after, he re- 
 figned thefe employments, to enjoy the repofe which 
 his advanced age demanded. As the poft of grand 
 penfionary had been fatal to almoH all thofe who had 
 enjoyed it, from the beginning of the republic till that 
 time, Catz delivered up his charge on his knees, be- 
 fore the whole alferably of the ftates, weeping for 
 joy, and thanking God for having prefervad him from 
 the inconveniences that feerned attached to the duties 
 of that office. But though he was refolved to fpend 
 the reft of his days in repofe, the love of his country 
 engaged him to comply with the defires of the itate, 
 •who importuned him to go on an embaffy to England, 
 in the delicate conjunfture in which the republic found 
 itfelf during the proteftorate of Cromwell. At his 
 return, he retired to his fine country feat at Sorgvliet, 
 where he lived in tranquillity till the year 1 660, in 
 which he died. He wrote a great nimiber of poems 
 in Dutch ; mofh of which are on moral fubjefts, and 
 fo efteemed, that they have been often printed in all 
 the different fizes ; and next to the Bible, there is no 
 work fo highly valued by the Dutch. 
 
 CATZENELLIBOGEN, a town of Germany, in 
 the lower part of the upper circle of the Rhine, with 
 a ftrong caftle. It is capital of a county of the fame 
 name. E. Long. 7.38. N. Lat. 50. 20. 
 
 CAVA, in anatomy, the name of a vein, the lar- 
 geft in the body, terminating in the right ventricle of 
 the heart. See Anatomy, p. 751. col. 2. 
 
 Cava, a confiderable and populous town of Italy, 
 in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Princi- 
 pato, with a bifliop's fee. It is fituated at the foot 
 of Mount Metclian, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 40. 
 40. 
 
 CAVAILLAN, a town of France In Contal Ve- 
 naiffin, with a bifliop's fee. It is fituated on the river 
 Durance, in a fertile and pleafant country. E. Long. 
 4. 17. N. Lat. 43. 52. 
 
 CAVALCADE, a formal pompous march or pro- 
 celllon of horfemen, equipages, &c. by way of parade, 
 or ceremony, <is a grace to a triumph, public entry, 
 or the like- 
 
 CAVALCADOUR, or Cava load EUR, ancient- 
 ly denoted a riding-mafter ; but at prcfent Is difufed 
 in that fenfe, and only employed to denote a fort of 
 equerries or officers who have the direftion of princes 
 ^Hables. The French fay, ecuyer cavakadeur of the 
 king, the duke of Orleans, &c. Menage writes it ca- 
 vja/cac/our, and derives it from the Spanifh cavalgadort 
 u horfeman. 
 
 CAVALCA NTE (Guido), a nobleman of Florence 
 in the 13th century, who having followed the party 
 of the Guelfes, experienced the changeablenefs of for- 
 tune. Ke fiiowed great Itrength of mind in his mis- 
 fortunes, and never negleAed to improve his talents. 
 He wrote a treatife in Italian concerning ftyle, and 
 
 Vol. iV. Pact L 
 
 His poem on the 
 
 love of this world, has been commented on by feve- 
 ral learned men. , 
 CAVALIER, a horfeman, or perfon mounted on 
 horfeback ; efpecially if he be armed withal, and have 
 a military appearance. 
 
 Anciently, the word was reftrained to a knight, 
 or miles, Tlie French ftill ufe Chevalier in the fame 
 fenfe. 
 
 Cavalier, confidered as a faftion. See Britain, 
 
 o 
 
 n 109. 
 
 Cavalier, in fortification, an elevation of earth of 
 different fhapes, fituated ordinarily in the gorge of a 
 baftion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more 
 or lefs embrafures, according to the capacity of the 
 cavalier. Cavaliers are a double defence for the faces 
 of the oppofite baftion : they defend the ditch, break 
 the befiegers galleries, command the traverfes in dry 
 moats, fcour the faliant angle of the counterfcarp, 
 where the befiegers have their counter-batteries, and 
 enfilade the enemies trenches, or oblige them to mul- 
 tiply their parallels : they are likewife very fervice- 
 able in defending the breach and the retrenchments 
 of the befieged, and can very much incommode the en- 
 trenchments which the enemy make, being lodged in 
 the baftion. 
 
 Cavalier, in the manege, one that underftands 
 horfes, and is praftifed in the art of riding them. 
 
 CAVALIERI ( Bonaventure), an eminent mathe- 
 matician in the 1 7th century, a native of Milan, and 
 a friar of the order of the Jefuati of St Jerome, was 
 profeffor of mathematics at Bologna, where he pub- 
 lifhed feveral mathematical books, particularly the 
 Method of Indivijibles, He was a fcholar of Galileo. 
 His DireEloriutn generale Uranometricum contains great 
 variety of moll ufeful pradlices in trigonometry a^id 
 aftronomy. His trigonometrical tables in that work 
 are excellent. 
 
 CAVALRY, a body of fold lers that charge on 
 horfeback. The word comes from the French, ca- 
 vakrie, and that from the corrupt Latin, caballus^ a 
 horfe. 
 
 The Roman cavalry confifted wholly of thofe cal- 
 led eqiiites, or knights, who were a diftin6l order ia 
 the diftribution of citizens. — The Grecian cavalry were 
 divided into cataphra£la and non cataphrcMa, i. e. into 
 heavy and hght armed. — Of all the Greeks, the Thef- 
 falians excelled moft in cavalry. The Liicedemonians, 
 inhabiting a mountainous country, were but meaulv 
 furniflied with cavaliy, till, carrying their arms into 
 other countries, they found great occafion for horfes 
 to fupport and cover their foot. The Athenian ca- 
 valry, for a confiderable time, confifted only of 96 
 horfemen: after expelling the Perfians out of Greece, 
 they increafed the number to 300 ; and afterwards tu 
 1200, which was the higheft pitch of the Athenian 
 cavalry. The Turkilli cavalry coufilts partly of Spa- 
 his, and partly of herfemen raifed and maint^iined by 
 the Zaims and Timariots. 
 
 The chief ufe of the cavalry is to make frequent 
 excurfions to dlilurb the enemy, intercept his con- 
 voys, and deftroy the country : in battle to fupport 
 and cover the foot, and to break througli and difcr- 
 der the enemy ; alfo to fecure the retreat of the foot. 
 Formerly, the .manner of the fighting of the cavaliy 
 L 1 was 
 
 Cavah'er 
 
 II 
 
 Caval-y. 
 
 « 
 
G A V 
 
 [ 266 ] 
 
 C A V 
 
 Cavan was, after firing their piilols or carabines, to wheel off, 
 " to give opportunity for loading again. Guftavus A- 
 Cau tlex. jgjp^^ug jj, f^id to have firft taught the cavahy to charge 
 through, to march ftraight up to the enemy, with the 
 ' " fvvord drawn in the bridlehand, and each man having 
 fired his piece, at the proper diftance, to betake him.- 
 fclf to his fword, and charge the enemy as was found 
 moft advantageous. 
 
 CAVAN, a town of Ireland, and capital of a coun- 
 ty of the fame name, in the province of Ulfter, fitua- 
 te'd in W. Long. 7. 32. N. Lat. 5. 04. 
 
 Cavan, a county of Ireland, 47 miles in length, 
 and 23 in breadth; is bounded on the eaft by Monag- 
 han, and on the fouth by Longford, Weft-Meath, 
 and Eaft-Meath. It has but two towns of any note, 
 viz. Cavan and Kilmore. It fends five members to 
 parliament ; two for the county, two for Cavan, and 
 one for Kilmore. It contains upwards of 8goo houfes, 
 3 7 pariflies, feven baronies, and two boroughs. 
 
 CAUCA SUS, the name of a very high mountain of 
 Aha, being one of that great ridge which runs between 
 . the Black and Cafpian feas. Sir John Charindin de- 
 fcribes this as the higheft mountain, and the moft dif- 
 ficult to pafs, of any he had feen. It has frightful 
 precipices, and in many places the roads are cut out 
 of the folid rock. At the time he pafTed it, the moun- 
 tain was entirely covered with fnow; fo that, in many 
 places, his guides behoved to clear the way with /ho- 
 vels. The mountain is 36 leagues over, and the fum- 
 mit of it eight leagues in breadth. The top is perpe- 
 tually covered with fnow ; and our traveller relates, 
 that the two lall days he feemed to be in the clouds, 
 and was not able to fee 20 paces before him. Excep- 
 ting the very top, however, all the parts of Mount 
 Caucafus are extremely fruitful ; abounding in honey, 
 corn, fruits, hogs, and large cattle. The vines twine 
 about the trees, and rife fo high, that the inhabitants 
 cannot gather the fruit from the uppermoft branches.. 
 There are many ftreams of excellent water, and a 
 vaft number of villages. The inhabitants are for the 
 moft part Chriftians of the Georgian Church. They 
 have fine completions, and the women are very 
 
 beautiful. In the winter they wear fnow-fiiows in 
 
 the form of rackets, which prevent tlieir finking in 
 the fnow, and enable them to run upon it with great 
 fwiftnefs. 
 
 CAUDEBEC,a rich, populous, and trading town in 
 Normandy, and capital of the territory of Caux. It 
 is fcated at the foot of a mountain near the river 
 Seine, in E. Long. o. 46. N. Lat. 40. 30. 
 
 CAUDEX, by Malphigi and other botanifts, is u- 
 fed to fignify the ftem or trunk of a tree : by Linnce- 
 us, the ftock or body of the root, part of which a- 
 fcends, part defcends. The afcending part raifes it- 
 felf gradually above ground, ferving frequently for a 
 trunk, and corrcfponds in fome meafurc to the cauc/^x 
 of former writers : the dtfccnding part ftrikes gradu- 
 ally dovifnward into the ground, and puts forth ra- 
 dicles or fmall fibres', which are the principal and ef- 
 fential part of every root. The defcending caudex 
 therefore correfponds to the radix of other botanifts* 
 Agreeably to this idea, Linnaetis confiders trees and 
 fiirubs as roots above ground ; an opinion which is 
 confirmed by a v/ell-known faft, that trees, when in- 
 verted, put forth leave?, from the defcending caudex, 
 
 and radicles or roots from the afcending. For the va- Cauclium, 
 rieties in the defcending caudex, fee the article Ra- Cave. 
 
 DIX. V^— ' 
 
 CAUDIUM (anc. geog.), a town of Samnium, on 
 the Via Appia, between Calatia and Beneventum : 
 Caud'mus, the epithet. The Caudinae Furcae, or Fur- 
 culae, were memorable by the difgrace of the Ro- 
 mans ; being fpears difpofed in the form of a gallows 
 under which prifoners of war were made to pafs, and 
 gave name to a defile or narrow pafs near Caudlum^ 
 Livy ; where the Samnites obliged the Roman army 
 and the two confuls to lay down their arms and pafs 
 under the gallows, or yoke, as a token of fubjec- 
 tion. 
 
 CAVE, any large fubterrarieous hollow. Thefe 
 were undoubtedly the primitive habitations, before 
 men began to budd edifices above ground. The pri- 
 mitive method of burial was alfo to repofite the bodies 
 in caves, which feems to h^ve been the origin of cata- 
 combs. They long continued the proper habitations 
 of (hepherds. Among the Romans, caves (antra) 
 ufed to be confecrated to nymphs, who were wor- 
 fhipped in caves, as other gods were in temples. The 
 Perfians alfi^^^wor (hipped their god Mithras in' a na- 
 tural cave confecrated for the purpofe by Zoroafter. 
 The cave of the nymph Egeria is ftill Ihown at 
 Rome. Kircher, after GafFareilus, enumerates divers 
 fpecies of caves ; as divine, natural, &c. — Of natu- 
 ral caves fome are poffefTed of a medicinal virtue, a9 
 the Grotto de Serpente ; others are poifonous or me- 
 phitical ; fome are replete with metalline exhalations, 
 and others with waters. Divine caves were thofe 
 faid to affeft the human mind and paffions in various 
 ways, and ever to infpire with a knowledge of future 
 events. Such were the facred caverns at Delphi which 
 infpired the Pythia ; the Sibyl's cave at Cumae, ftill 
 Ihown near the lake Avernus ; the cave of Tropho- 
 nius, &c. 
 
 Cave (Dr William), a learned Englifh divine born 
 in 1637, educated in St John's college Cambridge; 
 and fucceflively minifter of Hafely in OxfordOiire, All- 
 hallows the Great in London, and of Iflington. He be- 
 came chaplain to Charles II. and in 1684 was inftalled 
 a canon of Windfor. He compiled the Lines of the 
 Primitive Fathers in the three jirft centuries of the church, 
 which is efteemed a very ufeful work; and Hijloria Li- 
 teraria, &c. in which he gives an exaft account of all 
 who had written for or againft Chrillianity, from the 
 time of Chrift to the 14th century : which works pro- 
 duced a warm controverfy between Dr Cave and M. Le 
 Clerc, who was then writing his Bihliotheque Xlniver- 
 felle in Holland, and who charged the do ft or with par- 
 tiahty. Dr Cave died in 1 7 1 3. 
 
 CAVE (Edward), printer, celebrated as the pro- 
 jeftor of the Gentleman's Magazine, — the firft publi- 
 cation of the fpecies, and fince 
 
 The fruitiul mother of a thoufand more, 
 
 was born in 1 69 1 . Hisfather being difappointedof fome 
 fmall family -expe£tations,wasrcduced to follow the trade 
 of a flioemaker at Rugby in Warwickfhire. The free 
 fchool of this place, in which his fon had, by the rules 
 of its foundation, a right to be inftrufted, was then in 
 high reputation, under the Rev. Mr Holyock, to whofe 
 care moft of the neighbouring families, even of tlie 
 higheft rank, entrufted their fans. He had judgment 
 
C A V [ 2 
 
 Cave, to difcover, and for fome time generofiLy to encourage, 
 ■""vr—"^ the genius of young Cave ; and was fo well pleafed 
 with his quick progrefs in the fchool, tliat he declared 
 his refolution to bi'eed him for the univerfity, and re- 
 commend him as a fervitor to fome of his fcholars of 
 high rank. But profperity which depends upon the 
 caprice of others, is of fluort duration. Cave's fupe- 
 riority in literature exalted him to an invidioi-is fami- 
 liarity with boys who were far above him in rank and 
 expectations ; and, as in unequal affociatlons it always 
 . happens, whatever unlucky prank was played was im- 
 puted to Cave. When any mifchief, great or fmall, 
 was done, though perhaps others boafted of the ftrata- 
 gem when it was fuccefsful, yet upon detection or mif- 
 carriage, the fault was fure to fall upon poor Cave. 
 The harfli treatment he experienced from this fource, 
 and which he bore for a while, made him at lafl leave 
 the fchool, and the hope of a literary education, to 
 feek fome other means of gaining a livelihood. 
 
 He was firll placed with a collcftor of the excife : 
 tjut the infoknce of his miftrefs, who employed him in 
 fervile drudgery, quickly difgufted him, and he went 
 . up to London in queft of more fuitable employment. 
 He . was recommended to a timber-merchant at the 
 Bankfide : and while he was thereon liking, is faid to 
 have given hopes of great mercantile abilities : but 
 this place he foon left, and was bound apprentice to 
 Mr Collins, a printer of iome reputation, and deputy 
 alderman. This was a trade for which men were for- 
 merly qualified by a literary education, and which was 
 pleafing to Cave, becaufe it furniihed fome employ- 
 ment for his fcholaliic attainments. Here, therefore, 
 he refolved to fettle, though his mailer and raiilrefs 
 lived in perpetual difcord, and their houfe was there- 
 fore no comfortable habitation. From the inconve- 
 niences of thefe domeftic tumults he was foon releafed, 
 liaving in only two years attained fo much fldll in his 
 art, and gained fo much the confidence of his mailer, 
 that he was fent without any fuperintendant to con- 
 du£l a printing-houfe at Norwich, and pubhfli a weekly 
 paper. In this undertaking he met with fome oppo- 
 fition, which produced a public controverfy, and pro- 
 cured young Cave the reputation of a writer. 
 
 His mailer died before his apprenticefhip was ex- 
 pired, and he was not able to bear the perverfenefs of 
 his miftrefs. He therefore quitted her houfe upon a 
 ftipulated allowance, and married a young widow witk 
 whom he lived at Bow. When his apprenticefhip was 
 over, he worked as a journeyman at the printing-houfe 
 «f Mr Barber, a man much diftinguifhed and employ- 
 ed by the Tories, whofe principles had at that time fo. 
 much prevalence with Cave, that he was for fome 
 years a writer in Mift's Journal. He afterwards ob- 
 tained by his wife's intereft a fmall place in the poft- 
 office ; but ftill continued, at his intervals of attend- 
 ance, to exercife his trade or to employ himfelf with 
 fome typographical b.uilnels. He correfted the Gra- 
 dus ad Parnajfum : and was liberally rewarded by the 
 company of ftationers. He wrote an Account of the 
 Criminals, which had for fome time a confiderable fale ; 
 and publiflied many little pamplJets that accident 
 brought into his hands, of which it would be very dif- 
 ficult to recover the memory. By the corrcfpondence 
 which his place in the poft-offict facihtated, he pro- 
 
 C A V 
 
 cured a country- news-paper, and fold their intelligence 
 to a journaliil in London for a guinea a week. PL" 
 was afterwards i*aifed to the office of clerk of th- 
 franks, in which he adled with great fpirit and firm- 
 nefs ; and oftea ftopped franks which were given by 
 members of parliament to their friends, becaufe he 
 thought fuch extenfioji of a peculiar right illegal. This 
 raifed many complaints ; and the influence that v/as 
 exerted againll him procured ius ejetbnent from office. 
 He had nov/, however, colledled a funi fvifficient for the 
 purchafe of a fiiiall printing-office, and began the Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine ; an undertaking to which he owed 
 the aflluence in which he paffed the lall 20 years of his 
 life, and the large fortune which he left behind him. 
 When he fovnned the projedl, he was fur from cxpeding 
 the fuccefs which he found ; and others had fo little 
 profpe6l of its confequence, that though he had for fe- 
 veral years talked of his plan among printers and 
 bookfellers, none of them thought it worth the trial. 
 That they were not (fays Dr Johnfon) reflrained by 
 their virtue from the execution of another man's defign, 
 was fuiTiciently apparent as foon as that defign began 
 to be gainful ; for in a few years a multitude of maga- 
 zines arofe, and perifhed : only the I^ondon Magazine, 
 fupported by a powerful affocialion of bookfellers, and 
 circulated with all the art and all the cunning of trade, 
 exempted itfelf from the general fate of Cave's inva- 
 ders, and obtained though not an equal yet a confider- 
 able fale. 
 
 Cave now "began to afpire to popularity ; and be- 
 ing a greater lover of poetiy than any other art, he 
 foraetimes offered fubjetls for poents, and propofed 
 prizes for the bell performers. The firfl prize was 
 50 L for which, being but newly acquainted with 
 wtaltli, and thinking the influence of 50I. extremely 
 great, he expedled the firft authors of the kingdom to 
 appear as competitors ; and offered the allotment of 
 the prize to the univerfities. But when the time came, 
 no name was feen among, the writers that had been ever 
 feen before ; the univerfities and feveral private mea. 
 rejefted the province of affigning the prize. The de- 
 termination was then left to Dr Cromwell Mortimer 
 andDr Birch; and by the latter the award was made, 
 which may be feen in Gent. Mag. Vol. VI. p. 59. 
 
 Mr Cave continued to improve his Magazine, and 
 had the fatisfaftion of feeing its fuccefs proportionate 
 to his diligence, till in 1751 his wife died of an aflhma. 
 He feemed not at firft much afFefted by her death, but 
 in a few days loft his fleep and his appetite, which 
 he never recovered. After having lingered about 
 two years, with many viciflitudes of amendment and 
 relapfe, he fell by drinking acid liquors into a diar- 
 rhoea, and afterwards into a kind of lethargic infenfi- 
 bility ; and died Jan. 10. 1754, having juft concluded 
 the 23d annual coUedlion. 
 
 CAVEARE. See Caviare. 
 
 CAVEAT, in law, a kind of procefs in the fpiri- 
 tual courts, to ftop the proving of a will, the grantr 
 ing tithes of adminiftration, &c. to the prejudice of 
 another. It is alfo ufed to ftop the inflitution of a 
 clerk to a benefice. 
 
 CAVEATING, ■ in fencing, is the lifting the 
 fword from one fide of that of your adverfary to the 
 otlier. 
 
 L 1 2 CA- 
 
 Cave 
 
 Caveatin;^., 
 
C A V 
 
 i 268 ] 
 
 C A V 
 
 Cavedo, 
 
 Cavendifh'. 
 
 Cx'VVEDO, ia commerce, a Portuguefe long mea- 
 fure, equal to 27^^^^;% Englifh inches. 
 
 CAVENDISH (Thomas), of Suffolk, the fecond 
 Engliiliman that failed round the globe, was defcer.ded 
 from a noble family in Dcvonfliire. Having diflipated 
 his fortune, he refolved to repair it at the expeace of 
 the vSpaniards. He failed from Plymouth with two 
 fmall (hips in July 1586; paficd through the ftraits of 
 Magellan ; took many rich prizes along the coafts of 
 Chili and Peru ; and near California poffefTed himfclf 
 of the St Ann, an Acapulco fnip, with a cargo of im- 
 menfe value. He completed the cii-cumnavigation of 
 the globe, by returning home round the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and reached Plymouth again in September 
 1588. On his arrival, it is faid, that his foldiers and 
 failors were clothed in fdk, his fails were damaflc, and 
 his topmaft was covered with cloth of gold. His ac- 
 quired riches did not laft long: he reduced himfelf, in 
 1591, to the expedient of another voyage ; which was 
 far from being fo fuccefsful as the former ; he went 
 no farther than the ftraits of Magellan, where the 
 weather obliging him to return, he died of grief on the 
 coaft of Brazil. 
 
 Cavendish (Sir William), defcended of an ancient 
 and honourable family, was born about the year x 505, 
 the fecond fon of Thomas Cavendifla, of Cavendifh in 
 Suffolk, clerk of the pipe in the reign of Henry VIH, 
 Having had a liberal education, he was taken into the 
 family of the great cardinal Woolfey, whom he ferved 
 in the capacity of gentleman-ufher of the chamber, 
 when that fuperb prelate maintained the dignity of a 
 prince. In 1527, he attended his mailer on hisfplen- 
 did embaffy to France, returned with him to England, 
 and was one of the few who continued faithful to him 
 in his difgrace. Mr Cavendifh was with him when 
 he died, and delayed going to court till he had per- 
 formed the laft duty of a faithful fervanl by feeing his 
 body decently interred. The king was fo far from 
 difapproving of his conduft, that he immediately took 
 him into his houfehold, made him treafurer of his 
 chamber, a privy-counfellor, and afterwards conferred 
 on him the order of knighthood. He was alfo ap- 
 pointed one of the commiffioners for taking the fur- 
 render of i-eligious houfes. In 1540 he was nominated 
 one of the auditors of the court of augmentations, and 
 foon after obtained a grant of feveral confiderable 
 lordfhips in Hertfordfhire. In the reign of Edward VI. 
 his eftateswere much increafed by royal grants in feven 
 different counties ; and he appeal's to have continued 
 in high favour at court during the reign of queen 
 Mary. He died in the year 1557. He was the foun- 
 der of Chatfworth, and anceftor of the dukes of De- 
 vonfhire. He wrota " The life and death of cardinal 
 Woolfey printed at London 1 667 ; reprinted ia 
 1706, under the title of •* Memoirs of the great fa- 
 vourite cardinal Woolfey." 
 
 Cavendish (William), duke of Newcaftlc, grand- 
 fon of Sir William Cavendifh, was born in 1592. In 
 1610, he was made knight of the bath; in 1620, 
 raifed to the dignity of a peer, by the title of baron 
 Ogle, and vifcount Mansfield ; and in the third year 
 of king Charles I. created earl of Newcaftle upon 
 Tyne, and baron Cavendifh of Bolefover. He was 
 after this made governor to the prince of Wales, af- 
 terwards Charles II, When the firft troubles broke 
 
 out in Scotland, and the king's treafury was but indlf- CavendlTk. 
 ferently provided, he contributed ten thoufaud pounds; ' ^ ' 
 and alfo raifed a troop of horfe, confifling of about 
 two hundred knights and gentlemen, who ferved at 
 their own charge, were commanded by the earl, and 
 honoured with the title of the prince's troop. He had' 
 after this the command of the northern counties ; and- 
 was conttituted general and " commander in chief of all 
 the forces that might be raifed north of Trent, and of 
 feveral counties fouth of that river. He afterwards 
 raifed an army of eight thoufand horfe, foot, and dra- 
 goons ; with which he took fome towns, and gained: 
 feveral important vi£lories. On this he was advanced 
 to the dignity of marquis of Newcaflle : but his ma-- 
 jcfty's affairs being totally ruined by the raflmefs of 
 prince Rupert, he, with a few of the principal ofticers- 
 of the army, went abroad, and flaid for fome time at 
 Paris ; where, notwithftanding the vaft eftate he had 
 when the civil war broke out, his circumftances were 
 now fo bad, that himfelf and wife were reduced to the 
 noceffity of pawning their clothes for a dinner. He 
 afterwards removed to Antwerp^ that he might be 
 nearer his own country ; and there, though under 
 great difficulties, refided for feveral years : but, net- 
 withftanding his diib^efTes, he was treated, during an. 
 exile of eighteen years, with extraordinary marks of 
 diftinftion. On his return to England at the reftora-- 
 tion, he was advanced to the dignity of earl of Ogle 
 and duke of Newcaftle. He fpent his time in a coun- 
 try retirement, and was the patron of men of merit. 
 Hi^ grace died in 1 679, aged 84. He wrote a trea- 
 tife on horfemanfliip, which is efteemed; and fome co- 
 medies, which are not. 
 
 Mr Granger obferves, that he was mafter of many 
 accomplifhments, and was much better qualified for a 
 court than a camp : that he underftood horfemanfhip* 
 mufic, and poetry ; but was a better horfcman than 
 mufician, and a better mufician than poet. 
 
 Cavendish (Margaret), duchefs of Newcaftle, fa- 
 mous for her voluminous prodr.ftions, was born about 
 the latter end of the reign of James 1. and was the 
 youngeft lifter of Lord Lucas of Colchefter. She 
 married the duke of Newcaftle abroad in 1 645 ; and 
 on their retoi-n after the reftoration, fpent the remain- 
 der of her life in writing plays, poems, with the life 
 of her hufband, to the amount of about a dozen of 
 folios. *' What gives the beft idea of her unbounded 
 pafTion for fcribbling (fays Mr Walpole), was heriel- 
 dora revifing the copies of her works, left, as fhe faid, 
 it fhould difturb her following conceptions." She 
 di?d in 1673. 
 
 Cavendish (William), the firft dukeof Devonfhire, 
 and one of the moft diftinguifhed patriots in the Bri- 
 tifli annals, was born in 1640. In 1 67 7, being then 
 member for Derby, he vigoroufly oppofed the venal 
 meafures of the court ; and, the following year, was 
 one of the committee appointed to draw up articlea of 
 impeachment againft the lord treafurer Danby. In 
 1679, being re-elefted to ferve for Derby in a new 
 parliament, Charles II. thought fit to make him a 
 privy counfellor ; but he foon withdrew from the boardy 
 with his friend lord Ruffel, when he found that popi/h 
 intereft prevailed. He carried up the articles of im- 
 peachment to the houfe of lords, againft Igid chief 
 juftice Scroggs, fgr his arbitrary and illegal proceed- 
 • ' ' ing* 
 
avendlfli 
 II 
 
 Caviare . 
 
 C A V [2 
 
 ihgs ia the court of king's bench ; and when the king 
 declai-ed his refolution not to fign the bill for exchid- 
 ing the Duke of York (afterwards James II.), he mo- 
 ved the houfe of commons, that a bill might be brought 
 in for the aifociation of all his majefty's proteftant fub- 
 jefts. He alfo openly named the king's evil counfel- 
 lors, and" voted for an addrefs to remove them from 
 his prefence and councils for ever. He nobly appear- 
 ed at lord RufTel's trial, in defence of that great man, 
 nt a time when it was fcarce more criminal to be an 
 accomplice than a witnefs for him. The fame forti- 
 tude, activity, and love of his country, animated this 
 iilullrlous patriot to oppofe the arbitrary proceedings 
 of Jarnes II. ; and when he faw there wus no other 
 method of faving the nation from impending flavery, 
 he was the foremoft in the alTociation for inviting over- 
 flie prince of Orange, and the firft nobleman who ap- 
 peared in. arms to receive him at his landing. He 
 was created Duke of Devonlhire in 1694, by William 
 and Mary. His lait public ferviee was in the union 
 with Scotland, for concluding of which he was appoint- 
 ed a commifiioner by queen Anne. He died in 1707, 
 and ordered the following infcription to be put on his 
 jnonumcnt. 
 
 IVillielmus Dux Devon, 
 Bonot um Pr'mc'tpim Fldtlls Suhd'itus^, 
 Inhn'icus tt hivlfus Tyrannis. 
 WiUiam Duke of Devonfhire, 
 Of good Princes the faithful Subject, 
 The Enemy and Averfion of Tyrants, 
 
 Befides being thus eftimable for public virtues, his 
 grace was diftinguiihed by his literary accomplilhments. 
 He had a poetical genius, which fhowed itfelf particu- 
 larly in two pieces, written with equal fpirit, dignity, 
 and delicacy : thefe are, an, ode on the death of queen 
 Mary ; and an allufion to the archbifkop of Cambray's 
 fupplement to Homer. He had great knowledge ia 
 the languages, was a true judge in hillory, and a critic 
 in poetry ; he had a fine hand in mufic, an. elegant 
 tafte in painting, and in architefture had a (kill equal 
 to any perfon of the age in which he lived. His pre- 
 deceflbr, Sir John Cavendlfii, was the perfon who kill-, 
 ed the famous Watt Tyler in 1381. 
 
 CAVETTO, in architefture, a hollow member, 05 
 round concave moulding, containing a quadrant of a 
 circle, and having a quite contrary effefl to that of a 
 quarter round : it is ufed as an ornament in cornices. 
 
 CAVEZON, in the manege, a fort of nofe-band, 
 either of iron, leather, or wood, fometimes flat, and 
 at other times hollow or twilled, clapt upon the nofe 
 of a horfe to wring it, and fo forward the fuppling 
 and breaking of tlie horfe. 
 
 CAVIARE, a kind of food lately introduced into 
 Britain. It is made of the hard roes of Iturgeon *, 
 formed into fmallcakes, about an inch thick and three 
 or four inches broad. The method of making it is, 
 by taking out of the fpawn all the nerves or Itrings, 
 then wafhing it in white-wine or vinegar, and fpread- 
 ing it on a table. It is then falted and prefled in a 
 fine bag ; after which it^ is cafed up in a veffel with a 
 hole at the bottom, that if any moiiture is left it may 
 run out. This kind of food is in great requeil among 
 the Mofcovites, on ac<:ount of their three lents, which 
 they keep with a fuperftitious exa^li>€fs>; wherefore 
 the Italians fettled at Mofcow drive a very great trade 
 "in this coramodity throughout that empire, tbtrc being 
 
 Caurfine<s 
 
 69 I C A V 
 
 a prodigious quantity of fturgeon taken at the mouth Cavidd* 
 of the Wolga and other rivers which fall into the Cal- 
 pian fea. A pretty large quantity of the commodity 
 is alfo confumed in Italy and France. They get the 
 caviare from Archangel, but commonly buy it at fc- 
 cond hand of the Englilli and Dutch. — According to 
 Savary, the beft caviare brought from Mufcovy ia pre- 
 pared from the belluga, a fiih eight or ten feet long, 
 caught in the Cafpian fea,. which is much preferable 
 to that made of the fpawu of Iturgeon. A kind of 
 caviare, or rather faufage, Is alfo made from the fpawn 
 of forae other filhes:; particularly a fort of mullet 
 caught in the Mediterranean, See Mugil and Bo- 
 
 TARGO. 
 
 Infett Cafi irf.. See Axayacatl. • 
 CAVIDOS. See Cabidos. 
 
 CAVIL, [cavi/Iatio) y is defined by feme a fallacious 
 kind of reafon, canyiug fome refemblance of truth, . 
 which a perfon, knowing its falfehood, advances in dif- 
 pute for the fake of vlftory. . The art of framing fo- 
 phifms or fallacies is called by Boethius cav'tllatoria. 
 
 CAUK, or Cawk. See Terra Pondeblosa, and 
 Chemstry, Index. . 
 
 CAUKING, or Caulking, of a JJnp, is driving a 
 quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwifled and drawn 
 afunder, into the feams of the planks^ or into the in- 
 tervals where the planks are joined together in the 
 fhip's decks or fides, in order to prevent the entrance 
 of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into 
 thefe feams, it . is covered with hot melted pitch or 
 rofin,. tokeep the wat«r from rotting it,. 
 
 Among the ancients, the .firll, who madeufe of pitch 
 in caulking, were , the inhabitants- of Phceacia, after- 
 wards called Corfica. Wax and rofin appear to have 
 been commonl;^ ufed prewous to tliat period ; and the 
 Poles at this time ufe a fort of un£luous play for the 
 fame purpofe, on their navigable rivers, ■ 
 
 CAUj.KiNG-Irons, .are iron chlffels- for that purpofe^ 
 Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and others 
 grooved.;. After the feams are flopped with oakum, , 
 it Is done over with a mixture of tallow, pitch, and tar, 
 as low as the fliip draw-s water. 
 
 CAULr in anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen, 
 covering the greatefl part of the guts j called, from its 
 ftrudlure, Reiiculum, but mofl frequently Omentum. See 
 Anatomy, n^ 90. 
 
 Caul is likewife a little membrane, found on fome 
 children, encompaffing the head when born. 
 
 Drelincourt takes the caul to he only a fragment of 
 the membranes of the foetus ; v/hlch ordinarily break 
 at the birth of the child. Lampridius tells us, that 
 the midwives fold \.\iv% caul s^t a good price to the ad- 
 vocates and pleaders of his time ; it being an opinion, ■ 
 that while they had this about them, they fhould carry 
 with them a force of perfuafion which no judge could 
 withftand : the canons forbid the ufe of it ; becaufe 
 fome witches and forcerers, it feems, had abufed it. 
 
 CAULIFLOWERS, in garde ning, a much efteem- - 
 ed fpecies of cabbage. See Brassica. 
 
 CAURIS, in natural hiftory, a name given by fome 
 to the genus of fliells called, by the generality of wvi- 
 tcra, porcellana, aixd conc/ja venerea. It is from a falfe 
 pronunciation of this word caurls that we call thefe 
 Ihells^g-owr/fj-. See PoRCF.LAiN-Shell. 
 
 CAURSINES, [Courfmi), were Italians that caisue 
 into England about the year 1235, terming themfelves.. 
 
C A U L 270 ] C A U. 
 
 CiuiA the Pope's merchants y but driving no other trade than our curiofity, is, that we may know when to expeft Caufe. 
 lettino- out money ; and having great banks in Eng- them, or how to bring them about. This is very often — — 
 ,^ land, 'they differed little from Jews, fave (as' hiflory of real importance in life ; and this purpofe is ferved, 
 fays) they were rather more mercilefs to their debtors, by knowing what, by the courfe of nature, goes be- 
 Some will have them called Courjinesy quafi Caufa Ur- fore them and is connefted with them; and this, there- 
 Jin't, bearifn and cruel in their caufes ; others Caorfin't fore, we call the caufe of fuch a phenomenon. 
 or Corjtn'i, as coming from the iile of Corfica ; but If a magnet be brought near to a mariner's compafs, 
 Cowel fays, they have their name from Caorfium, Caorfi, the needle, which was before at reft, immediately be- 
 a town in Lombardy, where they firil practifed their gins to move, and bends its courfe towards the magnet, 
 arts of vifury and extortion ; from whence, fpreading or perhaps the contrary way. If an unlearned I'ailor 
 themfelvea, they carried their infamous trade through is a&ed the caufe of this motion of the needle, he Is at 
 moft parts of Europe, and were a common plague to no lofs for an anfwer. He tells you it is the magnet; 
 every nation where they came. The then biiliop of and the proof is clear ; for, remove the magnet, and 
 London excommunicated them ; and king Henry III. the effeft ceafes ; bring it near, and the effett is again 
 baniflied them from this kingdom in the year 1 240. produced. It is, therefore, evident to fcnfe, that the 
 But, being the pope's fuiicitors and money-changers, magnet is the caufe of this effedl. 
 
 they were permitted to rctimi in the year 1250 ; tho' A Cartefian philofopher enters deeper into the caufe 
 
 in a very fhort time they were again driven out of the of this phenomenon. He obferves, that the magnet 
 
 king'dom on account of their intolerable exactions. does not touch the needle, and therefore can give it 
 
 C;AU>SA MATRIMONII FR^LOCUTi, In common no impulfe. He pities the ignorance of the failor. The 
 
 law, a writ that lies where a woman gives land to a man effect is produced, fays he, by magnetic effluvia, or 
 
 in fee to the intent he fliall marry her, and he refufes fubtile matter, which paffes from the magnet to the 
 
 to do it in a reafonable time, being thereunto required needle, and forces it from its place. He can even 
 
 by the woman ; and in fuch cafe, for not performing fliow you, in a figure, where thefe magnetic effluvia 
 
 the condition, the entry of the woman into the lauds iffue from the magnet, what round they take, and 
 
 again has been adjudged lawful. what way they return home again. And thus he tlilnks 
 
 The hufband and wife may fue tlils writ againft a- he comprehends perfeftly how, and by what caufe, 
 
 nether who ought to have married her. the motion of the needle is produced. 
 
 CAUSALITY, among metaphyficians, the aftlqn A Newtonian philofopher inquires what proof can 
 
 or power of a caufe in producing its effeft. be offered for the exiftence of magnetic effluvia, and 
 
 CAUSALTY, among miners, denotes the lighter, can find none. He therefore holds it as a fittion, a 
 
 fiilphurcous, earthy parts of ores, carried off in the o- hypothefis ; and he has learned that hypothefes ought 
 
 peration of waflilng. This, in the mines, they throw to have no place in the philofophy of nature. He 
 
 in heaps upon banks, which 'n fix or feven years they confeffes his ignorance of the real caufe of this motion, 
 
 find it worth their while to work over again. and thinks that his bufinefs as a philofopher is only 
 
 CAUSE, that from whence any thing proceeds, or to find from experiment the laws by which it is regu- 
 
 by virtue of which any thing is done : it Hands oppo- lated in all cafes. 
 
 fed to effedl. We get the ideas of caufe and effect Thefe three perfons differ much in their fentiments 
 
 from our obfervatlon of the vicHfitude of things, while with regard to the real caufe of this phenomenon ; and 
 
 we perceive fome qualities or fubftances begin to exift, the man who knows moil is he who is fenfible that he 
 
 and that they receive their exiftence from the due ap- knows nothing of the matter. Yet all the three fpeak 
 
 plication and operation of other beings. That which the fame language, and acknowledge that the caufe 
 
 produces, is the caufe ; and that which is produced, of this motion is the attrattive or repulfive power of 
 
 the effeft : thus, fluidity in wax is the effedt of a cer- the magnet. 
 
 tain degree of heat, which we obferve to be couftantly What has been faid of this, may be applied to every 
 
 produced by the application of fuch heat. phenomenon that falls within the compafs of natural 
 
 Jteidonthe Ariftotle, and the fchoolmen after him, diftinguiOi- philofophy. We deceive ourfelves, if we conceive 
 
 AaivePorc- four kinds of caufes ; the efficient, the material, the that we can point out the real efficient caufe of any 
 
 trs of Man. f^jrmal, and the final. This, like many of Ariftotle's one of them. 
 
 diftinitions, is only a diftinftion of the various mean- The grandeft difcoveiy ever made in natural philo- 
 
 ings of an ambiguous word ; for the efficient, the mat- fophy, was that of the law of gravitation, which opens 
 
 ter, the form and the end, have nothing common in fuch a view of our planetary fyftem, that it looks like 
 
 their nature, by which they may be accounted fpecies fomething divine. But the author of this dlfcovery 
 
 of the fame genus; but the Greek word, which we was perfeftly aware that he difcovered no real caufe, 
 
 tranflate caufe, had thefe four different meanings in but only the law or rule according to which the un- 
 
 Ariftotle's days, and we have added other meanings, known caufe operates. 
 
 We do not indeed call the matter or the form of a Natural philofophers, who think accurately, have a 
 
 ^ing its caufe ; but we have final caufes, inftruraental precife meaning to the terms they ufe in the fcience ; 
 
 caufes, occafional caufes, and many others. Thus the and when they pretend to fiiow the caufe of any phe- 
 
 word caufe \\?L^ been fo hackneyed, and made to have nomenon of nature, they mean by the caufe, a law of 
 
 fo many different meanings in the writings of phllo- nature of which that phenomenon is a neceffary conr 
 
 fophcrs, and in the difcourfe of the vulgar, that its fequence. 
 
 original and proper meaning is loft in the crowd. The whole objeft of natural philofophy, as Newton 
 
 With regard to the phenomena of nature, the im- exprefsly teaches, is reducible to thefe two heads: firft, 
 
 yortant end of knowing their caufes, befidea gratifying by juft indudioiv from experiment and obfervation, to 
 
 2 difcove* 
 
C A 
 
 Caufe, difcover the laws of nature 
 
 U [ 271 
 
 and then to apply thofe the 
 
 Caufeway. }aws to the folution of the phenomena of nature. This 
 was all that this great philofopher attempted, and all 
 that he thought attainable. And this indeed he at- 
 tained in a great meafure, with regard to the motions of 
 our planetary fyftem, and with regard to the rays of 
 light. 
 
 But fuppofing that all the phenomenawhich fall with- 
 in the reach of our fenfes were accounted for from ge- 
 neral laws of nature jultly deduced from experience ; 
 that is, fuppofmg natural philofophy brought to its 
 utmoft perfection ; it does not difcover the efficient 
 caufe of any one phenomenon in nature. 
 
 The laws of nature are the rules according to which 
 the effedls are produced; but there mull be a caufe which 
 operates according to thefe rules. The rules of navigation 
 never navigated a fliip. The rules of architefture never 
 built a houfe. 
 
 Natural philofophers, by great attention to the courfe 
 of nature, have difcovered many of her laws, and have 
 very happily applied them to account for many pheno- 
 mena : but they have never difcovered the efficient caufe 
 of any one phenomenon ; nor do thofe who have diftindl 
 notions of the principles of the fcience make any fuch 
 pretence. 
 
 Upon the theatre of nature we fee innumerable ef- 
 fe61;s, which require an agent endowed with adtive 
 power ; but the agent is behind the fcene. Whether 
 it be the Supreme Caufe alone, or a fubordinate caufe 
 or caufes ; and if fubordinate caufes be employed by 
 the Almighty, what their nature, their number, and 
 their different offices may be ; are things hid, for wife 
 , reafons, without doubt, from the human eye. 
 
 Cause, among civilians, the fame with a£lion. See 
 Action. 
 
 Cause, among phyficians. The caufe of a difeafe 
 is defined by Galen to be that during the prefence of 
 which we are ill, and which being removed the difor- 
 der immediately ceafes. The doftrine of the caufes 
 of difeafes is called Etiology. 
 
 Phyficians divide caufes into procatarftic, antece- 
 dent, and continent. 
 
 Procatarclk Cause, Tr?oy.xTupy.rtx-,i, called alfo 
 
 primitive and incipient caufe, is either an occafion which 
 of its own nature does not beget a difeafe, but, hap- 
 pening on a body inclined to difeafes, breeds a fever, 
 gout, IIjc. (fuch as are watching, failing, and the like) ; 
 or an evident and manifeft caufe, which immediately 
 produces the difeafe, as being fufficient thereto, fuch 
 a« is a fword, in refpedl of a wound. 
 
 Antecedent Causr, -ponyvf/^ivn, a latent difpofition 
 of the body, from whence fome difeafe may arlfe ; fuch 
 as a plethoi-a in refpeft of a fever, a cacochymia in re- 
 fpedt of a fcurvy. 
 
 Continent, ConjunS, or Proximate Cavsf, that princi- 
 ple in the body, which immediately adheres to the 
 difeafe, and which being prefent, the difeafe is alfo 
 prefent ; or, which being i-emoved, the difeafe is taken 
 away : fuch is the ftone in a nephritic patient. 
 
 CAUSEWAY, or Causey, a maffive coriftruAion 
 ®f ftone, ftakes, and fafcines ; or an elevation of fat, 
 vifcous earth, well beaten ; ferving either as a road in 
 wet marfliy places, or as a mole to retain the vpaters 
 of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing the 
 Igwer grounds. See R,OAr>.— The word comes from 
 
 1 C A IT 
 
 French Chaufee, anciently wrote Chavlfce ; and Caufevsraf, 
 that from the Latin Calceata, or Calcata ; according Caufticity, 
 to Somner and Spelman, a calcando. Bergier rather ''"""v—-' 
 takes the word to have had its rife a peditum calceis^ 
 qnihus teruntur. Some derive it from the Latin calx, 
 or French chaux, as fuppofing it primarily to denote a 
 way paved with chalk-ilones. 
 
 Causeway, cakefum, or calcea, rhore ufually de- 
 notes a common hard raifed way, maintained and re- 
 paired with ftones and rubbifh. 
 
 Devil's Cavsejvay, a famous work of this kindj 
 which ranges through the county of Northumberland, 
 commonly fuppofed to be Roman, though Mr Horfley 
 fufpefts it to be of later tinfies. 
 
 Giant^s CAusEfVAT, is a denomination given to a 
 huge pile of llony columns in the diftrift of Colerainc 
 in Ireland. See Giant's Caufeway. 
 
 CAUSSIN (Nicholas), lurnamed the Juft, a French 
 Jefuit, was born at Troves in Champagne, in the year 
 1 580 ; and entered into the Jefuits order when he vva.'j 
 26 years of age. He taught rhetoiic in feveral of 
 their colleges, and afterwards began to preach, by 
 which he gained very great reputation. He increafed 
 this reputation by publifhing books, and in time was 
 preferred to be confeffor to the king. But he did not 
 difcharge this office to the fatisfadion of Cardinal' 
 Richeheu, though he difcharged it to the fatisfadion of-- 
 every honefl man ; and therefore, it is not to be won- 
 dered at that he came at length to be removed. He 
 died in the Jefuits convent at Paris in 165 1. Noneof. 
 his works did him more honour than that which he 
 entitled La Cour Sainte. It has been printed a great 
 many times ; and tianflated into Latin, Italian, Spa- 
 nifh, Portuguefe, German, and Erghfh. He publifh- 
 ed ieveral other books both in Latin and French. 
 
 CAUSTICITY, a quality belonging to feveral fub- 
 fiances, by the acrimony of which the parts of livings 
 animals may be corroded and deftroyed. Bodies which 
 have this quality, when taken internally, are true poi- 
 fons. The cauilicity of fome of thefe, as of arfenic, 
 is fo deadly, that even their external uCe is profcribed ^ 
 by prudent phyficians. Several others, as nitrous acid, . 
 lapis infernalis or lunar cauflic, common cauftic, butter 
 of antimony, are daily and fuccefsfully ufedto con fume • 
 fungous flefh, to open iffiies, iffc. They fucceed very 
 well when properly employed and fl<ilfully managed. 
 
 The cauflicity of bodies depends entirely on the 
 ftate of the faline, and chiefly of the acid, matters they ^ 
 contain. When thefe acids happen to be at the fame 
 time much concentrated, and flightly attached to the 
 matters with which they are combined, they are then . 
 capable of afting, and are corrofive or cauftic. Thus 
 fixed and volatile alkalies, akhough they are themfelvee 
 cauftic, become much more fo by being treated with 
 quickhme ; becaufe this fubftance deprives them of 
 much fat and inflammable matter, and all their fixed 
 air, which binds and reftrains the adion of thtir faHne 
 principle. By this treatment, then, the fahne prin- 
 ciple is more difengaged, and rendered more capable of 
 adtion. Alfo all combinations of metallic matters with . 
 acids form falts more or lefs corrofive, becaufe thefe 
 acids are deprived of all their fuperabundant water, 
 and are befides but imperfedlly faturated with the rae- 
 tallic matters. Neverthelefs, fome other ciicumftance 
 is neceffary to conftitute the caufticity of thefe faHne . 
 
 metalline 
 
C A U ( 272 
 
 sCaufticlty.- metalline matters. For the fame quantity of marine 
 — ' acid, which, when pure and diluted with a certain 
 quantity of water, would be produftive of no harm, 
 /hall, however, produce all the effefts of a corrofive 
 poifon, when it is united with mercury in corrojtve fuh- 
 limate, although the fublimate Ihall be diffolved in fo 
 much water that its cau'fticity cannot be attributed to 
 the concentration of its acid. This effect is, by fome 
 chemifts, attributed to the great weight of the metal- 
 ' lie matters with which the acid is united : and this 
 opinion- rs' very probable, feeing its caufticity is nothing 
 hut its diifolving power, or its difpofitlon to combine 
 with other bodies ; and this difpofltion is nothing elle 
 than attra'£tion» 
 
 On this fubjeft Dr Black ofbferve&, that the com- 
 pounds produced by the union of the metals with acids 
 are in general corrofive. Many of them applied to the 
 fkin deftroy it almoft as fall as the mineral acids ; and 
 fome of the mod powerful potential cauteries are made 
 . in this way. Some are reckoiled more acrid than the 
 pure acids themfelves ; and they have more powerful 
 effefts when taken internally, or at leaft feera to have. 
 -Thus we can take 10 or 1 2 drops of a foflil acid, dilu- 
 ted with water, without being difturbed by it; but 
 the fame quantity of acid previoufly combined with 
 Alver, quickfilver, copper, or regulus of antimony, 
 will throw the body into violent diforders, or even 
 prove a poifon, if taken all at once. 
 
 This increafed aftivity was, by the mechanical phi- 
 lofophers, fuppofed to arife from the weight of the 
 metallic particles. They imagined that the acid v/as 
 compofed of minute particles of the fliape of needles or 
 wedges ; by which means they were capable of enter- 
 ing the pores of other bodies, feparating their atoms 
 from each other, and thus diifolving them. To thefe 
 acid fpiculse the metallic particles gave more force; and 
 the monlentum of each particular needle or wedge was 
 increafed in proportion to its increafe of gravity by the 
 additional weight of the metallic particle. But this 
 theory is entirely fanciful, and does not correfpond 
 with fafts. Th€ aftivity of the compound is not in pro- 
 portion to the weight of the metal ; nor are the com- 
 pounds always poffeffed of any great degree of acri- 
 mony : neither is it true that any of them have a 
 greater power of dellroying animal fubftanccs than the 
 pure acids have. 
 
 There is a material difference between the powers 
 called Ji'muli and corrofmes. Let a perfon apply to 
 any part of the llcin a fmall quantity of lunar cauftic, 
 and likewife a drop of ftrong nitrous acid, and he will 
 find that the acid afts with more violence than the 
 cauftic ; and the diforders that are occafioned by the 
 compounds of metals and acids do not proceed from a 
 caufticity in them, but from the metal afFefking and 
 proving a ftimulus to the nerves : and that this is the 
 cafe, appears from their affedling fome particular nei-ves 
 of the body. Thus the compounds of regulus of 
 antimony and mercury with the vegetable acids, do not 
 (how the fmalleft degree of acrimony; hut, taken inter- 
 nally, they produce violent convulfive motions over the 
 whole body, which are occafioned by the metallic 
 matter having a power of producing this effeft ; and 
 the acid is only the means of bringing it into a diffol- 
 ved Rate, and making it capable of adting on the ner- 
 vous fyftem. In general, however, the compounds of 
 67. 
 
 ) C A U 
 
 metallic fubftunces with acids may be confidered as flhiufticr 
 milder than the acids in a feparate ftate ; but the acid i' 
 is not fo much neutrahzed as in other compounds, for . 
 it is lefs. powerfully attrafted by the metal ; fo that al~ 
 kaline falts, abforbent earths, or even heat alone, will 
 decompound them ; and fome of the inflammable fub- 
 ftances, as fpirit of wine, aromatic oils, &c. will at- 
 tract the acid, and precipitnte the metal in its metallic 
 form ; and the metals can be employed to preci- 
 pitate one another in their metallic form ; fo that the 
 cohefion of thefe compounds is much weaker than 
 thofe formed of the fame acids with alkaline falts or 
 earths. 
 
 CAUSTICS, in phyfics, an appellation given to me- 
 dicines of fo hot and fiery a nature, that, being ap- 
 plied, confume, and as it were burn, the texture of the 
 parts, like hot iron. 
 
 Cauftlcs arc generally divided into four forts ; the 
 common ftronger cauftic, the common milder cauftic, 
 the antimonial cauftic, and the lunar cauftic. See 
 Pharmacy and CHEMrsTRY. ^ 
 
 Caustic Curve^ in the higher geometry, a curve 
 formed by the concoiirfe or coincidence of the rays of 
 light reflefted from fome other curve. 
 
 CAUSUS, or Burning Fever, a fpecies of con- 
 tinual fever, accompanied with a remarkable inflam- 
 mation of the blood. 
 
 CAUTERIZATION, the aft of burning or fear- 
 ing fome morbid part, by the application of fire either 
 actual or potential. In fome places they cautei^ize 
 with burning tow, in others with cotton or moxa, in 
 others with live coals ; fome ufe Spanifh wax, others 
 pyramidal pieces of linen, others gold or filver ; Se- 
 verinus recommends flame blown through a pipe ; but 
 what is ufually preferred among us is a hot iron. 
 
 Cauterizing irons are of various figures ; fome flat, 
 others round, fome cui-ved, ^c. of all which we find 
 draughts in Albucafis, Scultetus, Ferrara, and others. 
 Sometimes a cautery is applied through a capfula, to 
 prevent any terror from the fight of it. This method 
 was invented by Placentinus, and is defcribed by Scul- 
 tetus. In the ufe of all cauteries, care is to be taken 
 to defend the neighbouring parts, either by a lamina, 
 defenfive plafter, or lint moift«ned in oxyei'ate. Some- 
 times the hot iron is tranfmitted through a copper can- 
 nula, for the greater fafety of the adjoining parts. 
 The degrees and manners of cauterizing are varied 
 according to the nature of the difeafe and the part 
 affeaed. 
 
 CAUTERY, in furgery, a medicine for burning, 
 eating, or corroding any folld part of the body. 
 
 Cauteries are diftinguifhed into two claffes ; a6tual 
 and potential : by aftual cauteries are underftood red 
 hot inftruments, ufually of iron ; and by potential cau- 
 teries are underftood certain kinds of corroding medi- 
 cines. See Pharmacy. 
 
 CAUTION, in the civil and Scots law, denotes 
 much the fame with what, in the law of England, is 
 called Bail. 
 
 CAUTIONER, in Scots law, that perfon who be- 
 comes bound for anotlier to the performance of any 
 deed or obhgation. As to the different kinds and ef- 
 fects of Cautionry, fee Law, Part III. N° clxxv. 19. 
 
 CAWK. See CAt;K. 
 
 CAXA, a little coin made of lead mixed with fome 
 
 fcoria 
 
CAY 
 
 [ 
 
 Caxamalca fcoria of copper, ftruck in China, but current chiefly 
 II at Bantam in the ifland of Java, and feme of the neigh- 
 Cayenne. bo^,rIng inands. See (the Tal?Ie fubjoined to) Money. 
 ' CAXAMALCA, the name of a town and diltria 
 of Peru in South America, where there was a moft 
 fumptuous palace belonging to the Incas, and a mag- 
 nificent temple dedicated to the fun. 
 
 CAXTON (WiUiam), amercer of London, emi- 
 nent by the works he publifhed, and for being I'eputed 
 the firft who introduced and praftifed the art of print- 
 ing in England : as to which, fee [the Hi/lory of) Print- 
 
 ING. 
 
 CAYENNE, a rich town and ifland of South Ame- 
 rica, and capital of the French fcttlements there, is 
 bounded on the north by the Dutch colonies of Suri- 
 nam, and fituated in W. Long. 53. 10. N. Lat. 50. 
 
 This fcttlement was begun in 1635. ^ report had 
 prevailed for fome time before, that, in the interior 
 parts of Guiana, there was a country known by the 
 name of del Dorado, which contained immenfe riches 
 in gold and precious ftones ; more t,han ever Cortez and 
 Pizarro had found in Mexico and Peru ; and this fa- 
 ble had fired the imagination of every nation in Eu- 
 rope. It is fuppofed that this was the country in quell 
 of which Sir Walter Raleigh went on his lafl voyage ; 
 and, as the French were not behind their neighbouis 
 in their endeavours to find out fo defirable a country, 
 fome attempts, for this purpofe, were likewife made 
 by that nation much about the fame time ; which at 
 lall coming to nothing, the adventurers took up their 
 refidence on the ifland of Cayenne, In 1643, fome 
 merchants of Rouen united their ftock, with a defign 
 to fupport the new colony ; but, committing tlieir af- 
 fairs to one Poncet de Bretigny, a man of a ferocious 
 difpofition, he declared war both againft the colonills 
 and favages, in confequence of which he was foon maf- 
 facred. This cataftrophe entirely extinguifhed the ar- 
 dour of thefe aiTociates ; and in 1 65 1 a new company 
 vas eftabliflied. This promifed to be much more con- 
 fiderable than the former; and they fet out with fuch 
 a capital as enabled tliem to coUedt 700 or 800 colo- 
 nills in the city of Paris itfelf. Thefe embarked on 
 the Seine, in order to fail down to Ha^re de Grace ; 
 but unfortunately the Abbe de Marivault, a man of 
 great virtue, and the principal promoter of the under- 
 taking, was drowned as he was ftepping into his boat. 
 Another gentleman, who was to have adled as general, 
 ■was afTailinated on his paffage ; and 1 2 of the principal 
 adventurers, who had promifed to put the colony into 
 a fiourilhing fituation, not only were the principal per- 
 petrators of this faft, but uniformly behaved in the 
 fame atrocious manner. At lafl they hanged one of 
 their, own num^bcr ; two died ; three were banifhed to 
 a defert ifland; and the reft abandoned themfelves to 
 every kind of excefs. The commandant of the citadel 
 fleferted to the Dutch with part of his garrifon. The 
 ■favages, roufcd by nunlberlcfs provocations, fell upon 
 the remainder ; fo that the few who were Itft thought 
 themfelves happy in cfcaping to the Leeward I (lands 
 in a boat and two canoes, abandoning the fort, am- 
 munition, arms, and merchandife, fifteen months after 
 they had landed on the ifland. 
 
 In 1663, a new company was formed, whofe capital 
 amounted only to L. 8750. By the affiftance of the 
 jniniftry they expelled the Dutch, who had t^ken pof- 
 
 VoL. IV. PartL 
 
 Cavlus. 
 
 73 1 CAY 
 
 feflion of the ifland, and fettled themfelves much ittore Cayenne, 
 comfortably than their predcceflbrs. In 1667 the ifland 
 was taken by the Englifli, and in 1676 by the Dutch, ' 
 but afterwards reflored to the French ; and fince that 
 time it has never been attacked. Soon after fome pi- 
 rates, laden with the fpoils they had gathered in the 
 South Seas, came and fixed their relidenceat Cayenne.; 
 refolving to employ the treafures they had acquired in 
 the cultivation of the lands. In 1688, DucalTe, an able 
 feaman, arrived with fome ftiips from France, and pro- 
 pofed to them the plundering of Surinam. This pro- 
 pofal exciting their natural turn for plunder, the pirates 
 betook themfelves to their old trade, and almoft all the 
 reft followed their example. The expedition, however, 
 proved unfortunate. Many of the aflailants were kill- 
 ed, and all the reft taken prifoners and fent to the 
 Caribbee Iflands, This lofs the colony has never yet 
 recovered. 
 
 The ifland of Cayenne is about 16 leagues in cir- 
 cumference, and is only parted from the continent by 
 two rivers. By a particular formation^ uncommon ia 
 iflands, the land is higheft near the water flde, and low 
 in the middle. Hence the land is fo full of morafles, 
 that all communication between the different parts oF 
 it is impoflible, without taking a great circuit. There 
 are fome fmall trafts of an excellent foil to be found 
 here and there ; but the generality is dry, fandy, and 
 foon exhaufted. The only town in the colony is de- 
 fended by a covert way, a large ditch, a very good mud 
 rampart, and five baftions. In the middle of the town 
 is a pretty confiderable eminence, of which a redoubt 
 has been made that is called the fort. The entrance 
 into the harbour is through a narrow channel ; and fliips 
 can only get in at high water through the rocks and 
 reefs that are fcattered about this pafs. 
 
 The firft produce of Cayenne was the arnotto; from 
 the produce of which, the colonifts proceeded to that 
 of cotton, indigo, and laftly fugar. It was the firft of 
 all the French colonies that attempted to cultivate 
 coffee. The coffee-tree was brought from Surinam in 
 I 72 I, by fome deferters from Cayenne, whopurchafed 
 their pardon by fo doing. Ten or twelve years after 
 they planted cocoa. In the year 1752, there were ex- 
 ported from Cayenne 260,541 pounds of arnotto, 
 80,363 pounds of fugar, 17,919 pounds of cotton, 
 26,881 pounds of coffee, 91,916 pounds of cocoa, 
 618 trees for timber, and 104 planks. 
 
 CAYLUS (Count de), Marquis de Sternay, Baron 
 de Branfac, was born at Paris in 1692. He was the 
 eldeft of the two fons of John count de Caylus, lieu- 
 tenant-general of the armies of the king of France, 
 and of the Marchionefs de Villete. The count and 
 countefs his father and mother, were very careful 
 of the education of their fon. The former inftrufted 
 him in the profeflion of arms, and in bodily exercifes : 
 the latter watched over and foftered the virtues of 
 his mind 5 and this delicate taflii ihe difcharged with 
 Angular fuccefs. The countefs was the niece of 
 Madam de Maintenon, and was remarkable both 
 for the folidity of her underftanding and the charms 
 of her wit. She was the author of that agreeable 
 book intitled, '* The RecoUeftions of Madam de 
 Caylus," of which Voltaire lately publifhcd an elegant 
 edition. The amiable qualities cf the mother appeared 
 in the fon ; but they appeared with a bold and mi- 
 M m litary 
 
CAY [ 274 
 
 li'tary air. In his natural temper he was gay and 
 fprightly, had a tafte for pleafure, a ftrong paffion for 
 independence, and an invincible averfion to the fervi- 
 tude of a court. Such were the inftru6lors of the 
 Count de Caylus. He was only twelve years of a^e 
 when his father died at BrulTels in i 704. After fi- 
 nifhing his exercifes, he entered Into the corps of the 
 Moufqudoires ;. and in his firft campaign in the year 
 1709, he diflinguifhed himfelf by h'u valour in fuch a 
 manner, that Louis XIV. commended him before all 
 the court, and rewarded him with an enfigncy in the 
 Gendarmerie. In 171' he commanded a regiment of 
 dragoons, which was called by his own name ; and 
 he iignalized himfelf at the head of it in Catalonia. In 
 1713, he was at the fiege of Fribourg, where he was 
 expofed to imminent danger in the bloody attack of 
 the covered: way. The peace of Railade having left 
 him in a Hate of inaftivity ill-fulted to his natural tem- 
 per, his vivacity foon carried him to travel into Italy ; 
 and his curiofity was greatly excited by the wonders 
 of that country, where antiquity is ftill fruitful, and 
 produces fo many objefts to improve tafte and co ex- 
 cite admiration. The eyes of the count were not yet 
 learned ; but he was ftruck with the light of fo many 
 beauties, and foon became acquainted with them. Af- 
 ter a year's abfence, he returned to Paris with fo 
 llrong a paflion for travelling,^ and for antiquities, as 
 induced him to quit the army. 
 
 He had no fooner quitted the fervice of Louis, than 
 he fought for an opportunity to fet out for the Levant. 
 When he arrived at Smyrna,, he vifited the ruins of 
 Ephefus. From^the Levant he was recalled in Fe- 
 bruary 1 7 1 7 • by the tendernefs of hie mother. From 
 that time he left not France, but to make two excur- 
 lions to London. The academy of painting and fculp- 
 tiire adopted him an honorary member in the year 
 1 73 I and the count, who loved to realize titles, Ipa- 
 red neither his labour, nor his credit, nor his fortune, 
 to inftruft,. affift, and animate the artifts. He wrote 
 the lives of the moft celebrated painters and engra- 
 vers that have done honour to this iUuilrious academy; 
 and, in order to extend the limits of the art, which 
 feemed to him to move in too narrow a circle, he col- 
 ledled, in three different works, new fubjefts for the 
 painter, which he had met with in the works of the 
 ancients. 
 
 Such was his paflion for antiquity, that he wiihed 
 to have had it in his power to bring the whole of it 
 to life again. He faw with regret, that the works 
 of the ancient painters, which have been difcovered 
 in our times, are effaced and deftroyed almoft as foon 
 as they are drawn from the fubterraneous manfions 
 where ihey were buried. A fortunate accident fur- 
 Hiihed him with the means of fliowing us the compo- 
 fition and the colouring of the piftures of ancient 
 Rome. The coloured drawings which the famous 
 Pietro Sante Bartoli had taken there from antique 
 piftures, fell into his hands. He had them engraved ; 
 and, before he enriched the king of France's cabinet 
 with them, he gave an edition of them at his own ex- 
 pence. It is perhaps the moft extraordinary book of 
 antiquities that ever will appear. The whciLe is paint- 
 ed with a purity and a precifion that are inimitable : 
 we fee the Hvelinefs and the freftinefs of the colouring 
 that charmed the Casfai-s. There were ouly 30 copiea 
 
 1 G A Y 
 
 publiflied ; and there is no reafon to expe£l that there Gayltw. - 
 vvill hereafter be any more. — y— — rf* 
 
 Count de Caylus was engaged at the fame time in 
 an enterprife ftlU more favourable to Roman gran- 
 deur, and more interefting to the French nation. 
 Colbert had framed the defign of engraving the Ro- 
 man antiquities that are ftill to be feen In the fouthera 
 provinces of France. By his orders Mignar-d the ar- 
 chitect had made draA'ings of them, which count ds 
 Caylus had the good fortune to recover. He refolved 
 to linifti the work begiui by Colbert, and to dedicate 
 it to that great minifter ; and fo much had he this en- 
 terprife at heart, that he was employed in it during his 
 laft ilinefs, and warmly recommended it to M. Ma- 
 rie tte. 
 
 In 1742, Count Caylus was admitted honoi-ary; 
 member of the academy of belles lettres ; and then 
 it was that he feemed to have found the place for 
 which nature defigned him. The ftudy ofllterature 
 now became his ruling paffion ; he confectated to it 
 his lime and his fortune ; he even, renounced his plea- 
 fures to give himfelf wholly up to that of making Ibme 
 difcovery in the field of antiquity. But amidft the ' 
 fruits of hiS' refearch and inv<^ntion, nothing feemed 
 more flattering to him than his difcovery of cncauftic 
 painting. A defcription of Pliny's, but too concife a 
 one to give him a clear view of the matter, fuggefted 
 the idea of it. He availed himfelf of the friendlhip 
 and ftcIU of M. Magault, a phyfician in Paris, and an 
 excellent chemift ; and by repeated experiments found 
 out the fecret of incorporating wax with divei-s tints 
 and colours, and of making it obedient to the pencil. 
 Pliny has made mention of two kinds of encauftic- 
 painting praftifed by the ancients one of which was 
 performed with wax, and the' other upon ivory, with 
 hot punches of iron. It was the former that Count 
 Caylus had the m.erit of reviving ; and M. Muntz af- 
 terwards made many expei-iments to carr-y it to pei-- 
 feftion. 
 
 In the hands of Count Caylus, literature and the 
 arts lent each other a mutual aid. But it would bs. 
 endlefs to give an account of all his works. He pu- 
 bliflied above 40 diflertations in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Belles Letti-es. The artifts he was parti- 
 cularly attentive to ; and to prevent their falling into 
 miftakes from an ignorance of coftume, which the 
 ableft of them have fometlmes done, he founded a 
 prize of 500 livres, the objeft of which is to explain,, 
 by means of authors and monuments, the ufages of an- 
 cient nations. In order that he might enjoy with the 
 whole woidd the treafui-es he had collefted, he caufed 
 them to be engraved, and gave a learned defcription 
 of them in a work which he embellifhed with 800 cop- 
 perplates. 
 
 The ftrength of his conftitution feemed to give him. 
 hopes of a long life : but a humour fettling in one of 
 his legs, which entirely deftroyed his health, he expi- 
 red on the 5 th of September 1765, and by his death 
 his family is extinA. The tomb ere£led to the ho-- 
 nour of Count Caylus is to be feen in the chapel of. 
 St Germain-l'AuxerroIs, and deferves to be remark- 
 ed. It is perfectly the tomb of an antiquary. This, 
 monument was an ancient fepulchral antique, of the 
 moft beautiful porphyry, with ornaments in the Er 
 gyptian tafte. From the moment he procured it, het 
 
 had 
 
G E A 
 
 t 275 1 
 
 C E G 
 
 ■Cayfler ha3 deftlned it to grace the place of his Interment. 
 
 li, While he availed the fatal hour, he placed it in his 
 ^ean ot.ius. ^^^^^^^ where he ufed to look upon it with a tranquil 
 but thoughtful eye, and pointed it out to the infpec- 
 tion of his friends. 
 
 The charafter of Count Caylus is to be traced in 
 the different occupations which divided his cares and 
 his life. In fociety, he had all the franknefs of a fbl- 
 dier, and a politenefs which had nothing in it of de- 
 ceit or circumvention. Born independent, he applied 
 to ftudies which fuited his tade. .His heart was yet 
 better than his abilities. In his walks he ufed fre- 
 quently to -try the honefty of the poor, by fending 
 them with a piece of money to get change for him. 
 In thefe cafes he enjoyed their confufion at not find- 
 ing him ; and then prefenting himfelf, ufed to com- 
 mend their honefty, and give them double the fum. 
 He faid frequently to his friends, " I have this day 
 loll a crown ; but I was forry that I had not an op- 
 portunity of giving a fecond. The beggar ought not 
 to want integrity." 
 
 CAYSTER, or Caystrus, (anc. geog.), a river of 
 Ionia, whofe mouth Ptolemy places between Colophon 
 and Ephefus ; commended by the poets for its fwans, 
 which it had in great numbers. Its fource was in the 
 Montes Cilbiani, (Pliny). Cayjlrhis Campus was a 
 part of the territory of Ephefus. Campl Cayjlr'iani of 
 Lydia, were plains lying in the middle between the in- 
 land parts and mount Tmolus. 
 
 CAZEROM, or Cazeron, a city of Afia in Per- 
 fia, fituated in E. Long. 70. N. Lat. 29. 15. 
 
 CAZIC,or CAZiCiUE, a title given by the Spaniards 
 to the petty kings, princes, and chiefs, of the feveral 
 countries of America, excepting thofe of Peru, v/hich 
 are called curatas. The French call them cnjtqucs, a 
 denomination which they always give to the Tarta- 
 rian hords, — The cazics, in fome places, do the office 
 of phyficians, and in others of prietts, as well as of 
 captains. The dignity of cazic among the Chiites, 
 a people of South America, does not defcend to chil- 
 dren, but mnft be acquired by valour and merit. One 
 of the prerogatives annexed to it is, that the cazic 
 may have three wives, while the other people are al- 
 lowed only one. Mexico comprehended a great num- 
 ber of provinces and iflands, which were governed 
 by lords called caciques, dependent on and tributary to 
 the emperor. Thirty of thefe vafTals are faid to have 
 been fo powerful, that they were able, each of them, 
 to brin^r an army of 100,000 men into the field. 
 
 CAZIMIR, a handfome town of Poland, in the 
 palatinate of Lublin, fituated on a hill covered with 
 trees, in E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 51. 5, 
 
 CEA. See Ceos. 
 
 CEANOTHUS, New-Jersey Tea, In botany: 
 A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the 
 pentandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural iriethcd 
 ranking under the 4^d ord-cr, Dumofa. There are 
 five petals, pouched and aiched. The fruit is a dry, 
 trilocular and trifpermons berry. There are three fpe- 
 cies, of which the molt remarkable is the American us, 
 a native of moft parts of North America, from whence 
 great plenty of the feeds have been imported into Eu- 
 rope. In England, this plant feldom rifes more than 
 three feet high. The flem, which is of a pale-brown 
 colour, fends out branches from the bottom. Tliefe 
 
 Cecil. 
 
 are thin, flexible,' and of a reddifh colour, which raayCeanothas 
 have occafioned this tree to go by the name of Red 
 Tivig. The leaves which ornament thefe branches . 
 ftand on reddifh pedicles, about half an inch in length. 
 They are oval, ferrated, pointed, about two inches and 
 a half long, are proportionably broad, and have three 
 nerves running lengthwife. From the footftalk to the 
 point they are of a light green colour, grow irregular- 
 ly on the branches, and not oppofite by pairs, as haa 
 been afferted. I'hey are late in the fpring before they 
 fiioot. The flowers grow at the ends of the twigs in 
 clufters : They are of a white colour, and when in 
 blow give the flirub a moft beautiful appearance. In- 
 deed, it feems to be almoft covered with them, as there 
 is ufually a clufter at the end of nearly every twig ; 
 and the leaves which appear among them ferve as or- 
 naments only, like myrtle in a diftant nofegay : nature 
 however has denied them fmell. This tree will be in 
 blow in July ; and the flowers are fucceeded by fmall 
 brownifti fruit, in which the feeds will fometime^ ri- 
 pen in England. 
 
 This plant is propagated by layering ; or from feeds 
 fown in pots of compoft, confifting of two parts virgin 
 earth well tempered and one part fand, about a quar- 
 ter of an inch deep ; being equally careful to defend 
 the young feedlings from an extremity of cold in win- 
 ter, as from the parching droQght of the fummer 
 months. The beft time of layering them is in the 
 fummer, juft before they begin to flower : At that 
 time lay the tender twigs of the fpring flioots in the 
 earth, and nip off the end which would produce the- 
 flowers. By the autumn twelvemonth fome of them 
 will be rooted. At the ftools, however, the plants 
 fliould remain until the fpring, when they fliould be 
 taken off, and the beft rooted and the flrongeft may 
 be planted in the nurfery-way, or in a dry foil and well 
 fheltered place, where they are to remain ; while the 
 bad-rooted ones and the weakeft fliould be planted in 
 pots ; and if thefe are plunged into a moderate warmth 
 of dung, it will promote their growth, and make them 
 good plants before autumn. In the winter they fliould 
 be guarded againft the frofts ; and in the fpring they 
 may be planted out where they are to remain. 
 
 CEBES, of Thebes, a Socratic philofopher, author 
 of the admired Tal;ie of Celes ; or " Dialogues on the 
 birth, life, and death of Mankind." He flourilhed 
 about 405 years before Chrift. — The above piece is 
 mentioned by fome of the ancient writers, by Lucian, 
 D. Laertius, TertuUian, and Suidas : but of Cebes 
 himfelf we have no account, fave that he is once men- 
 tioned by Plato, and once by Xencpiion. The for- 
 mer fays of him, in his " Phasdo," that he was a fa- 
 gacious inveiligator of truth, and never alfenttd with- 
 out the moft convincing reafons : the lattei^, in his 
 *' Memorabilia," ranks him among the few intimates 
 of Socrates, who excelled the reft in the innocency of' 
 their lives. Cebes's Tabula is ufually printed with 
 Epiiletus's Mannale- 
 
 CECIL (William), Lord Burleigh, treafurer of 
 England in the reign" of queen Elizabeth, was the fon 
 of Richard Cecil, Efq; mafter of the robes to king 
 Henry VIIL He was born in the houfe of his grand 
 fVither, David Cecil, Efq; at Bourn in Lincolnfhir8> 
 in the year 1520; and received the rudiments of his 
 education in the grammar-fchool at Grantham. From 
 M ni 2 thence 
 
Cecil. 
 
 C E C [27 
 
 thence he was removed to Stamford ; and about the 
 year 1535, '^'^^ entered of St John's College, Cam- 
 bridge. Here he began his ftudies with a degree of 
 enthufiaftic application veryuncommon in young gentle- 
 men of family. At the age of 16 he read a fophif- 
 try ledlure, and at 19 a voluntary Greek leAure, 
 which was the more extraordinary as being at a time 
 when the Greek language was by no means univer- 
 fally underftood. In 1541 he went to London, and 
 became a member of the fociety of Gray's-Inn, with 
 an intention to ftudy the law ; but he had not been 
 long in that fituation, before an accident introduced 
 him to king Henry, and gave a new bias to his pur- 
 fuits. O'Neil, a famous Irifh chief, coming to couil, 
 had brought with him two Irifli chaplains, violent bi- 
 gots to the Romifh faith ; with thefe Mr Cecil, vifit- 
 ing his father, happened to' have a warm difpute in 
 Latia, in which he difplayed uncommon abilities. 
 The king, being informed of it, ordered the young 
 man into his prefence, and was fo pleafed with his 
 converfation, that he commanded his father to had 'a 
 place for him. He accordingly requeiled the rever- 
 iion of the cuf^os hrevium^ which Mr Cecil afterwards 
 poffefled. About this time he married the hiler of 
 Sir John Cheke, by whom he was recommended to 
 the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerfet and 
 proteftor. 
 
 Soon after king Edward's acceflion, Mr Cecil came 
 into the pofTeffion of his office of cttjios hre'vium, worth 
 about L. 240 a-year. His firft lady dying in 1543, 
 he married the daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, direc- 
 tor of the king's ftudies. In 1547, he was appointed 
 by the proteftor, mailer of requeits ; and foon after, 
 attended his noble patron on his expedition againft 
 the Scots, and was prefent at the battle of Muffel- 
 burgh. In this battle, which was fought on the loth 
 of September 1 547, Mr Cecil's life was miraculoufl)'- 
 preferved by a friend, who in pufliing him out of the 
 level 'jf a cannon, had his arm lhattered to pieces. 
 The fight and judgment of his friend mull have been 
 as extraordinary as his friendfhip, to perceive the pre- 
 cife direftion of a cannon (hot ; unlefe we fuppofe, 
 that the ball was almoll quite fpent ; , in which cafe 
 the thing is not impoJTibk. The Itory is told in his 
 life by a domeftic. In the year 1548, Mr Cecil was 
 - made fecretary of ftate ; but in the following year, 
 the duke of Northumberland's faftron prevailing, he 
 fuffered in the difgrace of the proteftor Somerfet, and 
 was fent prifoner to the Tower. After three months 
 confinement he was releafed ; in 155 1 refhored to 
 his office ; and foon after knighted, and fworn of 
 the privy council. In 1553 he was made chancellor 
 of the Order of the Garter, with an annual fee of 
 100 merks. 
 
 On the death of Edward VI. Mr Cecil prudently 
 refufed to have any concern in Northumberland's at- 
 tempt in favour of the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey; 
 and when queen Mary acceded to the throne, he was 
 gracioufly received at Coirrt ; but, not choofing to 
 change his religion, was difmilTed from his em.ploy- 
 ments. During this reign, he was twice ekfted knight 
 of the fhire for the county of Lincoln; and often fpoke 
 in the houfe of commons, with great freedom and 
 firmnefs, in oppofition tx> the miniftiy. Neverthelefs, 
 though a proteiUiit and a pairht (that is, a coui'tier 
 
 6 ] C E C 
 
 out of place), he had the addrels to ilecr through a Cec 
 very dangerous fea without Hiipwreck. — y- 
 
 Q^ueen Elizabeth's acceffion in the year 1558 im- 
 mediately difpelled the cloud which had obfcured-his 
 fortunes and minifterial capacity. During the honid 
 reign of Jier fiflier, he had- conftantly correfponded 
 with the princefs Elizabeth. On the very day of her 
 acceffion, he prefented her with a paper containing 
 twelve articles neceffary for her immediate difpatcli ; . 
 and, in a few days after, was fworn of the privy- 
 council, and made fecretary of ftate. His firft advice 
 to the queen was, to call a parliament ; and the firil 
 bufinefs he propofed after it was aticmbled, was the 
 eftablifhment of a national churclu; A plan of refor- 
 mation was accordingly drawn up under his imme- 
 diate infpedtion, and the legal eftablifhment of the 
 church of England was the coufequence. Sir Wil- 
 liam Cecil's next important concern, was to reftore 
 the value of the coin, which had in the preceding 
 reigns been . confiderably debafed. In 1561, he was 
 appointed mafter of the wards; and, in 1571, created 
 baron of Burleigh, as a reward for his fervices, par- 
 ticularly in having lately fti fled a formidable rebellion, 
 in the north.. The following year he was honoured 
 with the garter, and raifed to the office of Lord High 
 Treafurer of England.: From this period we find him 
 the pr'imum mobile of every material traufaftion during 
 the glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth. Notwith- 
 ftanding the temporary influence of other favourites, 
 Lord Burleigh was, in faft, her prime ^iinifter, and the 
 perfon in whom Hie chiefly confided in matters of real 
 importance. Having filled the liigheft and moft im- 
 portant offices of the ftate for 40 years, and guided- 
 the helm of government during the moft glorious pe- 
 riod of Englifli hiftory, he departed this life on the 
 4Lh of Aiiguft 1593, in the 78th year of his age. 
 His body was removed to Stamford, and there depo- 
 fited in the family vault, where a magnificent tomb 
 was erefted to his memory. — Notwithttanding his 
 long enjoyment of fuch lucrative employments, he left 
 only an eftate of 1^. ^000 per annum, L. 11,000 in 
 money, and elFefts worth about L. 14,000. He lived, . 
 indeed, in a manner fuitable to his high rank and im- 
 portance. He had four places of refidence, viz. his 
 lodgings at court, his houfe in the Strand, his feat 
 at Burleigh-Park near Stamford, and his feat at. 
 Theobalds. The laft of thefe was his favourite place 
 of - retirement, where he frequently entertained the 
 queen at a vail expence. 
 
 Lord Burleigh was doubtlefs a man of .finguhu* abi- 
 lities and prudence ; amiable in his private charafter, 
 and one of the moft able, upright, and indefatigable 
 minifters ever recorded in the annals of this king- 
 dom. His' principal works are, I. La Complalnle de 
 Vame pechertjfey or the Complaint of a finful Soul, in 
 French verfe, in the king's library. 2. Materials for 
 Patten's Dlarium exped. Scoi'iciz, London 1541, l2mo<. 
 3. Slanders, and lies malicioully, grofsly, and impu- 
 dently vomited out, in certain traiterous books and 
 pamphlets, againft two counfeUors, Sir Francis Ba-r 
 con and Sir William Cecil. 4. A fpeech in parha- 
 ment, 1562, Strype's Mem. vol. iv. p. 107. 5. Pre- 
 cepts or diredlions for the well ordering of a man's 
 hfe, 1637, HarL Cat. voL ii. p. 755. 6. Meditation* 
 on the death of his lady, Ealltud's Mem. p. 1 84. 7. 
 
 Meditatioi-s 
 
C E C 
 
 [ 277 ] 
 
 C E L 
 
 Meditations on the ftate of England during the reign 
 of queen Elizabeth, manufcript. 8. The execution 
 of juftice in England for the maintenance of public 
 and Chriftian peace, &c. Lond. i^Si, 1583, Somer's 
 trails, 4th colle£t. vol. i. p. 5. 9. Advice to queen 
 Elizabeth in matters of religion and ftate, ib. p. loi. 
 16. 10. A great number of letters. See Peck's 
 Defiderata Curlofa, Hov^ard's colleftions, &c. li. 
 Several pedigrees, feme of which are preferved in the 
 archbifhop of Canterbury's libi-ary at Lambeth, n° 299, 
 
 747- 
 
 CECILIA (St), the patronofs of mufic, has been 
 honoured as a martyr ever fmce the fifth century. 
 Her ftory as delivered by the notaries of the Roman 
 church, and from them tranfcribed into the Golden 
 Legend and other books of the like kind, fays, that 
 (lie was a Roman lady born of noble parents, about 
 the year 225. That, notwithftanding fhe had been 
 converted to Chrittlanity, her parents married her to 
 a young pagan ncblernan named Valerianus ; who go- 
 ing to bed to her on the wedding night, as the aijlom 
 is, fays the book, was given to underftand by his 
 fpoufe, that fhe was nightly vifited by an angel, and 
 that he mu.ft forbear to approach her, otherwife the 
 angel would deftroy him. Valerianus, fomewhat trou- 
 bled at thefe words, defired that he might fee his ri- 
 val the angel ; but his fpoufe told him that was impof- 
 fible, unlefs he would confent to be baptized and be- 
 come a Chriftian. This he confented to ; after which,, 
 returning to his wife, he found her in her clofet at 
 prayer, and by her fide, in the ftiape of a beautiful 
 young man, the angel clothed witli brightnefs. After 
 fome converfation with the angel, Valerianus told him 
 that he had a brother named Tiburtius, whom he 
 greatly wiftied to fee a partaker of the grace which he 
 himfelf had received. The angel told him that his 
 defire was granted, and that they Oiouldbe both crown- 
 ed with martyrdom ;in a fhort time. Upon this the 
 angel vauiflied, and was not long in ftiowing himfelf 
 as good as his word ; Tiburtius was converted, and 
 both he and his brother Valerianus were beheaded. 
 Cecilia was offered her life upon condition that fhe 
 would facrifice to the deities of the Romans ; but fhe 
 refufed : upon which flie was thrown into a caldron 
 of boIHng water,- and fcalded to death: others fay 
 that fhe was ftifled in a dry bath, i. e. an inclofure, from 
 whence the air was excluded, having a flow fire un- 
 derneath it ; which kind of death was fometimes in- 
 flicted by the Romans upon women of quality whe 
 were criminals. Upon the fpot where her houfe ftood, 
 is a church faid to have been built by pope Urban I. 
 who adminlftered baptifm to her hufband and his bro- 
 ther : it is the church of St Cecilia at Trailevere; 
 within is a moft curious painting of the faint, as alfo 
 a ftately monument with a cumbent ftatue of her with 
 her face downwards. There is a tradition of St Ce- 
 cilia, that fhe excelled in mulic- ; and that the angel 
 vAio was thus enamoured of her, was drawn from the 
 celeftialregions by the charms of her melody : this has 
 been deemed authority fufficient for making her the 
 patronefs of mufic and muficians. The legend of St 
 Cecilia has given frequent occafion to painters and 
 fculptors to exercife their genius in reprefentations of 
 her, playing on the organ, and fometimes on the 
 harp. Raphael has paiated her finging v/ith a re- 
 
 gal in her hands ; and Domenichino and Mignard, Cecrops 
 linginff and playing on the harp. II 
 
 CSCROPS, the founder and firft king of Athens, ^f ^"^' 
 about the time of Mofes the lawgiver of the He- 
 brews. He was the firft who eftablillied civil govern- 
 ment, religious rites, and marriage among the Greeks; 
 and died after a reign of 50 years. See Attica, 
 no 4. 
 
 CEDAR, in botany. See Juniperus andPiNUs. 
 
 The fpecles of cedar famous for its duration, is 
 that popularly called by us the cedar of Lebanon 
 (Pinuscedrus),by the ancientstWrzw magna, orthe great 
 cedar ; aUb cedrelute, ^i^f-'f^ccrr.. See the article Pin us. 
 
 CEDRENUS (George), a Gre.:ian monk, lived 
 in the iith age, and wrote " Annals, or an abridged 
 Hiftory, from the Beginning of the A\^orld to the 
 P..eign of Ifaac Comnenus emperor of Conftantinople, 
 who fucceeded Michael IV. in 1057. This work is no - 
 more than an extradl fi-om fcveral hiftorians. There 
 is an edition of it, printed at Paris in 1647, with the 
 Latin verfion of Xylander, and the notes of father 
 Goar a Dominican. 
 
 CEDRUS, the cedar-tree, mahogany, &c. 
 See Juniperus, Pinus, and Swietenia. 
 
 CEILING, in archlteclure, the top or roof of a 
 lower room ; or a covering of plafter, over laths nail- 
 ed on the bottom of the joifts that bear the floor of 
 the upper room ; cvr Avhere there is no upper room, on 
 joifts for the purpofe ; hence called ce'ilhig jo'tjis. The 
 word ceiling anfwers pretty accurately to the Latin lacu- 
 nar, " every thing over head." 
 
 Plaftered ceiling, are much ufed in Britain, more • 
 than in any other country : nor are they without their 
 advantages, as they- make the room lightfome ; are 
 good in cafe of fire ; ftop the pafTage of the duft ; lef- 
 len the noife over head; and, in fummer, make the 
 air cooler. 
 
 Ceiling, in fea-language, denotes the infide planks 
 of a fhip. 
 
 CEIMELIA, from iJ'A^a', "to be laid up," In anti- - 
 quity, denotes chuice or precious pieces of furni- 
 ture or ornaments, referred or laid up for extraordi- 
 nary occafions and ufes ; in which fenfe, facred gar- 
 ments, veffels, and the like, are reputed of the cei- 
 melia of a church. Medals, antique ftones, figures, 
 manufcripts, records, &c. . are the ccimelia of men of 
 letters. 
 
 CEIMELIARCHIUM, the repofitory or place 
 where ceimelia are preferved ^ 
 
 CEIMELIOPHYLAX, (from ".n/^.-x-.v and ?v^ar7«, . 
 / keep^, the keeper or curator of a eolleftion of ceL- 
 melia ; fometimes alfo denominated ceimetiarcha. The 
 ceimeliarcha, 01 ceimeliophylax, was an officer in the 
 ancient churches or monaftcries, anfwering to what 
 was otherwife denominated chartophylax, and cu/los ar- 
 c.hivorum. 
 
 CEL^NjE (anc. gcog.), the capital of Phrygia- 
 Magna, fituated on a cognominal mountain, at the 
 common fources of the Mieander and Marfyas. The 
 king of Perfia had a ftrong palace- beneath the citadel, 
 by the fprings of the Marfyas, which rofe in the mar- 
 ket-place, not lefs in fize than the Mteander, and 
 flowed through the city. Cyrus the younger had alfo > 
 a palace there, but by the fprings of the Mccander, , 
 which river paffed Hkewife. tLi-ough the city. He • 
 
II 
 
 Cflaftrus. 
 
 C F, L [ 
 
 had, moreover, an extenfivc paradife or park, full of 
 wild beads, which he hunted on horfeback for exer- 
 , cife or amufement ; and watered by the Maeander, 
 which ran through the middle. Xerxes -was faid to 
 have built tliefe palaces and tlie citadel after his return 
 from his expedition into Greece. 
 
 Antiochus Soter removed the inhabitants of Cehisnoe 
 into a city, which he named from his mother, Apa- 
 mea ; and v/hich became afterwards a mart inferior 
 ©nly to Ephefus. See Apamea. 
 
 CELANDINE, in botany. See Chelidonium. 
 
 CELANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, in Farther Abru/z/o. It is feated a mile from 
 the lake Celano, anciently called FuciNus. E. Lon. 
 15. 39. N. Lat. 41. 56. 
 
 CEIjARENT, among logicians, a mode of fyllo- 
 gifm, wherein-the niajor and conclufion are univerfal 
 negative propofitions, and the minor an univerfal af- 
 firmative. 
 
 jE.gr. None whofe underftanding is limited can 
 be omnifcient. 
 !yl Eveiy man's underllanding is limited. 
 rEnt Therefore no man is omnifcient. 
 CELASTRUS, in botany : A gexuis of the mo- 
 nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 43d order, Dunwpe. The corolla is pentapetalous and 
 patent ; the capfule quinquangular and trilocular ; the 
 feeds veiled. There are 1 1 fpecies ; two of which are 
 enured to our cli;nate. « 
 
 1. The bullutus, an uncertain deciduous fhrub, is 
 a native of Virginia. It is about four feet in growth, 
 rifing from the ground with feveral ilalks, which di- 
 vide into many branches, and are covered with a 
 brownifla bark. The leaves are of a fine green colour, 
 and grow alternately on the branches. They are of 
 an oval figure, and have their edges undivided. The 
 flowers are .produced in July, at the ends of the 
 branches, in loofe fpikes. They are of a white co- 
 lour, and in their riative countries are fuceeeded by 
 very ornamental fcarlet fruit ; but with us this feldom 
 happens. It is eahly propagated from feeds fown, a- 
 bout an inch deep, in beds of good frefli mould made 
 fine. They feldom come up until the fecond, and 
 fometimes not before the third fpring. It is alfo pro- 
 pagated by layers ; vi'hich work mult be performed on 
 the young wood, in the autumn, by a flit at the joint. 
 Thefe layers may be expelled to Itrike root by the 
 autun^n following ; when they may be taken up and 
 planted in the nurfery-ground. This flirub m.ull have 
 a well-flieltered fituation, otherwife the leaves are apt 
 to fall off at the approach of frofty weather. And 
 Milhir fays, that, growing naturally in moiil places, 
 it will not thrive well in a dry foil. 
 
 2. The fcandens, or baftard euonymus, with woody, 
 twining Ilalks, rifing by the help of neighbouring trees 
 or buihes to the height of 1 2 feet. Th--: leaves are ob- 
 long, ferrated, of a plealant green col(nir, pale, and 
 veined underneath, andgrow alternately on the branciies. 
 The Howcrs are produced in fmall bunches, from the 
 lides of the branches, near the ends. They are of a 
 greenifh colour, appear in June ; and are fuceeeded by 
 roundifli, red, three-cornered capfules, -containing 
 ripe feeds, in the autumn. This fpecifs is exceeding 
 hardy, and makes a beautiful appearance among other 
 
 78 1 
 
 C E L 
 
 trees in the autumn, by their beautiful red berries, Ce!aTlru«, 
 which much refemble thofe of the Spindle-tree, and Celebes, 
 will be produced in vaft profufion on the tops of other '"^ 
 trees, to the heighf of which thef« plants by their 
 twilling property afpire. They fhould not be planted 
 near weak or tender trees, to climb on ; for they em- 
 brace the Ilalks fo clofely as to bring on death to any 
 but the liardieft trees and fhrubs. It is propagated, 
 I. By laying down the yoimg fhoots in the fpring. 
 By the autumn they will have ilruck root, and may 
 then be taken off and fet in the places where they are 
 defigned to remain. • 2. By feeds ; which fliould be 
 foon fown after they are ripe, otherwife they will be 
 two and fometimes three years before they come up» 
 When they make their appearance, nothing more need 
 be done than keeping them clear from weeds all fum- 
 mer and the winter following-; and in the fpring the 
 ftrongeft plants may be drawn out, and fet in the nur- 
 fery for a year, and then removed to the places where 
 they are defigned to remain ; whilit tlie weakeil, be- 
 ing left in tlie feed-bed one year more, may undero-o 
 .the fajne difcipline. 
 
 In Senegal the negroes life the powder of the root 
 as a fpeclfic againll gonorrhoeas, which it is faid td 
 cure in eight or fometimes in three days. An infu- 
 fion of the bark of a fpecies of ftaff-tree, which grows 
 in tlie Ifle of France, is faid to pofTefs the fame vir- 
 tues. 
 
 CELEBES, an ifland in the Indian fea, feated 
 under the equator, and called by fome Macafar. The 
 length and breadth has not been accurately computed; 
 but the circumference, at a medium, is about 800 
 miles; It had formerly fix kingdoms, ^vhich are re- 
 duced to one. The air is hot and moift ; and fubjed 
 to great rains during the north-weft winds, which blow 
 from November to March, at which time the country 
 is overflowed, and for this reafon they build their 
 houfes on piles of wood 10 feet high. The moft heahh- 
 ful time is during the northern monfoons, which fel- 
 dom fail blowing regularly in one part of the year. 
 The chief vegetables are rice and cocoas; but they 
 have ebony, fanders, &c. Their fruits and flowers 
 are much the fame as in the neiglibouring parts of the 
 Indies. They have pepper, fiigar, betel, areca, the 
 fineft cotton, and opium. The natives have bright 
 olive completions, and the women have fliining black 
 hair. They are thought to be very handfome by the 
 Dutch and Chinefe, who often purchafe them for bed- 
 fellows. The men are indultrious, robuft, and make 
 excellent foldiers. Their arms are fabres, and trunks, 
 from whence they blow poifoned darts, which are 
 pointed with the tooth of a fea-fifh. Some likewifc 
 uie poifoned daggers. They were the lail of the In- 
 dian nations that were enflaved by the Dutch, which 
 could not be effefted till after a long war. They teach 
 their children to read and wiite, and their charafters 
 have fome refemblanee of the Arabic. Their religion 
 being h'Lihometan, tlie men indulge themfelves in many 
 wives and concubines. The employment of the wo- 
 men is fpinning, cookery, and making their own and 
 their hiilbands cloaths. The men wear jewels in their 
 ears, and the women gold chains about their necks. 
 The inhabitants in general go half naked, Avithout any 
 thing oil their head, legs, or feet, and fome have no- 
 thing but a cloth about their middle. The ftrcets of 
 ^> the 
 
. C E L [ : 
 
 G-lerps, tHe, town Macaffar are fpacious, and planted witia trees 
 eeleri. every fide. It ftands by the fide of the only hirge 
 ""y" river they have in the ifland. Tlie Dutch have a fort 
 here, mounted with 40 guns, and garrifoned with 700 
 men. There is only one other town of note, called 
 Jampandam, "where they alfo have a fort. The ifland 
 is not near fo populous as when the Dutch conquered 
 it; the men being hired, for loldiers in moll ot the 
 neighbouring countries. 
 
 The religion of thefe iflands was formerly idolatry. 
 They worfHipped the fun and moon. They facriiictd 
 to them in the public fqnares, having no materials 
 which they thought valuable enough to be employed 
 in raifing temples. About two centuries ago, fome 
 Chriftians and Mahometans having brought their opi- 
 nions to Celebes, the principal king of the countiy 
 took a diflike to the national worfhip. Having con- 
 vened a general afiembly, he afcended an eminence, 
 when, fpreading out his hands ti^Avards heaven, he 
 told the Deity, that he would acknowledge for truth 
 that do6lrine whofe minillers Ihould iirtt arrive in his 
 dominions, and, as the winds and waves were at his 
 command, the Almighty would have himfelf to blame 
 if he embraced a falfchood. The aifembly broke up, 
 determined to wait the orders of heaven,, and to obey 
 the firft miffipnaries that (liould arrive. The maho- 
 metans were the moft a£live, and their religion ac- 
 cordingly prevailed. 
 
 CELERES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of 
 body-guards belonging to the Roman kings, ellablifhed 
 by Romulus, and con;pofed of 300 young men, clio- 
 fen out of the moft illullrious Roman families, and ap- 
 proved by the fuffrages of the curije of the people, 
 each of which furnlihed ten. The name comes from 
 ce/er, " quick, ready and was given them becaufe of 
 their promptnefs to obey the king. 
 
 The celeres always attended near the king's perfon, 
 to guard him, to be ready to carry his orders, and to 
 execute them. In v/ar, they made the van-guard in 
 the engagement, which they always began lirll ; in 
 retreats, they made the rear-guard. 
 
 Though the celeres were a body of horfe, yet they 
 ufually difmounti-'d, and fought on foot; their com- 
 mander was called tribune, or prefeft of the celeres. 
 They were divided into three troops, of loo each, 
 commanded by a captain called centurio : their tribune 
 was the fecond perfon in the kingdom. 
 
 Plutarch fays, Numa broke the celeres ; if this be 
 true, they were foon re-eftabliihed ; for we find them 
 under moft of the fucoeeding kings : witnefs the 
 great Brutus, who expelled the Tarquins, and who 
 was the tribune of the celeres. 
 
 CELERI, in botany, the Englilli name of a va- 
 riety ofthe Apium Graveolens. 
 
 The feed of eeleri ftiould be fown at two or three 
 different times, the better to continue it for ufe thro' 
 the whole feafon without running up to feed. The 
 firft fowing fhould be in the beginning of March, up- 
 on a gentle hot-bed ; the fecond may be at the end of 
 the fame montli, which ought to be in an open fpot 
 of light earth, where it may enjoy the benefit of the 
 fun ; the third time of fowing Ihould be in the latter 
 e nd of April, or beginning of May, on a moiil foil ; 
 and if expofed to the morning-fun only, it will be fo 
 much the better, but it Ihould not be under the drip 
 
 79 ] GEE 
 
 of trees. The middle of May, fome of the plants of 
 the firft fowing will be fit to tranfplant for blanch- 
 ing- 
 
 The manner of tranfplanting it is as fbllows : after 
 having cleared the ground of weeds, you muft dig a 
 trench by a line about 10 inches wide, and 8 or 9 
 inches deep, loofening the earth- in the bottom, and 
 la) ing it level ; and the earth that comes out of the 
 trench Hiould be equally laid on each fide the trench, 
 to be ready to draw in again to earth the eeleri as it 
 advances in height. Thefe trenches iTiould be made at 
 three feet diftarice from each other ; then plant your 
 plants in tlie middle of the trench, at about four or 
 five inches dillance, in one ftraight row, leaving before 
 trimmed the plants, and cut off the tops of the long 
 leaves ; and as they are planted, you muft obferve. to 
 clofe the earth well to their roots with your feet, and 
 to w ater them plentifully until they have taken new 
 root. As thefe plants advance in height, you mult 
 obferve to draw the earth on each fide clofe to them, 
 being careful not to bury their hearts, nor ever to do 
 it but in dry weather ; otherwife the plants will rot. 
 When your plants have advanced a conliderable height 
 above the tfenches, and all the earth, which was laid 
 on the fides thereof, hath been employed in earthing, 
 them up, you muft then make ufe of a fpade to dig 
 up the earth between the trenches, which muft alfo be 
 made ufe of for the fame purpofe, continuir.g from 
 time to time to earth it up until it is fit fur ufe. Tlie 
 laft crop fliould be planted in a drier foil, to prevent 
 its being rotted with too much wet in the winter. 
 You will do well to cover your ridges of celeii with 
 fome peafe- haulm, or fome fuch light covering,, 
 when the froft is very hard, which will admit the air 
 to tire plants ; for if they are covered too clofe, they 
 will be very fubjetl to rot : by this means you will 
 preferve your eeleri till fpring ; but you nruft remember 
 to take off the covering whenever the weather will 
 permit, otherwife it will be apt to caufe the eeleri to 
 pipe, and run. to feed. The eeleri, when full blanched,, 
 will not continue good above three weeks or a month 
 before it will rot or pipe ; therefore, in order to con- 
 tinue it good, you fliould have, at leaft, fix or feveu 
 different feafons of planting, proportioned to the con- 
 fumption. 
 
 The otlier fort of eeleri, which is commonly called 
 celeriac, is to be managed in the fiune manner ; ex- 
 cepting that this Ihould be planted on the level ground, 
 or in very fliallow drills ; for this plant feldom grows 
 above eight or ten inches high, fo requires but little 
 earthing up ; the great excellency of this being in the 
 fize of the root, which is often as large as ordinary 
 turnips. 
 
 The beft method to fave the feed of eeleri, is to 
 make choice of fome long good roots of the upright 
 eeleri, which have not been too much blanched, and 
 plant them out, at about a foot afuuder, in a moifl; 
 foil, early in the fpring ; and when they run up to 
 feed, keep them fupported with flakes, to prevent 
 then being broken down with, the wind : and in July, 
 when the feed begins to be formed, if the feafon fhould. 
 prove very dry, it will be proper to give fome water 
 to the plant, which will greatly help its producing, 
 good feeds. In Auguft thefe feeds will be ripe, at 
 v/hich rime it fliould be cut up, in a dry time, anti;- 
 
 fpreuil. 
 
C E L {2? 
 
 Ccleri fpread Upon cloths in the fun to dry ; thca beat out 
 Celetes feeds, and preferve it iil bags for ufe. 
 
 Cf.lf.ri, iv'tid, [Apium nntartlicum), was found in 
 confiderable quantities by Mr Banks and Dr Solander, 
 on the coaft of Terra del Fuego. It is like the garden 
 celeri in the colour and difpoiition of the flowers, but 
 the leaves are of a deeper green. The tafte is between 
 that of celeri and parfley. It is a very ufeful ingre- 
 dient in the foup for feamen, becaui'e of its antiicor- 
 butic quality. 
 
 CELERITY, in mechanics, the fv/iftnefs of any 
 body in motion. It is alfo defined to be an aftedlion 
 of motion, by which any moveable body runs through 
 a given fpace in a given time. 
 
 CELESTIN8, a religious order fo called from their 
 founder Peter de Mcuron, afterwards raifed to the 
 pontificate under the name of Celeftin V. This Peter, 
 who was born at Ifernia, a little town in the kingdom 
 of Naples, in the year 12 15, of but mean parents, re- 
 tired, while veiy young, to a folitary m.ountain, in 
 order to dedicate himfelf wholly to prayer and morti- 
 fication. The fame of his piety brought feveral, out 
 of curionty,. to fee him ; fomc of whom, charmed 
 with his virtues, renounced the world to accompany 
 him in his folitude. With thefe he formed a kind of 
 community in the year 1254; which was approved 
 by Pope Ui-ban IV. in 1264, and ere£led into a dlf- 
 tin6l order, called the her?nks of St Damien. Peter de 
 Meuron governed this order till 1286, when his love 
 of folitude and retirement induced him to quit the 
 charge. In July 1 294, the great reputation of his 
 fandlity raifed him, though much againft his will, to 
 the pontificate. He then took the name of Celeftin V. 
 and his order that of Cekjlins from him. By his 
 bull he approved their conftitutlons, and confirmed all 
 their monafteries to the aumber of 20. But he fat too 
 jfliort time in the chair of St Peter to do many great 
 things for his order ; for having governed the church 
 five months and a few days, and confiderlng the great 
 burden he had taken upon him, to which he thought 
 himfelf unequal, he folemnly renounced the pontificate 
 in a confiftory held at Naples. 
 
 After his death, which happened in 1296, his order 
 made great progrefs not only in Italy, but in France 
 likewife ; whither the then general Peter of Tivoli 
 ,fent 12 religious, at the requeit of king Philip the 
 Fair, who gave them two monafieries ; one in the fo- 
 reft of Orleans, and the otlier in the forell of Com- 
 peigne at mount Chai tres. This order likewife paifed 
 into feveral provinces of Germany. They have about 
 96 convents in Italy, and 21 in France, under the 
 title of priories. 
 
 The Celeftins rife two hours after midnight, to fay 
 matins. They eat no flefh at any time, except when 
 they are fick. They fall every Wednefday and I'riday, 
 from Eafter to the feall of the exaltation of the holy 
 crofs ; and, from that feaft to Eafter, every day. As 
 to their habit, it confifts of a white gown, a capuche, 
 and a black fcapulary. In the choir, and when they 
 go out of the m.onaftery, they wear a black cowl 
 with the capuche : their ftiirts are of ferge. 
 
 CELETES, or Celet^, (from y.-^^s, aracc-hrfe,) 
 in antiquity, denote fingle or faddle-horfes ; by way 
 of contradiftlnaion from thofe yoked or harndied to- 
 gether, caUcd ligariiy quadrigaril, &jc. The fame de- 
 67. 
 
 o ) C E L 
 
 nomination is alfo given to the cavaliers or riders on 
 horfeback ; and hence fome deduce celercs, the name 
 of Romulus's guard. 
 
 CELEUSMA, or Ce-leuma, in antiquity, the 
 fhout or cry of the feamen, whereby they animated 
 each other in their work of rdw'ing. The word is 
 formed from x;A=uiiv, to call, fo give th^Jlgnal. 
 
 Celeusma was alfo a kind of fong or formula, re- 
 hearfed or played by the mafter, or others, to direil 
 the ftrokes and movements of the mnrinens, as well as 
 to encourage them to labour. See Celeustes. 
 
 CELEUSTES, in ancient navigation, the boat- 
 fwain or officer appointed to gi-^ e the rowers the fig- 
 nal, when they were to pull, and when to flop, lit 
 was alfo denominated epopeus, and by the Romans 
 portifcuhs ; fometunes fimply hortator. 
 
 CELIBACY, the ftate of unmarried perfons. Sca- 
 liger derives the word from the Greek y-'i"-.^ " bed,"" 
 and ^-f'TQ, I'wquo, " I leave ;" others fay it is formed 
 from ctell heatitudo ; q. d. the llrjjediufs of heaven. 
 
 The ancient Romans ufed all means imaginable to 
 difcourage celibacy. Nothing was m.ore ufual tb.aa 
 for the cenfors to impofe a fine on bachelors. Diony- 
 fius HallcarnalTenfis mentions an ancient conftitutlon 
 whereby all perfons of full age were obliged to marry. 
 But the firft law of that kind, of which we have a;--./ 
 certainty, is that under Auguitus, called lex Julia 
 marhandis ordinibtis. It was afterwards denominated 
 Papia Poppea, and more ufually Julia Papia, in re- 
 gard of fome new fanclion and amendments made to 
 it under the confuls Paplus and Poppsus. By tlus 
 law, divers prerogatives were given to perfons who had 
 many children ; penalties impofed on thofe who lived 
 a fingle life, as that they Ihould be incapable of re- 
 ceiving legacies, and not exceeding a certain pro- 
 portion. 
 
 CELIBATE, the fame with celibacy ; but it Is 
 chiefly ufed in fpeaklng of the fingle Ufe of the Popllh 
 clergy, or the obhgation they are under to abllain 
 from marriage. In this fenfe we fay the law of celibate. 
 Monks and religious take a vow of ceUbate ; and what 
 is more, of chaftity. 
 
 The church of Rome impofes an univerfal celibacy 
 on all its clergy, from the pope to the loweft deacon 
 and fubdeacun. The advocates for this ufage pretend, 
 that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the 
 ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from 
 the earlieft apoftolic ages. Bat the contrary is evi- 
 dent from numerous examples of bifhops and archbi' 
 Ihops, who lived in a ftate of matrimony, without any 
 prejudice to their ordination or their fundion. It is 
 generally agreed that mo ft of the apoftles were mar- 
 ried. Some fay all of them, except St Paul and St 
 John. Others fay St Paul himfelf was married, be- 
 caufe be writes to hk yoLefeilctv, whom they inter- 
 pret his wife. Be this as it will, in the next ages 
 after the apoftles, we have accounts of divers mar* 
 ried bldiops, prcfoyters, and deacons, without any re- 
 proof or mark of dilhonour fet on them ; e. g. Valens, 
 prcft)yter of Philippi, mentioned by Polycarp ; and 
 Cnfcremon, biftiop of Nilus. Novatus was a married 
 prcihytet of Carthage, as we learn from Cyprian ; who 
 himfelf was alfo a married man, as Pagi confefies ; 
 and fo was Ca;cilius the pi-eioyter who converted him ; 
 and Numidius another prefbyter of Carthage. The 
 
 4 ^^p^y 
 
 CehvSmz 
 
 li 
 
 Celibate. 
 
Celibate 
 
 Cell. 
 
 C E L [281 
 
 reply which the Romanifts give to this is, tliat all mar- 
 ried perfons, when they came to be ordained, promi- 
 fed to lived feparate from their wives by confent, which 
 anfwered the vow of celibacy in other perfons. But 
 this is not only faid^withoiit proof, butagainll it. For 
 Novatus prefbyter of Carthage, was certainly allowed 
 to cohabit with his wife after ordination ; as appears 
 from the charge that Cyprian brings agalnll him, that 
 he had ftruck and abufed his wife, and thereby caufcd 
 her to mifcarry. There feems indeed to have been, 
 in fome cafes, a tendency towards the introduAion of 
 fiich a law, by one or two zealots ; but the motion 
 was no fooner made, than it was quafhed by the au- 
 thority of wifer men. Thus Eufebius obferves, that 
 •Pinytus, bifhop of GnofTus in Crete, was for laying 
 the law of celibacy upon his brethren ; but DIonyfius 
 bifhop of Corinth wrote to him, that he fliould confi- 
 der the weaknefs of men, and not impofe that heavy 
 burden on them. In the council of Nice, anno 329, 
 the motion was renewed for a law to obhge the cler- 
 gy to abftain from all conjugal fociety with their wives, 
 whom they had married before their ordination ; but 
 Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian bifhop, and one who 
 himfelf never was married, vigoroufly declaimed a- 
 .gainfl it, upon which it was unanimoufly reje£led. So 
 Socrates and Sodomen tell the llory ; to which all 
 that Valefius, after Bellarmin, has to fay, is, that he 
 fufpefts the truth of it. The council in TruUo, held 
 in 692, made a difference in this refpeft between bi- 
 fliops and prefbyters ; allowing prefbyters, deacons, and 
 all ihe inferior orders, to cohabit with their wives after 
 ordination ; and giving the Roman church a fmart re- 
 buke for the contrary prohibition, but at the fame time 
 laying an injunftion upon bifliops to live feparate from 
 their wives, and appointing the wives to betake them- 
 felves to a monaflic life, or become deaconeffes in the 
 church. And thus was a total celibate eftablifhed in 
 the Greek church, as to bifhops, but not any others 
 In the Latin chuich, the like eftablifhment 
 made, but by flow (teps in many places. For in Africa, 
 even bifhops themfelves cohabited with their wives 
 at the time of the council of Trullo. The celibacy 
 of the clergy, however, appears of an ancient fland- 
 ing, if not of command and neccffity, yet as of coun- 
 fel and choice. But as it is clearly neither of divine 
 nor apodolical inftitution, it is, at firft, hard to con- 
 ceive from what motive the court of Rome perfiited 
 fo very obftinately to impofe this inflitution on the 
 clergy. But we are to obferve that this was a lead- 
 ing flep to the execution of the project formed of 
 making the clergy independent of princes, and ren- 
 dering them a feparate body to be goverened by their 
 own laws. In effcd, while priefls had children, it was 
 very dilhcult to prevent their dependence on princes, 
 whofe favours have luch an influence on private men ; 
 but having no family, they were more at liberty to ad- 
 here to tiie Pope. 
 
 CELIDOGRAPHIA, the defcription of the fpots 
 which appear on the furfaces of the fun and planets. 
 See Astronomy, n° 5S, &c. 
 
 CELL, CELLA, in ancient|writers, denotes a place 
 or apartment ulually under ground, and vaulted, in 
 which were ftored up fome fort of neceffaiies, as wine, 
 honey, and the hke ; and according to which it was 
 
 Vol. IV. Parti. 
 
 ] • C E L 
 
 called Cella Vinarlai, Olearla, Mellaria, Sec. The word 
 is formed from the Latin celare, to conceal. 
 
 Cella was alfo uled for the lodge or habitat on of 
 a common proflitute, as being anciently under ground, 
 hence alfo denominated fornix. 
 
 11 
 
 Cellar. 
 
 was alio hermits, 
 
 Jntravit calidum veleri centone liipanar, 
 Et cellam vacuam. Juv. Sat. vi. ver. 121. 
 
 On which place an ancient fcholiafl remarks, that the 
 names of the whores were written on the doors ot their 
 feveral cells ; by which we learn the meaning of in- 
 fcripta cella in Martial, lib. xi. ep. 46. 
 
 Cella was alio applied to the bed-chambers of do- 
 meltics and fervanis ; probably as being low and nar- 
 row. — Cicero, inveighing againfl the luxury of Antony, 
 fays, the beds in the very cellte of his fervants were fpread 
 witli pompous purple coverlets. 
 
 Cella is alfo applied to the members or apartments 
 of baths. Of thefe there were three principal, called fr'tgi- 
 daria, tepidana, and caldar 'ia ; to which may be added 
 a fourtti, called cella ci/fa, and fometimcs Judatoria. 
 
 Cella likewifc fignified the adyta, or inmoft and 
 moil retired parts of temples, wherein the irhages of 
 the gods to whom the edifices were confecrated were 
 preferved. In this fenfe we meet vf'ith. cella ^ovis, cella 
 Concordia, &c. 
 
 Cell is alfo ufed for a lefTer or fubordinate foit of 
 minifler dependent on a great one, by which it was 
 erefted, and continues ftill to be governed. The great 
 abbeys in England had mofl of them cells in places 
 diftant from the mother abbey, to which they were ac- 
 countable, and from which they received their fupe- 
 riors. The alien priories in England were cells to 
 abbeys in Normandy, France, Italy, &c.. The mme cell 
 was alio given to rich and confiderable monafleries not 
 dependent on any other. 
 
 Cell fignities alfo a little apartment or chamber, 
 fuch as thole wherein the ancient monks, folitaries, and 
 lived in retirement. Some derive the word 
 from the Hebrew x'^a, i. e, " a prifon, or place where 
 any thing is Ihut up." 
 
 The fame name is flill retained in divers monafleries. 
 The dormitory is frequently divided into fo many cells 
 or lo ges. The Carthufians have each a feparate houfe, 
 which ferves them as a cell. The hall herein the 
 Roman conclave is held, is divided, by partitions, into 
 divers cells, for the feveral cardinals to lodge in. 
 
 Cell h alfo a name given to the little divifions in 
 honey-combs, which are always regular hexagons. Sec 
 BuE. 
 
 Cell, in botany, is applied to the hollow places be- 
 tween the partitions in the pods, hufl<s, and other feed- 
 vefTels of plants ; according as there is one, two, three, 
 i^c. of thefe cells, the vefTel is faid to be unilocular, bi-' 
 locular, trilocular, izfc. 
 
 ChLLS, in anatomy, little bags, or bladders, where 
 fluids or other matters are lodged ; called loculi, celluhy 
 &c. Thus the cellule adipofa are the little cclis where 
 the fat is contained ; cellula in the colon, are fpaces 
 wher-ein the excrements are detained till voided, 
 &c. 
 
 CELLAR (Cellariutn), in ancient writers, denotes 
 the fame with cella, viz. a confervatory of eatables, or 
 drinkables. 
 
 N n Cellar 
 
C E L [2 
 
 Cellar Cellar differs from vault, as the latter 'n fuppofed to 
 . be deeper, the forraer being frequently little below the 
 ^ .'^ i'' furface of the ground. In which ienfe, cellarlum only- 
 differed from pentis, as the former was only a ftore -houfe 
 for feveral days, the latter for a long time. Thus it 
 ill, the baftroperatrsr a fott of ancient Cynics, are faid 
 by St Jerome to carry cellar about with them. 
 
 Cellarlum alfo denoted an allowance of bread, wine, 
 oil, or other provifion, farnifhed out of the cella, to 
 the ufe of the governor of the province and his officers, 
 &c. In which fenfe, the word amounts to much the 
 fame with annona. 
 
 Cellars, in modern building, are the lowt-ft rooms 
 in a houfe, the ceilings of which ufually lie level with 
 the furface of the ground on which the houfe is built; or 
 they are fituated under the pavement before the houfe, 
 efpecially in ftreets and fquares. 
 
 Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were 
 called by the Greeks hypogita: the Italians ftill call 
 them fundi delle cafe. 
 
 CELLARER, or Cellerer, /^Ce/Zt-rar/wjor Cella- 
 r'lus ), an officer in monatteries, to whom belong the 
 care and procurement of provifions for the convent. 
 The denomination is faid to be borrowed from the Ro* 
 man law, where cellarlus denotes an examiner of ac- 
 counts and expences. Ulpian defines it thus: ' Cd- 
 leiarius, id eft, ideo prsepofitus ut rationes falvfe fint." 
 
 The cellerarlus was one of the four obediendarii, or 
 great officers of monallcries : under his ordering was 
 the pyirimim or bakehoufe^^nd the bracinum, or brew- 
 houte. In the richer houfes there were particular 
 lands fet apart for the maintenance of his office, called 
 in ancient writings ad cibum monachorum. The celle- 
 rar'ius was a great man in the convent. His whole 
 office in ancient times had a refpeft to that origin : 
 he was to fee his lord's corn got in, and laid up in 
 granaries; and his appointment confifted in a certain 
 proportion thereof, ufually fixed at a thirteenth part 
 of the whole together with a furred gown. The 
 office of cellarer then only differed in name from thofe 
 of bailiff and minftrel ; excepting that the cellarer had 
 the receipt of his lord's rents through the whole extent 
 ©f his jurifdiiSlion. 
 
 Cellarer was alfo an officer in chapters, to whom 
 belonged the care of the temporals, and particularly 
 the diilributing of bread, wine, and money to canons, 
 on account of their attendanee in the choir. In fome 
 places he was called cellarer^ in others burfr, and in 
 othet s currier. 
 
 CELLARIUS (Chriftopher), was born in 1638, 
 at Smalcade in Franconia, of which town his father was 
 miniller. He was fucceffively reflor of the colleges 
 at Weymar, Zeits, and Merfbourg ; and the king of 
 Pruffia having founded an univerfity at Hall in 1693, 
 he was prevailed on to be profeffor of eloquence and 
 hiftory there, where he compofed the greatcft part of 
 his works. His great application to fludy haftened the 
 infirmities of old age ; for it is faid, he would fpend 
 whole days and nights together at his books, without 
 any attention to his health, or even the calls of nature. 
 His Works relate to grammar, geography, hiftory, and 
 the oriental languages, and the number of them is 
 amazing. He died in 1707. 
 
 CELLINI (Benvenuto), an eminent ftatuary, who 
 
 !2 1 C E L 
 
 was bred a jeweller and goldfmith,.,h^t , fcerti3 to ,have Ce'I ilar 
 had an"" extraordinary geniu^ for the fine arts in gene- I' 
 ral He was cotemporary with Michael Augelo, and 
 Julio Romano, and was employed by popes, kings, 
 and other princely patrons of faiences and arts, fo 
 highly cultivated in the daysof Leo X. and Charles V. 
 fomc of his produdlions being eftetrned moil exaui- 
 fite. He lived to a very confideiable old age ; and 
 his life, almoft to the lall, was a continued icene of 
 adventure, perfecution, and misfortune, tialy won- 
 derful. He wrote his own hiitory, which was not, 
 however, publilbed till the year 1730, probably on ac- 
 count of the exceffivc freedom with which he therein 
 treated many diftinguifhed perlonages of Italy and other 
 countries. It was tranfiated into EngliOi by Dr Nu- 
 gent in 1771, to vi^hich the reader is referred, as it 
 will not admit of an abridgement fui table to the defig n 
 of this work. 
 
 CELLULAR, in a general fenfe, is applied to anv 
 thing confifting of fingle cells. 
 
 Ce LLC LAR Me-mhrane. See Anatomy, n° 83 tt feq. 
 
 CELOSIA, cocks-comb: A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order,, belonging to the pentandi'ia clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 54th or- 
 der, Mfcellaneo'. The calyx. is triphj'llous ; the corolla 
 is five-petalled in appearance ; the ftamina are conjoiiied 
 at the bafe to the plaited nediai-iura ; the capfule gaping 
 horizontally. There are eight fpecics, of which the 
 mod worthy of notice is the cri^ata, or common cocks*- 
 comb, fo called on account of its crefted head of flowers"^ 
 refembling a cock's comb ; of thefe there are a great 
 variety of fpecies. The principal colours of their 
 flowers are red, purple, yellow, and white ; but there 
 are fome whofe heads are variegated with two or thi-ee 
 colours. The heads are fometimes divided like a plume 
 of feathers, and are of a beautiful fcailet colour. Thefe 
 plants are very tender exotics, and require a great deal 
 of care to cultivate them in this country. Three hot- 
 beds mull be prepared ; a fmall one in March, on 
 which to raife the plants an inch or two in height ; 
 a fecond in April, of larger diraenfions, in which to 
 tranfplant them when proper ; and a third in May for 
 a large frame, to receive them trairfplanted into pots, . 
 to i-emain till the end of June or beginning of July to 
 grow to full fize : all of which hot -beds muft be cover- 
 ed w ith frames and glaffes, and have five or fix inches 
 depth of fine rich hght earth for the reception of the 
 feed and plants ; and in the fecond and third hot-bed, 
 the frames mull occafionally be raifed or augmented, 
 according as the plants fliall rife in height. 
 
 CELSIA, in botany: A genus of the angiofpermia 
 order, belonging to the tridynamia clafs of plants; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 28th order, 
 Lvrida. The calyx is quinquepartite : the corolla 
 wheel-fhaped ; the tilai"nents bearded or woolly ; the 
 capfule brlocular. 
 
 CELSUS (Aurelius Cornelius), a celebrated phyfi- 
 cian of the firft century, who wrote eight books on 
 medicine, in ekgarrt Latin. He was the Hippocra- 
 tes of the Latins, and Qu^intillan gives him a high eu- 
 logium. The great Boerhaave tells us, that Celfus is 
 one of the beft authors of antiquity for letting us into 
 the true meaning and opinions of Hippocrates ; and . 
 that, without him, the writings of -this father in phy-- 
 
 lic 
 
C E L 
 
 t 283 ] 
 
 C E L 
 
 Ce'fus, 
 
 fic wolild be often uniotelligible, often mlfuadcrftood 
 by us. He fliows us alfo how the ancients cured dif- 
 tempers b)" friction, bathing, &c. His eight books 
 de Mcdicim have been fe.veral times printed. The El- 
 zivir edition, La the year 1650, by Vander Linden, is 
 the heft, aa being entirely correfted from his manu- 
 fcripts. 
 
 Cj.lsus, an Epicurean pliilofopher, in the fecond 
 ccntur)'. He wrote a work againft the Chriftian.s, en- 
 titled, The true Difcourfe ; to which Origen, at the de- 
 lire of Ambrofe his friend, wrote a learned anfwer. To 
 this pliilofopher Lucian dedicated his Pfeudomanles. 
 
 C;:ELTiE, or Celtes, an ancient nation, by which 
 mofl of the countries of Europe are thought to have 
 been peopled. The compilers of the Univerfal Hi- 
 ftory are of opinion, that they are defcended from 
 Gomer the eldeft fon of Japhet, the fon of Noah. 
 They thiiik that Gomer fettled in tlie province of 
 Phrygia in Aiia : Afhkenaz his eldeft fon, or Togar- 
 mali his youngeft, or both, in Armenia, and Riphath 
 the fecond fon in Cappadocia. When they fpread 
 tliemfelves wider, they feem to have moved regularly 
 in columns without interfering with or difturbing 
 tlieir neighbours. The defcendants of Gomer, or the 
 Celtae, took the left hand, infenfibly fpreading tliem- 
 felves wellward towards Poland, Hungary, Germany, 
 France, and Spain ; while the defcendants of Magog, 
 Ooracr's brother, moving eaftward, peopled Tartary.. 
 . In this large Eiinopean trail, the Celtes began to 
 appear a powerful nation under a regular monarchy, 
 pr rather under feveral confiderable kingdoms. Men- 
 tion is mads of them indeed in fo many parts of Eu- 
 rope, by ancient geographers and hiftorians, that Or- 
 telius took Celtica to be a general name for the con- 
 tinent of Europe, and made a map of it bearing this 
 title. In thofe parts of Aha, which they poffefTed, as 
 awell as in the different parts of Europe, the Celtes 
 went by various names. In LeflTer Aha they were 
 known by the names of Titans and Sachs ; in the nor- 
 thern parts of Europe, by thofe of Cymmer'ians , Cym- 
 br'tans, &c. ; and in the fouthern parts they were called 
 Celtes, Gauls, or Galatians. 
 
 With refpeft to the government of the Celtes we 
 are entirely in the dark. All we know is, that the 
 curetes, and afterwards druids and bards, were the 
 interpreters of their laws; judged all caufes whether 
 criminal or civil ; and their fentence was reckoned fo 
 facred, that whoever refufed to abide by it was by 
 them excluded from affifting at their facred rites ; af- 
 ter which no man dared converfe with him ; fo that 
 this punifhment was reckoned the raofb fevere of all, 
 even feverer than death itfclf. 
 
 They neither reared temples nor ftatues to the dei- 
 ty, but deftroyed them wherever they could find them, 
 planting in their flead large fpacious groves ; which 
 being open on the top and fides, were, in their opi- 
 nion, more acceptable to the divine Being, who is ab- 
 ifolutely unconfined. In this their religion feems to 
 have refembled that of the Perfees and difciples of 
 /Zoroaller. The Celtes only differed from thera in 
 .making the oak inftead of the fire the emblem of the 
 deity ; in choofing that tree above all others to plant 
 their groves with, and attributing feveral fupernatural 
 virtues both to its wood, leaves, fruit, and mifsletoe ; 
 all which .wiere made ufe of in their facrifices and 
 
 other parts of their woj-fhip. But after they had adopts 
 ed the idolatrous fuperftitioji of the Romans and other 
 nations, and the apotheofis of their heroes and prin- 
 ces, they came to worfliip them much in the fame 
 manner : as Jupiter under the name of Tar an, which 
 in the Celtic fignifies thunder : Mercury, whom forae 
 authors call Heus or Hcfus, probably, from the Celtic 
 huadh, which fignifies a dog, and might be the Anubii 
 lafrans of the Egyptians. But Mars was held in the 
 greatell veneration by the warlike, and Mercuiy by 
 the trading part of the nation. The care of religion 
 was immediately under their curetes, hnce known by 
 the name of druids and bards. Thefe were, as Cae- 
 far tells us, the performers of facrifices and all reli- 
 gious rites, and expounders of religion to the people. 
 They alfo inftrufted youth in all kinds of learning, 
 fuch as philofophy, aftronomy, aflrology, &.c. Their 
 doftrines were taught only by word of mouth, efteem- 
 ing them too facred to be committed to writing. 
 Other more common fubjeds, fuch as their hymns to 
 their gods, the exploits of princes and generals in time 
 of war, and efpecially before a battle, were couched 
 in elegant verfe, and recited, or rather fung, on ajl 
 proper occafions ; though even thefe were alfo kept 
 from vulgar eyes, and either committed to memory, 
 or if to writing, the whole was a fecret to all the 
 laity. The latter indeed feems the moil probable, if 
 what Casfar hints be true; namely, that thefe poetic 
 records were increafed in his time to fuch a bulk, that 
 it took up a young bard near 20 years to learn the»i 
 by heart. Diodorus tells us farther, that thefe poets 
 ufed to accompany their fongs vvitii inftrumental mufic, 
 fuch as that of organs, harps, and the like ; and that 
 they were held in fuch veneration, that if, in the time 
 of an engagement between two armies, one of thefe 
 bards appeared, both fides immediately ceafed fighting. 
 The reafon of tliis was, that they were univerfally be- 
 lieved to be prophets as well as poets ; fo that it was 
 thought dangerous as well as injurious to difobey what 
 they fuppofed came from their gods. Thefe prophe- 
 tic philofophers kept academies, which were reforted 
 to not only by a great number of their own youth, 
 but alfo of thofe from other countries, infomuch that 
 Ariftotle fays, their philofophy palfed from thence in- 
 to Greece, and not from Greece thither. Diodorus 
 iikewife quotes a paffage from Hecateus, which is 
 greatly in their praife ; vi-x.. that the druids had fome 
 kind of inftruraents by which they could draw diftant 
 obje£ls nearer, and make them appear larger and 
 plainer ; and by which they could difcover even feas, 
 mountains, and valleys, in the moon. But whatever 
 might be the?t- learning, it is certain, that in procefs 
 of time they adopted feveral very barbarous cuftoms, 
 fuch as facrificing human viAims to their gods as mox-e 
 acceptable to them than thofe of any other animals. 
 And Diodorus tells us of another inhuman cultom they 
 ufed in their divinations, efpecially in great; matters, 
 which was done by kilUng fome of their Haves, or 
 fome prifoners of war, if any they had, with a fcime- 
 tar, to draw their augury from the running of hir, 
 blood from his mangled limbs. 
 
 For the hiftory, &c. of the different Celtic nations 
 fee the article Gaul, &c. 
 
 Celtes, certain ancient inftruments of a wedge- 
 like form, of which feveial have been difcov.n-ed in 
 N n 2 dilferent 
 
 Celtee, 
 
C E L [2 
 
 C^Wiberia, different parts of Great Britain. Antiquarians have 
 Celtis. generally attributed them to the Celtas ; but, not a- 
 
 *" " ' greeing as to their ufe, diftmguiflied them by the a-* 
 bove unmeaning appellation. But Mr Whittaker makes 
 it probable that they were Britifh battle-axes. See 
 Battle- Ax. 
 
 CELTIBERIA (anc. geog.), a county of the Hi- 
 ther Spain, along the right or fouth-welt fide of the 
 river Iberus ; though fometimes the greateft part of 
 Spain was called by the name of Celtiber'ia. The peo- 
 ple were denominated Ceh'ilim, or the Celtse feated on 
 the Iberus. They were very brave and warlike, their 
 cavalry in particular was excellent. They wore a 
 black and rough cloak, the fhag of which was like 
 goats hair. Some of them had light bucklers like the 
 Gauls; other hollow and round ones like tbofe of o- 
 ther nations. They all wore boots made of hair, and 
 iron helmets adorned with crefts of a purple colour. 
 They ufcd fwords which cut on both fides, and poi- 
 oards of a foot long. Their arms were of an admi- 
 rable temper, and are faid to have been prepared in 
 the following manner : they buried plates of iron un- 
 der ground, where they let them remain tdl the ruft 
 had eaten the weakeft part of the metal, and the relt 
 ■was confequcntly hai-d and firm. Of this excellent- iron 
 they made their fwords, which were fo Itrong and 
 well tempered, that there was neither buckler nor 
 helmet that could refill their edge. The Celtiberians 
 were very cruel towards their enemies and malefac- 
 tors, but fiiowed the greateft humanity to their guefts. 
 They not only cheerfully granted their hofpitabty to 
 ilrangers who travelled in their country, but were 
 defirous that they fiiould feek protedtion under their 
 roof. 
 
 CELTIS, in botany: A genus of the monoecia 
 order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 53d order, 
 Scalridce. It is an hermaphrodite plant : The female 
 ealyx is quinquepartite ; there is no corolla ; there are 
 five Ikamina, and two ityles. The fruit is a raonofper- 
 mous plum. In the male, there is no calyx : the co- 
 rolla is hexapetalous ; there are fix ftamina, and an 
 embryo of a piftillum. There are three fpecies, all of 
 them deciduous, viz. 
 
 I. The Auftralis or Southern Celtis, a deciduous tree, 
 native of Africa and the South of Europe. 2. The 
 Occidentalis or Weftem Celtis, a native of Virginia. 
 And 3. The Orientalis or Eaftern Celtis, a native of 
 Armenia. The two firft fpecies grow with large, fair, 
 ftraight ftems ; their branches are numerous and dif- 
 fufe ; their bark is of a darkifh grey colour ; their 
 leaves are of a pleafant green ; three or four inchea 
 . long, deeply ferrated, end in a narrow point, nearly 
 refemble the leaves of the common llinging-ncttle, 
 and continue on the trees till late in the autunm : So 
 that one may eafily conceive what an agreeable variety 
 thefe trees would make. Add to this, their fhade is 
 admirable. The leaves aie late in. the fpring before 
 they fhow themfelves ; but they make amends for this, 
 by retaining their verdure till near the clofe of autumn, 
 and then do not refemble moft deciduous trees, whoie 
 leaves fhow their approaching fall by the change of 
 their colour ; but continue to exhibit themfelves of a 
 pleafant green even to the laft. Hanbuiy fpeaks high- 
 ly of the celtis as a timber-tree : he fays, " The wood 
 
 B4. ] C E L 
 
 of the Lote-tree is extremely durable. In Italy they 
 
 make their flutes, pipes, and other wind-inftrumcnts 
 of it. With i!S the coach-makers ufe it for the frames 
 of their vehicles." Millar mentions alfo the wooti of 
 the Occidentalis being ufed by the coach-makers. The 
 third fpecies will grov/ to about twelve feet ; and the 
 branches are numerous, irnooth, and of a greenifh co- 
 lour. The leaves are finaller than thofe of tiie other 
 forts, though they are of a thicker texture, and of a 
 lighter green. The flowers come out Irom the wings 
 of the leaves, on flender footftalks : They are yellow- 
 ifti, appear early in the fpring, and are fucceeded by 
 large yellow fruit. 
 
 Propagation, isfc. All the fpecies are propagated 
 from feeds, which ripen in England, if tliey have a fa- 
 vourable autumn ; but the foreign iccds are the molt 
 certain of producing a crop. Thefe leeds ihoiJd be 
 fown, foon after they are lipe, either in boxes, or in a 
 fine warm border of rich Crti th, a quarter of an inch 
 'deep ; and in the following fpring many of the young 
 plants will appear ; tliough a great part often lie till 
 the fecond fpring before they fhow their heads. If 
 the feeds in the beds fhoot early in the fpring, they 
 fhould be hooped, and protected by mats from the 
 frells, which would nip them in the bud. When all 
 danger from frofts is over, the mats fhould be laid a- 
 fide till the parching beams of the fun get powerful ; 
 when, in the day-time, they may be laid over the hoop« 
 again, to fcreen the plants from injury. The mats 
 fhould be conflantly taken off every night, and the 
 young plants fhould never be covered either in rainy 
 or cloudy weather. During the whole fummer, theie 
 feedlings flrould be frequently, watered in dry weather, 
 and the beds kept clean of weeds. Sec. In the autumn, 
 they muft be protected from the frofts, which often 
 come early in that feafon, and would not fail to de? 
 ftroy their tops. The like care fhould be continued 
 all winter to defend them from the fame enemies. In 
 this feminary they may remain, being kept clean of 
 weeds and watered in dry weather, till the end of 
 June, when they fhould be taken out of their beds, 
 and planted in others at fix inches diflance. And here 
 let no one (continues Hanbury) be Itartled at my re- 
 commending the month of Juiie for this work ; for I 
 have found by repeated experience, that the plants 
 will be then almofl certain of growing, and will con - 
 tinue their fhoots till the autumn ; whereas I have 
 ver perceived, that many of thofe planted in March 
 have frequently periihed, and that thofe which did 
 grow made hardly any fhoot that year, and fhowed the 
 early figure of a ftunted tree. In June, therefore, let 
 the ground be well dug, and prepared for this work ; 
 and let the mould be rich and good : But the opera- 
 tion of removing muft be deferred till rain comes; and 
 if the feafon fhould be dry, this work may be poftpon- 
 ed till the middle of July. After a Ihower, therefore, 
 or a night's rain, let the plants be taken out of their 
 beds, and pricked out at fix inches diftance from- each 
 other. After this, the beds in which they are planted 
 fhould be hooped, and covered with mats when the fun 
 fhines ; but thefe muft always be taken away at night, 
 as well as in I'ainy or cloudy weather. With this ma^ 
 nagement, they will have fhot to a good height by the 
 autumn, and have acquired fo much hardinefs and 
 llrength as to need no farther care than to- be kept 
 
 clear 
 
C E M [ : 
 
 Cfmert. clear of weeds for two or three years ; when they may 
 be planted out in places where they are to remain, or 
 fet in the nurfery, to h: trained up for large ftandards. 
 The beil feafon for planiing out thefe ftandard trees 
 is the latter end of October, or beginning of Novem- 
 ber; and in performing that operation, the ufual rules 
 mull be obfervcd with care. Tiie foil for the lote-tree 
 flioald he light, and in good heart ; and the fituation 
 ought to be well defended, the young (hoots being very 
 liable to be dellroyed by the winter's froits. 
 
 CEMENT, in a general fenfe, any glutinous fub- 
 ftance capable of uniting and keeping things together 
 in clofe cohefion. In this fenfe the word cement com- 
 prehends mortar, folder, glue, i^c. but has been gene- 
 rally reftrained to the compolitions ufed for holding 
 together broken glaffes, china, and earthen ware. For 
 this purpofe the juice of gailic is recommended as ex- 
 ceedingly proper, being both very jtrong, and, if the 
 operation is performed with care, leaving little or no 
 mark. Quicklime and the white of an egg mixed 
 together, and expeditioufly ufed, are alfo very proper 
 for this puvpofe. Dr Lewis recommends a mixture 
 of quicklime and chcefe, in the following manner : 
 Sweet cheefe fhaved thin and IHrred with boiling- 
 hot wa,ter, changes into a tenacious flime wliich does 
 not mingle with the water. Worked with freih par- 
 cels of hot water, and then mixed upon a hot ftone 
 with a proper quantity of unflaked lime, into the con- 
 fiilence of a pafte, it proves a ftrong and durable ce- 
 ment for wood, ftone, earthen-ware, and glafs. When 
 thoroughly dry, which will be iu two or three days, it 
 is not in the leaft afted upon by water. Cheeie barely 
 beat with quickhme, as directed by fome of the che- 
 mifts for luting cracked glalfes, is not near fo effica- 
 cious." A compofition of the drying oil of linfeed 
 and white-lead is alfo ufed for the fame purpofes, but 
 is greatly inferior. 
 
 Cement in building, is ufed to denote any kind of 
 mortar of a ftronger kind than ordinary. The cement 
 commonly ufed is of two kinds ; hot, and cold. The 
 hot ceme/it is made of rofin, bees wax, brick-duft, and 
 chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be cemented 
 are heated, and rubbed one upon another, with cement 
 between them. The cold cement is that above de- 
 fcribed for cementing china, £5^^:. which is fometimes, 
 though rarely, employed in building. 
 
 The ruins of the ancient Roman buildings are found 
 to cohere fo ftrongly, that moft people have imagined 
 the ancients were acquainted with fome kind of mor- 
 tar, which, in comparifon of ours, might juttlybe call- 
 ed cement ; and that to our want of knowledge of the 
 materials they ufed, is owing the great inferiority of 
 modern buildings in their durability. In 1770, one 
 M. Eoriot, a Frenchman, pretended to have difcover- 
 cd the fecret of the ancient cement, which, according 
 to him, was no- more than a mixtiu-e of powdered quick- 
 lime with lime which had been long flaked and kept 
 under water. The flaked lime was firfl to be made 
 up with fand, earth, brick-duft, iD'c. into mortar after 
 the common method, and then about a third part of 
 (juick-lime in powder was added to tlie mixture. This 
 produced an almoil inllantaneous petrification, fome- 
 thing like what is called the fdi'ing of alabalter, but in a 
 much ftronger degree; and was poffelTed of many won- 
 derful quahties needkfs here to relate, feeing it has never 
 
 185 ] C E M 
 
 been known to fuccecd with any other perfon who tried Cement, 
 it. Mr Anderfon, in his effays on agriculture, has -"""v^" 
 difcufled this fubjeil; at confiderable length, and feem- 
 ingly with great judgment. He is the only perfon 
 we know, who has given any rational theory of the 
 ules of lime in building, and why it comes to be the 
 proper bails of all cements. His account is in fub- 
 ttance as follows : 
 
 Li.i.e which has been flaked and mixed with fand, 
 becomes hard and confiftent when diy, by a procefs 
 limilar to that which produces the naturd JtalaSites 
 in caverns. Thefe are always formed by water drop- 
 ping from the roof. By fome unknown and inexpli- 
 cabk- procefs of nature, this water has diffolved in it a 
 fmall portion of calcareous matter in a caujlic flate. 
 As long as the water continues covered from the air, 
 it keeps the earth diffolved in it ; it being the natural 
 property of calcareous earths, when deprived of their 
 hxed air, to diffolve in water. But when the fmall 
 drop of water comes to be expofed to the air, the cal- 
 careous matter contained in it begins to attraft the 
 lixable part of the atmofphere. In proportion as it 
 does fo, it alfo begins to feparate from the water, and 
 to rcaft"ume its native form of limeltone or marble. 
 This procefs Mr Anderfon calls a cryjlaliization ; and 
 when the calcareous matter is perfectly cryjlalli'z.ed in- 
 this manner, he affirms that it is to all intents and 
 purpofes limeftone or marble of the fame coiniftence as 
 before: and " in this manner (fays he), within the 
 memory of man, have huge rocks of marble been form- 
 ed near Matlock in Derbylhire." If linre in a cauilic 
 ftate is mixed with water, part of the lime will be dif- 
 folved, and will alfo begin to cryftaUize. The water 
 which parted with the cryftallized lime, will then be- 
 gin to aft upon the remainder, which it could not dif- 
 lolve before ; and thus the procefs will continue, either 
 till the lime be all reduced to an effete^, or (as he calls 
 it) cryJlalUne ftate, or fomething hinders the aftion of 
 the water upon it. It is this cryilallization which is 
 obterved by the workmen wlien a heap of lime is mix- 
 ed with water, and left for fome time to macerate. A 
 hard cruft is formed upon the furface, which is igno- 
 rantly called frojling, though it takes place in fummer 
 as well as in winter. If therefore the hardnefs of the 
 lime, or its becoming a cement, depends entirely on- 
 the formation of its cryftals, it is evident, that the per- 
 fe£lion of the cement muft depend on the perfedtion 
 of the cryftals, and the hardnefs of the matters which 
 are entangled among them. The additional fubltance* 
 ufed iu making of mortar, fuch as, fand, brick-duft, or 
 the like, according to Mr Anderfon,. ferve only for a 
 purpofe fimilar to what ia anfwered by flicks put into 
 a vefiel full of any faline folution, namely, to afford the 
 cryftals an opportunity of faftxning themfelves upon it. 
 If therefore the matter interpoled between the cryftals 
 of the lime is of a friable, brittle nature,, fuch as brick 
 •duil or chalk, the mortar will be of a weak and imper- 
 fedl kind ; but when the particles are hard, angular, . 
 ana very difficult to be broken, fuch as thofe of river 
 or pit-fand, the mortar turns out exceedingly good - 
 and fti"ong. Sea-fand is found to be an improper ma- 
 teiial for mortar, which Mr Anderfon afcribes to its 
 being lets angular than the other kinds. That tlie 
 cryilallization may be the more perfcft, he alfo recom- 
 mends a large quantity of water, that the ingredients 
 
C E M [ 
 
 f!.-OTent. ^ peifeSlly mixed together, and that the drying be as 
 fio\V as poirible. An attention to thefe circumltancea, 
 he thinks, would make the buildings of the moderns 
 equally durable with thofe of the ancients ; and from 
 what remains of the ancient Roman works, he thinks 
 a vtvy ilrong proof of his hypothefis might be adduced* 
 The great thicknefs of their walls necellarily required 
 a vail length of time to dry. The nu'ddle of them 
 was compofcd of pebbles thrown in at random, and 
 which have evidently had mortar fo thin as to be pour- 
 ed in among them. By this means, a great qiiantity 
 of the lime would be difiblved, and the ciyitallization 
 performed in the m.olt perfeft manner ; and the inde- 
 fatigable pains and perfeverance for which the R.o;nans 
 wei-e fo remarkable in all their undertakings, leave no 
 room to doubt that they would take care to have the 
 ingredients mixed together as well as pofhble. The 
 confequence of all this is, that the buildings formed in 
 this m.aimerare all as firm as if cut out of afolid rock; 
 the mortar being equally hard, if not more fo, than 
 the ftones themfclves. 
 
 Notwithftanding the bad fuccefs ox thofe who have 
 atterapted to repeat M. Loi-iot's experiments, how- 
 <ever, Dr Black informs us, that a cement of this kind 
 is certainly praAicable. It is done, he fays, by pov?- 
 dering the lime while hot from the kiln, and throwing 
 it into a thin pafte of fand and water ; which, not fla- 
 king immediately, abforbs the water from the mortiir 
 by degrees, and forms a very hard mals. " It is plain 
 (he adds) that the ftrength of this mortar depends on 
 uiing the hme hot or frelh from the kihi." 
 
 By mixing together gypfum and quick-lime, and 
 then adding water, wc may form a cement of tolerable 
 liardnefs, and which apparently might be uied to ad- 
 vantage in making troughs for holding water, or lining 
 imall canals for it to run in. Mr Wiegleb fays, that 
 ■u good mortar or cement, which will not crack, may be 
 
 obtained by mixine: three parts of a thin magma of the al'perhons were mad 
 
 286 1 GEN 
 
 ceives fo much of the pitch as will ftick rouad itj then 
 lire wing fome finely powdered aaiber over the pitch 
 when growing cold, adding a mixture of three pounds 
 of linfeed oil, and one of oil of turpentine, covering 
 the vefl'el and boiling them for an hour over a gentle 
 fire, and grinding the mixture as it is wanted with aa 
 much pumice-ilone in fine powder as will reduce it to 
 the confiilence of paint. 'I'he fiih being wiped dry', 
 the mixture is fprcad upon it ; and the gold leaf being 
 then laid on, the filh may be immediately put into 
 water again, without any danger of the gold coming 
 ofl, for the matter quickly grows hard in the u ater. 
 
 Cemknt-PoIs, are thofe earthen pots ufed in the c j- 
 mentation of metals. 
 
 CEMENTAITON, the ad of corroding or other- 
 wife changing a metal by means of a C£ment. 
 
 CEMETERY (K.o';«.»'->'p"v,from v^o i^-a^^to ^'Jleep 
 a place fet apart or confecrated for the burial of tlxe 
 dead. 
 
 Anciently none were buried in churches or cliurch- 
 yards : it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the 
 ceiBeteries were without the waiis. Among the pri- 
 mitive Chriilians thefe were held in great veneration. 
 It even appears from Eufebius and Tertuiliaii, tliat, in 
 the early ages, they aflembied for diviue worlhip in the 
 cemeteries. Valerian feems to have conlifcated the ce- 
 meteries and other places of divine woilhip, but they 
 were reftored again by GaUienus. As the martyrs 
 were buried in thefe places, the Chriilians chofe them 
 for building churches on, when Conilantine ellabliHied 
 their religion ; and hence fome derive the rule which 
 Hill obtains in the church of Rome, never to confecratc 
 an altar without putting under it the relics of fome 
 faint. The practice oi coniecrating cemeceries is 01 
 fome antiquity. The bilhop walked round it in pro- 
 ceffion, with the crozier or palloral ftaff in his hand, 
 the holy water-pot being carried before, out of which 
 
 •• See the 
 
 foregoing 
 article. 
 
 ilaiked lime with one of powdered gypfum ; but adds, 
 that it is ufed only in a dry fituation. A mixture of 
 tarras with flaked lime acquires in time a ftoney hard- 
 nefs, and may be ufed for preventing water from en- 
 tering. See Mortar and Stucco. 
 
 Cement, among engravers, jewellers, iffc. is the 
 fame with the hot cement ufed in building * ; and is 
 ufed for keeping the metals to be engraven firm to the 
 block, and alfo for filling up what is to be chiifeled. 
 
 Cement, in chemiftry, is ufed to fignify all thofe 
 powders and paftes with which any body is fur- 
 rounded in pots or crucibles, and which are capable by 
 
 CElSlCflRUS, in botany: A genus of the monoecia 
 order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 4th ordec, 
 Gramina. The involucrum is iaciniated, and echina- 
 ted, or befet with fmall prickles, and biflorous. The 
 calyx is a biflorous glume, with one floret-male, and the 
 other hermaphrodite. The hermaprodite corolla is a 
 pointlefs glume ; there are three llamina ; one feed : 
 the male corolla a pointlefs glume; with three llamina. 
 
 CENEGILD, in the Saxon Antiquities, an expia- 
 tory muldl, paid by one who had killed a man, to the 
 kindred of tlie deceafed. The word is compounded 
 of the Saxon cinne, i. e. cognalio, " relation", and giidj 
 
 the help of fire of producing changes upon that body. 
 
 They are made of various materials ; and are ufed for J'ohtio, " paym.ent". 
 different purpofes, as for parting gold from filver, con- CENOBITE. See Coenobite. 
 verting iron into ileel, copper into brafs : and by ce- CENOTAPH, in antiquity, an empty tomb, ereft- 
 n^entation more confiderable changes can be efl^efted ed by way of honour to the deceafed. It is diilinguilh- 
 npon bodies, than by applying to them liquids of any ed from a fepulchre, in which a coffin was depolited. 
 • kind ; becaufe the aft ive matters are then in a ilate Of thefe there were two forts; one for thole who 
 of vapour, and aflilled by a very confiderable degree of had, and another for thofe who had not, been honour*- 
 
 ed with funeral rites in another place. 
 
 The fign whereby honorary fepulchres were dillin- 
 guillied fi-om others, was commonly the wreck of a 
 loip, to denote the deceafe of the perfon in fome fo- 
 reign country. 
 
 CENSER, in antiquity, a vafe containing incenfe 
 to .be ufed in facrifices. Cenfer is chiefly ufed in fpeak- 
 i ing 
 
 heat. 
 
 Cf.mbnt luhlch quickly hardens in Water. This is de- 
 fcribed in the pofthumous works of Mr Hooke, and 
 is recommended for gilding live craw-fiili, carps, iffc, 
 without injuring the filh. The cement for this pur- 
 poie is prepared, by putting fome Burgundy pitch in- 
 to a new earthen pot, and warming the veflxl till it re- . 
 
Cenfor. 
 
 C E N [ 2 
 
 hig of the Jewifh worHiip. Araon ^- ;.!:o Greeks and 
 Romans it is more frequently called tpanbuhm, hti^ccta- 
 , T/c, and acerra. 
 
 The Jewifli cenfer was a fmall fort of chafing-difh, 
 coveted with a dome, and fufpended by a chain. Jo- 
 fephus tells usi that Solomon made twenty thoufand 
 gold confers for tlie temple of Jerufalerxi, to offer per- 
 fumes in, and £fty thoufand others t .■ cairy fire in. 
 
 GENSIO, in antiquity, the atl or otnce of the cen- 
 for. - See Census. 
 
 " Cenfio included both the rating or vahiing a man's 
 eftate, and the impofing multls and penalties. 
 
 Crnsio ha/iaria^, a punifnment inflidled on a Roman 
 foldier for fome offence, as la/jnefs or luxury, where- 
 by his hqfta o\- fpear was taken from him, and confe- 
 quently hi;-; wnges and hopes of preferment ftopped. 
 
 CENoITuS, a peifon cenfed, or entered in the 
 cenfual tables. See Census. 
 
 In an ancient monument found at Ancyra, con- 
 taining the afkions of the emperor 0£lavius, we read, 
 
 ^uo liiflro civ'ntm Romanorum 
 Cenfita funt capita quadragies 
 Centum millia ^ fexaginta tr 'ia. 
 
 Censitus is alfo ufed in the civil law for a fervile 
 fort of tenant, who pays capitation to his lord for the 
 land he holds of him, and is entered as fuch in the 
 lord's rent-roll. In which fenfe, the word amounts to 
 the fame with capite cenfus, or capite cenjitiis. See Ca- 
 PiTE Cenft. 
 
 CENSOR, (from cenfere to " fee" or "perceive"), 
 one of the prime magiilrates in ancient Rome. — Their 
 bufinefs was to regiller the effefts of the Roman citi- 
 zens, to impofe taxes in proportion to what each man 
 poffefTed, and to take cognizance or infpeftion of the 
 manners of the citizens. In confequence of this laft 
 part of their office, they had a power to cenfure vice 
 or immorality by inflifting fome public mark of igno- 
 min}'- on the offender. They had even a power to 
 create iht princeps fenatus, and to expel from the fe- 
 nate fuch as they deemed unworthy of that office. 
 This power they fometimes exercifed without fuffi- 
 cient grounds ; and therefore a law was at length 
 paffed, that no fenator fhould be degraded or difgra- 
 ced in any manner, until he had been formally accu- 
 fed and found guilty by both the cenfoi'S. It was alfo 
 a part of the cenforian jurifdi6tion, to fill up the va- 
 cancies in the fenate, upon any remarkable deficiency 
 in their number ; to let out to farm all the lands, re- 
 venues, and cuftoms, of the republic ; and to contract 
 with artificers for the charge of building and repairing 
 all the public works and edifices both in R ome and 
 the colonies of Italy. In all parts of their office, how- 
 ever, they were fubjeft to the juriidiction of the peo- 
 ple ; and an appeal always lay from the fentence of the 
 eenfors to tlrat of an affembly of the people. 
 
 The firfl two eenfors were created in the year of 
 Rome 3 J I, upon the fenate's obferving that the con- 
 fuls were fo much taken up with war, as not to have 
 time to look into other matters. The office continued 
 to the time of the emperors, who affumed the cenfo- 
 Tial power, calling themfelves morutn prafeS'i ; though 
 Vefpafian and his fons took the title of eenfors. De- 
 cius, attempted to reftore the dignity to a particular 
 
 87 ] 
 
 C E N 
 
 raagiftratc. After this we hear no more of' it, till 
 Conftantine's time, who made his brother cenfor, and 
 he feems to have been the lafl that enjoyed the office. 
 
 The office of cenfor was fo confiderable, that for a 
 long time none afpired to it till they had pafftd all 
 the reft ; fo that it was thought furpriling that Cralfus 
 fhould be admitted cenfor, without having been either 
 conful or praetor. At lirll the eenfors enjoyed their 
 dignity for five years, but in 420 the diilator Mamer- 
 tinus made a law reltraining it to a year and an ha!f> 
 which was afterwards obferved very ftriftly. At firii 
 one of the eenfors was elefted out of a patrician, and 
 the other out of a plebeian family ; and upon the 
 death of either, the other was difcharged from his of- 
 fice, and two new ones ele£ted, but not till the next 
 luftrum. In the year of Rome 622, both eenfors v»'ere 
 chofen from among the plebeians ; and after that time 
 the ofiice was fhared betv^ een the fenate and people. 
 — After their eleiSlion in the Comitia Centurialia, the 
 eenfors proceeded to the capitol, where they took an 
 oatk not to manage either by favour or difafitiStion, 
 but to aft equitably and impartially througliout the 
 whole courfe of their adminiitration. 
 
 The republic of Venice ftiil has a cenfor of tlie 
 manners of their people, whole office lafts iix months. 
 
 Censors of Books, are a body of dodtors or others 
 eilabliihed in divers countries, to examine all books 
 before they go to the prefs, and to fee thty contaia 
 nothing contrary to faith and good manners. 
 
 At Paris, the faculty of theology claim this privi- 
 lege,-as granted to them by the pope ; but, in 1624, 
 new commiflions of four doctors were created, by let- 
 ters-patent, the fole eenfors of all books, and anfwer- 
 able for every thing contained therein. 
 
 In England, we had formerly an officer of this kind, 
 under the title of licenfer of the prefs : but, linee the 
 revolution, our pi-efs has been laid under no fuch re- 
 ilraint. 
 
 CENSORINUS, a celebrated writer in the third 
 century, well known by his treatife De Die Natalu 
 This treatife, which was written about the year 238, 
 Gerard Voffius calls a little book of gold ; and de- 
 clares it to be a moll learned work of the higheft ufe 
 and importance to chronologers, fince it connedts and 
 determines, with great exadtnefs, fome of the princi- 
 pal asras in pagan hiftoiy. It was printed at Cam- 
 bridge, with the notes of Lindenbrokius, in 1695. 
 
 CENSURE, a judgment which condemns fome 
 book, perfon, or a6tion, or, more particularly, a repri-- 
 mand from a fupcrior. Ecclefiaftical cenfures are pe- 
 nalties by which, for fome remarkable mifbehaviour,. 
 Chriftians are deprived of the communion of the church, 
 or prohibited to execute the facerdotal office. 
 
 CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic decla- 
 ration made before the eenfors, by the feveral fubjefts 
 of the empire, of their refpedlive names and places of 
 abode. This declaration was regiilered by the een- 
 fors ; and contained an enumeration, in writing, of all 
 the eftates, lands, and inheritances they poffeffed ; their 
 quantity, quality, place, wives, children, domeftics, 
 tenants. Haves. In the provinces the cenfus ferved not 
 only to difcover the fubllance of each perfdn, but 
 where, and in what manner and proportion, taxes - 
 might be beil impofed. The cenfus at Rome is common- 
 
 I7- 
 
C E N I 2 
 
 Cenfus, ly tliought to have been held every five years ; but Dr 
 Middleton hath fliown, that both cenfus ahd luftrum 
 were held irregularly and uncertainly at various inter- 
 vals. The cenfus was an excellent expedient for dif- 
 covering the ftrength of the ftate : for l^y it they dif- 
 covered the number of the citizens, how many were 
 fit for war, and how many for oflices of other kinds ; 
 •how much each was able to pay of taxes, &c.^ It 
 went through all ranks of people, though under differ- 
 ent nam.es : that of the common people was called 
 ccn/us ; that of the knights, cefifus, recenfm, rccogn 'itioj 
 that of the fenators, leS'iOy rele&io.—Hence alfo ci-fifus 
 came to fignify a perfon who had made fuch a declara- 
 tion ; in which fenfe it was oppofed to wcenfiis, a per- 
 fon who had not given in his eitate, or name, to be 
 regiftered. 
 
 The cenfus, according to Salmafms, was peculiar to 
 the city of Rome. That in the provinces was proper- 
 ly called profejfto and "To^pa?.'. But this diflin6tion is 
 not every .where obfervcd by the ancients themfelves. 
 
 Census was alfo ufed for the book or regifter where- 
 in the profefTions of the people were entered: In which 
 fenfe, the cenfus was frequently cited and appealed to, 
 as evidence in the courts of juflice. 
 
 Census is alfo ufed to denote a man's whole fub- 
 ftance or ell ate. 
 
 Census Senatcrius, the patrimony of a fenator, which 
 was limited to a certain value ; being at lirll rated at 
 eight hundred thoufand fefterces, but afterwards, un- 
 der Auguftus, enlarged to twelve hundred thoufand. 
 
 Census Equcjier, the eftate or patrimony of a knight, 
 rated at four hundred thoufand feilerces, which was 
 required to qualify a perfon for that order, and with- 
 out which no virtue or merit was available. 
 
 Census was cilfo ufed for a perfon worth an hun- 
 dred thoufand fefterces, or who was entered as fuch in 
 the cenfual tables, on his own declaration. In which 
 fenfe, cenfus amounts to the fame with clajficus, or a 
 rnan of the firft clafs ; though Gellius limits the eitate 
 ofthofe of this clafs to an hundred and twenty-five 
 thoufand affes. By the Voconian law, no cenfus was 
 -allowed to give by his will above a fouith part of what 
 he was worth to a woman. 
 
 Census was alfo ufed to denote a tax or tribute im- 
 pofed on perfons, and called alfo capitation. See Ca- 
 FiTE Cenfi. 
 
 Census Dominkattis, in writers of the lower age, 
 denotes a rent due teethe lord. 
 
 Census DupUcatm, a double rent or tax, paid by 
 vaffals to their lord on extraordinary or urgent occa- 
 fsons; as expeditions to the Holy Land, &c. 
 
 Census Ecclefia Romano:, was an annual contribution 
 voluntarily paid to the fee of Rome by the fcveral 
 princes of Europe. 
 
 CENT, fignifies properly an hundred, being an a- 
 bridgement of the word centum ; but is often uled m 
 commerce to exprefs the profit or lofs ariliug from the 
 fale of any commodity : fo that when we fay thei-e is 
 io per cent, profit, or per cent, lofe, upon any mer- 
 chandize that has been fold, it is to be underftood, that 
 the feller has either gained or loft ten pounds on every 
 hundred pounds of the price at which he bought that 
 merchandize ; which is ^ of profit, or tV of lofs, up- 
 on the total of the fale. 
 
 N"6& 
 
 8S 1 C E N 
 
 CENTAUREA, in botany : A genus of the poly- Centnirfa 
 garaia fruftanea order, belonging to thefyngenefia clafs 
 of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under , . ^ j 
 the 49th order, Compofitx. Tlie receptacle is brillly ; 
 the pappus fimple; the corollulte of the radius funnel- 
 fliaped, longer than thofe of the dilk, and irregular. 
 
 CENTAUR, in aftronomy, a part or moiety of a 
 fouthern conftellation, in form half-man half-horfe ; 
 ufually joined with the wolf. The word comes from 
 K£VTizup'/ J formed of ■<'~^t=<^ , pi^ngo ; and i-aypof, bull; q. d. 
 buU-pricher. The ftars of this conftellation, in Ptole- 
 my's Catalogue are 37 ; in Tycho's 4; and in the 
 Britannic Catalogue, with Sharp's Appendix, 35. 
 
 CENTAURS, m mythology, a kind of fabulous 
 monfters, half men and half horfes.— The poets pre- 
 tend that the centaurs were the fons of Ixion and a 
 cloud ; the reafon of which fancy is, that they retired 
 to a caftle called v£p;x«, which lignlfies a *' cloud." — 
 This fable is differently interpreted : fome will have 
 the centaurs to have been a body of ftiepherds and 
 herdfmen, rich in cattle, who inhabited the mountains 
 of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention 
 of bucolic poetry. PalsEphastus, in his book of Incre- 
 dibles, relates, that under the reign of Ixion, king of 
 ThelTaly, a herd of bulls on mount TheiTaly run uiad, 
 and ravaged the wliole country, rendering the moun- 
 tains Iniicceflible ; that fome young men who had 
 found the art of taming and mounting horfes, under- 
 took to clear the mountains of thefe anunals, which 
 they purfued on horfeback, and thence obtained the 
 appellation of Centaurs. This fuccefs rendering them 
 infolent, they infulted the Lapithie, a people of Thef- 
 faly : and becaufe when attacked they fled with great 
 rapidity, it was fuppofed they were half horfes and 
 half men.— The Centaurs in reality were a tribe of 
 Lapithte, who inhabited the city Pelethronium adjoin- 
 ing to mount Pelion, and firft invented the art of 
 breaking horfes, as is intimated by Virgil. 
 
 CENTAUREA, greater centaury: A genus 
 of the polygamia fruftanea order, belonging to the fyn- 
 genefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method 
 ranking under the 49th order, Conipcjfitx. The recep- 
 tacle is briftiy, the. pappus fimple, the corolluls of the 
 radius funnel-fhaped, longer than thofe of the diflc, and 
 irregular There are 61 fpecies. The root of one of 
 them called glajlifolia, is an article in the materia inedi- 
 ca. It has a rough, fomewhat acrid tafte, and abounds 
 with a red vifcid juice. Its rough tafte has gained it 
 fome efteem as an aftringent ; its acrimony as an ape- 
 rient ; and its glutinous quality as a vulnerary : but 
 the prefent pradtice takes very little notice of it in any 
 intention. Another of the fpecies is the cyanus-oi: 
 blue bottle, which grows commonly among corn«- 
 The expreffed juice of this flower fiains linen of a 
 beautiful blue colour, but is not permanent. Mr Boyle 
 fays, that the juice of the inner petals, with a little alum, 
 makes a beautiful permanent colour, equal to ultrama- 
 rine. 
 
 Lefer CENTJURr. See Gentiana. 
 CENTELLA, in botany* A genus of the tetran- 
 dria order, belonging to the moncEcia clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the i ith or- 
 der, Sarmentacea. The male involucrum is tetraphyl- 
 lous and quinqueflorous, with four petals ; the female 
 
GEN 
 
 [ 289 ] 
 
 GEN 
 
 II 
 
 Centiloqi; 
 um. 
 
 Oentenari- -Jnvolucrum is diphyllous and uniflorous ; the petals 
 four ; the germen inferior ; two ftyles ; and a bilocu- 
 lar feed-cafe. 
 
 CENTENARIUS, or Centenario, in the middle 
 age, an officer who had the government or command, 
 with the adminilh-ation of juftice, in a village. The 
 centenarii as well as vicarii were under the jurifdic- 
 tion and command of the court. We find them among 
 the Franks, Germans, Lombards, Goths, &c. 
 
 Centenarius was alfo ufed for an officer who had 
 the command of 100 men ; moil frequently called a 
 •Centurion. 
 
 Centenarius, in monafteries, was an officer wht) 
 had the command of 100 monks. 
 
 CENTENINUM ovum, among naturalills, de- 
 notes a fort of hen's egg much fmaller than ordinary, 
 Vulgarly called a cock^s egg ; from which it has been 
 ■fabuloudy held that the cockatrice or bafiliflc is produ- 
 ced. The name is taken from an opinion, that thefe 
 ■are the laft eggs which hens lay, having laid 100 be- 
 fore ; whence centeni?iutn, q. d. the hundredth egg. — 
 Thefe eggs have no yolks, but in other refpefts dif- 
 fer not from common ones ; having the albumen, cha- 
 lazes, membranes, &c. in common with others. In 
 the place of the yolk is found a little body like a fei- 
 pent coiled up, which doubtlefs gave rife to the fable 
 of the bafiliflc's origin from thence. Their origin is 
 with probability afcribed by Hervey to this, that the 
 yolks in the vitellary of the hen are exhaufted before 
 the albumina. 
 
 CENTER, or Centre, in a general fenfe, fignifies 
 a point equally diftant from the extremities of a line, 
 figure, or body. The word is formed from the Greek 
 KfvTpovj z point. 
 
 Center of Gravity, in mechanics, that point about 
 which all the parts of a body do in any fituation ex- 
 aftly balance each other. 
 
 Center of Motion, that point which remains at reft, 
 while all the other parts of a body move about it. 
 
 Center of a Sphere^ a point in the middle, from 
 ■which all lines drawn to the furface are equal. 
 
 Hermes Trifmegiftus defines God an intelleftual 
 fphere, whofe center is every where, and circumference 
 no where. 
 
 CENTESIMA usura, that wherein the intereft in 
 an hundred months became equal to the principal; i.e. 
 where the money is laid out at ont per cent, per month; 
 anfwering to what in our ftyle would be called 12 per 
 cent, for the Romans reckoned their intereft not by the 
 year, but by the month. 
 
 CENTESIMATION, a milder kind of mihtary 
 punifhment, in cafes of defertion, mutiny, and the like, 
 when only every hundredth man Is executed. 
 
 CENTILOQUIUM, denotes a colleaion of 100 
 ■fentences, opinions, or fayings. 
 
 The centiloquium of Hermes, contains 1 00 apho- 
 rifms, or aftrological fentences, fuppofed to have been 
 written by, fome Arab, falfely fathered on Hermes 
 Trifmegiftus. It is only extant in Latin, In which It 
 has feveral times been printed. — The centiloquium of 
 Ptolomy is a famous aftrological piece, frequently con- 
 founded with tlie former, confifting likewife of 100 
 fentences, or doftrlnes, divided Into fhort aphorifms, 
 ifltitkd alfo in Greek as being the fruit or re- 
 
 VoL. IV. Part J. 
 
 fult of the former writings of that celebrated aftrono- 
 mer, vh. his quadripartitum and almagejlum ; or rather, 
 by reafon that herein Is (hown the ufe of aftrological 
 calculations. 
 
 CENTIPES, In zoology. See Scolopenora. 
 
 CENTIPED WORM, a term ufed for fuch worms 
 as have a great many feet, though the number does 
 not amount to 100, as the term feems to, import. — 
 M. Maloet relates the hiftory of a man, who, for 
 three years, had a violent pain in the lower part of 
 the forehead near the root of the nofe : at length he 
 felt an itching, and afterwards fomething moving with- 
 in his noftril, which he brought away w ith his finger ; 
 it was a worm of the centiped kind, an inch and an 
 half long, which run fwlftly. It lived five or fix days 
 among tobacco. The patient was free [of his pain e- 
 ver after. MrjLittre mentioned a hke cafe in 1708, 
 of a larger centiped voided at the nolfe, after it had 
 thrown the woman, In whofe frontal finus it was, into 
 convulfions, and had almoft deprived her of her rea'- 
 fon. 
 
 CENTLIVRE (Sufanna), a celebrated cornic wri- 
 ter, was the daughter of Mr Freeman of Holbeach, 
 in Lincolnftiire" ; and had fuch an early turn for poe- 
 try, that it Is faid ftie wrote a fong before fhe was 
 feven years old. Before ftie was twelve years of age, 
 ftie could not only read Moliere In French, but enter 
 Into the fpirit of all the charafters. Her father dying, 
 left her to the care of a ftep-mother; whofe treatment 
 not being agreeable to her, flie determined, though al- 
 moft deilitute of money and every other neceffary, to 
 go up to London to feek a better fortune than what 
 ffie had hitherto experienced. As flie was proceeding 
 on her journey on foot, (he was met by a young gen- 
 tleman from the univerfity of Cambridge, the after- 
 wards well-known Anthony Hammond, Efq; who was 
 fo extremely ftruck with her youth and beauty, that 
 he fell inftantly In love with her ; and inquiring Into 
 the particulars of her ftory, foon prevailed upon her 
 unexperienced innocence to feize on the proteftlon he 
 offered her, and go with him to Cambridge. After 
 fome months cohabitation, he perfuaded her to come 
 to London ; where, in a ffiort time, ftie was married 
 to a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. But that gentleman 
 not living with her above a twelvemonth, her wit and 
 beauty foon procured her a fecond huftjand, whofe 
 name was Carrol, and who was an officer in the army ; 
 but he having the misfortune to be killed In a duel a- 
 bout a year and an half after their marriage, ftie be- 
 came a fecond time a widow. For the fake of fuppor £ 
 (he now appHed to her pen, and became a votary of 
 the mufes ; and It is under this name of Carrol that 
 fome of her earlier pieces were publiftied. Her firil: 
 attempt was In tragedy, In a play called the Perjured 
 Hujhand; yet her natural vivacity leading her afterwards 
 to comedy, we find but one more attempt In the buf- 
 kin, among i8 dramatic pieces which fhe afterwards 
 wrote. 
 
 In 1 706, flie wounded the heart of one Mr Jofcpli 
 Centlivre, yeoman of the mouth, or in other words 
 principal cook to her Majefty, who married her ; and, 
 after paffing feveral years happily together, ftie died 
 at his houfe in Spring- Garden, Charlng-Crofs, in De- 
 cember 172]. 
 
 0 o Tlii'5 
 
 CentTpc« 
 
 I. 
 
 Centlivre. 
 
Centner, 
 
 C E N f 290 1 
 
 This lady for many years enjoyed the intimacy aad the fraall weights. 
 
 efteem of the moil eminent wits of the times, viz. Sir 
 Richard Steele, Mr Rowe, Biidgell, Farqnhar, Dr 
 Sewell, &c. and very few authors received more tokens 
 of efteem and patronage from the great. Wiih regard 
 to her merit as a writer, it muft be allowed that her 
 plays do not abound with wit, and that the language 
 of them is fometimes even poor, enervate, incorreft, 
 puerile ; but then her plots are bufy and well conduc- 
 ted, and her charaflers in general natural and well 
 marked. 
 
 CENTNER, or Docimastic Hundred, in metal- 
 lurgy and affaying, is a weight divilible, firft into an 
 hundred, and thence into a greater number of other 
 fmaller parts ; but though the word is the fame both 
 with the afTayers and metallurgifts, yet it is to be un- 
 derftood as exprefiing a very different quantity in their 
 different acceptation of it. The weights of the metal- 
 lurgifts are eaflly underftood, as being of the common 
 proportion, but thofe of the aifayers are a thoufand 
 times fmaller than thefe, as the portions of metals or 
 ores examined by the affayers are ufually very fmall. 
 
 The metallurgifts, who extradl metals out of their 
 ores, life a weight divided into an hundred equal parts, 
 each part a pound ; the whole they call a centner or 
 hundred weight ; the pound is divided into thirty-two 
 parts, or half ounces : and the half ounce into two 
 quarters of ounces, and thefe each into two di*ams. 
 
 Thefe divifions and denominations of the metallur- 
 gifts are eafily underftood ; but the fame words, tho' 
 they are equally ufed by affayers, with them exprefs 
 very different quantities ; for as the centner of the 
 metallurgifts contains an hundred pounds, the centner 
 of the affayers is really no more than one dram, to 
 which the other parts are proportioned. 
 
 As the alfayers weights are divided into fuch an ex- 
 treme degree of minutenefs, and are fo very different 
 from all the common weights, the affayers ufually 
 iiiake them themfelves in the following manner, out of 
 fmall filver, or fine folder plates, of fuch a fize, that the 
 mark of their weight, according to the divilion of the 
 dram, which is the docimaftic or affaying centner, may 
 be put upon them. They firft take for a bafis one 
 weight, being about two-thirds of a common dram : 
 this they mark (64/1^.) Then having at hand fome 
 granulated lead, waflied clean, well dried, and fifted 
 very fine, they put as much of it into one of the fmall 
 difhes of a fine balance as will equipoife the (64/^.) 
 as it is called, juft mentioned : then dividing this gra- 
 nulated lead into very nice halves, in the two fcales, 
 after taking out the firft filver weight, they obtain a 
 perfe£l,equirlibrium between the two fcales ; they then, 
 pour the granulated lead: out of one difh of the fcales, 
 and inftead of it put in another filver weight,, which 
 they make exaftly equiponderant with the lead in the 
 other fcale, and mark it (32/^.) If this fecond weight,, 
 when firft put into the fcale, exceed by much the 
 weight of the lead, they take a little from it by a very- 
 fine file; but, when it comes very near, they ufe only a 
 whetftone t() wear oif an extremely fmall portion at a 
 time. When it is brought to be perfeAly even and 
 equal to the lead, they change the fcales to fee that no 
 error has been committed, and then ge on in the fame 
 manner till, they have made all the divifions, aad all 
 
 C E N 
 
 Then to have an entire centner or 
 hundred weight, they add to th.z \6j\.lb.) as they call 
 it, a 32/3. and a ^Ib. and weighing againll them one 
 fmall weight, they make it equtil to them, and mark it 
 ( 1 00. ) This is the docimaftical, or affaying centner, 
 and is really one. dram. 
 
 CENTO, in poetry, a work wholly compofed of 
 verfes or palTages promlfcuoufly taken from other au- 
 thors, only difpofed in a new form and order. — Pro- 
 ba Falconia has written the life of Jefus Chrifl in cen- 
 tos taken from Virgil. Alexander Rofs has done the 
 like in his Chriilrados, and Stephen de Pleure the 
 fame. 
 
 CENTONARII, in antiquity, certain of the Ro- 
 man army, who provided different forts of ftuff called* 
 centones, made ufe of to quench, the fire which the 
 enemies engines threw into the camp. 
 
 Thefe centonarii kept with the carpenters and other* 
 officers of artillery. 
 
 CENTRAL FORCES, the powers which caufe a 
 moving body to tend towards, or recede from, the 
 center of motion. See Mechanics. 
 
 Cehtral Rule, a rule difcovered by Mr Thomas 
 Baker, whereby to find the centre of a circle defigned 
 to cut the parabola in as many points as an equation 
 to be conftrufted hath real roots. Its principal ufe 
 i^ in the conftrutSlion of equations, and he hath applied 
 it with good fuccefs as far as biquadratics. 
 
 The central rule is chiefly founded on this property- 
 of the parabola, that, if a line be infcribed in that 
 curve perpendicular to any diameter, a redlangle 
 formed of the ferments of the infcript is equal to the- 
 reftangle of the mtercepted diameter and parameter of 
 the axis. 
 
 The central rule has the advantage over Cartes and 
 De Latere's methods of conftrufting equations, in 
 that both thefe are fubje£l to the trouble of preparing 
 the equation by taking away the fecond term. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by which all 
 bodies that move round any other body in a curve en- 
 deavour to fly off from the axis of their motion in a 
 tangent to the periphery of the curve, and that in 
 every part of it. See Mechanics. 
 
 CENTRifUGAL-Machine, a very curious machinci in- 
 vented by Mr Erflcine, for raifing water by means of 
 a centrifugal force combined with the preifure of the 
 atmofphere. 
 
 It confifts of a large tube of copper, Iffc. in the form 
 of a crofs, which is placed perpendicular in the water,, 
 and refts at the bottom on a. pivot. At the upper 
 part of the tube is a horizontal cog-wheel, which 
 touches the cogs of another in a vertical pofition ; fo 
 that by the help of a double winch, the whole ma- 
 chine is moved round with very great velocity. , 
 
 Near the bottom of the perpendicular part of the 
 tube is a valve opening upwards ; and near the two 
 extremities, but on the contrary fides of the arms, or. 
 crofs part of the tube, are two other valves opening 
 outwards. Thefe two valves are, by the afiftftance 
 of fprings,.kept fhut till the machine is put in motion, 
 when the centrifugal velocity of the water forces 
 them open, and difcharges itfelf into a ciftern or refer- 
 voir placed there for that purpofe. 
 
 Oq the upper part of the arms are two holes, which 
 
 are 
 
 Cent© 
 
C E N [ 2( 
 
 Centrifu- are clofed by pieces fcrewing into the metal of the 
 gal. tube. Before the machine can work, thefe holes muft 
 
 ""■"V""^ be opened, and water poured in through them, till 
 the whole tube be full : by this means all the air will 
 be forced out of the machine, and the water fupport- 
 ed in the tube by means of the valve at the bottom. 
 
 The tube being thus fiUed with water, and the 
 holes clofed by their fcrew caps, it is turned round by 
 means of the winch, when the water in the arms of 
 the tube acquires a centrifugal force, opens the valves 
 near the extremities of the arms, and flies out with a 
 velocity nearly equal to that of the ex-treniities of the 
 faid arms. 
 
 The above defcriptlon will be very eafily underftood 
 by the figure we have added on Plate CXXXVI. 
 which is a perfpeftive view of the centrifugal machine, 
 erefted on board a fliip. ABC is the copper tube. 
 
 D, a horizontal cog-wheel, furniflied with twelve cogs. 
 
 E, a vertical cpg- wheel, furnifhed with thirty-fix cogs. 
 
 F, F, the double winch, a, the valve near the bot- 
 tom of the tube, i, by the two pivots on which the 
 machine turns, c, one of the valves in the crofs-piece ; 
 the other at d, cannot be feen in this figure, being on 
 the other fide of the tube. <r, e, the two holes through 
 which the water is poured into the machine. GH, the 
 ciftern or refervoir. I, I, part of the fliip's deck. 
 The dillance between the two valves, c, d, is fix feet. 
 The diameter of thefe valves is about three inches ; 
 and that of the perpendicular tube about feven inches. 
 
 If we fuppofe the men who work the machines can 
 turn the winch round in three feconds, the machine 
 will move round its axis in one fecond ; and confe- 
 quently each extremity of the arms will move with a 
 velocity of 18.8 feet in a fecond. Therefore a column 
 of water of three inches diameter will ilFue through 
 €ach of the valves with a velocity of 1S.8 feet in a fe- 
 cond: but the area of the aperture of each of the valves 
 13 7.14 inche; ; which being multiplied by the velocity 
 in inches= 225 6, gives 1610.784 cubic inches, the 
 quantity of water difcharged through one of the aper- 
 tures in one fecend ; fo that the whole quantity dif- 
 charged in that fpace of time through both the aper- 
 tures 18 = 3221.568 inches ; or 19 ^294.1.. 8 cubic inches 
 in one minute. But 608 : 2 cubic inches make a tun, 
 beer-meafure ; confequenlly, if we fuppofe the centri- 
 fugal machine revolves round its axis in one fecond, it 
 will raife nearly 3 tuns 44 gallons in one minute : but 
 this velocity is certainly too great, at lealt to be held 
 for any confiderable time ; fo that, when this and o- 
 ther deficiencies in the machine are allowed for, two 
 tuns is nearly the quantity that can be raifed by it in 
 ■^one minute. 
 
 It will perhaps be unneceffary to obferve, that as 
 the water is forced up the perpendicular tube by the 
 •prelTure of the atmofphere, this machine cannot raife 
 water above 32 feet high. 
 
 An attempt was made to fubftitute this machine in 
 place of the pumps commonly ufed on fhip-board, but 
 the labour of working was found to be fo great as to 
 render the machine inferior to the cliai'n-pump. A 
 eonfiderable improvement, we apprehend, would be, to 
 foad with a weight of lead the ends of the tubes thro' 
 which the water ilTues, which would make the machine 
 turn with a great deal more cafe, as the centrifugal 
 
 I I C E N 
 
 force of the lead would in fome meafure aft the part Centripetal 
 of a fly. II . 
 
 CENTRIPETAL force, that force by which a^" ""'"";, 
 body is every where impelled, or any how tends, to- 
 wards fome point as a centre. See Mechanics. 
 
 CENTRISCUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes 
 belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The head 
 gradually ends in a narrow fnout, the aperture is broad 
 and flat ; the belly is carinated ; and the belly-fins u- 
 nited. There are two ipecies, viz. 1 . The fcutatus 
 has its back covered with a fmcoth bony fliell, which 
 ends in a fliarp fpine under which is the tail; but the 
 back fins are between the tail and the ipinc. It is a 
 native of the Eaft Indies. 2. The fcolopax has a rough 
 fcabrous body, and a fl.raight extended tail. It has 
 tviTo belly-fins, with four rays in each, and has no teeth. 
 It is found in the Mediterranean. 
 
 CENTRONL^, in natural hiftory, a name-by which 
 the echini marini have been lately difl:inguiflied. Dr 
 Hill makes them a difl.in£l clafs of animals living under 
 the defence of flielly coverings formed of one piece, 
 and furnifhed with a vaft number of fpines moveable at 
 the creature's pleafure. 
 
 CENTUMCELL.^, (anc. geog.), Trajan's villa 
 in Tuicany, on the coaft, three miles from Algae ; with 
 an excellent port, called Trajanus Portm, (Ptolemy) ; 
 and.a factitious ifland at the mouth of the poit, made 
 with a huge block of ft;one, on which two turrets rofe, 
 with two entrances into the bafon ot harbour, Rutilius. 
 Now Gkuta Necch'm. E. Long. 12 30. N. Lat. 42. 
 
 CENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges ap- 
 pointed to decide common caufes among the people : 
 they were chofen, three out of each tribe ; and though 
 five more than an hundred, were neverthelefs called 
 centimviri, from the round nnvabtr centum, an hundred. 
 
 CENTUNCULUS, in botany: A genus of the 
 mouogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 20th order, Rotacea. The calyx is quadrifid; the 
 corolla quadrifid, and patent ; the ftamina are ftiort ; 
 the capfule is unilocular, cut round, or parting hori- 
 zontally. 
 
 CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in 
 the infantry, who commanded a century, or an hun- 
 dred men. 
 
 In order to have a proper notion of the centurions, 
 it muft be remembered, that every one of the thirty 
 manipuli * in a legion was divided into two ordines, or * See iH*. 
 ranks ; and confequently the three bodies of the ha- "''p"^'*'' 
 ftati, principes, and triarii, into 20 orders a piece, as 
 into 10 manipuli. Now, every manipulus was allowed 
 two centurions, or captains, one to each order or cen- 
 tury : and, to determine the point of fjriority between 
 them, they were created at two different elettions. 
 Tiie who were made firll alv/ays took the precedency 
 of their fellows ; and therefore commanded the right- 
 hand orders, ^s the others did the left. The criarii, 
 or pllaiii, fo called from their weapon the pi lu?n, being 
 elleemed the moft honourable, had their centurions e- 
 letted firfl:, next to them the principes, and afterwards 
 the haflati ; whence they were caWed primus et fecundus 
 pilusy primus et fecundus princeps, primus et fecundus hajhi' 
 tus ; wA !o on. Here it may be ubferved, that primi 
 ordines is fometimes ufed in hiftorians for the centu- 
 O 0 2 x'xom 
 
C E N 
 
 [ 292 j 
 
 CEO' 
 
 Century. 
 
 Cenmrion rions of tliefe orders ; and the centurions are fome- 
 times iiyltd prJficipes ord'muin, and principes centurlortuin. 
 We may take notice too what a large field there lay 
 for promotion : firft through all the orders of the ha- 
 ifati ; then quite through the principes ; and afterwards 
 from the la(l order of the triarii to the primipilus, the 
 moft honourable of the centurions, and who deferves 
 to be particularly defcribed. This officer, befides his 
 title of primipilus, went under the fever-al titles of dux 
 Icglonis, pr(efe3us legionls, primus ceniurionum, and primus 
 eenturio; and was the firlt centurion of the triarii in 
 every legion. He prefided over all the other centu- 
 rions, and generally gave the word of command by or- 
 der of the tribunes. Befides this, he had the care of 
 the eagle, or chief ftandard, of the legion : hence, 
 aquila praeje, is to bear the dignity of primipilus ; 
 and hence aquila is taken by Pliny for the faid office. 
 Nor was this ftation only honourable, but very profit- 
 able too : for he had a fpecial ftipend allowed him, pro- 
 bably as much as a knight's eftate ; and, when he left 
 that charge, was reputed equal to the members of the 
 equeftrian order, bearing the title of prhnlpilarius, in 
 the fame manner as thofe who had difcharged the 
 greateft civil offices were ftyled ever after, confulaves, 
 cenforllt Iffc. 
 
 CENTURIP^, Centoripa, or Centuripe, 
 (anc. geog.), a town in the fouth-wefl of the territory 
 of Etna, on the river Cyamaforus : Now Centorbi, or 
 Centurippi. It was a democratical city, which, like 
 Syracufe, received its liberty from Timoleoa. Its in- 
 habitants cultivated the fine arts, particularly fculpture 
 and engraving. In digging for the remains of antiqui- 
 ties, cameos are no where found In fuch abundance as 
 at Centurippi and its environs. The frtuation of the 
 place is romantic : it is built on the fummit of a vaft 
 group of rocks, which was probably chofen as the moft 
 difficult of accefs, and confequently the propereft in 
 times of civil commotion. The remains ftiU exilling 
 of its ancient bridge are a proof of its having been a 
 confiderable city. Cicero fpeaks of it as fuch. It was 
 taken by the Romans, plundered and opprefTed by 
 Verres, deilroyed by Pompey, and reftored by Oda- 
 Ttius, who made it the refidence of a Roman colony. 
 
 CENTURY, in a general fenfe, any thing divided 
 into, or confining of, an hundred parts. 
 
 The marquis of Worcefter publifhed a Century of 
 inventions, (for a fpecimen of which, fee Acoustics, 
 n° 27.); and Dr Hooke has given a decimate of inven- 
 tions, as part of a Century, of which he affirmed him- 
 felf mafter. It is remarkable, that both in the cen- 
 tury of the former, and the decimate of the latter, we 
 find the principle on which Savary's fire or fteara en- 
 gine is founded. See SrRAM-Engine. 
 
 Century in antiquity. The Roman people, when 
 they were affembled for the elcAing of magiftrates, 
 enadting of laws, or dehberatlng upon any pubhc af- 
 fair, were always divided into centuries, and voted by 
 centuries, in order that their votes might be the more 
 eafily coUeAed, whence thefe affemblies were called 
 eomitia centuriata. The Roman cohorts were alfo di- 
 vided into centuries. See Centurion and Cohort. 
 
 Century, in chronology, the fpace of one hundred 
 years. This method of computing by centuries is ge- 
 nerally obferved in church hiftory, commencing fronx 
 
 the time of our Saviour's incarnation : In which fenfe 
 we fajj the firft century, the fecond tentury, i^c. 
 
 Grnturif.s of Magdeburg, a famous ccclefiaftical hi- 
 ftory, ranged into 1 3 centuries, carried down to the 
 year 1298, compiled by fevtr-al hundred protcllants of 
 Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Flacius lUyricus. 
 
 CENTUSSIS, in Roman antiquity,- a coin contain- 
 ing 100 affes. 
 
 CENTZONTLI, in orhithology, the Mexican, 
 name of the Turdus polyglottus. See 'I'urdus. 
 
 CEODES, in botany : A genus of the dioscia or- 
 der, belonging to the polyg.amia clafs of plants. There 
 is no calyx ; the corolla is monopetafous, with a Ihort 
 tur-binated tube ; the Itamina are ten. lubulated fila- 
 ments ; the anthers; roundifli. 
 
 CEORL.es, the name of one of tlie clalTes or or- 
 ders into which the people were diftinguiihtd among, 
 die Angld-Saxons. Tlie ceorles, who were perfons 
 completely free, and defcended from a long race of 
 freemen, conftituted a middle clafs between the lar 
 bouiers and mechanics (who were generally flaves, or 
 defcended from flaves) on the one hand, and the no- 
 bility on the other. They might go where they plea- 
 fed,, and purfue any way of life that was moft agreeable 
 to their humour ; but fo many of them applied to a- 
 griculture, and farming the lands of the nobility, that 
 a ceorl was the moft common name for a hufbandmaiv- 
 or farmer in the Anglo-Saxon times.. Thefe ceorls,, 
 however, feem in general to have been a kind of gentle- 
 men farmers ; and if any one of them profpered fo 
 well as to acquire the property of five hydes of land, 
 upon which he had a church, a kitchen, a bell-houfe, 
 and great gate, and obtained a feat and office in the. 
 king's court, he was efteemed a nobleman or thanCs 
 If a ceorl applied to learning, and attained to prieft'a 
 orders, he was alfo confidered as a thane ; his vvere- 
 gild, or pi-ice of his life, was the fame, and his teftl- 
 mony had the fame weight in a court of juftice. When 
 he applied to trade, and made three voyages beyond 
 fea, in a fhip of his own, and with a cargo belonging, 
 to himfelf, he was alfo advanced to the dignity of a 
 thane. But if a ceorl had a greater propeniity to arms, 
 than to learning, trade, or agriculture, he then became 
 the fithcundman, or military retainer, to fome potent 
 and warlike eail, and was called the hufcarle of fuch an. 
 earl. If one of thefe hufcarles acquitted himfelf fo 
 well as to obtain from his patron either five hydes of 
 land, or a gilt fword, helmet, and breaftplate, as a re- 
 ward of his valour, he was likewife confidered as a 
 thane. Thus the temple of honour ftood open to thefe 
 ceorls, whether they applied themfelves to agriculture, 
 commerce, letters, or arms, which were then the only. 
 profeffioHs efteemed worthy of a freeman. 
 
 CEOS, Cea, Cia, or Cos, (anc. geog.), one of the 
 Cyclades, lies oppofite to the promontory of Achaia 
 called Sunium, and is 50 miles in compafs. This ifland 
 is commended by the ancients for its fertility and rich- 
 nefs of its paftures. The firft filk ftuifs, if Pliny and 
 Solinus are to be credited, were wrought here. Ceo* 
 was particularly famous for the excellent figs it pro- 
 duced. It was firft peopled by Ariftaeus, the fon of 
 Apollo and Cyrene, who, being grieved for the death 
 of his fon Aftaeon, retired from Thebes, at the per- 
 fuafion of his mother, and went over with fome The- 
 
 bans 
 
 Centuries 
 II 
 
 Ceo9. 
 
 * 
 
CEP [2 
 
 Ceos bans to Ceos, at that time uninhabited. Diodorus Si- 
 cuhis tells us, that he retired to the ifland of Cos ; but 
 *thus^'^" ancients, as Servius obferves, called both thefe 
 iflands by the name of Cos. Be that as it will, the 
 ifland of Ceos became fo populous, that a law prevail- 
 ed there, commanding all perfons upwards of fixty to 
 be poifoned, that others might be able to fublill; fo 
 that none above fixty were to be feen in the ifland, 
 being obliged, after they arrived at that age, either to 
 fubmit to the law, or abandon the country, together 
 with their efFefts. Ceos had, in former times, four fa- 
 mous cities, viz. Julis, Carthasa, Coieffus, and Prte- 
 efl'a. The two latter were, according to Pliny, fwal- 
 lowed up by an earthquake. The other two flourifhed 
 in Strabo's time. Carthasa flood on a rifing ground, 
 at the end of a valley, about tliree miles from the fea. 
 The fituation of it agrees with that of the ptefent town 
 of Zia, which gives name to the whole illand. The 
 ruins both of Carthcea and Julis are ftill remaining; 
 thofe of the latter take up a whole mountain, and are 
 called by the modern inhabitants Polis, that is, t/je city. 
 Near this place are the ruins of a ftately temple, with 
 many pieces of broken pillars, and ftatues of moft ex- 
 quifite workmanfhip. The walls of the city were of 
 marble, and forae pieces are ftill remaining above 12 
 feet in length. Julis was, according to Strabo, the 
 birth-place of Simonides, Bacchylides, Erafiftratus, 
 and Arifto. The Oxford marbles tell us, that Simo- 
 nides, the fon of Leoprepis, invented a fort of artificial 
 memory, the principles of which he explained at A- 
 thens, and add, that he was defcended of another Si- 
 monides, who was a poet no lefs renowned than him- 
 felf. One of thefe two poets invented thofe melan- 
 choly verfes which were fung at funerals, and are cal- 
 led by the Latins menia. Strabo fays, that the Athe- 
 nians, having befiegcd the city of Julis, raifed the 
 fiege, upon advice that the inhabitants had refolved to 
 murder all the children under a certain age, that ufe- 
 &il perfons might not be employed in looking after 
 them. Ceos was, with the other Greek iflands, fub- 
 dued by the Romans, and beftowed upon the Athe- 
 nians by Marc Antony the triumvir, together with 
 .^gina, Tinos, and fome other adjoining iflands, which 
 were all reduced to one Roman province by Vefpafian. 
 The ifland is now called Zea. 
 
 CEPA, the ONION. See Allium. 
 CEPHALANTHUS, button-wood : A gemis 
 ©f the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria 
 clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 48th order, ^ggregata. There is no com- 
 mon calyx ; the proper one is fuperior, and funnel- 
 fhaped ; the receptacle globofe and naked, with one 
 downy feed. There is only one fpecies, the Occidenta- 
 lis ; a deciduous ftirub, native of north America. It 
 grows to about five or fix feet high ; and is not a 
 very bufhy plant, as the branches are always placed 
 thinly in proportion to the fize of the leaves, which 
 will grow more than three inches long, and one and a 
 half broad, if the trees are planted in a foil they like. 
 The leaves ftand oppofite by pairs on the twigs, and 
 alfo fometimes by threes, and are of a light-green 
 colour : Their vipper furface is fmooth ; they have 
 a ftrong nerve running from the footftalk to the 
 point, and feveral others from that on each fide to the 
 borders : Thefe, as well, as the footftalks, in the au- 
 
 93 1 CEP 
 
 tumn dye to a rcddlfh colour. The flowers, which Cephalic 
 are aggregate flowers, properly fo called, are produ- ^ ^aienja 
 ced at the ends of the branches, in globular heads, in , ^ , _ 
 July. The florets which compofe thefe heads are fun- 
 nel-fliaped, of a yellow^ colour, and fattened to an axis 
 which is in the middle. — The cephalanthus is propa- 
 gated from feeds, which we receive from America. 
 Thefe fliould be fown as foon as they arrive, and there 
 will be a chance of their coming up the nrft fpring ; 
 though they often lie till the fpring after before they 
 make their appearance. They may be fown in good 
 garden mould of almofl: any foil, if foniewhat moiit 
 the better, and fliould be covered about a quarter of 
 an inch deep. This flirub is alfo propagated by lay- 
 ers. If the young flioots are laid in autumn, they 
 will have Itruck good root by the autumn following, 
 and may be then taken up, and fet in the places where 
 they are defigned to remain. Cuttings of this tree,, 
 alfb, planted in the autumn in a rich, light,, moifl: 
 foil, will grow: and by that means alfo plenty of thefe 
 plants may be foon obtained. 
 
 CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, fignifies any 
 thing belonging to the head. 
 
 Cephalic Jliedicirnfs, are remedies for diforders of 
 the head. Cordials are comprehended herein, as are- 
 alfo whatever promotes a free circulation of the blood 
 through the brain. 
 
 Except when the diforder arifes from excefs of heat, 
 or an inflammatory difpofition in the head, moift to- 
 picals fliould never be ufed ; but always dry ones. 
 
 To rub the head after it is fliaved proves an infl:an- 
 taneous cure for a cephalalgia, a ftuffing of the head, 
 and a weaknefs of the eyes, arifing from a weak and 
 relaxed fliate of the fibres. And as by every freflx 
 evacuation of the humours their quantity is not only 
 leffened, "but alfo their recrementitious parts derived" 
 thither, the more frequently the head is fliaved, the 
 Lu-ger quantity of humour is difcharged ; fo that the 
 frequent fliaving of the head and beard is likewife a- 
 perpetual blifter ; and in as much as it is ufeful, it is 
 a cephalic. 
 
 Cephalic Vein, in anatomy, creeps along the arm 
 between the fliin and the mufcles, and divides it into 
 two bi'anches : the external goes down to the wrifl:, 
 where it joins the bafilica, and turns up to the back of 
 the hand ; the internal branch, together with a fmall 
 one of the bafilica, makes the mediana. 
 
 The ancients ufed to opan this vein for diforders of 
 the head, for which reafon it bears this name ; but a- 
 better acquaintance with the circulation of the blood.- . 
 informs us, that there is. no foundation for fucli a no- 
 tion. 
 
 CEPHALENIA, or Cephallenia, an ifland of 
 the Ionian fea between Ithaca and Zacynthus, known 
 in Homer's time by the names of Samus and Epirus 
 Melaena, is about eighty miles in length, forty in' 
 breadth, and a hundred and thirty in compafs. It had 
 anciently four cities, one of which bore the name of 
 the ifland. Strabo tell us, that in his time there were 
 only two cities remaining ; but Pliny fpeaks of three ; 
 adding, that the ruins of Same, which had been de- 
 ftroyed by the Romans, were ftill in being. Same 
 was the metropolis of the ifland, and is fuppofed to 
 have flood in the place which the Italians call Porto 
 Gulfcardo. The names of the four cities were, accord-. 
 
C E R [ 2g 
 
 Cephalonia'jng to Thucydides, Same, Protte, Cranii, and False. 
 C'ratQcar '^^^^'^ ifland was fuWued by the Thebans, under the 
 '^pus. conduct of Amphitryo, who is faid to have killed Pte- 
 u«— y— J relas, who then reigned here. While Amphitryo 
 ■was carrying on the war in Cephalenia, then called 
 Samcs, one Cephalus, a man of great diftinftion at 
 Athens, having accidentally killed his wife Procris in 
 fhooting at a deer, fled to Amphitryo, who, pitying 
 "his cafe, not only received him kindly, but made 
 ]vm governor of the ifland, which thenceforth was 
 called Cephalenia., After it had been long in fubjec- 
 tion to the Thebans, it fell under the power of the 
 Macedonians, and was taken from them by the JKto- 
 lians, who held it till it was reduced by M. Fulvius 
 Nobilior, who, having gained the metropolis aftet a 
 four months fiege, fold all the citizens for flaves, 
 / adding the whole illand tp the dominions of his repub- 
 
 lic. Now called Cephalonia. 
 
 CEPHALONIA, the capital of an ifland of the 
 fam.e name, fituated in the Mediterranean, near the 
 coaft of Epirus, and fubjecSt to the Veaetians, E. Long. 
 21. N. Lat. 30. 30. 
 
 CEPHEUS, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Arcadia, 
 ■on whofe head Minerva fallening one of Medufa's 
 liairs, he was rendered in vincible. 
 
 Cepheus, in altronomy, a conftellation of the nor- 
 thern hemifphere. See Astronomy, n0 4o6. 
 
 CERAM, an ifland in the Indian ocean, be- 
 tween the Molucca iflands on the north, and' thofe 
 of Ambona and Banda on the fouth, lying be- 
 tween E. Long. 126. and 129. in S. Lat. 3. It is 
 about 150 milts long, and 60 broad ; and here the 
 Dutch have a fortrefs, which keeps the natives in 
 fubjeftion. 
 
 CERAMBYX, in zoology, a genus of infefts of 
 the beetle kind, belonging to the order of infefta co- 
 leopatera. The antennae are long and fmall ; the 
 breafl is fpinous or gibbous ; and the elvtra are li- 
 near. There are no lefs than 83 fpecles enumerated 
 by Linnaeus, principally diftinguiflied by the figure of 
 the breaft. 
 
 CERASTES, in zoology, the trival name of a 
 Xpecies of Anguis and Coluber. 
 
 CERASTIUM, mouse-ear: a genus of the pen- 
 tagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 2 2d order, Caryophyllea, The calyx is pentaphyllous ; 
 the petals are bifid ; the capfule is unilocular, and 
 opening at the top. There arc 16 fpecies, but none 
 of them poflefl^d of any remarkable property. 
 
 CERASUS, in botany. See Prunus. 
 
 CERATE, in pharmacy, a thickifli kind of oint- 
 ment, applied to ulcerations, excoriations, &c. See 
 Pharmacy, Index. 
 
 CE RATION, the name given by the ancients to 
 tlie fmall feeds of Ceratonia, ufed by the Arabian phy- 
 ficians as a weight to adjuft the dofes of medicines ; 
 as the grain weight with us took its rife from a grain 
 of barley. 
 
 Ceraton, or ceraUum, was alfo a filver coin, equal 
 "to one third of an obohi&. 
 
 CERATOCARPUS, in botany : A genus of the 
 monandria order, belonging to the raoncecia clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 ■Mth order, Hokracea. The male calyx is bipartite ; 
 
 + ] C E R . 
 
 there is no corolla ; the filament is long : The female Ceratonia 
 calyx is diphyllous, and grown to the germen; there jl . 
 is no corolla ; the ftyles are two ; the feed is two- '''""'^ 
 horned and compreffed. 
 
 CERATONIA, the Carob Tree, or St John's- 
 bread : A genus of the polyoecia order, belonging to 
 the polygamia clafs of plants ; and in the natural me- 
 thod ranking under the 33d order, Z.owd'w/.ati?^?. The 
 calyx is hermaphrodite and quinquepartite there is no 
 corolla ; the ftamina are five ; the Ityle is fihform ; the 
 legumen coriaceous and polyfpermous. It is alfo dioeci- 
 ous, or male andfemale diltinft on different plants. There 
 is but one fpecies, the liliqua, a native of Spain, of fome 
 parts of Italy, and the Levant. It is an ever-green ; 
 and, in the countries where it is native, grows in the 
 hedges. It produces a quantity of long, flat, brown- 
 coloured pods, which are thick, meally, and of a 
 fwTetifli taite. Thefe pods are many times eaten by 
 the poorer fort of inhabitants when there is a fcarcity 
 of other food; but they are apt to looien the belly, and 
 caufe gripings of the bowels. They are called St 
 John' s-bread, from an ill-founded affertion of fome 
 writers on Scripture, that thefe pods were the locufts 
 St John eat with his honey in the wildernefs. The 
 tree may be propagated in this country from feeds,- 
 which are to be fown in a moderate hot-bed, and the 
 plants inured to the open air by degrees. 
 
 CERATOPHYLLUM, in botany: A genus of 
 the polyandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs 
 of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 15th order. Inundate. The male calyx is multipartite; 
 no corolla ; ilamina from 16 to 20: The female calyx 
 is multipartite ; no corolla ; one piilil ; no flyle ; one 
 naked feed. 
 
 CERAUNIA, Ceraunias, or Ceraunius La- 
 pis, in natural hiftory, a fort of flinty ftone, of no 
 certain colour, but of a pyramidal or wedge-like fi- 
 gure ; popularly fuppofed to fall from the clouds in the 
 time of thunder-florms, and to be pofTefled of divers 
 notable virtues, as promoting fleep, preferving from 
 lightning, &c. The word is from the Greek 'ip^uviS*-, 
 thundirbolt. The ceraunia is the fame with what is 
 otherwife called the thunder-flone, or thunder-bolt ; 
 and alfo fometimes fagiita, or arrow's-head, on ac- 
 count of its fliape. The cerauniae are frequently con- ' 
 founded with the ombrise and. brontiae, as being all 
 fuppofed to have the fame origin. The generality 
 of naturaliils take the ceraunia for a native flone, 
 formed among the Pyrites, of a faline, concrete, mi- 
 neral juice. Mercatus and Dr W oodward affert it to 
 be artificial, and to have been fafliioned thus by tools. 
 The ceraunia, according to thefe authors, are the heads 
 of the ancient weapons of war, in ufe before the in- 
 vention of iron; which, upon the introduftion of that 
 metal, growing into difufe, were difperfed in the fields 
 through this and that neighbouring country. Some 
 of them had polhbly ferved in the early ages for axes, 
 others for wedges, others for chifl"els ; but the greater 
 part for arrow-heads, darts, and lances. The cerau- 
 nia is alfo held by Pliny for a white or cryftal-coloured 
 gem, that attrafted lightning to itfelf. What this 
 was, is hard to fay. Prudentius alfo fpeaks of a yel- 
 low ceraunia ; by which he is fuppofed to mean the 
 carbuncle or pyropus. 
 
 CERBERA, in botany : A genus of the monogj- 
 
 riia 
 
C E R 
 
 [ 295 ] 
 
 C E R 
 
 Cercis 
 
 Cerljerus nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; 
 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 30th 
 order, Contorta. The fruit is a monofpermous plum. 
 The moft remarkable fpecies is the atrouc'ir, a na- 
 tive of the warm parts of America. It rifes with 
 an irregular ftem to the height of eight or ten feet, 
 fending out many crooked difFuied branches, which 
 towards their tops are garniflied with thick fucculent 
 leaves of a lucid green, fmooth, and very full of a 
 milky juice. The flowers come out in loofe bunches 
 at the end of the branches ; they are of a cream co- 
 lour, having long narrow tubes, and at the top are 
 cut into five obtufe fegments, which feem twifled, fo 
 as to iland oblique to the tube. The wood of this 
 t-ree ftinks moft abominably, and the kernels of the 
 nuts are a deadly poifon to which there is no antidote; 
 £b that the Indians will not even ufe the wood for 
 fuel. 
 
 CERBERUS, in fabulous hiftory, a dreadful three- 
 headed maftifF, born of Typhon and Echidna, and pla- 
 ced to guard the gates of hell. He fawned upon thofe 
 who entered, but devoured all who attempted to get 
 back. He was, however, mattered by Hercules, who 
 dragged him up to the earth, when, in ftruggling, a 
 foam dropped from his mouth, which produced the 
 poifonous herb called aco7tke or ivolj' s-hane. 
 
 Some have fuppofed that Cerberus is the fymbol of 
 the earth, or of all-devouring time ; and that its three 
 mouths reprefent the prefent, paft, and future. The 
 viftory obtained by Hercules over this monfter, de- 
 rtotes the conqueft which this hero acquired over his 
 paffions. Dr Bryant fuppofes that Cerberus was the 
 name of a place, and that it fignilied the temple of 
 the Sun; deriving it from K'lr-Abor, ihe place of light. 
 This temple was alfo called Tor-Caph-El, which was 
 changed to TpiyK|3 \rf . ^^id hence Cerberus was fup- 
 pofed to have had three heads. It was likewife called 
 tor-Keren, Turr'is Regia; whence t?' y-^p^i^of, from Tf£'f> 
 three, and Kjf««vov, head. 
 
 CERCELE, in heraldiy: a Ci-ofs cercele is a crofs 
 which, opening at the ends, turns round both ways like 
 a ram's horn. See Cross. 
 
 CERCIS, the Judas-tree : A genus of the mo- 
 nogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under 
 the 33d order, Lomentacea. The calyx is qinque-- 
 dentated, and gibbous below; the corolla papiliona- 
 ceous, with a fliort vexillum or flag-petal under the 
 wings or fide-petals ; a leguminous plant. There are. 
 only two fpecies, both deciduous. 
 
 I. The filiquaftrum, common Judas-tree, or Ita- 
 llau cercis, a native of Italy and other parts of the 
 fouth of Europe. — Thefe differ in the height of their 
 growth in different places : In fome they will arrive 
 to be fine trees, of near twenty feet high ; whilfl; in 
 others they will not rife to more than ten or twelve 
 ftet, fending forth young branches irregularly from 
 the vei-y bottom. The ftem of this tree is of a dark- 
 greyifh colour, and the branches, which are few and 
 irregular, have a purplifh caft. The leaves are fmooth, 
 heart-fliaped, and roundifh, of a pleafant green oa 
 their upper furfece, hoary underneath, and grow al- 
 ternately on long footftalks. The flowers are of a 
 fine purple : They come out early in the fpring, in 
 dufters,. from tlie fide of the branches, growing upon 
 
 fliort footftallcs ; and in fome fituations they are fuc- ch 
 ceeded by long flat pods, containing the feeds, which, v""-^ 
 in very favourable feafons, ri^en in England. Some 
 people are fond of eating thefe flowers in fallads, oa 
 which account alone in fome parts this tree is propa- 
 gated. The varieties of this fpecies are, i. The- 
 Flefli -coloured; 2. The White-flowered ; and, 3. The 
 Broad-podded Judas-tree. 
 
 2. The Canadenfis, or Canadian cercis, will grow 
 to the fize of the firft fort in fome places. The branch- 
 es are alfo irregular. The leaves are cordated, downy, , 
 and placed alternately. The flowers ufually are of a 
 palilli red colour, and fliow themfelves likewife in the 
 fpring, before the leaves are grown to their fize. 
 Thtfe too are often eaten in fallads, and afford an ex- 
 cellent pickle. There is a variety of this with deep 
 red, and another with purple flowers. The pleafure 
 which thefe trees will afford in a plantation may be 
 eafily conceived, not only as they exhibit their flowers 
 in cinders, in different colours, eaily in the fpring,, 
 before the leaves are grown to fuch a fize as to hide 
 them; bat from the difference of the upper and lower 
 furface of the leaves ; the one being of a fine green, 
 the other of a hoary caft ; fo that on the fame tree, 
 even in this refpeil, is fhown variety ; an improve- 
 ment whereof is made by the waving winds, which 
 will prefent them alternately to view. 
 
 Propagation. As thefe fpecies will not take root by 
 layers, they muft be propagated by feeds, which may 
 be had from abroad. They are generally brought us 
 found and good, and may be fown in the months of 
 February or March. Making any particular compoft 
 for their reception is unnecefTary ; common garden 
 mould, of almoft every fort, will do very well: And 
 this being well dug, and cleared of all roots, weeds, 
 &c. lines may be drawn for the beds. The mould be- 
 ing fine, part of it fliould be taken out, and fifted 
 over the feeds, after they are fown, about half an inch 
 thick. Part of the feeds will come up in the fpring, 
 and the others will reuiain until the fpring following ; 
 fo that whoever is deiirous of drawing the feedhngs 
 of a year old to plant out, muft not deftroy the bed, 
 but draw them carefully out, and after that there will 
 be a fucceeding crop. However, be this as it will,., 
 the feeds being come up, they muft be weeded, and 
 encouraged by watering in the dry feafon ; and they 
 will require no farther care during the firft fummer.. 
 In the winter alfo they may be left to themfelves, 
 for they are very hardy ; though not fo much but that 
 the ends of the branches will be killed by the froft, 
 nay, fometimes to the very bottom of the young plant, 
 where it will fhoot out again afrefh in the fpring. 
 Whoever, therefore, is defirous of fecuring his feedling- 
 plants from this evil, fliould have his beds hooped, in: 
 order to throw mats over them during the hard frofts. 
 Toward the latter end of March, or beginning of A- 
 pril, the plants having been in the feed-bed one or • 
 two years, they fliould be taken out, and planted in 
 the nurfery : The diftance of one foot afunder, and 
 tv7o feet in the rows, fhould be given them. Hoeing 
 the weeds down in the fummer muft alfo be allowed, 
 as well as digging between the rows in the winter. 
 Here they m.ay iland until they are to be removed 
 finally ; but they muft be gone over in the winter 
 with the knife, and fuch irregular branches taken oflt" 
 
 as- 
 
C E R 
 
 t 
 
 CiTC'ipI- a-s are produced near the root ; by \\-h\ch management 
 ■theci ^j^g j^^j trained up to a reglilar ftem. Such, 
 Cerealia. continues Hanburry, is the culture of the fpecies of 
 y-— cercis ; forts that are not to be omitted where there 
 are any pretenfions to a collection. Beiides, the 
 wood itfelf is of great value ; for it polifhes exceedingly 
 well, and is admirably veined with black and green. 
 
 CERCOPITHECI, in natural hiilory, the name gi- 
 ven by Mr Ray to monkeys, or the clafs of apes with 
 long tails. See Apk and Simia. 
 
 CEJUDA (John Lewis de la), a learned jefuit of 
 Toledo, wrote large commentaries on Virgil, which 
 have been much eiteemed ; alfo feveral other works. 
 He died in 1643, aged 80. 
 
 CERDONIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained 
 moft of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and 
 the Manichees. They took their name from their 
 leader Cerdon, a Syrian, who came to Rome in the 
 time of pope Hyginus, and there abjured his errors : 
 but in appearance only ; for he was afterwards con- 
 vifted of perfifting in them, and accordingly caft out 
 of the church again. Cerdon aflerted two principles, 
 the one good and the other evil : this laft, according 
 to him, was the creator of the world, and the god that 
 appeared under the old law. The lirft, whom he call- 
 ed unkmivn, was the father of Jefus Chrift ; who, he 
 taught, was incarnate only in appearance, and was 
 not born of a virgin ; nor did he fuffer death but in ap- 
 |)earance. He denied the refurreclion ; and rejefted 
 all the books of the Old Teftament, as coming from 
 an evil principle. Marcion, his difciple, fucceeded 
 him in his errors. 
 
 CEREALIA, in antiquity, feaftsofCeres, inftituted 
 by Triptolemus, fon of Celeus king of Eleufine in At- 
 tica, in gratitude for his having been inihuAed by 
 Ceres, who was fuppofed to have been his nurfe, in 
 the art of cultivating corn and making bread. 
 
 There were two fcafts of this kind at Athens; the 
 one called Eleufwia, the other Thefmophoria. See the 
 •article Eleusinia. What both agreed in, and was 
 common to all the cerealia, was, that they were cele- 
 brated with a world of religion and purity ; fo that 
 it was efteemed a great pollution to meddle, on thofe 
 days, in conjugal matters. It was not Ceres alone 
 that was honoured here, but alfo Bacchus. The vic- 
 tims offered were hogs, by reafon of the wafte they 
 make in the produ6l:s of the earth ; whether there 
 was any wine offered or Jiot, is matter of much de- 
 bate among the critics. Plautus and Macrobius feem 
 to countenance the negative fide ; Cato and Virgil the 
 pofitive. Macrobius fays, indeed, they did not offer 
 wine to Ceres, but niulfwn, which was a compofition 
 of wine and honey boiled up together : that the fa- 
 crifice made on the 21 ft of December to that goddefs 
 and Hercules, was a pregnant fow, together with 
 cakes and mulfura ; and that this is what Virgil means 
 by Mill Baccho. The cerealia pafTed from the Greeks 
 to the Romans, who held them for eight days fuccef- 
 fively ; commencing, as generally held, on the fifth 
 of the ides of ApriL It was the women alone who 
 were concerned in the celebration, all dreffed in white; 
 the men, likewife in white, were only fpeftators. 
 They eat nothing till after fun-fet ; in memory of 
 Ceres, who in her fearch after her daughter took no 
 . repaft but in the evening. 
 68. 
 
 96 ] C E R 
 
 After the battle of Cannae, the defolatlon was fo Cerealia 
 great at Rome, that there were no women to cele- II 
 brate the feaft, by reafon they were all in mourning j ^^'"^"^^^7' 
 fo that it was omitted that year. 
 
 Cerealia, in botany, filam Ceres the goddefs of 
 corn ; Linnasus's name for the larger efculent feeds of 
 the graffes : thefe are rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
 millet, panic grafs, Indian millet, holcus, zizania, and 
 maize. To this head may be likewife referred darnel, 
 (lolium) 1 which, by preparation, is rendered efculent. 
 
 CEREBELLUM, the hinder part of the head. 
 See Anatomy, n° 133. 
 
 CEREBRUM, the brain. Its ftru<5lure and ufc 
 are not fo fully known as fome other parts of the 
 body, and different authors confider it in various man- 
 ners. However, according to the obfervations of thofc 
 moft famed for their accuracy and dexterity in anato- 
 mical inquiries, its general ftrufture is as given in 
 Anatomy, n'' 1 32. 
 
 Dr Hunter obferves, that the principal parts of the 
 medullary fubftance of the brain in ideots and mad- 
 men, fuch as the thalami nervorum opticorum^ and mc' 
 ditlla oblongata, are found entirely changed from a me- 
 dullary to a hard, tough, dark-coloured fubftance, 
 fometimes refembling white leather. 
 
 CEREMONIAL ( ceremoniale ) , a book in which is 
 prefcribed the order of the ceremonies to be obferved 
 in certain adlions and occafions of folemnity and pomp. 
 The ceremonial of the Roman church is called ord» 
 Romanus. It was publiflied in 15 16 by the biftiop of 
 Corcyra ; at which the college of cardinals were fo 
 fcandalized, that fome of them voted to have the au- 
 thor as well as book burnt, for his temerity in expofing 
 the facred ceremonies to the eyes of profane people. 
 
 Ceremonial is alfo ufed for the fet or fyftem of 
 rules and ceremonies which cuftom has introduced for 
 regulating our behaviour, and which perfons praftife 
 towards each other, either out of duty, decency, or ci- 
 vility. 
 
 Ceremonial, in a more particular fenfe, denotes 
 the manner in which princes and ambaffadors ufe to 
 receive and to treat one another. There are endlefs 
 difputes among fovereigns about the ceremonial: fome 
 endeavouring to be on a level, and others to be fupe- 
 rior ; infomuch that numerous fchemes have been pro- 
 pofed for fettling them. The chief are, i. to accom- 
 modate the difference by ^compromife or alternation, 
 fo that one (hall precede now, the other the next 
 time J or one in one place, and the other in another : 
 2. By feniority'; fo that an elder prince in years fhall 
 precede a younger, without any other diflinftion. 
 Thefe expedients, however, have not yet been ac- 
 cepted of by any, except fome alternate princes, as 
 they are called, in Germany. 
 
 Caremonial is more particularly ufed in fpeaking 
 of the laws and regulations given by Mofes relating 
 to the worfhip of God among the ancient Jews. In 
 this fenfe it amounts to much the fame with what is 
 called the Levitical law, and ftands contradiftinguhhed 
 from the moral as well as judicial law. 
 
 CEREMONY, an afiemblage of feveral aftions, 
 forms, and circumftanccs, ferving to render a thing 
 more magnificent and folemn. 
 
 In 1646, M. Ponce publifhed a hiftory of ancient 
 ceremonies, tracing the rife, growth, and introduAion 
 
 2 of 
 
G E R 
 
 of eacli rite into the church, and its gradual advance- 
 ment to fuperftition therein. Many of them were 
 borrowed from Judaifm; but more feemingly from Pa- 
 ganifm. Dr Middleton has given a line difcourfe on 
 the conformity between the pagan and popifh cere- 
 monies, which he exemplifies in the ufe of incenfe, 
 holy water, lamps, and candles, before the flirines of 
 faints, votive gifts or offerings round the fhrines of 
 the deceafed, &c. In efFeft, the altars, images, croffes, 
 proceffions, miracles, and legends ; nay, even the very 
 hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the pre- 
 fent Romans, he fliows, are all copied from their hea- 
 then anceftors. — e have an ample and magnificent 
 account of the religious ceremonies and cuftoms of all 
 nations in the world, reprefented in figures defigned by 
 Picart, with hiftoricai explanations, and many curious 
 differtations. 
 
 Maficr of the Cerf.monifs, an officer inttituted by 
 king James I. for the more honourable reception of 
 ambafiadors and ftrangers of quality. He wears about 
 his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the 
 crown of Great Britain, having on one fide an em- 
 blem of peace, with this motto, Beat'i pac'ific'i ; and on 
 the other, an emblem of war, vvith D'leu et man droit : 
 his falary is 'i^ool, per annum. 
 
 Ajjijlant Majier of the CEREMONiE.-i, is to execute the 
 employment in all points, whenfoever the matter of 
 the ceremonies is abfent. His falary is 141 A 13J. and 
 j^d. per annum, 
 
 Marjljall of the Ceremonies is their officer, being 
 
 [ ] 
 
 C E R 
 
 His falary is 100 1, per 
 
 fub ordinate to them both. 
 annum. 
 
 CERENZA, a town of Italy In the kingdom of 
 Naples, and in the Hither Calabria, with a bifhop's 
 fee. It is feated on a rock, in E. Long. 1 7. 5. N. Lat. 
 
 CERES, a Pagan deity, the inventor or goddefs of 
 corn ; in like manner as Bacchus was of wine. 
 
 According to the poets, fhe was the daughter of Sa- 
 turn and Ops, and the mother of Proferpine, whom 
 file had by Jupiter. Pluto having ftolen away Pro- 
 ferpine, Ceres travelled all over the world in queft of 
 her daughter, by the help of a tor^h, wliich (he had 
 lighted in Mount ^tna. 
 
 As Ceres was thus travelling In fearch of her daugh- 
 ter, file came to Celeus king of Eleufis, and under- 
 took to bring up his infant fon Triptolemus. Being 
 defirous to render her charge im.mortal, fhe fed him 
 In the day-time with divine milk, and in the night co- 
 vered him with fire. Celeus obferving an unufual 
 Improvement in his fon, refolved to watch his nurfc, 
 to which end he hid himfelf In that part of the houfe 
 where fhe, ufed to cover the child with fire ; but when 
 he faw her put the Infant under the embers, he cried 
 out and difcovered .himfelf. Ceres puniflied the cu- 
 riofity and Indifcretion of the father with death. Af- 
 terwards, fi^e taught the youth the art of fowing corn 
 and other fruits, and mounted him in a chariot drawn 
 by winged dragons, that he might traverfe the world, 
 and teach mankind the ufe of corn and fruits. After 
 this, having difcovered, by means of the nymph Are- 
 :thufa, that Profei-pine was In the infernal regions, fhe 
 applied to Jupiter, and obtained of him that Profer- 
 pine fhould be reftored, on condition that fhe had tafted 
 Tiothing during her ftay In that place • but it beinff 
 
 Vol. LV. PAar I. 
 
 difcovered, by the Information of Afcalaphus, that, as Ceret 
 flie was walking in Pluto's orchard, (he had gathered 
 an apple, and had trifled of fome of the feeds, flie was ^^''' "'^"*'^ 
 for ever forbidden to return. Ceres, out of revenge, 
 turned Afcalaphus into an owl. At length, Jupiter, 
 to mitigate her grief, permitted that Proferpine fhould 
 pafs one half of the year In the Infernal regions with 
 Pluto, and the other half with her mother on earth. 
 
 Cicero fpeaks of a temple of Ceres at Catanea in 
 Sicily, where was a very ancient flatue of that god- 
 defs, but entirely concealed from the fight of men, 
 eveiy thing being performed by matrons and virgins. 
 
 CERET, a town of France In Rouffillon, with a 
 magnificent bridge of a fingle arch. It Is feated near 
 the river Tec, in E. Long. 2.46. N. Lat.42. 23. 
 
 CEREUS, In botanv. See Cactus. 
 
 CERIGO, an Ifiand In the Archipelago, anciently 
 called Cytherea ; noted for being the birth-place of 
 Helen, and, as the poets fay, of Venus. At prefent, 
 there is nothing very delightful in the place ; for the 
 country is mountainous, and the foil dry. It abounds 
 In haref, quails, turtle, and excellent falcons. It is 
 about 50 miles in circumference, and had formerly 
 good towns ; but there Is now none remaining but 
 that which gives name to the Ifland. This Is ftroug 
 both by art and nature, It being feated on a craggy 
 rock. The Inhabitants are Chriftian Greeks, and fub- 
 jedl to the Vtnetians, who keep a governor tliere, 
 whom they change every two years. 
 
 CERINES, a town in the ifland of Cyprus, with a 
 good cattle, an harbour, and a bifhop's fee. E. Long^ 
 33.35. N. Lat. 35. 2.2. 
 
 CERINTHE, honevwoiit: A genus of die mo- 
 nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 
 plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 41ft order, ylJperfoHte. The limb of tlie GoroUa Is d. 
 ventrlcofe tube with the throat pervi/ius ; and there 
 are two bilocular feeds. There are three fpecies, na- 
 tives of Germany, Italy, ajid the Alps. They are 
 low annual plants with purple, yellow, and red floweri^, 
 which may be propagated by feed fown In autumn, In 
 a warn^ •fituStion. 
 
 CERINTHIAN5, ancient heretics, who denied 
 the deity of Jefus Chrifl. — They took their name 
 fi-om Cerinthus, one of the firtt herefiarchs In the ^ 
 church, being cotemporary with St John. See Ce- 
 
 RINTHUS. 
 
 They believed that Jefus Chrifl was a mere man, 
 born of Jofeph and Mary; but that, in his baptlfm, 
 a celeftial virtue defcended on him In form, of a dove ; 
 by means whereof he was confecrated by the holy 
 fpirit, and made Chrift. It was by means of this ce- 
 leftial virtue, therefore, that lie wrought fo many mi- 
 racles ; which, as he received it fi-om heaven, quitted 
 him after his pnffion, and returned to the place whence 
 It came ; fo that Jefus, whom they called a pure man, 
 really died and rofe again ; but -that Chrift, who was 
 dillinguifli-ed fn)m Jefus, did not fuffer at all. It was 
 partly to refute this fed, that St John wrote his go- 
 fpel. They received the gofpel of St Matthew, to 
 countenance their doArine of circumcifion, fromChrlft's 
 being circumclfed ; but they omitted the genealogy. 
 They difcarded the epittles of St Paul, becaufe that 
 apottle held circumcifion abolifhed. 
 
 GEllINTHUS, a herefiarch, cotemporary with the 
 P p apoftles^ 
 
Ceropsgia, 
 Certhia. 
 
 Plate 
 
 ex XV. 
 
 C E R [ 298 ] G E R 
 
 apoftles, afcribed the creation not to God, but to an- 3. The hook-bllled red creeper has the bill fome- 
 gels. He taught that Jefus Chrllt was the fon of Jo- what lefs hooked than the laft fpecles ; the general co 
 feph, and that circumcifion ought to be retained under lour of the plumage is fcarlet ; wings and tail black. 
 
 Ce 
 
 the gofpel. He is looked upon as the head of the 
 converted Jews, who raifed in the church of Antioch 
 the tumult of which St Luke has given the hiitory in 
 the 15th chapter of the Afts. Some authors afcribe 
 the book of the apocalypfe toCerinthus; adding, that 
 he put it off under the name of St John, the better to 
 authorife his reveries touching Chrilt's reign vipon 
 earth : and it is even certain that he publifhed fome 
 woi-ks of this kind under the title of ApocaJylfe. See 
 Apocalypse. 
 
 CEROPEGIA, in botany: A genus of the mono 
 
 In fome birds the forehead is of a buff-colour; and the 
 parts about the head and neck have both a mixture of 
 buff and dufey black, which are fufpefted to be the 
 birds not yet arrived at their full plumage. 
 
 4. The pufiUa, or brown and white creeper, ac- 
 cording to Edwards, is not above half the fize of our 
 European creeper. The upper part 'of the body is 
 brown, with a changeable glofs of copper: tlie under 
 parts ai-e white ; the quills brown, edged with gloffy 
 copper ; the tail blackifh, the outer feather tipped with 
 white. The bird from which Edwards drew his fi- 
 
 gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of gure had a label tied to it, by the name of Honey- 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the thief. And that they are fond of honey is manifell, 
 30th order. Contorts. There are two ereft follicles ; from thof^ who keep birds at the Cape of Good Hope 
 the feeds plumofe or covered with. a feathered pappus; having many forts in large cages, and fupplying them 
 the Hmb of the corolla connivent or clofing at top. with only honey and water; but befides this, th-ey 
 CERTHIA, in ornithology, the creeper or ox- catch a great m.any flies, which come within the reach 
 
 of their confinement ; and thefe two make up their 
 whole fubfiftence ; indeed, it has been attemjSted to 
 tranfport them further, but the want of flies on board 
 a fliip prevented them living more than three weeks \ 
 fo neceiiary are infefls to their fublillence. 
 
 5. The Loteni, or. Loten's creeper, has the head, 
 neck, back, rump, fcapulars, and upper tail-coverts^ 
 of green gold ; beneath, from the bread to the vent, 
 of velvet black, which is feparated from the green on 
 the neck by a tranfverfe bright violet band, a line and 
 half in breadth : the leffer wing coverts are of this laft 
 colour ; the middle coverts are green gold ; and the 
 greater coverts are very fine black, edged with grceu 
 gold on the outer edge : the quills are of the lame co- 
 lour, as are alfo the tail feathers. The female differs 
 in having the breafl;, belly, fides, thighs, under wing 
 and tail coverts, of a dirty white, fpotted with black 
 
 EYE, a genus belonging to the order of picae. The 
 beak is arched, flender, fharp, and triangular ; the 
 tongue is fharp at the point ; and the feet are of the 
 walking kind, /. e. having the toes open and uncon- 
 nefted. Of this genus near 50 fpecies have been enu- 
 merated by ornithologifts ; but Mr Latham fuppofes 
 that many now defcribed as fpecies, will be found 
 hereafter to be mere varieties ; which, he adds, is no 
 wonder, fince many creepers do not gain their full 
 plumage till the tli rd year's moult. The following 
 are a few of the moil remarkable : 
 
 1. The familiaris, or common ox-eye, is grey above,, 
 and white underneath, with brown wings and ten 
 white fpots on the ten prime feathers. This bird is 
 found in moil parts of Europe, though it is believed 
 no where fo common as in Britain. It may be thought 
 iiiore fcarce than it really is by the lefs attentive ob- 
 
 ferver ; for, fuppofing it on the body or branch of and the wings and tail not of fo fine a black. It in- 
 habits Ceylon, and Madagafcar ; and is called Angala- 
 dian. 
 
 Buffon tells us, that it makes its nefl of the down 
 of plants, in form of a cup, like that of a chaffinch, 
 the female laying generally five or fix eggs ; and that 
 it is fometimes chafed by a fpider as large as itfelf, 
 and very voracious, which feiz.es on the whole brood, 
 and fucks the blood of the young birds. 
 
 6. The ccerulea, or blue creeper, has the head of a 
 
 any tree, the moment it obferves any one, it gets to 
 the cppofite fide, and fo on, let a perfon walk roimd 
 the tree ever fo often. The facility of its nmning on 
 the bark of a tree, in all diredlions, is wonderful : 
 This it does with as much eafe as,a fly on a glafs win- 
 dow. Its food is principally, if not wholly, infefts, 
 which it finds in the chinks and among the mofs of 
 trees.' It builds itS nefl in fome hole of a tree, and 
 lays generally five eggs, very rarely more than feven.: 
 
 thefe are afh-coloured, marked at the end with fpots mofl elegant blue; but on each fide there is a fl:ripe of 
 " ' ' " " ' black like velvet, in which the eye is placed : the chia. 
 
 and throat are marked with black in the fame manner; 
 therefl: of the body violet blue. It inhabits Cayenne. 
 Seba fays, that it makes its nefl; with great art. The 
 outfide is compofcd of dry flialks of grafs, orfuchlike; 
 but within of very downy foft materials, in the fhape 
 of a retort, which it fufpends from fome weak twig, 
 at the end of a branch of a tr ee ; the opening or mouth 
 
 andftreaksof a deeper colour; and the fliell is obferved 
 to be pretty hard. It remains in the places which it 
 frequents during the winter, and builds its nefl early 
 in the fpring. 
 
 ■ 2. The hook-billed green creeper has a bill an inch 
 and three quarters long, and bent quite in the fliape 
 of a femicircle ; the plumage in general is ohve green, 
 palefl beneath, and fcmtwhat inclined to yellow : the 
 
 quills and tail are dullcy ; the legs duflty brown ; and downwards, facing the ground : the neck is a foot in 
 
 See M 
 
 the feathers juil above the knee, or garter, white. It 
 inhabits the Sandwich Iflands in general, and is one 
 of the birds whofe plumage the natives make ufe of in 
 cOnflrucling their feathered garments ; which, havmg 
 thefe olive-green feathers intermixed with the beautiful 
 fcarlet and yellow ones belonging to the next fpecies, 
 .and yellow-tufted Bee-eater*, make fome of the moil 
 beautiful coverings of thefe iilanders. 
 
 length, but the real nefl is quite at the top, fo that 
 the bird has to climb up tltis funnel-hke opening to 
 get at the nefl:. Thus it is fecure from every harm ;. 
 neither monkey, fnake, nor lizard, daring to venture- 
 at the end of the branch, as it would not fteadily 
 fupport them. 
 
 7. The cardinal creeper, {^Lev. Muf.), has the head, 
 neckj and breafl, of crimfon colour ; down the middle 
 
 > 
 
C E R L 2 
 
 Gert'ificate. of the.back is a ftripe of the fame colour to the rump : 
 
 ^— -v the rell of the body is black ; and the wings and tail 
 
 are black. It inhabits the cultivated parts of the 
 ifland of Tanna ; is there called Kuyameta, and hves 
 by fucking the neflar of flowers. 
 
 8. The mocking creeper is of the_ fize of the lefTer 
 thruOi. On the cheeks is a narrow white fpot : the head, 
 efpecially on the crown, is inclined to violet : the plu- 
 mage in general is olive green, inclining to yellow on 
 the^nder parts: the quills are brown ; the fecondanes 
 edged with olive : the colour of the tail is like that of 
 the fecondaries, and foraewhat forked : the legs are 
 du{]<y blue, *nd the claws black. It inhabits both the 
 illands of New Zealand. It has an agreeable note in 
 general ; but at times fo varies and modulates the voice, 
 that it feems to imitate the notes of all other birds ; 
 hence it was called by the Englifli the Mocking-bird. 
 This bird being fond of thrufting its head into the 
 bofom of flowers which have a purplifli -coloured fa- 
 rina, much of it adheres to the feathers about the 
 head and bill, and in courfe gives the appearance 
 above mentioned ; but this in time rubs_ ofF, and the 
 colour of tlie head appears the fame M'ith the refl: of 
 the plumage. 
 
 CERTIFICATE (T/ialhy), in the law of Eng- 
 land, a fpecies of trial allowed in fuch caf^s where 
 the evidence of the perfon certifying is the only proper 
 * See rrial. criterion of the point in difpute.*. For when the fad 
 in queftion Hes out of the cognizance of the court, the 
 judges mufl: rely on the folemn averment or informa- 
 tion of perfons in fuch a ilation as affords them the 
 moft clear and competent knowledge of the truth. As 
 therefore fuch evidence, if given to a jury, mult have 
 ■been conclufive, the law, to fave trouble and circuity, 
 permits tlie fact to be determined upon fuch certificate 
 merely. Thus, i. If the ifl'ue be whether A was ab- 
 fent with the king in his army out of the realm in time 
 of war, this fliall be tried by the certificate of the ma- 
 refchal of tlie king's hoft in writing under his feal, 
 which fliHil be feut to the juilices. 2. If, in order to 
 ■avoid an outlawry, or the Hke, it was alleged that 
 the defendaat was in prifon, ultra mare, at Bourdeaux, 
 or in the fcrvice of the mayor of Bourdeaux, this fliould 
 have been tried by the certificate of the mayor; and 
 the like of the captain of Calais. But when this was 
 law, thofe towns were under the dominion of the 
 crown of England. And therefore, by a parity of 
 reafon, it duiuld now hold, that in fimilar cafes arifing 
 at Jamaica or Minorca, the trial fliould be by certifi- 
 cate from the governor of thofe iflands- We alfo find 
 that the ceitific-itc of the queen's meifenger, fent to 
 fummon home a peerefs of the realm, was formerly 
 held a fufilcient trial of the contempt in refufing to 
 obey fach vlummons. 3. Formatters within the realm ; 
 the cuftoms of the city of London fliall be tried by 
 the certificate of the mayor and aldermen, certified by 
 the in;)uth of their recorder ; upon a furmife from the 
 party alleging it, that the caftom ought to be thus 
 tiied : elfe it muil be tried by the country. As, tlie 
 cufl:om of dilh ibuting the etfefts of freemen deceafed ; 
 of enroUing apprentices ; or that he who is free of 
 one trade may ufe another; if any of thefe, or other 
 fimilar points' come in iiTue. 4. The trial of all cuf- 
 toms and praftife of the courts flsall be by certificate 
 from the proper officers of thofe courts refpeftively ; 
 
 Blackjl 
 Comment 
 
 99 1 C E R 
 
 and what return was made on a writ by the fherlfT or Cert-orar 
 under-lherifF, fliall be only tried by his own certi- 
 ficate. 
 
 CERTIORARI, in law, a writ which iffucs out 
 of the chancery, directed to an inferior court, to call 
 up the records of a caufe there depending, in order 
 that jufl:ice may be done. And this writ is obtained 
 upon complaint, that the party who feeks it has re- 
 ceived hard ufage, or is not like to have an impartial 
 trial in the inferior court. A certiorari is made i-e- 
 turnable either in the king's bench, common pleas, or 
 in chancery. 
 
 It is not only ifl"ued out of the court of chancery, 
 but likewife out of the king's bench, in which lall 
 mentioned court it lies v.-here the king would be cer- 
 tified of a record. Indictments from inferior courts, 
 and pi'oceedings of the quarter-feflions of the peace, 
 may alfo be removed into the king's bench by a cer- 
 tiorari : and here the very record mult be returned, 
 and not a tranfcript of it ; though ufually in chancery, 
 if a certiorari be i-eturnable there, it removes only the 
 tenor of the record. 
 
 CERTITUDE, confidered in the things or ideas 
 which are the objefts of our underitanding, is a ne- 
 ceflaiy agreement or difagreement of one part of our 
 knowledge with another: as applied to the mind, it 
 is the perception of fuch agreement or difagreement ; 
 or fuch a firm well-grounded aflent, as excludes not 
 only all manner of doubt, but all conceivable poflibility 
 of a miilake. 
 
 There are three forts of certitude, or afTurance, ac- 
 cording to the different natures and circumitances of 
 things. I .A'phyfical or natural certitude, which depends 
 upon the evidence of fenfe ; as that I fee fuch or fuch 
 a colour, or hear fuch or fuch a found ; no body quef- 
 tions the truth of this, where the organs, the medium, 
 and the objeft, are rightly difpofed. 2. Mathematical 
 certitude is tliat arifing from mathematical evidence ; 
 fuch is, that the three angles of a triangle are equal 
 to tv> o right ones. 3. Moral certitude is that founded 
 on moral evidence, and is frequently equivalent to a 
 mathematical one ; as that there was formerly fuch an 
 emperor as Julius Casfar, and that he Avrote the com- 
 -mentaries which pafs under his name; becaufe the hif- 
 torians of thefe times have recorded it, and no man 
 has ever difproved it fince : this affords a moral certi- 
 tude, in common fenfe fo great, that one would be 
 thought a fool or a madman for denying it. 
 
 CERTOSA, a Celebrated Carthufian monaftery, 
 in the ten-itoiy of the Pavefe, in the duchy af Milan, 
 four miles from Pavia ; its park is fiirrounded with a 
 wall 20 miles in circumference ; but there are feveral 
 fmall towns and villages therein. 
 CERVANTES. See SAAviiCRA. 
 CERVERA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feated 
 on a fmall river of the fame name, in E. Long. i. 9. 
 N. Lat. 41. 28. 
 
 CERVIA, a fea-port town of Italy, In Romagna, 
 v/ith a biihop's fee, feated on the gulpii of Venice, in 
 
 E. Lono;. I 
 
 0- 
 
 N. Lat. 44. 16. 
 
 CERVICAL NERVES, are feven pair of nerves, fo 
 called, as having their origin in the ceriux, or neck. 
 
 CKKinrAi. Vejjels, among anatomifts, denote the ar- 
 teries, veins, &c. which pafs through the virw'.ra and 
 mufcles of the neck, up to the fliull. 
 
 P p 3 CERVIX, 
 
Cervix 
 
 w 
 
 Ccrvus. 
 
 C E R I 3 
 
 CERVIX, in anatomy, properly denotes the hind 
 part of the neck ; as contradittinguifhed from the ibre 
 part, which is called jugulum, or the throat. 
 
 Cervix of the Scapula, denotes the head of the 
 fiioulder-blade, or that upper procefs whofe JJrn/s re- 
 ceives the head of the humerus. 
 
 CERrjx of the Uterus, the neck of the uterus, or that 
 oblong canal, or palTage between the internal and ex- 
 ternal oriiices, which receives and inclofes the penis 
 like a (heath, whence it is alfo called Vagina. 
 
 CERUMEN, a thick, vifcous, bitter, excremen- 
 titious humour, feparated from the blood b-y proper 
 glands placed in the meatus audhorius, oi outer paffage 
 of the ear. 
 
 CERUSS. WHiTE-LEADj a fort of calx of lead', 
 made by expofing plates of that metal to the vapour 
 of vinegar. See CHEMisTfty-/«(r/e.v. 
 
 Cerufs, as a medicine, is ufed externally either 
 mixed in ointments, or by fprinkhng it on old gleeting 
 and watery ulcers, and in miiny difeafes of tlie ikin. 
 If, when it is reduced into a fine powder, it is re*- 
 ceived in with the breath in infpiration, and carried 
 down into the lungs, it caufcs. incurable afthmas. In- 
 ftances of the very pernicious eiTefts of this metal are 
 too often feen among thofe pcrfons who work lead 
 in any form, but particularly among the workers in 
 white-lead.' 
 
 The painters ufe it fn great quantities ; and that it 
 may be afforded cheap to them,, it is generally adul- 
 terated with common whiting. 
 
 CERVU8, or Deer, in zoology,, a genus of qua- 
 rxx'x * drupeds belonging to the order of Pecora. The horns 
 and ' ^'^^ brittle, covered with a hairy- Ikin, and 
 
 CXXXI. growing from the top ; they likewife. fall off and>are 
 renewed annually. There are eight fore-teeth in tlie 
 under jaw, and they have no dog-teeth.. Tlte fpecies 
 of this gerius enumerated by Liimaeus are feven, viz. 
 
 I. The. Camelopardalis, or Giraffe, with fimple or 
 vmbranched horns, llraight, about fix inciies long, 
 covered with hair, and truncated at the end and tufted ; 
 in the forehead a. tubercle, about two inches high, re>- 
 fembhng a. third horn, Tlie fore legs are not much 
 longer than the hind legs :; but the flioulders are of a 
 vatt length, which' gives- the difpropoitionate height 
 between the fore and bind parts :■ the head is like that 
 of a flag : tlie neck is {lender and elegant, > and on the 
 upper fide is a fhort mane : the ears are large tail is 
 lojig, with.ftrong h-airs at the end : the colour of the 
 whole, animal- a dirty white, marked wiih large broad 
 rufty fpots. This is an uncommon animal, few of them 
 having been ever feen in Europe. It inhabits the fo- 
 refts of Ethiopia,- and other interior parts of Africa, 
 almoff as high as Senegal ; but is not found in Guinea, 
 or any of the. weftern parts nor farther fouth thaa 
 .about lat. 2.8. 10. It is very timid, but not fvvift ; 
 and has been reprefented as liying only by browfing 
 the treeSj being unable from the difproportionate length 
 of its fore legs to graze or feed from the ground. 
 When it would leap, it lifts up its fore legs and then 
 its hind, like a horfe whofe fore legs are tied. It runs 
 -very badly and aukwardly, and is very eafily taken. 
 .The late.ft and beft defcription of this extraordinary 
 quadruped is given in the i6th number of a work en- 
 titled, " A Defcription of the uncommon Animals 
 aiid remarkable Produdions in the Cabinet and Me- 
 
 00 ] 
 
 C E R 
 
 Plate 
 
 nagerie of his Serene Highnefs the Prince of Orange ;" Cerv 
 
 by M. Vofmaer, Direftor of his Highnefs's Collec- r 
 
 tions of Natural Hiftory. His account of the giraffe, 
 is compofed partly from the notices, of M. Vaillant and 
 Mr Gordon of the Cape of Good Hope, and partly 
 from his own obfervationson the lldns of four of thcfe 
 animals, together with a complete Ikeletou, in the ca-- 
 binet of cuiiofities under his care. , 
 
 All die accounts we have of the giraffe, agree in ■ 
 reprcfendng its hind quarters as about 2~ feet lower 
 than its withers : but from obfervations made by the 
 late profeffor Camper on the above mendoned ilvele- 
 ton, it would appear that naturalifts have been greatly 
 miftaken in this paTUcular. That its fore legs are. 
 longer than its hind legs, , is indeed true ; but the dif- 
 ference is not more than feven inches, which, in a 
 height of feven feet, is no great matter. It may, 
 however (the profeffor obferves), be rendered appa- 
 rently more coufiderable by the obliquity of the thigh-r 
 bone, with refped to the tibia, when compared with 
 that of the humerus to the radius. 
 
 The giraffe has always been celebrated for the 
 gentlenefs of its difpofidon. Antonius Conilantius, a 
 writer of the 15th century, in a letter to Galeas Man* 
 fredi. Prince of Faenza, dated Fano, 1 6th December 
 i486, gives an account of a giraffe which he faw 
 there. . He fays it was fo gende, that it would eat 
 bread, hay, or fruit, out of the hand -of a child ; and . 
 that j when led through the ttreet, it would take what- 
 ever food.of this kind was offered to it by the fpeda- 
 tors.at the windows, as it paffed along. This cha- 
 rafter is confirmed by Mr Gordon, who relates, diat. 
 a giraffe, . which he had wounded, fuffered him to ap- 
 proach it as it lay on the ground, without , offering to 
 Itrike with its horns, or (howing any incHnation to rer 
 venge.itfelf ; he even ffroked it over its eyes feveral 
 times, when it only clofed them, . without any figns of: 
 refeotment. Its throat was afterwards cut for tlie 
 fake of its fl<in ; and when in the pangs of death, it 
 ilruck th*: ground with its feet with a force much 
 exceeding that of any other animal, and tliefe feein to . 
 be its principal means of defence. M. Volmaer obv 
 ferves, that both the male and female are furnidied 
 with horns, which, from their fize and. form, feem- 
 intendcd merely for ornament : they appear to .be ex» 
 crefcences of the os frcntls, and therefore are probably, 
 not deciduous. The notion of fome writers, , that the 
 giraffe cannot feed from . the ground, is confuted by 
 the teftimony of M. Vaillant, who alferts, that it caa > 
 even drink .from a river, the furface of which is lower 
 than the bank on which it Hands. . M. Vofmaer ob- 
 ferves, that this account is confirmed by confidering 
 the llrufture of the neck, the vertebrae of which are 
 connefted- with thofe. of the back by a very Itrong , 
 ligament. 
 
 The giraffe here defcribed, which Mr Gordon, who 
 differed it, fays was the largeft he had ever feen, was 
 15 feet 4 inches Rhinland meafure (about 15 feet 10. 
 inches Enghlh) from the ground to the top of its 
 head ; the length of the body, from the cheff to the 
 Tump, -R-as 5 feet 7 inches Rhinland meafure. M. 
 Vaillant afferts, that he. has feen feveral which were at 
 leall 1 7 feet high ; and M. Vofmaer declares, . that he 
 has been affured by fome very refpeftable inliabitants 
 of the Cape, that tliey had feen and killed giraffes, 
 
 whicli, 
 
. E ^ [3 
 
 Cervus. v?}iIcK, Including tlie horns, were 22 Rhinland feet in 
 height. 
 
 The giraffe was known to the Romans in early- 
 times. It appears among the figures in the aflemblage 
 of eaftern animals on the celebrated Prseneftine Pave- 
 ment, made by the direftion of Sylla ; and is repre- 
 fented both grazing and browfing, in its natural at- 
 titudes. It was exhibited at Rome by the popular 
 Csfar, among other animals in the Circaean games. 
 
 2. The Alces, Elk, or Moofe Deer, has palmated 
 horns, without any proper ilcm, and a flcfhy protu- 
 berance on the throat. The neck is much {horter 
 than the head, with a fhort, thick, upright mane, of 
 a light brown colour. The eyes are fmall ; the ears 
 a foot long, very broad and touching ; noftrils very 
 lafge ; the upper lip fquare, hangs greatly over the 
 lower, and has a deep fulcus in the middle, fo as to 
 appear almoft bifid. This is the bulkieft animal of the 
 deer kind, being fometimes 1 7 liands high, and weigh- 
 ing above 1 200 pounds. The female is lefs than the 
 male, and wants horns. The elks inhabit the ifle of 
 Gape Breton, Nova Scotia, and the weftern fide of 
 the bay of Fundy; Canada, and the country round 
 the great lakes, ahnoll as far fouth as the river Ohio. 
 Theie are its prefent northern and fouthern limits. In 
 all ages it alFefted the cold and woody regions in Eu- 
 rope, Afia, and America. They are found in all the 
 woody trafts of the temperate parts of Ruffia, but not 
 on the Arftic flats, nor yet. in Kamtfchatka. In S't- 
 beria they are of a monftrous fize, particularly among 
 the mountains. The elk and the moi)fe, according 
 to Mr Pennant, are the fame fpecies ; the laft derived 
 from nwfu, which in the Algonkin language fignifies 
 that animah The Engliih ufed to call it the black 
 moofe, to ' diftinguilh it from the ftag, which they 
 named the grey moofe. The French call it I'ong- 
 
 TUll. 
 
 Thefe animals refide amidft forefls, for the conve- 
 niency of browfing the boughs of trees, becaufe they 
 are prevented from grazing with any kind of eafe, by 
 reafon of the fliortnefs of their necks and length O'f 
 their legs. They often have recourffe to water-plants, 
 which they can readily get at by wading. M. Saira- 
 fin fays, that they are very fond of the anagyris foe- 
 tida, or ftinking bean trefoil, and will uncover the 
 fnow with their feet in order to get at it. In pafTmg 
 through the woods, they raife their heads to a hori- 
 zontal pofition, to prevent their horns from being en- 
 tangled in the branches. They have a Angular gait : 
 their pace is a= (hambling trot, but they go with great 
 fvviftnefs. In their common walk they lift their feet 
 very high, and will without any difficulty ftep O'ver 
 a gate five feet high. They feed principally in the 
 night. If they graze, it is always againft an afcent ; 
 an advantage they ufe for the reafoa above affigned. 
 They ruminate like the ox. They go to rut in au- 
 tumn ; are at that time very furious, feeking the fe- 
 male by fwimming from ifle to ifle. They bring two 
 }"Oung at a, birth, in. the month of April, which follow 
 the dam a whole year. During the fummer they keep 
 in famines. In deep fnows they coUeft in numbers in 
 the forefts of pines, for proteftion from the incle- 
 mency of the weather under the fhelter of thofe ever- 
 greens. They are very inoffenfive, except in the rut- 
 
 4-, 
 
 Di ] C E R 
 
 tlng-feafon ; or except they are wounded, when they Cervus. 
 will turn on the aflailant, and attack him with their — 
 horns, or trample him to death beneath their great 
 hoofs. 
 
 The flefli of the moofe is extremely fweet and nou- 
 rifliing. The Indians fay, that they can travel three 
 times farther after a m.eal of moofe, than after any 
 other animal food. The tongues are excellent; but 
 the nofe is perfeft marrow, and efteemed tlu^ greateit 
 delicacy in Canada. The fliin makes excellent buff ^ 
 being ftrong, foft, and hght. The Indians drefs the- 
 hide, and, after foaking it for fome time, ftretch and 
 render it fupple by a lather of the brains in hot water. 
 They not only make their fnow-flioes of the Ikin, but 
 after a chafe form the canoes with it : they few the 
 flcins neatly together, cover the feams with an unctu- 
 ous earth, and embark in them with their fpoils to 
 return home. The hair ou the neck, withers, and 
 hams of a full-grown elk, is> of much wit in making 
 mattieifes and faddles ; being by its great length well 
 adapted for thofe purpofes. The palmated parts of 
 the horns are farther excavated by the favages, and ' 
 converted into ladles, which will hold a pint. • 
 
 It is not ftrange that fo ufeful an animal fliould be 
 a principal obj eft of chafe. The favages perform it 
 in ditferent vi'ays. The firft, and the more fimple, is 
 before the lakes or rivers are frozen. Multit-udes af- 
 fcjiible in their canoes, and form with them a vail 
 orefcent, each horn touching the fhore. Another 
 party perform their fliare of the chafe among the - 
 woods ; they furround an extenfive trait, let loofe their 
 dogs, and prefs towards the water with - loud cries 
 Tlie animals, alarmed with the noife, fly lyefore the 
 hunters, and plunge into the lake, where they arc 
 killed by the pei-fons in the canoes, prepared for their 
 reception, with lances or ckbs. The other method 
 is more artful- The favages inclofe a large fpace with 
 ftakes - hedged with branches of trees, forming two 
 fides of a. triangje : the bottom opens into a fecond in- 
 clofure, completely triangular. At the opening are 
 hung numbers of fnares, made of flips of raw hides. 
 The Indians, as before, aflemble in. great, troops, and - 
 with all kinds of noifes drive into the firll inclofure 
 not only the moofes, but the other fpecies of deer 
 which abound in that country : . fome, in forcing their 
 way into the fartheft triangle, are caught in. the fnares 
 by the neck or horns ; and thofe which efcape the 
 fnares, and pafs the httle opening, find their fate from 
 the arrows of the hunters, direi^cd at them from all 
 quarters. They are often killed with the gun. When? 
 they are firit unharboured, they fquat witli their hind 
 parts and make water, at which inftant the fportfinan 
 fires ; if he miifes,. the moofe fets off in a moft rapid 
 trot, making, like the rein-deer, a prodigious rattling 
 with its hoofs, and will run. for 20 or 30 miles before 
 it comes to bay or takes the water. But the ufual 
 time for this diverfian is the winter. The hunters- 
 avoid entering on the chafe till the fun is ftrong enougli ^ 
 ta melt the frozen cruft with which the fnow is co- 
 vered, otherwife the animal can run over the firm fur- 
 face: they . wait till it becomes foft enough to impede 
 the flight of the moofe ; which finks up to the fliould= - 
 ers, flounders, and gets on with great difficulty. The-: 
 fportfraan purfues at his eaCc on hia. broad rackets, ci^- 
 
 fnoW".' - 
 
Ceivus. 
 
 fnow-flioes, 
 animals. 
 
 C E R 
 
 &nd makes a ready prey 
 
 of the 
 
 E R 
 
 clear them of 3 fiilii 
 
 As weak againft the mountain heaps they pufh 
 Their beating breaft in vain, and piteous bray, 
 He lays them quivering on th' enfanguin'd fnows, 
 And with loud lliouts rejoicing bears them home. 
 
 Thompson. 
 
 The opinion of this animal's being fubjecl to the 
 ■epllepfy ieems to have been univerfal, as well as the 
 cure it finds by fcratching its ear with the hind hoof 
 till it draws blood. That hoof has been ufed in Indian 
 medicine for the falling-ficknefs ; they apply it to the 
 heart of the affliiiled, make liim hold it in his left 
 hand, and rub his ear with it. They ufe it alfo in the 
 colic, plcurify, vertigo, and purple fever ; pulverifmg 
 :the hoof, and drinking it in water. The Algonkins 
 pretend that the flefiv imparts the difeafe ; but ii is no- 
 torious that tlie hunters in a manner live on it with 
 impunity. The favages efteem the moofe a beaft of 
 good omen ; and are perfuaded that thofe who dream 
 often of it may flatter themfelves with long life. 
 
 The elk was known to the Romans by the name of 
 Jke and Machlis : they believed that it had no joints 
 in its legs; and, from the great fize of the upper lip, 
 imagined it could not feed without going backward 
 as it grazed. 
 
 3. The Eiainuis, or Stag, with long cylindrical 
 ramified horns bent backwards, and {lender fliarp brow 
 antlers. The colour is generally a reddilh brown with 
 fome black about the face, and a black lift down the 
 hind part of tlie neck and between the Ihoulders. 
 Stags are common to Europe, Barbary, the north of 
 Afia, and America. In fpring, they ihed their horns, 
 which fall off fpontaneoufly, or by rubbing tliem 
 gently againft the branches of trees. It is feldora that 
 both horns fall off at the fame time, the one generally 
 preceding the other a day or two. The old ttags.catt 
 their horns lirll, which happens about the end of Fe- 
 bruary or beginning of March. An aged ftag, or one 
 in his feventh year or upwards, does not call his horns 
 before the middle of March ; a ftag of fix years (beds 
 his horns in April ; young ftags, or thofe from three 
 to^five years old, ihtd their horns in the beginning, 
 and tlioi'e wiiich are in their lecond year, not till the 
 middle or end of May. But in all this there is much 
 variety ; for old ftags fometimes caft their horns 
 fooucT than thofe which are younger. Befides, the 
 ihedding of the horns is advanced by a mild, and re- 
 tarded by a fevere and long winter. 
 
 As foon as the itags calt their horns, they feparate 
 from each other, the young ones only keeping toge- 
 ther. They no longer haunt the deepeft receffes of 
 the foreft, but advance into the cultivated country, 
 and remain among brullivvood during tlie-fummer, till 
 tlic'r horns are renevred. In this feafon, they walk 
 with tlieir heads knv to prevent their horns from rub- 
 bing againft the branches ; for they continue to have 
 fenjibility till they acquire their full growth. The 
 horns of the oldett ftags are not hdf completed in the 
 middle of May, and acquire their full. lcngth and hard- 
 nefs before the end of July. Thofe of the younger 
 ftags are proportionaliy later both in Ihedding and 
 being renew;.!. But as foon as they have acquired 
 their full dimenfions and foHdity, the ftags rub them 
 
 [ 302 T i 
 
 diftreffed againft the trees, in order to 
 with which they are covered. 
 
 Soon after the ftags have poliihed their horns, they 
 begia to feel the imprefllons of love. Towards the 
 end of Auguft or beginning of September, they leave 
 the coppice, return to the forells, and fearch for the 
 hinds. They cry with a loud voice ; their neck and 
 throat fwell ; they become perfeAly reftlefs, and tra- 
 verfe in open day the fitlds and the fallow grounds ; 
 they ftrike their horns againft trees and hedges ; in a 
 word, they feem to be tranfported with fury, and run 
 from country to country till they find the hinds or 
 females, whom they j>urfue and compel into compli- 
 ance ; for the female at firft avoids and flies from the 
 male, and never fubmits to his embraces till flie be 
 fatigued Avith the purfuit. T4ie old hinds likewifc 
 come in feafon before the younger ones. -When two 
 ftags approach the fame hind, they muft fight before 
 they enjoy. If nearly equal in ftrength, they threaten, 
 paw the ground, fee up terrible cries, and attack each 
 other with fuch fury, J:liat they often inflift mortal 
 
 Cerviis 
 
 ds with the ftrokes of their horns. The combat 
 never terminates but in the defeat or flight of one of 
 the rivxls. The conqueror lofes not a moment in en- 
 joying his victory, unlefs another rival approaches, 
 whom he is again obhged to attack and repel. The 
 oldeft ftags are always mafters of the field ; becaufe 
 they are ftronger and more furious than the young 
 ones, v\ ho mull wait patiently till their fuperiors tire, 
 and quit their miftreffes. Sometimes, however, the 
 voung ftags accomplifti their purpofes when the old 
 ones are fighting, and, after a hafty gratification, fly 
 off. The hinds prefer the old ftags, not becaufe they 
 aie moft courageous, but becaufe they are much more 
 ardent. Thty are likewife more inconftant, having 
 often feyeral females at a time ; end when a ftag has 
 but one hind, 'his attachment to her does not conti- 
 nue above a few days : He then leaves her, goes in 
 queft of another, with whom he remains a ttill ihorter 
 time ; and in this manner paifes from one to ano- 
 ther till he is perfectly txhauiced. 
 
 This ardour of love lafts only three weeks, during 
 which the ftags take very little food, and neither fleep 
 nor reft. Night and day, they are either walking, 
 running, fighting, or enjoying the hinds. Hence, at 
 the end of the rutting feafon, they are fo meagre and 
 exhaufted, that they recover not their ftrengtii for a 
 confiderable time. They generally retire to the bor- 
 ders of the forefts, feed upon the cultivated fields, 
 where they find plenty of nouvifhment, and remain 
 there till their ftrength is re-eftabliftied. The rutting 
 feafon of old ftags commences about the begiiming, 
 and cuds about the 20th day of September. In thofe 
 of fix or fevcn years old, it begins about the 10th of 
 September, and Coududcs in the beginning of October. 
 In young ftags, or tlioic ir. their third, fourth, or fifth 
 year, it 'begins :ii)ui.'i che 20th of September, ard ter- 
 minates about the 5 5th of October ; and at tn : cr.d 
 of October, the rutting is aU over, except ng : iiig 
 the prlchis, or t\v^it wiiich have entered into .neir 
 fecondyear; becaufe they, like the young hinds, are 
 lateft of coming into fealbn. Hence, at the bjgin- 
 • ning of November, the feafon of love is entirely luiiuied ; 
 and" tlie ftags, during tiiis penud of weakneis and laf : 
 fitude, are eafily huntea down, lu feafons when acorns 
 
 and 
 
C E R I 3 
 
 Cen'us. and' other nuts are plentiful, the flags foon recover 
 their ftrength, and a fecond rutting frequently hap- 
 pens nt the end of Oftober ; but it is of much fhorter 
 duration than the flrft. 
 
 In climates warmer than that of France, the rutting 
 time, like the feafons, is more forward. Ariftotle 
 informs us, that, in Greece, it commences in the 
 beginning of Auguft, and terminates about the end 
 of "^September. The hinds go with young eight months 
 and fom.e days, and feldom produce more than one 
 fawn. Tliey bring forth in May or the beginning of 
 June, and fo anxioufly conceal their fawns, that they 
 often expofe themOdves to be chafed, with a view to 
 draw oft' the dogs, and afterwards return to take care 
 of their young. All hinds are not fertile ; for fome 
 of them never conceive. Thefe barren hinds are groffer 
 and favter than thofe which are prolific, and alfo come 
 fooneft in feafon. The young are not called fatvr.s or 
 cahes after the fixth month : The knobs of their horns 
 then begin to appear, and they take the name of 
 knchhers till their horns lengthen {nto [pears, and then 
 they are called brocks or Jlaggards. During the firfl 
 feafon, they never leave their mothers. In winter, the 
 ilaji^s and hinds, of all ages, keep together in flocks, 
 which are ahvays more numerous in proportion to the 
 rigour of the feafon. They feparate in fpring : The 
 hinds retire to bring forth ; and, during this period, 
 tHe flocks confilt only of knolAers and young ftags. 
 In general, the ftags are inclined to affociate, and no- 
 thing but fear or neceffity obliges them to difperfe. 
 
 The Hfe of the ftag is fpent in alternate plenty and 
 want, vigour and debiUty, health and fickueffi, with- 
 out having any change introduced into his conftitution 
 bv thefe oppolite extremes. He lives as long as other 
 aniir.als which are not fubjefted to fuch viciflitudes. 
 As he grows five or fix years, he lives feven times that 
 number, or from 35 to 40 yearj-. What has been re- 
 ported concerning the longevity of the flag merits no 
 * credit. It is only a popular prejudice which prevailed 
 
 in the days of Anftotle, and which that philofopher 
 confidered as improbable, becaufe neither the time of 
 geftation, nor of the growth of the young ftag, indi- 
 cated long life. This authority ought to have abolifhed 
 the prejudice ; but it has been renewed, in the ages 
 of ignorance, by a fabulous account of a ftag taken by 
 Charles VI. in the forell of Senlis, with a collar upon 
 which was written this infcription, Cafar hoc me dona- 
 'vit. The love of the marvellous inchned men to be- 
 lieve that this animal had lived 1000 years, and had 
 his collar from a Roman emperor, rather than to fup- 
 pofe that he came from Germany, vvhere all the em- 
 perors take the name of Cirfnr. 
 
 The ftag appears to linve a fine eye, an acute fmcll, 
 and an excellent ear. When liftening, he raifes his 
 head, eretts his ears, and hears from a great diftance. 
 When he is going into a coppice, or other half covered 
 place, he ftops to look round him on all fides, and 
 fcents the wind, to difcover if any objeft is near that 
 might dlihn-b him. He is a fimple, and yet a curious 
 and crafty animal. When hifTtd or called to frcra a 
 diftance, he ftops ftiort, and looks ftedfaftly, and with 
 a kind of admiration, at carriages^ cattle, or men ; 
 and if they have neither arms nor dogs, he moves on 
 unconcernedly, and without flying. He appears to 
 fiften, with great tranquillity and delight, to the fnep- 
 Kerd's pipe ; and the hunters foraetiiiies employ this 
 
 6 
 
 03 1 C E R 
 
 artifice to encourage and deceive him. In general, he Cervus. 
 is lefs afraid of men than of dogs, and is never fufpi- — —v— 
 clous, or ufes any arts of concealment, but in propor- 
 tion to the difturbances he has received. He eats flow, 
 and has a choice in his aliment ; and after his flo- 
 mach is full, he lies down, and ruminates at leifure. 
 He feems to ruminate with lefs facility than the ox. 
 It is only by violent fhakes that the ftag can make 
 the food rife from his firil ftomach. This difiiculty 
 proceeds from the length and direction of the paffagp 
 through which the aliment has to go. The neck of 
 the ox is fliort and ftraight, but that of the ftag i". 
 long and arched ; and therefore gi eater efforts are n;;-- 
 ceffary to ralfe the food. Theie efforts are made by 
 a kind of hiccup, the movement of which is apparent, 
 and continues during the time of rumination. His 
 voice is ftronger, and more quivering, in proportion as 
 he advances in years. The voice of the hind is fhorter 
 and more feeble. She never bellows from love, but 
 from fear. The flag, during the rutting feafon, bel- 
 lows in a frightful manner : He is then fo tranfported, 
 that nothing diihirbs or terrifies him. He is there- 
 fore eafily furprlfed ; as he is loaded with fit, he 
 cannot keep long before the dogs. But he is dange- ' 
 rous when at bay, and attacks the dogs with a fpecies 
 of fury. He drinks none in wir(ter nor in fpring, 
 the dews and tender herbage being then fufficient to 
 extlnguifh his thirft ; but, during the paixhing heats 
 of fummer, to obtain drink, he frequents the brooks, 
 the marfhes, and the fountains ; and in the feafon of 
 love, he is fo over-heated, that he fearches eveiy wht-re 
 for water, not only to fatisfy his immoderate thirft, 
 but to bathe and refrefli his body. He then fwims 
 eafier than at any other times on account, of his fat- 
 nefs. *He has been obferved croffing very large riversw 
 It has even been alleged, that, attracted by the odour 
 of the hinds, the ftags, in the rutting feafon, throw 
 ihemfelves into the fea, and pafs from one ifland to 
 another at the diftance of feveral leagues. They leap 
 jlill more nimbly than they fvvira ; for, v/lien purfued, 
 they eafily clear a hedge or a pale fence of fix feet 
 high. Their food varies in different feafons. In au-- 
 tumn, after rutting, they fearch for the buds of green 
 flirubs, the flowers of broom or heath, the leaves of 
 brambles, &c. During the fnows of winter, they feed 
 upon the bark, mofs, &c. of trees; and in mild 
 weather, they browfe in the wheat-Helds. In the be- 
 ginning of fpring, they go in queft of the catkins of 
 the trembling poplar, willow, and hazel-trees, the 
 flowers and buds of the cornel tree, &c. In fummer, . 
 when they have great choice, they prefer rye to' all 
 other grain, and the black berry-bearing alder to all 
 other wood. The flefli of the fawn is very good : that 
 of the hind and knobber not abfolutely bad ; but that 
 of the flag has always a ftrong and difagreeable tafte. 
 The fkin and the horns are the moft ufeful parts of 
 this animal. The flcin makes a pliable and very ' 
 durable leather. The horns are ufed by cutlers,, 
 fword-flippers, he. and a volatile fpirit, much em- 
 ployed in medicine, is- extracted from thein by the 
 chymifts. 
 
 In America, ftags feed eagerly on the broad-leaved 
 kahnia ; yet that plant is a poifon to all other horned, 
 animals : their inteftines are found filled with it du-- 
 ring winter. If their entrails are given to dogs, they 
 become Itupified, and as if drunk, and often 'are. fO' ill' 
 
 as; 
 
C E R 
 
 Cervus. as hardly to efcape with Kfe. The American 
 ^■""v""" grow very fat : their tallow is much eftecmed for ma- 
 king of candles. The Indians flioot them. As they 
 are very ftiy animals, the natives cover themfelves with 
 a hide, leaving the horns eredt ; under flielter of which 
 they walk v/ithin reach of the herd. De Brie, in the 
 25th plate of the Hiftory of Florida, gives a very cu- 
 rious reprefentation of this artful method of chafe, 
 when it was vifited by the French in 1564. Their 
 llcins are an article of commerce imported by the Hud- 
 fon's Bay Company ; but brought from the diftant 
 parts far inland by the Indians, who bring them from 
 the neighbourhood of the lakes. In moft parts of 
 North America they are called the grey moofe, and 
 the elk ; this has given occafion to the miftaken no- 
 tion of that great animal being found in Virginia and 
 other fouthern provinces. 
 
 In Britain the fta::^ is become lefs common than for- 
 merly ; its exceffive vicioufnefs during the rutting fea- 
 fon, and the badnefs of its flefh, induce moft people to 
 part with the fpecies. Stags are flill found wild in the 
 Highlands of Scotland, in herds of four or five hundred 
 together, ranging at full liberty over the vafl h'dh of 
 the north. Formerly the great Highland chieftains 
 ufcd to hunt with the magnificence of an eaftern mo- 
 narch, alTembling four or five thoufand of their clan, 
 who drove the deer into the toils or . to the ftations 
 the lairds had placed themfelves in.: but as this pre- 
 tence was frequently ufed to collect their vafials for 
 rebellious purpofes, an aft .was paffed prohibiting any 
 alTemblies of this nature. Stags are hkewife met with 
 on the moors that border on Cornwal and Devonfhire ; 
 and in Ireland on. the mountains of Kerry, .where they 
 add greatly- to the magnificence of the romantic fee- 
 nery to the:.lake of 'Killarny. The ftags of Jreland 
 during, its uncultivated flate, and while it remained an 
 almgili boundlefs-traft of foreft, had .,an exadl agree- 
 ment in habit with thofc that range at prefent 
 through the wilds of America. They were lefs in 
 body, but very fat ; and their horns of a fize far fu- 
 perior to^thofe of Europe, but. in farm agreed in all 
 points. 
 
 The chace of the flag has been formed Into an art, 
 and requires a fpecies of knowledge which can only 
 be learned by experience : It implies a royal alTem- 
 blage of men, horfes, and dogs, all fo trained, prac- 
 tifed, and difciplined, that their movements, their re- 
 fearches, and their fldll, mud concur in producing one 
 common, end. The huntfman fliould know the age 
 and the fex of the animal ; he fhould be able to di- 
 flinguiih with precifion, whether the ftag he has har- 
 boured with his hound be a knobber, a young ftag, 
 in his fixth or feventh year, or an old ftag. The chief 
 marks which convey this intelligence is derived from 
 the foot, and the excrement. The foot of the flag Is 
 better formed than that of the hind, or female. Her 
 leg is more grofs and nearer the heel. The impreffions 
 of his feet are rounder, and farther removed from each 
 other. He moves more regularly, and brings the hind 
 foot into the imprefliom made by the fore-foot. But 
 the diftance between the fteps of the hind are Hiorter, 
 and her hind-feet ftrike not fo regularly the track of 
 the fore feet. As foon as the flag acquires his fourth 
 .horns, he is eafily diftinguifhed ; but to know the 
 foot of a youn^ ftag from that cf a hind, requires re- 
 
 t m ] . C E R 
 
 flags pcated experience. Stags nf fix, feven, years, 
 are ftill more eafily known;. for tlieir fore-foot is 
 much larger than the hind foot ; the older they are. 
 the fides of their feet are the more worn ; the diftance 
 of their fteps are more regular than thofe of young 
 ftags ; they always place their hind foot exaftly in the 
 track of the fore-foot, excepting, when they flied their 
 horns, the old ftags mifplace, at this feafon, nearly as 
 often as the young ones ; but in this they are more re- 
 gular than the hind or young ftag, placing the hind foot 
 always at the fide of the fore-fof)t, and never beyond or 
 within it. When the huntfman, from the drynefs of the 
 feafon, or other circumftanccs, cannot judge by the foot, 
 he is obliged to trace the animal backwards, and en- 
 deavour to find his dung. .This mark requires, per- 
 haps, greater experience ,than the knowledge of the 
 foot; but without it the huntfman would be unable 
 to give a proper report to the company. After the 
 report of the huntfman, and the dogs are led to the 
 refuge of the ftag, he ought to encourage his hound, 
 and make him reft upon the track of the ftag, till the 
 animal be unharboured. Inftantly the alarm is given 
 to uncouple the dogs, which ought to be enlivened by 
 the voice and the horn of the huntfman. He fiiould 
 alfo diligently obferve the foot of the ftag, in order to 
 dilcover whether the animal has ftarted, and fubftituted 
 another in his place. But it is then the bufinefs of the 
 hunters to feparate alfo, and to recal the dogs which 
 have gone aftray after falfe game. The huntfman 
 ftiould always accompany his dogs, and encourage, 
 without preffing them too hard. He fhould alfill 
 them In detedling all the arts of efcape ufed by the 
 ftag ; for this animal has remarkable addrefs in de- 
 ceiving the dogs. With this view, he often returns 
 twice or thrice upon his former fteps; he endeavours 
 to raife hinds or younger ftags to accompany him, and 
 draw oft' the dogs from the object of their purfuit : 
 he then flies with redoubled fpeed, or fprings off at 
 fide, lies down on his belly, and conceals himftlf. In 
 this cafe, when the dogs have loft his foot, the huntf- 
 men, by going backwards and forwards, alfift them In 
 recovering it. But if they cannot find it, they fup- 
 pofe that he is refting within the circuit they have 
 made, and go In queft of him. But if they are ftill 
 unable to difcover him, there Is no other method left, 
 but, from viewing the country, to conjefture where he 
 may have taken refuge, and repair to the place. As 
 foon as they have recovered his foot, and put the dogs 
 upon the track, they purfue with more advantage, be- 
 caufe they perceive that the ftag Is fatigued. Their 
 ardour augments In proportion to his feeblenefs ; and 
 their fcent becomes more diftin£l as the animal grows 
 warm. Hence they redouble their cries and their 
 fpeed ; and though the ilag praftifes ftill more arts of 
 efcape than formerly, as his fwiftnefs Is diminifhed, his 
 arts and doublings become gradually lefs eftcdlual. He 
 has now no other refource but to fly from the earth 
 which he treads, and get into the waters, in order to 
 cut off the fcent from the dogs. The huntfmen go 
 round thefe waters, and again put the dogs on the 
 track of his foot. The ftag, after taking to the wa- 
 ter, is incapble of running far, and is foon at bay. 
 But he ftill attempts to defend his life, and often 
 wounds the dogs, and even the huntfmen when too for- 
 ward, by blows with his horns, till one of them cute his 
 
 hams 
 
 Cervuj. 
 
C E R [ 305 ] G E R 
 
 Oervnu. J^a^s to make him fall, and then puts an end to his raw, dreffed, and dried and fmoked with the fnow Cervut. 
 
 life by a blow of a hancrer. They now celebrate the lichen. The wearied hunters will drink the raw blood ; 
 
 death of the ftag by a flour i(h of their horns; the dogs but it is ufuajly dreffed with the berries of the heath : 
 arc allowed to trample upon him, and at laft partake they eagerly devour the contents of the ftomach, but 
 richly of the vidtory by devouring his flefh. ufe the inteftines boiled. They are very fond of the 
 
 4. The Tarandus, or Rein-deer, is a native of fat, and will not lofe the leaft bit. The fldn, fome- 
 Lapland, and the northern parts of Eprope, Afia, and times a part of their cloathing, dreffed with the hair 
 America. The horns are large, cylindrical, branched, on, is foft and pliant ; it forms alfo the inner lining 
 and palmated at the tops. Two of the branches hang of their tents, and moll excellent blankets. The ten- 
 over the face. He is about the fize of a buck, of a dons are their bow-ftrings, and when fplit are the 
 dirty whitifh colour ; the hairs of his flfin are thick and threads with which they few their jackets, 
 jftrong. To the Laplasders this animal is the fubftitute The Greenlanders, before they acquired the know- 
 of the horfe, the cow, the goat, and the flieep ; and ledge of the gun, caught them by what was called 
 io their only weahh : the milk affords them cheefe ; the clapper -hunt. The women and children furrounded 
 •the flefli, food; the flcin, cloathing; the tendons, bow- a large fpace, and, where people were wanting, fet up " 
 firings ; and when iplit, thread ; the horns, glue ; poles capped with a turf in certain intervals, to terrify 
 the bones, fpoons. During the winter it fupplies the the animals ; they then with great noife drove the 
 want of a horfe, and draws their fledges with ama- reins into the narrow defiles, where the men lay in wait 
 zing fwiftnefs over the frozen lakes and rivers, or and killed them with harpoons or darts. But they aris 
 over the fnow, which at that time covers the whole now become very fcarce. 
 
 country. A rich Laplander is poffeffed of a herd of The rein-deers are found In the neighbourhood of 
 1000 rein deer. In autumn they feek the highefl hills, Hudfon's Bay, in moft amazing numbers, columns' of 
 to avoid the Lapland gad-fly, which at that time de- eight or ten tlioufand are feen annually paffmg frorti 
 pofits its eggs in their flcin ; it is the pell of thefe ani- north to fouth in the months of March and April^ 
 mals, and numbers die that are thus vifited. The driven out of the woods by the muflcetoes, feeking re- 
 moment a fingle fly appears, the whole herd inflantly frefhment on the fhore, and a quiet place to drop their 
 perceives it;' they fling up their heads, tofs about young. They go to rut in September, and the males 
 .their horns, and at once attempt to fly for fhelter foon after flied their horns ; they are at that feafon 
 amidft the (hows of the loftieft Alps. In fummerthey very fat, but fo rank and muflcy as not to be eatable, 
 feed on feveral plants; but during winter on the rein- The females drop their young in June, in the mofl: fc* 
 .liverwort, which lies far. beneath the fnow, which quefliered foots they can find ; and then they likewife 
 they remove with their feet and palmated brow ant- lofe their horns. Beafts of prey follow the herds : 
 ,Iers, in order to get at their beloved food. firft, the wolves, who fingle out the ftragglers (for they 
 
 The Samoieds, lefs inteUigent than the Laplanders, fear to attack the drove), detach and hunt them down : 
 confider them in no other view than as animals of the foxes attend at a diftance, to pick up the offals left 
 draught, to convey them to the chafe of the wild reins; by the former. In autumn the deer with the fawns re- 
 which they kill for the fake of the flcins, either to migrate northward. The Indians are very attentive 
 clothe themfelves, or to cover their tents. They know to their motions ; for the rein forms the chief part not 
 not the cleanly delicacy of the milk or cheefe ; but only of their drefs but of their food. They often kill 
 prefer for their repaft the inteltines of beafts, or the multitudes for the fake of their tongues only; butge- 
 half.putrld flefh of a horfe, ox, or flieep, which they nerally they feparate the flefli from the bones, and pre- 
 iind dead on the high road. — The Koreki, a nation ferve it by drying it in the fmoke ; they alfo fave thfe 
 of Kamtfchatka, may be placed on a level with the fat, and fell it to the Englifli in bladders, who ufe it 
 Samoieds. They keep immenfe herds of reins ; fome in frying inflead of butter. The flcins are alfo an ar- 
 of the richefl: to the amount of 10 or 20 thoufand ; tide of commerce, and ufed in London by the 
 yet fo fordid aie they as to eat none except fuch as Breeches-makers. The Indians fhoot them in thewinter. 
 they kill for the fake of the flcins ; an article of com- The Enghfli make hedges with flakes and boughs of 
 inerce with their neighbours the Kamtfchatkans ; trees along the woods for five miles in length, leaving 
 otherwife they content themfelves with the flefh of thofe openings at proper intervals befet with fnares, in which 
 which die by difeafe or chance. They train them in multitudes are taken. The Indians alfo kill great 
 the fledge, but negleft them for every domeftic pur- numbers during the feafons of migration, watching in 
 f ofe. Their hiflorian fays, they couple two to each their canoes, and fpcaring them while palling over the 
 carriage ; and that the deer will travel 150 verfts in a rivers of the country, or from Ifland to ifland ; for they 
 day, that is, 112 EngUfli miles. They caftrate the fwim moft admirably well. 
 
 males by piercing the fpermatic arteries, and tying the 5. The Dama or Fallow-deer, Buck and Doe ; with 
 fcrotum tight with a thong. — The favage and unin- horns branched, compreffcd, and palmated at the top. 
 formed Efklmaux and Grecnlanders, who poffefs, amidft The colour is various ; reddifli, deep brown, white or 
 their fnows, thefe beautiful animals, neglect not only fpotted. This fpecies is not fo univerfal as the flag : 
 the domeftic ufes, but even are Ignorant of their advan- rare in France and Germany. It is found in Greece, 
 tage in the fledge. Their element is properly the wa- the Holy Land, and the north of China. They are 
 ter ; their game the feals. They feem to want powers very numerous in England ; but, except on a few 
 to domefticate any animals except dogs. They are at chafes, confined in parks. None originally In Amc- 
 enmity with all ; confider them as an objeft of chafe, rica. They are eafily tamed ; and their flefli, which 
 and of no utihty till deprived of Hfe. The flefli of the goes by the name of venifon, is in high efteem among 
 rein is the moft coveted part of their food; they eat it the luxurious. During rutting-timc they will contend 
 Vox.. IV. Part I. Qj^ with ' 
 
G E R [ 306 1 C E R 
 
 Ccrvus. wall each other for their miftrefs, but are lefs fierce than in dlfpofition, temperament, manners, and almofl eveiy C'ervas. 
 
 "-^r-^ the ftag; during that feafon, the male will form a hole natural habit. Inftead of alTociating in herds, they 
 
 in the ground, make the female lie down in it, and live in feparate families. The father, mother, and 
 
 then often walk round and fmell at her. Moore fpeaks young, go together, and never mix with ftrangers. 
 
 of a fpecies found on the banks of the Gambia, in the They are conftant in their amours, and never unfaith- 
 
 interior parts of Africa, near Bnrracunda, called Ton- ful like the ftag. As the females generally produce 
 
 cong, which he fays differed not in form from the two fawns, the one male and the other female, thefe 
 
 Enj'hfh fallow-deer ; only that its fize was equal to young animals, brought up and nouriflied together, ac- 
 
 that of a fmall horfe, and weighed 300 lb. It had alfo quire fo ftrong a mutual afTeilion, that they never quit 
 
 on its neck an ereft black mane, four or five inches each other, unlefs one of them meets with a misfortune, 
 
 long. — Mr White, in his Natural Hiftory of Pelborn, which never ought to feparate lovers. This attach- 
 
 mentions, as a piece of information to naturalifts, that ment is more than love ; for though always together, 
 
 if fome curious gentleman would procure the head of they feel the ardour of the rut but once a year, and it 
 
 a fallow deer, and have it dilTeded, he would find it continues only fifteen days, commencing at the end of 
 
 furnifhed wiih two^/r^^i^Za, or breathing-places, be- OAober, and ending before the fifteenth day of No- 
 
 fides the noftrils ; probably analogous to the puni?a vember. They are not then, like the ftag, overloaded 
 
 /(S-fArywa/irt in the human ht-ad. When deer are thirfty with fat : they have no ftrong fmell, no fury, in a 
 
 they plunge their nofes, like fome horfes, very deep word, nothing that can change the ftate of their bodies, 
 
 under water, while in the aft of drinking, and con- During this period, they indeed fufi^er not their fawns 
 
 tinue them in that fituation for a confiderable time ; to remain with them. The father drives them off, as 
 
 but, to obviate any inconveniency, they can open two if he meant to oblisre them to yield their place to thofe 
 
 vents, one at the inner corner of each eye, having a which are to fucceed, and to form new families for 
 
 communication with the nofe. This feems, as our themfelves. However, after the rutting feafon is paft, 
 
 author obferves, to be an extraordinary provifion of the fawns return to their mother, and remain with her 
 
 nature ; for it looks as if thefe creatures could not be fome time ; after which they feparate fur ever, and 
 
 fufFocated, though their mouths and noftril-3 were both remove to a diftance from the place which gave them 
 
 ftopped. This curious formation of the head, he far- birth. 
 
 ther remarks, may be of fingular fervice to bcafts of The female goes with young five months and a half, 
 chafe, by affording them free refpiration ; and no doubt and brings forth about the end of April or beginning 
 thefe additional noftrilsare thrown open when they are of May. She produces two at a time, which ftie is 
 hard run. Mr Pennant has obferved the fame curious obhged to conceal from the buck while very youno-. 
 organization in the antelope. See Capra. In 10 or 12 days they acquire ftiengch fufficient to en- 
 6. The Capreolus, or Roe-buck, has ereft, cylindri- able them to follow her. When threatened with- 
 cal, branched horns, and forked at the top. His fize danger, flie hides them in a cloie thicket, and, to pre- 
 is only three feet nine inces long, two feet three inches ferve them, prefents herfelf to be chaced. But not- 
 high before, and two feet feven inches high behind : withftanding all her care and anxiety, the young are 
 weight from 50 to 60 lb. Though the leaft of the deer- fometimes carried off by men, dogs, or wolves, 
 kind, his figure is moft elegant and handfome. His Poe-bucks prefer a mountainous woody country to a 
 eyes are more brilliant and animated than thofe of the plain one. They were formerly very common in Wales, 
 flag. His limbs are more nimble, his movements in the north of England, and in Scotland ; but at pre- 
 qntcker, and he bounds, feemingly without effort, with fent the fpecies nowhere exifti in Great Britain except 
 equal vigour and agihty. His coat, or hair, is always in the Scottifti highlands. In France they are more 
 clean, fmooth, and gloffy. He never wallows in the frequent ; they are alfo found in Italy, Sweden, and 
 mire like the ftag. He delights in dry and elevated Norway; and in Afia they are met with in Siberia, 
 fituations, where the air is pureft. He is likewife The firft that are met with in Great Britain are in 
 more crafty, conceals himfelf with greater addrefs, is the woods ©n the fouth fide of Loch-Rannoch, in 
 more difficult to trace, and derives fuperior refources Perthftiire: thelaft in thofeof Longwal,on the fouthern 
 from inftinft : for though he has the misfortune to leave borders of Caithnefs ; but they are moft numerous in 
 behind him a ftronger fcent than the ftag, which re- the beautiful forefts of Invercauld, in the midft of the 
 doubles the ardour and appetite of the dogs, he knows Grampian hills. They are unknown in Ireland. Wild 
 how to withdraw himfelf from their purfult, by the roes, during fummer, feed on grafs ; and are very fond 
 rapidity with which he begins his flight, and by his of the rubus faxatilis, called in the Highlands the roe- 
 numerous doublings. He delays not his arts of defence buck berry ; but in the winter time, when the ground Is 
 tdl his ftrength fails him ; but, as foon as he finds that covered with fnow, they biowfe on the tender branches 
 the firft efforts of arapidchace have been unfuccefsful, of the fir and birch. 
 
 he repeatedly returns on his former fteps; and after 7. The Guineenfis, about the fize of a cat, is of a 
 
 confounding, by thefe oppofite movements, the direc- grayifti colour, and black underneath. It is a native 
 
 tion he has taken, after intermixing the prefent with of Guinea, and the fize and figure of its horns have not 
 
 the paft emanations from his body, he rifes from the been hitherto defcribed with any precifion. 
 earth by a great bound, and, retiring to a fide, he lies 8. The Axis, or Speckled D^er, has flender trifur- 
 
 down flat on his belly ; and in this immoveable fitua- cated horns ; the firft branch near the bafe, the fecoixt 
 
 tion, he allows the whole troop of his deceived enemies near the top, each pointing upwards. This fpecies is 
 
 to pafs very near him. about the fize of the fallow-deer ; of a light red co- 
 
 The roe-deer differs from the ftag and fallow-deer lour j the body beautifully marked with white fpots ; 
 
 along 
 
C E R 
 
 [ 307 1 
 
 C E R 
 
 Cervu*.' along the lower part of the fides, next the belly, is a 
 line of white : the tail long, as that of a fallow-deer ; 
 red above, white beneath. — They are common on the 
 banks of the Ganges, and in theifle of Ceylon. Pliny 
 defcribes them well among the animals of India, and 
 adds that they were facred to Bacchus. They will 
 bear our climate ; and have bred in the prince of 
 Orange's menagery near the Hague. They are very 
 tame, and have the fenfe of fmelling In an exquifite 
 degree. They readily eat bread, but will refufe a 
 piece that has been breathed on : many other animals 
 of this, the antelope and goat kind, will do the 
 fame. 
 
 9. The Porcine or Hog Deer, has flender trifurcated 
 horns, 1 3 inches long : His body is thick and clumfy ; 
 his legs are fine and flender : The upper part of the 
 neck, body, and fides, are brown ; belly and rump, of a 
 lighter colour, — They are found in Bengal ; and call- 
 ed, from the thicknefs of their body, hog-deer. The 
 fame fpecles is alfo found in Borneo. They are taken 
 in fquare pit-falls, about four feet deep, covered with 
 fome flight materials. Of their feet, as well as thofe 
 of the lefTer fpecies of muilcs and antelopes, are made 
 tobacco- Itoppers. 
 
 10. The Virginiana, or Virginian Deer, has flender 
 horns, bending very much forward ; numerous branches 
 on the interior fides; no brow antlers. It is about 
 the fize of the Englifli fallow-deer ; of a light colour, 
 cinereous brown. A quite diftlnCt fpecles, and pecu- 
 liar to America. It inhabits all the provinces fouth of 
 Canada, but in greateft abundance in the fouthern ; 
 but efpecially the vaft favannas contiguous to the Mif- 
 fjfippl, and the great rivers which flow Into it. They 
 graze. In herds innumerable, along with the flags and 
 buftaloes. This fpecies probably extends to Guiana, 
 and is the ba'ieu of that country, which is fald to be 
 about the fize of a European buck, with fliort horns, 
 bending at their ends. They are capable of being 
 made tame ; and when properly trained, are ufed by 
 the Indians to decoy the wild deer (efpecially in the 
 rutting feafon) within fliot. Both bucks and does 
 herd ^from September to March ; after that they fe- 
 parate, and the does fecrete themfelves to bring forth, 
 and are found with difficulty. The bucks from this 
 time keep fepai ate till the amorous feafon of Septem- 
 ber revolves. The deer begin to feed as foon as night 
 begins;, and fometlmes, In the rainy feafon, in the day; 
 otherwife they feldom or never quit their haunts. An 
 old American fportfman has remarked, that the bucks 
 will keep In the thickets for a year, or even two. 
 
 Thefe animals are very rcftlcfs, and always In motion, 
 coming and going continually. Thofe which live 
 near the fliores are lean and bad, fubjcct to worms in 
 their heads and throate, geiletated from the eggs de- 
 pofited in thofe parts. Thofe that frequent the hills 
 and favannas are in better cafe, but the venifon is dry. 
 In hard winters they will feed on the long mofa which 
 hangs from the trees in the northern parts. 
 
 Thefe and other cloven- footed quadrupeds of Ame- 
 rica are very fond of fait, and refort eagerly to the 
 places Impregnated with it. They are always fecn in 
 great numbers in the fpots where the ground has been 
 torn by torrents or other accidents, where they are feen 
 licking the earth. Such fpots are called Ucking-pJaies. 
 
 The huntfmen are fure of finding the game there; 
 for notwithftanding they are often ditlurbed, the buf- 
 faloes and deer are fo paflionately fond of the favoury 
 regale, as to bid defiance to all danger, and return in 
 droves to thefe favourite haunts. 
 
 The deer are of the firft importance to the favages. 
 The flflns form the greateft branch of their traffick, 
 by which they procure from the colonifts, by way of 
 exchange, many of the articles of life. To all of them 
 the flefh is the principal food throughout the year ; for 
 drying it over a gentle but clear fire, after cutting it 
 into fmall pieces, it is not only capable of long pre- 
 fervatlon, but is very portable in their fudden excur- 
 fions, efpecially when reduced to powder, which is fre- 
 quently done. 
 
 Hunting is more than an amufement to thefe people. 
 They give themfelves up to it not only for the fake 
 of fubfillence, but to fit themfelves for war, by habitu- 
 ating themfelves to fatigue. A good huntfman is an 
 able warrior. Thofe who fail in the fports of the field 
 are never fuppofed to be capable of fupporting the 
 hardflilps of a campaign ; they are degraded to ig- 
 noble offices, fuch as drefling the flclns of deer, and 
 other employs allotted only to flaves and women. 
 When a large party meditates a hunting match, 
 which is ufually at the beginning of winter, they 
 agree on a place of rendezvous, often 500 miles 
 diftant from their homes, and a place peiiiaps that 
 many of them had never been at. 1*hey have no other 
 method of fixlna on the fpot than by pointing with 
 their finger. The preference is given to the eldeft, as 
 the moil experienced. When this matter is fettled, 
 they feparate into fmall parties, travel and hunt for 
 fubfiftence all the day, and reft at night ; but the 
 women have no certain refting-places. The favages 
 have their particular hunting countries ; but if they 
 invade the limits of thofe belonging to other na- 
 tions, feuds enfue, fatal as thofe between Percy 
 and Douglas in the famed Chevy Chace. As 
 foon as they arrive on the borders of the hunting coun- 
 try (which they never fail doing to a man, be their 
 refpeAive routes ever fo diftant or fo various), the cap- 
 tain of the band dehneates on the bark of a tree his 
 own figure, with a rattlefnake twined round him with 
 diftended mouth ; and in his hand a bloody tomahawk. 
 By this he implies a deftruftlve menace to any who are 
 bold enough to invade their territories, or to interrupt 
 theirdiverfion. — The chafe is carried on in different ways. 
 Some furprife the deer by ufing the ftale of the head, 
 horns, and hide ; but the general method is performed by 
 the whole body. Several hundreds difperfe in a line, en- 
 compafling a vaft fpace of country, fire the woods, and'- 
 drive the animals into fome ftralt or peninfula, where ■ 
 they become an eafy prey. The deer alone are not the ' 
 objeft ; foxes, raccoons, bears, and all beafts of fur, are * 
 thought worthy of attention, and form articles of com- 
 merce with the Europeans. 
 
 The number of deer deftroyed in fome parts of 
 America is incredible ; as is pretended, from an abfurd 
 idea which the lavages have, that the more they de- 
 ftroy, the more they fliall find in fuccceding years. 
 Certain it is that multitudes are deftroyed ; the tongues 
 only preferved, and the carcafes left a prey to wild 
 beafts. But the motive is much more political. The 
 
 Ccrvus. 
 
 05 
 
 favages 
 
G E R I 30 
 
 Cervus favages well difcern, that ftiould they overftock the 
 Ceffioii. rnarket, they would certainly be over- reached by the 
 ,„- European dealers, who take care never to produce 
 
 more goods than are barely fufficient for the demand of 
 the feafon, eftabliflung- their prices according to the 
 quantity of furs brought by the natives. 
 
 CEgrus Prolans, in natural hlftory, a name given by 
 authors to the ftag-fly, or horned beetle, a very large 
 fpecies of beetle with horns floped, and fomething like 
 ihofe of the liag. 
 
 CERYX, in antiquity. The ceryces were a fort of 
 public criers appointed to proclaim or publilh things 
 :doud in affemblies. The ceryx among the Greeks an- 
 fwered to the praco among the Romans. Our criers 
 : '• have only a fmall part of their office and authority. 
 
 There were two kinds of ceryces, chll and facred. 
 The former were thofe appointed to call affemblies 
 and make filence therein ; alfo to go on meffages, and 
 do the office of our lieralds, &c. The facred ceryces 
 were a fort of prielts, whofe office was to proclaim fi- 
 lence in the pubhc games and facrifices, publiih the 
 names of the conquerors, proclaim feafts, and the like. 
 The priefthood of the ceryces was annexed to a parti- 
 cular family, the defcendants of Ceryx, fon of Eumol- 
 phus. To them it alfo belonged to lead folemn vic- 
 tims to flaughter. Before the ceremonies began, they 
 called filence in the affembly, by the formula, Eu?»y.fiTf 
 <r<)/>) waf (rw XEWf ; anfwering to the favete Unguis oi the 
 Romans. When the fervice was over, they difmiffed 
 the people with this formula, ^=^<^v afia-K^ Ite m'ljfa eft. 
 
 CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes of 
 the fecond figure of fyllogifms ; the minor propofition 
 of which is an univerfal affirmative, and the other two 
 univerfal negatives : thus, 
 
 Ce No immoral books ought to be read ; 
 
 Sa But every obfcene book is immoral ; 
 
 Re Thei-efore no obfcene books ought to be read. 
 
 CECENA, a town of Romagna in Italy, with a 
 biffiop's fee, fubjeft to the pope, and feated on the 
 river Savio, in E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat. 44. 8. 
 
 CESPITOSjE plants (from cefpes, turf or fod), 
 are thofe plants which produce many Items from one 
 root, and thence form a clofe thick carpet on the fur- 
 face of the earth. 
 
 CESFirosM Paludes, turf- bogs. 
 
 CESSATION, the aft of intermitting, difcontinu- 
 ing or interrupting the courfe of any thing, work, ac- 
 tion, or the like. 
 
 Cessation of Arms, an armiftice or occafional truce. 
 See Truce. 
 
 When the commander of a place finds things redu- 
 ced to an extremity, fo that he mull either furrender, 
 er facrifiee the garrifon and inhabitants to the mercy 
 of the enemy, he plants a white flag on the breach, 
 or beats the chamade ; on which a ceffation of arms 
 and hoftilities commences, to give room for a capitu- 
 lation. 
 
 CESSIO BONORUM, in Scots law, the name of that 
 aftion by which an infolvent debtor may apply for li- 
 beration from prifon, upon making over his whole real 
 and perfonal eftate to his creditors. 
 
 CESSION, in law, an aft by which aperfon funen- 
 ders and tranfmits to another perfon a right which 
 belonged to bimfelfl CelBoa ia.ir;^ore particularly ufed 
 
 8 ] 
 
 C E S 
 
 in the civil law for a wluntary furrender of a perfon's 
 
 effects to his creditors, to avoid imprifonmeat. See 
 the article Bankrupt. 
 
 In feveral places the ceffion carried with it a mark 
 of infamy, and obliged the perfon to wear a green 
 cup or bonnet ; at Lucca, an orange one : to negleft 
 this was to forfeit the privileges of the ctfton. This 
 was originally intended to fignify that the ceffionary 
 was become poor through his own folly. The Italian 
 lawyers defcribe the ceremony of ceffion to confift in 
 ftriking the bare breech three times againft a ftone^ 
 called Lapis Vituperii, in prefence of the judge. For- 
 merly it confifted in giving up the girdles and keys in 
 court : the ancients uling to carry at their girdles tlie 
 chief utenfils wherewith they got their living ; as the 
 fcrivener his efcritoire, the merchant his bag, &c. 
 I'he form of ceffion among the ancient Gauls and Ro* 
 mans was as follows: The ceffionary gathered up dull 
 in his left hand from the four corners of the houfe, and 
 Handing on the threlhold, holding the door-poll in his 
 right hand, threw the dull back over his llioulders ; 
 then ftripping to his Ihirt, and quitting his girdle and 
 bags, he jumped with a pole over a hedge ; hereby 
 letting the world know, that he had nothing left, and 
 that when he jumped aU he was worth Avas in *the 
 air with him. This was the ceffion iii criminal mat- 
 ters. In civil cafes, it was fufficient to lay a broom, a 
 fwitch, or a broken llraw, on the threfliold : this was 
 called chrenecruda per durpillum et fejlticam. 
 
 Cession, in the ccclefiallical law, is when an ec- 
 clefiallical perfon is created a bilhop, or when a par~ 
 fon of a parilh takes another benefice, without difpen- 
 fation, or being otherwife qualified. In both thefe 
 cafes their fii-ft benefices became void by ceffion, with- 
 out any refignation ; and to thofe livings that the per- 
 fon had, who was created bilhop, the king may pre- 
 fent for that time, whofoever is patron of them ; and 
 in the other cafe the patron may prefent : but by dif- 
 penfation of retainder, a bilhop may retain fome or all": 
 the preferments he was intitled to before he was m.ade 
 bilhop. 
 
 CESTRUM, ba STARD jasmine: A genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 28th order, Luridts. The corolla is fuimel-lhaped ;., 
 the ftamina each fending out a little tooth about- the 
 middle of the infide. There are fix fpecies, all of them 
 natives of the warmell parts of America ; fo cannof 
 be preferved in this country without artificial heat.. 
 They are flowering Ihrubs, rifing in height from five . 
 to twelve feet, with flov^'crs of a white, herbaceous, or ■ 
 pale yellow colour. The flowers of one fpecies com- 
 monly called Badmington jfafmine, have the property of 
 fending out a Hrong fcent after funfet. They may be 
 propagated either hj feeds or cuttings. 
 
 CESTUI, a French word, fignifying he or Limy 
 frequently ufed in the Englifli law writings. Thus, . 
 Cijlui qui tntft, a perfon who has lands, &c. commit- 
 ted to him' for the benefit of another ; and if fuch per- 
 fon does not perform his trull, he is compellable to it 
 in chancery. Cejiui qui vie, one for whofe life any 
 lands, &c. are granted. Ce/Iui qui ufe, a perfon to 
 whofe ufe any one is infeoffed of lands or tenements. . 
 Formerly the feoffees to ufes were deemed owners of. 
 
 tJie 
 
il 
 
 eette» 
 
 See 
 'oology' 
 
 C E S [ 3 
 
 the tand, but now the pofleflion is adjudged in ce^ui 
 qui life. 
 
 CESTUS, among ancient poets, a fine embroidered 
 girdle faid to be worn by Venus, to which Homer 
 afcribes the power of charming and conciliating love. 
 The word is alfo written cejium and cejlon : it comes from 
 v-irot, a girdle, or other thing embroidered or wrought 
 with a needle ; derived, according to Servius, fi'om 
 y.f^Titv, pungn-e ; whence ■^{owcejlus, a term ufed at firft 
 for any indecency by undoing tlie girdle, &c. but now 
 reftrained to that between perfons near akin. See 
 Incest. 
 
 CI^TACEOUS, an appellation given to the fifhes 
 of the whale kind ; the characters of which are : they 
 have nO gills ; there is an orifice on the top of the 
 head, through which they breathe and eje£l water ; 
 and they have a flat or horizontal tail. 
 
 Nature on this tribe hath beftowed an internal llruc- 
 ture in all refpcfts agreeing with that of quadrupeds; 
 and in a few others the external parts in both are fi- 
 milar. Cetaceous fifh, hke land animals, breathe by 
 means of lungs, being deftitute of gills. This obliges 
 them to rife frequently on the furface of the water to 
 refpire, to fleep on the furface, as well as to perform 
 feveral other functions. They have the power of ut- 
 tering founds, fuch as bellowing and making other 
 noifes denied to genuine fifh. Like land animals they 
 have warm blood, are furnilbed with organs of geiTera- 
 tion, copulate, bring forth, and fuckle their young, 
 Slowing a ftrong attachment to them. Their bodies 
 beneath the flcin are entirely furrounded with thick 
 layer of fat (blubber), analogous to the lard on hogs. 
 The number of their fins never exceed three, wz. two 
 peftoral fins, and one back fin ; but in fome fpecies 
 the laft. is wanting. Their tails are placed horizon- 
 tally, or flat in refpeft to their bodies ; contrary to 
 the direction of thofe of all other fifh, which have them 
 in a perpendicular fite. This fituation of the tail en- 
 ables them to force themfelves fuddenly to the furface 
 of the water to breathe, which they are fo frequently 
 conftrained to do. Many of thefe circumflances in- 
 duced Linnaeus to place this tribe among his mamma- 
 lia, or what other writers call quadrupeds *. To have 
 preferved the chain of beings entire, he fhould in this 
 cafe have made the genus of phoca or feahy and that of 
 the trichecus or manatl. Immediately precede the whale, 
 thofe being the links that conneft the mammalia or 
 quadrupeds with the fifh : for the feal is, in refpeft to 
 its legs, the moil imperfeft of the former clafs; and in 
 the manati the hind feet coalefce, affuming the form 
 of a broad horizontal tail. 
 
 Notwithflanding the many parts and properties 
 which cetaceous fifh have in common with land ani- 
 mals, yet there flill remain others which render it 
 more natural to place them, with Ray, in the rank of 
 fifh ; the form of their bodies agrees with that of fifh ; 
 they are entirely naked, or covered only with afmooth 
 llcin ; they live conftantly in the water, and have all 
 the aftions of fifh. 
 
 CETE, the name of I^innseus's feventh order of 
 mammalia, comprehending the Mb no don, BaljEna, 
 Physeter, and Delphinus. 
 
 CETERACH, in botany, the trivial name of a 
 fpecies of Asplenium. 
 
 CETTE, a maritime town of France, in Langue- 
 
 09 ] GET 
 
 doc, feated at the place where the canal of Lsngacdoc 
 begins, between Montpellier and Agde, on the bay of 
 Maguelona in the Mediterranean fea. E. Long. 3.15. 
 N. Lat. 43. 25. 
 
 CETUS, in aftronomy, the whale ; a large con- 
 ftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, under Pifces, and 
 next the water of Aquarius. The ftars in the conftel- 
 lation Cetus, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are twenty-two ; 
 in Tycho's twenty-one ; in Heveliiis's forty-five ; in 
 the Britannic catalogue ninety-feven. 
 
 Cetus is reprefented by the poets, as the fea-mou;- 
 fter which Neptune, at the fuit of the nymphs, fent to 
 devour Andromeda for the pride of her mother, and 
 which was killed by Perfeus. In the mandible of ce- 
 tus i« a variable ftar which appears and difappears 
 periodically, palling through the feveral degrees of 
 magnitude both increafing and diminifhing, in about 
 333 days. See Astronomy, n°45. 
 
 CEVA, a ftrong town of Piedmont in Italy, feated 
 on the river Tanero, with a fti-ong fort, in E. Long, 
 8. 8. N. Lat. 44. 20. 
 
 CEVENNES, mountains of Languedoc in France, 
 remarkable for the frequent meetings of the Prote- 
 ftants there as a place of fecurlty againft the tyranny of 
 their governors. In queen Anne's reign there was an 
 attempt made to afTift them by an Englifh fleet in the 
 Mediterranean; but to no purpofe, for the French had 
 occupied the pafTages. 
 
 CEUTA, a maritime town of Barbary in Africa, 
 and in the kindom of Fez, feated on the flraits of 
 Gibraltar, oppofite that place, in W. Long 6. 25. N. 
 Lat. 36. 35. John king of Portugal took it from the 
 Moors in 1415, but it now belongs to Spain. In 1697, 
 it fuflalned a vigorous fiege by the Moors. 
 
 CEYLON, a large ifland in the Eafl Indies, about 
 250 miles in length and 200 in breadth. It abounds 
 in trees and fhrubs, valuable both on account of their 
 timber and the gums or fpices they produce. Among 
 thefe Mr Ives enumerates the euphorbium, tulip-tree, 
 ebony, red-wood, caffia, cocoa-nut, cotton, lime, man- 
 goe, citron, coffee ; the trees producing balfam of ca- 
 pivi, gum gamboge, lac, and cenqmnomale. This laft is 
 as yet unknown in Europe ; but, according to the in- 
 formation of a Dutch furgeon, an oil or balfam is pro- 
 duced from it by dillillation, which is of great' ufe in 
 paralytic complaints. There is alfo another gum named 
 badukj which has been but lately difcovered, and of 
 which the ufe is as yet unknown. Here is alfo the 
 black and yellow teak, the wood of which is of a mofl 
 beautiful grain, but fo hard that the cutting of it proves 
 very deftruftive to the carpenters tools. ^ But the moft 
 remarkable, as well as the moft ufeful, of the vegetable 
 produftions of Ceylon, is the cinnamon-tree, which 
 grows wild in every wood on the fouih-weft part of the 
 ifland. The very young trees are not fit for rinding, 
 and the old ones are cut down for firewood. The 
 common flowering fhrubs,, of which the whole ifland is 
 full, fend forth a moft agreeable fi-agrance every morn- 
 ing and evening. It abounds with high hills, between 
 which the foil is a fat red earth ; and the valleys are 
 extremely pleafant, having a clear rivulet running thro*' 
 almoft every one of them. Thus the fineft fruits grow 
 in vaft plenty, and may be had at the moft trifling 
 rates ; a pine-apple being bought for lefs than a penny, 
 and fo of the reft. Other provifiouo are almoft equally 
 
 cheap; 
 
C E Y [ 31 
 
 Ceylon, clieap ; a dozen of fowls or five ducks being fold for a 
 rupee, not quite half-a-crown of Englifli money. Here 
 the Dutch fhow a polfonous fruit called by them 
 Adam^s apple. In fliape it refembles the quarter of an 
 apple cut out, with the two infides a little convex, and 
 a continued ridge along the outer edges ; and is of a 
 beautiful orange colour. Pepper, ginger, and carda- 
 moms, are alfo produced here ; as well as live kinds of 
 rice, which ripen one after another. 
 
 Ceylon produces alfo topazes, garnets, rubies, and 
 other precious ftones, which are difcovered by wafhing 
 the foil wherein they grow. It has likewife ores of 
 copper, iron, and probably of tin, with veins of black 
 cryllal. 
 
 Common deer are found in this ifland in great abun- 
 dance, as well as Guinea-deer; but the horned cattle 
 are botli very fmall and fcarce, fix of them weighed, 
 all together, but 714 pounds, and one of thefe weigh- 
 ed only 70 pounds. They have, however, the largeft 
 and beft elephants in the world ; and their woods are 
 infefted by tygers, the mofh terrible of all ravenous 
 beafts. They abound alfo with fnakes of a monftrous 
 lize, one of which has been known to dcllroy a tyger 
 and dev'our him at one meal. Mr Ives faw one 15 
 feet long and 30 inches in circumference. Spiders, 
 centipedes, and fcorpions, alfo grow here to an enor- 
 mous fize. Our author faw a fpidcr here as large as 
 a toad, with brown hair upon it, and legs as thick as 
 the fhank of a large tobacco-pipe. A fcorpion, taken 
 out of a piece of wood, was eight inches long, from 
 bead to tail, exclufive of the claws ; the fliell was as 
 hard as that of a crab : and our author killed a centi- 
 pede more than feven inches long. Here the mantis 
 or creeping leaf is met with ; which our author fup- 
 pofes to be a fpecies of grafshopers, having every mem- 
 ber we fee in common infeAs, though in fiiape and ap- 
 pearance it greatly refembles a leaf. It is of a green 
 colour. The fea-coafts abound with fifli, which are to 
 be had very cheap. Neither harp-fliells nor ventle- 
 traps are to be met with here : but there are abun- 
 dance of painted cockles, and others commonly called 
 panama Jhells, 
 
 ** The natives of this ifland (fays our author) are 
 the ftouteft Indians I ever faw. Mr Knox in lu's hi- 
 ftory reports many ftrange things of their religion and 
 cuftoms, none of which I had any opportunity of fee- 
 ing. He fays ' that they have various ways of treating 
 their dead. Some burn them, which is not uncom- 
 mon in India ; while others throw their limbs up into 
 the forks of trees.' This may be true, becaufe when 
 our wood-cutters were once hewing down a ilick of 
 timber, there fell from it the flcull and many bones of 
 a human body ; and I alfo faw here a human body 
 hanging on a tree. Other hiftorians relate, that the 
 natives of Ceylon feed on human flefh ; nay, that they 
 eat the bodies of their deceafed parents, imagining 
 that no other fepulchre is fo fit for them as their own 
 bowels, fince thereby they think they are changed into 
 their own fubftance, and live again in themfelves. 
 This fliocking cuftom is reported of the ancient Scy- 
 thians, and poffibly might have been ufed by the inha- 
 bitants of Ceylon, but is now in both countries entire- 
 ly aboliihed ; and yet even at this day thefe iflanders 
 are faid to make cups of their parents llcuUs, with a 
 
 o ] C E Y 
 
 view, that In midH of their mirth and jollity they may 
 be fare to preferve a refpeilful remembrance of them." 
 
 The Ceylonefe make ufe of boats hollowed out of 
 the trunks of trees, which are about 12 or 14. feet 
 long, but only as many inches broad witliin. The tree 
 part in the bottom is much larger ; but when the boat, 
 on account of the fize of the tree, is too fmall, they 
 make a trough on the top of it fquare at both ends. 
 Some boats, however, are much larger, being built 
 between two trees ; and with thefe they coall along 
 fiiore ; the others are for filliermen. It lies from E. 
 Long. 78^ to 82°, and from N. Lat. 6^ to 10. 
 
 The conqueft of this ifland was the firft attempt of 
 Albuquerque the celebrated Portuguefe admiral. He 
 found it well peopled, and inhabited by two different 
 nations, the Bedas inhabiting the northern, and the 
 C'tnglajjes who dwelt in the fouthern parts. The for- 
 mer were very barbarous, but the latter a good deal 
 more poliflied. Befides the advantages already men- 
 tioned, which thefe nations derived from their mines 
 of precious ftones, they carried on the greatefl pearl- 
 lifhery in the Eafl. Thefe nations the Portuguefe con- 
 quered, and tyrannized over in fuch a manner, that 
 they affiiled the Dutch in expelling them from the 
 ifland ; and by their united efforts this was accomplilh- 
 ed in 1658-, after a bloody and obflinate war. All 
 the Portuguefe fettlements fell into the hands of the 
 Dutch Eail India company, who ftill keep pofTeffion 
 of them, excepting a fmall diftrift on the eafteni 
 coall without any port, from whence the fovereign of 
 the country had his fait. Thefe fettlements formed 
 a regular track, extending from two to twelve leagues 
 into the inland parts of the ifland. The company 
 have appropriated all the producStions of the ifland. 
 The feveral articles of trade are, i. Amcthyfls, fap- 
 phires, topazes, and rubies ; the lafl are very fmall, 
 and very indifferent. The Moors who come from 
 the coaft of Coi-omandel buy them, paying a moderate 
 tax : and when they are cut, fell them at a low price 
 in the different countries of India. 2. Pepper, which 
 the company buy for about 4d. /»fr pound ; coffee, for 
 which they only pay 2d. and cardamom, which has no 
 fixed price. Thefe articles are all of an inferior qua- 
 lity, and through the indolence of the inhabitants will 
 never turn to any account. 3. An hundred bales of 
 handkerchiefs, pagnes, and ginghams, of a fine red 
 colour, which are fabricated by the Malabars at Jafra- 
 napatan. 4. A fmall quantity of ivory, and about 50. 
 elephants, which are carried to the coaft of Coroman- 
 deh 5. Areca, which the company buys at about 
 8 s. 9d. the ammonan, and fells on the fpot at E. ij^ 
 13 s. t© the merchants of Bengal, Coromandel, and the 
 MaUlives ; who give in return rice, coarfe linen, and 
 cowries. 6. The pearl-fifliery, which was formerly, 
 of great confequence; but is now fo much exhaufted 
 as nut to bring in more than L. 8,750 per annum. 
 7. After all, the great objeft of the company is cin- 
 namon. They purchafe the greatefl part of their cin- 
 namon of the Indians who are fubje£l to them, and, 
 all expences deducted, it does -not coft them above 6d. 
 per pound. The annual expences of the colony may 
 amount to about L. 96,250 ; their revenues and fmall 
 branches of commerce produce only about L. 87,500. 
 ■—This deficieacy mull be fupplied out of the pro- 
 fits 
 
C K M [ 311 1 C H iE 
 
 Chace fits arifing from the cinnamon trade ; and they are ob- regarded as the author of their royal houfe, and the Chxronsa. 
 
 liged to provide for the expences of the wars in which high proteftor of their fortune ; and on the other the — — v— • 
 
 they are frequently engaged with the king of Candy, banks of the Thermodon, a fmall river flowing into 
 
 ' " the CephifTus, announced by the oracles of Greece as 
 
 who is at prefent the fole fovereign of the ifland. Thefe 
 are very detrimental to the interefts of the Holland- 
 ers ; for which reafon they endeavoured to engage 
 the good will of this monarch by fiiowing him all ima- 
 ginable civilities. The hanaony, however, has been 
 often interrupted. In a bloody war which terminated 
 on the 14th of February 1766, the Ceylonefe monarch 
 was driven from his capital, fo that the Dutch made a 
 very advantageous treaty. Their fovereignty was 
 acknowledged over all that part of the country they 
 pofTefTed before the troubles broke out ; and that part 
 of the coafts held by the natives was ceded to them. 
 They were allowed to gather cinnamon in all the 
 plains ; and the court was to fell them the beft fort, 
 which is produced in the m.ountains, at the rate of 
 L. I : 16 : I, for 18 /3. The government engaged to 
 have no conneftion with any foreign power; and 
 even to deliver up any Europeans who might happen 
 to ftray into the ifland. In return for fo many concef- 
 fions, the king was to receive annually the value of 
 the produce of the ceded coafts ; and from thence his 
 fubjefts wei-e to be furnifhed gratis with as much lalt 
 as they had occaiion for. The Ceylonefe are in the 
 moil miferable fituation: they are in a ftate of total 
 inaftivity ; live in huts without any furniture ; and 
 
 the dellined icene of defolation and woe to their un- 
 happy country. The generals of the confederate Greeks 
 had been much lefs careful to avail" themfelves of the 
 powerful fanftlons of fuperftition. Unreflrained by 
 inaufpicious facrifices, the Athenians had left their city 
 at the exhortation of Demofthenes, to wait no other 
 omen but the caufe of their country. Regardlefs of 
 oracles, they afterwards advanced to the ill-fated Ther- 
 modon, accompanied by the Thebans, and the fcanty 
 reinforcements raifed by the iflands and ftates of Pelo- 
 ponnefiis which had joined their alliance. Their army 
 amounted to 30,000 men, animated by the nobleft 
 caufe for which men can fight, but commanded by the 
 Athenians Lyficles and Chares ; the firll but little, and 
 the fecond unfavourably, known ; and by Theagenes 
 the Theban, a perfon llrongly fufpeAcd of treachery : 
 all three creatures of cabal and tools of fadlion, flaves 
 of interell or voluptuoufnefs, whofe charafters (efpe- 
 cially as they had been appointed to command the only 
 ftates whofe fhame, rather than virtue, yet oppofed the 
 public enemy) are alone fufficient to prove that Greece 
 was ripe for ruin. 
 
 When the day approached for abolifhing the totter- 
 ing independence of thofe turbulent republics, which 
 
 fubfift upon fi-uits : thofe who are the moft affluent their own internal vices, and the arms and intrigues of 
 
 have no other covering than a piece of coarfe linen 
 -wrapt about their waifl. 
 CHACE. See Chase. 
 
 CHACO, a large country of South America fitua- 
 ted between ig^ and 37° S. Lat. It belongs to the 
 Spaniards, by whom it was conquered in 1536. It is 
 not natur-jJly fruitful; but abounds in gold mines, which 
 are fo much the more valuable that thty are eahly 
 worked. The works are carried on by about 8000 
 blacks, who deliver every day to their maftcrs a cer- 
 tain quantity of gold ; and what they can colledt 
 above this, belongs to themfelves; as weU as what 
 they find on thofe days that are confecrated to religion 
 and reft, upon condition that during the feftival they 
 maintain themfelves. This enables many ef them to 
 purchafe their Hberty ; after which they intermarry 
 with the Spaniards. 
 
 CHADCHOD, in Jewifh antiquity. Ezekiel men- 
 tions chadchod among the feveral merchandizes which 
 were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not 
 very well knowing the meaning of this term, con- 
 tinued it in their tranflation. St Jerom acknowledges 
 that he could not difcover the interpretation of it. 
 The Chaldee interprets it pearls ; others think that 
 the onyx, ruby, carbuncle, cryflal, or diamond is 
 meant bv it. 
 
 CH^RONEA, (anc. geog.), the laft town, or 
 rather the laft village, of Bocotia, towards Phocis ; the 
 birthplace of Plutarch : famous for the fatal defeat of 
 the confederate Greeks by Philip of Macedon. This 
 place was confidered by Philip as well adapted to the 
 operations of the Macedonian phalanx; and the ground 
 for his encampment, and afterwards the field ol batile, 
 were chofen with equal fagacity : having in view on _ 
 
 one fide a temple of Hercules, whom the Macedonians Above a thoufand fell,, two thoufard were taken pn- 
 
 Philip, had been gradually undermining for 22 years, 
 both armies formed in battle array before the rifing of 
 the fun. The right wing of the Macedonians was 
 headed by Philip, who judged proper to oppofe in 
 perfon the dangerous fury of the Athenians. His fon 
 Alexander, only 19 years of age, but fiiiTounded by ■ 
 experienced officers, commanded the left wini?, which 
 faced the Sacred Band of the Thebans. The auxi- 
 liaries of either army were pofttd in the centre. In 
 the beginning of the aftion, the Athenians charged 
 with impetuofity, and repelled the oppofintj divifions 
 of the enemy ; but the youthful ardour of Alexander 
 obliged the Thebans to retire, the Sacred Band being 
 cut down ta a man. The activity of the young prince 
 completed their diforder, and purfucd tire [(Mattered: 
 multitude with his Theflalian cavalry.. 
 
 Meantime the Athenian generals, too much elated 
 by their firft advantage, loft, the opportUTrity to im- 
 prove it ; for having repelled the centre and right wing 
 of the Macedonians, except the phalanx, which was 
 compofed of chofen men, and immediately commanded 
 by the king, they, inftead of attempting to break this 
 for-midable body by attacking it in flank, prefFed for- 
 ward againft the fugitives, the infolcnt Lyficles ex- 
 claiming in vain triumph, " Pur fue, my brave country- 
 men f let us drive the cowards to Macedon." Philip ob- 
 ferved this rafh folly with contempt ; and faying to 
 thofe around him, *' Our enemies know not how to con- 
 qu'.T," commanded his phalanx, by a rapid evolution, 
 to gain an adjacent eminence, from which they poured 
 down, firm and collefted, on the advancing Athenians, 
 whofe confidence of fuccefs had rendered them totally 
 infenfible to danger. But the irrefiftible fliock of^the 
 Macedonian fpear converted their fury into defpair^ 
 
C H if. f 3 
 
 ■Toners; the reil efcaped by a precipitate and (hameful 
 flight. Of the Thcbans more were killed than taken. 
 Few of the confederates perifhed, as they had little 
 lhare in the aftion, and as Philip, perceiving his vic- 
 tory to be complete, gave orders to fpare the vanquifh- 
 ed, with a clemency unufual in that jage, and not lefs 
 honourable to his underttanding than his heart ; iuice 
 his humanity thus fubdued the minds, and gained the 
 affections, of his conquered enemies. 
 
 According to the Grecian cuftom, the battle was 
 Followed by an entertainment, at which the king pre- 
 siding in perfon, received the congratulations of his 
 friends, and the humble fupplications of the Athenian 
 deputies, who craved the bodies of their flain. Their 
 requeft, which ferved as an acknowledgment of their 
 defeat, was readily granted ; but before they availed 
 themfelves of the permiflion to carry off their dead, 
 Philip, who with his natural intemperance had pio- 
 tradlcd the entertainment till morning, iffued forth 
 with his licentious companions to vifit the field of bat- 
 tle ; their heads crowned with fcftive garlands, their 
 rainds intoxicated with the infolence of wine and vic- 
 tory ; yet the fight of the flaughtered Thebans, which 
 firil prefented itlelf to their eyes, and particularly the 
 facred band of friends and lovers, who lay covered with 
 honourable wounds on the fpot where they had been 
 drawn up to fight, brought back thefe infolent fptfta- 
 tors to the fentiments of reafon and humanity. Phihp 
 beheld the awful fcene with a mixture of admiration 
 and pity ; and, after an affeding filence, denounced a 
 folemn curfe againll thofe who bafely fufpefted the 
 friendlhip of uch brave men to be tainted with crimi- 
 nal and infamous paflions. 
 
 But this ferious temper of mind did not laft long- ; 
 /for having proceeded to that quarter of the field where 
 the Athenians had fought and fallen, the king aban- 
 doned himfelf to all the levity and littlenefs of the moft 
 petulent joy. Inftead of being impreffeJ with a deep 
 lenfe of his recent danger, and with dutiful gratitude 
 to Heaven for the happinefs of his efcape and the im- 
 portance of his viftory, Philip only compared the 
 boaftful pretenfions with the mean performances of his 
 Athenian enemies; and, ftruck by this contraft, re- 
 thearfed, with the infolent mockery of a buffoon, the 
 pompous declaration of war lately drawn up by the ar- 
 dent patriotifm and too fanguine hopes of Demof- 
 henes. It was on this occafion that the orator De- 
 madco at once rebuked the folly, and flattered the am- 
 bition, of Philip, by afl<ing him, Why he affumed the 
 charafter of Therfites when fortune affigned him the 
 part of Agamemnon? 
 
 Whatever might be the effefl; of this fliarp reprimand, 
 It is certain that the king of Macedon indulged not, 
 on any future occafion, a vain triumph over vanquifhed. 
 When advifed by his generals to advance into Attica, 
 and to render himfelf raafter of Athene, he only re- 
 plied, " Have I done fo much for glory, and fhall I 
 deftroy the theatre of that glory ?" His fubfequent 
 conduA correfponded with the moderation of this 
 fentiment. He reftored without ranfooi the Athe- 
 nian prifoners ; who, at departing, having demanded 
 their baggage, were alfo gratified in this particular ; 
 the king pleafantly obferving, that the Athenians 
 feemed to think he had not copquercd them in earneft. 
 Soon afterwards he difpatched his fon Alexander, and 
 
 NO .68. I 
 
 2 ] C H A 
 
 Antipater, the moft trufted of his minlfters, to offei* Chasf*. 
 them peace on fuch favourable terms as they had little rl^y'^urni 
 reafon to expe(St. They were required to fe.id depu- 
 ties to the Illhmus of Corinth, where, to adjufl; their cutter, 
 refpedive contingents of troops for the Perfian expe- w- -y~« 
 dition, Philip purpofed afferabling early in the fpring 
 a general convention of all the Grecian ftates : they 
 were ordered to furrender the ille of Samos, which 
 aftually formed the principal ftation of their fleet, and 
 the main bulwark and defence of all their maritime or 
 infular poffelfions ; but they were allowed to enjoy, un- 
 molefted, the Attic terricory, with their hereditary 
 form of government. 
 
 CH^.ROPHYLLUM, Chervil: A genus of the 
 digynia order, belonging to the pentaudria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 .45th order, Umbellata. The involucrum is reflexed- 
 concave ; the petals inflexed-cordate ; the fruit oblong 
 and fmooth. There are feven fpecies, two of which, 
 called cow-weed and wild chervil, are weeds common 
 in many places of Britain. The roots of the firft have 
 been found poifonous when ufed as parfnips : the 
 rundles afford an indifferent yellow dye ; the leaves 
 and ftalks a beautiful green. Its prefence indicates a 
 fertile and grateful foil. It ought to be rooted out 
 from all pallures early in the ipring, as no animal 
 but the afs will eat it. It is one of the moft early 
 plants in fliooting, fo that by the beginning of April 
 the leaves are near two feet high. The leaves are 
 recommended by Geoffroy as aperient and diuretic, 
 and at the fame time grateful to the palate and ffo- 
 mach. He even afferts, that dropfies which do not , 
 yield to this ii;ediclne can fcarcely be cured by any o- 
 ther. He direfts the juice to be given in the dofe of 
 three or four ounces every fourth hour, and continued 
 for fome time either alone, or in conjunftion with 
 nitre and fyrup of the five opening roots. — The other 
 fpeciesof chterophyllum are not poffeffed of any remark- 
 able property. 
 
 CH^TODON, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes 
 belonging to the order of thoraci. The teeth ai-e ve- 
 ry numerous, thick, fetaceous, and flexile ; the rays of 
 the gills are fix. The back-fin and the fin at the a- 
 nus are flefliy and fquamous. There are 23 fpecies^ 
 diftinguiflied from each other principally by the figure 
 of the tail, and the number of fpines in the back-fin. 
 The moft remarkable is the roftratus, or fliooting-fifh, 
 having a hollow, cyhndrical beak. It is a native of 
 the Eaft Indies, where it frequents the fides of the 
 fea and rivers in fearch of food, from its Angular 
 manner of obtaining which it receives its name. When, 
 it fpies a fly fitting on tlie plants that grow in flial- 
 low water, it fwims on to the diftance of four, five, 
 or fix feet; and then, with a furprifing dexterity, it 
 ejects out of its tubular mouth a fingle drop of wa- 
 ter, which never fails ftriking the fly into the water, 
 where it foon becomes its prey. 
 
 CHAFF, in huftjandry, the huflcs of the corn, fe-^ 
 parated by fcreening or winnowing it. It fignifies al- 
 io the rind of corn, and ftraw cut fmall for the ufe of 
 cattle. 
 
 CHAFF-Cutter, a machine for making chaff to feed 
 horfes. — The advantages of an eafy and expeditious 
 method of cutting ftraw into chaff by an engine 
 which could be ufed by common labourers have been 
 
 long 
 
C H A [31 
 
 tjhaff'cut- long acfenowled^ed, and various attempts have been 
 *^'* made to bring fuch an engine to perfedion. But the 
 Chaffery. objections to moft of thena have been their cona- 
 U— V— 1 plicated ftrufture, their great price, and the noife they 
 malce in working ; all which inconveniences feera to 
 have been lately removed by an invention of Mr James 
 Pike watchmaker of Newton Abbot in Devonfhire. 
 Of his engine, which is of a fimple and cheap con- 
 llruftlon, the following defcription, and figure refer- 
 red to, are extraded from the Tranfaftions of the So- 
 ciety of Arts for 1 787. ^ ^ - 
 The engine is fixed on a wood frame, which is fup- 
 . ported with four legs, and on this frame is a box for 
 containing the ftraw, four feet fix inches long, and 
 about ten^nches broad ; at one end is fixed acrofs the 
 box two rollers inlaid with iron, in a diagonal line 
 about an eighth of an inch above the furface ; on the 
 ends of thefe rollers are fixed two ftrong brafs wheels, 
 which takes one into the other. On one of thefe 
 wheels is a contreft wheel, whofe teeth take in a worm 
 on a large arbour ; on the end of this arbour is fixed 
 a wooden wheel, two feet five inches diameter and three 
 inches thick | on the infide-part of this wheel is fixed 
 a knife, and every revolution of the wheel the knife 
 paffes before the end of the box and cuts the chaff, 
 which is brought forward between the rollers, which 
 are about two inches and a half afunder ; the llraw is 
 brought on by the worm taking one tooth of the 
 wheel every round of the knife ; the ftraw being fo 
 hard prefTed between the rollers, the knife cuts off rhe 
 chaff with fo great eafe, that twenty-two bufhels can 
 be cut within the hour, and makes no more noife than 
 is caufed by the knife paffing through the chaff. 
 
 A is the box into which the ftraw is put. 5, the 
 r-50cxvi "PP^^ ro^itx, with its diagonal projefting ribs of iron, 
 CXXXVi. ^i^oie moving by the revolution of the brafs wheel 
 C on the axis of which it is fixed. Dy a brafs wheel, 
 having upon it a face wheel, whofe teeth take into the 
 cndlefs fcrew on the arbor E, while the teeth on the 
 edge of this wheel enter between thofe on the edge of 
 the wheel C. On the axis of the wheel i) is a roller, 
 with iron ribs fimilar to but hid within the box. 
 Ey the arbor, one of the ends of which being made 
 Iquare and pafling through a mortife in the centre of 
 the wooden wheel F, is faftened by a ilrong fcrew and 
 nut ; the other end of this arbor moves round in a hole 
 within the wooden block (?. H, the knife, made fail 
 by fcrews to the wooden wheel F, and kept at the di- 
 ftance of nearly three quarters of an inch from it by 
 means of a ftrip of wood of that thicknefs, of the form 
 of the blade, and reaching to within an inch of the 
 edge. /, the handle mortifed into the outfide of the 
 wooden wheel F. 
 
 CHAFFER, in zoology, a fpecies of beetle. See 
 
 SCARAU^US. 
 
 CHAFFERCONNERS, in commerce, printed li- 
 nens manufaftured in the Great Mogul's dominions. 
 They are imported by the way of Surat ; and are of 
 the number of thofe linens prohibited in France. 
 
 CHAFFERY, in the iron-works, the name of one 
 of the two principal forges. The other is called the 
 fnery. When the iron has been brought at the fi- 
 nery into what is called an ancony, or fquare mafs, 
 hammered into a bar in its^ middle, but with its two 
 ends rough, the bufinefs to be done at the cbaffery is 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 3 ] C H A 
 
 t'le rijduclng the whole to the fame fltape, by bam- 
 
 raering down thefe rough ends to the lhape of the 
 middle part. - 
 
 CHAFFINCH, in ornithology, the Englifh name 
 of a fpecies of Fringilla. 
 
 CHAGIIE, a fort of America in the province of 
 Darien at tin mouth of a river of the fame name. It 
 has been taken feveral times by the buccaneers, and 
 laft of all by Admiral Vernon in i 740. VV. Long. 
 82. 7. N. Lat. 9. 50. . 
 
 CHAIN (Catena J, a ferles of feveral rings, or links, 
 fitted into one another. 
 
 There are chains of divers matters, fizes, forms, "and 
 for divers ufes. —Ports, rivers, ftreets, &c. are clofed 
 with iron chains : rebellious cities are puniftied by tal- 
 king away their chains and barriers. 
 
 The arms of the kingdom of Navarre are, C/jains 
 Or, in a field Gules. Tlie occafion hereof is referred 
 to the kings of Spain leagued againft the Moors ; 
 who having gained a celebrated vidory againft them 
 in 1 2 12, in the diftribntion of the fpoils the magni- 
 ficent tent of Miralmumin fell to the king of Navarre, 
 as being the firft that broke and forced the chains 
 thereof. 
 
 A gold Chain, is one of the ornaments or badges 
 of the dignity of the chief magiftrates of a city, as the 
 mayor of London, the provoft and baihes of Edin- 
 burgh, Sec— Something hke this obtained among the 
 ancient Gauls : the principal ornament of their per- 
 fons in power and authority was a gold chain, which 
 they wore on all occafions; and even in battle, to dif- 
 tinguifli thein from the common foldlers. 
 
 Chain alio denotes a kind of ftring, of twifted 
 wire ; ferving to hang watches, tweezer-cafes, and o- 
 ther valuable toys upon. The invention of this piece 
 of curious work is owing to the Englifti ; whence, in 
 foreign countries, it is denominated the Englijh chain. 
 Thefe chains are ufually either of filvcr or gold,_ fome 
 of gilt copper; the thread or wire of each kind to 
 be very fine.— For the fabric, or making^ of thefe 
 chains ; a part of the wire is folded into Httle links 
 of an oval form ; the longeft diameter about three 
 lines ; the fliortett, one. Thefe, after they have been 
 exadlly foldered, are again folded into two ; and then 
 bound together or intervove, by means of fevei-al o- 
 ther little threads of the fame thicknefs ; fome where- 
 of, which pafs from one end to the other, imitate the 
 warp of a ftuff ; and the others, which pafs tranfverfe, 
 the woof. There are at leaft four thoufand little links 
 in a chain of four pendants ; which are by this means 
 boupd fo equally, and withal fo firmly together, that 
 the eye is deceived, and takes the whole to confift of 
 one entire piece. 
 
 Chain is alfo a kind of meafure in France, in the 
 trade of wood for fuel. There are chains' for wood 
 by tale, for wood by the rope, for faggots, for cleft 
 wood, and for round fticks. There are alfo chains 
 for meafuring the flieaves of all forts of corn, particu- 
 larly with regard to the payment of tithes ; for mea- 
 furing pottles of hay, and for meafuring horfes. All 
 thefe are divided into feet, inches, hands, &c. accord- 
 ing to the ufe they are defigned for. 
 
 Chain, in furveying, is a meafure, confifting of a 
 certain number of links of iron wire, ufually a hun- 
 dred ; fervinff to take the dimenfions of fields, &c. 
 
 R r - ■ This 
 
 Chaffinch 
 
 (1 
 
 Chain. 
 
Chains. 
 
 C H A [3 
 
 This Is what Merfenne takes to be the arvipendium of 
 the ancients. 
 
 The chain is of varloxis dimenfions, as the length or 
 number of links' varies: that commonly- ufed in mea- 
 furing land, called Gunter's chain, is in length four 
 poles or perches; or fixty-fix feet, or a hundred links; 
 each link being feven inches -r#§. Whence it is eafy 
 to reduce any number of thofe links to feet, or any 
 number of feet to links. 
 
 This chain is entirely adapted to Enghfli meafures ; 
 and its chief convenience is in finding readily the num- 
 bers contained in a given field. Where the propor- 
 tions of fquare feet and acres differ, the chain, to have 
 the fame advantages as Gunter's chain, muft alfo be 
 varied. Thus in Scotland, the chain ought to be of 74 
 feet, or 24 Scotch ells, if no regard be had to the 
 difference between the Scotch and Englifh foot ; but 
 if regard be had to this difference, the Scotch chain 
 ought to confifl of Englifh feet, or 74 feet 4 
 inches and -f of an inch. This chain being divided 
 into an hundred links, each of thefe will be 8i-#||- 
 inches. 
 
 That ordinarily ufed for large diftances, is in length 
 a hundred feet ; each link one foot. For fmall par- 
 cels, as gardens, &c. is fometimes ufed a fmall chain 
 of one pole, or fixteen feet and a half length ; each 
 Knk one inch 
 
 Some in lieu of chains ufe ropes; but thefe are 
 liable to feveral irregularities ; both from the different 
 degrees of moifture, and of the force which ftretches 
 thern. Schwenteriis, in his Praftical Geometry, tells 
 us, he has obferved a rope fixteen feet long, reduced 
 to fifteen in an hour's time, by the mere falling of a 
 hoar froft. To obviate thefe inconveaiences, Wolfius 
 direfts, that the little ilran^is whereof the rope confiils 
 be twilled contrary ways, and the rope dipped in boil- 
 ing hot oil ; and when dry, drawn through melted 
 wax. A rope thus prepared, will not get or lofe 
 any thing in length, even though kept under water 
 all day. 
 
 CHAiN-Pump. See Pump. 
 
 CHAiN-Shott two bullets with a chain between them. 
 They are ufed at fea to fhoot down yards or mafta, 
 and to cut the flirouds or rigging of a fhip. 
 
 Top-CnAiN, on board a fhip, a chain to lling the 
 fail-yards in time of battle, in order to prevent them 
 from falling down when the ropes by which they are 
 hung happen to be fhot away or rendered incapable 
 of fervice. 
 
 CtiMN'V/aleSy or Channels , of a fhip, portehoijfmrsy 
 C^XXVI. are broad and thick planks projefting horizontally from 
 the fhip's outfide, abreaft of and fomewhat liehind 
 tlie mafls. They are formed to extend the fhrouds 
 from each other, and from the axis or middle line of 
 the fhip, fo as to give a greater fecurity and fupport 
 to the mafts, as well as to prevent the fhrouds from 
 damaging the gunwale, or being hurt by rubbing a- 
 gainft it. Every mail has its chainrwales, which are 
 either built above or below the fecond deck-ports in 
 a fhip of the line : they are ftrongly connefted to the 
 fide by knees, bolts, and ftandards, befides being con- 
 fined thoreto by the chains whofe upper ends pafs 
 threugh notches on the outer edge of the chain-wales, 
 fo as to unite with the fhrouds above. 
 
 Chains, in lliip-building, are ilrcng Ijnka or plates 
 
 H 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 Kate 
 
 of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through 
 the fliip-fide to the timbers. 
 
 Hanging in Chains, a kind of punifhment inffiAed 
 on murderers. By ftat. 25. Geo. II. c. 37. the judge 
 fhall direft fuch to be executed ou the next day but 
 one, unlefs Sunday intervene ; and their bodies to be 
 delivered to the furgeoiis to be diffeAed and anatomi- 
 zed : and he may dire6l them afterwards to be hung 
 in chains. During the interval between fentence and 
 execution, the prifoncr fhall be kept alone, and luf- 
 tained only with bread and water. The judge, how 
 ever, hath power to refpite the execution, and relax 
 the other reftraints of the aft. 
 
 Chain- I/land, an ifland lately difcovercd by captaio- 
 WaUis in the South-fea. It feemed to be about five 
 miles long and as much broad, lying in the direflioa 
 of north -wefb and fouth-eafl. It appeared to be a 
 double range of woody iHands joined together by 
 reefs, fo as to compofe one ifland of an oval figure^ 
 with a lake in the middle. The trees are large ; and 
 from the fmoke that iffued from the woods, it apr 
 peared to be inhabited. W. Long. 145. 54. S. Lat» 
 17. 23. 
 
 CHAJOTLI, or CHiiYOTi, a Mexican fruit of a 
 round fhape, and fimilar in the huflc with which it is 
 covered to the chefnut, but four or five limes larger, 
 and of a much deeper green colour. Its kernel is of 
 a greenifli white, and has a large flone in the middle, 
 which is white, and Hke it in fubflance. It is boiled, 
 and the flone eat with it. This fruit is produced by 
 a twining perennial plant, the root of which is alio 
 good to eat. See Plate CXXXVIII. 
 
 CHAIR, (Cathedra), was anciently ufed for the 
 pulpit, or fuggeflunx, whence the prieit fpoke to the 
 people. 
 
 It is flill applied to the place whence profeffors and 
 regents in univerfities deliver their lectures, and teach 
 the fciences to their pupils : tlius, we fay, the profef- 
 fbr's chair, the doftor's chair, &c. 
 
 Curule Chair, was an ivory feat placed on a car, 
 whereiio were feated the prime magiftrates of Rome,, 
 and thofe to whom the honour of a triumph had been, 
 granted. 
 
 Sedan Chair, a vehicle fupported by poles, wherein 
 perfons are carried ; borne by two men. There are 
 two hundred chairs allowed by aft of parliament ; and 
 no perfon is obliged to pay for a hackney-chair more 
 than the rate allowed by the aft for a hackney-coach 
 driven two third parts of the faid diftance. 9 Ann. c. 
 23. § 8. Their number is fince increafed,, by 10 Ann. 
 c. 19. and 12 Geo. 1. c. 12. to four hundred. . See 
 Hackney-CoACHES. 
 
 Chair is alfo applied by the Romanifts to certain 
 feails, held anciently in commemoration of the tranf- 
 lation of the fee, or feat of the vicarage of Chrifl, by 
 St Peter. 
 
 The perforated chair, wherein the new-elefted pope 
 is placed, F. Mabillon obferves, is to be feen at 
 Rome : but the origin thereof he does not attribute, 
 as is commonly done, to the adventure of Pope 
 Joan ; but fays there is a myftery in it and it is iiv- 
 tended, forfooth, to explain to the pope thofe words 
 of fcripture, that God draws the poor from out of the dufl 
 and mire. 
 
 CHAIRMAN, the PRESIDENT, or fpcakcr of 
 
 aflemblys 
 
 Chairri 
 
 Chainnaria 
 
C H A 
 
 Clnaire affembly, company, &c. We fay, the chairman of a 
 committee, &c. 
 
 CHAISE, a fort of light open chariot, or calafli. 
 AureUiis Victor rclates, that Trajan firft introduced 
 the ufe of pofl-chaifes : but the invention is generally 
 afcribed to Auguftus ; and was probably only impro- 
 ved by Trajan, and fucceeding emperors. 
 
 CHALAZA, among natm-alitts, a white knotty 
 fort of ftring at each end of an egg, formed of a plexus 
 of the fibres of the membranes, whereby the yolk and 
 white are conncfted together. See Egg» 
 
 CHALCAS, in -botany : A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. 
 The calyx is quinquepartite ; the corolla campanula- 
 ted, with the petals heeled ; the ftigma round-headed 
 and warty. 
 
 CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, anciently known 
 by the names of Procerajlis and Colbufa; a city of Bi-\ 
 thynia, fituated at the mouth of the Euxine, on the 
 north extremity of the Thracian Bofphoriis, over again ft 
 Byzantium. Pliny, Strabo, and Tacitus, call it The 
 City of the Blind; alluding to the anfwer which the Py- 
 thian Apollo gave to the founders of Byzantium, who, 
 confulting the oracle relative to a place where to bnild 
 a city, were diretted to choofe that fpot which lay 
 Oppofitc " to the habitation of the blind that is, as 
 was then underftood, to Chalcedon : the Chalcedo- 
 nians well defervlng that epithet for having built their 
 city in a barren and fandy foil, without feeing that ad- 
 vantageous and pleafant fpot on the oppolite fliore, 
 which the Byzantines afterwards chofe. — Chalcedon, 
 in the Chriftian times, became famous on account of 
 the council which was held there againft Eutyches. 
 The emperor Valens caufed the walls of this city to be 
 levelled with the ground for fiding with Procopius, and 
 the materials to be conveyed to Conftantinople, where 
 they were employed in building the famous Valentinian 
 aqueduft. Chalcedon is at prefent a poor place, known 
 to the Greeks by its ancient name, and to the Turks 
 by that of Cadiaci, or " the judges town." 
 
 CHALCEDONY, in natural hiftory, a genus of 
 the femipellucid gems. They are of an even and re- 
 gular, not tabulated flruAure ; of a femi-opaque cryftal- 
 line bafis ; and variegated with different colours, but 
 thofe ever difpofed in form of mills or clouds, and, if 
 nicely examined, found to be owing to an admixture 
 of various coloured earths, but imperfedtly blended in 
 the mafs, and often vlfiblc in diftindt moleculae. — It has 
 been doubted by fome whether the ancients were at all 
 a'cquainted with the (lone we call chalcedony; they ha- 
 ving defcribed a Chalcedonian carbuncle and emerald, 
 neither of which can at all agree with the charadlers 
 of our ftone ; but we are to confider that they have 
 alfo defcribed a Chalcedonian jafper which feems to 
 have been the very fame ftone as they defcribe by the 
 word iurbida, which extremely well agrees with our 
 cbalcedony. 
 
 There are four known fpecles of the chalcedony. 
 I. A blulfh white one. This is the moft common of 
 all, and is found in the lhape of our flints and pebbles, 
 in mafles of two or three inches or more in diame- 
 ter. It is of a whitiih colour, with a faint cloud of 
 blue diffufed all over it, but always in the^greateft de- 
 gree near the furface. This is a little lefs hard than 
 the oriental onyx. The oriental chalcedonlts are the 
 
 [ 3^5 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 only ones of any value ; they are found in vaft tbun- Chalcedo- 
 dance on the fhores of rivers in all parts of the Eaft In- q^^^J{'^^^^ 
 dies, and frequently come over among the ballaft of f 
 the Eaft India fliips. They are common in Silefia and 
 Bohemia, and other parts of Europe alfo ; but with 
 us are lefs hard, more opaque, and of very little va- 
 lue. 2. The dull milky-veined chalcedony. This is 
 a ftone of little value ; and is fometimes met with a- 
 mong our lapidaries, who iiiiftake it for a kind of ne- 
 phritic ftone. It is of a fomewhat yellowiih white or 
 cream colour, with a few milk-white veins. This is 
 principally found in New- Spain. 3. The third is a 
 brownifti, black, dull, and cloudy one, known to the 
 ancients by the name of fmoky jafper, or jafpis capni- 
 tis. This is the leaft beautiful ftone of all the clafs : 
 it is of a pale brov/nifti white, clouded all over with a 
 blackifti mift, as the common chalcedony is with a 
 blue. It is common both in the Eaft and Weft Indies, 
 and in Germany ; but is very little valued, and is fel- 
 dom worked into any thing better than the handles of 
 knives. 4. The yellow and red chalcedony is great- 
 ly fuperior to all the reft in beauty ; and is in great 
 repute in Italy, though very little known among us. 
 It is naturally compofed of an admixture of red and 
 yellow only, on a clouded cryftaliine bafis ; but is fome- 
 times found blended with the matter of common chal- 
 cedony, and then is mixed with blue. It is all over 
 of the mifty hue of the common chalcedony. This is 
 found only in the Eaft Indies, and there not plentiful- 
 ly. The Italians make it into beads, and -call thefe 
 cajjidonies; but they are not determinate in the ufe 
 of the word, but call beads of feveral of the agates 
 by the fame name — All the chalcedonies readily give 
 fire with fteel, and make no effervefcence with aqua- 
 fortis. 
 
 CHALCIDENE, or CHALcmiCE, (anc. geog.) 
 an inland country of Syria, having Antiochis or 
 Seleucia to the weft, Cyrrheftica to the north, 
 to the fouth Apamene and Ccelefyria, and to the 
 eaft Chalybonitis ; being fo called from its principal 
 city Chalcis. This province, one of the moft fruit- 
 ful in Syria, was feized by Ptolemy the fon of Men- 
 nasLis during the troubles of Syria, and by him 
 made a feparate kingdom. Ptokmy himfelf is ftyled 
 by Jofephus and Hegefippus only Prince of Chalcis, 
 but his fon Lyfanias is honoured both by Jofephus and 
 Dio with the title of King. Upon the death of An- 
 tiochus Dionyfius king of Syria, Ptolemy attempted 
 to make himfelf matter of Damafcus and all Ccelefyria j 
 but the inliabitants, having an utter averfion to him 
 on account of his cruelty and wickednefs, chofe rather 
 to fubmit to Aretas king of Arabia, by whom Anti- 
 ochus and his whole army had been cut off^ He op-' 
 pofed Pompey on his entering Syria j but was by him 
 defeated, taken prifoner, and fentenced to death ; 
 which, however, he efcaped by paying a thoufand ta* 
 lents, and was left alfo in the pofleffion of his kingdom. 
 After Ariftobulus king of Judasa had been poifoned by 
 the friends of Pompey, and Alexander his fon behead- 
 ed at Antioch, he lent Philippion his fon to Afcalon, 
 whither the widow of Ariftobulus had retired with her 
 other children, to biing them all to Chalcis; propo- 
 fing, as he was in love with one of the daughters named 
 Alexandria, to maintain them in his own kingdom in 
 a manner fuitable to their rank; bat Philippit)n like- 
 R-r 2 wife 
 
C H A r 31 
 
 Chaktdlc wife being in love with Alexandria, married her on the 
 Chalco'id ^"^^J* for which prefumption Ptolen:iy put him to death 
 ]^g_ ^' on his return, and then took her to wife. On account 
 Y— of this affinity, he fupported to the utmoft of his power 
 Antigoniis the younger fon of Ariltobulus, who took 
 the field at the head of a confiderable army, but on 
 his entering Judxa was entirely defeated by Herod. 
 Ptolemy foon after died, and was fucceeded by his fon 
 Lyfanias ; -who, efpoufing the caufe of the Afmonsean 
 family with great warmth, promifed to Barzapharnes 
 who commanded the Pairthian troops in Syria, and to 
 Pacorus the king's fon, a thoufand talents and five hun- 
 dred women, provided they fliould put Antigonus in 
 pofTelfion of the kingdom of Judcea, and depufe Hyr- 
 canus. He was not long after put to death by Marc 
 Antony, at the inftigation of Cleopatra ; who, in or- 
 der to have his dominions, accufed him falfely of ha- 
 ving entered into an alliance with the Parthians. 
 
 CHALCIDIG, Chalcidscum, or Chalcedoni- 
 UM, in the ancient architedlure, a large magnificent 
 hall belonging to a tribunal or court of juftice. — Feilus 
 fays, it took its name from the city Chalcis; but he does 
 not give the reafon. Philander will have it to be the 
 court or tribunal where affairs £>{ money and coinage 
 were regulated j fo called from x^^'-^^^ Irafs, and S'^-n 
 jujlice. Others fay, the money was ftrock in it ; and 
 derive the word from ^ft^i-oi, and oi)tof, houfe. In Vi- 
 truvius, it is ufed for the auditory of a bafihca ; in 
 other of the ancient writers for a hall or apartment 
 where the heathens imagined their gods to eat. 
 
 CHALCIDICE, (anc. geog.) an eallern diftrift 
 of Macedonia, ftretching northwards between the Sinus 
 ToronjEUs and Singiticus. Formerly a part of Thrace, 
 but invaded by PhiHp of Macedon. Named from the 
 city Chalcis near Olynthus. 
 
 CHALCIDIUri, a famous platonic philofopher in 
 tlie third century, who wrote a commentary, which ia 
 efteemed, on the Timasus of Plato, This work has 
 been tranflated from the Greek into Latin. 
 
 CHALCIS, a city of Chalcidice. See Chalcidice. 
 (lanc. geog.) — Another of wEtoha, near the mouth of 
 t<he river Evenus, on the Ionian Sea, at the foot of a 
 cognominal mountain ; and therefore called by fome 
 Hypochalc'is. — Another of Eubcea (Strabo), on the 
 Euripus, the country of Lycophron the poet, one of 
 the feven which formed the conllellation Pleiades. Now 
 Negroponte. E. Long. 24. 30 Lat. 38. 30. — A fourth, 
 the capital of Chalcidene in Syria ; diftinguilhed by 
 the furnames ad Belum, a mountain or a river j and ad 
 Lihanum, from its fituation (Phny). 
 
 CPJx\LCITIS, one of the d'ivifions or diftrlAs of 
 Mefopotamia, to the fouth of Anthemufia, the moil 
 northern diftrift, next to Armenia, and fituated between 
 EdefTa and Garrae. Chalcith (Pliny), an ifland oppo- 
 fite to Ghalccdon. 
 
 CHALCONDYLAS(D,emetrius), a learned Greek, 
 born at Gonflantinople, left that city after its being ta- 
 ken by the Turks, and afterwards taught Greek in 
 feveral cities in Italy. He compofed a Greek gram.- 
 mar ; and died at Milan in 1513. 
 
 Chalcondylas (Laonicus), a famous Gieek hi- 
 ftorian of the 15th century, was born at Athens ; and 
 wrote an excellent hiltory of the Turks, from Ottoman, 
 who reigned about the year 1300, to Mahomet II. in 
 H^3- 
 
 6 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 CHALDEA (anc. geog.), taken in a larger fenfe, 
 included Babylonia ; as in the prophecies of Jeremiah 
 and Ezekiel. In a reflrifted fenfe, it denoted a pro- ^ 
 vince of Babylonia, towards Arabia Deferta ; called in 
 Scripture The land of the Chaldeans. Named from 
 Chafed the fourth fon of Nahor. See Baeylonia. 
 
 GHALDEE language, that fpoken by the Chal- 
 deans, or people of Chaldea. It is a dialedl of the 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Chaldee Paraphrafe, in the rabbinical ftyle, is called 
 Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrafes in 
 Walton's Polyglot ; viz, that of Onkelos, that of Jo» 
 nathan fon of Uziel, and that of Jerufalem. 
 
 CHALDRON, a dry Enghfli meafure, confifting 
 of thirty fix bufhels, heaped up according to the feaU 
 ed bufliel kept at Guildhall, London but on Ihip- 
 board, tv;enty-one chaldrons of coals are allowed ta 
 the fcore. The chaldron Ihould weigh two thoufand- 
 pounds. 
 
 CHALICE, the cup or veffel ufed to adminifter the 
 wine in the facrament, and by the Roman Catholic*- 
 in the mafs. 
 
 The ufe of the chalice, or communicating in botK, 
 kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity,v 
 who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone 
 being allowed the privilege of communicating in both 
 kinds. 
 
 CHALK, Creta^ is a white earth found plentifully 
 in Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of Eu- 
 rope, faid to have been anciently dug chiefly in the 
 ifland of Crete,, and thence to have received its name- 
 of Creta. They have a very eafy way of digging, 
 chalk in the county of Kent in England. It is there 
 found on the fides of hills ; and the workmen under- 
 mine it fo far as appears proper ; then digging a 
 trench at the top as far dtltant from the edge as the 
 undermining goes at bottom, they fill this with water, 
 which foaks through in the fpace of a night, upon 
 which the whole flake falls down at once. In other 
 parts of the kingdom, chalk generally lies deeper, and 
 they are forced to dig for it at confiderable depths, 
 and draw it up in buckets. 
 
 Chalk is of two kinds; hard, dry, and firm, or foft 
 and unftuous ; both of which are adapted to various 
 purpofes. The hard and dry kind is much the pro- 
 pcreil for burning into lime ; but the foft and unc- 
 tuous chalk is beil for ufing. as a manure for lands. 
 Chalk, whether burnt into lime or not, is in fome 
 cafes an excellent manure. Its mode of operating on^ 
 the foil is explained under the article Agriculture,. 
 n° 20, 25, &c. 
 
 Pure chalk melts eafily with alkali and flint into a 
 tranfparent colourlefs glafs. With alkaline falls it 
 melts fomewhat more difficultly, and with borax^ 
 fomewhat more eafily, than with flint or fand. It re- 
 quires about half its weight of borax, and its whole 
 weight of alkali, to fufe it. Sal mirabile, and fandi- 
 ver, which do not vitrify at all with the cryflalline 
 eartlis, form, with half their weight of chalk, the firft 
 a yellowifli black, the latter a greenifh, glafs. Nitre,, 
 on the other hand, one of the mofl adlive fluxes for 
 flinty does not perfedlly vitrify with chalk. This 
 earth notably promotes the vitrification of flint; a mix- 
 ture of the two requiring lefs alkali than either of them 
 feparately. If glafs made from flint and alkali is fur- 
 3. ^^e* 
 
 II 
 
 Chalk. 
 
C H A . C 3 
 
 ther faturated with the flint, fo as to be Incapable of 
 bearing any further addition of that earth without 
 becoming opaque and milky, it will Itill in a ftrong 
 fire take up a confiderable proportion, one-third or 
 one-fourth of its weight, of chalk, without injury to its 
 tranfparency ; hence chalk is fometiraes made ufe of 
 in compofitions for glafs, as a part of the fait may 
 then be fpared. Chalk likewife has a great eSedt in 
 melting the ftonj- matters intermixed witli metallic 
 ores, and hence might be of ufe in fmelting ores ; 
 as indeed limeftone is ufed for that purpofe. But 
 it is remarkable, that chalk, _ when deprived of its 
 fixed air, and converted into limellone, lofes much of 
 its difpofition to vitrify. It is -then found to melt 
 very difficultly and imperfedlly, and to render the glafs 
 opaque, and milky. 
 
 Chalk readily imbibes water ; and hence maffes of 
 it are employed for drying precipitates, lakes, earthy 
 powders that have been levigated with water, and 
 other moid preparations. Its oeconomical ufes in 
 cleaning and polifliing metalline or glafs utenfils are 
 well known. In this cafe it is powdered and wafhed 
 from any gritty matter it may contain, and is then 
 called nvh'ning. — In medicine it is one of the moft 
 ufeful abforbents, and is to be looked upon fimply as 
 fuch. The aftringcnt virtues which fome have attri- 
 buted to it have no foundation, unlefs in as far as the 
 earth is faturated with an acid, with which it compofes 
 a faline concrete manifeftly fub-aftringent. For the 
 further properties of chalk, fee Chemistry, Index. 
 Black Chalk, a name given by painters to a fpecies 
 earth with which they draw on blue paper, &c. 
 It is found in pieces from two to t-en feet long, 
 and from four inches to twenty in breadth, gene- 
 lally flat, but fomewhat rifing in the middle, and 
 thinner 'towards the edges, commonly lying in large 
 quantities together. While in the earth, it is moifl. 
 and flaky : but being dried, it becomes confiderably 
 hard and very light ; but always breaks in fome par- 
 ticular diredion ; and if attentively examined whei) 
 frefti broken, appears of a flriated texture. To the 
 touch it is foft and fmooth, ftains very freely, and by 
 virtue of its fmoothnefs makes very neat marks. It is 
 eafily reduced into an impalpable foft powder with- 
 out any diminution of its blacknefs. In this ftate it 
 inixes eafily with oil into a fmooth pafte ; and being 
 (diff"ufed through water, it flowly fettles in a black flimy 
 or muddy form ; properties which make its ufe very 
 convenient to the painters both in oil and water co- 
 lours. It appears to be an earth quite, difl^erent from 
 common chalk, and rather of the ilaty bituminous kind. 
 In the fire it becomes white with a reddifh caft, and 
 very fi-iable, retaining its flaky ftrudure, and looking 
 much like the white flaky maifes which fome lorts of 
 pit-coal leave in burning. Neither the chalk nor thefe 
 afhes are at all affefted by acids. 
 
 The colour-fliops are fupplied with this earth from 
 Italy or Germany ; though fome parts of England af- 
 ford fubftances nearly, if not entirely, of the lame qua- 
 lity, and which are found to be equally ferviceable 
 both for marking and as black paints. Such particu- 
 larly is the black earth called kilhiv, faid by Dr Merret 
 in his Pinax Rerum Britannicanum to be found in L.an 
 cafliire j and by Mr Da Cofta, in his hiftory of foffils, 
 
 7 ] C H A 
 
 to be plentiful near the top of Cay-Avon, an high hill Chalk, 
 in Merionelhfliire. Challenge. 
 
 Red Chalk, an earth much ufed by painters and ar- ' 
 tificers, and common in the colour-fhops. It is pro- 
 perly an indurated clayey ochre ; and is ^ug in Ger- 
 many, Italy, Spain, and France, but in greateit quan- 
 tity in Flanders. It is of a fine, even, and firm tex- 
 ture; very heavy, and very hard ; of a pale red on the 
 outfide, but of a deep duflcy ctiocolate colour within. 
 It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfectly infipid to. 
 the talle, and makes no eflervefcence with acids. 
 
 CHALK-Land. Barley and wheat will fucceed very 
 well on the better fort of chalky land, and oats gene- 
 rally do well on any kind of it. The natural produce 
 of this fort of land in weeds, is that fort of fmall vetch 
 called the tine-tare, with poppies, may-weed, &c. Sain- 
 foin and hop-clover will generally fucceed tolerably well 
 on thefe lands ; and, where they are of the better fort, 
 the great clover will do. The befl manure is dung, 
 old rags, and the fheep-dung left after folding them 
 
 CnALK-Stoncs, in medicine, fignify the concretionss 
 of calcareous matter in the hands and feet of people 
 violently afllidled with the gout. Leeuwenhoek has 
 been at the pains of examining thefe by the micro- 
 fcope. He divides them into three parts. The firft 
 is compofed of various fmall parcels of matter looking 
 like vvhite grains of fand ; this is harder and drier,, 
 and alfo whiter, than the reft. When examined with 
 large magnifiers, thefe are found to be compofed of 
 oblong particles laid clofely and evenly together :. 
 though the whole fmall ftones are opaque, thefe com- 
 ponent parts of them are pellucid, and referable pie- 
 ces of horfe-hair cut fliort, only that they are fome- 
 what pointed at both ends. Thefe are fo extremely 
 thin, that Mr L.eeu\venhoek computes that icoo of 
 them placed together would not amount to the fize of 
 one hair of our heads. The whole flonea in this harder 
 part of the chalk are not compofed of thefe particles, 
 but there are confufedly thrown in among them fome 
 broken parts of otheif fubfl.ances, and in a few places 
 fome globules of blood and fmall remains of other 
 juices. The fecond kind of chalky matter is lefs hard, 
 and lefs white than the former, and is compofed of 
 fragments or irregular parts of thofe oblong bodies 
 which compofe the firft or hardeft kind, and thefe are 
 mixed among tough and clear' matter, interfperfed 
 with the fmall broken globules of blood difcoverable 
 in the former, but in much greater quantity. The 
 third kind appears red to the naked eye ; and, when 
 examined with glaffes, is found to be a more tough and 
 clammy white matter, in which a great number of 
 globules of blood are interfperfed thefe give it the red. 
 appearance it has. 
 
 CHALLENGE, a cartel or invitation to a duel or 
 other combat *. A challenge either by word or Jet-« ggg Duel. 
 ter, or to be the bearer of luch a challenge, is punifh- 
 able by fine and imprifonment on indiftraent or infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Challenge, among hunters. When hounds or 
 beagles, at firft finding the fcent of their game, pre-^ 
 fently open and cry, they are faid to challenge. 
 
 Challenge, in the law of England, is an excep- 
 tion made to jurors f j and is either in civil or ciirni- f See the 
 naLcaft5. article Tr**! 
 
 X la 
 
C H A r 3 
 
 ChaTIenpe. J jj, y^^n cafes challenges are of two forts ; chal- 
 " lenges to the array, and challenges to the poll. 
 
 1. Challenges to the array are at once an exception 
 to the whole panel, in which the jury are arrayed, or 
 fet in order -by the fherifF in his return ; and they may 
 be made upon account of partiality or fome default in 
 the fheriff or his under officer who arrayed the panel. 
 Alfo, though there be no perfonal objeAion agaiuR 
 the fheriff, yet if he arrays the panel at the nomina- 
 tion, or under the direftion of either party, this is 
 good caufe of challenge to the array. Formerly, if a 
 i&rd of parliament had a caufe to be tried, and no 
 knight was returned upon the jury, it was a caufe of 
 challenge to the array : alfo by the policy of the an- 
 cient law, the jury was to come de vicineto, from the 
 neighbourhood of the vill or place where the caufe 
 of adlion was laid in the declaration : and therefore 
 fome of the jury were obliged to be returned from 
 the hundred in which fuch vill lay ; and, if none 
 were returned, the array might be challenged from 
 defeft of hundreders. For, living in the neighbour- 
 hood, thefe were fnppofed to know beforehand the 
 charafters of the patties and witneffes ; and therefore 
 they better knew what credii to give to the fafts al- 
 leged in evidence. But this convenience was over- 
 balanced by another very natural and almoft unavoid- 
 able inconvenience; that jurors coming out of the im- 
 mediate neighbourhood, would be apt to intermix 
 their prejudices and partialities in the trial of right. 
 And this the law was fo fenfible of, that it for a long 
 time has been gradually rehnquifhing this praftice ; 
 the number of neceflary hundreders in the whole pa- 
 nel, which in the reign of Edward III. were conftantly 
 fix, being in the time of Fortefcue reduced to four ; 
 afterwards by ftatute 27 Eliz. c. 6. to two ; and at 
 length, by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. it was en- 
 tirely abolifhed upon all civil aftions, except upon pe- 
 nal ftatutes ; and upon thofe alfo by the 24 Geo. II. 
 C. 18. the jury being ndw only to come de corpore co~ 
 mttatusy from the body of the country at large, and not 
 de v'lcineto, or from the particular neighbourhood. 
 The array by the ancient law may alfo be challenged, 
 if an alien be party to the fuit, and, upon a rule ob- 
 tained by his motion to the court for a jury de medie- 
 tate linguae, fuch a one be not returned by the fheriff 
 purfuant to the ftatute 28 Edward III. c. 1 3. enforced 
 by 8 Hen. VI. c. 29. which enafts, that where either 
 party is an alien born, the jury fhall be one half deni- 
 zens and the other aliens (if fo many be forthcoming 
 in the place), for the more impartial trial: A privi- 
 lege indulged to ilrangers in no other country in the 
 World;; but which is as ancient in England as the time 
 of King Ethelred, in whofe ftatute de mont'mlis Wall'm 
 (then aliens to the crown of England), c. 3. it is or- 
 dained, that " duodeni legales homines, quorum fex 
 Walli et fex Angli erunt, Anglis et Wallis jus di- 
 cunto." 
 
 2. Challenges to the polls, hi capita, are exceptions 
 to particular jurors ; and feem to anfwer the recufatio 
 judicis in the civil and canon laws ; by the conftitutions 
 of which, a judge might be refufed upon any fufpi- 
 clon of partiahty. By the laws of England alfo, in 
 the times of Brafton and Fleta, a judge might be re- 
 fufed for good caufe ; but now the law is otherwife, 
 and it is held that judges orjuftices cannot be challen- 
 
 i8 ] C H A 
 
 ged. For the law will not fuppofe a poflibllity of bias Challenge, 
 or favour in a judge who is already fvvorn to admini- v 
 fter impartial juftice, and whofe authority greatly de- 
 pends on that prcfumption and idea. And, fhould the 
 fadl at any time prove flagrantly fuch, as the delicacy 
 of the law will not preiume beforehand, there is no 
 doubt but that fuch mifbehaviour would draw down a 
 heavy cenfure from thofe to whom the judge is ac- 
 countable For his conduft. But challenges to the 
 polls of the jury (who are judges of fa£t) are reduced 
 to four heads by Sir Edward Coke : propter honoris re- 
 fpeSuin; propter defeSuni; propter affeSlum; and propter 
 delidum. \ . Propter honoris refpedum; as, if a lord of 
 parliament be impanelled on a jury, he may be chal- 
 lenged by either party, or be may •challenge himlelf. 
 2. Propter defectum; as, if a juryman be an alien born, 
 this is defedl: of birth ; if he be a flave or bondman, 
 this is defedl of liberty, and he cannot be a liber et k' 
 galis homo. Under the word homo alfo, though a name 
 common to both fexes, the female is however exclu- 
 ded, />roj(>/dT defeSum fexus: except when a widow feigns 
 herfelf with child in order to exclude the next heir, 
 and a fuppofititioiis birth is fufpedled to be intended ; 
 then, upon the writ de ventre infpiciendo, a jury of wo- 
 men is to be impanelled to try the queftion whether 
 with child or not. But the principal deficiency is de- 
 feat of eftate fufficient to qualify him to be a juror, 
 which depends upon a variety of ftatutes*. 3. Jurors • See J 
 may be challenged /)r<3^/er etffeSium, for fufpicion h\z% ftone' s Com, 
 or partiality. This may be either a principal chal- 3^*» 
 lenge, or to the favour. A principal challenge is fuch, 
 where the caufe afligned carries with it, prima facie^ 
 evident marks of fufpicion either ;of malice or favour : 
 as, that a juror is of kin to either party within the 
 ninth degree ; that he has an intereft in the caufe; that 
 there is an action depending between him and the par- 
 ty ; that he has taken money for his verdidt, i^c. which, 
 if true, cannot be overruled, for jurors muft be omne 
 exceptione majores. Challenges to the favour, are where 
 the party hath no principal challenge ; but objecils only 
 fome probable circumftances of fufpicion, as acquaint- 
 ance, and the like ; the vahdity of which muft be left 
 to the determination of triors, whofe office is to decide 
 whether the juror be favourable or unfavourable. 4, 
 Challenges /ro/to* deliSlum, are for fome crime or mif- 
 demeanour that affedts the juror's credit, and renders 
 him infamous : As for a conviftion of treafon, felony, 
 perjury, or confpiracy ; or if, for fome infamous of- 
 fence, he hath received judgment of the pilory or the 
 like. 
 
 II. In criminal cafes, challenges may be made either 
 on the part of the king, or on that of the priloner ; 
 and either to the whole array, or to the feparate polls> 
 for the very fame reafons that they may be in civil 
 caufes. For it is here at leaft as neceffary as there, 
 that the fheriff or returning officer be totally indiffer- 
 ent; that, where an ahen is indidled, the jury fliould 
 be de medietate, or half foreigners, if fo many are found 
 in the place (which does not indeed hold in treafons, 
 aliens being very improper judges of the breach of al- 
 legiance ; nor yet in the cafe of Egyptians under the 
 ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10.); that on every pannel 
 there fhould be a competent number of hundreders ; 
 and that the particular jurors ftiould be omni exceptione 
 mnjores, not liable to objedlions zilhtr propter honoris re- 
 
 fpeduWf 
 
C H A [3 
 
 Challenge, ^^^a^, propter defeBum, propter afeSum, or propter de- 
 
 Challenges on any of the foregoing accounts are ftyled 
 challenges for caufe; which may be without Hint in both 
 civil and criminal trials. But in criminal cafes, or at leaft 
 in capital ones, there is, in favorem v'tta, allowed to the 
 prifoner an arbitrary and capricious fpecies of challenge 
 to a certain number of juiors, without fhowing any 
 caufe at all ; which is called a peremptory challenge : 
 a provifion full of that tendernefs and humanity to pri- 
 foners for which our laws are juiUy famous. This is 
 grounded on two reafons : T. As every one muft be 
 fenfible what fudden imprefiions and unaccountable pre- 
 judices we are apt to conceive upon the bare looks and 
 geftures of another ; and how neceffary it is, that a 
 prifoner, when put to defend his life, fliould have a 
 {rood opinion of his jury, the want of which might to- 
 tally difconcert him ; the law wills not that he Ihould 
 be tried by any one man againft whom he has concei- 
 ved a prejudice even without being able to affign a rea- 
 fon for fuch his diflike. 2^ Becaufe upon challeages 
 for caufe fliown, if the reafon afiigned prove infuffi- 
 cient to fet afide the juror, perhaps the bare queftion- 
 ing his indifference may fometimes provoke a refent- 
 ment ; to prevent all ill confequences from which, the 
 prifoner is ilill at hberty, if he pleafes, peremptorily 
 to fet him afide. 
 
 This privilege of peremptory challenges, though 
 granted to the prifoner, is denied to the king by the 
 ftatute 33 Edward I. ftat. 4. which enaAs, that the 
 king fhall challenge no jurors without affigning a caufe 
 certain to be tried and approved by the court. How- 
 ever, it is held that the king need not affign his caufe 
 of challenge till all the panel is gone through, and un- 
 kfs there cannot be a full jury without the perfons fo 
 challenged. And then, and not fooner, the king's 
 counfel muft fliow the caufe : otherwife the juror {hull 
 be fworn. 
 
 The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft, 
 however, have fome reafcfnable boundary ; otherwife 
 he might never be tried. This reafonable boundary is 
 fettled by the common law to the number of 35; that 
 is, one under the number of three full juries. For the 
 law judges, that 35 are fully fufficient to allow the 
 moft timorous man to challenge through mere caprice; 
 and that he who peremptorily challenges a greater 
 number, or three full juries, has no intention to be 
 tried at all. And therefore it deals with one who pe- 
 remptorily challenges above ^5, and will not retradl 
 his challenge, as with one who ftands mute or refufes 
 his trial ; by fentencing him to the peine forte et dure in 
 felony, and by attainting him in treafon. And fo the 
 law ftands at this day with regard to treafon of any 
 kind. But by ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 14. (which, 
 with regard to felonies, ftands unrepealed), no perfon 
 arraigned for felony can be admitted to make more than 
 20 peremptory challenges. 
 
 CHALLON-sur-Saone, an ancient town of 
 France, in Burgundy, and capital of the Challonnois, 
 with a citadel and bilhop's fee. It is feated on the ri- 
 ver Saone, in E. Long. 5. 7. N. Lat. 46. 47. 
 
 CHJLLONS-Sur-Marney a large epifcopal town of 
 France, in Champagne. It carries on a confiderable 
 tiade in flialloons, and other woollen ftuffs. It is feated 
 
 9 3 c H A 
 
 between two fine meadows on the rivers Marne, Maii> Ghal oney. 
 and Nau, in E- Long. 4. 37. N. Lat. 48.57. u— n^^— ,1 
 
 CHALONER (Sir Thomas), a ftatefman, foldier, 
 and poet, defcended from a good family in Denbigh 
 in Wales, was born at London, about the year 15 15. 
 Having been educated in both univerfities, but chiefly 
 at Cambridge, he was introduced at the court of Hen- 
 ry VIII. who fent him abroad in the retinue of Sir 
 Henry Knevet ambaffador to Charles V. and he had 
 the honour to attend that monarch on his fatal expedi- 
 tion againft Algiers in 1541. Soon after the fleet left 
 that place, he was fliipwrecked on the coaft of Bar- 
 bary in a very dark night : and having exhaufted hia 
 ftrength by fwimming, he chanced to ftrike his head 
 againft a cable, which he had the prefcnce of mind to 
 catch hold of with his teeth ; and, with the lofs of fe- 
 veral of them, was drawn up by , it into the ftiip to 
 which he belonged. Mr Chaloner returned foon after 
 to England, and was appointed firft clerk of the coun- 
 cil, which office he held during the reft of that reign. 
 On the acceffion of Edward VI. he became a favourite 
 of the Duke of Somerfet, whom he attended to Scot- 
 land, and was knighted by thai nobleman after the 
 battle of Muflelburgh, in 1547. The protedor's fall 
 put a ftop to Sir Thomas Chaloner's expeftations, and 
 involved him in difficulties. During the reign of queen 
 Mary, being a determined proteftant, he was in fome 
 danger ; but having many powerful friends, he had the 
 good fortune to efcape. On the acceffion of queen 
 Ehzabeth, he appeared again at Court ; and was fo 
 immediately diftinguiflied by her Majefty, that Ihe ap- 
 pointed him ambaflador to the emperor Ferdinand I. 
 being the firft ambaffador ftie nominated. His com- 
 miffion was of great importance ; and the queen was 
 fo well fatisfied with his conduft, that, foon after his 
 return, ftie fent him in the fame capacity to Spain: 
 but Sir Thomas was by no means fatisfied with this in^ 
 ftance of her majefty's confidence : the courts of Eng- 
 land and Spain being at this time extremely diffatisfied 
 With each other, he forefaw that his fituation would 
 be very difagreeable ; and fo it proved ; but Elizabeth 
 muft be obeyed. He embarked for Spain in 1561, 
 and returned to London in 1564, in conlequence of a 
 requeft to his fovereign, in an elegy written in imita- 
 tion of Ovid. After his return, he refided in a houfe 
 built by himfelf in Clerkenwell-clofe, where he died in 
 the year 1565, and was buried in St Paul's. Sir Wil- 
 liam Cecil allifted as chief mourner at his funeral. 
 
 So various were the talents of Sir Thomas Chaloner, 
 that he excelled in every thing to which he apphed 
 himfelf. He made a confiderable figure,js a poet. His 
 poetical works were publiftied by William Malim, ma- 
 fter of St Paul's fchool, in 1579. His capital work 
 was that " Of reftoring the Englifti republic, in ten 
 books," which he wrote when he was ambaflador in 
 Spain. It is remarkable, that this gre-at man, who 
 knew how to tranfadl as well as write upon tlie moft 
 important affairs of ttates and kingdoms, could defcend- 
 to compofe a diSionary for children, and to tranflate 
 from the Latin a book Of the off,ce of Servants, merely- 
 for the utility of the fubjefts. 
 
 Chaloner (Sir Thomas) the younger, though in- 
 confiderable as ua author, deferves to be recorded as .a 
 fliilful naturalift, in an age. wherein natural hiftory was 
 Z very 
 
C H A [ 
 
 ChaloncrJ very little underftood in this or any other counti*}' 
 Cham particularly as the founder of the alum- works in York 
 
 and in^ 
 
 (hire, which have fince proved fo exceedingly advan- 
 tageous to the commerce of this kingdom. He was 
 the only fon of Sir Thomas Chaloner mentioned in the 
 laft article, and was born in the year 15^9.'' Being 
 very young at the time of his father's death, the lord 
 treafurer Burleif^h taking charge of his education, fent 
 him to St Paul's fchool, -and afterwards to Magdalen 
 college in Oxford, where, like his father, he difco- 
 vered extraordinary talents for Latin and Engliflr 
 poetry. About the year 1580, he made the tour of 
 Europe, and returned to England before 1584 ; for, 
 in that year, we find him a frequent attendant in the 
 court of queen Elizabeth. About this time he mar- 
 tied the daughter of Sir WilHam Fleetwood, recorder 
 of London. 101591 he was knighted; and, fome 
 time after, difcovered the alum-mines on his eftate at 
 Gifborough, near the river Tees in Yorkfhire ^A). 
 
 Towards the latter end of the queen's reign. Sir 
 Thomas vifited Scotland ; and returning to England in 
 the retinue of king James I. found fuch favour in the 
 fight of his majelly, that he was immediately appointed 
 governor to prince Henry, whom he conftantly at- 
 tended, and, when his royal pupil vifited Oxford, was 
 honoured with the degree of mafter of arts. How he 
 was employed after the death of the prince is not 
 known. Some years before that event, he married 
 a fecond wife, the daughter of Mr William Blount of 
 London, by whom he had fome children. He died in 
 the year 1615', and was buried at Chifvvick in Middle- 
 fex. His eldeft fon William was created a baronet in 
 the 1 8th of James 1620. The title was extinct 
 in 1681. He wrote, i. Dedication to Lord Burleigh 
 of his father's poetical works, dated 1579. 2. The 
 virtue of nitre, wherein is declared the fundry cures by 
 the fame effected. Loud. 1584, 4to, 
 
 CHALYBEAT, in medicine, an appellation given 
 to any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with 
 paitjcles of iron or fteel. See Mineral Waters. 
 
 CHALYBES (anc. geog.), an ancient people of 
 the Hither Alia. Their fituation is differently aflign- 
 ed ; Strabo placing them in Paphlagonia, to the eaft. 
 of Synope ; ApoUonius Rhodus and Stephanus, on 
 the eaft of the Thermodon, in Pontus ; called ffali- 
 nones by Homer. They either gave their name to, or 
 took it from, their iron manufaftures, (Xenophon, 
 Val. Elaccus), their only fupport, their foil being bar- 
 ren and ungrateful, (Dionyfius Perlegctes). 
 
 CHAM, or Khan, the title given to the fovereign 
 princes of Tartary. 
 
 The wqrd, in the Perfian, fignifies mighty lord; in 
 the Sclavonic, emperor. Sperlingins, in his Differta- 
 tion on the Danilh term of Majejly, ioning, ling, thinks 
 the Tartarian cbam may be well derived from it ; add- 
 N° 68. 
 
 ] G H A 
 
 that Jn t'hf north they fay im, hnnen, loti^, ion* 
 
 ningt &c. The term cham is alfo applied, among the 
 Perfians, to the great lords of the court, and the go- 
 vernors of provinces. 
 
 Cham, in geography, a town of the Bavarian pala- 
 tinate, fituated on a river of the lame name, about 
 25 miles north-ealtof Ratilhon; E, Long. 13. N. Lat. 
 49. 1^ 
 
 CHAMA, in zoology, a gentts of fhell-fifh belong, 
 ing to the order of vermes tellaceas. The fhell is thick, 
 and has two valves; it is an animal of the oyfter kind. 
 Linnasus enumerates i 4 fpecies, principally diftinguirti- 
 ed by the figure of their (hells. 
 
 CHAMADE, in war, y certain beat of a drum, 
 or found of a trumpet, wb|ich is given the enemy as a 
 fignal to inform them of fome propofition to be made 
 to the commander, either to capitulate, to have leave 
 to bury their dead, make a truce, or the like. — Menage 
 derives the word from the Italian ch'iamata, of clamare 
 to " cry." 
 
 CHAM.EDRYS, in botany. See Veronica. 
 
 CHAMiELEON, in zoology, the trivial name of 
 a fpecies of Lacerta. 
 
 CHAMA-PITYS, in botany. See Teucrium. 
 
 CHAM^ROPS, in botany : A genus of the na- 
 tural order of palmse. The hermaphrodite calyx is 
 tripartite ; the corolla tripetalous ; there are fix (lami- 
 na, three piftils, and three monofpermOus plums. The 
 male, in a diftinft plant, the fame as the hermaphro- 
 dite. There are two fpecies, the moft remarkable of 
 which is the glabra, a native of the Weft Indies, and 
 warm parts of America, alio of the correfponding la- 
 titudes of Afia and Africa. It never rifes with a tall 
 ftem ; but when the plants are old, their leaves are five 
 or fix feet long, and upwards of two feet broad ; thefe 
 fpread open like a fan, having many foldings, and at 
 the top are deeply divided like the fingers of a hand. 
 This plant the Americans call thatch, from the ufe to 
 which the leaves are applied. — Under the name of pal- 
 metto, however, Mr Adanfon defcribes a fpecies of 
 palm which grows naturally at Senegal, whofe trunk 
 rifes from 50 to 60 feet in height : from the upper end 
 of the trunk ilTues a bundle of leaves,, which, in turn- 
 ing off, form a round head ; each leaf reprefents a fan 
 of five or fix feet in expanfion, fupported by a tail of 
 the fame length. Of thefe trees, fome produce male 
 flowers, which are conlequently barren ; others are fe- 
 male, and loaded with truit, which fucceed each other 
 uninterruptedly almoft the whole year round. The 
 fruit of the large palmettos, Mr Adanfon affirms to be 
 of the bignefs of an ordinary melon, but rounder : it is 
 inveloped in two flcins as tough as leather, and as thick 
 as ftrong parchment ; within the fruit is yellowifh, and 
 full of filaments fattened to three large kernels in the 
 middle. The negroes are very fond of this fruit, 
 
 which, 
 
 (a) Sir Thomas, during his refidence in Italy, being particularly fond of natural hiftory, fpent fome time at 
 Puzzoli, where he was very attentive to -the art of producing alum. This attention proved infinitely ferviceable 
 to his country, though of no great benefit to himfelf or his family, his attempt being attended with much dif- 
 ficulty and expence. It was begun about the year t6oo, in the^reign of queen Elizabeth; but was not brought 
 to any degree of perfeftion till fome time in the reign of Charles I. by the affiftance of one Ruflel a Walloon, 
 and two other workmen brought from the alum-works at Rochelle. By one of the arbitrary ads of Charles, 
 it was then deemed a mine-royal, and granted to Sir Paul Pindar. The long parliament adjudged it a mono- 
 poly, and juftly reftored it to the original preprietors. 
 
C H A 
 
 C 321 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 II 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Ci amanim which, when baked under the afhcs, is faid to taite 
 like a quince. 
 
 , The little palmetto may be eafily raifed in this coun- 
 try from feeds brought from America ; but, as the 
 plants are tender, they mull be conllantly kept in a 
 bark-ftove. 
 
 CHAMANIM, in the Jewifh antiquities, is the 
 Hebrew name for that which the Greeks call Pyrela or 
 Pyraterta; and St Jerom in Leviticus has tranflated 
 Simulachra, in Ifaiah, delubra. Thefe chamanim were, 
 according to Rabbi Solomon, idols expofed to the fun 
 upon the tops of houfes. Abenezoa fays they were 
 portable chapels or temples made in the form of cha- 
 riots, in honour of the fun. What the Greeks call 
 Pyreia, were temples confecrated to the fun and fire, 
 wherein a perpetual fire was kept up. They were 
 built upon eminences ; and were large inclofures with- 
 out covering, where the fun was worfhipped. The 
 Guebres, or worfliippers of fire, in Perfia and the Eaft 
 Indies, have ftill thefe Pyreia. The word chamanim is 
 derived from Chaman, which fignifies to warm, or 
 burn. 
 
 CHAMARIM, a word which occurs in feveral 
 places of the Hebrew bible, and is generally tranflated 
 the priefis of the ichh, or the pnefts clothed in blacky be- 
 caufe chamar fignifies " black," or " blacknefs." St 
 Jerom, in the fecond book of Kings, renders it aru- 
 fpices. In Hofea and Zephania, he tranflates it adi- 
 tui or church-wardens. But the bell commentators 
 are of opinion, that by this word we are to underftand 
 the priells of the falfe gods, and in particular the wor- 
 fhippers of fire ; becaufe they were, as they fay, dref- 
 fed in black ; or perhaps the Hebrews gave them this 
 name in derifion, becaufe, as they were continually em- 
 ployed in taking care about the fuel, and keeping up the 
 fire, they were always as black as fmiths or colliers. 
 We find priefts, among thofe of Ifis, called melancphor'i ^ 
 that is to fay, that wear black ; but whether this may 
 be by reafon of their dreffing in black, or whether it 
 were becaufe they wore a certain Ihining black veil in 
 the proceiTions of this goddefs, is not certain. Ca- 
 mar, in Arabic, fignifies the " moon." Ifis is the 
 fame deity. Grotius thinks the Roman priefts, called 
 cnmilli, came from the Hebrew chamarim. Thofe a- 
 mong the heathens who facrificed to the infernal gods 
 were dreffed in black. 
 
 CHAMBER, in building, a member of a lodging, 
 or piece of an apartment, ordinarily intended for lleep- 
 ing in ; and called by the Latins cubicuJum. The 
 word comes from the Latin camera ; and that, accor- 
 ding to Nicod, from the Greek xa,«afa, vault or curve ; 
 the term clamber being originally confined to places 
 arched over. 
 
 A complete apartment is to confift of a hall, anti- 
 chamber, chamber, and cabinet. 
 
 Privy-CHJMfiF.R. Gentlemen of the privy -chamber, 
 are fcrvants of the king, who are to wait and attend 
 on him and the queen at court, in their diverfions, ^c. 
 Their number is forty-eight, under the lord-chamber- 
 lain, twelve of whom are in quarterly waiting, and two 
 of thefe lie in the privy-chamber. 
 
 In the abfence of the lord-chamberlain, or vice-cham- 
 berlain, they execute the king's orders : at corona- 
 tions, two of them perfonate the dukes of Aquitain 
 and Normandy ; and fix of them, appointed by. the 
 Vol. IV. Part L 
 
 lord-chamberlain, attend am.bafiac ors from crowned Chamber, 
 heads to their audiences, and in public enxries. The — -'v~~-' 
 gentlemen of the privy-chamber were inftituted by 
 Plenry VII. 
 
 Chamber, in policy, the place where certain af- 
 femblies are held, alfo the affemblies tliemfelves. 0£ 
 thefe fome are eftabliftied for the adminiftration of juf- 
 tice, others for commercial affairs. 
 
 Of the firft kind are, i. Star-chamber, fo called, 
 becaufe the roof was painted with ftars ; the autho- 
 rity, power, and jurifdi£lion of which, are abfolutely a- 
 bolifhed by the ftatute 17 Car. I. 2. Imperial cham- 
 ber of Spii'e, the fupreme court of judicatory in the 
 em.pire, erefted by Maximilian I. This chamber has 
 a right of judging by appeal ; and fs the laft refort of 
 all civil affairs of the ftates and fubjefts of the empire^ 
 in the fame manner as the aulic council of Vienna. 
 Neverthelefs it is reftrained in feveral cafes : it takea 
 no notice of matrimonial caufes, thefe being left to 
 the pope ; nor of criminal caufes, which either belong 
 to particular princes or towns in their refpe6live terri- 
 tories, or are cognizable by all the ilates of the empire 
 in a diet. By the treaty of Ofnaburg, in 1648, fifty 
 affeffors were appointed for this chamber, whereof 24. 
 were to be Proteftants, and 26 Catholics ; befides five 
 prefidents, two of them Proteftants, and the reft Ca- 
 tholics. 3. Chamber accounts, a fovereign court in 
 France, where accounts are rendered of all the king's 
 revenues, inventories, and avowals thereof regiftered ; 
 oaths of fidelity taken, and other things relating to 
 the finances tranfa£ted. There are nine in France, 
 that of Paris is the chief ; it regifters proclamations, 
 treaties of peace, naturalizations, titles of nobility, i3'r. 
 All the members wear long black gowns of velvet, of 
 fattin, or damaflc, according to their places. 4. Ec- 
 clefiaftical chambers in France, which judge by appeal 
 of differences about coUefting the tythes. 5. Cham- 
 ber of audience, or grand chamber, a jurifdiftion in 
 each parliament of France, the counfellors of which 
 are called j-a^fwrj, or judges, as thofe of the chamber 
 of inquefts are called raporteurs, reporters of proceffes 
 by writing. 6. Chamber of the editt, or miparty, a 
 court eftabliflied by virtue of the edicfh of pacification 
 in favour of thofe of the reformed religion. This 
 chamber is now fuppreffed. 7. Apoftolical chamber 
 of Rome, that wherein affairs relating to the revenues 
 of the church and the pope are tranfaftcd. This 
 council confifts of the cardlnal-camerlingo, the gover- 
 nor of the rota, a treafurer, an auditor, a prefident, one 
 advocate-general, a follcitor-geheral, a commiflary, 
 and 12 clerks. 8. Chamber of London, an apartment 
 in Guildhall, where the city money is depofited. 
 
 Of the laft fort are, the chambers of commerce; the 
 chambers of affurance ; and the royal or fyndical 
 chamber of bookfellers in France. 
 
 I . The chamber of commerce is an affembly of mer- 
 chants and traders, where the affairs relating to trade 
 are treated of. . There are feveral eftablifhed in moft 
 of the chief cities of France ; and in our own coun- 
 try, we have lately feen chambers of this kind erefled, 
 particularly in London, Edinburgh, and Glafgow. 
 2. Chamber of affurance in France, denotes a foclety 
 of merchants and others for carrying on the bufinefs 
 of infuring : but in Holland, it fignifies a court of juf- 
 tice, where caufes relating to infurances are tried. 
 
 S s 3. Cham- 
 
Chamber, 
 Chamber- 
 lain. 
 
 C H A [32 
 
 3. Chamber of bookfellers in Paris, an alTembly con- 
 fifting of a fyndic and affiftants, elefted by four dele- 
 gates from the printers, and twelve from the book- 
 fellers, to vifit the books imported from abroad, and 
 to fearch the houfes of fellers of marbled paper, print- 
 fellers, and dealers in printed paper for hangings, who 
 are prohibited from keeping any letters proper for 
 printing-books. In the vifitation of books, which 
 ought to be performed by three perfons at leaft from 
 among the fyndic and affiftants, all libels againft the 
 honour of God and the welfare of the Hate, and all 
 books printed either within or without the kingdom 
 in breach of their regulations and privileges, are ftopt, 
 even with the merchandifes that may happen to be in 
 the bales with fuch libels or other prohibited books. 
 The days appointed for this chamber to meet, are 
 Tuefdays and Fridays, at two o'clock in the after- 
 noon. 
 
 Chambkr, in militaiy affairs. i. Powder-cham- 
 ber, or bomb-chamber ; a place funk under ground 
 for holding the powder, or bombs, where they may 
 be out of danger, and fecured from the rain. 2. Cham- 
 ber of a mine ; the place, moft commonly of a cubical 
 form, where the powder is confined. 3. Chamber 
 of a mortar ; that part of the chafe, much narrower 
 than the reft of the cylinder, where the powder lies. 
 It is ©f different forms ; fometimes like a reverfcd 
 cone ; fometimes globular, with a neck for its commu- 
 nication with the cylinder, whence it is called a bot- 
 tled chamber ; but moft commonly cylindrical, that 
 being the form which h found by experience to carry 
 the ball to the greatcft diftauce. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the 
 management and direftion of a chamber. See Cham- 
 ber, in-psltcy. 
 
 There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains as 
 chambers, the principal whereof are as follows. 
 
 Lord CHAMBERf.AiN of Great Briiain, the fixth great 
 officer of the crown ; to whom belongs livery and 
 lodging in the king's court ; and thete are certain 
 fees due to him from each arclibifhop or biPnop v/hen 
 they perform their homage to the king, and from all 
 peers at their creation or doing their homage. At 
 the coronation of every king, he is to have forty ells 
 of crlmfon velvet for his own robes. This officer, on 
 the coronation-day, is to bring the king his ftiirt, coif, 
 and wearing clothes ; and after the king is drefled, he 
 claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber, 
 for his fees: he alfo carries, at the coronation, the coif, 
 gloves, and linen, to be ufed by the king on that occa- 
 fion ; alfo the fword and fcabbard, the gold to be of- 
 fered by the king, and the robes-royal and crown : he 
 dreffes and undreffes the king on that day, waits on 
 him before and after dinner, l5c. To this officer be- 
 longs the care of providing all things in the houfe of 
 lords, in the time of parliament ; to him alfo belongs 
 the government of the palace of Weftminfter : he dif- 
 pofes likewife of the fword of ftate, to, be carried be- 
 fore the king, to what lord he pleafes.. 
 
 The great chamberlain of Scotland was ranked by 
 King Malcolm as the third great officer of the crown, 
 and was called, Camerarius Domini Regis. Before there 
 v/as a treafurer appointed, it, was his duty to coiledl 
 the revenue of the crown, and he dift)urfed the money 
 HV'Cpffary for the king's expences, and the maintenance 
 
 2 ] C H A 
 
 of the king's houfehold. From, the time that a trea- 
 furer was appointed, his province was limited to the 
 boroughs t)*/ougliout the kingdom, where he was a 
 fort of juftice-general, as he had a power for judging 
 of all crimes committed within the borough, and of 
 the crime of foreftalling. He was to hold chamber- 
 lain-ayres every year. He was fupreme judge ; nor 
 could any of his decrees be queftioned by any inferior 
 judicatory. His fentences were put in execution by 
 the magiftrates of the boroughs. He alfo regulated 
 the prices of provifions within the borough, and the 
 fees of the workmen in the mint-houfe. His falarv 
 was only L. 200 a-year. The fmallnefs of his falan', 
 and his great powers, had no doubt been the caufcs 
 of much oppreffion in this officer, and the chamberlain- 
 ayre was called rather a legal robbery than a court of 
 juftice ; and when the combined lords feized king 
 James VI. Auguft 24, 1582, and carried liim to Ruth- 
 ven Caftle, they iffucd a proclamation in the king's 
 name, difcharging the chamberlain-ayres to be kept. 
 The chamberlain had gi-eat fees ariling from the pro- 
 fits of efcheats, fines, tolb, and cuftoms. This office 
 was granted hei-itably to the family of Stuart, duke 
 of Lenox ; and when their male line failed, king 
 Charles It. conferred it in like manner upon his natu- 
 ral fon, whom he created duke of Monmouth, and on 
 his forfeiture it went to the duke of Lenox ; but that 
 family furrendered the office to the crown in 1703. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain of the Honfiold, an officer who 
 has the overfight and direftion of all officers belonging 
 to tlie king's chambers, except the preclntl of the 
 king's bed-chamber. 
 
 He has the overfight of the officers of the v^^irdrobe 
 at all his majefty's houfes, and of the removing ward- 
 robes, or of beds, tents, revels, mufic, comedians, hinit 
 ing, meffengers, iffc. retained in the king's fervice. 
 He moreover has the overfight and direiStion of the fer- 
 jeants at arms, of all phyficians, apothecaries, furgeons, 
 barbers, the king's chaplains, ^c. and adminifters the 
 oath to all officers above ftairs. 
 
 Other chamberlains are thofe of the king's court 
 of exchequer, of North Wales, of Chefter, of the city 
 of London, &:c. in which cafes this officer is generally 
 the receiver of all rents and revenues belonging to 
 the place whereof he is chamberlain. 
 
 In the exchequer there are two chamberlains, who 
 keep a controlment of the pells of receipts and exitus, 
 and have certain keys of the treafury, records, i^c. 
 
 Chambkriain of London keeps the city money, 
 which Is laid up in the chamber of London : he alfo 
 prefidcs over tlie affairs of mafters and apprentices, and 
 makes free of the city, Iffc. 
 
 His office lafts only a year ; but the cuftom ufually 
 obtains to rc-chufe the fame perfon, unlefs charged 
 with any mifdemeanor in his office. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE (Edward), defcended from 
 an ancient family, was born in Glouceilerfliire 1616., 
 and made the tour of Europe during the diftraftions 
 of the civil war. After the reftoration, he went as 
 fecretary with the. earl of Carlifle, who carried the or- 
 der of the Garter to the king of Sweden ; was apj- 
 pointed tutor to the duke of Grafton, natural fon of 
 Charles II. and was afterwards pitched on to inftruct 
 prince George of Denark in the Englifti tongue. He 
 died in 1703, and was burled in a vault in Chelfea 
 4. church- 
 
 Chamher- 
 
 lain, 
 Chamber- 
 layne. 
 
C H A [ 3: 
 
 Chamber- cKurcli-yard : his monumental infcription mentions 
 ^^y"^ fix books of his writing ; and that he was deiirous of 
 
 Chamber' doing fcrvice to pofterity, that he ordered fome copies 
 ■ of his books to be covered with wax, and buried with 
 
 him. That work by which he is beft known, is his 
 AngUa Notiti/ei or the preftnt Jlale of England, which has 
 been often fince printed. 
 
 Chamberlayne (John), fon to the authors oiThe 
 Prefetit State of Englanciy" and continuator of that ufe- 
 ful work, was admitted into Trinity College, Oxford, 
 1685; but it doth not appear that he took any degree. 
 Befido the Continuation jutt mentioned, he was author 
 of " Diflertations hiftorical, critical, theological, and 
 moral, on the moll memorable events of the Old 
 and New Teftaments, with Chronological Tables 
 one vol. folio ; and tranflated a variety of works from 
 the French, Dutch, and other languages. He like- 
 wife was F. R. S. and communicated fome pieces, 
 inferted in the Philofophical Tranfa6lions. It was faid 
 of him that he underftood fixteen languages ; but it is 
 certain that he was mafter of the Greek, Latin, French, 
 High and Low Dutch, Portuguefe, and Italian. 
 Though he was qualified for employment, he had none 
 but that of Gentleman-Ufher to George Prince of 
 Denmark. After a ufeful and well-fpent life, he died 
 in the year 1724. He was a very pious and good 
 man, and earnell in promoting the advancement of re- 
 ligion, and the intereft of true Chriflianity ; for which 
 purpofe he kept a large corfefpondence abroad. 
 
 CHAMBERRY, a confiderable and populous town 
 of Italy, in Savoy, with a caftle. It is capital of the 
 duchy, and well built, but has no fortifications. It is 
 watered by feveral ftreams, which have their fources 
 in )St Martin's-hill, and run through feveral of the 
 ftreets. There are piazzas under mod part of the 
 houfes, where people may walk dry in the worfi: wea- 
 ther. It hath large and handfome fuburbs ; and in 
 the centre of the town is the royal palace. The par- 
 liament meet here, which is compofed of four prefi- 
 dents, and a pretty large number of fenators, being 
 the fupreme tribunal of the whole duchy. The prin- 
 cipal church is St Leger, and the Jefuits college is the 
 moft magnificent of all the monalleries. E. Long. 5. 
 50. N. Lat. 45. 35. 
 
 CHAMBERS (David), a Scots hiftorlan, prieft, 
 and lawyer, was born in the (hire of Rofs, about the 
 year 1530, and educated in the univerfity of Aber- 
 <ieen. From thence he went to France and Italy, 
 where he continuedfometime, particularly at Boulogne, 
 where, in 1556, he was a pupil of Marianus Sozenus. 
 
 After his return to Scotland, he was appointed, by 
 queen Mary, parfon of Suddy and chancellor of Rofs. 
 He was foon after employed in digefting the laws of 
 Scotland, and was principally concerned in publifting 
 the adls of parliament of that kingdom by authority 
 in 1566. He was alfo appointed one of the lords of 
 (effion, and continued her majefly's faitliful fervant 
 tiil her declining fortune obliged her adherents to fcek 
 for refuge in other kingdoms. Chambers went firll 
 to Spain, where he was gracioufly received by king 
 Philip ; and thence he travelled to Paris, where he 
 was no lefs kindly received by Charles IX. of that 
 kingdom, to whom, in 1572, he prefented his hiftory 
 of Scotland, Iffc. He died at Paris in the year 1592, 
 much regretted (fays Mackenzie) by all who knew 
 
 13 ] C H A 
 
 him. His writings were chiefly calculated to afilft Chambers, 
 his royal millrefs, and to extol the wifdom of the Scots — -v~~-' 
 nation. 
 
 Chambers (Ephvalm), author of the fcientific 
 Diftionary which goes unde?' his name, was born at 
 Milton, in the county of Wellmorcland. His parents 
 were dilTenters of the Prefbyterian perfuafion ; and his 
 education no other than that common one which is in- 
 tended to qualify a youth for trade and commerce. 
 When he became of a proper age, he was put appren- 
 tice to Mr Senex the globe-maker, a bufinefs which 
 is conne6led with literature, and efpecially with aftro- 
 nomy and geography. It was during Mr Chambers's 
 refidence with this llcilful mechanic, that he contradted 
 that tafte for fcience and learning which accompanied 
 him through life, and direfted all his purfuits. It Vv^as 
 even at this time that he formed the defign of his 
 grand work, the " Cyclopedia ;" and fome of the firll 
 articles of it were written behind the counter. Ha- 
 ving conceived the idea of fo great an undertaking, he 
 juitly concluded that the execution of it would not 
 confift with the avocations of trade ; and therefore he 
 quitted Mr Senex, and took chambers at Gray's-Inn, 
 where he chiefly refided during the reft of his days. 
 The firft edition of the Cyclopadiuy which was the re- 
 fult of many years intenfe application, appeared in 
 1728, in two vols. fol. It was publifhed by fubfcrip- 
 tion, the price being 4I. 4 s. and the lift of fubfcrlbers 
 was very refpe6lable. The dedication, which was to 
 the king, is dated Oilober 15. 1727. The reputation 
 that Mr Chambers acquired by his execution of this 
 undertaking, procured him the honour of being eledl- 
 ed F. R. S. Nov. 6. 1729. In lefs than ten years 
 time, a fecond edition became necefiary ; which accor- 
 dingly was printed, with corredllons and additions, in 
 1738; and was followed by a third the very next 
 year. 
 
 Although the Cyclopsedia was the grand bufinefs of 
 Mr Chambers's life, and may be regarded as ahnoit 
 the fole foundation of his fame, his attention was not 
 wholly confined to this undertaking. He was con- 
 cerned in a periodical publication, intituled, " The 
 Literary Magazine," which was begun in 1735. In 
 this work he wrote a variety of articles, and particu- 
 larly a review of Morgan's " Moral Philofopher.'* 
 He was engaged, likewife, in conjunftion with Mr 
 John Martyn, F. R. S. and profeflbr of botany at 
 Cambridge, in preparing for the prefs a tranflation and 
 abridgment of the " Philofophical Hiftory and Me- , 
 moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, or 
 an Abridgment of all the Papers relating to Natural 
 Philofophy which have been publlflied by the Mem- 
 bers of that illuftrious Society." This undertaking, 
 when completed, was comprifed in five volumes 8vo, 
 which did not appear till 1742, fome time after our 
 author's deceafe, when they were publiflied in the 
 joint names of Mr Martyn and Mr Chambers. Mr 
 Martyn, in a fubfequent publication, hath pafTed a fe- 
 vere cenfure, upon the fliare which his fellow-labourer 
 had in the abridgment of the Parifian papers. The- 
 only work befides, that we find afcribed to Mr Cham- 
 bers, is a tranllation of the Jefuit's PerfpeSi've, from 
 the French ; which was printed in 4to, and, hath gone 
 through feveral editions. Mr Chambers's dofe and un- 
 remitting attention to his ftudies at length impaired his 
 S f 2 Uealthj, 
 
G H A 
 
 Chairljers health, and obliged him occafionally to take a 
 Chamos Canonbury-houfe, Iflington, This n')t having 
 
 ^ " ' greatly contributed to his recovery, he made an excur- 
 iiion to the fouth of France, but did not reap that be- 
 nefit from it which he had himfelf hoped, and his 
 friends wilhed. Returning to England, he died at 
 Canonbury-houfe, and was buried at Weftminfter ; 
 where the following infcription, written by himfelf, is 
 placed on the north fide of the cloyftersof the Abbey: 
 Multis pervulgatus, 
 Paucis notus ; 
 Qui vltam, inter lucem & umbram, 
 Nec eruditus, nec idiota, 
 I^iteris deditus, tranfegit ; fed ut homo 
 Qui humani nihil a fe alienum putat. 
 Vita fimul, & laboribus functus, 
 
 Hie requiefcere voluit, 
 Ephraim Chambers, R. S. S. 
 Obiit XV Maii, mdccxl. 
 After the author's death, two more editions of his 
 Cyclopoedia were publifhed. The proprietors after- 
 wards procured a fupplement to be compiled, which 
 extended to two volumes more : And in the year 1778 
 began to be publiihed in weekly numbers, an edition 
 of both, improved, and incorporated into one alphabet, 
 by Dr Rees, which has betn lately completed in four 
 volumes folio, and forms a very valuable work. 
 
 CHAMBRE (Martin Cureau de la), phyfician in 
 ordinary to the French king, was diftinguifhed by his 
 knowledge in medicine, philofophy, and polite learning. 
 He was born at Mons ; and was received into the 
 French academy in 1635, and afterwards into the aca- 
 demy of fciences. He wrote a great number of works, 
 the principal of which are, i. The charafters of the 
 paflions. 2. The art of knowing men. 3. On the 
 knowledge of beafts, &c. He died at Paris in 1669. 
 CHAMELEON. See Lacerta. 
 CHAMFERING, in architedure, a phrafe ufed 
 for cutting any thing aflope on the under fide. 
 
 CHAMIER (Daniel), an eminent proteftant di- 
 vine, born in Dauphine. He was many years preach- 
 er at Montellimart ; from whence he went in 1 6 1 2 to 
 Montaubon, to be profelTor of divinity in that city, 
 and was killed by a cannon-ball during the fiege in 
 1621. The moft confiderable of his works is his Fan- 
 Jlral'ia Catljolica, or " Wars of the Lord," in four vo- 
 lumes folio ; in which he treats very learnedly of the con- 
 ti-overfies between the Proteftants and Roman Catholics. 
 
 CHAMOIS, or Chamois-goat, in zoology. See 
 Capra. 
 
 CHAMOMILE. See Anthemis. 
 CHAMOS, or Chemosh, the idol or god of the 
 Moabites. 
 
 The name of chamos comes from a root which, in 
 Arabic, fignifies to make hajle ; for which reafon many 
 believe chamos to be the fun, whofe precipitate courfe 
 might well procure it the name of fwift or fpeedy. 
 Others have confounded chamos with the god Hammoriy 
 * adored not only in Libya and Egypt, but alfo in A- 
 rabia, Ethiopia, and the Indies. Macrobius fhows 
 that Hammon was the fun ; and the horns, with which 
 he was reprefented, denoted his rays. Calmet is of 
 opinion, that the god Hamonus, and Apollo Chomeus, 
 ir.sntioned by Strabo and Ammianus MavccUiaus, was 
 
 [ 324 I c H A 
 
 lodg- the very fame as chamos or the fun. Thefe deities CHamoun 
 were worlhipped in many of the eaftern provinces. — — v— ^ 
 Some who go upon the refemblance of the Hebrew 
 term chamos, to that of the Greek comas, have believed 
 chamos to fignify the god Bacchus the god of drunk- 
 ennnefs, according to the fignification of the Greek 
 comos. St Jerom, and with hiin moll other interpre- 
 ters, take Chamos and Peor for the fame deity. But 
 it feems that Baal-Peor was the fame as Tammuz or 
 Adonis ; fo that Chamos muft be the god whom the 
 heathens call the Sun. 
 
 CHAMOUNI, one of the elevated valleys of the 
 Alps, fituated at the foot of Mount Blanc. See Alp& 
 and Blanc. 
 
 The firlt ftrangers whom a curiofity to vifit the gla- 
 ciers drew to Chamouni (M. Safl'ure obferves), certainly 
 confidered this valley as a den of robbers ; for they 
 came armed cap-a-pee, attended with a troop of do- 
 meftics armed in the fame manner ; they would not 
 venture into any houfe; they lived in tents which they 
 had brought along with them ; fires were kept burning, 
 and centinels on guard the whole night over. It was 
 in the year 1741 that the celebrated traveller PoGock, 
 and another Ensrlifii gentleman called Wyndham, un- 
 dertook this interelling journey. It is remembered by 
 the old men of Chamouni, and they fl;ill laugh at the 
 fears of the travellers, and at their unnecefiary precau- 
 tions. For 20 or 2 5 years after this period, the journey 
 was m.ade but feldora, and then chiefly by Enghfii- 
 men, who lodged with the curate : for, when I was 
 there in 1760, and even for four or five years afterr 
 wards, there was no habitable houfe except one or two 
 miferable inns, like thofe in villages that are httle fre- 
 quented. But now that this expedition has gradually be- 
 come fo fafliionable, three large and good inns, which 
 have been fucceffively built, are hardly fufficient to con- 
 tain the travellers that come during the fummer from all 
 quarters. 
 
 This concourfe of ftrangers, and the money they 
 leave behind them at Chamouni, have fomewhat affec- 
 ted the ancient fimpHcity of the inhabitants, and even 
 the purity of their manners. Nobody, however, haa 
 any thing to fear from them : the moll inviolable fide- 
 lity is obferved with refpeft to travellers; they are on- 
 ly expofed to a few importunate folicitatlons, and fome 
 fmall artifices, diftated by the extreme eagernefs with 
 which the inhabitants offer their fervices as guides. 
 
 The hope of obtaining this employment brings to- 
 gether, round a traveller, almoft all the men in every 
 village through which he paffes, and makes him believe 
 that there are a great many in the valley; but there 
 are very few at Chamouni in fummer. Curiofity, or 
 the hope of making money, draws many to Paris and 
 into Germany : befides, as the fheperds of Chamouni 
 have the reputation of exceUing in the making of 
 cheefe, they are in great requefl in the Tarentaife, in- 
 the valley of Aofte, and even at greater diftances ; and 
 they receive there, for four or five months in fummer, 
 very confiderable wages. Thus the labours of the field ■ 
 devolve almoft entirely on the women, even fuch as in 
 other countries fall folely on the men ; as mowing, 
 cutting of wood, and threfhing: even the animals of 
 the fame fex are not fpared, for the cows there are yo- 
 ked in the plough. 
 
 6 The 
 
C H A [ : 
 
 Chamounl. The only labours that Ijelonjj ^jxclufivdy to the men 
 are the leeking Tor rock cryHai, and the chace. Hap- 
 pily they are now lefs empli)yed than formerly in the 
 firft of thefe occupations. I fay happily, for many of 
 them peritlied in this purfuit. The hope of enriching 
 thetnlelves^ quickly by the difcovery of a cavern filled 
 wit'i fine cryllals, was fo powtrful a motive, that they 
 eXDofed themfelves in the fearch to the mofl: alarming 
 dangers ; and hardly a year pafied without fome of them 
 perifhing in the fnows, or among the precipices. 
 
 The principal! indication of the grottos, or cryftal 
 ovens, as they are here callt d, are veins of quartz, which 
 appear on the outfide of the rocks of granite, or of the 
 laminated rock. TheO- white veins are feen at a dif- 
 tanc and often at great heights, on vertical and inac- 
 ceiTible places. The adventurers endeavour to arrive 
 at thefe, eiihtr by fabricating a road acrofs the rocks, 
 or bv lettini tl.t-n.lelves down from above fufpendedby 
 ropes. Wiien they reach the place, they gently fti ike 
 the rock; and if the iione returns a liollow found, they 
 endeavour to open it with a hammer, or to blow it up 
 with powder. This is thepiincipal method of fearch- 
 ing : but young people, and even children, often go in 
 quell of thefe cry ftals over the glaciers, where the rocks 
 have lately fallen down. But whether they confider 
 thefe mountains as nearly exhaufted, or that the quan- 
 tity of cryftal found at Madag.^fcar has too much lower- 
 ed the price of this foffil, there are now but few people 
 that go in fearch of it, and perhaps there is not a 
 fingle perfon at Chamouni that makes it his only 
 occupation. They go however occafionally, as to a 
 party of pleafure. 
 
 But the chace' of the Chamois goat, as dangerous, 
 and perhaps more fo than the feeking for cryftal, ftiil 
 occupies many inhabitants of the mountains, and car- 
 ries off, in the flower of their age, many men whofe 
 irves are moft valuable to their families. And when 
 we are informed how this chace is carried on, we will 
 be aftonifhed that a courfe of life, at once fo laborious 
 and perilous, ftiould have irrefiftible attractions for thofe 
 who have been accuftomed to it. 
 
 The Chamois hunter generally fets out in the night, 
 that he may reach by break of day the moft elevated 
 paftures where the goats come to feed, before they ar- 
 rive. As foo.n as he difcovers the place where he hopes 
 to find them, he furveys it with his glafs. If he finds 
 none of them there, he proceeds always afcending : 
 whenever he defcries any, he endeavours to get above 
 them, either by ftealing along fome gully, or getting 
 behind fome rock or eminence. When he is near 
 enough to diftinguifti their horns, which is the mark- 
 by which he judges of the diftancc, he refts his piece 
 on a rock, takes his aim with great compofure, and 
 rarely miffes. This piece is a rifle-barrelled carabine, 
 into which the ball is thruft, and thefe carabines often 
 contain two-charges, though they have but one barrel; 
 the charges are put one above another, and are fired 
 in fuccefllon. If he has wounded the chamois, he runs 
 to his prey, and for fecurity he hamftrings it ; then he 
 confiders his way home : if the road is difficult, he 
 ll<.ins the chamois, and leaves the carcafe ; but, if it is 
 prafticable, he throws the animal on his flioulders, and 
 bears him to his village, though at a great diftance, 
 and often over frightful precipices : he feeds his fa- 
 mily with the flefh, which is excellent, efpecialiy 
 
 2s 1 C H A 
 
 when the creature is young, and he dries the fkins for Chamouni. 
 fale. _ w-Y— J 
 
 But if, as is the moft common cafe, the vigilant 
 chamois perceives the approach of the hunter, he im- 
 mediately takes flight among the glaciers, through the 
 fnows, and over the moft precipitous rocks. It is par- 
 ticularly difHcult to get near thefe animals when there 
 are feveral together ; for then one of them, while the 
 reft are feeding, ftands as a centinel on the point of 
 fome rock that comm.ands a view of the avenues lead- 
 ing to the pafture ; and as foon as he perceives any ob- 
 jeft of alarm, he utters a fort of hifs, at which the 
 others inftantly gather round him to judge for them- 
 felves of the nature of the danger : if it is a wild beaft, 
 or a hunter, the moft experienced puts himlelf at the 
 head of the flock ; and away they fly, ranged in a Hne^ 
 to the moft inaccefTible retreats. 
 
 It is here that the fatigues of the hunter begin : in- 
 ftigated by hispafiion for the chace, he is infenlible to 
 danger ; he paflcs over fnows, without thinking of the 
 horrid precipices they conceal ; he intanglcs himfelf 
 among the moft dangerous paths, and bounds from 
 rock to rock, without knowing how he is to return. 
 Night often furprifes him in the midft of his purfuit ; 
 but he does not for that reafon abandon it ; he hopes 
 that the fame caufe will arreft the flight of the chamois, 
 and that he will next morning overtake them. Thus 
 he paffes the night, not at the foot of a tree, like the 
 hunter of the plain ; not in a grotto, foftly reclin- 
 ed on a bed of mofs, but at the foot of a rock, 
 and often oa the bare points of fhattered fragments, 
 without the fmalleft flicker. There, all alone, with- 
 out fire, without light, he draws from his bag a 
 bit of cheefe, with a morfel of oaten bread, which make 
 his common food : bread fo dry, that he is iomelimcs 
 obliged to break it between two ftones, or with the 
 hatchet he carries with him to cut out fteps in the 
 ice. Having thus made his folitary and frugal repaft, 
 he puts a ftone below his head for a pillow, and goes, 
 to fleep, dreaming on the rout which the chamois may 
 have taken. But foon he is'awakened by the freflrnefs 
 of the morning ; he gets up, benumbed wiih cold ; 
 furveys the precipices which he muft traverfe in order 
 to overtake his game ; drinks a little brandy, of which 
 he is always provided with a fmall portion, and fets out 
 to encounter new dangers. Hunters fometimes re- 
 main in thefe folitudes for feveral days together, during 
 which time their families, their unhappy wives in par- 
 ticular, experience a ftate of the moft dreadful anxiety ; 
 they dare not go to reft for fear of feeing their hufbands 
 appear to them in a dream ; for it is a received opinion, 
 in the country, that when a man has periflied, either 
 in the fnov/, or on fome unknown rock, he appears by 
 night to the perfon he held moft dear, defcribcs the 
 place that proved fatal to him, and requefts the per- 
 formance of the laft duties to his corpfe. 
 
 "After this pidure of the life which the cha- ^^^j,^^;. 
 mois hunters lead, could one imagine that this chace /^.r 
 would be the object of a paflion abfolutely unfur- 
 mountable ? I knew a well-made, handfome man, who ""^"^ 
 had juft married a beautiful woman : — ♦ My grand-'iom, ill. 
 father, faid he to me, loft his hfe in the chace ;. fo did 
 my father ; and I am perfuadcd, that I too fliall die in 
 the fame manner : this bag which I carry with me 
 when I hunt I call my grave-cloaths, for I am fure i-. 
 
C H A [32 
 
 Cham otinl. will have no other ; yet if you fhould offer to make 
 '^"^ my fortune on condition of abandoning the chace 
 of the chamois, I could not confent. I made fome 
 excurfions on the Alps with this man : his ftrength 
 and addrefs were aftonifhing; but his temerity was 
 greater than his llrength ; and I have heard, that, 
 two years afterwards, he mtfTed a ftep on the brink 
 of a precipice, and met with the fate he had ex- 
 pefted. 
 
 ** The few who have grown old in this employment 
 bear upon their faces the marks of the life they have 
 led. A favage look, fomething in it haggard and wild, 
 makes them be known in the midfl of a crowd, even 
 when they are not in their hunting drtfs. And un- 
 doubtedly it is this ill look which makes fome fuper* 
 ftilious pcafants believe that they are forccters, that 
 they have dealings with the devil In their folitudes, 
 and that it is he \vho throws them down the rocks. 
 What then can be the paffionate inducement to this 
 courfe of life ? It is not avarice, at leafl it is not 
 an avarice confillent with reafon : the moft beautiful 
 chamois is never worth more to the perfon that kills 
 it than a dozen of francs, even including the value of 
 •its flefli ; and now that the number is fo much dimi- 
 uifhed, the time loft before one can be taken is much 
 more than its value. But it is the very dangers that 
 attend the purfuit, thofe alternations of hope and fear, 
 the continual agitation and exercife which thefe emo- 
 tions produce in the mind, that inftigate the hunter : 
 they animate him as they do the gameftcr, the warrior, 
 the failor, and even to a Certain degree, the naturahft 
 of the Alps; whofe life, in fomemcafure, pretty much 
 refembles that of the hunter whofe manners we have 
 defcribed." 
 
 But there is another kind of hunting, which is nei- 
 ther dangerous nor laborious, nor fatal to any one but 
 to the poor animals that are the objefts of it. — Thefe 
 are the marmots, animals that inhabit the high moun- 
 tains ; where in fummer they fcoop out holes, which 
 they line with hay, and retire to at the beginning of 
 autumn : here they grow torpid with the cold, and 
 remain in a fort of lethargy, till the warmth of the 
 fpring returns to quicken their languid blood, and to 
 recal them to life. When it is fuppofed that they 
 have retired to their winter abode, and before the fnow 
 has covered the high paftures where their holes are 
 made, people go to unharbour them. They are found 
 from 10 to 12 in the fame hole, heaped upon one an- 
 other, and buried in the hay. Their fleep is fo pro- 
 found, that the hunter often puts them into his bag, 
 and carries them home without their awaking. The 
 fiefh of the young is good, though it taftes of oil, and 
 fmells fomewhat of muflc ; the fat is ufed in the cure 
 of rheumatifms and pains, being rubbed on the parts 
 affe£led ; but the ficin is of little value, and is fold for 
 no more than five or fix fols. Notwithftanding the 
 little benefit they reap from it, the people of Chamouni 
 go in quell of this animal with great eagernefs, and its 
 numbers accordingly diminifh very fenfibly. 
 
 It has been faid, that marmots, in order to tranfport 
 the hay into their holes, ufe one of their number laid 
 on his back as a cart ; but this is fabulous, for they are 
 feen carrying the hay in their mouths. Nor is it for 
 food that they gather it, but for a bed, and in order to 
 ihut out the eold, and to guard the avenues of their re- 
 
 6 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 treat from enerriies. When they are taken in autumn, CliainounJ, 
 their bowels are quite empty, and even as clean as if v 
 they had been wafhed with water ; which proves that 
 their torpidity is preceded by a faft, and even by an 
 evacuation ; a wife contriv&nce of Nature for prevent- 
 ing their accumulated fceces from growing putrid, or 
 too dry, in the long lethargy they are expofed to. 
 They alfo continue a few days after their revival with- 
 out eating, probably to allow the circulation and di- 
 geftive power to recover their aftivity. At fit ft, lea- 
 ving their holes, they appear ftupid and dazzled with 
 the light : they are at this time killed with fticks, as 
 they do not endeavour to fly, and their bowels are then 
 alfo quite empty. They are not very lean when they 
 awake, but grow more fo for a few days after they firit 
 come abroad. Their blood is never congealed, how- 
 ever profound their fleep may be ; for at the time that 
 it is deepeft, if they are bled, the blood fliows as if they 
 were awake. 
 
 In thefe countries the period is fo fliort between the 
 diflblution of the fnow and its return, that grain has 
 hardly time to conne to maturity. Mr SaflTure men- 
 tions a very ufeful and ingenious praftice, invented by 
 mountaineers of the Argentiere, for enlarging this pe- 
 riod. *• I obferved (fays he), in the middle of the Val- 
 ley, feveral large fpaces where the furface of the fnow 
 exhibited a fingular appearance, fomewhat refembling 
 a piece of white cloth fpotted with black. While I 
 was endeavouring to divine the caufe of this phenome- 
 non, I difcovered feveral women walking with mca- 
 fured pace, and fowing fomething in handluls that was 
 black ; and which being fcactered, regularly diverging, 
 on the furface of the 4^now, formed that fpotted ap- 
 pearance that I had been admiring. I could not con* 
 ceive what feed fliould be Town on fnow fix feet deep ; 
 but my guide, aftonilhed at my ignorance, informed 
 me, that it was black earth fpread upon the fnow to 
 accelerate its melting ; and thus to anticipate, by a 
 fortnight or three weeks, the time of labouring the 
 fields and fowing. I was ftruck with the elegant .fim» 
 pllclly of a praftice fo ufeful, the effefls of whigh I al- 
 ready faw very evidently in places which had not been 
 thus treated above three days. 
 
 *' As to the Inhabitants of Chamouni, the men, like 
 thofe of moft high valleys, are neither well-made nor 
 tall : but they are nervous and ftrong, as are alfo the 
 women. They do not attain to a great age ; men of 
 80 are very rare. Inflammatory difeafes are the moft 
 fatal to them ; proceeding, no doubt, from obftrudled 
 perfplratlon, to which the inconftant temperature of the 
 chmate expofes them. 
 
 *' They are in general honeft, faithful, and diligent in 
 the pradllce of religious duties. It would, for inftance, 
 be in vain to pcrfuade thtm to go any where on a ho- 
 liday before hearing raafs. They are economical, but 
 charitable. There are among them neither hofpltals 
 nor foundations for tlie poor ; but orphans and old 
 people, who have no means of fubfiilence, are enter- 
 tained by every inhabitant of a parifh in his turn, li 
 a man is prevented by age or infirmities from taking 
 charge of his affairs, his neighbours join among them- 
 fclves and do It for him. 
 
 " Their mind is aftive and lively, iheir temper gay, 
 with an inchnation to raillery : they obferve, with fin- 
 gular acutenefs, the ridiculous in ftrangers, and turn 
 
 it 
 
C H A 
 
 [ 3 
 
 Cham- 
 pagne 
 11 
 
 Champion. 
 
 it into a fund of very facetious merriment among 
 themfelvcs ; yet they are capable of ferlous thinking: 
 many of them have attacked me on religious and me- 
 taphyfical fubjefts ; not as profeffing a different faith 
 from theirs, but on general queftions, which fhowed 
 they had ideas independent of thofe they were taught." 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, a confiderable province of France, 
 about 162 miles in length, and 1 1 2 in breadth, bound- 
 ed on the north by Hainhalt and Luxemburg, on the 
 eaft by Lorrain and the Franche-Comte, on the fouth 
 by Burgundy, and on the weft by the ifle of France 
 and SoiflTonnois. It has a great number of rivers, the 
 principal of which are the Meufe, the Seine, the Marne, 
 the Aube, and the Aine. Its principal trade confifts 
 in excellent wine, all forts of corn, linen cloth, woollen 
 ftuffs, cattle, and fhecp. It is alfo divided into the 
 higher and lower, and Troys is the capital town. Its 
 fub-divlfions are Champagne Proper, and Rhemois, the 
 Retclois, the Pertois, the Vallage, Bafigni, the Se- 
 nonois, and the Brie Champenois. 
 
 Champagne Proper, is one of the eight parts of 
 Champagne, which comprehend the towns of Troys, 
 Chalons, St Menthold, Eperney, and Vertus. 
 
 CHAMPAIN, or Point Champa'm, in heraldry, a 
 mark of difhonour in the coat of arms of him who 
 kills a prifoner of war after he has cried quarter. 
 
 CHAMPERTRY, in law, a fpecies of mainte- 
 nance, and punifhed in the fame manner; being a 
 bargain with the plaintiff or defendant campum par- 
 tire, '* to divide the land," or other matter fued for 
 between them, if they prevail at law ; whereupon 
 the champertror is to carry on the party's fuit at his 
 own expencc. Thus Charnpart, in the French law, 
 fignifies a fimilar divifion of profits, being a part of the 
 crop annually due to the landlord by bargain or cullom. 
 In our fenfe of the word, it fignifies the purchafing of 
 a fuit, or right of fuing ; a pra6lice fo much abhorred 
 by our law, that it is one main reafon why a chafe in 
 aflion, or thing of which one hath the right but not 
 the pofieffion, is not afiignable in common law ; becaufe 
 no man fhould purchafe any pretence to fue in another's 
 right. Thefe pefts of civil fociety, that are perpetu- 
 ally endeavouring to difturb the repofe of their neighr 
 hours, and ofEcioufly interfering in other mens quar- 
 rels, even at the hazard of their own fortunes, were 
 feverally animadverted on by the Roman law ; and 
 were puniihed by the forfeiture of a third part of their 
 goods and perpetual infamy. Hitherto alfo muft be 
 referred the provifion of the ftatute 5-2 Henry VIII. 
 c. 9. that no one fhall fell or purchafe any pretended 
 right or title to land, unlefs the vender hath received 
 the profits thereof for one whole year before fuch 
 grant, or hath been in aAual poffcffion of the land, or 
 of the reverfion or remainder; on pain that both pur- 
 chafer and vender, fhall each forfeit the value of fuch 
 land to the king and the profecutor. 
 
 CHAMPION, a perfon who undertakes a combat 
 in the place or quarrel of another; and fometimes the 
 word is ufed for him who fights in his .own caufe. 
 
 It appears that champions, in the juft fenfe of 
 the word, were perfons who fought inftead of thofe 
 that, by cuftom, were obliged to accept the duel, but 
 bad a juft excufe for difpenfing with it, as being too 
 old, infirm, or being ecclefiaftics, and the like. Such 
 c*i.ufes, as could not be decided by the courfe of coax- 
 
 27 ] C H A 
 
 mon law, were often tried by fingle combat; and he Champion 
 who had the good fortune to conquer, was always re- Qj^J^j^g 
 puted to have juftice on his fide. See the article . ' ■ 
 
 Battel. 
 
 Champion of the King, (camplo regis), is an an- 
 cient officer, whofe office is, at the coronation of our 
 kings, when the king is at dinner, to ride armed 
 cap-a-pee, into Weftminfter-Hall, and by the proclama- 
 tion of an herald make a challenge, " That if any 
 man fliall deny the king's title to the crown, he is 
 there ready to defend it in fingle combat, ifjc.'^ which 
 being done, the king drinks to him, and fends him a 
 gilt cup with a cover full of wine, which the champion 
 drinks, and hath the cup for his fee. This office, at 
 the coronation of king Richard II. when Baldwin 
 Freville exhibited his petition for it, was adjudged 
 from him to his competitor Sir John Dymocke {both 
 claiming from Marmion), and hath continued ever fince 
 in the family of the Dymockes ; who hold the manor 
 of SInvelfby in Lincolndure, hereditary from the Mar- 
 mions by graad ferjeantiy, in%. that the lord thereof 
 fhall be the king's champion as aforefaid. According- 
 ly Sir Edward Dymocke perform.ed this office at the 
 coronation of king Charles II. a perfon of the name 
 of Dymocke performed at the coronation of his pre- 
 fent majefty George the third. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN (Samuel de), a celebrated French 
 navigator, the founder of the colony of New France^, 
 or Canada. He built Quebec; and was the firft go- 
 vernor of the colony in 1603. Died after 1649. See 
 Quebec. 
 
 CHANANAEI (anc.geog. ) the name of the ancient- 
 inhabitants of Canaan in general, defcendants of Ca- 
 naan ; but peculiarly appropriated to fome one branch ; 
 though uncertain which branch or fon of Canaan it 
 was, or how it happened that they preferred the com- 
 mon gentilitious name to one more appropriated as de- 
 fcendants of one of the fons- of Canaan ; unlefs fron> 
 their courfe of life, as being in the mercantile way, 
 the import of the name Canaan; and for which their 
 fituation was greatly adapted, they living on the fea; 
 and about Jordan, and thus occupying the greater part 
 of the Land of Promife. 
 
 CHANCE, a term we apply to events> to denote- 
 that they happen without. any neceffary or foreknown 
 caufe. See Cause. 
 
 Our aim is, to afcrlbe thofe things to chance, which 
 are not neceffarlly produced as the natural effefts of 
 any proper caufe : but our Ignorance and precipitancy 
 lead us to attribute effefts to chancei, which have a ne- 
 ceffary and determinate caufe. 
 
 When we fay a thing happens ly chance, we really 
 mean no more than that its caufe is unknown to us : 
 not, as fome vainly imagine, that chance itfelf can be 
 the caufe of any thing. 
 
 The cafe of the painter, who, unable to exprefs 
 the foam at the mouth of a horfe he- had painted, 
 threw his fponge in defpair at the piece, and, hy 
 chance, , that which he could not before do by de- 
 fign, is an eminent inftance of the force of chance ; 
 yetj it is obvioua, all we here mean by chance, is, 
 that the painter was not aware of the effcft ; or that 
 he did not throw the fponge vvith fuch a view : not but 
 that he aftually did every thing neceffary to produce 
 the . effcd ; infomuch, , that, confidering the direftion 
 
 whereio- ■. 
 
C H A [ 32 
 
 wherein he threw his fponge, together with its form, 
 fpecific gravity, the colours wherewith it was fmcared, 
 and the diftance of the hand from the piece, it was im- 
 poflible, on the prefent fyftem of things, the effe£l 
 fhould not follow. 
 
 Chance is frequently perfonified, and erefted into a 
 chimerical being, whom we conceive as afting arbitra- 
 rily, and producing all the effefts whofe real caufes do 
 not appear to us : in which fenfe the word coincides 
 with the "^^X""^ fortuna, of the ancients. 
 
 Chance is alfo ufed for the manner of deciding 
 things, the conduftor diredlion whereof is left at large, 
 and not reducible to any determinate rules or meafures; 
 or where there is no ground for preference: as at cards, 
 dice, lotteries, &c. 
 
 For the Laws of Chance, or the Proportion of Hazard 
 in Gaming, fee Game. 
 
 The ancient fortilege, or chance, M. Placette obferves, 
 was inftituted by God himfelf ; and in the Old Tefta- 
 ment we find feveral {landing laws and exprefs com- 
 mands which prefcribed its ufe on certain occafions : 
 hence the Scripture fays, " The lot, or chance, fell on 
 Matthias," when it was in queftion who fhould fill Ju- 
 das's place in the apoftolate. 
 
 Hence alfo arofe the fortes fanSorum; or method of 
 determining things, among the ancient Chrlilians, by 
 opening fome of the facred books, and pitching on the 
 firft verfe they caft their eye on, as a fure prognoftic 
 of what was to befal them. The fortes Homerica, Vir- 
 .giliana, Pranejiintz, ;&c. ufed by the heathens, were 
 with the fame view, and in the fame manner. See 
 
 SORTES. 
 
 St Auguftin feems to approve of this method of de- 
 termining things future, and owns that he had pradlifed 
 it himfelf; grounded on this fuppofition, that God pre- 
 fides over chance; and on Prov. xvi. 33. 
 
 Many among the modern divines hold chance to 
 be conduced in a particular manner by Providence ; 
 and elleem it an extraordinary way which God ufes 
 to dtclare his will, and a kind of immediate revela- 
 tion. 
 
 Ch AN c.K- Medley, in law, is where one is doing a 
 lawful aft, and a perfon is killed by chance thereby ; 
 for If the aft be unlawful, it is felony. If a perfon 
 caft, not intending harm, a ftone, which happens to 
 hit one, whereof he dies ; or fhoots an arrow in an 
 highway, and another that p-jfleth by is killed there- 
 with ; or if a workman, in throwing down rubbifh 
 from a houfe after warning to take care, kills a perfon ; 
 or a fchoolmafter in correfting his fcholar, a mafter 
 his fervant, or an officer in whipping a criminal in a 
 reafonable manner, happens to occafion his death ; it 
 is chance-medley and mifadventure.. But if a man 
 throw ftones in a highway where perfons ufaally pafs ; 
 or fhoot an arrow, &c. In a market-place among a 
 great many people ; or if a workman caft down rub- 
 bifli from a houfe in cities and towns where people are 
 continually palling ; or a fchoolmafter, &c. corredl 
 his fervant or fcholar. Sec. exceeding the bounds of 
 moderation ; It is manflaughter : and if with an im- 
 proper inftrument of correction, as with a fword or 
 iron bar, or by kicking, ftamping, &c. in a cruel 
 manner, it is murder. If a man whips his horfe in a 
 ftreet to make him gallop, and the horfe runs over a 
 child and killsit, it is manflaughter: but if another whips 
 
 N° 69. 
 
 8 ] G H A 
 
 the horfe, it Is manflaughter in him, and chance-medley Ch3Rce|, 
 in the rlder.^ And if two are fighting, and a third ^l^j^^'*^^' 
 perfon coming to part them is killed by one of them j 
 without any evil intent, yet this is murder in him, and 
 not manflaughter by chance medley or mifadventure. 
 In chance-medley, the offender forfeits his goods; but 
 hath a pardon of courfe. 
 
 CHANCEL, Is properly that part of the choir of a 
 church, between the alcar or communion-table and the 
 baluftrade or rail that inclofes it, where the minifter 
 Is placed at the celebration of the communion. The 
 word comes from the Latin canceUus, which in the lower 
 Latin is ufed in the fame fenfe, from cancelli, " lattices 
 or crofs bars," wherewith the chancels were anciently 
 encompaffed, as they now are with rails. The right 
 of a feat and a fepulchre in the chancels is one of the 
 privileges of founders. 
 
 CHANCELLOR, was at firft. only a chief notary 
 or fcribe under the emperors ; and was called cancellu' 
 rius, becaufe. he fat behind a lattice (in Latin cancel- 
 lus) to avoid being crowded by the people: though 
 fome derive the word from cancellare, " to cancel" (See 
 Chancery). This officer was aftervi^ards inveited 
 with feveral judicial powers, and a general fuperinten- 
 dency over the reft of the officers of the prince. From 
 the Roman empire it pafTed to the Roman church* 
 ever emulous of imperial ftate : and hence every bifliop 
 has to this day his chancellor, the principal judge of 
 his confiftory. And when the modern kingdoms ot 
 Europe were eftabliftied upon the ruins of the empire, 
 almoft every ftate preferved its chancellor with diflFer- 
 ent jurifdiftlons and dignities, according to their dif- 
 ferent conftltutlons. But In all of them he feems to 
 have had the fupervifion of all charters, letters, and fuch 
 other public inftruments of the crown as were authen- 
 ticated in the moft folemn manner : and therefore, when 
 feals came in ufe, he had always the cuftody of the king's 
 great fcal. 
 
 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord 
 Keeper of the Great Seal, is the higheft honour of the 
 long robe, being created by the mere delivery of the 
 king's great feal into his cuftody ; whereby he be- 
 comes, without writ or patent, an officer of the greatell 
 weight and power of any now fubfifting in the kingdom- 
 He is a privy couniellor by his office ; and, according 
 to Lord Chancellor EUefmere, prolocutor of the houie 
 of lords by prtfcrlption. To him belongs the appoint- 
 ment of all the juftices of the peace throughout the 
 kir.^dom. Being In former times commonly an eccle- 
 fiaftic (for none elle were then capable of an office fo 
 converfant in writing), and prefiding over the royal 
 chapel, he became keeper of the king's confcience ; 
 vifitor, in right of the king, of all hofpitals and col- 
 leges of the king's foundation ; and patron of ail the 
 king's livings under the value of L. 20 per annum in the 
 king'ti books. He is the general guardian of all in- 
 fants, Ideots, and lunatics ; and has the general fupcr- 
 intendanc* of all charitable ufes in the kingdom. And 
 all this over and above the vaft extenfive juriidiction 
 which he exerciies in his judicial capacity in the court 
 of chancery. Pie takes precedence of every temporal 
 lord except the i-oyal family, and of all others except 
 the archbifliop of Canterbury. See Chancery. 
 
 Chancellor, in Scotland, waa the chief in matters 
 of juttice. In the laws of King Malcolm 11. he is 
 
 placed 
 
C H A [3 
 
 • placed before all other officers ; and from thefc it ap- 
 pears, that he had the principal direftion of the Chan- 
 cery, or Chancellary as it is called, which is his proper 
 cfRce. He had the cuftody of the king's feal ; and he 
 was the king's moft intimate counfellor, as appears by' 
 an old law cited by Sir James Balfour : The chan- 
 cellar fall at al tymes aflift the king, in giving him 
 counfall mhir fecretly nor the reft of the nobihty, to 
 quais ordinances all officiarls, als well of the realme as 
 of the kingis hous, fould anfwer and obey. The chan- 
 cellar fall be liidgit neir unto the kingis grace, for 
 keiping of his bodie, and the fcill ; and that he may 
 be readie baith day and nicht at the kingis command." 
 By having the cuftody of the great feal, he had an 
 opportunity of examining the king's grants and other 
 deeds which were to pafs under it, and to cancel them 
 if they appeared againft law, and were obtained fur- 
 reptitioufly or by falfe fuggeftions. 
 
 King James VI. ordained the chancellor to have the 
 firft place and rank in the nation, ratione officii; by virtue 
 whereof he prellded in the parliament, and in all courts 
 of judicature. After the reiloration of King Charles II. 
 by a particular declaratory law, parliament firft, the 
 lord chancellor was declared, by virtue and right of his 
 office, prefident in all the meetings of parliament, or 
 other public judicatures of the kingdom. Although 
 this a6t was made to declare the cliancellor prefident of 
 the exchequer as well as other courts, yet in 1663 the 
 king declared the treafurer to be prefident of that 
 court. 
 
 The ofiice of lord chancellor was abolifhed by the 
 Union, there being no farther ufe for the judicial part 
 of this ofRce ; and, to anfwer all the other parts of the 
 chancellor's ofike, a lord keeper of the great feal was 
 erefted, with a falary of L. 3000 a-year. 
 
 Chancellor of a Cathedral, an officer that hears 
 lelTons and lectures read in the church, either by him- 
 felf or his vicar ; to corre£l and fct right the reader 
 when he reads amifs ; to infpeft fchools ; to hear 
 caufes ; apply the feal ; write and difpatch the letters 
 of the chapter ; keep the books ; take care that there 
 be frequent preachings, both in the church and out 
 of it ; and affign the office of preaching to whom he 
 pleafes. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancajler, an officer ap- 
 pointed chiefly to determine controvcrlies between the 
 king and his tenants of the duchy-land, and otherwife 
 to dired all the king's affairs belonging to that court. 
 See DucHY-Court. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who prefides 
 in that court, and takes care of the intcreft of the 
 crown. He is always in commiffion with the lord- 
 ireafurer, for the letting of c! own-lands, &c. and has 
 power, with others, to compound for forfeitures of 
 lands upon penal ilatutes. He has alio great authority 
 in managing the royal revenues, and In matters relating 
 to the firft-fruits. 
 
 Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, and other Mi- 
 litary Orders, is an officer who feals the commifhons and 
 mandates of the chapter and affembly of the knights, 
 keeps the regifter of their proceedings, and delivers ads 
 thereof under the feal of their order. 
 
 ^ Chancellor of an Univerfity, is he who feals the 
 diplomas, or letters of degrees, proviiion, &c. given 
 in the unlverfity. 
 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 29 1 C H A 
 
 The chancellor of Oxford Is ufuallyoneof the prime Chancello 
 nobility, chofen by the ftudents themielves in convo- ^, 
 cation. He is their chief magiftrate ; his office is, 
 durante vita, to govern the imiverfity, preferve and 
 defend its rights and privileges, convoke affemblies, 
 and do juflice among the members under his jurifdic- 
 tion. 
 
 Under the chancellor is the vice-chancellor, who is 
 chofen annually, being nominated by the chancellor, 
 and eleded by the unlverfity in convocation. He is 
 always the head of fome college, and in holy orders. 
 Hid proper office is to execute the chancellor's power, 
 to govern the univerfity according to her flatutes, to 
 fee that officers and ftudents do their duty, that courts 
 be duly called, &c. When he enters upon his office, 
 he choofes four pro-vice-chancellors out of the heads 
 of the colleges, to execute his power in his abfence. 
 
 The chancellor of Cambridge is alfo ufually one of 
 the prime nobility, and in moft refpe6ts the fame as 
 that in Oxford; only he does not hold his office duran- 
 te vita, but may be eleded every three years. Under 
 the chancellor there is a commiflary, who^ holds a court 
 of record for all privileged perfons and fcholars under 
 the degree of maftcr of arts, where all caufes are tried 
 and determined by the civil and itacute law, and by the 
 cuftom of the unlverfity. 
 
 The vice-chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annually 
 by the fenate, out of two perfons nominated by the 
 heads of the feveral colleges and halls. 
 
 Chancellor's Court. See Unifersity- Courts. 
 
 CHANCERON, in natural hlft ory, a name given 
 by the French writers to the fmall caterpillar that eats 
 the corn, and does vaft mifchief in their granaries. See 
 the article CoRN-Butterjly. *• 
 
 CHANCERY, thefiigheft court of juftlce in Britain 
 next to the parliament, and of very ancient inftitution. 
 It has Its name chancery ( canccUaria) from the judge*- 
 who prefides here, the lord chancellor, or caiicellarius ; 
 who, according to Sir Edward Coke, is fo termed a 
 cancellando, from cancelling the king's letters patent 
 when granted contrary to law, which Is the higheft 
 point of his jurlfdidion. In chancery there are two 
 diftindt tribunals : the one ordinary-, being a court of 
 common law ; the other extraordinary, being a court 
 of equity. 
 
 I. The ordinary legal court holds pleas of recogni- 
 zances acknowledged in the chancery, writs oi fcire 
 facias, for repeal of letters patent, writs of partition, 
 &c. and alfo of all perfonal adions by or againft any 
 officer of the court. Sometimes a fupcrfdeas, or writ Blackji. 
 of privilege, hath been here granted to difcharge a Comment. 
 perfon out of prifon ; one from hence may have a ha> 
 heas corpus prohibition, &c. in the vacation ; and here 
 a fiilpcena may be had to force wltneffes to appear in 
 other courts, when they have no power to call them. 
 But, in profecuting caufes, if the parties defcend to 
 iffue, Ihls court cannot try It by jury; but the lord 
 chancellor dehvers the record Into the king's bench to 
 be tried there ; and after trial had, it is to be remand- 
 ed into the chancery, and there judgment given : tho' 
 if there be a demurrer in law, it fhaU be argued in this 
 court. 
 
 In this court is alfo kept the ojicina juflitie; out of 
 which all origmal writs that pafs under the great feal, 
 •ail commiffiona of charitable ufes, fewers, bankruptcy, 
 T t idiocy, 
 
C H A [ 33 
 
 Chancery. Jdlocy, lanacy, and the like, do ilTue ; and for which 
 """T"^ it is always open to the fubjed, who may there at any 
 time demand and have, ex debito jujiitid;, any writ that 
 his occafions may call for. Thefe writs, relating to the 
 bufmefs of the fubjiift, and the returns of them, were, 
 according to the fimphcity of ancient times, originally 
 kept in a hamper, in hanaperio; and the others (rela- 
 ting to fuch matters wherein the crown is mediately or 
 immediately concerned) were preferved in a httle fack 
 or bag, in parva haga: and hence hath arifen the di- 
 ftinftion of the hanaper ©fiice, and the petty-lag of- 
 fice, which both belong to the common law-xourt in 
 chancery. 
 
 2. The extraordinary court, or court of equity, pro- 
 ceeds by the rules of equity and confcience ; and mo- 
 derates the rigour of the common law, confidering the 
 intention rather than the luords of the law. It gives 
 relief for and againll infants notwithftanding their mi- 
 nority, and for and againft married women notwith- 
 ftanding their coverture. All frauds and deceits for 
 which there is no redrefs at common law; all breaches 
 of truft and confidence; and accidents, as to relieve 
 obligors, mortgagers, &c. againft penakies and forfei- 
 tures, where the intent was to pay the debt, are here 
 remedied : for in chancery, a forfeiture, &c. fhall not 
 bind, where a thing may be done after or compenfa- 
 tion made for it. Alfo this court will ^ive rehef againft 
 the extremity of unreafonable engagements entered 
 into without confideration ; oblige creditors that are 
 unreafonable to compound with an unfortunate debt- 
 or ; and make executors, &c. give fecurity and pay 
 intereft for money that is to lie long in their hands. 
 This court may confirm title to lands, though one hath 
 loft his writings ; and render conveyances, defeftive 
 through miftake, &c. good and perfeft. In chancery, 
 copy- holders may be relieved againft the ill ufage of 
 their lords ; inclofures of lands that are common be 
 decreed ; and this court may decree money or lands 
 given to charitable ufes, obhge men to account with 
 each other, &c. But in all cafes wliere the plaintiff 
 can have his remedy at law, he ought not to be reheved 
 in chancery; and a thing which may be tried by a jury 
 is not triable in this court. 
 
 The proceedings in chancery are, firft to file the bill 
 of complaint, figntd by fome counfel, fetting forth the 
 fraud or injury done,- or wrong fuftained, and praying 
 relief: after the bill is filed, procefs oifubpcena iffues to 
 fompel the defendant to appear; and when the defen- 
 dant appears, he puts in his anfwer to the bill of com- 
 plaint, if there be no caufe for the plea to the jurifdic- 
 tion of the court, in difabiHty of the perfon, or in bar, 
 &c. Then the plaintiff brings his rephcation, un- 
 kfs he files exceptions againft the anfwer as infufficient, 
 referring it to a mafter to report whether it be fufficient 
 or not; to which report exceptions may alfo be made. 
 The anfwer, replication, rejoinder, &c. being fettled, 
 and the parties come to ilTue, witnelTes are to be exa- 
 mined upon interrogatories, either in court or by com- 
 miffion in the country, wherein the parties ufually join; 
 and when the plaintiff" and defendant have examined 
 their witnefles, publication is to be made of the de- 
 pofitions, and the caufe is to be fet down for hearing ; 
 after which follows the decree. But it is now ufual 
 to appeal to the houfe of lords ; which appeals are to 
 be figned by two noted counfel, and exhibited by way 
 
 I 
 
 o ] C H A 
 
 of petition ; the petition or appeal is lodged with the ChandJier 
 clerk of the houfe of lords, and read in tlie houfc, () 
 whereon the appellee is ordered to put in his anfwer, ^l^andler. 
 and a day fixed for hearing the caufe; and after coun- ^ 
 fel heard, and evidence given on both fides, the lofds 
 will affirm or reverfe the decree of the chancery, 
 and finally determine the caufe by a majority of 
 votes, &c. 
 
 CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of move- 
 able parapet, confifting of a wooden frame, made of 
 two upright ftakes, about fix feet high, with crofs 
 planks between them ; ferving to fupport faicines lo 
 cover the pioneers. 
 
 CHANDERNAGORE, a French fettlement in the 
 kingdom of Bengal in the Eaft Indies. It lies on the 
 river Ganges, two leagues and a half above Calcutta. 
 The diftrift is hardly a league in circumference, and 
 has the difadvantage of being fomewhat expofed on the 
 weftern fide ; but its harbour is excellent, and the air is 
 as pure as it can be on the banks of the Ganges. When- 
 ever any building is undertaken that requires ftrength, 
 it muft here, as well as in all other parts of Bengal, be 
 built upon piles ; it being impoffible to dig three or 
 four feet without coming at water. 
 
 CHANDLER (Mary), diftinguifhed by her talent 
 for poetry, was the daughter of a diffenting miniftcr 
 at Bath ; and was born at Malmfbury in Wiltfhire in 
 1687. She was bred a milliner ; but from her child- 
 hood had a turn for poetry, and in her riper years ap- 
 plied herfelf to the ftudy of the poets. Her poems, 
 for which ftie was comphmented by Mr Pope, breathe 
 the fpirit of piety and philofophy. She had the mis- 
 fortune to be deformed, which determined her to live 
 fingle ; though flie had great fweetnefs of counte- 
 nance, and was fohcited to marry. She died in 1 745, 
 aged 58. 
 
 Chandler (Dr Samuel), a learned and refpe£table 
 diffenting minifter, defcended from anceftors lieartily 
 engaged in the caufe of religious liberty, and fufferers 
 for the fake of confcience and nonconformity ; was 
 born at Hungerford in Berks, where his father was a 
 minifler of confiderable worth and abilities. Being by 
 his literary turn deftined to the miniftry, he was firft 
 placed at an academy at Bridgewater, and from thence 
 removed to Gloucefler under Mr Samuel Jones. A- 
 mong the pupils of Mr Jones were Mr Jofeph Butler, 
 afterv^ards bifhop of Durham, and Mr Thomas Seeker, 
 afterwards archbifliop of Canterbury. With thefe emi- 
 nent perfons he contradled a friendlhip that continued 
 to the end of their hves, notwithllanding the different 
 views by which their conduft was afterwards direfted, 
 and the different fituations in which they were placed. 
 
 Mr Chandler having finifhed his academical ftudics, 
 began to preach about July 1714; and being foon di- 
 ftinguifhed by his talents in the pulpit, he was chofen 
 in 1716 minifter of the Preft)yterian congregation at 
 Peckham near London, in which ftation he continued 
 fome years. Here he entered in the matrimonial ftate, 
 and began to have an increafing family, when, by the 
 fatal South-fea fcheme of 1720, he unfortunately loft: 
 the whole fortune which he had received with his wife. 
 His circumftances being thereby embarraffed, and his 
 income as a minifter being inadequate to his expences, 
 he engaged in the trade of a bookfeller, and kept a' 
 fhop in the Poultry, London, for about two or three 
 
 yearsj. 
 
C H A 
 
 [ 331 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 Chandler, years, ftill continuing to difcharge the duties of the 
 '~~v~-~ padoral office. He alio officiated as joint preacher with 
 the learned Dr Lardner of a winter weekly evening 
 lefture at the meeting- houfe in the Old Jewry, London : 
 in which meeting he was eftabliflicd affillant preacher 
 about the year 1725, and then as the pallor. Here 
 he miniftered to the religious improvement of a very 
 rcfpeftable congregation for 40 years with the greateft 
 applaufe ; and with what diligence and application he 
 improved the vacancies of time from his paitoral duties, 
 for improving himfelf and benefiting the world, will 
 appear from his many writings on a variety of import- 
 ant fubjefts. While he was thus laudably employed, 
 not only the univerfities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen 
 gave him, without any application, teftlmonies of their 
 eiteem in diplomas, conferring on him the degree of 
 D. D. but he alfo received offers of preferment from 
 fome of the governors of the eftablifiied church, which 
 he nobly declined. He had hkewife the honour of be- 
 ■ing afterwards elected F. R. and A. SS. 
 
 On the death of George II. in 1760, Dr Chandler 
 publifhed a fermon on that event, in which he compa- 
 red that prince to King David. This gave rife to a 
 pamphlet, which was printed in the year 1761, intitled 
 " The Hiftory of the Man after God's own Heart ;" 
 ■^vherein the author ventured to exhibit King David as 
 an example of perfidy, luft, and cruelty, fit only to be 
 ranked with a Nero or a Caligula ; and complained of 
 the infult that had been offered to the memory of the 
 late Britifh monarch by Dr Chandler's parallel between 
 him and the king of Ifrael. This attack occafioned 
 Dr Chandler to publlfh in the following year " A Re- 
 view of the Hiftory of the Man after God's own Heart; 
 in which the Falfehoods and Mifreprefcntations of the 
 Hiftorian are expofed and corrected." He alfo pre- 
 pared for the prefs a more elaborate work, which was 
 afterwards publifhed in two volumes 8vo, under the fol- 
 lowing title : " A Critical Hiftory of the Life of Da- 
 vid : in which the principal Events are ranged in Or- 
 der of time ; the chief Objeillons of Mr Bayle and 
 others agalnfl the Charafter of this Prince, and the 
 Scripture Account of him, and the Occurrences of his 
 Reign, are examined and refuted ; and the Pfalms which 
 refer to him explained." As this was the laft, it was 
 iikewife one of the beft, of Dr Chandler's produftions. 
 The greateft part of this work was printed off at the 
 time of our author's death, wliich happened May 8th 
 1766, aged 73. During the laft year of his life, he 
 was vifited with frequent returns of a very painful dlfor- 
 der, which he endured with great refignation and Chri- 
 ftian fortitude. He was interred in the burying-ground 
 at Bunhill-fields on the 1 6th of the month ; and his 
 funeral was very honourably attended by miniflers and 
 other gentlemen. He exprefsly defired, by his laft will, 
 that no delineation of hi«'charafter might be given in 
 his funeral fermon, which was preached by Dr Amory. 
 He had feveral children ; two fons and a daughter who 
 died before him, and three daughters who furvived 
 him ; two of whom are yet living, and both married, 
 one of them to the Rev. Dr Harwood. 
 
 Dr Chandler was a man of very extenfive learning and 
 eminent abilities ; his apprehenfion was quick and his 
 judgment penetrating ; he had a warm and vigorous ima- 
 gination ; he was a very inftruftive and animated preach- 
 
 tong. 
 
 er; and his talents in the pulpit and as a writer procured Chandler, 
 him very great and general eftcem, not only among the ^^"^"8" 
 diffenters, but among large numbers of the eftabllfhed 
 church. He was principally inftruraental in the eflablifh- 
 ment of the fund for relieving the widows and orphans 
 of poor Proteftant dlffenting minifters : the plan of It 
 was firft formed by him ; and it was by his intereft and 
 application to his friends that many of the fubfcripcions 
 for its fupport were procured. 
 
 In 1768, four volumes of our author's fermons were 
 publifhed by Dr Amory, according to his own direc- 
 tions in his laft will ; to which was prefixed a neat 
 engraving of him, from an excellent portrait by Mr 
 Chamberlin. He alfo expreffed a defire to have fome 
 of his principal pieces reprinted in four volumes 8vo : 
 propofals were accordingly publifhed for that purpofe, 
 but did not meet with.fufficient encouragement. But 
 in 1777, another work of our author was publifhed in 
 one volume 4to, under the following title : " A Para- 
 phrafe and Notes on the Epiftles of St Paul to the 
 Galatlans and Ephefians, with dodlrinal and praftical 
 Obfervations : together with a critical and practical 
 Commentary on the two Epiftles of St Paul to the 
 ThefTalonlans," Dr Chandler alfo left, in his inter- 
 leaved Bible, a large number of critical notes, chiefly 
 in Latin, which are now the property of Dr KIppIs, 
 Mr Farmer, Dr Price, and Dr Savage, and which 
 have been intended to be publifhed ; but the defign has 
 not yet been executed. A complete lift of Dr Chand- 
 ler's works is given in the Biographia Britannica, 
 vol. III. p. 435. 
 
 CHANG-TONG, a province of China, bounded on 
 the eaft by Petcheli and part of Honan, on the fouth 
 by Kiang-nan, on the eaft by the fea, and on the 
 north by the fea and part of Petcheli. The country 
 is well watered by lakes, ftreams, and rivers ; but Is 
 neverthelefs liable to fuffer from drought, as rain falls 
 here but feldom. The locufts alfo fometimes make 
 great devaftation. However, it abounds greatly iu 
 game ; and ther-e is perhaps no country where quails, 
 parti-Idges, and pheafants, ai-e fold cheaper, the in- 
 habitants of this province being reckoned the keeneft 
 fportfmen in the empire. The province is greatly en- 
 riched by the river Yun, called the Grand Imperial Ca- 
 nal, through which all the barks bound to Pekin mufl 
 pafs in their way thither. The duties on this canal 
 alone amount to more than L. 450,000 annually. The 
 canal itfelf is greatly admii-ed by European travellers 
 on account of its ftrong and long dikes, the banks de- 
 corated with cut ftone, the ingenious mechanifm of its 
 locks, and the great number of natural obftacles which 
 have been overcome in the execution of the work.— . 
 The province produces filk of the ordinary kind ; and, 
 befides this, another from a fort of infeft refembling 
 our caterpillar. It is coarfer than the ordinary filk, 
 but much ftronger and more durable ; fo that the ftuffs 
 made from it have a very extenfive fale throughout the 
 empire. 
 
 Chang- tong is remarkable for being the birth-place 
 of the celebrated philofopher and lawgiver Confucius. 
 His native city is called Kio-feou, where there are fe- 
 vei-al monuments erefted in honour of this great man. 
 The province is divided into fix diftridls, which con- 
 tain fix cities of the firft clafs, and 114 of the fecond 
 T t 2 and 
 
C H A [ 33 
 
 and third. Along the coaft, alfo, are 15 or 16 vil- 
 lages of confiderable iinportancc on account of their 
 commerce ; there are likewile a number of fmall iflands, 
 moft of which have harbours very convenient for the 
 Chiuefe junks which pafs from tlience to Corea or Lea- 
 tong. 7.''he mod remarkable cities are, i. Tfi-nan-fou, 
 the capital, which ftands fouth of the river Thr.gho or 
 Tfi. It is large and populous ; but chiefly celebrated 
 for having been the refidence of a long feries of kings, 
 whofe tombs, rifing on the neighbouring mountains, 
 afford 3 beautiful profpeft. 2. Yen-tcheu-fou, the fe- 
 cond city of the province, fituated between two rivers, 
 and in a mild and temperate climate. Great quanti- 
 ties of gold are faid to have been- formerly collefted in 
 its neighbourhood. 3. Lin-i9in-tchen, fituated on the 
 great canal, is much frequented by fhips, and may be 
 called a general magazine for every kind of merchan- 
 dife. Here is an octagonal tower, divided into eieht 
 ftories, the walls of which are covered on the outfide 
 with porcelain loaded with various figures neatly exe- 
 cuted, and encrufted on the inlide witli varioufly co- 
 loured fTiarble. A ilaircale, conftrufted in the wall, 
 condu6^s to all the ilories, from which there are paf- 
 fages that lead into magnificent galleries ornamented 
 with gilt bailuftrades. All the cornices and projefttons 
 of the tower are fyrnlfhed with little bells; which, 
 fays Mr Grofier, when agitated by the wind, form a 
 very agreeable harmony. In the higheit ilory is an 
 idol of gilt copper, to which the tower is dedicated. 
 In the neighbourhood are' fome other temples, the 
 architecture of which is exceedingly beautiful. 
 
 CHANGER, an officer belonging to the king's 
 mint, who changes money for gold or filver bullion. 
 See Mint. 
 
 Motiey-CHANGF.R, is a banker who deals in the 
 exchange, receipt, and payment, of moneys. See 
 Banker. 
 
 CHANGES, in arithmetic, &c. the permutations or 
 variations of any number of quantities ; with regard 
 to their pofition, order, &c. See Combination. 
 
 To Jind all the pojjible Changes of any Number of 
 ^tantitles, or hoiv oft their Orckr may be varied.^ Sup- 
 pofe two quantities a and b. Since they may be ei- 
 ther wrote a b ox b a, it is evident their changes are 
 2 = 2.1. Suppofe three qxiantities a b c : their changes 
 will be as in the margin; as is evident by com- 
 c a b bining rfirft with ab, then with ba; and hence 
 acb the number of changes arifes 3. 2. 1—6. If 
 a b c the quantities be 4, each may be combined four 
 
 ways with each order of the other three ; 
 
 e b a whence the number of changes arifes 6. 4 = 4. 
 be a 3. 2. I. = 24. Wherefore, if the number of 
 i a 4: quantities be fuppofed n, the number of changes 
 will be n,n — i .n — 2.n~ ^.n — /\..iffc. If the fame 
 quantity occur twice, the changes of two will be found 
 h b; of three, bab, abb, b b c; of four, c bab, be ab, 
 h ab c. And thus the number of changes in the firlt 
 cafe will be 1 1= (2. I ) : 2. ly in thefecond, 3=^ (3. 2. 
 1) : 2. I : in the third, 1 2 = (4. 3. 2. i ) : 2. i. 
 
 If a fifth letter be added, in each feries of lour quan- 
 tities, it will beget hve changes, whence the number 
 ©f all the changes will be 60= (5. 4. 3. 2.) i,:2. i. 
 Hence if the number of quantities be «, the number o f 
 changes will be Uim — i,n — 2.« — 3.K. — 4. Siff.): 2. 1. 
 
 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 II 
 
 channel. 
 
 From thefe fpccial formulas may be collefted a general Charge? 
 one, viz. if n be the number of quantities, and m the 
 number which fhows how oft the fame quantity occurs; 
 we fliall have {n.n — i./z — z.n — 3.^ — 4.« — ^.n — 6. 
 n — 7.72 — 8.W — 9. l^cJ): m — \,m — 2.m — T^.m — 4. Sff^:.) 
 the feries being to be continued, till the continual 
 fubtraftion of unity from n and m leave o. After the 
 fame manner we may proceed fuilher, till putting n. 
 for the number of quantities, and /, m., r, &c. for the 
 number that fliows how oft any of them is repeated, 
 we arrive at an univerfal form, [n.n — i.n — i.n — 3. 
 ti — 4.« — ^.n ~6.n — y.w — 8. l^c): (U — 1./—2J — 3. 
 / — 4./ — 5. iffc. m.m — i.m — 2.m — 3. izic. r.r — i.r — 2. 
 r — 3./"-— 4.r — 5". l^c. 
 
 Suppofe, forinftance, «— 6, r~o. The number 
 of changes will be (6. 5. 4. 3. 2. I.) : (3. 2. i. 3. 2. i.) 
 = (6. 5.4.): (3. 2 = 2. 5. 2 = 20). 
 
 Hence, luppofe thirteen perfons at a table, if it be 
 required how oft they may change places ; w-e fhall 
 find the number 13. j 2. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4.3.2.1. 
 = 6227020800. 
 
 In this manner may all the poffible anagrams of any 
 word be found in all languages, and that without any 
 ftudy : iuppofe v. g. it were required to find the ana- 
 grams of the wor<i amor, the number of changes will 
 be a 
 
 m a 
 
 a m 
 
 0 m a 
 m 0 a 
 m a 0 
 
 0 a m 
 a 0 m 
 a m 0 
 
 r 0 m a 
 o r VI a 
 0 m r a 
 Q m a r 
 
 0 a 
 r a 
 
 r m a 0 
 m r a 0 
 
 m a r 0 
 m a 0 r 
 
 r a 0 m 
 Oram 
 0 a r m 
 0 a m r 
 
 a r 0 m 
 
 a 0 r m 
 
 a 0 m r 
 
 r a m 0 
 
 a r m 6 
 
 a m r 0 
 
 a in Q r 
 
 The anagrams therefore of the word amor, in the 
 Latin tongue, are roma, mora, maro, ramo, anno. See 
 Anagram. 
 
 Whether this new method of anagramatizing be like 
 to prove of much fervice to that art, is left to the 
 poets. 
 
 CHANNA, in zoology, the name of a fifh caught 
 in great plenty in the Mediterranean, and brought to 
 market in Italy and elfewhere, among the fea-percb^ 
 which it fo nearly refembles, that it would not be di- 
 llinguifliable from it, but that the fea-perch is bigger, 
 and has only broad tranfverfe lines on its back, where- 
 as the channa has them both tranfverfe and longitudi- 
 nal. It has a very wide mouth, and its lower jaw is 
 longer than its upper; fo that its mouth naturally falls 
 open. Its eyes are fmall, and its teeth very lharp : 
 its back is of a blackifh red : it has feveral longitudinal 
 lines of a reddifh hue, and its tail is marked with red- 
 difli fpots. There is an obfervation, that in all th^e 
 fifh of this kind which have been examined by natu- 
 ralifls, there have been found none but females. This 
 is as old as the days of AriTlotle. Whether this be 
 true in faft, would require many obfervations. If it 
 fhould prove fo, the whole feems to end in this, that 
 the channa is no diiUnft fpecies, but only the female 
 of fome other fifh. There is another fifh not unlike 
 this, called cannadella, or rather channadella, w-hich at 
 Marfeilles is known by the name of charina. 
 
 CHANNEL, in geogiaphy, an arm of the fea, or a. 
 narrovy fea between two continents, or between a 
 
 continent 
 
C H A C 333 ] 
 
 Channel continent and an ifland. Such are the Britifli channel, chant or fong. 
 St George's channel, the channel of Conftantinople, 
 
 Chant. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Channel of a Ship. See Chain- Wales. 
 
 CHAN-SI, a province of China, and one of the 
 fmalleft in the empire, is bounded on the eait. by Pct- 
 cheli, on the fouth by Honan, on the weft by Chen-fi, 
 and on the north by the great wall. The cliraate is 
 healthful and agreeable, and the foil generally fertile, 
 though the country is full of mountains. Sou\c of 
 thefe lafl are rough, wild, and uninhabited ; but others 
 are cultivated with the greateft care from top to bot- 
 tom, and cut into terraces, formin;^ a vei*}' agreeable 
 profpeft ; while ferae liave on thoir tops vaft plains no 
 lefs fertile than the riclieJl low-lands^ Thefe moun- 
 tains abound with coal, which the inhabitants pound 
 and make into cakes with water ; a kind of fuel which, 
 though not very inflammable, affords a ftrong and lall- 
 . ing fuel when once kindled. It is principally ufed for 
 heating their (loves, which are conftrufhed with brick 
 as in Germany ; but the inhabitants of this province 
 give them the form of fmall beds, and flecp upon them. 
 The belt grapes to be met with in this part of Aha 
 grow in the province of Chan-fi ; fo that good wine 
 might be inade, but the people choofe rather to dry 
 and fell them to the neighbouring provinces. The 
 country abounds with mulk, porphyry, marble, lapis 
 lazuli, and jafper of various colours ; and iron n^jnes as 
 well as falt-pits and cryftal are very common. Here 
 are five cities of the firll clafs, and eighty-five of the 
 fecond and third: the moft remarkable are, i. Tai- 
 youen-fou the capital, an ancient city about three 
 leagues circumference, but much decayed in confe- 
 qnence of being no longer the refidence of the princes 
 of the blood as it was formerly. Nothing now remains 
 of the palaces of thofe princes but a few ruins ; but 
 their tombs are ftill to be feen on a neighbouring 
 mountain. The burying-plaee is magnificently orna- 
 mented ; and all the tombs are of marble or cut ftone, 
 having near them triumphal arches, ftatues of heroes, 
 figures of Hons and different animals, efpecially horfes, 
 and which are difpofed in very elegant order. An 
 awful and melancholy gloom is preferved around thefe 
 tombs by groves of aged cypreffes, which have never 
 felt the ftroke of an axe, placed chequer-wife. The 
 principal articles of trade here are, hard-ware, ftuffs of 
 difl'erent kinds, particularly carpets in imitation of 
 thofe of Turky. 2. Ngan-y is fituated near a lake as 
 fait as the ocean, from which a great quantity of fait h 
 extra£led. 3. Fuen-tcheou-fou, an ancient and com- 
 mercial city, built on the banks of the river Fuenho : 
 it has baths and fprings almoil boiling hot, which by 
 drawing hither a great number of ftrangers, add great- 
 ly to its opulence. 4. Tai-tong-fou, fituated near the 
 wall, is a place of great ftrength, and important by 
 reafon of its fituation, as being the only one expofed 
 to the incurfions of the Tartars. Its territories abound: 
 with lapis lazuli, medicinal herbs, and a particular kind 
 of jafper called yieche^ which is as white and beautiful 
 as agate ; marble and porphyry are alfo common; and 
 a great revenue is produced from the llvins which are. 
 dreffed here. 
 
 CHANT, ( cantusjy is ufed for the vocal mufic of 
 churches. 
 
 In church-hiftory we meet with divers -kinds of 
 
 G H A 
 
 The firft is the Amhrofian., ellablifhed 
 by St Ambrofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, in- 
 troduced by Pope Gregory the great, who ettabliftied 
 fciiools of chantors, and corredled the church-fong. 
 This is Itill retained in the church under the name of 
 plain for.g : at firil it was called the Roman fong. The 
 plain or Gregorian chant, is where the choir and people 
 iing in unifon, or aU together in the fame manner. 
 
 CHANTILLY, a village in France, about feven 
 leagues from Paris, where there is a magnificent pa- 
 lace and fine forelc belonging to the duke of Bourbon. . 
 
 CHANTOR, a finger 'of a choir in a cathedral. 
 The word is almoft grown obfolete, chorifier or f.ng- 
 ing-man being commonly ufed inftead of it. All great 
 chapters have chantors and chaplains to affift the ca- 
 nons, and officiate in their abfence. 
 
 Chan TOR is ufed by way of excellence for the pre- 
 centor or mafter of the choir, which is one of the firil 
 dignities of the chapter. At St David's in Wales, 
 where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the 
 biihop. The ancients called the chantor primlcerius 
 cantorum. To him belonged the direftion of the dea- 
 cons and other inferior officers. 
 
 Chantors, in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num- 
 ber of Levites employed in finging the praifes of God,, 
 and playing upon inftruments before his altar. They 
 had no habits diltinft from the reft of the people ; yet 
 in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon's 
 temple, the chantors appeared dreffed in tunics of 
 by fills or fine linen. 2 Chron. v. 1 2. 
 
 CHANTRY, or CHAUNTRY,was anciently a church- 
 or chapel endowed with lands, or other yearly reve- 
 nue, for the maintenance of one or more priefts, daily 
 faying or finging mafs for the fouls of the donors, and 
 fuch others as they appointed. Hence chauntry-rents 
 are rents paid to the crown ' by the tenants or pur- 
 chafers of chaimtry lands. 
 
 CHAOLOGY, the hiftory or defcription of the 
 chaos. See Chaos. 
 
 Orpheus, in his chaology, fcts forth the different al- 
 terations, fecretions, and divers forms which matter 
 went through till it became inhabitable, which a- 
 mounts to the fame with what we otherwife call cof- 
 viogony. Dr Burnet, in his theory of the earth, re- 
 prefents the chaos as it was at firft, entire, undivided,, 
 and univerfally rude and deformed ; or the tohu bohu : 
 then fhows how it came to be divided into its refpeftive 
 regions; how the homogeneous matter gathered itfelf 
 apart from all of a contrary principle ; and laftly, how 
 it hardened, and became a folid habitable globe. See 
 Earth. 
 
 CHAOS, that confufion in which matter lay when 
 newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the 
 world, before God, by his almighty word, had put it 
 into the order and condition wherein it was after the 
 fixr days creation. See Earth. 
 
 Chaos is reprefented by the ancients as the firft 
 principle, ovum, or feed 'of nature and the world. All 
 the fophifts, fages, naturalifh, philofophers, theologues,- 
 and poets, held that chaos was the eldeft and firft prin- 
 ciple, irj upyaw^ x"-''(. The Barbarians, Phoenicians, 
 Egyptians, Perfians, &c. all refer the origin of the 
 world to a rude,, mixed, confufed mafs of matter. The 
 Greeks, Orpheus, Hefiod, Mtnander, Arittophanes, .. 
 Euripides, and the writers of the Cyclic Poems, all-. 
 
 fpesk 
 
 Chantllly 
 II 
 
 Chaos. 
 
G H A 
 
 [ 334 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 fpeakofthe full chaos : the Ionic and Platcnic philo- 
 fophers build the world out of it. The Stoics hold, 
 that as the world was lirft made of a chaos, it fhall at 
 laft be reduced to a chaos ; and that its periods and 
 revolutions in the mean time are only tranfitions from 
 one chaos to another. Lallly, the Latins, as Ennius, 
 Varro, Ovid, Lucretius, Statins, Sic. are all of the 
 fame opinion. Nor is there any fe£t or nation what- 
 ever, that does not derive their Sixy-oa-u^-.c-i;^ the Jlruclure 
 vf the luorhl, from a chaos. 
 
 The opinion firft arofe among the Barbarians, whence 
 it fpread to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the 
 Romans and other nations. Dr Burnet obferves, that 
 befides Ariftotle and a few other pfeudo-Pythagoreans, 
 nobody ever alTerted that our world was always from 
 eternity of the fame nature, form, and ftrufture, as at 
 prefent ; but that it had been the Handing opinion of 
 the wife men of all ages, that what we now call the 
 terreftr'ial globe, was originally an unformed, indigefted 
 mafs of heterogeneous matter, called chaos ; and no 
 more than the rudiments and materials of the prefent 
 '%^'orld. 
 
 It does not appear who firft broached the notion of 
 a chaos. Mofes, the eldeft of all writers, derives the 
 •origin of this world from a confufion of matter, dark, 
 void, deep, without form, which he calls tohu bohii ; 
 which is precifely the chaos of the Greek and Barba- 
 rian philofophers. Mofes goes no further than the 
 <;haos; nor tells us whence it took its origin, or whence 
 its confufed ftate ; and where Mofes flops, there, pre- 
 cifely, do all the reil. Dr Burnet endeavours to fliow, 
 that as the ancient philofophers, &c. who wrote of the 
 cofmogony, acknowledged a chaos for the principle of 
 their world; fo the divines, or writers of the theogony, 
 derive the origin or generation of their fabled gods 
 from the fame principle. 
 
 Mr Whillon fuppofes the ancient chaos, the origin 
 of our earth, to have been the atmofphere of a comet ; 
 which, though new, yet, all things confidered, is not 
 the moft Improbable alfertion. He endeavours to 
 make It out by many arguments, drawn from the a- 
 greement which appears to be between them. So 
 that, according to him, every planet is a comet, form- 
 ed into a regular and lafting conftitution, and placed 
 at a proper diftance from the fun, revolving in a nearly 
 circular orbit: and a comet Is a planet either beginning 
 to be deftroyed or re-made ; that is, a chaos or planet 
 unformed or In its primaeval ftate, and placed as yet in 
 an orbit very eccentrical. 
 
 Chaos, in the phrafe of Paracelfus, imports the air. 
 It has alfo fome other fignificatlons amongft the al- 
 chemlils. 
 
 Chaos, in zoology, a genus of Infefts belonging to 
 the order of veimes zoophyta. The body has no fhell 
 or covering, and is capable of reviving after being dead 
 to appearance for a long time : it has no joints or ex- 
 ternal organs of fenfation. There are five fpecies, moft- 
 ly obtained by infufions of different vegetables In wa- 
 iter, and only difcoverable by the microfcope. See 
 x\nimai.culf.. 
 
 CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity 
 worn by dukes, being fcarlet-coloured velvet on the 
 outfide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne 
 above an helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentle- 
 tnens crefts. 
 
 CHAPEL, a place of divine wodhip, fo called. Chape! 
 The word Is derived from the Y^-sXi^a capella. In for- , i' 
 mer times, when the kings of France were engaged in 'j 
 war, they always carried St Martin's hat into the 
 field, which was kept in a tent as a precious relic : 
 from whence the place was called capella ; and the 
 priefts, who had the cuttody of the tent, capellani. Af- 
 terwards the word capella became applied to private 
 oratories. 
 
 In Britain there are feveral forts of chapels, i . Pa- 
 rochial chapels : thefe differ from parlfh-churches only 
 in name ; they are generally fmall, and the Inhabitants 
 within the diftrift few. If there be a prefentation ad 
 ecclejiam, Inftead of capellam^ and an admlflion and in- 
 ftltution upon It, It is no longer a chapel, but a church. 
 2. Chapels, which adjoin to, and are part of the church: 
 fuch were formerly built by honourable perfons, as 
 burying-places for themfelves and their families. 3. Cha- 
 pels of eafe : thefe are ufually built in very large pa- 
 rifhes, where all the people cannot conveniently repair 
 to the mother-church. 4. Free chapels ; fuch as were 
 founded by kings of England. I'hey are free from 
 all epifcopal jurlfdiclion, and only to be vifitcid by the 
 founder and his fucceflbrs ; which is done by the lord 
 chancellor : yet the king may llcenfe any fubjeft to 
 build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent ex- 
 empt it from the vifitatlon of the ordinary. 5. Cha- 
 pels the univerfities, belonging to particular col- 
 leges. 6. Domeftic chapels, built by noblemen or gen- 
 tlemen for the private fervlce of God In their families. 
 See Chaplain. 
 
 Chapel Is alfo a name given to a printer's work- 
 houfe ; becaufe, according to fome authors, printing 
 was firft aclually performed in chapels or chui'ches ; or, 
 according to others, becaufe Caxton, an early printer, 
 exercifed the art in one of the chapels In Weftmlnfter 
 Abbey. In this fcnfe they fay, the orders or la-ios of 
 the chapel, the fee rets of the chapel, Sec. 
 
 Knights of the Chapel, called alfo Poor knights of 
 Wind/or, were inftituted by Henry VIII. In his tefta- 
 ment. Their number was at firft thirteen, but has 
 been fince augmented to twenty-fix. They aflift in 
 the funeral fervlces of the kings of England : they are 
 fubjeft to the office of the canons of Windfor, and live 
 on penfions affigned them by the order of the garter. 
 They bear a blue or red cloak, v/Ith the arms of St 
 George on the left fhoulder. 
 
 CHAPELAIN (.James), an eminent French poet 
 bom at Paris In J 595, and often mentioned in the 
 works of Balzac, Menage, and other learned men. He 
 wrote feveral works, and at length diftinguifhed hlm- 
 felf by an heroic poenf called La Pucelle, ou France 
 Delivree, which employed him feveral years; and which, 
 railing the expeftation of the public, was as much de- 
 cried by fome as extolled by others. He was one of 
 the king's counfellors ; and died in 1674, "^^^Y "ch, 
 but was veiy covetous and fordid. 
 
 CHAPELET, in the manege, a couple of ftirnip- 
 leathers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and 
 joined at top in a fort of leather buckle, called the 
 head of the chapelet, by which they are made faft to the 
 pummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the rider's 
 length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid the 
 trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups ev-.-ry 
 time that the gentleman mounts on a different horfc 
 
 and 
 
G H A [ 
 
 and faddle, and to fupply the place of the academy 
 faddles, which have no itirrups to them. 
 
 CHAPELLE (Claudius Emanuel Luillier), the 
 natural fon of Francis Luillier, took the name of Cha- 
 pelle from a village between Paris and St Denys, where 
 he was born. He diftinguiihed himfelf by writing 
 fmall pieces of poetry, in which he difcovered great 
 delicacy, an eafy turn, and an admirable facility of ex- 
 prcffion. He was the friend of Gaffcndi andMohere; 
 and died in 1686. 
 
 CHAPERON, CHAPERONNE,or CHAPERoo>r, pro- 
 perly fignities a fort of hood or covering of the head 
 anciently worn both by men and women, the nobles 
 and the populace, and afterwards appropriated^to the 
 doftors, and licentiates in colleges, &c. Hence the 
 name paffed to certain little fhields, and other funeral 
 devices, placed on the foreheads of the horfes that 
 drew the hearfcs in pompous funerals, and which are 
 ftill called chaperoons, or Jhafferoons ; becaufe fuch de- 
 vices were originally faftencd on the chaperonnes, or 
 hoods, worn by thofe horfes with their other coverings 
 of ftate. 
 
 Chaperon of a bit-mouth, in the manege, is only ufed 
 for fcatch-mouths, and all others that are not cannon- 
 mouths, fignifying the end of the bit that joins to 
 the branch juft by the banquet. In fcatch-mouths 
 the chaperon is round, but in others it is oval: and 
 the fame part that in fcatch and other mouths is cal- 
 led chaperon, is in cannon-mouths called fronceau. 
 
 CHAPITERS, in architedure, the lame with ca- 
 pitals. 
 
 Chapiters, in law, formerly fignified a fummary 
 of fuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented be- 
 fore juftices in eyre, juftices of affize, or of the peace 
 in their fefllons. 
 
 Chapiters, at this time, denote fuch articles as are 
 delivered by the mouth of the juflice in his charge to 
 the inqueft. 
 
 CHAPLAIN properly fignifies a perfon provided 
 with a chapel ; or who difcharges the duty thereof. 
 
 Chaplain is alfo ufed for an ecclefiaftical perfon, 
 in the houfe of a prince, or a perfon of quality, who 
 officiates in their chapels, &c. 
 
 In England there are 48 chaplains to the king, 
 who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, 
 read the fervice to the family, and to the king in 
 his private oratory, and fay giace in the abfenee of the 
 clerk of the clofet. While in waiting they have a 
 table, and attendance, but no falarj\ In Scotland the 
 king has fix chaplains, with a falary of L. 50 each, 
 three of them having in addition the deanery of the 
 chapel-royal divided between them, making up above 
 L. 100 to each. Their only duty at pref<;nt is to fay 
 prayers at the eledfion of peers for Scotland to fit in 
 
 parliament. According to a ftatute of Henry VIII. 
 
 the perfons veiled with a power of retaining chaplains, 
 together with the number each is allowed to qualify, 
 is as follows : An archblfhop, eight ; a duke or bllhop^ 
 fix ; marquis or earl, five ; vilcount, four ; baron, 
 knight of the gaiter, or lord chancellor, three ; a du- 
 ehefs, marchionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafurer 
 and comptroller of the king's houle, clerk of the clo- 
 fet, the king's fecretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, 
 and mailer of the rolls, each of them two ; chief juf- 
 tice. of the king's bench, and warden of the cinque?- 
 
 335 1 - c H A 
 
 ports, each one. All thefe chaplains may purchafe a 
 licence or difpenfatlon, and take two benefices ' with 
 cure of fouls. A chaplain mull be retained by letters , 
 teftimonial underhand and feal ; for it is not fufacient 
 that he ferve as chaplain in the family. 
 
 The firil chaplains are faid to have been thofe inlli- 
 tuted by the ancient kings of France, for preferving 
 the chape, or cape, with the other relics of St Martin, 
 which the kings kept in their palace, and carried out 
 with them to the war. The firft chaplain is faid to 
 have been Giil. de Mefmes, chaplain to St Louis. 
 
 Chaplain inihe order of Malta, is ufed for the fecond 
 rank, or clafs, in that order ; otherwife called d'laco. 
 
 The knights make the firfl clafs, and the chaplains 
 the fecond. 
 
 . Chaplains of the Pope, are the auditors, or judges of 
 caufes in the facred palace ; fo called, becaufe the 
 pope anciently gave audience In his chapel, for the de- 
 clfion of cafes fent from the feveral parts of Chrillen- 
 dom. He hither fummoned as affelfors the moil learn- 
 ed lawyers of his time ; and they hence acquired the 
 appellation of capellani, chaplains. It is from the de- 
 crees formerly given by thefe, that the body of de- 
 cretals is compofed : their number pope SIxtus IV. 
 reduced to twelve. 
 
 Some fay, the fhrines of relics were covered with a 
 kind of tent, cape, or capella, i. e. little cape ; and that 
 hence the priefts, who had the care of them, were cal- 
 led chaplains. In time thefe relics were repofited in a 
 little church, either contiguous to a larger, or feparate 
 from it ; and the fame name, capella, which was given 
 to the cover, was alfo given to the place where it was 
 lodged : and hence the prieft who fuperintended it 
 came to be called chaplain. 
 
 CHAPLET, an ancient ornament for the head, like 
 a garland or wreath ; but this word is frequently ufed 
 to fignify the circle of a crown. There are inilances 
 of its being borne in a coat of arms, as well as for 
 crefts ; the paternal arms for Lafcelles are argent, three 
 chaplets, gules. 
 
 Chaplet alfo denotes a firing of beads ufed by the 
 Roman Cathohcs, to count the number of their pray- 
 ers. The invention of it is afcrlbed to Peter the her- 
 mit, who probably learned it of the Turks, as they 
 owe it to the Eail- Indians. 
 
 Chaplets are fometlmes c-aWtd. pater-nojers ; and are 
 made of coral, of diamonds, of wood, is'c. The com- 
 mon chaplet contains fifty ave-marias, and five pater- 
 nofters. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour, con- 
 fifting of 3 3 beads, in honour of his 33 years living oa 
 earth, inflituted by father Michael the Camaldufian. 
 
 The Orientals have a kind of chaplets which they 
 call chains, and which they ufe in their prayers, rc- 
 hearfing one of the perfections of God on each link or 
 head. The Great Mogul is faid to have i 8 of thefe 
 chains, all precious flones ; fome diamonds, others ru- 
 bies, peai Is, &c. The- Turks have likewife chaplets,- 
 which they bear in the hand, or hang at the girdle : 
 but father Dandini obferves, they differ from thofe 
 ufed by the Romanlfts, in that they are all of the fame 
 bignefs, and have not that diftinftion into decads ; 
 though they confiil of fix decads, or 60 heads. He 
 adds, that the mufliilmans run over the chaplet almofl 
 in an inflant, the prayers being extremely fhort, as 
 containing only thefe words, <' praife to God," or 
 
 glory 
 
 Chaplaiii 
 II 
 
 Chaplet 
 
Chaplet 
 (I 
 
 Chapter. 
 
 C H A [ 336 ] C H A 
 
 " glory to God," for each bead. Befides the com- of the new Toundatlon ; fuch are Canterbury, Wln- 
 
 mon chaplet they have likewife a larger one confilt- chefter, Ely, Carhfle, &c._ See Dean. 
 ing of 100 beads, where there is fome didinaion, as Chapter, in matters in literature, a divifion in a 
 
 being divided byhttle threads Into three patts ; on one book for keeping the iubjed treated of more clear and 
 of which they repeat 30 times foubhan Allah, i. e. 
 
 Chapter " 
 li 
 
 Charader. 
 
 God is worthy to be praifed ;" on another, ellamh 
 Allah, " glory be to God ;" and on the third, Allah 
 echcr, " God is great." Thefe thrice thirty times ma- 
 king only 90 ; to complete the number 100, they add 
 
 diftina. 
 
 CHAR, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Salmo. 
 CHARA, in botany : A genus of the monandria 
 order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants. There 
 is neither male calyx nor corolla ; and the anthera is 
 
 other prayers for the beginning of the chaplet— He placed under the gerraen. The female calyx is terra- 
 
 phyllous ; no corolla ; the ftigma quinquefid, with one 
 roundiih feed. 
 
 CHARABON, a fea-port town on the northern 
 coatl of the ifland of Java in the Eall-Indies ; E. Long. 
 10. 8. 8. Lat. 6. 
 
 CHARACENE, the moft fouthern part of Sufiana, 
 a province of Perfia, lying on the Peifian gulph, be- 
 tween the Tigris and the Eulsus. It was fo named 
 from ^the city of Chorax, called lirft Alexandria, from 
 its founder Alexander the Great ; afterwards Antio- 
 chia, from Antlochus V. king of Syria, who repaired 
 and beautified it ; and laftly, Chorax Spafinas, or Pa- 
 finae, that is the Mole of the Spafines, an Arabian 
 king of that name having fecured it agalnft the over- 
 flowing of the Tigris, by a high bank or mole, extend- 
 ing three miles, which fervcd as a fence to all that 
 country. DIonyfius Periegetes, and Ifidorus, author 
 of the Parthica; Manliones, were both natives of this 
 city. The fmall dlftria of Characene was feiztd by 
 Pafines, the fon of Sogdonacus, king of the neighbour- 
 ing Arabs, during the troubles of Syria, and ereded 
 into a kingdom. Lucian calls him Hyfpafines, and 
 ?ierngk7 J)Xw7in\rthree parts, th7 feaions on the adds, that he ruled over the Characeni and the reigh- 
 fides being of different metal or colour from the reft. bouring people : he died m the 85th year of his age. 
 
 CHAPPEL IN FRITH, a market-town of Derby- The other kings of this country we find mentioned by 
 iliire, about 26 miles north- weft of Derby ; W. Long, the ancients are, Terasus, who died in the 92d year of 
 J CO N Lat C^. 22. his age, and after him Artabazus the icvenih, as l^uciaa 
 
 * Chappel (Wiil'iam) a learned and pious bifhop of informs us, who was driven from the throne by his own 
 Cork, Cloyne, and Rofs, in Ireland, born in Notting- fubjeas,but reftorcdby the Parthians. And this is all we 
 hamfhire in 1 c82. When the troubles began under find in the ancients relating to the kings ol Characene. 
 Charles I.he was profecuted by the puritan party In par- CHARACTER, in a genera fenfe, fignifies a marK 
 llament, and retired to Derby, where he devoted himfelf or figure, dr^wn on paper, metal, ttone, or other mat- 
 to ftudy until his death in 1649. He wrote Mdhodus ter, with a pen, graver, chiffel, or other inltrument, 
 
 adds, that the Mahometan chaplet appears to have 
 had its rife from the mea heracoth, or " hundred bs- 
 nediaions-;" which the Jews are obliged to repeat 
 daily, and which we find in their prayer-books ; the 
 Jews and Mahometans having this in common, that 
 they fcarce do any thing without pronouncing fome 
 laud or benediaion. 
 
 Menage derives the word chaplet from chapeau, 
 ■** hat." The modern Latins call it chapellina, the Ita- 
 lians more frequently corona, 
 
 Chaplet, or Chapcht, in architeaure, a little 
 moulding, cut, or carved into round beads, peails, 
 olives, or the like. 
 
 CHAPMAN (George), born in I557» a man \\\^\- 
 ly efleemed in his time for his dramatic and poetic 
 works. He wrote 1 7 plays ; tranflated Homer and 
 fome other ancient poets ; and was thought no mean 
 genius. He died in 16^4 ; and was buried in St Giles's 
 in the fields, where his friend Inlgo Jones ereded a 
 monument to him. 
 
 CHAPPE', In heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon 
 by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to 
 
 Concionandi, i. e. " the method of preaching :" and he 
 is one of thofe to whom the Whole Duty of^ Man has 
 been attributed. He left behind him alio his own life 
 written by himfelf in, Latin, which has been twice 
 printed. 
 
 CHAPTER, In ecclefiaftical polity, a fociety or 
 community of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals 
 and collegiate churches 
 
 to fignify or denote any thing. The word is Greek, 
 ■^apa.v.rr,p, formed from the verb, x^t^^'^^^-' infculperi', 
 " to ingrave, imprefs," life. 
 
 The various kinds of charaders may be reduced to 
 three heads, viz. Literal Charaders, Numeral Charac- 
 ters, and Albre'viations. 
 
 I. Literal CHAiiAcrF.R, is a letter of the alphabet, 
 ferving to indicate fome articulate found, expreffive of 
 
 It was'in the eighth century that the body of canons fome idea or conception of the mind. See Alphabet. 
 began to be called a chapter. The chapter of the ca- i • TKefe may be divided, with regard to^ their na 
 nons of a cathedral were a ftanding council to the bi- 
 
 ture and ufe, into Nominal CharaSters, or thofe vve pro- 
 
 fhop, and, during the vacancy of the fee, had the jiirif 
 diaion of the diocefe. In the earlier ages, the bifhop 
 was head of the chapter ; afterwards abbots and other 
 dignitaries, as deans, provofts, treaCurers, &c. were 
 preferred to this dlflinaion. The deans and chapters 
 had the privilege of choofing the bifhops in England ; 
 but Henry VIII. got this power vefted in the crown : 
 and as the fame prince expelled the monks from the 
 cathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their room, See HiEROGLypHic, Symbol, &c. _ 
 thofe he thus regulated were called deans and chapters 2. Utcral Chakact.k, may be again divided, with 
 N° 69. 5 
 
 perly call letters ; which ferve to exprefs the names of 
 things: See Letter. Real CharaBers ; thofe that 
 inftead of names exprefs things and ideas : See Idea, 
 &c. Emllematical ox Symbolical CharaBers : which have 
 this in common with real ones, that they exprefs the 
 things themfelves ; but have this further, that they in 
 fome meafure perlonate them, and exhibit their form : 
 fuch are the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians. 
 
0 !H[ A. 
 
 Chft^a<Sl;ett regard to their invention and ufe, into particular and 
 ^"'Y^^ gmeml or mivcrfal. 
 
 Particular Chj^rjcters, are thofe peculiar to this or 
 that nation. Such are^the Roman, Itahc, Greek, He- 
 brew, Arabic, Gothic, Chinefe, i^c. charaBers. See 
 Hebrew, Gothic, Chinese, (Jc. 
 
 Umverfal ChjractfrSj are alfo real charaBers, and 
 make what fome authors call a Phnofophical Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 I'hat diverfity of charaBers ufed by the fcveral na- 
 tions to exprefs the fame idea, is found the chief ob 
 ftacle to the advancement of learning : to remove this, 
 feveral authors have taken occafion to propofe plans 
 of characters that fliould be univerfal, and which each 
 people (hould read in their own language. The cha- 
 raSler here is to be real, not nominal : to exprefs things 
 and notions ; not, as the common ones, Ittters or founds: 
 yet to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary ; not em- 
 blematical, like hieroglyphics. 
 
 Thus, every nation fhould retain its own language, 
 yet every one underftand that of each other, without 
 learning it ; only by feeing a real or univerfal charac- 
 ter, which (hould fignify the fame things to all people, 
 by what founds foever each exprefs it in their particu- 
 lar idiom. For inftance, by feeing the charatier de- 
 ftined to llgnify to drink, an Englifliman (hould read 
 to drink; a Frenchman, Loire; a Latin, bile re ; a 
 Greek, 'Tjvfiv; a Jew, noB-; a German, trincken ; and 
 fo of the reft : in the fame manner as feeing a horfe, 
 each people exprefl'es it after their ovvb manner ; but 
 «41 mean the fame animal. 
 
 This real charaSer is no chimera ; the Chinefe and 
 Japonefe have already fomething like it. They have 
 a common charaSer which each of thofe nations un- 
 derftand alike in their feveral languages ; though they 
 pronounce them with fuch different founds, that they 
 do not underftand one another in fpeaking. 
 
 The firft and moft confiderable attempts for a real 
 charaBer, or philofophical language, in Europe, are 
 thofe of bifliop Wilkins and Dalgarme : but thefe, 
 with how much art foever they were contrived, have 
 yet proved inefFedlual, 
 
 M. Leibnitz had fome thoughts the fame way ; he 
 thinks thofe great men did not hit the right method. 
 It was probable, indeed, that by their means, people, 
 who do not underftand one another, might eafily have 
 a commerce together ; but they have not hit on true 
 real charaBers. 
 
 According to him, the 'charaBers ftiould refemble 
 thofe ufed in Algebra : which, in eff'eft, are very 
 fimple, yet very expreffive ; without any thing fuper- 
 fiuous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties re- 
 quired. 
 
 The real charaBer of biftiop Wilkins has its juft ap- 
 plaufe : Dr Hook recommends it on his own know- 
 ledge and experience, as a moft excellent fcheme ; and 
 to engage the world to the ftudy thereof, pubhfhes 
 Ibme fine inventions of his own therein. 
 . M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under confideration an 
 alphabet of human thoughts ; in order to a new philofo- 
 phical language, on his own fcheme : but his death 
 prevented its being brought to maturity. 
 
 M. Lodwic, in the philofophical tratfaBions, gives 
 us a plan of an univerfal alphabet or charaBer of another 
 kind : this was to contain an enumeration of all fuch 
 Vol, IV. Part I. 
 
 I 337 1 
 
 <3 H A 
 
 fmglc founds, or letters, as are ufed in any language ; C1iftra(51:t r«, 
 by means whereof, people fhould be enabled to pro- '"""'V-—' 
 nounce truly and readily any language ; to defcribe 
 the pronunciation of any language that fliall be pro- 
 nounced in their hearing, fo as others accuftomed to 
 this language, though they had never heard the lan- 
 guage pronounced, fliall at firft be able tnily to pro- 
 nounce it: and, laftly, this charaBer to ferve as a ftand- 
 ard to perpetuate the founds of any language. In 
 the Journal Literaire, an. 1720, we have a very inge- 
 nious projeft for an univerfal charaBer. The author, 
 after obviating the objedlions that might be made a- 
 gainft the feafiblenefs of fuch fchemes in the general, 
 propofes his own : his charaBers are to be the common 
 Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations of 
 thefe nine are fufficient to exprefs diftmftly an incre- 
 dible quantity of numbers, much more than we fhall 
 need terms to fignify our aftions, goods, evils, duties, 
 paffions, &c. Thus is all the trouble of framing and 
 learning any new charaBer at once faved ; the Ara- 
 bic figures having already all the univerfality required. 
 
 The advantages are immenfe. For, iwo, We have 
 here a ftable, faithful interpreter ; never to be cor- 
 rupted or changed, as the popular languages continual- 
 ly are. 2//«, Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing a 
 foreign language is fuch as ufually gives the learner 
 the greateft trouble, and there are even fome founds 
 which foreigners never attain to ; in the charaBer here 
 propofcd, this difficulty has no place : every nation is 
 to pronounce them according to the particular pro- 
 nunciation that already obtains among them. All the 
 difficulty is, the accuftoming the pen and the eye to ' 
 affix certain notions to charaBers that do not, at firft 
 fight, exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than 
 we find in the ftudy of any language whatever. 
 
 The inflexions of words are here to be expreffed by 
 the common letters. For inftance, the fame charaBer 
 ffiall exprefs a fdly or a colt., a horfe or a mare, an old 
 horfe or an old mare^ as accompanied with this or that 
 diftindive letter, which (hall fiiow the fex, youth, ma- 
 turity, or old age : a letter alfo to exprefs the bignefs 
 or fize of things ; thus v. g. a man with this or that 
 letter, to fignify a great man, or a little man, &c. 
 
 The ufe of thefe letters belongs to the grammar ; 
 which, once well underftood, would abridge the voca- 
 bulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar 
 is, that it would only have one declenfion and one 
 conjugation : thofe numerous anomalies of gramma- 
 nans are exceeding troublefome ; and arife hence, that 
 the common languages are governed by the populace, 
 who never reafon on what is beft : but in the charaBer 
 here propofed, men of fenfe having the introduction 
 of it, would have a new ground, whereon to build re- 
 gularly. 
 
 But the difficulty is not in inventing the moft fimple, 
 eafy, and commodious charaBer, but in engaging the 
 feveral nations to ufe it ; there being nothing they a- 
 gree leis in, than the underftanding and purfuing their 
 common intereft. 
 
 3. Literal charaders may again be divided, with re- 
 fpeft to the nations among whom they have been in- 
 vented, into Greek characters, Roman charafters, He- 
 brew charafters, l^c. The Latin charafter now ufed 
 through all Europe, was formed from the Greek, as the 
 Greek was from the Phoenician ; and the Phoenician, 
 U u as 
 
C H A 
 
 r 33S T 
 
 C H A 
 
 Charaders. as well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic charafters, 
 '■"^^ were formed from the ancient Hebre\v, which fubfifted 
 till the Babylonilh captivity ; for after th^ct event the 
 charafter of the Affyrians, which is the fquare Hebrew 
 now in ufe, prevailed, the ancient being only found on 
 fome Hebrew medals, commonly called Samaritan me- 
 dals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic charafters, in- 
 vented by Ulfilas, were aboliflied, and the Latin ones 
 eftablifhed in their room. 
 
 Medallills obferve, that the Greek charafter, con- 
 f) fling only of majufcule letters, has preferved its uni- 
 formity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus, 
 from which time it appears fomewhat weaker and 
 rounder : from the time of Conftantine to Michael we 
 find only Latin charafters : after Michael, the Greek 
 charafters recommence ; but from that time they be- 
 gan to alter with the language, v/hich was a mixture 
 of Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preferve both 
 their charafter and language as> low as the tranflation 
 of the feat of the empire to Conftantinople : towards 
 the time of Decius the character began to lofe its 
 roundnefs and beauty ; fome time after, it retrieved, 
 and fubfifted tolerably till the time of Juftin, when it 
 degenerated gradually into the Gothic. The rounder, 
 then, and better formed a charafter is upon a medal, 
 the fairer pretence it has to antiquity. 
 
 IL Numeral CHARAcrERS, or charafters ufed to 
 cxprefs numbers, are either letters or figures. 
 
 The Arabic charafter, called alfo the common one, 
 becaufe it is ufed almoft throughout Europe in all forts 
 of calculations, confifts of thefe ten digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. 
 
 The Roman numeral charafter confifts of feven ma- 
 jufcule letters of the Roman alphabet, vi%. I, V, X, 
 L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten, 
 L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thou- 
 fand. The I repeated twice makes two, II ; thrice, 
 three, III : four is expreffed thus IV, as I before V 
 or X takes an unit from the number expreffed by thefe 
 letters. To exprefs fix, an I is added to a V, VI ; 
 for feven, two, VII ; and for eight, three, VIII. nine 
 is epreifed by an I before X, thus IX. The fame 
 remark may be made of the X before L or C, except 
 that the diminution is by tens ; thus, XL denotes 
 forty, XC ninety, and LX fixty. The C before D 
 or M diminifties each by a hundred. The numbei 
 five hundred is fometimes expreffed by an I before a 
 C inverted, thus, 13 ; and inftead of M, which figni- 
 fies a thoufand, an I is fometimes ufed between two 
 C's, the one direft, and the other inverted, thus CID* 
 The addition of C and 3 before or after raifes CID by 
 tens, thus, CCI33 expreffes ten thoufand, CCCI3DD, 
 a hundred thoufand. Th? Romans alfo expreffed any 
 number of thoufands by a line drawn over any numeral 
 lefs than a thoufand ; thus v denotes five thoufand, 
 or, fixty thoufand: fo likewife M is one million, MM 
 is two millions, &c. 
 
 The Greeks had three vrays of exprefling numbers : 
 
 1. Every letter, according to its place in the alphabet, 
 denoted a number, from «, one, to u, twenty-four. 
 
 2. The alphabet was divided into eight units, a. one, 
 ^ two, three, £ff<r.; into y eight tens, * ten, x. twenty 
 A thirty, l^c. ; and eight hundreds, g one hundred, 
 c two hundred, t three hundred, l^fc. 3. I ftood for 
 one, n five, c ten, H a hundred, X a thoufand, vi ten 
 thoufand ; and when the letter n inclofed any of thefe, 
 
 except I, it fhowed the inclofed letter to be five times Characters; 
 its value : as ITi fifty, IhI five hundred, ixT five thou- ^— -v— ' 
 fand, ilvii fifty thoufand. 
 
 The French Character ufedn^n the chamber of ac- 
 counts, and by perfons concerned in the management 
 of the revenue, is, properly fpeaking, nothing elfe than- 
 the Roman numerals, in letters that are not majufcule : 
 thus, inftead of expreffing fifty-fix by LVI, they de- 
 note it by fmaller charafters Ivj. 
 
 III. Characters of Abbieviations, &c. in feveral 
 of the arts, are fymbols contrived for the more concife 
 and immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things. 
 For the 
 
 Characters ufed in Algeb7'a. See Algebra, Intro- 
 duftion. 
 
 Characters ufed in AJlronom^, viz. 
 Of the Fianets. See Plate LXII. fig. 19. 
 Of the Signs. Plate LXXVL.fig. 158. & LXXXV,.. 
 fig. 204. 
 
 Of the afpefts. 
 
 d or S Conjunftion 
 SS Semifextile 
 * Sextile 
 C^Quintile 
 □ Quartile 
 Td Tredecile 
 
 A Trine 
 Bq Biquintile 
 Vc Quincunx 
 o*-' Oppofition 
 
 Dragon's head 
 73 Dragon's tail 
 Of time. 
 
 A. M. ante meridiem^ before the fun comes upon the 
 
 meridian, 
 O. or N. noon. 
 
 P. M. pojl meridiem, when the fun is paft the meri- 
 dian. 
 
 Characters in Commerce^ 
 D° ditto, the fame R° reEo ) 
 
 numero, or number V vero \ 
 Y° folio, or page 
 C or hundred 
 weight, or 112 
 pounds 
 q""* quarters 
 S or s fhillings 
 d pence or deniers 
 lb pound weight. 
 Characters in Chemiftry. See PI. cxxxii. & cxxxiiio 
 
 Characters in Geometry and Trigonometry. 
 \\ the charafter of pa- ^ equiangular, or fir 
 
 £ or /. pounds fterling 
 p'' per, or by, as p"" 
 
 by the year, p"^ cent. 
 ^ rixdollar 
 D^ ducat 
 
 P, S. poftfcrlpt; ^c. 
 
 rallelifm 
 A triangle 
 □ fquare 
 Q □ reftangle 
 0 circle 
 
 milar 
 — equilateral 
 
 an angle 
 Z. right angle 
 JL perpendicular 
 
 o denotes a degree ; thus 45 o implies 45 degrees. 
 ' Denotes a minute ; thus 50', is 50 minutes. ", 
 "", Denote feconds, thirds, and fourths : and the fame 
 charafters are ufed vi'here the progreffions are by tens, 
 as it is here by fixties. 
 
 Characters in Grammar, Rhetoric, ^Poetry, Cffc. 
 
 ( ) parenthefis 
 
 [] crotchet 
 
 - hyphen 
 
 ' apoftrophe 
 
 ' emphafis or accent 
 
 breve 
 
 dialyfis 
 * caret and circumflex, 
 f X and * references 
 
 D. D. doftor in divi- 
 nity 
 
 V. D. M. minifter of 
 the word of God. 
 
 LL. D. doftor of laws 
 
 J. V. D. doftor of ci- 
 vil and canon law 
 
 " quotation 
 
 M. D. dodor in phyfic 
 
C H A [ 
 
 Charaaers. § fe£tion or divifion A. M. mafter of arts 
 'U— V— — ' ^ paragraph A. B. bachelor of arts 
 
 F. R. S. fellow of the royal fociety. 
 
 For the other chavaders ufed in grammar, fee Com- 
 ma, Colon, Semicolon, i^c. 
 
 Characters among the ancient Lawyers^ and in ancient 
 Injcriptions 
 
 the fecond CharaAer. 
 
 ^ paragraphs 
 /'digefts 
 Scto. fenatuo con- 
 
 fulto 
 E. extra 
 
 S. P. Q. R. fena- 
 tus popuiufque 
 Roma 11 us 
 
 P. P. pater patriae 
 C. code 
 
 C. C. confules 
 T. titulus 
 
 P. P. D. D. propria 
 pecunia dedicavit 
 
 D. D. M. dono dedit 
 monumentum. 
 
 Characters in Medicine and Pharmacy. 
 
 B- recipe 
 
 ^ ~a~ay or ana, of each 
 alike 
 
 lb a pound, or a pint 
 § an ounce 
 3 a drachm 
 9 a fcruple 
 gr. grains 
 
 is or fs half of any 
 
 thing 
 cong. congius, a gallo 
 coch. cochleare, a 
 
 fpoonful 
 
 Characters upon Tomh-Jlones. 
 S. V. Sifte viator, i. e. Stop traveller, 
 M. S. Memoriae facrum, 
 
 mory. 
 D. M. Diis manibus. 
 
 M. manipulus, a hand- 
 ful 
 P. a pngil 
 
 P. M. equal quanti- 
 ties 
 S. A. 
 
 art 
 
 q- 
 
 tity 
 
 q. pi. as much 
 pleafe 
 
 P. P. pulvis patrum, the 
 Jefuit's bark. 
 
 according to honours. 
 
 s. a fufficient quan- 
 
 you 
 
 Sacred to the me- 
 
 J. H. S. Jefus. 
 
 X. P. a charafter found in the catacombs, about 
 the meaning of which authors are not agreed. 
 Characters ufid in Mujic, and of Mvfical Notes -with 
 their proportions , are as foUoiv. 
 
 crotchet 
 
 quaver 
 
 femiquaver 
 
 demifemiquaver 
 
 this character at the 
 
 charafter of a large 
 V a long 
 ^ a breve 
 C a femibreve 
 ^ a minim 4- 
 ^ character of a fharp note 
 beginning of a line or fpace, denotes that all the notes 
 in that line are to be taken a femitone higher than in 
 the natural feries ; and the fame afFedls all the oAaves 
 above and below, though not marked ,: but when pre- 
 fixed to any particular note, it fliows that note alone 
 to be taken a femitone higher than it would be with- 
 out fuch charadler. 
 
 {) or charadter of a flat note : this is the contra- 
 ry to the other above ; that is, a femitone lower. 
 
 1^ charafter of a natural note : when in a hne or 
 feries of artificial notes, marked at the beginning l> or 
 5^, the natural note happens to be required, it is de- 
 noted by this character. 
 
 chara£ler of the treble cliff. 
 1^1 character of the mean cliff, ^ 
 rj; bafs cliff. 
 
 ^ , or ^ chara£lers of common 
 
 duple 
 to be 
 
 time, fignify- 
 equal to two 
 
 ing the meafure of two crotchets 
 r.otes, of which four make a femibreve. 
 
 Q) 5p , charadlers that dilliiiguifh the movements 
 
 339 1 C H A 
 
 of common time, the firfl implying flow 
 quick, and the third very quick. 
 
 •i-j T» T> 4> ^» chara<fters of fimple triple time, the 
 meafure of which is equal to three femlbreves, or to 
 three minims. 
 
 ^, |., or charadlers of a mixed triple time, where 
 the meafure is equal to fix crotchets, or fix quavers. 
 
 1^, or -f, or T^g-, or or -J, charadlers of compound 
 triple time. 
 
 r jtj ttj -ttj o*" tVj or ^V> charadlers of that fpecie* 
 of triple time called the meafure of twelve times. 
 
 Character, in human life, that which is peculiar 
 in the manners of any perfon, and diflinguifhes him 
 from all others. 
 
 Good Character is particularly applied to that con- 
 dudl which is regulated by virtue and religion ; in an in- 
 ferior but very common fenfe, it is underflood of 
 mere honefly of dealing between man and man. The 
 importance of a good charadter in the commerce of 
 life feems to be univerfally acknowledged. — To thofe 
 who are to make their own way either to wealth or 
 a good charadter is ufually no lefs necefTaiy 
 than addrefs and abilities. To tranfcribe the obfervatlon 
 of an elegant moralifl : Though human nature is de- 
 generate, and corrupts itfelf Hill more by its own in- 
 ventions ; yet it ufually retains to the laft an efleem 
 for excellence. But even if we are arrived at fuch an 
 extreme degree of depravity as to have lofl our native 
 reverence for virtue ; yet a regard to our own interefl 
 and fafety, which we feldom lofe, will lead us to ap- 
 ply for aid, in all important tranfadlions, to men 
 whofe integrity is unimpeached. When we choofe an 
 afliflant, a partner, a fervant, our firft enquiry is con- 
 cerning his charadler. When we have occafion for a 
 counfellor or attorney, a phyfician or apothecary, 
 whatever we may be ourfelves, we always choofe to 
 trufl our property and perfons to men of the beft cha- 
 radter. When we fix on the tradefmen who are to 
 fiipply us with neceffaries, we are not determined by 
 the fign of the lamb, or the wolf, or the fox ; nor bjr 
 a fhop fitted up in the moft elegant tafle, but by the 
 faireft reputation. Look into a daily newfpaper, and 
 you will fee, from the highell to the lowefl rank, how 
 important the charadlers of the employed appear to 
 the employers. After the advertifement has enume- 
 rated the qualities required in the perfon wanted, 
 there conflantly follows, that none need apply who 
 cannot bring an undeniable charadler. Offer your- 
 felf as a candidate for a feat in parliament, be promo- 
 ted to honour and emolument, or in any lefpedl at- 
 tradl the attention of mankind upon yourfelf, and, if 
 you are vulnerable in your charadler, you will be deep- 
 ly wounded. This is a general teflimony in favour of 
 honefly, which no writings and no pradlices can pof- 
 fibly refute. 
 
 Young men, therefore, whofe charadlers are yet 
 unfixed, and who, confequcntly, may render them juft 
 fuch as they wifh, ought to pay great attention to the 
 firfl fteps which they take on entrance into life. They 
 sre ufually carelefs and inattentive to thisobjedl. They 
 purfue their own plans with ardour, and negledl the 
 opinions which others entertain of them. By fome 
 thoughtlefs adlion or expreflion, they fuffer a mark to 
 be imprcfl"ed upon them, which fcarcely any fubfequent 
 merit can entirely erafe. Every man v/iil find fome per- 
 il u a fojis, 
 
C H A 
 
 Chaiaiflcr. fonis, who, though they are not profefled enemies, yet 
 ' ' v ' ' '"" view him with an envious or a jealous eye, and who 
 will gladly revive any tale to which truth has given the 
 Jlighteft foundation. 
 
 In this turbulent and confufed fcene, where our 
 words and actions are often mifunderflood, and of- 
 tener mifreprefented, it is indeed difficult even for in- 
 tiocence and integrity to avoid reproach, abufe, con- 
 tempt, and hatred. Thefe not only hurt our intereft 
 and impede our advancement in life, but forely af- 
 flift the feelings of a tender and delicate mind. It is 
 then the part of wifdom firft to do every thing in our 
 power to preferve an irreproachable character, and 
 then to let our happinefs depend chieHy on the appro- 
 bation of our own confcient es, and on the advance- 
 ment of our interefl in a world v/here liais fhali not be 
 believed, and where flanderers lhali receive countenance 
 from none bat him who, in Greek, is called, by way of 
 eminence, Diabolus, or the calumniator. 
 
 Character, in poetry, particularly the epopee and 
 drama, is the refult of the manners or peculiarities by 
 which each perfon is diilinguiHied from others. 
 
 The poetical cha'raAer, fays Mr Boffu, is not pro- 
 perly any parjiicuhlr' virtue or quality, but a compofi- 
 tion of feveral which are mixed together, in a diffe- 
 rent degree, accor<iing to the neceffity of the fable and 
 the unity of the aftiqn: there muft be one, however, 
 to reign over all the reft ■J and this muft be found, ia 
 fome degree, in every .part. The firft quality in A- 
 chilles, is wrath ; in Ulyftes, diffimulation ; and in 
 ^neas,' mildnefs : but as thefe characters cannot be- 
 alone, they muft be accompanied with others to em- 
 bellifh them, as far as they are capable, either by 
 hiding their defedls, as in the anger of Achil}es,t%hich 
 is palliated by extraordinary valour; "or by making 
 them centre in fome folid virtue, as in Ulyft'es, whofe 
 diflimulation makes a part of his prudence ; and in 
 iEncas, whofe mildnefs is emj^jloyed in a fubmiffion to 
 the will of the gods. In the making up of which 
 union, it is to be obferved, the poets have joined to- 
 gether fuch qualities as are by nature the moft com- 
 patible ; valour with anger, piety with mildnefs, and 
 prudence with diffimulation. The fable required pru- 
 dence in Ulyffes, and piety in jEneas; in this, there- 
 fore, the poets were not left to their choice : but Ho- 
 mer might have made Achilles a coward without a- 
 bating any thing from the juftnefs of his fable: fo that 
 it was the neceffity of adorning his character that 
 obliged him to make him valiant: the charafter, then, 
 of a hero in the epic poem, is compounded of three 
 forts of qualities ; the lirft effential to the fable ; the 
 fecond, embellifhments of the firft; and valour, which 
 fuftains the othf r two, makes the third. 
 
 Unity of character is as neceffary as the unity of 
 the fable. For this purpofe a perfon ftiould be the 
 fame from the beginning to the end : not that he is 
 always to betray the fame fentiments, or one paffion ; 
 but that he fhould never fpeak nor aft inconfiftently 
 with his fundamental charafter. For inftance, the 
 weak m^ fomctimes fally into a warmth, and tlie 
 breaft of the paffionate be calm, a change which often 
 introduces in the drama a very a&'ediing variety; but 
 if the natural dlfpofition of the former was to be re- 
 prefented as boifterous, and that of the latter mild apd 
 foft, they would both a6l out of charaCler, and coa^ 
 iradid their peribns. 
 
 [ 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 True chara<?^era are - fuch as we truly and really fee 
 in men, or may exift without any contradiction to 
 nature : no man queftions but there have been men 
 as generous and as good as ^neas, as paffionate and 
 as violent as Achilles, as prudent and wife as Ulyffes, 
 as impious and atheiftical as Mezentius, and as amo- 
 rous and paffionate as Dido ; all thefe charadters,- 
 therefore, are true, and nothing but juft imitations 
 of nature. On the contrary, a charafter is falfe when 
 an author fo feigns it, that one can fee nothing like 
 it in the order of nature wherein he defigns it fhall 
 ftand : thefe characters fhould be wholly excluded 
 from a poem, becaufe tranfgrefimg the bounds of pro- 
 bability and reafon, they meet with nq belief from the 
 readers ; they are fittions of the poet's brain, ^Qt imi- 
 tations of nature ; and yet all poetry confifts in an imi- 
 tation of nature. , . 
 
 Character is alfo ufed for certalrl vlfible qualities, 
 which claim refpedt or reverence to tiiofc vefted there- 
 with. — The majefty of kings giv^s them a character 
 which procures refpeCt frOra tlie people. A bifhop 
 fhould fuftairi his charaCter by leai-ning ai:id folid piety, 
 rather than by worldly luft.re, &c. The law of na- 
 tions fecures the character of an ambaifador from all 
 infults. . 
 
 Character, among naturalifts, is fynonymous with 
 the definition of the genera of animals, plants, &c. 
 
 CHAi^ACTERISTIC, in the general, is that 
 which charaCterifes a thing or perfon, i. e. conftitutes 
 its character, v/hereby it is diftinguifhed. See Cha* 
 racter. 
 
 Characteristic, is peculiarly ufed in grammar,, 
 for the principal letter of a word : which is preferved 
 in moft of its tenfes and moods, its derivatives and 
 compounds. 
 
 Ch ARACTERtsTic of a LogarUhniy Is its index or ex* 
 ponent. See Logarithm. 
 
 Characteristic Triangle of a Curve, in the high- 
 er geometry, is a reCtilinear right-angled triangle, whofe 
 hypothenufe makes a part of the curve, not fenfibly 
 different from a right line. It is fo called, becaufe 
 curve lines are ufed to be diftinguifhed hereby. See 
 Curve. 
 
 CHARADE, the name of a new fpccies of compo- 
 fition or literary amufement. It owes its name to the 
 idler who invented it. Its fubjeCt muft be a word o£ 
 two fyllables, each forming a diltinCt word; and thefe 
 two fyllables are to be concealed in an enigmatical 
 defcription, firft feparately, and then together. Th* 
 exercife of charades, if not greatly initruCtive, is at 
 leaft innocent and amufing. At all events, as it has 
 made its way into eveiy fafliionable circle, and has 
 employed even Garrick, it will fearcely be deemed un- 
 worthy of attention. The fillinefTes indeed of moft that 
 have appeared in the papers under this title, are not 
 only deilitute of all pleafantry in the ftating, but are 
 formed in general of words utterly unfit for the pur- 
 pofe. They have therefore been treated with the coa* 
 tempt they deferved. In trifles of this nature, inae 
 curacy is without excufe. The following example* 
 therefore are at leaft free from this blemifh* 
 I. 
 
 My Jirfii ho-wever here abufed, 
 Defigns the fex alone ;. 
 In Cambria, fuch is cuftom's pow'i^ 
 'Tis Jenkin, John, or Joan, 
 
 II 
 
 Charade. 
 
C H A [ 
 
 Chara<ie, My fecond oft is loudly call'd, 
 When men prepare to fift it : 
 Its name delights the female ear ; 
 Its force, may none refift it ! 
 It binds the weak, it binds the ilrong, 
 The wealthy and the poor ; 
 Still 'tis to joy a paflport deem'd. 
 For fullied fame a cure. 
 It may infure an age of blifs, 
 Yet mif'ries oft attend It ; 
 To fingers, ears, and nofes too, 
 Its various lords commend it. 
 My nvhole may chance to make one drink. 
 Though vended in a fifh-fhop ; 
 'Tis now the monarch of the feas, 
 And has been an archbifhop. Her-r'ing, 
 II. 
 
 My fiijl, when a Frenchman is learning EugliHi, 
 ferves him to fwear by. My fecond, is either hay or 
 corn. My ivhole, is the delight of the prcfent age, 
 and will be the admiration of pofterity. Gar-rick^ 
 III. 
 
 My frjf, is plowed for various reafons, and grain 
 is frequently buried in it to little purpofe. My fe- 
 cojidy is neither riches nor honours ; yet the former 
 would generally be given for it, and the latter is often 
 taftelefs without it. My ivhole applies equally to fpring, 
 fummer, autumn, and winter ; and both fifh and flefli, 
 praife and cenfure, mirth and melancholy, are the 
 better for being in it. Sea-fon. 
 
 IV. 
 
 My JirJ}, with the moft rooted antipathy to a French- 
 man, prides himfelf, whenever they meet, ujwn ftick- 
 ing clofe to his jacket. Viy fecond has many virtues, 
 nor is it its leall that it gives name to my lirft. My 
 nvhoky may I never catch ! Tar'tar. 
 
 V. 
 
 My f rjl is one of England's prime '^tSttfts ; it re- 
 joices the ear of a horfe, and anguilhes the toe of a 
 man. My ftcond, when brick, is good ; when ftone, 
 belter; when wooden^ beft of all. My ichok is famous 
 alike for rottennefs and tin. Corn-wall. 
 
 VI. 
 
 My Jlrjl is called bad or good. 
 May pleafure or offend ye ; 
 My fecond, in a thirfty mood. 
 May very much befriend ye. 
 My tvhole, tho' Ilyled a " cruel word," 
 May yet appear a kind one ; 
 It often may with joy be heard. 
 With tears may often blind one. Fare-well. 
 VII. 
 
 'M.jfrjl is equally friendly to the thief and the lover, 
 the toper and the ftudent. My fcond is light's oppo- 
 fite . yet they are frequently fecn hand in hand ; and 
 their union, if judicious, gives much pleafure. My 
 whole, is tempting to the touch, grateful to the fight, 
 fetal to the tafte. Nigbt-Jhade. 
 
 CHARADRIUS, in ornithology, a genus belong- 
 ing to the order of grallse. The beakis cylindrical and 
 klunt; the noftrils are linear; and the feet have three 
 toes. 
 
 I. The Hiaticula, or Sea-lark of Ray, has a black 
 breaft ; a white ftreak along the front ; the top of the 
 kead is brown; and the legs and beak are reddifh. It 
 ie fouad oh tl\e fhores of JEurope and America. They 
 
 341 ] C H A 
 
 frequent our fhores in the fummer, but are not nume- Charadriua, 
 Vous. They lay four eggs, of a duU whitiih colour, 
 fparingly fprinkled with black: at the approach of win- 
 ter they difappear. 
 
 2. 1'he Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian Dotterel, is 
 of a brownifh colour, with the forehead, collar, and 
 belly white ; the prime tail-feathers on both fides are 
 white ; and the legs are black. It is about the fize of 
 a lark, and lives upon infefts. 
 
 3. The Vociferus, or Noify Plover of Catefby, has 
 black ftreaks on the breaft, neck, forehead, and cheeks ; 
 and the feet are yellow. It is a native of North Ame- 
 rica. 
 
 4. -The JEgyptius has a black ftreak on the breaft, 
 white eye-brows, the prime tail-feathers ftreaked with, 
 black at the points, and bluifh legs. It is found in the 
 plains of Egypt, and feeds on infefts. 
 
 5. The Morinellus has an iron-coloured breaft, 4 
 fmall white ilreak on the breaft and eye-brows, and 
 black legs. It is the Dotterel of Ray, and a native 
 of Europe. They are found in Cambridgelhire, Lin- 
 colnftiire, and Derbyfnire : on Lincoln-heath, and on 
 the mosrs of Derbyihire, they are migratory; appear- 
 ing there in fniall flocks of eight or ten only in the lat- 
 ter end of April, and ftay there all May and part of 
 June, during which time they are very fat, and much 
 efteemed for their delicate flavour. In the months of 
 April and Septem.ber, they are taken on the Wiltfliire 
 and Berkfliire downs: they are alfo found in the be- 
 ginning of the former month on the fea-fide at Meales 
 in Lancafliire, and continue there about three weeks, 
 attending the barley fallows : from thence they re- 
 move northward to a place called Leyton Hatvs, and 
 ftay there about a fortnight ; but where they breed, 
 or where they refide during the winter, we have not 
 been able to difcover. They are reckoned very fdol- 
 iih birds, fo that a dull fellow is proverbially ftyled a 
 dotterel. They were alfo believed to mimic the aftion 
 o£ the fowler, ftretching out a wing when he ftretches 
 out an arm, &c. continuing their imitation, regardlefs 
 cf the net that is fpreading for them. 
 
 6. The Apricarius has a black belly ; the body is 
 brown, and variegated with white and yellow fpots ; 
 and the legs are afti-coloured. It isthe fpotted Plover 
 of Edwards, and a native of Canada. 
 
 7. The Pluvialis is black above, with green fpots, 
 white underneath, and the feet are afh-coloured. It 
 ^s the green plover of Ray, and is a native of Europe. 
 They lay four eggs, fharply pointed at the lefTer end„ 
 of a dirty white colour, and irregularly marked, efpe- 
 cially at the thicker end, with blotches and fpots. It 
 breeds on feveral of our unfrequented mountains ; 
 and is very common on thofe of the ille of Rum, and 
 others of the loftier Hebrides. They make a fhrill 
 whiftling noife ; and may be enticed within a ftiot by 
 a flcilful imitator of the note. 
 
 8. The Torquatus has a black breaft, and a white 
 front ; the top of the head and the collar is black ; 
 and the beak and feet are bluifh. It is a native of St 
 Domingo. 
 
 9. The Calidris has black feet, and a black bill; the 
 rump is greyifh ; and the body is pure white below. 
 It frequents the fliores of Europe. 
 
 I o. The CEdicnemus or Stone-curlev/ of Ray, is of 
 a grey colour, with two of the prime wing-feathers 
 black, but white in the xniddl« : it has a fharp bill, 
 5 
 
C H A [ 342 3 
 
 Charadrbi and alh-coloured feet ; and is about t1ie fize of a crow. 
 
 G H A 
 
 CliaraittT ^'^"^P^*'"^» Norfolk, aiid on Lincoln-healh, it is 
 t ^ . 'i called the ftone-curlew, from a fimilarity of colours to 
 the curlew. It breeds in forae places in rabbit-bur- 
 rows; alfo among ftones on the bare ground, laying 
 two eggs of a copper-colour fpotted with a darker red. 
 1'hc y(Tung run foon after they are hatched. Thefe 
 birds feed in the night on worms and caterpillars: they 
 will alfo eat toads, and will catch mice. They inha- 
 bit fallow lands and downs ; afFeft dry places, never 
 being feen near any waters. When they fly, they ex- 
 tend their legs ftratght out behind : are very (hy birds; 
 run far before they take to wing ; and often fquat : 
 are generally feen fingle ; and are elleemed very de- 
 licate food. — Haflelquift informs us, that this bird is 
 alfo met with in Lower Egypt, in the Acacia groves, 
 near the villages Abufn- and Sackhara, near the fepul- 
 chres of the ancient Egyptians, and in the defarts. 
 The Arabians call it Kervan. It has a flirill voice, 
 fomewhat refembling that of the black woodpecker, 
 which it raifes and lowers fucceffively, uttering a- 
 greeable notes. The Turks and Egyptians value it 
 much, if they can get it alive ; and keep it in a cage 
 for the fake of its finging. Its flefh is hard, and of a 
 very good tafte, inclined to aromatic. It is a very vo- 
 racious bird, catching and devouring rats and mice, 
 which abound in Egypt. It feldom drinks ; and 
 when taken young, and kept in a cage in Egypt, they 
 give it no water for feveral months, but feed it with 
 frefh meat macerated in water, which it devours very 
 greedily. It is found in defarts, and is therefore ac- 
 cuftomed to be without water. 
 
 1 1 . The Himantopus is white below, with a black 
 backj and a long black bill ; the feet are red, and 
 very long. It is the autumnal dotterel of the Englifh 
 
 \ authors, and frequents the fea-fliores of Europe. It 
 is alfo found in the lakes of Egypt in the month of 
 Oftober. 
 
 12. The Spinofus, anned Dotterel, or Lapwing, has 
 black breaft, legs, and wings; it has a creft on the 
 hinder part of the head. It is of the fize of a pigeon ; 
 the French call it domin'icanus, from the refemblance it 
 has to the drefs of a Dominican monk. It is a native 
 of Egypt. 
 
 13. The New-Zealand plover, has the forepart of 
 the head, taking in the eye, chin, and throat, black, 
 paffuig backwards in a collar at the hind head ; all the 
 back part of the head, behind the eye, greenifh afh- 
 colour ; thefe two colours divided by white : the plu- 
 mage cn the upper parts of the body is the fame co- 
 lour as the back of the head : the quills and tail are 
 dufl<y : the lail order of coverts is white for fome part 
 of their length, forming a bar on the wing : the un- 
 der parts of the body are white ; and the legs red. It 
 inhabits Queen Charlotte's found ; where it is known 
 by the name of Doodooroa-attoo. See Plate CXXII. 
 There are 12 or 13 more fpecies. 
 
 CHARAG, the tribute which Chriftians and Jews 
 pay to the grand iignior. 
 
 It confifts of ten, twelve,. or fifteen hancs per annum, 
 according to the ellate of the party. Men begin to 
 pay it at nine or at fixteen years old ; women are 
 difpenfed with, as alfo priefts, rabbins, and religious. 
 
 CHARAIMS, a feft of the Jews in Egypt. They 
 live by themfelves, and have a feparate fyjiagogue ; 
 
 and as the other Jews are remarkable for theifeye?, 
 fo are thofe for their large nofes, which run through 
 all the families of this fe6l. Thefe are the ancient, 
 ElTenes. They ilriftly obferve tlie five books of Mo* 
 fes, according to the letter; and receive no written 
 traditions. It is faid that the other Jews would join 
 the C bar aims ; but thofe not having obferved the ex- 
 aft rules of the law with regard to divorces, thefe 
 think they live in adultery. 
 
 CHARANTIA, in botany. See Momordica. 
 CHARBON, in the manege, that httle black fpot 
 or mark which remains after a large fpot in the cavity 
 of the corner teeth of .a horfe: about the feventh or 
 eighth year, when the cavity fills up, the tooth being 
 fmooth anci equal, it is faid to be rafed. 
 
 CHARCAS, the fouthern divifion of Peru in 
 South America, I'emarkable for the filver mines o£ 
 Potofi. 
 
 CHx\.RCOAL, a fort of artificial coal, or fuel, Gon- 
 fifting of wood half burnt ; chiefly ufed where a clear 
 ilrong fire, without fmoke, is required ; the humidity 
 of the wood being here moftly diffipated, and exhaled 
 in the fire wherein it is prepared. 
 
 The microfcope difcovers a furprifing number of 
 pores in charcoal : they are difpofed in order, and 
 traverfe it lengthwife ; fo that there is no piece of 
 charcoal, how long foever, but may be eafily blown 
 through. If a piece be broken pretty fliort, it may be 
 feen through with a microfcope. In a range the i8th 
 part of an inch long, Dr Hook reckoned 150 pores} 
 whence he concludes, that in a charcoal of an inch dia- 
 meter, there are not lefs than 5,724,000 pores. It is 
 to this prodigious number of pores, that the blacknefs 
 of charcoal is owing : for the rays of light fl;riking on 
 the charcoal, are received a<id abforbed in its pores, in- 
 ilead of being refle£led ; whence the body mud of ne- 
 ceffity appear black, blacknefs in a body being no 
 more than a want of reflection. Charcoal was ancient- 
 ly ufed to diftinguifli the bounds of eilates and inheri- 
 tances ; as being incorruptible, when let very deep 
 within ground. In efFe6l, it preferves itfelf fo long, 
 that there are many pieces found entire in the ancient 
 tombs of the northern nations. M. Dodart fays, 
 there is charcoal made of corn, probably as old as 
 the days of Caefar : he adds, that it has kept fo well, 
 that the wheat may be fl:iil diilinguiflied from the 
 lye ; which he looks on as proof of its incorruptibi- 
 hty. 
 
 The operation of charring wood, is performed in 
 the following manner : The wood intended for this 
 purpofe is cut into proper lengths, and piled up in 
 heaps near the place where the charcoal is intended to 
 be made : when a fufficient quantity of wood is thus 
 prepai-ed, they begin conilrudling their ftacks, for 
 which there are three methods. The firllis this: They 
 level a proper fpot of ground, of about twelve or 
 fifteen feet in diameter, uear the piles of wood ; in 
 the centre of this area a large billet of wood, fplit 
 acrofs at one end and pointed at the other, is fixed 
 with its pointed extremity in the earth, and two pieces 
 of wood inferted through the clefts of the other end," 
 forming four right-angles ; againll thefe crofs pieces 
 four other billets of \vo,?d are placed, one end on the 
 ground, and the other leaning againil the aligles. 
 This being finilhed, a number of large and flraight 
 
 billets 
 
 Charanli* 
 
 II 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
C H A [3, 
 
 Cbarcoal. billets are laid on the ground to form a floor, each be- 
 ■ ■ ■ V ing as it were the radius of the circular area : on this 
 floor a proper quantity of brufh or fmall wood is 
 ftrewed, in order to fill up the interlliees, when the 
 floor will be complete ; and in order to keep the billets 
 in the fame order and pofition in which they were firft 
 arranged, pegs or flumps are driven into the ground in 
 the circumference of the circle, about a foot diftant 
 from one another: upon this floor a ftage is built with 
 billets fet upon one end, but fomething inclining to- 
 wards the central billet; and on the tops of thefe 
 another floor is laid in a horizontal direction, but of 
 fluorter billets, as the whole is, when fmiflied, to form 
 a cone. 
 
 The fecond method of building the (lacks for ma- 
 king charcoal is performed in this manner : A long 
 • pole is erefted in the centre of the area above defcri- 
 
 bed, and feveral fmall billets ranged rovmd the pole on 
 their ends : the interftices between thefe billets and the 
 pole is filled with dry brufh-wood, then a floor is laid, 
 en that a ftage in a rechning pofition, and on that a fe- 
 cond floor, ^c. in the fame manner as defcribed above ; 
 but in the lower floor there is a billet larger and longer 
 than the reft, extending from the central pole to fome 
 diftance beyond the circumference of the circle. 
 
 The third method is this : A chimney, or aperture 
 of a fquare form, is built with billets in the centre, 
 from the bottom to the top ; and round thefe, floors 
 and inclined ftages are erefted, in the fame manner as 
 in the ftacks above defcribed, except that the bafe of 
 this, inftead of being circular like the others, is fquare ; 
 and the whole ftack, when completed, forms a pyra- 
 mid. 
 
 The ftack of either form being thus finiflied, is coat- 
 ed over with turf, and the furface plaftered with a 
 mixture of earth and charcoal-duft well tempered to- 
 gether. 
 
 The next operation is the fetting the ftack on fire. 
 In order to this, if it be formed according to the firft 
 conftruftion, the central billet in the upper ftage is 
 drawn out, and fome pieces of very dry and combuf- 
 tible wood are placed in the void fpace, called, by 
 workmen, the chimney, and fire fet to thefe pieces. 
 If the ftack be built according to the fecond conftruc- 
 tion, the central pole is drawn out, together with the 
 large horizontal billet above defcribed ; and the void 
 fpace occupied by the latter being filled with pieces of 
 very dry combuftible wood, the fire is applied to it at 
 the bafe of the ftack. With regard to the third con- 
 ftruAion, the fquare aperture or chimney is filled with 
 fmall pieces of very dry wood, and the fire applied to 
 it at the top or apex of the pyramidal ftack. When 
 the ftack is fet on fire, either at the top or bottom, 
 the greateft attention is neccflary in the workman ; 
 for in the proper management of the fire the chief 
 difficulty attending the art of making good charcoal 
 confifts. In order to this, care is taken, as foon as the 
 flame begins to iflue fome height above the chimney, 
 that the aperture be covered with a piece of turf, but 
 not fo clofe as to hinder the fmoke from pafling out : 
 and whenever the fmoke appears to ifliie very thick 
 from any part of the pile, the aperture muft be cover- 
 ed with a mixture of earth and charcoal duft. At 
 the fame time, as it is neceflary that every part of the 
 flack ftiould be equally burnt, it will be requifite for 
 
 3 1 C H A 
 
 the workman to open vents in one part and fiiut them Charcoaf. 
 in another. In this manner the fire muft be kept up '"" v ' 
 till the charcoal be fufficiently burnt, which will hap- 
 pen in about two days and a half, if the wood be dry ; 
 but if green, the operation will not be finiflied in lefs 
 than three days. When the charcoal is thought to be 
 fufficiently burnt, which is eafily known from the ap- 
 pearance of the fmoke, and the flames no longer if- 
 fuing with impetuofity through the vents; all the aper- 
 tures are to be clofed up very carefully with a mixture 
 of earth and charcoal-duft, which, by excluding all 
 accefs of the external air, prevents the coals from be- 
 ing any further confumed, and the fire goes out of it- 
 felf. In this condition it is fulfered to remain, till the 
 whole is fuflBciently cooled ; when the cover is remo- 
 ved, and the charcoal is taken away. If the whole 
 procefs is fl<ilfully managed, the coals will exaftly re- 
 tain the figure of the pieces of wood : fome are faid 
 to have been fo dexterous as to char an arrow without 
 altering even the figure of the feather. 
 
 There are confiderable differences In the coals of 
 dift^erent vegetables, in regard to their habitude to fire; 
 the very light coals of linen, cotton, fome fungi, ^c. 
 readily catch fire from a fpark, and foon burn out j 
 the more denfe ones of woods and roots are fet on fire 
 more difficultly, and burn more flowly : the coals of 
 the black berry-bearing alder, of the hazel, the willow, 
 and the lime-tree, are faid to anfwer beft for the ma- 
 king of gunpowder and other pyrotechnical compofi- 
 tions, perhaps from their being eafily inflammable : for 
 the reduftion of metallic calces thofe of the heavier 
 woods, as the oak and the beech, are preferable, thefe 
 feeming to contain a larger proportion of the phlogiftic 
 principle, and that, perhaps, in a more fixed ftate : 
 confidered as common fuel, thofe of the heavy woods 
 give the greateft heat, and require the moft plentiful 
 fupply of air to keep them burning ; thofe of the light 
 woods preferve a glowing heat, without much draught 
 of air, till the coals themfelves are confumed ; the bark 
 commonly crackles and flies about in burning, which 
 the coal of the wood itfelf very feldora does. 
 
 Mathematical- inftrument makers, engravers, $fff. 
 find charcoal of great ufe to polifti their brafs and cop» 
 per-plates after they have been rubbed clean with 
 powdered pumice-ftone. Plates of horn are polifliable 
 in the fame way, and a glofs may be afterwards given 
 with tripoli. 
 
 The coals of different fubftances are alfo ufed aa- 
 pigments; hence the bone-black, ivory-black, ^c. of 
 the ftiops. Moft of the paints of this kind, befidea 
 their incorruptibility", have the advantage of a full co- 
 lour, and work freely in all the forms in which pow» 
 dery pigments are applied ; provided they have been 
 carefully prepared, by thoroughly burning the fubjeft 
 in a clofe veflel, and afterwards grinding the coal into 
 a powder of due finenefs. Pieces of charcoal are ufed 
 alio in their entire ftate for tracing the outlines of 
 drawings, ^c; in which intention they have an excel- 
 lence, that their mark is eafily wiped out. For thefe 
 purpofes, either the finer pieces of common charcoal 
 are picked out and cut to a proper ftiape ; or the pen- 
 cils are formed of wood, and afterwards burnt into 
 charcoal in a proper veffel well covered. The artifts 
 commonly make choice of the fmaller branches of the 
 tree freed from the bark and pith; and the willow and 
 
 vins 
 
C H A [144 
 
 Charcoal, vine are preferred to all others. This choice is con- meat. 
 
 firmed by the experiments of Dr Lewis, who has found 
 Commltt of^^^^ ^^^^ wood of the trunks of trees produces charcoal 
 27u^" '^'^ a harder nature than their fmall twigs or branches; 
 
 and the hard woods, fuch as box and guaiacum, pro- 
 duced coals very fenfibly harder than the fofter woods. 
 Willow he prefers to all others. The {hells and ftones 
 of fruits yielded coals fo hard that they would fcarce 
 mark on paper at all ; while the coals of the kernels of 
 fruits were quite foft and mellow. The feveral coals 
 produced by the doilor's experiments were levigated 
 into fine powder, mixed both with gum- water and 
 oil, and applied as paints both thin and thick, and di- 
 luted with different degrees of white. All of them, 
 when laid on thick, appeared of a ftrong full black, 
 nor could it be judged that one was of a finer colour 
 than another; diluted with v/hite, or when fpread thin, 
 they had all fomewhat of a bluifh caft. 
 
 Horns and the bones both of fifiies and land animals, 
 gave coals rather gloflier and deeper-coloured than ve- 
 getables ; and which, in general, were very hard, fo as 
 difficultly, or not at all, to ftain paper. Here alfo 
 the hardnefs of the coal feemed to depend on that of 
 the fubjeft from whence it was prepared ; for filk, 
 woollen, leather, blood, and the flefiiy parts of animals, 
 yielded foft coals. Some of thefe differed from others 
 very fenfibly in colour: that of ivory is fuperior to all 
 the reft, and indifputably the fineft of all the charcoal 
 blacks. The animal coals had much lefs of the bluifh 
 caft in them than the vegetable, many of them inclining 
 rather to a brown. Charred pit- coal, on the other 
 hand, feemed to have this bluenefs in a greater de- 
 gree. 
 
 Charcoal Is not foluble in any of the acids ; but may 
 be difTolved in confiderable quantities by a folution of 
 hepar fulphuris^ to which it communicates a green co- 
 lour. Melted with colourlefs frits or glaffes, it gives 
 a pale yellow, dark yellow, reddifli, brownifli, or black- 
 ifh colour, according as the inflammable matter is in 
 greater or lefs proportion ; the phlogiflon, or inflam- 
 mable matter of the coal feeming to be the dire6l 
 tinging fubftance. When the phlogiftic matter is thus 
 diffufed through glafs, it is no more affedled by conti- 
 nued flrong fire than charcoal is when excluded from 
 the air. 
 
 The vapour of burning charcoal is found to be highly 
 noxious, being no other than Jixed air. How this af- 
 fefts the animal fyflem is explained under the article 
 Blood. 
 
 From fome late experiments it appears, that char- 
 coal pofTefTes many extraordinary properties altogether 
 xinfufpedttd by former chemifls. It has particularly a 
 great attradlion for what is called the phlog'ifton, or ra- 
 ther for any kind of oily matter with which other fub- 
 ftances may be fuUied ; fo that it now promifes to be 
 very ufeful in the arts in various ways never thought of 
 before. M. Lowits has found that it is ufeful in pre- 
 paring cryllals of tartar of a very white colour; and 
 that the marine and nitrous acids are decompofed by 
 being diftilled upon it : the red juices of vegetable fruits 
 are difcoloured, without lofing any of their acidity ; 
 brown rancid oils are rendered fweet and clear by agi- 
 tating them for fome days with charcoal in powder ; it 
 changes the fmell of putrid vegetables to that of a pure 
 volatile alkali, and it produces the fame effeft on frcfh 
 69. 
 
 3 G H A 
 
 On bo{lirtg coals in powder with honey, tke Charcoal, 
 pure faccharine parts of the latter are faid to be Tepa- — '~3r*-«^ 
 rated, and the honey to become a well-tafted fugar j 
 the purification of real fugar is alfo faid to be facili- 
 tated by the fame method. Thus alfo the mother - 
 water of the Pruffian alkali and of the tartareous acid 
 are made to cryflallize eafily; terra foliata tartari may 
 be made white without calcination, by previoufly di- 
 flilling the vinegar from coals. Vinegar concentrated 
 by freezing, and diftilled from a large proportion of 
 powdered coal, is extremely flrong, pure, and fragrant. 
 Corn fpirit merely fhaken with coal lofes its bad fla- 
 vour ; and if honey is added, it becomes a fweet and 
 pleafant liquor. Even when ardent fpirits are impreg- 
 nated with any vegetable oils, the flavour is deftroyed 
 in this way ; and if the fpirit be diftilled, the refiduum 
 is faid not to be brown; fo that if the diftillation is 
 carried too far, no inconvenience enfues. With Peru- 
 vian bark a clear decoition was formed, and the re^^- 
 duura was a fait, in tafle like digeflive fait. Thefe ef- 
 fects were produced by every kind of coal, whether fof- 
 Cl or charred vegetable fubfiances. 
 
 Charcoal has lately been feparated from the pureft 
 fpirit of wine in the procefs for making ether* ; and * See Che- 
 by M. Lavoifier is fuppofed to be one of the confli- »^i/?»7> Ir*-- 
 tuent parts or elements of that very volatile liquid. But 
 the rnofl extraordinary modern difcovery concerning 
 this fubilance is that of Dr Prieftley, who has found 
 that feveral of the metals may be converted into char- 
 coal by pafling the fl:eam of fpirit of wine over them 
 when red-hot ; and this, by way of diftinftion, he calls 
 the charcoal of metals. 
 
 This furprifing difcovery was made accidentally, 
 while the Doftor was repeating the experiments by 
 which M. Lavoifier imagined water might be converted 
 into air. Having tranfmitted the fleam of water thro* 
 a copper tube, on which it had no efFeft, he was will- 
 ing to try the effefts of that of other fluids; and for 
 this purpofe made choice of fpirit of wine, having be- 
 fore procured inflammable air by fending the fame 
 fleam through a red-hot tobacco-pipe. No fooner had 
 the vapour of this fluid, however, touched the red-hot 
 copper, than he was aftonifhed at the rapid production 
 of air from it, which refembled the blowing of a pair 
 of bellows ; and before four ounces of the fpirit were 
 expended, the tube was foand to be perforated in two 
 or three places. In a moment afterwards it was fo far 
 deftroyed, that it fell to pieces on attempting to re- 
 move it from the fire; the infide being filled with a 
 black matter refembling lamp-black. Having now re- 
 courfe to earthen tubes, the DoAor found that, by 
 melting copper and other metals in them, and tranf- 
 mitting the vapour of fpirit of wine in contaft with 
 them while in a Itate of ignition, different fubftances 
 were formed according to the metals employed. On 
 fending three ounce-meafures of fpirit of wine over two 
 ounces of copper, the metal loft 28 grains of its weight, 
 and 446 grains of charcoal vvere procured, chiefly in 
 the form of powder, though fome of it was in large 
 flakes feveral inches long ; having feparated at once 
 frcm the furface of the melted metal. Thefe pieces 
 were almoft quite black, and bore handling without any 
 danger of being broken. In another experiment, 508 
 grains of charcoal were obtained from 19 grains of 
 copper ; but here the metal had been previoufly re- 
 duced 
 
C H A 
 
 [ 345 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 Charcoal, diiced to thin plates, and they were not al! converted 
 into charcoal, being fomething harder, and therefore 
 partially metallic in the middle. 
 
 Silver was found to be affefted very mnch as copper 
 had been ; but the larger maffes of charcoal procured 
 from this metal were much whiter than thofe fiom 
 copper. Only a fmall quantity of charcoal could be 
 procured from lead. Three ounce-meafures of fplrit 
 of wine and near four ounces of lead, gave only a 
 fmall quantity of whitifli powdery fubftance, though 58 
 grains of the lead were miffing ; but the infide of the 
 glafs-tube through which the air was tranfmitted be- 
 came very black. The like quantity of fpirit of wine 
 fent over 360 grains of melted tin, and produced 26 
 grains of black duft,the metal not being diminifhed quite 
 four grains. The vapour of two ounce-meafures of 
 • fpirit of wine, fent over 960 grains of iron-fhavings, 
 diminifhed the m.etal only two grains ; but no charcoal 
 could be colleded, though the air was loaded with 
 black particles. The iron had acquired a dark blue 
 colour. Gold was not fenfibly changed or diminiOied 
 in weight ; and it not only remained unalterable by the 
 procefs itfelf, but effeAually protefttd a tenth-part of 
 its weight of copper from the aftion of the ftcam. 
 
 Spirit of turpentine was found to anfwer for the 
 produflion of this charcoal, as well as fpirit of wine ; 
 120 grains of the former being obtained from five of 
 copper by means of the turpentine, notwithftanding a 
 very denfe black fmoke which iffued from the end of 
 the tube during the whole time of the operation. The 
 Doftor obferves, indeed, that in all thofe experiments, 
 where the heat is very great, the minute divifion and 
 volatthty of this charcoal is very extraordinary. See- 
 ing it ifliie from the end of a tube in a denfe black 
 cloud, he endeavoured to collect it in a large glafs re- 
 ceiver ; but after having given the glafs a very thin 
 black coating, not dillinguifliable in appearance from 
 foot, it ilTued from the orifice like denfe fmoke, and 
 appeared to be altogether incoercible, even when feve- 
 ral ad()})ters were connected with the receiver, and a 
 tube, from whence it finally iffued, plunged deep into 
 water. 
 
 It is obferved, that charcoal of wood, when freHi 
 made, has a ftrong attradtion for air, and will conti- 
 nue to abforb it for a confiderable time ; a property 
 which it has in common with fcveral other fubftances. 
 Dr Pricftley made fome experiments to afcertain the 
 quantity abforbed. For this purpofe, he left in an 
 open dilh, on the fourth of September, fome charcoal 
 fre<h made from dry oak, and weighing 364 grains. 
 Two or three days after it weighed 390 grains ; on 
 the 24th of Oftober, 419 ; and on the 26th of A- 
 prll following it weighed 421 grains. By diltillation 
 in an earthen retort it yielded a quantity of air con- 
 fiderably phlogifticated, and then weighed 3 1 2 grains, 
 but the retoit appeared to have been cracked. On 
 rxpofing it again to the open air for a whole year, it 
 weighed 3 7 1 grains. In another experiment, a quan- 
 tity of charcoal which had yielded by a ftrong heat 336 
 ounce-meafures of air, and weighed immediately after- 
 wards 756 grains, increafed in three days to 817 ; and 
 on expelling the air from it was reduced to 711 
 grains. In all thefe experiments the air was worfc than 
 that of the atmofphere, and a part was fixed a'r. 
 
 It has been generally fuppofed by chemiii:s, that 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 p. J. 
 
 charcoal was indeftruftible by any other means than Cfnrcoa!., 
 burning in an open fire, though of late it is found to- * 
 tally diflipable and convertible into inflammable ait, by 
 •the heat of a burning lens hi vacuo, at leaft with the 
 alTiftance of a fmall quantity of water. By burning in 
 dephlogifticated air, it is found to convert almoll the 
 whole of it into fixed air. See Aerology, n° 1 10— ; 
 113, 129, 131. From the experiments there related, 
 it is now evident, that charcoal as fuch, and without 
 any decompofition, is an ingredient in both thofe ae- 
 rial fluids, and is indeed the phlogifton of Stahl fa 
 long fought in vain. This diicovery, however, has 
 not by any means put an end to the difputes betwixt 
 the Phlog'i/lians and Antiphlogi/lians, though it cer- 
 tainly ought to have done fo, and mufl: alTuredly do 
 fo in a fliort time. The experiments of Dr Prieft- 
 ley are not doubted ; and charcoal, the gravitating 
 matter of light inflammable air, and phlog'ijion, are al- 
 lowed to be the fiime by the Antiphlogiftians as well as 
 by the oppofite partv. " The prefent controverfy (fays Htgglns''s 
 Mr Higgins) amongft philofophers depends upon the ^^^^'^{'"J^^Y 
 following queftions: i. Whether water be or be not ' 
 compofed of dephlogifl;icated and light inflammable 
 air ? 2. Whether or no the condenfation of dephlo- 
 gifticated air, or its union to different bodies, does not 
 depend upon one piinciple, common to all combu- 
 ftible bodies ? or, in other words, whether or no all bo- 
 dies which burn or calcine, fuch as fulphur, phofpho- 
 rus, charcoal, oils, metals, phlogifticated air, &c, con- 
 tain the matter of light inflammable air as one of their 
 conftituent principles ? One fhould fuppofe, if thefe 
 fubftances were compofed of two principles, namely a 
 peculiar bafis, and the matter of light inflammable 
 air or phlogifton, that it would be polhble to refolve 
 them into thefe principles; more efpecially when we 
 confiderthe great attraftion of the matter of light in- 
 flammable air to fire; but the maintainers of phlogi- 
 fton have not as yet been able to do this," &c. 
 
 The limits of this work will not allow us to enter 
 on a full difcuflion of this controverfy, nor can we pre- 
 tend to be able to fettle the difputes on the fubjeft. It 
 neverthelefs feems fomewhat unnatural to call iron, 
 lead, copper, fulphur, phofphorus, &c. fimple and 
 unchangeable bodies, or if we pleafe elements ; as thus 
 the number of elementary bodies might be increafed 
 without niunber, and ivater, which has generally been 
 reckoned a fimple one, fuppofed to be almoft the only 
 compound hody in nature. It is alfo certain, that Dr 
 Prieftley has made fome very ftriking and apparently 
 decifive experiments on tlx; fubjeft of metalf;, to which 
 no proper reply has ever been made. In order to fee 
 the force of thefe experiments, however, we muft ftill 
 obferve, that, according to the Phlogiftlans, the calces 
 of metals are reduced, on the addition of charcoal, 
 not only by emitting the dephlogifticated air which ad- 
 heres to them when in the form of calces, but by the 
 admiftion of a quantity of the charcoal itfelf into their 
 fubftance. This the Antiphlogiftians deny ; and though 
 they admit the neceiiity of charcoal in the operation, 
 yet they affirm that it a£t^ only by attracting the de- 
 phlogifticated air contained in tlie calx, with which it 
 forms fixed air; and hence they muft fay, that in all 
 metallic reduflions a quantity of fixed air is produced, 
 equivalent not only to the weight of the charcoal em- 
 ployed, but alfo to that of the dephlogifticated air 
 X s con- 
 
C H A' [34 
 
 Ghiarc^al. contained in the calx. The deoifive experiment there- 
 ■ ' fore would be, to expel from a metallic calx all the air 
 it contained, to weigh it exaftly in that ft:'.te, and 
 then obferve whether it gained any thing in weight by 
 being reduced to a metal. This, however, has not 
 been done; and 'the Antiphlogiftians complain that 
 their adverfaries have not been able to produce a pure 
 metallic calx free from all kind of aerial vapour. But 
 though it is not pretended that any fuch calx has yet 
 been produced, if the Phlogiftians can fhow the poffi- 
 bility of reducing a calx without the produftion- of fix- 
 ed air, it would feem to be equally deftruftive of the 
 antiphlogiftic do6lnne. This appears to have been done 
 by Dr Prieftley in the experiments above alluded to ; 
 and it is even doubtful whether he did not obtain the 
 fo much defired calx, viz. one perfe£lly free from air 
 altogether. " T put (fays he) upon apiece of bro-; 
 ken crucible, which could yield no air, a quantity of 
 minium, out of which all air had been extratled ; and 
 placing it upon a convenient ftand, introduced it into 
 a large receiver filled with inflammable air confined by 
 water. As foon as the minium was dry, by means of 
 the heat thrown upon it, I obferved that it becams 
 black, and then ran in the form of perfedl lead, at the 
 fame time that the air diminifhed at a- great rate tlie 
 water afcending, within the receiver. Before this firft 
 " experiment was concluded, I~ perceived, that if the 
 phlogifton in Inflammable air had any bafe, it mull be 
 very inconfiderable ; for the precefs went on till there 
 was no more room to- operate without endangering the 
 receiver ; and examining the air that lemained, I 
 found that it could not be difl;ingui{hed from that ia 
 which r began the experiment, which was air extracted 
 from iron by oil of vitriol. 
 
 " I afterwards carefully expelled, from a quantity 
 of minium, all the phlogifton, and every thing elfe 
 that could have affumed the form of air, by giving it a 
 red heat when mixed with fpirit of nitre ; and imme- 
 diately ufnig it in the manner m.entioned above, I 
 reduced loi ounce-meafures of inflammable air to 
 two. To judge of its deg-ree of inflammability, I pre- 
 fented the flame of a fmall candle to the mouth of a 
 vial filled with it, and obferved, that it made 13 fe- 
 parate explofions,, though weak ones (ilopping the 
 mouth of the phial with my finger after each explo-> 
 fion) ; when frefli made inflammable air,, in the fame 
 circumftances, made only 14 explofions, though 
 fkronger ones. In this experiment, however, I over- 
 looked one obvious confi deration,, viz. that water, or 
 any thing foluble in water, might be the bafis -of in- 
 flammable air. All that could be abfolutely inferred 
 from the experiment was, that this bafis could not be 
 any thing that vras capable of fubfifting in the form 
 of air. It will be feen^ that I afterwards made the 
 experiment with air confined by mercury." 
 
 In this experiment it is to be regretted that the 
 Doftor did not inform us- whether the weight of his 
 calces was on the whole increafed or dimini-fhed by 
 the operation. As it Hands, though, fufficient to over- 
 throw the doftrine of the AntipUogiilians, it is not al^ 
 together fufficient to efi.abHih that of their adverfaries. 
 Mr Higgins, however, though he does not reply to 
 this experiment, gives an account of another from Dr 
 Higgins, which he confiders as abfolutely decilive a- 
 gainll the Phlogilliaus. " Dr. Higgins, (fays he) in- 
 
 6 ] C H A 
 
 troduced feme pieces of well-burned charcoal into a ChiarcoaL- 
 
 deep crucible, and covered them over an inch deep 
 
 with, powdered charcoal. Having luted on a cover, he 
 
 expofed them for two hours to heat fufficient to melt 
 
 filver ; he then pbiced the crucible in fuch a manner 
 
 that the powder might remain red hot for fome time 
 
 after the pieces next the bottom had cooled.' This he 
 
 had done, as the charcoal mufl; imbibe fomething on 
 
 cooling, both .to fupply it with inilammable air, and 
 
 to prevent a communication with. the external air,. 
 
 which the charcoal would otherwife have imbibed. 
 
 " One hundred and twent)'- grains of this charcoal 
 quickly powdered, v/ere welh mixed with 7680 grains, 
 of Htharge, which had been prtvioufly fufed to Icpa- 
 rate any uncalcined lead it might contain. Thi.s mix- 
 ture was charged into a coated retort juft large enough - 
 to contain it .j fo that the common air muit have been 
 nearly fecluded'. Being then. placed in a reverberating 
 furaace, and heat duly applied, it yielded by eftima- 
 tion, after cooling to the mean temperature of the at- 
 mofphere, 384 grains, of fixable air, at the rate of 0.57 
 grains to a cubic inch, 8.704 of phlogilUcated air, 
 and 0.91 1 grains of dephlogifticated air, befides 49 
 grains of water. On breaking the retort, 3888 grains 
 of revived lead were found, befides fom.e vitrified li- 
 tharge ; but not aa atom of charcoal was left, nor was- 
 there a particle of inflammable air produced. Now, let 
 my reader confider the weight that 3888 grains of 
 lead acquire by its converfion to litharge, and the quan- 
 tity of inflammable air that 120 grains of charcoal will 
 afford (which, according to Dr Prieftley* is about 360 
 ounce-meafures), and he will find, making allowance 
 for the phlogifticated air^ that theie nearly correipond 
 with the proportion of heavy inflammable air and 
 dephlogiiticated air neceflary to the fonruition of iix- 
 able air by the eleftric fpark... Hence we may con- 
 clude, that not a particle of charcoal entered- into the 
 conftltution- of the revived lead, but muft have been 
 wholly converted into fixable air." 
 
 To this experiment, however, the Phlogiftians will 
 replv, that fo far from being dcciiive on tlie iubject,. 
 no conclufion whatever can be drawn from it, on ac- 
 cour.t of its enormvus inaccuracy. The quantity of 
 matter put into the retort was 7680+120, or 780a 
 grains, and the whole prx>duce was 3888+38^44-8.704 
 +0.9.1 i+49=:433o.6i5 grains : a deficiency there- 
 fore of no lefs than 3469.385 grains is to be accounted 
 for ; and of this we hear not one word ; fo that wc 
 are at liberty to fappufe that. the vitrified litharge had 
 perforated the retort in fuch a manner as -to admit the 
 fixed and.phlogiiticated fiir from without, as Dr Priclt- 
 ley found earthen retorts pervious to air from without; . 
 and this, though coated, might by a corrofion of the 
 glafs (if it v/as a glafs one) be reduced to a fimllar 
 lituation. 
 
 We do not mean that this fliould be reckoned a for » 
 mal anfvwr to. Dr Higgins' s experiment ; all we in- 
 tend ^here, is to ftate the arguments fairly on both 
 fides, fo that the reader who has not an opportimity of 
 making experiments himfelf, may be able to judge on 
 which fide the truth lies. Dr Prieftiey informs us, that 
 in his experiment,- the calx of lead abforbcd a quan- 
 tity- of inflammable air without the extrication of fixed 
 air, or any thing tlfe that could be perceived. Wiie.- 
 ther or not have we reaiun to conclude froia thence, 
 4. tbat 
 
C H A 
 
 [ 347 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 ins s 
 
 ■ ■rat. 
 
 rccal. that the gravit;iting, folid, or cnally, part of the in- 
 fiammable air was received into the calx, arid became 
 part of the revived metal ? In Dr,HiggIns's experi' 
 ment a quantity of elaftic fluid was produced, and a 
 quantity of lead revived ; but we neither know how 
 much of the Calx went to this lead, how much the li- 
 tharge had otiginally attraftcd from the air, nor whe- 
 ther the elaftic fluids were certainly produced ; or indeed 
 whether any of them, the fmall quantity of dephlo- 
 giflicatdd air alone excepted, came from the materials 
 or not. From fuch a ftate of the cafe then, have v/e 
 reafon to conclude, that not a particle of charcoal 
 entered into the conftitution of the lead ?" 
 
 We fliall next connder an experiment made by Mr 
 Higgins himfelf, and which he likewife confiders as 
 decifive againft the Phlogiftians. " I introduced (fays 
 he) fome iron nails, free from ruft, into ftrong vola- 
 P"*^ tile vitriolic acid ; when it Hood for a few minutes, it 
 acquired a milky appearance, and the folution went on 
 without ebuUition or extrication of air. On ilanding 
 for a few liours, the folution acquired a darkifh co- 
 lour, and a black pov>'der was precipitated. This pow- 
 der, when collefted and wafhed, put on red hot iron, 
 burned partly like fulphur and partly like charcoal 
 dull, and the incombuftible refiduum was of a pur- 
 plifli colour. The filtered folutiun was perfectly neu- 
 tralifed, and free from the leaft fulphureous pungen- 
 cv. Its tafte was ftrongly chalybeate, but not fo dif- 
 agreeable as that .yL the folution of iron in the perfeft 
 vitriolic acid, or in any of the mineral acids. Nitrous 
 acid dropped into the folution inllantly produced a 
 cloudinefs, which immediately difappeared without e- 
 bullitlon, though volatile fulphureous acid was extri- 
 cated in its utmoft degree of pungency. The vitrio- 
 lic, marine, and acetous acids, decompofed this folu- 
 tion, but caufed no turbidnefs, nor was any inflam- 
 mable air produced. 
 
 " In order to know whether the fulphur was dif- 
 engaged from the volatile fulphureous acid or the iroa, 
 I poured marine acid on the fame nails, when light in- 
 flamm?.ble air and hepatic air were copioufly produ- 
 ced, and likewife fulphur was depofited in its crude 
 ftate. When I ufed vitriolic or the nitrous acid, no 
 fulphur was produced. I tried difi^erent nails, and 
 likewife iron-filings, with the fiime refult. Thefe fadls 
 convinced nie that the fulphur came from the iron ; 
 'but that all forts of iron contain fulphur is what I can- 
 not pretend to know, as I have not tried ftecl, or va- 
 rieties enough of malleable iron. However, I have 
 •ftrong reafon to fufpeft, that fulphur has more to do 
 'in the different properties of iron than we are aware of. 
 That iron fliould contain fulphur, notwithftanding the 
 different procefles it muft necefiarily undergo before it 
 acquires malleability, confidering the volatility of ful- 
 phur, points out the force of their attraftion to one 
 another ; and the feparation of this again by volatile 
 fulphureous acid, ftiows hkewife the greater attraftion 
 of iron to fulphur and dephlogifticated air jointly. 
 That volatile fulphureous acid fliould diffolve iron 
 without tiie extrication of inflammable air or phlogi- 
 gifton, is a very ftrong inftance of the fallacy of the 
 phlogiftic doArine. A fmall quantity of inflammable 
 air is produced, but it is fo trilling comparatively 
 to wliat fliould be produced from the quantity of iron 
 dilTolved, that it is hardly worth noticing ; and in my 
 
 opinion proceeds from a portion of perfeft vitriolic Char coaL^ 
 acid, which is generally infeparable from the volatile ' • 
 acid. If volatile vitriolic acid were a compound of 
 phlogifton, a certain bafis, and dephlogifticated air, a 
 greater quantity of inflammable air fliould have been 
 difengaged during the folution of iron in this aci4 than 
 when the perfeft vitriolic acid is ufed. Let us even 
 fuppofe volatile fulphureous acid to be compofed of 
 the bafis of fulphur, phlogifton, and dephlogifticated 
 air, which is the opinion of all the Phlogiftians, though 
 they differ with refpeft to the modification of thefe 
 three principles ; and likewife iron to be compofed of 
 a certain bafis and phlogifton ; I would aflf the Phlo- 
 giftians, What becomes of the phlogifton of the iron 
 during its folution ?" 
 
 But however much Mr Higgins may be convinced^ 
 from this experiment, of the fallacy of the phlogiftic 
 doftrine, his adverfarles, Inftead of being filenced, will 
 urge his own experiment againll himfelf. He owny, 
 that during the folution fomething was feparated of 
 a black colour, and whic:h burned like charcoal duit. 
 Unlefs therefore Mr Pliggins fliall prove the contrary, 
 they will fay, that this was the real phlogijion or charcoal 
 which^entered Into the fubftance of the metal ; and that 
 it ajjpeared in its native form, becaufe the volatile vi- 
 triolic acid had not fpecific or latent heat fuflicient to 
 convert it into inflammable air. At any rate, it was 
 incumbent on Mr Higgins to have accounted for the 
 coally part of his refiduum as well as the ful})hureous 
 one ; yet he has been at confiderable pains to deduce 
 the latter from the iron, without fpeaking a word a- 
 bout the foriner. Indeed, whether he deduced this 
 from the iron or the vitriolic acid, it will make equally 
 againft him ; for his principles do not allow that the 
 volatile vitriolic acid contains any charcoal. That the 
 latter really does fo, however, appears from an experi- 
 ment of Dr Prieftley, in which he reduced a calx of 
 lead by means of vitriolic acid air, the fame with the 
 vitriolic or volatile fulphureous acid. It is true, that 
 only a fmall quantity of metal was thus procured; but 
 however fmall this was, the Antiphlogiftians do not pre- 
 tend that metals can be reduced to tlieir metallic ftate 
 in any quantity, except by the mediation of char- 
 coal. 
 
 Thus It appears, that with regard to metals the dif- 
 pute is as yet far enough from being decided in fa- 
 vour of the Antiphlogiftians. Their caule is equally 
 doubtful with regard to fulphur and phofphorus, both 
 of which Dr Prieftley has produced by heating vitrio- 
 lic and phofphoric acid in inflammable air. Indeed, by 
 fome expei-Iments on fulphur, the matter feems to be 
 decided againft them. " Perhaps (fays Dr Prieftley) 
 as decifive a proof as any^, of the real produftion of fix- 
 ed air from phlogifton and dephlogifticated air, may be 
 drawn from the experiments in which I always found 
 a quantity of it v.-hen I burned fulphur in deplilogifti- 
 cated air. In one of thefe experiments to which I 
 gave more particular attention, fix ounce-meafures and 
 an half of the dephlogifticated air were reduced to about 
 two ounce-meal ures, and one-fifth of this was fixed 
 air." Now, though the Dotlor Infeired from this, that 
 fixed air was compofed of phlogifton and dephlogifti- 
 cated air, on the fuppofition of fulphur containing 
 phlogifton ; yet, admitting from other proofs, that 
 fixed sir is compofed of thefe two principles, theexpe- 
 X X 2 i-iment 
 
C H A 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 t 348 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 riment unanfwerably proves, that fulphur coutu'ms phlo- 
 ^"""y—' gilton or charcoal, though indeed in a very fmall quan- 
 tity : but if the fulphur contained none at all, and the 
 dephlogiflicated air as little, as the Antiphlogiftians 
 vould have it, how is it poffible that a compound, of 
 which phlogiiton makes a part, fhould refult from an 
 • See /^fro- union of the two * ? Another experiment equally 
 n° in.decilive, even with regard to metals, is that quoted 
 from Dr Prieftley in the place juft referred to (a), 
 where he obtained pure fixed air from a mixture of red 
 precipitate and iron-filings. Now, according to the 
 antiphlogirtic doftrine, neither of thefc mate>ials con- 
 ' taiiied an atom of charcoal or phlogiilon ; whence then 
 came the phlogifton in the fixed air which iiTued from 
 the mixture ? 
 
 Thus the Antiphlogiftians feem to be unanfwerably 
 refuted with regard to fulphur and metallic fubftan- 
 ces ; for if the tv/o experiments juft related be accu- 
 rate, it is impofiible to invalidate them by any argu- 
 mentation whatever. Their laft refource therefore is 
 the decompofition of water : and even here it is evi- 
 dent they have little reafon to boafl:. On this fubjeft, 
 however, we are forry to obferve, that the opinions 
 have been fo many, fo various, and fo fluctuating, that it 
 is not only impofiible to fay what are the prevailing 
 ones, but even difficult to afcertain what are the fenti- 
 ments of any individual on the fubjeft. Under the ar- 
 ticle Aerology, n-" 81. we have quoted* Dr Prieft- 
 ley as favouring the doftrine of the decompofition of 
 water ; and in iSlr Higgins's work we find him quoted 
 Cornparatkje^^ oppofing it. " Dr Prieftley (fays he) fuppofes 
 3. that the water produced by the condenfation of in- 
 flammable and dephlogifticated air, is only what was fu- 
 fpended and attached to them in their elaftic ftate, and 
 that their refpe£live gravitating particles form a diffe- 
 rent compound, namely, the nitrous acid. To afcer- 
 tain this, he confined his mixture of airs with dry fixed 
 alkali over mercury, in order to abitraft from it as 
 much water as pofiible. Having thus prepared his 
 mixture of airs, he found, after exploding them, that 
 the produft of water fell far ffiort of the w^eight of 
 both airs ; and he obferved a denfe vapour after every 
 explofion, which foon condenfed, and adhered in a fo- 
 lid ftate to the fides of the veflel, which he found after- 
 wards to be tJie nitrous acid." To this Mr Higgins 
 anfwers, that the airs ought to have been accurately 
 weighed after abftrafting the water fi-om thern, when 
 (he fuppofes) the weight of water produced would 
 have equalled them. This indeed ought to have been 
 done ; but Mr Higgins, or fome Antiphlogiftian, ought 
 to have done fo before he decided pofitively in favour 
 of the oppofite doclrine. At any rate, it cannot be 
 pretended, that in- any experiment, let the circumftan- 
 ces of it be what they would, the quantity of water 
 produced ever equalled that of the two airs. It is evi- 
 dent therefore, that till this ftiall'fome how or other 
 be cleared up, the matter muft remain uncertain. That 
 the pureft water we can obtain always contains phlo- 
 gifton, is what no Phlogittian denies; that it effentially 
 belongs to it is doubtful, though indeed it mutt be 
 
 probable, that it do<*8 fo until experiments fhow the Charcoal, 
 contrary. Mr Cavendiih fuppofes that dephJogiJl'icated — 'v-—' 
 air and dephlogijikated -water may be the fame; and in- 
 deed this would fecm to be almoft certain, were it not 
 for a circumftance taken notice of by Mr Higgins, vi/,. 
 that in the firing of iron in dephlogifticated air th« 
 latter appears to be totally abforbed ; though it is cer- 
 tain, that a quantity of undecompofed water enters 
 into its compofition. 
 
 How far this circumftance throws any obfcurity on 
 the matter the reader muft determine. For a more full 
 inveftigation of the fubjeft, however, we muft refer to 
 the article Water; and in the ir-ean time ftiall difmifs 
 the article with a few obfervations on the compofition 
 of charcoal. 
 
 From the days of Stahl till very lately, the compo- 
 nent parts of this fubftance have been reckoned a cer- 
 tain kind of earth combined with what was called phlo- 
 gifton. The late experiments of Dr Prieftley have 
 fhown, that this doftrine is eironeous, and that char- 
 coal is wholly diflipable into vapour. " On the whole 
 (fays the tranflator of Wiegleb's Chemiftry), charcoal 
 appears, from the experiments of Lavoifier and Bar- 
 thollet, to be an oil deprived of its inflammable gas. 
 But coal of wood (or common charcoal) likewife con- 
 tains fixed alkah, which the foot (or the coal of oil) 
 does not, but inftead of this exhibits volatile alkali. 
 The fixed alkali of the former proceeds from the plant 
 itfelf, and this, in the cafe of foot, is joined with in- 
 flammable gas, and forms volatile alkali, the earthy 
 part being left behind, as happens when this latter is 
 prepared from fixed alkali. Genuine charcoal, there- 
 fore, confifts of tliis vegetable principle, united with a 
 little fixed alkali and part of the phlogifton that con- 
 ftituted the oil of the plant of which it is made : for 
 fome of this principle is carried oiF, together with the 
 hydrophloge (b), in the form of inflammable gas, if dittil- 
 led in clofe veflels ; but if burned in the open air, the 
 hydrophloge unites with the pure part of the air, and 
 forms water. From thefe confiderations, as well as 
 from the experiments and obfervations of M. Berthol- 
 let, in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences pour 1786, 
 P* 33* fil' appears, that common charcoal con- 
 fii'b of the vegetable principle, fome phlogifton, fixed 
 alkali, and no inflammable gas." 
 
 On all this, however, we muft obferve, that it is en- 
 tirely dii'proved by the experiments of Dr Prieftley, fo 
 often quoted, in which it was totally dilTipated into in-^ 
 flammable air*. On this occafion indeed he acknow-^^ ^ 
 ledges, that fome very minuce particles of aflies were ob- 
 ferved, which could not have amounted to a fingle grain 
 from many pounds of wood. Even thefe, according 
 to what he obierves in the fame place, may be fuppo- 
 fed to have come from the fmail quantity of air in the 
 receiver ; and it is to be wifhed that the Doftor would 
 repeat the experiment in one of thofe perfect vacuums 
 through which the ele£lric fluid cannot be made to 
 pafs^ From undoubted experiments, however, it ap-^^ 
 pears, that charcoal cannot be decompofed by mere 
 heat; as in vacuo it is diflipated into inflammable air; 
 
 and.. 
 
 See A 
 
 (a) See EncycL Vol. I. p. 169. col. i. where, in lines 18, 19 firom the top, read precipitate iov charcoal. 
 
 (b) A word u fed by Mr Wieglcb, as far as we can comprehend the author's meaning, for one of tlie comgo- 
 >tnt parts of water. See his General Syftem of Chemiftry, tranilated by Hopfon, p. 39.. 
 
C H A 
 
 r 349 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 •harcnal, and thiR, on prefenutig a proper fubftance to attradi 
 ^"^-y-^ tlie folid part, again difcovera itfelf, by Its blackneffl, to 
 be real charcoal. As liltle does it appear deftruftible 
 by burninjr in the open air ; for thouft'h fome afhes are 
 left, it appears probable that th<rfe difTer from the coal 
 itfelf in nothing but havirig ^ quantity of air attached 
 to them. By far the greatefl; part of it, even in the 
 common wav of biirninsr, is converted into fixed air ; 
 'and from this it may aqain be feparated by taking the 
 ele£lric fpark in that fluid, when it is refolved into very 
 pure dephlogifticated and inflammable air. The fame fe- 
 paration may be effcfted by merely heating iron in fixed 
 air; in which cafe the dephloijift-icatcd part will unite 
 to the iron, and the coaly part, together with part of 
 the phlogillon of the metal, be converted into inflam- 
 mable air. From all thefe, and other confiderations, 
 • a fufpicion is induced, that the matter of charcoal is 
 
 not different from the element of earth itfelf ; and that, 
 according to the dilferent modifications of this fub- 
 ftance, it either appears as coal, aflies, earth of various 
 kinds, or even metals. This receives fome confirma- 
 tion from the following experiments of Mr Watt, re- 
 lated in the 74th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac- 
 tions : •« I diffolved (fays he) magnefia alba, calca- 
 reous earth, and minium, in nitrousacid dephlogifticated 
 by boiling, and diluted with proper proportions of wa- 
 ter. I made ufe of glafs-retorts coated with clay; and 
 I received the air in glafs-vefl'els, whofe mouths were 
 immerfed in a glazed earthen bafon containing the 
 fmalleil quantity of water that coidd be ufed for the 
 purpofe. As foon as the retort was heated a little 
 above the degree of boiling water, the folutions began 
 to diftil watery vapours containing nitrous acid. Soon 
 after thefe vapours ceafed, yellow fumes, and, in fome 
 of the cafes, dark red fumes, began to appear in the 
 neck of the retort ; and, at the fame time, there was 
 a prodaftion of dephlogifticated air, which was great- 
 er in quantitv from fome of thefe mixtures than from 
 others, but continued in all of them until the fubftan- 
 ces wete reduced to drynefs. I found in the receiving 
 water, &c. very nearly the whole of the nitrous acid 
 ufed for their folution, but highly phlogifticated, fo as 
 to emit nitrous air by the application of heat ; and 
 there is reafon to believe, that with more precaution 
 the whole might have been obtained. As the quan- 
 tity of dephlogifticated air produced by thefe pro- 
 eelTes did not form a fufiicient part of the whole 
 weight to enable me to judge whether any of the real 
 acid entered into the compofitlon of the air I obtain- 
 ed, I ceafed to purfue them further, having learned 
 from them; the faft, that however much the acid and 
 the earths were dephlogifticated before the folution, the 
 acid always became highly phlogifticated in the pro- 
 cefs. , 
 
 " In order to examine whether this phlogifton was 
 furnifhed by the earths, fome dephlogifticated nitrous 
 acid was diftilled from minium till no more air or acid 
 came over. More of the fame acid was added to the 
 minium as foon an it was cold, and the diftilla- 
 tion repeated, which produced the fame appear- 
 ances of red fumes and dephlogifticated air. This 
 operation was repeated a third time on the lame mi- 
 nium, without any fenfible variation in the phreno- 
 naena. The proccls ftiould have been ftill farther re- 
 peated, but the retort broke about the end of 'the third 
 
 CKardin 
 
 !i 
 
 Charge. 
 
 diftillation ; the quantity of minium ufed was 1 20 grains, 
 and the quantity of nitrous acid added each time was 
 240" grains, of fuch ftrtngth that it could diffolve half 
 its weight of mercury by means of heat. It appears 
 from this experiment, that unlcfs minium be fuppoftxl 
 principally to confift of phlcgitton, the fource of the 
 phlogifton thus obtained, was either the n'itrous acid 
 Itfelf, or the water with which it was diluted ; or elie 
 that it came through the retort with the light ; for tlie 
 retort was in this cafe red hot before any air was pro- 
 duced. Yet this latter conclufion does not appear very 
 fatisfa&ory, when it is confidered, that in the procefs 
 wherein the earth mitfie ufc of was magnefia, the retort 
 was not red hot, or very obfcurely fo, in any part of 
 the procefs, and by no means luminous when the yel- 
 low and red fumes firft made their appearance." 
 
 To thefe experiments, however, the Antiphlogiftian.'s ^ 
 will no doubt reply, that there was no phlogifton in 
 the cafe, and that the nitrous acid was only decompo- 
 fed ; and indeed the decifive experiment here would be, 
 the entire diflipation of a quantity of earth into fome 
 kind of air, as may be done with charcoal ; but to do 
 this in the way of diftillation muft be attended with in- 
 credible labour, chough, as finally deciding this point, 
 it fecms to be well worth purfuing. 
 
 A pretty ftrong proof of the identity of metallic 
 calces with charcoal, is their converfion into it in 
 the manner already related. Experiments, however, 
 are yet wanting on the fubjeft; though it feems pro- 
 bable from what Dr Prieftley has already done, that 
 they may thus be entirely diffipated into air as well as 
 common charcoal. 
 
 CHARDIN (Sir John), a celebrated traveller, was 
 born at Paris in 1643. -^'^ father, who was a jewel- 
 ler, had him educated in the Proteftant religion ; after 
 which he travelled into Perfia and India. He traded, 
 in jewels, and died at London in 1713. The account 
 he wrote of his travels is much efteemed. 
 
 CH ARENTON, the name of two towns of France, 
 the one upon the Marmaude in the Bourbonnois ; the 
 other in the ifle of France, near the tonfluence of the 
 Marne with the Seine. 
 
 CHARES the Lydian, a celebrated ftatuary, was 
 the difciple of Lyfippus ; and made the famous Cololfus 
 of the fun in the city of Rhodes. Flouriflied 2 88 years 
 before Chrift. 
 
 CHARGE, in gunnery, the quantity of powder and. 
 ball wherewith a gun is loaded for execution. 
 
 The rules for charging large pieces in war are. That 
 the piece be firft cleaned or fcourcd withinfide : that . 
 the proper quantity of powder be next driven in and' 
 rammed down ; care, however, being taken, that the 
 powder, in ramming, be not bruiled, becaufe thrt 
 weakens its effect : that a little quantity of paper, hay, 
 lint, or the like, be rammed over it ; and that the ball 
 or fliot be intruded. If the ball be red-hot, a tompion, 
 or trencher of green wood, is- to be driven in before 
 it. The common allowance for a charge of powder of 
 a piece of ordnance, is half the weight of the ball. In 
 the Britiih Navy, the allowance for 32 pounders is but 
 feven-fixteenths of the weight of the bullet. But ^ Ro',i„' s Pro' 
 late author is of opinion, tlrat if the powder in all fliip-/'<>/.y fur in- 
 cannon whatever was reduced to one-third weight Q{"''"'f"'S ^^'^ 
 the ball, or even lefs, it would be of confiderable ad- I'/'^^^^'f, 
 
 vantage, not only by faving ammunition, but by keep- 
 ing, 
 
■■Ciiarge 
 H 
 
 Chariot. 
 
 C H A ■[ 350 ] 
 
 ing the guns cooler and quieter, and at the fame time Every chariot 
 move effeftiially injuring the vcfltls of the enemy. 
 With the prefent alK<wance of powder the gum are 
 heated, and their tackle and farniture ilraincd ; and 
 this only to render the bullets lef» efficacious ; for a 
 bullet which can but ju!l pafs through a piece of tim- 
 
 ■ ber, and lofes almoR all its motion thereby, has a much 
 better chance of rending and fraftun'ng it, than if it 
 pafTcs through with a much greater velocitv. 
 
 Charge, in heraldry, is applied to the figures re- 
 prefented on the efcutcheon, by which the bearers are 
 
 ' diftinguifhed from one another ; and it is to be obfer- 
 ved, that too many charges are not fo honourable as 
 fewer. 
 
 Charge of Lead, denotes a (Quantity of 36 pigs. See 
 Pig. 
 
 To Chargf. In the military language, is to attack the 
 ■enemy either with horfe or foot. 
 
 Charge, in law, denotes the Inftrudions given to 
 the grand jury, with refpeft to the articles of their in- 
 quir)-, by the judge who prefides on the bench. 
 
 Charge, in law, alfo fignifies a thing done that 
 •bindeth him who doth it ; and difcharge is the re- 
 moval of that charge. Lands may be charged In 
 various ways ; as, by grant of rent out of it, by fta- 
 tutes, jud'fments, conditions, warranties, &c. 
 
 Charge of horning, in Scots law. See Horning. 
 
 Charge to enter Heir, in Scots law, a writing paf- 
 -fing under the fignet, obtained at the inftance of a ere- 
 <iitor, either againft the heir of his debtor, for fixing 
 upon him the debt as reprefenting the debtor, which 
 is called a general charge; or, againft the debtor him- 
 felf, or his heir, for the purpofe of vefting him in the 
 right of any heritable fubjeA to which he has made 
 up no title, in order the creditor may attach that fub- 
 jeft for payment of his debt, in the fame manner as if 
 his debtor or his heir were legally veiled in it by fer- 
 vice or othervvife. This lail kind is called a /pedal 
 charge. 
 
 Charge, or xz\h.er Ovcrcharg:, in painting, is an 
 exaggerated reprcfentation of anyperfon ; wherein the 
 • hkenefs is preferved, but at the fame time ridiculed. 
 
 Few painters have the genius necefiary to fucceed in 
 ■thefe charo^es : the method is, to foleft and heighten 
 fomething rJready amifs in the face, whether by way 
 of defeft, or redundancy : thus v. g. if Nature have gi' 
 .ven a man a nofc a little larger than ordinary, the 
 painter falls in v.'ith her, and makes the nofe extrava- 
 -gantly long : or if the nofe be naturally two Ihort, in 
 'the painting it will be a mere Rump ; and thus of the 
 other parts. 
 
 CHARGED, in heraldry, a fhleld carrying fome im- 
 prefs or figure, is faid to be charged therewith; fo alio, 
 when one bearing, or charge, has another figure added 
 upon it, it 15 properly faid to be charged. 
 
 Charged, in eleftrical experiments, is when a vial, 
 pane of glafs, or other eleftric fubllance, properly coat- 
 ed on both fides, has a quantity of eledriclty commu- 
 nicated to it; in which cafe the one fide is always elec- 
 trified pofinvely, and the other negatively. 
 
 CHARIOT, a half coach, liaving only a feat behind, 
 with a llool befi)re. See Coach. 
 
 The chariots of the ancients, chiefly ufed in war, 
 were called by the feveral names l/iga, tnga. Sec. ac- 
 ,cording to the nuaibcr of horfcs applied to draw them, 
 
 C H A 
 
 carried two men, who were probably 
 the warrior and the charioteer ; and we read of feve- 
 ral men of note and valour employed in driving the 
 chariot. When the warriors came to encounter in 
 clofe fight, they alighted out of the chariot, and fought 
 on foot; but when they weie weary, which often hap- 
 pened by reafon of their armour, they retired Int© 
 their chariot, and thence annoyed their enemiei 
 with darts and mlffive weapons. Thefe chariots were 
 made fo llrong, that they lalled for feveral generations. 
 
 Bcfides this fort, we find frequent mention of the 
 cnrrus falcati, or thofe chariots armed with hooks, or 
 fcythes, with which whole ranks of foldiers were cut 
 off together, if they had not the art of avoiding the 
 danger; thefe were not only ufed by the Perfians, Syri- 
 ans, Egyptians, SSfc. but we find them among the an- 
 cient Britons ; and notwithftanding the imperfecS; ftate 
 of fome of the moft neceffary arts among that nation 
 before theinvafion of the Jlomans, it is certain thattliey 
 had war-chariots in great abundance. By the Greek and 
 Roman hiftorians, thefe chariots are defccibed by the 
 fix following names ; Benna, Petoricum, Currus 
 
 or Carrus, Covinus, EfTedum, and Rhcda. The benna 
 feems to have been a chariot defigned raiher^or travel- 
 ling than war. It contained two perfon?, who were 
 called comlainones, from their fitting together in the 
 fame machine. The petoritum feems to have been a 
 larger kind of chariot than the benna 4 and is thought 
 to have derived its name from the Britifli word ped- 
 'war, fignifyingyw/r y this kind of carlage having four 
 wheels. The carrus or currus was the common cart 
 or Vk'aggon. This kind of chariot was ufed by the an- 
 cient Britons, in times of peace, for the purpofes of 
 agriculture and merchandife ; and, in time of war, for 
 carrying their baggage, and wives and clsildren, who 
 commonly followed the armies of all the Celtic nations. 
 The covinus was a war-chat lot, and a very terrible 
 inllrument of defltuction ; being armed with lharp 
 fcythes and hooks for cutting and tearing all who were 
 fo unhappy as to come within its reach. This kind of 
 chariot was made very flight, and had few or no mca 
 in it befidcs the charioteer ; being defigned to drive 
 with great force and rapidity, and to do executioo 
 chiefly with its hooks and fcythes. The efl'edum and 
 rheda were alio war-chariots, probably of a large fize, 
 and ftronger made than the covinus, defigned for con- 
 taining a charioteer for driving it, and one or two 
 warriors for fighting. The tar greateft number of 
 the Britii'h war-chariots feem to have been of this kind. 
 Thefe chariots, as alieady obferved, were to be found 
 in great numbers among the Britons ; infomuch that 
 Caeiar relates that Cal'hbelanus, after difmiffing all his 
 other forces, retained no fewer than 4CO0 of thefe 
 war-chariots about his perfon. The fame author re- 
 lates, that, by continual experience, they had at kft 
 arrived at inch perfeftion in the management of their 
 chariots, that " In tlie moll lleeu and difficult places 
 they could Hop their horfes upon fuUllretch, turn them 
 which way they pleafed, run aL»'.g the pole, rell on 
 the harnei's, and throw chemfelves bu<:k. into their cha- 
 riots, with incredible dexterity." 
 
 Chariots, in the heathen mythology, were forae- 
 tlmes confecrated to the fun ; and the fcvlpture ob- 
 ferves, that Jofiah burnt thofe v>'hich had been pffereti 
 to the fun by the king's predeceilors. This fuperlli- 
 
 tioUs 
 
 Chariot. 
 
C H A [ 1 
 
 Chariot tious cuftom was an imitation of the heathens, and 
 11. piincipally of the Perlians, who had horfes and cha- 
 Charity. confccrated in honour of the fun. Herodotus, 
 
 Xenophon, and Quintus Curtius, fpeak of white cha- 
 riots crowned, which were confecrated to the fun, 
 among the Perfians, which in their ceremonies were 
 drawn by white horfes confecrated to the fame hmiinaiy. 
 
 Triumphal CiiJRioT, was one of the principal orna- 
 ments of the Roman celebration of a vitlory. 
 
 The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made 
 of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindri- 
 cal figure ; it was fometimes gilt at the top, and or- 
 namented with crowns ; and to reprefent a vi£tory 
 more naturally, they ufed to ftain it with blood. It 
 was ufually drawn by four white horfes ; but often- 
 times by lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards, 
 dogs, &c. 
 
 CHARISIA, in the heathen theology, a wake, or 
 night- fetlival, inftituted in honour of the graces. It 
 continued the whole night, moll of which time was 
 fpent in dancing ; after which, cakes made of yellow 
 flour mixed with honey, and other fweetmeats, were 
 diftrlbutcd among the aflittants.— Charifia is alfo fome- 
 times ufed to fignify the fweetmeats ufed on fach oc- 
 cafions. 
 
 CHARISIUS, in the heathen theology,.a furname 
 given to Jupiter. The word is derived from X'^F'-' 
 gi-mtay grace" or " favour he being the God by 
 whofe influence men obtain the favour and affedtion of 
 one another. On which account the Greeks ufed at 
 their meals to . make a libation of a cup to Jupiter 
 Charifius. 
 
 CHARISTIAj afeftival of the ancient Romans, 
 celebrated in the month of February, wherein the re- 
 lations by blood and marriage met, in order to preferve 
 a good correfpondence ; and that if there happened 
 to be any. difference among them, it might be the 
 more eafdy accommodated, by the good humour and 
 iTiirchr-of the entertainment. OviJ. Fnji. i. 617. 
 
 CHARISTICARY, commendatory, or donatory, 
 a perfou to whom is given the enjoyment of the reve- 
 nues of a manaftery, hofpital, or benefice. 
 
 The charifticaries a.mong the Gi-ecks^ were a kind 
 of donatories, or commendatories, who enjoyed all 
 the revenues of hofpitals and monaileiies, without gi- 
 ving an account thereof to any perfon. — The original 
 of this abufe is referred to the Iconoclaftas, particu- 
 larly Conftantine Copronymus, the avowed enemy 
 of the monks, \Yhofe monarteries he gave away to 
 ftrangers. In after times, the emperors and patriarchs 
 gave many to people of quality, not by way of gift, t a 
 reap any temporal advantage fvom them ; but to re- 
 pair, beautify, and patronize them. Ac length avarice 
 crept in, and thofc; in good condition were given away, 
 efpecially . fuch as were rich ; and at laft they were all 
 given away, rich and, poor, thofe of men and of wo- 
 men, and that to laymen and married meh. 
 
 CHARITY, among divines, one of the three grand 
 theological virtues, confifting in the love of God and 
 of our neighbour, or the habit and difpofition of 
 loving God with all our heart, and our neighbour as 
 ourfclves. 
 
 Charity is alfo ufed for the effeft of a moral vir- 
 tue, which confifts in fupplying the nectflities of o- 
 thcrs, whether wilhmoney , Qouiifcl, afll llance, or the like. 
 
 >i T C H A 
 
 As pecuniary relief is generally the moft efllcaclous, Char!:;,', 
 and at the fame time that from which we are moll apt '~~'V~" 
 to excufe ourfelves, this branch of the duty merits par- 
 ticular illuftration ; and abetter cannot be offered than 
 what is contained in t}\e following extraifls (if we may 
 be permitted 10 make them) from the elegant Moral 
 Sjjitm of Archdeacon Paky, 
 
 Whether pity be an inlHnft or a habit, it is In fa^l' 
 a property of our nature, which God appointed : and 
 the final caufe for which it was appointed, is to afford 
 to the miferable, in the compaffion of their fellow 
 creatures, a remedy for thofe inequalities and diilrefl'es 
 which God forefaw that many mud be expofcd to, un- 
 der every general rule for the diflribution of property. • 
 
 Tfie Cfiriftian icriptares are more copious and ex- 
 plicit upon this duty than almoll any other. The de- 
 fcription which Chriil hath left us of the proceedings • 
 of the lafl day, eftabliflies the obligation of bounty be- 
 yond controverfy. " When the Son of man fhallcome 
 in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then 
 lhall he fit upon the throne of his glory, and before 
 him fhall be gathered all nations ; and he fiiall feparate 
 them, one from another. Then fhall the king fay un- 
 to them on his right hand, Come ye blefled of my fa- 
 ther, iuiierit the kingdom prepared for you from the 
 foundation of the world : For I was an hungered, and 
 ye gave me meat ; I was tliirlly, and ye gave me 
 drink ; I was a ilranger, and ye took me in ; nEiked, 
 and ye clothed me ; I was fick, and ye vifited me ; I 
 was in prilon, and ye came unto me. And inafmuch 
 as ye have done it to one of the leail of thefe my bte- 
 thren, ye have done it unto me." It is not nccelTai y 
 to underftand this paffage as a literal account of what 
 will adlaally pafs on that day. Suppofnig it only a - 
 fcenical defcription of the rules and principles by 
 which the Supreme Arbiter of our defliny will regu- 
 late his dccifions, it conveys the fame lefTon to us ; it 
 equally demonflrates of how great value and import- 
 ance thefe duties in the fight of God are, and what 
 ilrefs will be laid upon them. Tlve apoftles alfo de- 
 fcribe this virtue as propitiating the divine favour in 
 an eminent degree. A-ir^ thefe recommendations have, 
 produced their effect. It does not appear that, before 
 the times of Chriflianity, an infirmary, hofpital, or - 
 public charity of any kind, txifted m the world ; - 
 whereas nuofl countries in Chriltendom have long a- 
 bounded with thefe inftilutions. To which fnay be 
 added, that a fpirit of ptivate liberalitj'- feems to flou-- 
 rifh asr.idil 'the decay of many other virtues : not to 
 mention the legal provifion for the poor, which ob- 
 tains in this country, and which was unknown and.^ 
 unthought of by the moil polifhed nations of anti-. 
 quity. 
 
 St Paul adds- upon -the fubjefl an excellent direftlon ; . 
 and which is prafticable by all who have auy thing to 
 give^ '* Upon the firfl day of the week (or any other 
 liated time) let every one of you lay by in flore, as 
 God hath profpered hlm." By which the apoflle may . 
 be imderft.ood to recommend what is the very thing 
 wanting with moft men, the being charitahle upqn a plan; . 
 that is, from a dehberate comparifon of our fortunes, 
 with the reafonable expences and expectations of our 
 families, to compute what we can fpare, and to lay by 
 fo much for charitable purpofes, in lome mode or other.. 
 The mode will be a conlideration. afterwards. 
 
 The 
 
 ♦ 
 
C H A [ 352 J 
 
 CtiarFfy. 'X'he effc£l, which Chriftiantiy produced upon fome beneficence 
 of its converts, was fuch as mii2;ht be looked for from 
 a divine religion coming with full force and miraculous 
 evidence upon the confciences of mankind. It over- 
 whelmed all worldly confiderations in the expe£lation 
 of a more important exiftence. " And the multitude 
 of them that believed were of one heart and of one 
 foul ; neither faid any of them that aught of the 
 things, which he pofiefTed, was his own ; but they had 
 all things in common. — Neither was there any among 
 them that lacked ; for as^any as were poffeflbrs of 
 lands or houfes fold them, and brought the prices of 
 the things that were fold, and laid them down at the a- 
 poftles' feet ; and diltribution was made unto every 
 man, according -s he had need." Afts iv. 32. 
 
 Nevertheltfs, this community of goods, however it 
 manifefted the fincere zeal of the primitive Chriftians, 
 is no precedent for our imitation. It was confined to 
 the church at Jerufalem ; continued not long there ; 
 was never enjoined upon any (Afts v. 4. ) ; and, al- 
 though it might fuit with the particular circumilances 
 of a fmall and feledl fociety, is altogether imprafticable 
 in a large and mixed commimity. 
 
 Tlie conduft of the apollles upon the occafion de- 
 ferves to be noticed. Their followers laid down their 
 fortunes at their feet ; but fo far were they from ta- 
 -king advantage of this unlimited confidence to enrich 
 themfelves or eftablifli their authority, that they foon 
 after got rid of this bufinefs as inconfiRent with the 
 main objeft of their million, and transferred the cufto- 
 dy and management of the public fund to deacons, 
 elected to that office by the people at large. ( Afts vi.) 
 
 There are three kinds of charity, our author obfei vts, 
 which prefer a claim to attention. 
 
 1. The firft, and apparently one of the beft, is to 
 give ftated and confiderable fums, by way of penfion 
 or annuity to individuals or families, with whofe beha- 
 viour and diftrefs we ourfelves are acquainted. In 
 fpeaking of confiderable fums, it is meant only, that 
 live pounds, or any other fum, given at once, or di- 
 vided amongft, five or fewer families, will do more good 
 than the fame fiim diRributed amongil a greater num- 
 ber in fliillings or half crowns ; and that, becaufe it is 
 more likely to be properly applied by the perfons w^ho 
 •receive it. A poor fellow, who can find no better ufe 
 . for a fhlUing than to drink his benefaftor's health, and 
 
 purchafe half an hour's recreation for himfelf, would 
 hardly break into a guinea for any fuch parpofe, or be 
 fo im.piovident as not to lay it by for an occafion of 
 importance, for his rent, his clothing, fuel, or ftock of 
 winter's provifion. It is a ftill greater recoirmenda- 
 tion of this kind of charity, that penfions and annui- 
 ties, whicu are paid regularly, and can be expedled at 
 the lime, are the only way by which we can prevent 
 one part of a poor man's fufferings, -the dread of 
 want. 
 
 2. But as this kind of charity fnppofes that proper 
 objeds of fuch expenfive benefafhions fall within cur 
 private knov/ledge and obfervation, which does not 
 happen to all, a fecond method of doing good, which 
 is in every one's power who has the money to fpare, 
 is by fubfcription to public charities. iPublic charities 
 admit of this argument in their favour, that your mo- 
 ney goes farther towards attaining the end for which 
 it is given, than it can lio by 7.ny private and feparate 
 
 NO 6.9. 6 
 
 C PI A 
 
 A guinea, for example, contributed to 
 an infirmary, becomes the means of providing one pa- 
 tient, at leatt, with a phyfician, furgeon,. apothecary ; 
 with medicine, diet, lodging, and fuitable attendance ; 
 which is not the tenth part of what the fame affiftance, 
 if it conld be procured at all, would coll to a fick per- 
 fon or family in any other fituation. 
 
 3. The lall, and, compared with the former, the 
 loweft exertion of benevolence, is in the relief of beg- 
 gars. Neverthelefs, the indifcriminate rejeftion of ail 
 who implore our alms in this way, is by no means ap- 
 proved. Some may perifli by fuch a conduil. Men are 
 fomctimes overtaken by ditlrefs, for which ail other re- 
 lief would come too late. Befides which, refolutions 
 of this kind compel us to offer inch violence to our 
 humanity, as may go near, in a little while, to fuffo- 
 cate the principle itfelf ; which is a very ferious con- 
 fideration. A good man, if he do not furrender him- 
 felf to his feelings without referve, will at lealt lend aa 
 ear to importunities which come accompanied with 
 outward attellations of diitrefs ; and after a patient 
 hearing of the complaint, will dire(A himfelf by the 
 circumilances and credibility of the account that he 
 receives. 
 
 There are other fpecies of charity well contrived tar 
 make the money expended go far j fuch as keeping 
 down the price of fuel or provifion in cafe of a mono-, 
 poly or temporary fcarcity, by purchafing the articles 
 at the beft market, and retailing them at prime coft, 
 or at a fmall lofs ; or the adding a bounty to a parti- 
 cular fpecies of labour, when the price is accidentally 
 deprefl'ed. 
 
 The proprietors of large eilates have it in their 
 power to facilitate the maintenance, and thereby en- 
 courage the eftabllfhrnent of families (which is one of 
 the nobleil purpofes to which the rich and great can 
 convert their endeavours), by building cottages, fpUt-. 
 ting farms, erefting manufaftnres, cultivating waltes, 
 embanking the fea, draining marfhes, and other expe- 
 dients, which the iituation of each eilate points out. 
 If the profits of thefe undertakings do not repay the 
 expence, let the authors of them place the diilcrence 
 to the account of charity. It is true of almoll all 
 fuch projedls, that the public is a gainer by them, 
 whatever the owner be. And where the lofs can be 
 fpared, this coniidcration is lulFicient. 
 
 It is become a queition of fome importance, Under 
 what circumftances works of charity ought to be done 
 in private, and when they m.ay be made public with- 
 out detradling from the merit of the adllon ; if indeed 
 they ever may, the Author of our religion having de- 
 livered a rule upon this fubjcdl, wiiich feems to enjoin 
 univerfal fecrecy. " Wlien thou doeil alms, let not 
 thy left -hand know what thy right hand doth ; that 
 thy alms may be in fecret, and thy Father which fecih 
 in iecret, himfelf fhall reward thee openly." (Matth. 
 vi. 3, 4.) From the preamble to this prohibition, it 
 is plain, that our Saviour's fole defign was to forbid 
 ojimtation, and all publilhing of good works which pro- 
 ceeds hom that motive. " Take heed that ye do not 
 your alms before men, to be fccn of them ; otherwife ye 
 liave no reward of your Father, which is in heaven : 
 therefore, when thou doeil thine alms, do not found a 
 trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do, in the fy- 
 nagogues and in the llreets, that they may have glory of 
 
 men. 
 
 Charity. 
 
C H A 
 
 C 35.3 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 CIsMity. men. Verily I fay unto thee, tliey have their reward," 
 """"^ V. 2. There are motives for the doing our alms in 
 public btiide thofe of oilentation ; with which there- 
 foi e our Saviour's rule has no concern : fuch as to tef- 
 tify our approbation of lomc particular fpecies of cha- 
 rity, and to recommend it to others ; to take off the 
 prejudice which the want, or, which is the fame thing, 
 the fupprefGon, of our name in the lift of contributors, 
 might excite againft the charity or againft ourfelves. 
 And, fo long as thefe motives are free from any mix- 
 ture of vanity, they arc in no danger of invading our 
 Saviour's prohibition ; tliey rather feem to comply with 
 another diredlion which he has left us : '* Let your 
 light fo fliine before men, that they may fee your good 
 works, and glorify your father which is in heaven." 
 If it be neceffary to propofe a precife diftinclion upon 
 * the fubjeft, there can be none better than the follow- 
 
 ing : When our bounty is beyond our fortune or fta- 
 tion, that is, when it is more than could be expedled 
 from us, our charity fhould be private, if privacy be 
 practicable ; when it is not more than might be ex- 
 pedled, it may be public : for we cannot hope to in- 
 fluence others to the imitation of extraordinary gene- 
 rofity, and therefore want, in the former cafe, the on- 
 ly juftitiable reafon for making it public. 
 
 The pretences by which men excufe themfelves from 
 giving to the poor, are various ; as, 
 ' I. '* That they have nothing to fpare i. e. no- 
 thing, for which they have not fome other ufe ; no- 
 thing, which their plan of expence, together with the 
 favings they have refolved to lay by, will not exhauft : 
 never refle£ling whether it be in their power, or that 
 it is their duty, to retrench their expences, and con- 
 traft their plan, " that they may have to give to them 
 that need ;" or rather that this ought to have been 
 part of their plan originally. 
 
 2. " That they have families of their own, and 
 that charity begins at home." A father is no doubt 
 bound to adjuft his oeconomy with a view to the reafon- 
 able demands of his family upon his fortune ; and un- 
 til a fufficiency for thefe is acquired, or in due time 
 probably will be acquired (for in human affairs pro- 
 bability is enough), he is juftified in declining expenfi've 
 liberality ; for to take from thofe who want, in order 
 to give to thofe who want, adds nothing to the ftock 
 of public happinefs. Thus far, therefore, and no far- 
 ther, the plea in queftion is an excufe for parfimony, 
 and an anfwer to thofe who folicit our bounty. 
 
 3. ** That charity does nqt confift in giving money, 
 but in benevolence, philanthropy, love to all mankind, 
 goodnefs of heart," i^c. Hear St James. " If a 
 brother or filler be naked, and deftitute of daily food, 
 and one of you fay unto them, depart in peace, be ye 
 warmed and filled, notwithftandingj/f ^/-w them not thofe 
 things 'which are needful to the body, what doth it profit?" 
 (James ii. 1 5, 16.) 
 
 4. *• That gjving to the poor is not mentioned in 
 St Paul's defcription of charity, in the 13th chap- 
 ter of his firft epiftle to the Corinthians." This is 
 not a defcription of charity, but of good nature ; and 
 it is not neceffary that every duty be mentioned in 
 every place. 
 
 5. " That they pay the poor-rates." They might 
 as well allege that they pay their debts : for the poor 
 
 Vox. IV. Part I. ^ 
 
 have the fame right to that portion of a man's property, Clianty* 
 which the laws affign them, that the man himfelf has » 
 to the remainder. 
 
 6. *' That they employ many poor perfons :" — 
 for their own fake, not the poor's — otherwife it is a 
 good plea. 
 
 7. " That the poor do not fuffer fo much as we 
 imagine ; that education and habit have reconciled 
 them to the evils of their condition, and make them 
 eafy under it." Habit can never reconcile human na- 
 ture to the extremities of cold, hunger, and thirft, 
 any more than it can reconcile the hand to the touch 
 of a red-hot iron : befides, the queftion is not, how 
 unhappy any one is, but how much more happy we 
 can raakd' him. 
 
 8. << That thefe people, give them what you will, 
 will never thank you, or think of you for it." In the 
 firft place, this is not true : in the fecond place, it was 
 not for the fake oftheirthanks that you relieved them. 
 
 9. " That we are fo liable to be impofed upon." 
 If a due enquiry be macje, our motive and merit is the 
 fame : befide that, the diftrefs is generally real, what- 
 ever has been the caufe of it. 
 
 10. '* That they fiiould apply to their pariflies." 
 This is not always prafticable : to which we may add, 
 that there are many requifites to a comfortable fub* 
 fiftence, which parifh-relief does not always fupply ; 
 and that there are fome who would fuffer almoft as 
 much from receiving parifh-relief as by the want of 
 it : and laftly, that there are many modes of charity, 
 to which this anfwer does not relate at all. 
 
 11. " That giving money encourages idlenefs and 
 vagrancy." This is true only of injudicious and in- 
 difcriminate generofity. 
 
 12. *' That we have too many objefts of chai-ity at 
 home to beftow any thing upon ftrangers; or that 
 there are other charities which are more ufeful, or 
 ftand in greater need." The value of this excufe de- 
 pends entirely upon the faB, whether we actually re- 
 lieve thofe neighbouring objeds, and contribute to 
 thofe other charities. 
 
 Befide all thefe excufes, pride, or prudery, or deli- 
 cacy, or love of eafe, keep one half of the world out of 
 the way of obferving what the other half fuffer. 
 
 Charity Schools, are fchools erefted and maintained 
 in various parifhes by the voluntary contributions of 
 the inhabitants, for teaching poor children to read, 
 write, and other neceffary parts of education. See 
 School. 
 
 Brothers of Charity, a fort of religious hofpitallers, 
 founded about the year 1297, fince denominated Bil- 
 letins. They took the third order of St Francis, and 
 the fcapulary, making three ufual vows, but without 
 begging. 
 
 Brothers of Charity alfo denote an order of hofpi- 
 tallers ftill fubfifting in Romifli countries, whofe bufi- 
 nefs is to attend the fick poor, and minifter to them 
 both fpiritual and temporal fuccour. 
 
 ^ They are all laymen, except a few priefts, for admi- 
 niftering the facraments to the fick in their hofpitals. 
 The brothers of charity ufually cultivate botany, phar- 
 macy, furgery, and chemiftry, which they praftife with 
 fuccefs. 
 
 They were firft founded at Granada, by St John de 
 Y'y Dieuj 
 
C H A 
 
 I 354 ] 
 
 C H A 
 
 Dieu; and a fecond eftabllfliment was made at Madrid 
 in the year 1553 : the order was confirmed by Gre- 
 gory XIII. in 1572 : Gregory XIV. forbad them to 
 take holy orders; but by leave of PaulV. in 1609, a 
 few of the brothers might be admitted to orders. In 
 1 61 9 they were exempted from the jurifdiftion of the 
 bifhop. Thofe of Spain are feparated from the reft ; 
 and tucy, as well as fhe brothers of France, Germany, 
 Poland, and Italy, have their diftindl generals, who re- 
 fide at Rome. They were firtt introduced into France 
 by Maiy of Medicis in 1601, and have fmce built a 
 fine hofpital ni the Fauxboiirg St Germain. 
 
 Charity of St H'lppolttus, a religious congregation 
 founded about the end of the 14th century, by one 
 Bernardin Alvarez, a Mexican, in honour of St Hip- 
 politus the martyr, patron of the city of Mexico ; and 
 approved by Pope Gregory XI 11. 
 
 CnjRiTr of our Lady, in church-hifiory, a religi- 
 ous order in France, which, though charity was the 
 principal motive of their union, grew in length of time 
 lb diforderly and irregular, that their order dwindled, 
 and at laft became cxtinft. 
 
 There is ftill at Paris a religious order of women. 
 Called nuns hofpitallers of the chanty of our lady. The 
 religious of this hofpital are by vow obliged to admi- 
 nifter to the neceflities of the poor and the fick, but 
 thofe only women. 
 
 CHARLATAN, or Charletan, fignifies an em- 
 piric or quack, who retails his medicines on a public 
 fiage, and draws people about him with his buffoone- 
 ries, feats of activity, &c. The word, according to 
 Calepine, comes from the Italian ceretano ; of C/cretunr, 
 a town near Spoletto in Italy, where thefe impoftors 
 are faid to have firft rifen. Menage derives it from 
 clarlaiano, and that from clrcidatortus^ of circulator., a 
 quack. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 1. king of France 
 by fucceffion, and emperor of the weft by conqueft in 
 800, (which laid the foundation of the dynafty of the 
 •weftern Franks, who ruled the empire 472 years till 
 the time of Radolphiis Aufpurgenfis, the founder of 
 the houfe of Auftria). Charlemagne was as illuftrious 
 in the cabinet as in the field ; and, though he could 
 not write his name, was the patron of men of letters, 
 the reftorer of learning, and a wife legifTator: he want- 
 ed only the virtue of humanity to render him the moft 
 accomplifhed of men ; but when we read of his be- 
 heading 4500 Saxons, folely for their loyalty to their 
 prince, in oppofmg his conquefts, we cannot think he 
 merits the extravagant encomiums beftowed on him 
 by fome hiftorians. He died in 814, in the 74th year 
 of his age, and 47th of his reign. 
 
 France had nine fovereigns of this name, of whom 
 Charles V. merited the title of the ivlfe, (crowned in 
 1364, died in 1380): and Charles VIII. fignalized 
 himfelf in the field by rapid viftories in Italy ; crown- 
 ed 1483, died in 1498. The reft do not deferve 
 particular mention in this place. See ( Hijlory of) 
 France. 
 
 CHARLEMONT, a town of the province of Na- 
 mur in the Auftrian Netherlands, about 18 miles fouth 
 of Namur. E. Long- 4. 40. N. Lat. 50. 10. 
 
 Charlemont is alfo the name of a town of Ire- 
 land, fituated ou the river Blackvvater, in the county 
 
 Cha 
 
 of Armagh, and province of Ulfter, about fix miles Charlerojr, 
 fouth-eaft of D-ungannon. W. Long. 6. 50. N. Lat. 
 50. 16. 
 
 CHARLEROY, a ftrong town in the province of 
 Namur, in the Auftrian Netherlands, lit-uated on the 
 river Sambre, about 19 miles weft of Namur. E. Long. 
 4. 20. N. Lat. 50. 30. 
 
 CHARLES Martel, a renowned conqueror in 
 the early annals of France. He depofed and reftored 
 Chilpei-ic king of France ; and had the entire govern- 
 ment of the kingdom, once with the title of mayor of 
 the palace, and afterwards as duke of France ; but he 
 would not accept the crov^n. He died, regretted, in 
 
 Charles le Gros, emperor of the weft m 881, king 
 of Italy and Suabia, memorable for his reverfe of for- 
 tune ; being dethroned at a diet held near Mentz, by 
 the French, the Itahans, and the Gcraians, in 887 : 
 after which he was obliged to fubuft on the bounty of 
 the archbifhop of Mentz. He died in 888. 
 
 Charles V. (emperor and king of Spain), was fos 
 of Philip I. archduke of Auftria, and of Jane queen of 
 Caftile. He was born at Ghent, February 24. 1500, 
 and fucceeded to the crown of Spain in 15 17. Two 
 years afterwards he was chofen emperor at Francfort 
 after the death of Maximilian his grandfather. He 
 was a great warrior and politician ; and his ambitioa 
 was not fatisfied v/ith the many kingdoms and pro- 
 vinces he pofielfed ; for he is fuppofed, with reafon, to 
 have afpired at univerfal empire. He is faid to have 
 fought 60 battles, in moft of which he was vi6torious» 
 He took the king of France (Francis I.) prifoner, and 
 fold him his liberty on very hard terms : yet after- 
 wards, when the people of Ghent revolted, he aflced 
 leave to pafs through his dominions ; and though the 
 generous king thus had him in his power, and had an 
 opportunity of revenging his ill-treatment, y;t he . re- 
 ceived and attended him with all pomp and magni- 
 ficence. He facked Rome, and took the Pope pri- 
 foner ; and the cruelties which his army exercifed 
 there are faid to have exceeded thofe of the northern; 
 barbarians. Yet the pious emperor went into mourn- 
 ing on account of this conqueft : forbad the ringing 
 of bells ; commanded proceflions to be made, and prayers 
 to be offered up for the deliverance of the Pope hia^ 
 prifoner ; yet did not inflift the leaft puniftiment oa 
 thofe who treated the holy father and the holy fee 
 with fuch inhumanity. He is accufed by fome Romlftf 
 writers of favouring the Lutheran principles, which 
 he might eafily have extirpated. But the truth is, he 
 found his account in the divifions which thatfeft oC- 
 cafioned ; and he for ever made his advantage of therti^ 
 fometlmes againft the Pope, fometimes againft France, 
 and at other times againft the empire itfelf. He was 
 a great traveller, and made 50 different journeys into. 
 Germany, Spain, Italy, Flanders, France, England, 
 and Africa. Thotigh he had been fuecefsful in many 
 unjuft enterprizes, yet his laft attempt on Metz, which 
 he befieged with an army of ioO,ooo men, was very 
 juft and very unfuccefsful. 
 
 Vexed at the reverfe of fortune which feemed to 
 attend his latter days, and op^reffcd by ficknefs, which 
 unfitted him any longer from holding the reins of go- 
 vernment with, fteadinefs, or to guide them with ad- 
 
 drefsi 
 
C H A 
 
 f 35 
 
 drefs, refignej his dominions to his brother Ferdi- 
 nand and his fon PhiHp ; and retreated to the mona. 
 llery of St Juftus near Placentia in Eflramadura. 
 
 When Charles entered this retreat, he formed fuch 
 a plan of life for himfelf as would have fuited a pri- 
 vate gentleman of moderate fortune. His table was 
 neat, but plain ; his domeftics few ; his intercourfe 
 with them familiar; all the cumberfome and ceremo- 
 nious forms of attendance on his perfon were entirely 
 aboHfhed, as deftruftive of that focial eafe and tran- 
 quillity which he courted in order to footh the remain- 
 der of his days. As the mildnefs of the climate, toge- 
 ther with his deliverence from the burdens and cares 
 of government, procured him at firft a confiderable 
 remiffion from the acute pains of the gout, with which 
 he had been long tormented, he enjoyed perhaps more 
 complete fatisfaftion in this humble folitude than all 
 his grandeur had ever yielded him. The ambitious 
 thoughts and projefts which had fo long engroffed and 
 difquieted him, were quite effaced from his mind. Far 
 from taking any part in the pohtical tranfaftions of 
 the princes of Europe, he reftrained his curiofity even 
 from an inquiry concerning them ; and he feemed to 
 view the bufy fcene which he had abandoned with 
 all the contempt and indifference arifmg from his 
 thorough experience of its vanity, as well as from the 
 pleafing refleftion of having difentangled himfelf from 
 its cares. 
 
 Other amufements, and other objefts, now occupied 
 him. Sometimes he cultivated the plants in his gai - 
 den with his own hand ; fometimes he rode out to 
 the neighbouring wood on a little herfe, the only one 
 that he kept, attended by a fingle fervant on foot. 
 When his infirmities confined him to his apartment, 
 which often happened, and deprived him of thefe more 
 aftive recreations, he either admitted a few gentlemen 
 who refided near the monaftery to vifit him, and en- 
 tertained them familiarly at his table ; or he employed 
 himfelf in fludying mechanical principles, and in form- 
 ing curious works of mechanifm, of which he had al- 
 ways been remarkably fond, and to which his genius 
 was pecuHarly turned. With this view he had enga- 
 ged Turriano, one of the mofl ingenious artifls of that 
 age, to accompany him in his retreat. He laboured 
 together with him in framing models of the moll ufe- 
 ful machines, as well as in making experiments with 
 regard to their refpe»Slive powers ; and it was not fel- 
 dom that the ideas of the monarch affifted or perfeded 
 the inventions of the artifl. He relieved his mind at 
 intervals with flighter and more fantaftic works of me- 
 chanifm, in fafhioning puppets, which, by the itrufture 
 of internal fprings, mimicked the geilures and aftions 
 of men, to the no fmall aftoniftiment of the ignorant 
 monks, who, beholding movements which they could 
 not comprehend, fometimes diftrufled their own fenfes, 
 and fometimes fufpeftcd Charles and Turriano of be- 
 ing in compaft with invlfible powers. He was parti- 
 cularly curious with regai-d to the contlruiilion of cl:-cks 
 and w atches ; and having found, after repeated trials, 
 that he could not bring any two of them to go exaftly 
 alike, he retltdted, it is faid, with a mixture of fur- 
 prife as well as regret on his own folly, in having be- 
 itowed fo much time and labour in the more vain at- 
 tempt of bringing mankind to a precife uniformity of 
 
 5 1 C H A 
 
 fentiment concerning the intricate and myfterious doc- 
 trines of religion. 
 
 But in what manner foever Charles difpofed of the 
 reft of his time, he conftantly referved a confiderable 
 portion of it for religious exercifes. . He regularly at- 
 tended divine fervice in the chapel of the monaftery 
 every morning and evening ; he took great pleafure 
 in reading books of devotion, particularly the works 
 of St Auguftine and St Bernard ; and converfed much 
 with his confefTor, and the prior of the monaftery, 
 on pious fubjefts. Thus did Charles pafs the firll 
 year of his retreat in a manner not unbecoming a 
 man perfedly difengaged from the affairs of this pre- 
 fent life, and Handing on the confines of a future 
 world, either in innocent amufements which foothed 
 his pains, and reheved a mind worn out with excef- 
 five application to bufinefs ; or in devout occupations, 
 which he deemed neceffary in preparing for another 
 ftate. 
 
 But, about fix months before his death, the gout, 
 after a longer intermiffion than ufual, returned with 
 a proportional increafe of violence. His faattered con- 
 ftitution, had not ftrength enough remaining to wlth- 
 ftand fuch a (hock. It enfeebled his mind as much as 
 his body ; and from this period we hardly difcern any 
 traces of that found and mafculine underftanding which 
 diftinguifhed Charles among his cotemporarie. An 
 illiberal and timid fuperftition depreffed his fpirit. He 
 had no relifli for amufements of any kind. He endea- 
 voured to conform, in his manner of hving, to all tlie 
 rigour of monaftic aufterity. He defired no other 
 fociety than that of monks, and Vv'as almoft continu- 
 ally employed in chanting with them the hymns of the 
 miffal. As an expiation for his fins, he gave himfelf 
 the difcipline in fecret with fuch feverity, that the 
 whip of cords which he employed as the inftrument 
 of his puniftiment, was found, after his deceafe, tin- 
 ged with his blood. Nor was he fatisfied with thefe 
 aas of mortification, which, however fevere, were 
 not unexampled. The timorous and diftruftful folici- 
 tude which always accompanies fuperftition, ftill con* 
 tinued to difquiet him, and depreciating all that he 
 had done, prompted him to aim at fomething extraor- 
 dinary, at fome new and fingular ad of piety, that 
 would difplay his zeal, and merit tlie favour of hea- 
 ven. The acl on which he fixed was as wild and 
 uncommon as any that fuperftition ever fuggefted to 
 a difordered fancy. He refoKed to celebrate his own 
 obfequies before his death. He ordered his tomb to 
 be erefted in the chapel of the monaftery. His do- 
 meftics marched thither in funeral procefTion, with 
 black tapers in their hands. He himfelf followed in 
 his ftiroud. He was laid in his coffin with much fo- 
 lemnity. The fervice for the dead was "chanted ; and 
 Charles joined in the prayers which were offered up 
 for the reil of his foul, mingled his tears with thdie 
 which his attendants fhed, as ;f they had been cele- 
 brating A real funeral. The ceremony clofed with 
 fprinkling holy vi^ater on the coffin in the ufual form, 
 and, all the afftftants retiring, the doors of the chapel 
 were fhut. Then Chailts rofe out of the coffin, and 
 withdrew to his apartment, full of thofe aWiul fenti- 
 ments which fuch a fingular folemnity was calculated 
 to infpire. But either the fatiguing length of the ce- 
 Y y 2 remony. 
 
C H A I 
 
 Charles, remony, or the impreffion which this image of death 
 ^ left on his mind, affefted him fo much, that next day- 
 he was feized with a fever. His feeble frame could 
 not long refiil its violence ; and he expired on the 
 2ift of September, after a life of 58 years fix months 
 and 21 days. 
 
 Charles I. ■) Kings of Britain. See Britain, 
 
 CharlesII. i "°49> 254. 
 
 Charles XII. king of Sweden, was born in 1682. 
 By his father's will, the adminiftration was lodged in 
 the hands of the queen-dowager Eleonora with five 
 fenators, till the young prince was 18: but he was 
 declared major at 15, by the ftates convened at Stock- 
 holm. ■ The beginning of his adminiftration raifed no 
 favourable ideas of him, as he was thought both by 
 Swedes and foreigners to be a perfon of mean capaci- 
 ty. But the difficulties that gathered round him, foon 
 afforded him an opportunity to difplay his real charac- 
 ter. Three powei-ful princes, Frederic king of Den- 
 mark, Auguftus king of Poland and eleftor of Saxony, 
 and Peter the Great czar of Mufcovy, prefuming on 
 his youth, confpired his ruin almoti at the fame in- 
 ftant. Their meafures alarming the council, they 
 were for diverting the florm by negociations ; but 
 Charles, with a grave refolution that aftonifhed them, 
 faid, " I am refolved never to enter upon an unjuft; 
 *' war, nor to put an end to a juft one but by the 
 " deftruftion of my enemies. My refolution is fix- 
 *' ed : I v^'ill attack the firft who fhall declare againft 
 " me ; and when I have conquered him, I may hope 
 
 to ft.rike a terror into the reft." The old counfel- 
 Jors received his orders with admiration ; and were 
 Hill more furprifed when they faw him on a fudden 
 renounce all the enjoyments of a court, reduce his 
 table to the utmoft frugality, drefs like a common fol- 
 dier, and, full of the ideas of Alexander and Csefar, 
 propofe thofe two conquerors for his models in every 
 thing but their vices. The king of Denmark began 
 by ravaging the territories of the duke of Holftein. 
 Upon this Charles carried the war into the heart of 
 Denmark ; and made fuch a progrefs, that the king 
 of Denmark thought it beft to accept of peace, which 
 was concluded in 1700. He next refolved to ad- 
 vance againft the king of Poland, who had blocked up 
 Riga. He had no fooner given orders for his troops 
 to go into winter-quarters, than he received advice 
 that Narva, where count Horne was governof, was 
 befieged by an army of 100,000 Mufcovites. This 
 made him alter his meafures, and move toward the 
 Czar ; and at Narva he gained a furprifing vifloiy, 
 which coft him not above 2000 men killed and wound- 
 ed. The Mufcovites were forced to retire from the 
 provinces they had invaded. He purfued his con- 
 quefts, till he penetrated as far as where the diet of 
 Poland was fitting ; when he made them declare the 
 throne of Poland vacant, and ele£t Staniflaus their 
 king : then inaking himfelf mafter of Saxony, he ob- 
 liged Auguftus himfelf to renounce the crown of Po- 
 land, and acknowledge Staniflaus by a letter of con- 
 gratulation on his acceflion. All Europe was furpri- 
 fed with the expeditious finiftiing of this great negocia- 
 tion, but more at the difintereftednefs of the king of 
 Sweden, who fatisfied himfelf with the bare reputa- 
 tion of this viftoiy, without demanding an inch of 
 
 56 ] C H A 
 
 ground for enlarging bis dominions. After thus re- 
 ducing the king of Denmark to peace, placing a new 
 king on the throne of Poland, having humbled the 
 emperor of Germany, and protected the Lutheran 
 religion, Charles prepared to penetrate into Mufcovy 
 in order to dethrone the Czar. Pie quickly obliged 
 the Mufcovites to abandon Poland, purfued them into 
 their own country, and won feveral battles over them. 
 The Czar, difpofed to peace, ventured to make fome 
 propofals ; Charles only anfwered, *' I will treat with 
 " the Czar at Mofcow." When this haughty aiifwer 
 was brought to Peter, he faid, " My brother Charks 
 " ftill affefts to ad the Alexander, but I flatter mv- 
 " felf he will not in me find a Darius." The event 
 juftified him : for the Mufcovites, already beaten into 
 difcipline, and under a prince of fuch talents as Peter, 
 entirely deftroyed the Swedifli army at the memo- 
 rable battle of Pultowa, July 8. 1709 ; on which de- 
 cifive day, Charles loft the fruits of nine years labour, 
 and of almoft 100 battles! The king, with a fmall 
 troop, purfued by the Mufcovites, pafled the Borif- 
 thenes to Oczakow in the Turkifti territories : a»id 
 from thence, through defert countries, arrived at Ben- 
 der ; where the Sultan, when informed of his arrival, 
 fent orders for accommodating him in the bett man- 
 ner, and appointed him a guard. Near Bender Charles 
 built a houfe, and intrenched himfelf ; and had with 
 him 1800 men, who were all clothed and fed, with 
 their horfes, at the expence of the Grand Signior. 
 Here he formed a defign of turning the Ottoman 
 arms upon his enemies ; and is faid to have had a pro- 
 mife from the Vizir of being fent into Mufcovy with 
 200,000 men. While he remained here, he infenfiblv 
 acquired a tafte for books : he read the tragedies of 
 Corneille and Racine, with the works of Defpreaux, 
 whofe fatires he reliflied, but did not much admire his 
 other works. When he read that paflage in whiclr 
 the author reprefents Alexander as a fool and a mad- 
 man, he tore out the leaf. He would fometimes play 
 at chefs : but when he recovered of his wounds, he re- 
 newed his fatigues in exercifing his men ; he tired, 
 three horfes a day ; and thofe who courted his favour 
 were all day in their boots. To difpofe the Ottoman 
 Porte to this war, he detached about 800 Poles and 
 Cofaques of his retinue, with orders to pafs the 
 Neifter, that runs by Bender, and to obferve what 
 paffed on the frontiers of Poland. The Mufcovite 
 troops, difperfed in thofe quarters, fell immediately 
 upon this little company, and purfued them even to 
 the territories of the Grand Signior. This was what 
 the king expefted. His minifters at the Porte ex- 
 cited the Turks to vengeance ; but the Czar's money 
 removed all difficulties, and Charles found himfelf in 
 a manner prifoner among the Tartars. He imagined 
 the Sultan was ignorant of the intrigues of his Grand 
 Vizir. Poniatoflcy undertook to make his complaints 
 to the Grand Signior. The fultan, in anfwer, forae 
 days after, fent Charles five Arabian horfes, one of 
 which was covered with a faddle and houfing of great 
 riches ; with an obliging letter, but conceived in fuch 
 general terms, as gave reafon to fufpeft that the mi- 
 iiifter had done nothing without the fultan's confent : 
 Charles therefore refufed them. Poniatoficy had the 
 courage to form a defign of depofing the Grand Vizir ;.. 
 
 who. 
 
C H A . , ,[ 3 
 
 Vv'l'.o accordingly was depi'ived of hi's dignity and 
 v'fcalth, and banifhed. The feul of the empire was 
 ^iven to Numan Ciiproughly r who perfuaded his ma- 
 iler, that the law forbid him to invade the Czar, who 
 had done him no injary ; but to fuccour the king of 
 Swedtn as an unfortunate prince in his dominions. 
 He fcnt his majeity 800 purfes, ever)^ one of which 
 amounted to 500 crowns, and advifed him to return 
 peaceably to his own dominions. Charles ieje£led~ 
 tiiis advice^, threatening to hang up the bafhaws, and 
 fhave the beards of any Janifaries who brought him 
 fxich mefl'agcs ; and fent word that he fhould depend 
 upon the Grand Signior's promife, and hoped to re- 
 enter Poland as a conqueror with ah army of Turks. 
 After various intrigues at the Porte, an order was 
 fent to attack this head of iron, as he was called, and 
 to take him either alive or dead. He ftood a fiege in 
 his houfe, with forty domeilics, againft the Turkifh 
 army; killed no lefs than 20 Janifaries with his own 
 hand ; and performed prodigies of valour on a very 
 unnecefTary and unwarrantable occafion. But the houfe 
 being fet on fire, and himfelf wounded, he was at 
 laft taken prifoner, and fent to Adrianople ; where 
 the Grand Signior gave him audience, and promifed 
 to make good all the damages he had fuftained. At 
 laft, after a ftay of above five years, he left Turkey ; 
 and, having difguifed himfelf, ti-averfed Wallachia, 
 Tranfylvania, Hungary, and Germany, attended on- 
 ly by one perfon : and in 16 days riding, during which 
 time he never went to bed, came to Stralfund at mid- 
 night, November 21. 17 14. His boots were cut from 
 his fwoUen legs, and he was put to bed ; where when 
 he had flept fome hours, the firft thing he did was to 
 review his troops, and examine the ftate of the forti- 
 fications. He fent out orders that very day, to re- 
 new the war with more vigour than ever. But af- 
 fairs were now much changed : Augultus had recover- 
 ed the throne of Poland; Sweden had loft many of its 
 provinces, and was without money, trade, credit, or 
 troops. The kings of Denmark and Pruflia feized the 
 ifland of Rugen ; and befieged him in Stralfund, 
 which furrendered; but Charles efcaped to Carelfcroon. 
 When his countr)'' was threatened with invafion by 
 fo many princes, he, to the furprife of all Europe, 
 inarched into Norway with 20,000 men. A very 
 few Danes might have flopped the Swedifh army ; 
 but fuch a quick invafion they could not forefee. Eu- 
 rope was yet more at a lofs to find the Czar fo quiet, 
 and not making a defcent upon Sweden, as he had 
 before agreed with his alHes. This inaflion was the 
 confequence of one of the greateft defigns, and at the 
 fame time the moft difficult of any that were ever form- 
 ed by the imagination of man. In fiiort, a fcheme was 
 fet on foot for a reconciliation with the Czar ; for re- 
 placing Staniflaus on the throne of Poland; andfetting 
 James the fecond's fon upon that of England, befide 
 reftoring the duke of Holftein to bis dominions. 
 Charles was pleafed with thefe grand ideas, though 
 without building much upon tlitm, and gave his mi- 
 nifter leave to a<?t at large. In the mean time, Charles 
 was going to make a fecond attempt upon Norway in 
 17 1 8 ; and he flattered himfelf with being mafter of 
 that kingdom in fix months: but while he was exa- 
 mining the works at Fredcricftiall, a place of great 
 
 7 1 C H A 
 
 ftrength and importance, which is reckoned to be the 'Cl.a 
 key of that kingdom, he was killed by a fliot from the 
 enemy, as has been generally believed ; though it has 
 been alfo reported that he fell by the treachery of one 
 of his own ofiicers, who had been bribed for that pur- 
 pofe. 
 
 This prince experienced the extremes of profperity 
 and of adverfity, without being foftened by the one, 
 or difturbed for a moment at the other ; but was a man 
 rather extraordinary than great, and fitter to be ad- 
 mired than imicated. He was honoured by the Turks 
 for his rigid abftinence from wine, and his regularFty 
 in attending public devotion. 
 
 As to his perfon, he was tall and of a noble mien, 
 had a fine open forehead, large bli',€ eyes, flaxen hair, 
 fair complexion, an handfome nofe, but little beard, 
 and a laugh not agreeable. His manners were harfli 
 and auftere, not to fay favage : and as to religion, he 
 was indifferent tOAvards all, though exterioufly a Lu- 
 theran, and a ftrong believer in predeftination. A 
 few anecdotes will illaftrate his charafter. No dan- 
 gers, however great, made the leaft impreffion upon 
 him. When a horfe or two were killed under him at 
 the battle of Narva in 1 700, he leaped nimbly upon 
 frefh ones, faying, " thefe people find me exercife." 
 One day, when he was dictating letters to a fecretaiy, 
 a bomb fell through the roof into the next room of 
 the houfe, where they were fitting. The fecretary,. 
 terrified left the houfe fhould come down upon them, : 
 let his pen drop out of his hand : " What is the mat- 
 ter," fays the king calmly. The fecretary could only 
 reply, " Ah, Sir, the bomb." « The bomb (fays the 
 king) ! what has the bomb to do w^ith what I am dic- 
 tating to you? Go on." 
 
 He preferved more humanity than is ufually found 
 among conquerors. Once, in the middle of an aftion,. 
 finding a young Swedifh ofiicer wounded and unable 
 to march, he obliged the ofiicer to take his horfe, and- 
 continued to command his infantry on foot. The 
 prmcefs Lubomirflci, who was very m.uch in the intereft 
 and good graces of Auguftua, falling by accident into 
 the hands of one of his officers, he ordered her to be 
 fet at liberty ; faying, " that he did not make war 
 with women." One day,., near Leipfic, a peafant threv/ 
 himfelf at his feet, with a complaint againft a grena- 
 dier, that he had robbed him of certain eatables pro-- 
 vided for himfelf and his family. " Is it true (faid 
 Charles Iternly), that you have robbed this man ?" 
 The foldier replied, " Sir, I have not done near fo 
 much harm to this man as your majefty has done to 
 his mafter ; for you" have taken from Auguftus a king- 
 dom, whereas I have only ta,ken from this poor fcoun- 
 drel a dinner." Chfales made the peafant amends, 
 and pardoned the foldier for his firmnefs : " However, 
 my friend (fays he to him), you will do well to recol- 
 left, that if I took a kingdom from Auguftus, I did 
 not take it for myfclf." 
 
 Though Charles hved ' hardily himfelf, a foldier did 
 not fear to remould rate to him againft fome bread, 
 which was very black and mouldy, and which yet was 
 the only provifion the troops had. Charles called for 
 a piece of it, and calmly cat it up ; faying, " that it 
 was indeed not good, but that it might be eaten.'" 
 From the danger he was in in Poland, when he bcai; 
 
C H A [3, 
 
 Cliailob's the Saxon troops in 1702, a comedy ivas exhibited at 
 'harlo-te'^ Marienburg, where the combat vas reprefented to tlie 
 - I 1 . 'difadvantag-e of the Swedes. Oh, (fays Charles, 
 hearing of it), I am far from envying them in this 
 pleafure. Let them beat me upon the tlieatres as long 
 as they will, provided I do but beat them in the field." 
 He wrote fome obfervations on war, and on his own 
 campaigns from 1700 to 1 709 ; but the MS. was loit 
 at the unfortunate battle of Pultowa. 
 
 CHARLES's-CAPE, a promontory of Vii'ginia, in 
 North America, forming the northern head-land of 
 the rtrait that enters the bay of Cheafepeak. 
 
 Chaji.lv.h' s-Fort^ a fortrefs in the county of Cork, 
 and province of Munller, in Ireland, fituated at the 
 mouth of Kinfale harbour. W. Long. 8. 20. and N. 
 Lat. 51.21. 
 
 Charles' s-Toioriy or Charhjloiun, the capital of 
 South Carolina, in North America, fituated on a pe- 
 mnfula formed by Afhley and Cooper rivers, the for- 
 mer of wdiich is navigable for lliips twenty miles above 
 the town. W. Long. 79. o. and N. Lat. 32. 30- 
 
 Chari.f.h' s-lVa'in, in ailronomy, feven ftars in the 
 conftellation called nrfa major or the Great Eear. 
 
 CHARLETON, an ifland at the bottom of Hud- 
 fon'^-bay, in North America, fubjeft to Great Britain. 
 W. Long. 80. o. and N. Lat. 52. 30. 
 
 Charleton (Walter), a learned Englifli phyfician 
 boi^n in 1619, was phyfician in ordinary to Charles L 
 and Charles II. one of the firft members of the royal 
 fociety, and prefident of the college of phyficians. He 
 wrote on various fubje<Sls; but at laft his narrow cir- 
 cumftances obliged him to retire to the ifland ©f Jer- 
 fey, were he died in 1707. 
 
 CHARLOCK, the Englifh name of the Rap ha- 
 Nus ; it is a very troubiefome weed among corn, be- 
 ing more frequent than almoft any other. There are 
 two principal kinds of it; the one with a yellow flower, 
 the other with a white. Some fields are particularly 
 ftibjeft to be over-run with it, efpecially thcfe which 
 have been manured with cow-dung alone, that being a 
 manure very favourable to the growth of it. The 
 farmers in fome places are fo fenfible of this, that they 
 always mix horfe-dung with their cow-dung, when 
 they ufe it for arable land. When barley, as is often 
 the cafe, is infefted with this weed to fuch a degree as 
 to endanger the crop, it is a very good method to 
 mow down the charlock in May, w^hen it is in flower, 
 cutting it fo low as juft to take off" the tops of the 
 leaves of barley with it: by this means the barley will 
 get up above the weed ; and people have got four 
 quarters of grain from an acre of fuch land as would 
 have fcarce yielded any thing without this expedient. 
 Where any land is particularly fubjett to this weed, 
 t-he beft method is to fow it with grafs-feed, and make 
 a pafture of it ; for then the plant will not be troubie- 
 fome, it never growing where there is a coat of grafs 
 upon the ground. 
 
 ^tecn CHARLOTTE'S Island, an ifland in the 
 South Sea, firfl: difcovered by captain WaUis in the 
 Dolphin, in 1767, who took poffeffion of It In the 
 name of King George III. Here is good water, and 
 plenty of cocoa-nuts, palm-nuts, and fcur^y-grafs. The 
 ■ inhabitants ■ are of a middle ftature, and dark com- 
 pletion, with long hair hanging over Uielr flioulders ; 
 
 ;8 1 . C H A 
 
 the men are well made, and the women liandfome ; Charm 
 their cloathing is a kind of coarfe cloth, or matting, 
 which they fallen about their middle. 
 
 ^een Charlot-tk' s JJlands, a clufter of South-fea - 
 iflands difcovered in 1767 by captain Carteret. He 
 counted feven, and there were fuppofed to be many 
 more. The inhabitants of thefe iliands are defcribed 
 as extremely nimble and vigorous, and almoft as well 
 quaHfied to live in the water as upon land : they are 
 very warlike; and, on a quarrel ^vith fome of captain 
 Carteret's people, they attacked them with great re- 
 folution ; moitally wounded the matter and three of 
 the failors ; were not at all Intimidated by the fire- 
 arms ; and at lail, notwithftaading the averfion of 
 captain Carteret to flied blood, he was obliged to fe- 
 cure the watering places by firing grape-fliot Into the. 
 woods, which deitroyed many of the inhabitanty. 
 Thefe iflands he in S. Lat. n". E. Long. 164°. They 
 are fuppofed to be the Santa Cruz of Mandana, who 
 died there in 1595. 
 
 CHARM, a term derived from the Latin carmen, a 
 " verfe;" and ufed to denote a magic power, or fpeli, 
 by which, with the afiiilance of the devil, forcerers 
 and witches were fuppofed to do wonderful things, 
 far furpaffing the power of nature. 
 
 CHARNEL, or Charnel-house, a kind of por- 
 tico or gallery, ufually in or near a church-yard, over 
 which were anciently laid the bones of the dead, after 
 the flefli was wholly confumed. Charnel-houits are 
 now ufually adjoining to the church. 
 
 CHARON, in fabulous hiilory, the fon of Erebus 
 and Nox, whofe office was to ferry the fouls of the 
 deceafed over the waters of Acheron, for which each 
 foul w^as to pay a piece of money. For this reafon 
 the Pagans had a cuftom of putting a piece of money 
 into the mouth of the dead, in order that they might 
 have foraething to pay Charon for their paifage. 
 
 CHARONDAS, a celebrated legiflator of the Thu- 
 rians, and a native of Catanea in Sicily, flouriflied 446 
 before Chrltt. He forbad any perfon's appearing 
 armed in the public affcmblies ©f the nation ; but one 
 day going thither In halle, without thinking of hia 
 fword, he was. no fooner made to obfervc his miitakc 
 than he ran it through his body. 
 
 CHAROST, a town of France, in Berr}^, with the 
 title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Anion, 
 E.Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 46. 56. 
 
 CHx^ROUX, a town of France, in the Bourbon- 
 nois, feated on an eminence, near the river Siouile. It 
 has two pariflies, which are In difi:erent diocefes. 
 E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 46. 10. 
 
 CHARPENTIER (Francis), dean of the French- 
 academy, w^as born in 1620. His early capacity in- 
 clined his friends to educate him for the bar : but he 
 was much more delighted with the itudy of languages 
 and antiquity than of the law ; and preferred repofe 
 to tunmlt. M. Colbert made ufe of him in eftabllih- 
 ing his new academy of medals and infcriptions ; and 
 no perfon of that learned fociety contributed more 
 than himfelf toward that noble feries of medals which 
 were ftruck on the confiderablc events that diilingulflr- 
 ed the reign of Louis XIV. He publiflied feveral 
 works, which were all well received ; and died in 
 1 702. 
 
 CHARR, 
 
C H A [3: 
 
 Charr CHAB.R, in ichthyology. 
 
 ^ti CHARRON (Peter), th(?.author of a book intltled 
 
 ar a. ^ iyiJ}^om, which gained hirm great reputation, w is 
 born at Paris iti the year 1541. After being advocate 
 in the parhament of Paris for five or fix years, he ap- 
 plied him{"elf to divinity ; and became fo great a 
 preacher, thvit tl-e biihops of fevcral diocefes offered 
 him the higheft dignities in their gift. He died at 
 Paris, fuddenly in the ftreet, November 16. 1603. 
 
 CHART, or Sea-chart, an hydrographical map, 
 or a projeftion of fome part of the eartli's fuperficies 
 in phmo, for the ufe of navigators. 
 
 Charts differ very confiderably from geographical 
 6r land-maps, which are of no ufe in navigation. Nor 
 are fea-charts all of the fame kind, fome being what 
 we call plane-charts, others mercator-charts, and others 
 globular charts. 
 
 Plane Cn/irt, is a reprefcntation of fome part of 
 the fuperficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the 
 meridians are fuppcfed parallel to each other, the 
 parallels of latitude at equal diftances, and confequent- 
 ly the degrees of latitude and longitude every where 
 equal to each other. See Plane Chart. 
 
 Mercator's Ch/irt, is that where the meridians are 
 ftraight lines, parallel to each other, and equidiftant ; 
 the parallels are alfo ftraight lines, and parallel to 
 each other : but the diftance between them increafes 
 from the equinoilial towards either pole, in the ratio 
 of the fecant of the latitude to the radius. See Navi- 
 gation. 
 
 Globular Chart, a meridional projedlion, wherein 
 the diftance of the eye from the plane of the meridian, 
 upon which the projeAion is made, is fiippofed to be 
 equal to the fine of the angle 45°. This projeftion 
 comes the neareil of all to the natui-e of the globe, be- 
 . caufe the meridians therein are placed at equal dif- 
 tances ; the parallels alfo are nearly equidiftant, and 
 confequently the feveral parts of the earth have their 
 pi oper proportion of magnitude, diftance, and fitua- 
 tion, nearly the fame as on the globe itfclf. See Glo- 
 bular ProjeBion. 
 
 Hydrograph'ic Chart s, ftieets of large paper, where- 
 on feveral parts of the land and fea are defcribed, 
 with their refpeftive coafts, harbours, founds, flats, 
 rocks, ftielves, fands, S:c. together with the longitude 
 and latitude of each place, and the points of the cora- 
 pafs. See Mrrcator's Chart. 
 
 Selenograph'tc Charts, particular defcriptions of the 
 fpots, appearances, and maculae of the mo*on. See As- 
 tronomy, n''63. and 140. 
 
 Topographic Charts, draughts of fome fmall parts 
 of the earth only, or of fome particular places, with- 
 out regard to'its relative fituation, as London, York, 
 &c. 
 
 CHARTA, or Carta, primarily fignifies a fort of 
 paper made of the plaiit papyrus or biblus. See Pa- 
 per, and Charter. 
 
 Charta Emporetica, in pharmacy, &c. a kind of pa- 
 per made very foft and porous, ufed to filter withal. 
 See Filtration, &c. 
 ■ Charta is alfo ufed in our ancient cuftoms for a 
 charter, or deed in writing. See Charter. 
 
 Magna Charta, the great charter of the liber- 
 ties of Britain, aQd the bafis of our laws and privi- 
 leges. 
 
 9 ] G H A 
 
 This charter may be fald to derive its origin from Charta. 
 king Ed\\:-rd the Confeffor, who granted feveral pri- 
 vileges to the church and ftate by charter: thefe liber- 
 ties and privileges were alfo granted and confirmed by 
 king Pleury I. by a celebrated great charter now loft ; 
 but which was confirmed or re-ena6led by king Hen- 
 ry n. and king John. Henry HI. tlie fucceffor of this 
 laft prince, after having caufed 12 men make inquiry 
 into the liberties of England in the reign of Henry 1. 
 granted a new charter; which was tlie fame as the pre- 
 fent magna charta. This he feveral times confirmed, 
 and as often broke; till, in the 37th year of his reign, 
 he went to Weftminfter-hall, and there, in prefence of 
 the nobility and biftiops, who held lighted candles in 
 their hands, magna charta was read, the king all the 
 time holding his hand to his breaft, and at laft folemn- 
 ly fwearing faithfully and inviolably to obferve all the 
 things therein contained, &c. Then the bifiiops ex- 
 tinguiihing the candles, and throwing them on the 
 ground, they all cried out, " Thus let him be extin- 
 guiftied, and ftink in hell, who violates this charter." 
 It is obferved, that, notwithftanding the folemnity of 
 this confirmation, king Henry, the very next year^^ 
 again invaded the rights of - his people, till the barons 
 entered into a war againft him ; when, after various 
 fuccefs, he confirmed this charter, and the charter of 
 the foreft, in the 5 2d year of his reign. 
 
 This chai-ter confirmed many liberties of the churcli^ 
 and redreffed many grievances incident to feodal te- 
 nures, of no fmall moment at the time; tho' now, un- 
 lefs confidered attentively and with this retrofpecl, they 
 feem but of trifling concern. But, befides thefe feo- 
 dal provifions, care was alfo taken therein to proteft 
 the fubjeft againft other oppreffions, then frequently 
 arifing from unreafonable amercements, from illegal 
 diftreffes or other procefs for debts or fervices due to 
 the crown, and from the tyrannical abufe of the pre- 
 rogative of purveyance and pre-emption. It fixed the 
 forfeiture of lands for felony in the fame ma.iner as it 
 ftill remains ; prohibited for the future the grants of 
 exclufive fiftieries ; and the eredlion of new bridges fo 
 as to opprefs the neighbourhood. With refpefl: to 
 private rights, it ettabliftied the teftamentary power 
 of the fubjeift over part of hid perfonal eftate, the reft 
 being ditlributed among his wife and children ; it laid 
 down the law of dower, as it hath continued ever 
 fmce; and pi-ohibited the appeals of women, unlefs after 
 the death of their huft)ands. In matters of public po- 
 lice and national concern, it enjoined an uniformity of 
 weights and meafures ; gave new encouragements to 
 commerce, by the proteiilion of merchant-ftrangers ; 
 and forbad the alienation of lands in mortmain. Witht 
 regard to the admlniftration of juftice : befides prohi- 
 biting all denials or delays of it, it fixed the court of 
 common-pleas at Weftminfter, that the fuitors might 
 no longer he haraffed with following the king's per- 
 fon in all his progreffes ; and at the fame time brought 
 the trial of iffues home to the very doors of the free- 
 holders, by direfting aftizes to be taken in the proper 
 counties, and eftablifliing annual circuits :, it alfo cor- 
 refted fome abules then lac dent to the trials by wager 
 of law and of battle ; direfted the regular award- 
 ing of inquefts for hfe or member ; prohibited the 
 king's inferior miniftcrs from liolding pleas of the 
 crown, or trying any criminal charge, whereby many 
 
Charter, 
 Call ter- 
 jjarty , 
 
 C H A [3 
 
 forfeitures might otlicnvife liavc unjullly accrued to 
 the exchequer ; and regulated the time arid place of 
 holding the inferior tribun?.ls of juftice, the county- 
 court, fheriff's torn, and court-leet. It confirmed and 
 eftabliflied the liberties of the city of London, and all 
 other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports of the king- 
 dom. And laftly (which alone would have merited 
 the title that it bears, of the great charter), it protec- 
 ted every individual of the nation in the free enjoyment 
 of his life, his liberty, and his property, unlefs de- 
 dared to be forfeited by the judgment of his peers^or 
 the law of the land. 
 
 This excellent charter, fo equitable, and beneficial 
 to the fubjecl:, is the moll ancient written law in the 
 kingdom. By the 25th Edward I. it is ordained, that 
 it fliall be taken as the common law; and by the 43d 
 Edward III. all ftatutes made agaiatl it are declared 
 to be void. 
 
 CHARTER, in law, a written inftrument, or evi- 
 dence of things adled between one perfon and ano- 
 ther. The word charter comes from the Latin charfa, 
 anciently ufed for a public and authentic aft, a dona- 
 tion, contrail, or the like ; from the Greek, 
 *' thick paper" or " paileboard," whereon public afts 
 were wont to be written. Britton dividee charters into 
 thofe of the king, and thofe of private perfons. i. 
 Charters of the king, are thofe whereby the king paf- 
 feth any grant to any perfon or body politic, as a char- 
 ter of exemption of privilege, &c. ; charter of pardon, 
 v/hereby a man i« forgiven a felony, or other offence 
 committed againll the king's crown and dignity; char- 
 ter of the forefi, wdierein the laws of the forell are 
 comprifed, fuch as the charter of Canutus, &c. 2. 
 Charters of private perfons, are deeds and inllruments 
 for the conveyance of lands, &c. And the purchafer 
 of lands (hall have all the charters, deeds, and evi- 
 dences, as incident to the fame, and for the mainte- 
 nance of his title. 
 
 Chart SR-Govenwunts in America. See CotONV. 
 
 CnARTER-Land, fuch land as a perfon holds by char- 
 ter ; that is, by evidence in writing, otherwife called 
 freehold. 
 
 CHARTERPARTY, in commerce, denotes the 
 inftrument of freightage, or articles of agreement for 
 the hire of a veffel. See Freight, &c. 
 
 The charterparty is to be in writing; and to be fign- 
 ed both by the proprietor or the mafter of the fhip, 
 and the merchant who freights it. It is to contain the 
 name and the burden of the veffel ; the names of the 
 ■mafter and the freighter ; the price or rate of freight ; 
 and the time of loading and unloading ; and the other 
 conditions agreed on. It is properly a deed, or poli- 
 cy, whereby the mafter or proprietor of the veffel 
 engages to furnifti immediately a tight found veffel, 
 well equipped, caulked, and ftopped, provided with an- 
 chors, fails, cordage, and all other furniture to make 
 the voyage required, as equipage, hands, victuals, and 
 other munitions ; in confideration of a certain fum to 
 be paid by the merchant for the freight. Laftly, the 
 fhip with all its furniture, and the cargo, are refpec- 
 tively fubjedled to the conditions of the charterparty. 
 The charterparty differs from a l/ill of lading, in that 
 the firft is for the entire freight, or lading, and that 
 both for going and returning ; whereas the latter i,s on- 
 
 N° 69. 
 
 lax 
 
 il 
 
 Charybdis. 
 
 60 3 C H A 
 
 ly for a part of the freight, or at moll only for the Chartolipy 
 voyage one way. 
 
 The prelect Boyer fays, the word comes from 
 hence, that per mediurn charta incidcbatur, et fc fielat 
 charta partita; bccaufe, in the time when notaries 
 were lefs common, there was only one inftrument made 
 for both parties : this they cut in two, and gave each 
 his portion; joining them together at their return, 
 to know if each had done his part. This he obferves 
 to have feen praftiftd in his time ; agreeable to the 
 method of the Romans, who, in their ftipulations, ufed 
 to break a ftaff, each party retaining a moiety thereof 
 as a mark. 
 
 CHARTOHPYLAX, the name of an officer of 
 the church of Cotiftantinople, who attends at the door 
 of the rails when the facrament is adminiftered, and 
 gives notice to the priefts to come to the holy table. He 
 reprefents the patriarch upon the bench, tries all eccle- 
 fiaftical caufcs, keeps all the marriage regifters, affifts 
 at the confecration of bifhops, and»prefents the biftjop 
 eledl at the folemnity, and likewife all other fubordinate 
 clergy. This office rcfcmbles in fome fhape that of the 
 bibliothecariiis at Rome. 
 
 CHARTRES, a large city of France, in the pro- 
 vince of Orleanois, fituated on the river Eure, in 
 E- Long. I. 32. N. Lat. 48. 47. It is a biftiop's 
 fee. 
 
 CHARTREUSE, or Chartreuse-grand, a ce- 
 lebrated monaftery, the capital of all the canvents of 
 the Carthufian monks, fituated on a fteep rock in the 
 middle of a large foreft of fir-trees, about feven miles 
 north-eaft of Grenoble, in the province of Dauphine 
 in France : E. Long. 5.5. N. Lat. 45. 20. See Car- 
 
 THUSIAXS. 
 
 From this mother-convent, all the others of the fame 
 order take their name; among which was theChartreufe 
 of London, corruptly called the charterhoufe, now 
 converted into an hofpital, and endowed with a revenue 
 of 600 1. per ann. 
 
 Here are maintained 80 decayed gentlemen, not 
 under 50 years of age : alfo 40 boys are educated and 
 fitted either for the univerfity or trades. Thofe fent 
 to the univerfity, have an exhibition of 20I. a-year for 
 eight years ; and have an immediate title to nine church- 
 livings in the gift of the governors of the hofpital, who 
 are fixteen in number, all perfons of the firft diftinftion» 
 and take their turns in the nomination of penfioners 
 and fcholars. 
 
 CHARTULARY, Chartularius, a title given 
 to an ancient officer in the Latin church, who had the 
 care of charters and papers relating to public affairs. 
 The chartulary prefided in ecclefiaftical judgments, in 
 lieu of the pope. In the Greek church the chartulary 
 was called chartophylax ; but his office was there much 
 more confiderable ; and fome even diftinguilli the char- 
 tulary from the chartophylax in the Greek church. 
 See Chartophylax. 
 
 CHARYBDIS, (anc. geog.) a whirlpool In the 
 ftraits of Mcffina, according to the poets ; near Sicily, 
 and oppofite to Scylla, a rock on the coaft of Italy. 
 Thucydides makes it to be only a ftrong flux and re- 
 flux In the ftrait, or a violent reciprocation of the tide, 
 efpecially If the wind fets fouth. But on diving into 
 the Charybdis, there are found vaft gulphs and whirl- 
 pools 
 
C H A 
 
 tJhafe. pools below, which produce all the commotion on the 
 "^"^r—^ furface of the water. 
 
 Charybdis is ufed by Horace to denote a rapacious 
 - proftitute. 
 
 CHASE, or Chace, in law, is ufed for a driving of 
 cattle to or from any place ; as to a diftrefs, or fort- 
 let, Iffc. 
 
 Chase, or Chace, is alfo a place of retreat for deer 
 and wild beafts ; of a middle kind between a foreft 
 and a par^, being ufually lefs than a foreft, and not 
 polTefTed of fo many privileges ; but wanting, v. g. 
 •See courts of attachment, fwainmote, and juftice feat *. 
 
 Yet it is of a large extent, and flocked both with a 
 greater diverfity of wild beafts or game, and more 
 keepers than a park. Crompton obferves, that a fo- 
 reft cannot be in the hands of a fubje6l, but it forth- 
 with lofes it name, and becomes a chafe ; in regard all 
 thofe courts lofe their nature when they come into the 
 hands of a fubjeft ; and that none but a king can make 
 a lord chief juftice in eyre of the foreft. See Justice 
 in Eyre. 
 
 The following hiftory of the Englifti chafes is given 
 by Mr Pennant. '* At firft the beafts of chafe had this 
 whole ifland for their range ; they knew no other li- 
 mits than the ocean, nor cnnfeffed any particular ma- 
 iler. When the Saxons had eftablifhed themfelves in 
 the heptarchy, they were referved by each fovereign 
 for his own particular diverfion : hunting and war, in 
 thofe uncivilized ages, were the only employ of the 
 great ; their aftive, but uncultivated minds, being fuf- 
 ceptible of no pleafures but thofe of a violent kind, fuch 
 as gave excrcife to their bodies, and prevented the pain 
 of thinking. 
 
 " But as the Saxon kings only appropriated thofe 
 lands to the ufe of forefts which were unoccupied, fo 
 no individuals received any injury : but when the con- 
 queft had fettled the Norman hne on the throne, this 
 paflion for the chace was carried to an excefs, which 
 involved every civil right in a general ruin : it fuper- 
 feded the confideration of religion even in a fuperfti- 
 tious age : the village-communities, nay even the moft 
 facrcd edifices, w^ere turned into one vaft wafte, to 
 make room for animals, the objefts of a lawlefs ty- 
 rant's pleafure. The new foreft in Hampftiire is too 
 trite an inftance to be dwelt on ; fanguinary laws were 
 
 C H A 
 
 feems to have claimed his privilege, and mixed with 
 this fray fome of the events of the battle of Otter- 
 hour ne, 
 
 '* When property became happily more divided 
 by the relaxation of the feodal tenures, thefe exten- 
 five hunting-grounds became more limited ; and as 
 tillage and huftjandry increafed, the beafts of chace 
 were obliged to give way to others more ufeful to the 
 community. The vaft tra£ls of knd, before dedica- 
 ted to hunting, were then contraCled ; and, in propor- 
 tion as the ufeful arts gained ground, either loft their 
 original deftination, or gave rife to the invention of 
 parks. Liberty and the arts feem coeval ; for when 
 once the latter got footing, the former protedled the 
 labours of the induftrious from being ruined by the li- 
 centious fportfman, or being devoured by the objefts 
 of his diverfion : for this reafon, the fubjefts of a de- 
 fpotic government ftill experience the inconvenien- 
 ces of vaft waftes and forefts, the terrors of the 
 neighbouring hufbandmen ; while In our well regu- 
 lated monarchy very few chaces remain. The Eng- 
 Ilfh ftill indulge themfelves in the pleafures of hunting ; 
 but confine the deer kind to parks, of which England 
 boafts of more than any other kingdom in Europe. 
 The laws allow every man his pleafure ; but confine 
 them' in fuch, bounds as prevent them from being in- 
 jurious to the meaneft of the community. Before the 
 reformation, the prelates feem to have guarded fuffici- 
 ently againft this want of amufement, the fee of Nor- 
 wich, in particular, being poffefTed, about that time, of 
 thirteen parks." 
 
 Chase, in the fea language, is to purfue a ftiip ; 
 which is alfo called giving chafe. 
 
 Stern Chase, is when the chafer follows the chafed 
 aftern direftly upon the fame point of the compafs. 
 
 To lie tvith a JJnp-s fore-foot in a Chase, Is to fail and 
 meet with her by the neareft diftance ; and fo to crofs 
 her in her way, or to come acrofs her fore-foot. 
 
 A ftilp is faid to have a good chafe, when fhe is fo 
 built foreward on, or a-ftern, that (lie can carry many 
 guns to ftioot forewards or backwards ; according to ' 
 which ftie is faid to have dL good foreivard, or good Jlern 
 ehafe. 
 
 CHASE-Gum, are fuch whofe ports are either in the 
 head (and then they are ufed in chafing of others); or 
 
 Chafe. 
 
 enafted to preferve the game ; and in the reigns of in the ftern, which are only ufeful when they are pur 
 William Rufus, and Henry I. it was lefs criminal to fued or chafed by any other ftilp. 
 
 deftroy one of the human fpecies than a beaft of chafe. 
 Thus it continued while the Norman line filled the 
 throne ; but when the Saxon line was reftored under 
 Henry II. the rigour of the foreft: laws was immedi- 
 ately foftened. 
 
 " When our barons began to form a power, they 
 claimed a vaft, but more limited, tradl for a diverfion 
 that the Englifti were always fond of. They were 
 very jealous of any encroachments on their refpt6live 
 bounds, which were often the caufe of deadly feuds : 
 fuch a one gave caufe to the fatal day of Chevy-chace ; 
 a fa£l which, though recorded only in a ballad, may, 
 from what we know of the manners of the times, be 
 founded on truth : not that it was attended with all 
 the circumftances which the author of that natural but 
 heroic compofition hath given it ; for, on that day, 
 neither a Percy nor a Douglas fell : here the poet 
 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 Chase of a Gun, is the whole bore or length of a 
 piece taken withln-fide. 
 
 Wild-goofe Chace, a term ufed to exprefs a fort of 
 racing on horfeback ufed formerly, which refembled 
 the flying of wild-geefe ; thofe birds generally going 
 in a train one after another, not in confufed flocks as 
 other birds do. In this fort of race the two horfes, 
 after running twelve fcore yards, had liberty, which 
 horfe foever could take the leading, to ride what 
 ground the jocky pleafed, the hindmoft hoi-fe being 
 bound to follow^ him within a certain diftance agreed 
 on by the articles, or elfe to be whipped in by the 
 tryers and judges who rode by ; and whichever horfe 
 could diftance the other, won the i-acc. This fort of 
 racing was not long in common ufe ; for it was found 
 inhuman, and deftruftive to good horfes, when two 
 fuch were matched together. For in this cafe neither 
 Z z , wag 
 
Chafing 
 
 II 
 
 Chaftity. 
 
 C H A 
 
 to diftance the other till they were 
 
 • Li-o. J. i. 
 c. 56 — 60 
 
 J)i(in\f.\ iv 
 p. — 
 
 377- 
 
 ■PUr. 1. iii. 
 9- 
 
 was able 
 
 ready to fink under their, riders; and often two very 
 good horfes were both fpoiled, and the wagers forced 
 to be drawn at laft. The mifchief of this fort of 
 racing foon brought in the method now in ufe, of run- 
 uing only for a certain quantity of ground, and de- 
 termining the plate or wager by the coming in firll at 
 the poft. 
 
 Chasing of Gold, Silver, iffc. See E,n CHASING. 
 
 CHASTE-TREE» See Vkex. 
 
 CHASTITY: purity of the body, or freedom 
 from obfcenlty. — The Roman law juftifies homicide 
 in defence of the chaftity either of one's felf or rela- 
 tions ; and fo alfo, according to Selden, ftood the law 
 in the Jewifh republic. Our law llkewife juftifies a 
 woman for killing a man who attempts to ravifli her.. 
 So the hufcand or father may juftify killing a man who 
 attempts a rape upon his wife or daughter ; but not 
 if he takes them in adultery by confent: for the one 
 is forcible and felonious, but not the other. 
 
 Chaftity is a virtue univerfally celebrated. There Is 
 indeed no charm In the female fex that can fupply its 
 place. Without It, beauty Is unlovely, and rank is 
 contemptible ; good breeding degenerates into wan- 
 tonnefs, and wit Into Impudence. Out of the nume- 
 rous inftances of eminent chaftity recorded by authors, 
 the two following are felefted on account of the lefTon 
 afforded by the different modes of conduft which they 
 exhibit. 
 
 Lucretia was a lady of great beauty and noble ex- 
 traftlon : ihe married CoUatlnus, a relation of Tair- 
 quinlus Superbus, king of Rome. During the fiege 
 of Ardea, which lafted much longer than was expefted, 
 the young princes palfed their time la entertainments 
 and diverfions. One day as they were at fupper*, at 
 Sextus Tarquin's the: king's eldeft fon, with CoUa- 
 tlnus, Lucretla's hufband, the converfatlon turned on 
 the merit of their wives : every one gave his own the 
 preference.. " What fignify fo many words ?" fays 
 Collatlnus ; " you may In a few hours, if you pleafe, 
 be convinced by your own eyes, how much my L/Ucre- 
 tia excels the reft.. We are young r let us mount our 
 horfes, and go and furprlfe them. Nothing can bet- 
 ter decide our difpute than the ftate we fhall find them 
 in at a time when moft certainly they will not expedl 
 us." They were a little warmed with wine ; " Come 
 on, let us go," they all cried together. They quickly 
 galloped tq Rome^ which was about twenty miles from 
 Ardea, where they find the prlncefTes, wives of the 
 young Tarqulns, furrouaded with company, and every 
 circumftance of the higheft mirth and pleafure.. From 
 thence they rode to CoUatia, where they faw Lucretia 
 in a very difterent fituatlon. With her maids about 
 her, fhe was at work in the Inner part of her houfe, 
 talking on the dangers to which her hulband was expo- 
 fed. The viftory was adjudged to her unanimoufly. 
 She received her guefts with all poffible politenefs and 
 civility. Lucretla's virtue, which fiaould have com- 
 manded refpe£l, was the very thing which kindled in 
 the breaft of Sextus Tarquin a ftrong and deteftable 
 paffion. Within a few days he returned to Collatia ; 
 and upon the plaufible excufe he made for his vlfit, he 
 was received with all the polltenefs due to a near rela- 
 tion, and the cideft fon of a. king. Watching the fit- 
 
 [ 362 ] C H A 
 
 both teft opportunity, he declares the paflTon fhe had excited avaftlty. 
 at his laft vlfit, and employed the moft tender intrea- 
 tles, and all the artifices poffible,, to touch a woman's 
 
 heart ; but all to no purpqfe. He then endeavoured 
 to extort her compliance by the moft terrible threat- 
 euings, It was la vain. She ftiU perfifted In her re- 
 folution ; nor could fne be moved, even by the fear of 
 death. But when the mcafter told her that he would 
 full difpatch her, and then having murdered a flave„ 
 would lay him by her fide, after which he would fpread 
 a report, that having caught them In the a6t of adul- 
 tery, he had puniihed them as they deferved ; this 
 feerned to fliake her refolution. She hefitated, not 
 knowing which of thefe dreadfid alternatives to take,, 
 whether, by confenting, to difhonour the bed of her 
 hufband, whom flie tenderly loved ; or, by refufing, ta. 
 die under the odious charadler of having proftituted 
 her perfon to the luft of a flave. He faw the itruggle 
 of her foul ; and feizing the unlucky moment, obtain- 
 ed an inglorious conquefl. Thus Lucretia's virtue^, 
 -which had been proof agaiiift the fear ofdeath, could not 
 hold out a^ralnft the fear of Infamy. The young prince, 
 having gratified his paffion, returned home as in tri- 
 umph. On the morrow, Lucretia, overwhelmed with 
 grief and defpair, fent early in the morning to defire her 
 father and her hufband to come to her, and bring with 
 them each a trufty friend, affurlng them there was no 
 time to lofe. They came with all fpeed, the one ac- 
 companied with Valerius (fo famous after under the 
 name of Publlcola), and the other with Brutus. The 
 moment fhe faw, them come, flie could not command 
 her tears ; and when her hufband aflced her if all was 
 well ? " By no means," faid fhe, " it cannot be weU 
 with a woman after fhe has loft her honour. Yes, Col- 
 latlnus,- thy bed has been defiled by a ftranger : but 
 my body only is polluted ; my mind Is Innocent, as 
 my death ftiall witnefs. Fromlfe me only not to fuffeE 
 the adulterer to go uripunlfhed : It is Sextus Tarqui- 
 nius, who laft night, treacherous gucft, or rather cruel: 
 foe, offered me violence, and reaped a joy fatal to me; 
 but, If you are men. It will be ftill more fatal to him." 
 All promifed to revenge her ; and, at the fame tlmcj 
 tried to comfort her with reprefenting, " That the 
 mind only fins, not the bodyj and where the confent 
 is wanting, there can be no guilt." ** What Sextus 
 deferves," replies Lucretia, " I leave you to judge 
 but for me, though I declare my felf innocent of the 
 crime, I exempt not myfelf from punlfliment. No 
 immodeft woman fhall plead Lucretia's example to 
 outlive her difhonour." Thus faying, fhe plunged 
 into her breaft a dagger fhe had concealed under her 
 robe, and expired at their feet. Lucretia's tragical 
 death has been pralfed and extolled by Pagan writers, 
 as the higheft and moft noble aft of heroifm. The 
 gofpel thinks not fo : it is murder, even according to 
 Lucretla's own principles, fince fhe punlfhed with death 
 an innocent perfon, at leaft acknowledged as fuch by 
 herfelf. She was-Ignorant that our life is not in our own 
 power, but In^ his difpofal from whom we receive it. 
 St Auftin, who carefully examines, In his book De 
 Civitate Dei, what we are to think of Lucretia's death, 
 confiders it not as a courageous aftion, flowing from 
 a true love of chaftity, but as an Infirmity of a woman 
 too fenfible of worldly fame and glory ; and who, fpom 
 
C H A 
 
 f 363 1 
 
 C H A 
 
 'Chaftity, a deead of appearing in the eyes of men an accomplice 
 Chateau- ^.j^^ violence fhe abhorred, and of a crime to which 
 • , file was entirely a ftranger, commits a real crime upon 
 
 " herfelf voluntarily and delignedly. But what cannot 
 ie fufficiently admired in this Roman lady is her ab- 
 horrence of adultery, which (he feems to hold fo de- 
 teftable as not to bear the thoughts of it. In this 
 fenfe, fhe is a noble example for all her fex. 
 
 Chiomara, the wife of Ortiagon, a Gaulifh prince, 
 ■was equally admirable for her beauty and chaltity. 
 During the war between the Romans and the Gauls, 
 A. R. 563, the latter were totally defeated on Mount 
 Olympus. Chiomara, among many other ladies, was 
 taken prifoner, and committed to the care of a centu- 
 rion, no lefs paflionate for money than women. He, 
 at firft, endeavoured to gain her confent to his infa- 
 • mous dcfires ; but not being able to prevail upon her, 
 
 and fubvert her conftancy, he thought he might em- 
 ploy force with a woman whom misfortune had reduced 
 to flavery. Afterwards, to make her amends for that 
 treatment, he offered to reftore her liberty ; but not 
 without ranfom. He agreed with her for a certain 
 fum, and to conceal this defign from the other Ro- 
 •mans, he permitted her to fend any of the priioners flie 
 ihould choofe to her relations, and afTigned a place 
 •near the river where the lady fhould be exchanged for 
 gold. By accident there was one of her own flaves a- 
 mongfl the prifoners. Upon him fhe fixed ; and the 
 centurion foon after carried her beyond the advanced 
 pofts, under cover of a dark night. The next evening 
 two of the relations of the princefs came to the place 
 appointed, whether the centurion alfo carried his cap- 
 tive. When they had delivered him the Attic talent 
 they had brought, which was the fum they had agreed 
 on, the lady, in her own language, ordered thofe who 
 came to receive her to draw their fwords and kill the 
 •centurion, who was then amufing himfelf with weigh- 
 ing the gold. Then, charmed with having revenged 
 the injury done her chaftity, fhe took the head of the 
 officer, which fhe had cut off with her own hands, and 
 hiding it under her robe, went to her hufhand Ortiagon, 
 who had returned home after the defeat of his troops. 
 As foon as fhe came into his prefence, fhe threw the 
 centurion's head at his feet. He was ftrangely fur- 
 prifed at fuch a fight ; and aflced her whofe head it 
 Was, and what had induced her to do an aft fo un- 
 common to her fex ? With a face covered with a fud- 
 den blufh, and at the fame time expreffing her fierce 
 indignation, fhe declared the outrage which had been 
 done her, and the revenge flie had taken for it. Du- 
 ring the reft of her life, Ihe ftedfaftly retained the fame 
 attachment for the purity of manners which confti- 
 tutes the principal glory of the fex, and nobly fuftain- 
 €d the honour of fo glorious, bold, and heroic an ac- 
 tion. — This lady was much more prudent than Lucre- 
 tia, in revenging her injured honour by the death of 
 her raviiher, rather than by her own. Plutarch re- 
 bates this fadl, in his treatife upon the virtue and great 
 aftions of women ; and it is from him we have the 
 name of this, which is well worthy of being tranfmit- 
 ted to potterity. 
 
 The above virtue in men is termed continence. See 
 "Continence. 
 
 ■CHATEAU-BRiANT, a town of France in Brit- 
 
 tany, with an old caftle. W. Long. x. 20, N. Lat. 
 
 47. 40. 
 
 CHATEAu-Chlnon, a town of France in Nivernois, 
 and capital of Morvant,with a confiderable maaufadture 
 of cloth. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 47. 2. 
 
 C HATEAu-DaupJnn, a very fti-ong caftle of Piedmont 
 in Italy, and in the marquifate of Saluces, belonging 
 to the king of Sai dinia. It was taken by the com- 
 bined army of France and Spain in 1744, and was rc- 
 ftored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 CiiATF.Au-clu-Loir, a town of France in the Maine, 
 famous for fuftaining a fiege of feven years againil the 
 Count of Mans. It is feated on the river Loir, in 
 E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 47. 40. 
 
 CHATKAu-Dun, an ancient town of France, and ca- 
 pital of the Dunois, with a caftle and rich monaftery ; 
 feated on an eminence near the river Loir, in E. Long. 
 
 1. 26. N. Lat. 48. 4. 
 
 CHATF.Au-Neuf, the name of feveral towns of France, 
 1'!%. one in Perche ; another in Angumois, on the 
 river Charente, near Angoufeline ; a third in. Berry, 
 feated on the river Cher 5 and feveral other fmall 
 places. 
 
 CHATSAV'Portien^ a town of France, in Champagne, 
 and in a diftrift called Portien, with a caftle built on 
 a rock, near the river Aine. E. Long. 4. 23. N. 
 Lat. 49. 35. 
 
 C HATKAu-Renaud^ a town of France, in the Gate- 
 nois, w^here clothes are made for the army, and where 
 there is a trade in fafFron. E. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 
 
 48. o. This is alfo the name of a town of Touraine, 
 in France, with the title of a marquifate. E. Long. 
 
 2. 41. N. Lat. 47. 22. 
 
 Chateau-Roux, a town of France, in Berry, with 
 the title of a duchy. It has a cloth-man afaftnre, and 
 is feated in a very large pleafant plain on the river 
 Indre, in E. LoHg. i. 47. N. Lat. 46.49. 
 
 CHATEAU-Thierray a town of France, in Champagne, 
 with the title of a duchy, and a handfome caftle on an 
 eminence, feated on the river Maine, in E, Long. 3. 
 23. N. Lat. 49. 12. 
 
 CHATEAU'Vilawy a town of France, in Champagne, 
 with a caftle, and the title of a duchy ; feated on the 
 fiver Anjou. E. Long. 2. 59. N. Lat. 48. o. 
 
 CHATEL, or Chate, a tovvn of Lorrain, in the 
 Vofque, feated on the river Mofelle, eight miles from 
 Mirecourt. 
 
 CuATEL-j^illon, a maritime town of France, in Sain- 
 tonge, five miles fiom Rochelle ; formerly very confi- 
 derable, but is now greatly decayed. 
 
 CnArEL-Chalmi, a town of France, in Franche 
 Comte, remarkable for its abbey of benediftine nuns. 
 E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 46. 50. 
 
 CHATELET, a town of the Netherlands, in Na- 
 mur, feated on the Sambre, in the bifhoprick of I^iege. 
 E. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 50. 25. 
 
 Chatelet, the name of certain courts of juftice 
 eftablifhed in feveral cities in Fiance. The grand 
 chatelet at Paris, is the place where the prefidial or 
 ordinary court of juftice of the provoil of Paris is kept ; 
 confining of a prefidial, a civil chamber, a criminal 
 chamber, and a chamber of policy. The little chatelet 
 is an old fort, now ferving as a prifon. 
 
 CHATELLERAULT, a town of France, in Poi- 
 
 Z Z 2 . tOU, 
 
 Chateau 
 
G H A 
 
 Chatham ton, with the title of a duchy 
 
 pleafant country, on the river Vienne, over which there 
 is a handfomc itone-bridge. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 
 46. 34. 
 
 CHATHAM, a town of Kent, adjoining to Ro- 
 chefter, and ftated on the river Midway. It is the 
 principal ftation of the royal navy ; and the yards and 
 magazines are fiuniflied with all kinds of naval Itores, 
 as well as materials for building and rigging the largeft 
 men of war. The entrance into the river Medway 
 is defended by Sheernefe and other forts ; notwilh- 
 ftanding which, the Dutch fleet burnt fevcral fhips of 
 war here in the reign of Charles H. after the peace of 
 Breda had been agreed upon. In the year 1757, by 
 dire£lion of the Duke of Cumberland, feverai addi- 
 tional fortifications were begun at Chatham ; fo that 
 now ihe fhips are in no danger of an infult either by 
 land or water. It has a church, a chapel of eafe, and 
 2 f}u"p u!ed as a church. for the Tailors. It has likewife 
 about 500 houfes, moftly low, and built with brick ; 
 the ftreets are narrow, and paved ; and it contains 
 about 3000 inhabitants. The principal employment of 
 the labouring hands is fliip-building in the king's yard 
 and private docks. This town gave title of Earl to 
 that great ftatefman Willian/ Put in the reigns of 
 George 11. and III. E. Long. o. 40 N. Lat. 51. 
 20. 
 
 CHATIGAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of 
 Bengal, on the moll eaflerly branch of the river Gan- 
 ges. It is but a poor place, though it was the firfl 
 
 [ 364 J C H A 
 
 feated in a fertile and ticularly towards heraldry. How foon he began to be Cbattertetr 
 an author is not known. In the To*n and Country — v-«»«^ 
 Magazine for March 1 769, are two letters, probably 
 from him, as they are dated from Briftol, and fubfcri- 
 bed with his u^ual fignature, D. B. that is, Dunhehms 
 Brijhl'ienfis. The former contains fhort extradls from 
 two MSS. " v/ritten 300 years ago by one Rowley a- 
 monk," concerning drefs in the age of Henry II. ; the 
 latter, «' Ethelgar., a Saxon poem," in bomljafl profe. In 
 the fame magazine for May 1769, are three communi- 
 cations from Briftol, with the fame fignature D. B. one 
 of them intiik'd " Obfervations upon Saxon Heraldry, 
 with drawings of Saxon Atchievements and in the 
 fubfequent months of ] 769 and 1770,, there are feverai 
 other pieces in the fame maga;4ine, which are un- 
 doubtedly of his corapofition. 
 
 In April 1770, he left Biiftol, difgufted with his 
 profeffion, and irreconcileable to the line of life in 
 which he was placed { and coming to London in hopes 
 of advancing his fortune by his pen, he funk at once 
 from the fublimity of his views to an abiolute depen- 
 dence on the patronage of bookfellers. Things, how- 
 ever, feem loon to have brightened up a httle with himj 
 for. May 14. he writes to his mother, in high fpirits, 
 upon the change of his fituaiion, with the following 
 iarcaltic reflection upon his former patrons at Briftol. 
 " As to Mr , Mr , Mr , &c. &c. they 
 
 rate hterary lumber fo low, that X believe an author, 
 in their eliimation, mult be poor indeed but here 
 matters are otherwife. Had Rowley been a Londoner 
 the Portuguefe fettled at in thefe parts, and who ilill ''inftead of a Bnftowyan, I could have lived by copy 
 
 keep a fort of pofiVlTion. It has but a few cotton ma- 
 nufaftures ; but affords the belt timber for building of 
 any place about it. The inhabitants are fo lufpicious 
 of each other, that they always go armed with a 
 £word, pjltol, and blundeibufs, not excepting the prieits. 
 It is fubjeft to the Great Mogul. E. Long. 91. jo. 
 N. Lat. 23. o. 
 
 CHATILLON-sur-Seine, a town of France, in 
 Burgundy, divided into two by the river Seine. It 
 is 32 miles from Langres, and 40 from Dijon j and 
 has iron works in its neighbourhood. E. Long. 4. 33. 
 N. Lat. 47. 45. 
 
 CHATRE, a town of France, in Berry, feated on 
 the river ludres, 37 miles from Bourges. It carrries 
 on a confiderable trade in cattle. E. Long. 1. 55. 
 N. Lat. 46, 35. 
 
 CHATTELS, a Norman term, under which were 
 anciently Gomprehcnded all moveable goods ; thole ira- 
 moveable being termed Jieft or fee. 
 
 Chattels, in the modern fenfe of the word, are 
 all forts of goods, moveable or immoveable, except fuch 
 as are in the nature of freehold. 
 
 CHATTERER, in ornithology. See Ampelis. 
 
 CHATTERTON (Tiionias), a late unfortunate 
 poet, whofe fate and performances have excited in no 
 ipiall degree the pubUc attention, as well as given rife 
 to much hterary coniroverfy. He was born ac Briflol, 
 Nov. 20. 1752 ; and educated at a charity- fchool on 
 St Augultin's Back, where nothing more was taught 
 than reading, writing, a«d accounts. At 14 years of 
 age, he was articled clerk to aii attorney at Briflol, with 
 whom he continued about three years ; yet, though his 
 education was thus conhned, he difcovered an early 
 turn towards poetry and Englilh antiquities, and par- 
 
 ing his works." In a letter to his fitter. May 30, he 
 informs her that he is to be employed in writing a vo- 
 luminous Hiflory of London, to appear in numbers the 
 beginning of next winter. Meanwhile, he had written 
 lomething in praife of Beckford, then lord mayor, 
 which had procured him the honour of being prefented 
 to his lordfhip ; and, in the letter juil mentioned,, 
 he gives the following account of his reception, with, 
 ceiiain obfervations upon political writing. " The lord 
 mayor peceived me as pohiely as a citizen could :. but 
 the devil of the matter is, there is no money to be got 
 on this fide of the q^ueflion. — However, he is a poor 
 author who cannot write on both fides. ~ Effays on the 
 patriotic fiuc will fetch no more than what the copy ia 
 fold for. As the patriots ihemfelves are fearching for 
 places, they have no gratuity to fpare. — On the other 
 hand, unpopular effays will not even be accepted, and 
 you mult p?y to have them printed : but then you fel- 
 dom lofe by it, as courtiers are fo fenfible of their defi!» 
 ciency in merit, that they generoulLy reward all who 
 know how to daub them with the appearance of it." 
 
 He continued to write inceffantly in various perio- 
 dical publications. July i 1 th, he tells his filler that 
 he had pieces lall month in feverai magazines ; in The 
 Gofpel Magazine, The Town and Country, The Court 
 and City, The London, The Political Regifter, &c.. 
 But all thefe exertions of his genius brought in fo little, 
 profit,, that he was foon reduced to the extrtmeit indi- 
 gence ; fo that at lafl, opprcifed with poverty and aifo; 
 difeafe, in a fit of defpair he put an end to his exift- 
 ence, Aug. 1770, with a dofe of poifon. This un- 
 fortunate perfon, though certainly a molt extraordinary- 
 genius, feems yet to have been a mofl ungracious cora- 
 pofition. He was violent and impetuqus to a llrange- 
 
 degreci 
 
C H A ; [ 365 ] 
 
 Cl!atterton.<5egrfi^' From the firfl of the above-cited letters he queftion 
 "-Y*"—' leems to h^ve had a portion of ill- humour audjpleen 
 more than enough for a lad of 1 7 ; and the editor of 
 his Mifcellanies records, " that he pofl'efTed all the vi- 
 ces and iriegularitieo of youth, and that his profligacy 
 was at leaft. as coni'picuous as his abilities." 
 
 In 1777 were publifhed, in one volume 8vo, " Poems» 
 fuppofed to have been written at Briftol, by Thomas 
 Rowley and others, in the 15th century : the greateft 
 part now firft publlilied from the moll authentic copies, 
 wiih an engraved fpecimen of one of the MSS To 
 which are added, a Preface, an introduttory Account 
 of the feveral Pieces, andva Gloffary." And, in 1 7 78, 
 were publifhed, in one volume 8vo, " Mifcellanies in 
 Profe and Verle, by Thomas Chatterton, the fuppofed 
 author of the Poems publifhed under the names of 
 • Rowley, &c." 
 
 Of Rowley's Poems, we have the following account 
 in the preface, given in the words of Mr George Cat- 
 cot of Briltol, to whom, it is laid, the public is in- 
 debted for them. " The firft difcovery of certain MSlS. 
 having been depofited in Redclift church above thiee 
 centuries ago, was made in the year 1768, at the time 
 of opening the new bridge at Briltol ; and was owing 
 to a publication in Farley's Weekly Journal, 06i. ill, 
 containing an account of the ceremonies oblerved at 
 the opening of the old bridge, taken, as it w^s faid, 
 from a very ancient MS. This excited the curiofity 
 of fome perfouB to enquire after the original. The 
 printer, Mr Farley, could give no account of it, or of 
 the perfon who brought the copy ; but after much in- 
 quiry it was diicovercd, that this perfon was a youth 
 between 15 and 16 years of age, whofe name was 
 Thomas Chatterton, and whofe family had been fex- 
 tone of Ridclift church for near 150 years. His fa- 
 ther, who was now dead, bad alfo been mafter of the 
 free-fchool in Pile-ftreet. The young man was at firft 
 very unwilling to difcover from whence he had the ori- 
 ginal : but, after many promifes made to him, was at 
 Faft prevailed on to acknowledge that he had received 
 this, together with many other MSS. from his father, 
 who had found them in a large cheft in an upper room 
 over the chapel, on the north fide of Rcdclih church." 
 I.t is added, that foon after this Mr Catcot commenced 
 an acquaintance with Chatterton, and partly as pre- 
 fents, partly as purchales, procured from him copies 
 of many of his MSS. in profe and verle ; as other co- 
 pies were difpofcd of in like manner to others. It is 
 concluded, however, that whatever may have been 
 Chatterton's part in this very extraordinary tianfadlion, 
 whether he was the author, or only (as he conltantly 
 afferted) the copier of all thefe produftions, he appears 
 to have kept the fecret entirely himfelf, and not to nave 
 put it in any one's power to bear certain teftimony ei- 
 ther of his fraud or of his veracity. 
 
 This affair, however, hath fince become the founda- 
 tion of a mighty controverfy among the critics, which 
 hath yet fcarcely fubfided. The poems in queftion, 
 publifhed in 1777, were republifhed in 1778, with an 
 ** Appendix, containing fomt obfcrvatious upon their 
 language ; tending to prove that they were written, 
 not by any ancient author, but entirely by Chatter- 
 ton." Mr Warton, in the third volume of his Hillory 
 ©f Englilh poetry, hath efpoufed the fame fide of the 
 
 C H A 
 
 Mr Walpole alfo obliged the world with a Chaucer 
 Letter on Chatterton, from hisprefsat Strawberry-hill. 
 On the other hand have appeared, "Obfervations" upon 
 tliefe poems, *' in which their authenticity is afcertain- 
 ed," by Jacob Bryant, E^q. 1 781, 2[vols Svo; and another 
 edition of the "Poems, with a Cnrrtment, in which their 
 Antiquity is confiJeredand defended, by Jeremiah Milles, 
 D.D. Dean of Exeter, 1782," 410. In anfwer to thefe 
 two works, we have had three pamphlets ; J. " Curfory 
 Obfervations on the Poems, and Remarks on the Com- 
 mentaries of Mr Bryant and Dr Milles ; with a falu- 
 tary propofal addrefied to the friends of thofe gentle- 
 men." 2. " An Archaeological Epiltle to Dean Milles, 
 editor of a fupefb edition of Rov/ley's Poems, &c." 
 3. " An Inquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems 
 attributed to Thomas Rowley, in which the Arguments 
 of the Dean of Exeter and Mr Bryant are examined, 
 by Tiiomas Warton ;" and other pieces in the public 
 prints and magazines; Ail preparatory to the com- 
 plete fettlement of the bufinels in *' A Vindication of 
 the xVppendix to the Poems called Rowley's, in reply- 
 to the Anhvers of the Dean of Exeter, Jacob Bryant^ 
 Efq; and a third Anonymous Writer ; with fome fur- 
 ther Obfervations upon thofe Poems, and an Examina- 
 tion of the Evidence which has been produced in fup- 
 port of their Authenticity. By Thomas Tyrwhitt, ' 
 1782," 8vo. 
 
 CHAUCER (Sir Geofrey ), an eminent Englifh poet 
 in the 14th century, born at London in 1328. After 
 he left the univcrfity, he travelled into Holland, France,, 
 and other countries. Upon his return he entered him- 
 felf in the Inner-temple, where he ftudied the muni- 
 cipal laws of England. His firft ftation at court was 
 page to Edward III. and he had a penfion granted 
 him by that prince till he could otherwife provide for 
 him. Soon after we find him gentleman of the king's 
 privy chamber ; next year, ftiield-bearer to the king. 
 Ellecmed and honoured, he fpent his younger days in 
 a conftant attendance at court, or for the moft part li- 
 ving near it, in a fquare ftone-houfe near the park-gate 
 at Woodftock, ftill called Chaucer's Houfe. 
 
 Soon after, having get the Duke of Lancailer for 
 bio patron, Chaucer began every day to rife in great- 
 nels. In 1373, he was fent, with other perfons, to 
 the republic of Genoa to hire Ihips for the king's navy 
 (our want of ibipping in thefe times being ufually fup- 
 plitd by fuch means) ; and the king was fo well fatis- 
 fied with his negociation, that, on his return, he ob- 
 tained a grant of a pitcher of wine daily in the port 
 of London, to be delivered by the butler of England; 
 and foon after was made comptroller of the cuftoma 
 for wool, wool-fells, and hides ; an oiUce which he 
 dilcharged with ^reat d-^'gence and integrity. At this 
 period, Chaucer's income was about L. 1 000 a-year ; 
 a fum which in choi'e days might well enable him to 
 live, as he fays he did, with dignity in offi.ce, and ho- 
 Ipitality among his friends. It was in this meridian 
 blaze of prolperity, in perfedt health of body and peace 
 of mind, that he wrote his moft humorous poems. 
 Plis latires againft the priefts w«re probably written to 
 oblige his patron the Duke of Lancafter, who favoured, 
 the caufe of Wickliff, and endeavoured to expofe the 
 clergy to the indignation of the people. In the laft 
 year of Edward III. our poet was employed in a com- 
 
 3 
 
C H A 1 
 
 Chaucer, mlfllon to treat with the French ; and in the begin- 
 ning of King Richard's reign, he was in fome degree 
 of favour at court. 
 
 The Duke of Lancafter at laft finding his views 
 •checked, began to abandon WicklifFe's patty: upon 
 . which Chaucer likewife, how much {oever he had 
 efpoufed that divine's opinions, thought it prudent to 
 •conceal them more than he had done. With the 
 ^Duke's intereft that of Chaucer entirely funk ; and the 
 former pafling over fea, his friends felt all the malice 
 ■of the oppofite party. Thefe misfortunes occalioned 
 ■his writing that excellent treatlfe The Tejlanient of Love, 
 in imitation of Boethius on the confolation of philoio- 
 phy. Being much reduced, he retired to Woodflock, 
 to comfort himfelf with ftudy, which produced his ad- 
 mirable treatife of the AJlrolahe. 
 
 The Duke of Lancafter at laft furmounting his trou- 
 bles, married Lady Catharine Swynford, fifter to Chau- 
 cer's wife ; fo that Thomas Chaucer, our poet's fon, 
 became allied to mott of the nobility, and to fevcral of 
 the kings of England. Now the fun began to fhine 
 upon Chaucer with an evening ray ; for by the influ- 
 ence of the Duke's marriage, he again grew to a con- 
 fiderable rtiare of wealth. But being now 70, he re- 
 tired to Dunnington-caftle near Newbury. He had 
 not enjoyed this retirement long before Henry IV. fon 
 of the Duke of Lancafter, affumed the crown, and in 
 the firft year of his reign gave our poet marks of his 
 favour. But however pleafing the change of affairs 
 might be to him at firft, he afterwards found no fmall 
 inconveniences from it. The meafures and grants 
 of the late king were annulled ; and Chaucer, in or- 
 ^er to procure frefh grants of his penfions, left his re- 
 tirement, and applied to court : where, though he 
 gained a confirmation of fome grants, yet the fatigue 
 of attendance, and his great age, prevented him from 
 enjoying them. He fell fick at London ; and ended 
 his days in the 7 2d year of his age, leaving the world 
 as though he defpifed it, as appears from his fong of 
 File from the Prefe. The year before his death he had 
 the happinefs, if at his time of life it might be fo called, 
 to fee the foil of his brother-in-law (Hen. IV.) feated 
 on the throne. He was interred in Weftminfter abbey; 
 and in 1556, Mr Nicholas Bingham, a gentleman of 
 Oxford, at his own charge, erefted a handfome monu- 
 ment for him there. Caxton firft printed the Canter- 
 bury Tales; but his works were rirft coUefted and pub- 
 liftied in one volume folio, by William Thynne, Lon- 
 don, 1542. They were afterwards reprinted in 1561, 
 1598, 1602. Oxford, 1721. 
 
 Chaucer was not only tiie firft, but one of the beft 
 poets which thefe kingdoms ever produced. He was 
 equally great in every fpecies of poetry which he at- 
 tempted ; and his poems in general poffefs every kind 
 of excellence, even to a modern reader, except me- 
 lody and accuracy of meafure ; defedls which are to be 
 attributed to the imperfedl ftate of our language, and 
 the infancy of the art in this kingdom at the time when 
 he wrote. " As he is the father of Englifh poetry (fays 
 Mr Dryden), fo I hold him in the fame degree of vene- 
 ration as the Grecians held Homer, or the Romans Vir- 
 gil. He is a perpetual fountain of good fenfe, learned in 
 all fciences, and therefore fpeaks properly on all fub- 
 jefts. As he knew what to fay, fo he Itnows alfo when 
 to leave off j a continence which is pradifed by few 
 
 Chavez, 
 
 366 ] C H A 
 
 writers, and fcarcely by any of the ancients, except Chaucis 
 Virgil and Horace." This charailer Chaucer cer- " 
 tainly deferved. He had read a great deal ; and was 
 a man of the world, and of found judgment. He 
 was the firft Engliftt poet who wrote poetically, as Dr 
 Johnfon obferves in the preface to his Didlionary, and 
 (he might have added) who wrote like a gentleman. 
 He had alfo the merit of improving our language con- 
 fiderably, by the introduction and naturalization of 
 vvords from the Provencal, at that time the moft po- 
 lifhed dialedt in Europe. 
 
 _ CHAUCIS (anc. geog.), the country of the Chau- 
 ci, a people of Germany : divided into the Minores, 
 now Eci/l Friefeland and the county of Oldenburg; and 
 into the Major^s, now the duchy of Bremen and a part 
 of Lunenburg. 
 
 CHAUD -MEDLEY, in law, is of much the fame im- 
 port with CHANCF.-Mtdley. The former in its etymo- 
 logy fignifies an affray in the heat of blood or paffion ; 
 the latter, a cafual affray. The latter is in common 
 fpeech too often erroneoufly applied to any manner of 
 homicide by mifadventure ; whereas it appears by the 
 fl:at. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 5. and ancient books (Staundf. 
 P. C. 16.), that it is properly applied to fuch killing as 
 happens in felf-defence upon fudden encounter. 
 
 CHAL, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of 
 Malabar, in the province of Blagana, and kingdom of 
 Vifapour. Its river affords a good harbour for fmall 
 veffels. The town is fortified, and fo is the ifland on 
 the fouth fide of the harbour. It had formerly a good 
 trade, but is now miferably poor. It was taken by the 
 Pottuguefe in 1507, to whom it ftill belongs. It is 15 
 miles fouth of Bombay, and five miles from the fea, 
 E. Long. 72. 45. N. Lat. 18. 30. 
 
 CHAULIEU (William Amfryede), abbed'Amale, 
 one of the moft polite and ingenious of the French 
 poets, was born in 1639, and died at the age of 84. 
 The moft complete edition of his poems is that printed 
 in 2 vols 8vo in 1 733. 
 
 CHAUMONT, a town of France, in Champagne, 
 and in the diftrift of Baffigni, of which it is the capi- 
 tal. It is feated on a mountain near the river Marne, 
 E. Long. 5. 15. N. Lat. 48. 6. 
 
 CHAUNE, a town of France, in Picardy, and in 
 the diftrift of Sanfterre, with the title of a duchy. E. 
 Long. 2. 55. N, Lat. 49. 45. 
 CHAUNTRY. See Chantry. 
 CHAUNY, a town of France, in Picardy, feated 
 on the river Oife, in Chantry. E. Long. 3. 17. N. 
 Lat. 49. ;^7. 
 
 CHAUVIN (Stephen), a celebrated minifterof the 
 reformed religion, born at Nifmes, left France at the 
 revocation of the edift of Nantz, and retired to Rot- 
 terdam, where he began a new Journal des Sgavans } 
 and afterwards removing to Berlin, continued it there 
 three years. At this laft place, he was made profef- 
 for of philofophy, and difcharged that office with much 
 honour and reputation. His principal work is a phi- 
 lofophical dictionary, in Latin, which he pubhftied at 
 Rotterdam in 1692 ; and gave a new edition of it much 
 augmented, at Lewardtn, in 17 13, folio. He died in 
 1725, aged 85. 
 
 CHAVEZ, a ftrong town of Tralos-Montes in Por- 
 tugal, is feated at the foot of a mountain on the river 
 Tamega. It has two fuburbs, and as many forts ; 
 
 one 
 
C H A 
 
 [ 3^7 ] 
 
 CHE 
 
 hazelles, one of which looks like a citadel. Between the town 
 Jiazinza- fuburb of Magdalena, is an old Roman ftone-bridge 
 ^" about 92 geometrical paces long. W.Long. 7. r. 
 N. L^t. 41. 49. 
 
 CHAZELLES (John Matthew), a celebrated 
 French mathematician and engineer, was born at Lyons 
 in 1657. M. du Hamel, with whom he got acquaint- 
 ed, finding his .genius incline towards aftronomy, pre- 
 fented him to M. Caffini, who employed him in his cb- 
 fervatory. In 16^4, the Duke of Mortemar made ufe 
 of Chazelles to teach him mathematics ; and, the year 
 afcer, procured him the preferment of hydiography 
 profefTor for the galleys of Marfeilles, 'where he fet 
 up a fchool for young pilots dtfigned to feive aboard 
 the galleys. In 1686, the galleys made four little 
 campaigns, or rather four courfes, purely for exercife. 
 Chazelles went on board every time with them ; kept 
 his. fchool upon the fca, and fhowed the praAice 01 
 what lie taueht. In the year 1687 and i688, he made 
 two other fea-campaigns, in which he drew a great 
 many plans of ports, roads, towns, and forts, which 
 were lodged with the minilters of ftate. At the be- 
 ginning of the war, which ended with the peace of 
 Ryfwick, fome marine officers, and Chazelles among 
 the reft, fancied the galleys might be fo contrived as 
 to live upon the ocean ; that they might ferve to tow 
 the men of war when the wind failed or proved con- 
 trary, and alfo help to fecure the coaft of France upon 
 the ocean. Chazelles was fent to the weft coafts in 
 July 1689, to examine the pradlicablenefs of this 
 fcheme ; and in 1690, fifteen galleys new built fet fail 
 from Rochefort, and cruifed as far as Torbay in Eng- 
 land, and proved ferviceable at the defcent upon Tin- 
 mouth After this, he digefted into order the ob- 
 fervations he had made on the coafts of the ocean ; 
 and drew diftindl maps with a portulan to them, viz. 
 a large defcription of every haven, of the depth, the 
 tides, the dangeis and advantages difcovered, Sec. 
 Thefe maps were inferted in the Neptune Fran^oife, 
 publiflied in 1692, in which year Chazelles was engi- 
 neer at the defcent at Oneille. In 1693. Monfieur 
 de Pontchartrain, then fecretary of ftate for the ma- 
 rine, and afterwards chancellor of France, rcfolved 
 to get the Neptune Frartgoife carried on to a fecond 
 volume, which was alfo to take in the Mediterranean. 
 Chazelles defired that he might have a year's voyage 
 on this fea, for making aftronomical obfervations ; 
 and the requell being granted, he pafTed by Greece, 
 Egypt, and the other parts of Turky, with his qua- 
 drant and telefcope in his hand. When he was in 
 Egypt he meafured the pyramids ; and finding the 
 fides of the largeft preeifely facing the four cardinal 
 points, naturally concluded this pofition to have been 
 intended, and alfo that the poles of the earth and me- 
 ridians had not fince deviated, Chazelles likewife made 
 a report of his voyage in the Levant, and gave the aca- 
 demy all the fatisfa(9;ion they wanted concerning the 
 pofition of Alexandria : upon which he was made a 
 member of the academy in . 695. He died in 1710. 
 
 CHAZINZARIANS, a fed of heretiCo who rofe 
 in Armenia in the feventh century. The word is 
 formed of the Armenian chazus, *< crofs." They ate 
 alfo called Jlaurolatra, which in Greek fignifies the 
 fame as Chazinzarians in Armenian, viz. adorers of the 
 crofs; they being charged with paying adoration to 
 
 2 
 
 the crofs alone. In other refpefts they were Nefto- Chearapesit 
 rians ; and admitted two perfons in Jefus Chrift. Ni- ^Jj ^ 
 cephorus afcribes other fingularittes to them ; particu- . ' 
 larly their holding an annual feaft in memory of the 
 dog of their falfe prophet Sergius, which they called 
 artzibarfzes . 
 
 CHEASAPEAK bay, in North America, the en- 
 trance between Cape Henry and Cape Charles, run- 
 ning up 300 miles between Virginia and Maryland. 
 It is navigable almoft all the way for large fhips, and 
 has feveral navigable rivers that fall into it, by means 
 of which fhips go up to the very doors of the planters, 
 to take in their lading of goods. — Here was a fea-en- 
 gagement in 17H1 between the Britifti fleet under Ad- 
 miral Graves confifting of 1 9 fnips of the line, and 
 the French fleet of 24 line-of-battle fhips under the 
 Count de GrafTe, which ended in the Count's keeping 
 pofieffion of the Bay, by which Lord Cornwallis and 
 his whole army were made prifoners of war at York- 
 town, being invefted both by fea and land by very fu- 
 perior numbers. 
 
 CHEATS, are deceitful pradlices In defrauding, or 
 endeavouring to defraud, another of his known right, 
 by means of fome artful device, contrary to the plain 
 rules of common honefty : as by playing with falfe 
 dice, or by caufing an ilHterate perfon to execute a. 
 deed to his prejudice, by reading it over to him in 
 words different from thofe in which It was written, 
 &c.— If any perfon deceitfully get into his hands or 
 pofTeffion any money or other things of any other per- 
 fon's by colour of any falfe token, &c. being convift- 
 ed, he (hall have fuch punifhment by imprifonment, 
 fetting upon the pillory, or by any corporeal pain eX" 
 cept pains of death, as fhall be adjudged by the per- 
 forfs before whom he fhall be convided. — As there are 
 frauds which may be reheved civilly, and not punifhed 
 criminally ; fo there are other frauds which in a fpe- 
 cial cafe may not be helped civilly, and yet fhall be pli- 
 nifhed criminally. Thus if a minor goes about the 
 town, and, pretending to be of age, defrauds many 
 peifons by taking credit for a confiderable quantity of 
 goods, and then infifting on his nonage, the perfons in- 
 jured cannot recover the value of their goods, but they' 
 may indi<!l and punifh him for a common cheat. Per- 
 fons convidled of obtaining money or goods by falfe 
 pretences, or of fending threatening letters in order 
 to extort money or goods, may be punifhed with fine 
 or imprifonment, or by pillory, whipping, or tranfpor- 
 tation- 
 
 CHEBRECHIN, a town of Poland, in the province 
 of RufTia and palatinate of Belflcow. It Is feated on 
 the declivity of a hill, and the river Wierpi waters Ita 
 walls, and afterwards falls into the river Bog. The 
 Jews there are very rich. E. Long. 23. 51. N. Lat. 
 50- 35- 
 
 CHECAYA, in Turkifti affairs, the fecond officer 
 of the Janizaries, who commands them under the aga^ 
 and is otherwifc called ^ro/o^^ro- 
 
 There is alfo a checaya of the treafury, ftables, kit- 
 chen, &c. the word fignifying as much as lieutenant, 
 or the fecond in any office. 
 
 CHECK, or Check-RoU, a roll or book, wherein 
 are contained the names of fuch perfons as are attend- 
 ants and in the pay of the king, or other great per- 
 fonages, as their houfehold fervants, 
 
 Gkrh 
 
 \ 
 
C H 
 
 Cleric of the Chf.ck 
 
 E [ 368 ] CHE 
 
 in the Unix's houfehold, has the ber, fitted on each "fide of the maft at the top, fer- 
 
 check and controlment of the yeomen of the guard, 
 and all the ufhers belongrlng to the royal family, allowing 
 their abfence or defefts in attendance, or diminifhing 
 their wages for the fame, &c. He alfo, by himfelf or 
 deputy, takes the view of thofe that are to watch in the 
 court, and has the fetting of the watch, &c. 
 
 Cleri of the Check in the royal dock-yards, an ofBcer 
 who keeps a mutler or regifter of all the men employed 
 aboard his majefty's fhips and veflels, and alfo of all the 
 artificers and others in the fervice of the navy at the 
 port where he is fettled. 
 
 Check, in falconry, a term ufed of a hawk, when 
 flie forfakes her proper game, to fly at pyes, crows, 
 rook.3, or the like,- that crofs her in her flight. 
 
 CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the (hield, or abor- 
 dure, &c. is chequered, or divided into chequers or 
 fquares, in the manner of a chefs-board. 
 
 This is one of the moft noble and moll ancient figures 
 tlfed in armoury ; and a certain author faith, that it 
 ought to be given to none but great warriors, in token 
 of their bravery : for the cheCs-board reprefents a field 
 of battle ; and the pawns placed on both fides repre- 
 fent the foldiers of the two armies, which move, attack, 
 advance, or retire, according to the will of the game- 
 fters, who are the generals. 
 
 This figure is always corapofed of metal and colour. 
 But fome authors would have it reckoned among the 
 feveral forts of furs. 
 
 CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the face fituated 
 below the eyes on each fide. 
 
 Cheeks, a general name among mechanics, for al- 
 moft all thofe pieces of their machines and inllruments, 
 that are double, and perfedly alike. Thus, the cheeks 
 of a printing-prefs are its two principal pieces : they 
 are placed perpendicular, and parallel to each other ; 
 ferving to fuftain the three fommers, viz. the head, 
 ihelves, and winter, which bear the fpindle, and other 
 parts of the machine. See pRiNxiNG-Prf/j. 
 
 ving to ftiengthen the mafts there. The uppermoft ' ■ v" "' 
 bail or piece of timber in the beak of a {hip, is called 
 the cheek. The knees which fallen the beak-head to 
 the fiiip, are calle.'J cheeks; and the fides of any block, 
 or the fides of a fliip's carriage of a gun, are called 
 cheeks. 
 
 CHEESE, a fort of food prepared of curdled milk 
 purged from the ferum or whey, and afterwards dried 
 for ufe. 
 
 Cheefe differs in quality according as it is made froni 
 new or flcimmed niiik, from the curd which feparates 
 fpontaneoufly upon Handing, or that which is morsr- 
 fpeedily produced by the addition of runnet. Cream 
 alfo affords a kind of cheefe, but quite fat and butyra- 
 ceous, and which does not keep long. Analyzed che- 
 mically, cheefe appears to partake much more of an 
 animal nature than butter, or the milk from which it 
 was made. It is infoluble in every liquid except fpirit 
 of nitre, and cauflic alkaline ley. Shaved thin, and 
 properly treated with hot water, it forms a very 
 itrong cement if mixed with quicklime *. When * See Ce- 
 prepared with the hot water, it is recommended in ment. 
 the Swedifh memoirs to be ufed by anglers as a bait: 
 it may be made into any form, is not foftened by the 
 cold water, and the fifhes are fond of it.- As a food, 
 phyficians condemn the too free ufe of cheefe. When 
 new, it is extremely difficult of digeftion : when old, 
 it becomes acrid and hot ; and, from Dr Percival's ex- 
 periments, is evidently of a feptic nature. It is a com- 
 mon opinion that old cheefe digefts eveiy thing, yet is 
 left undigelled itfelf ; but this is without any folid 
 foundation. Cheefe made from the milk of ftieep di- 
 gefts fooner than that from the milk of cows, but is lefa 
 nourifhing; that from the milk of goats digells fooner 
 than either, but is alfo the leaft nourifhing. In general, 
 it is a kind of food fit only for the laborious, or thofe 
 whofe organs of digeftion are ftrong. 
 
 Ever)^ country has places noted fortius commodity : 
 
 The checks of a turner's lathe, are two long pieces of thus Chefter and Glouceiler cheefe are famous in Eng' 
 
 wood, between which are placed the puppets, which 
 are either pointed or otherwife, ferving to fupport the 
 work and the mandrils of the workman. Thefe two 
 pieces are placed parallel to the horizon, feparated 
 from one another by the thicknefs of the tail of the 
 puppets, and joined with tenons to two other pieces 
 of wood placed perpendicularly, called the legs of the 
 lathe. 
 
 Cheeks of the glazier's vice, are two pieces of iron 
 joined parallel at top and bottom ; in which are the 
 axis, or fpindlcs, little wheel, cufhions, &c. whereof 
 the machine is compofed. 
 
 The cheeks of a viortar, or the brackets, in artillery, 
 are made of ftrong planks of wood, bound with thick 
 plates of iron, and are fixed to the bed by four bolts ; 
 they rife on each fide of the mortar, and to ferve to 
 keep her at what elevation is given her, by the help of 
 ftrong bolts of iron which go through both cheeks, 
 both under and behind the mortar, betwixt which are 
 driven coins of wood; thefe bolts are called the brack- 
 et-bolts, and the bolts which are put one in each end 
 of the bed, are the traverfe-bolts, becaufe with hand- 
 fpikes the mortar is by thefe traverfed to the right or 
 left. 
 
 Chueks, in fhip-building, are two pieces of tim- 
 
 land ; and the Parmefan cheefe is in no lefs repute a- 
 broad, efpecially in France. This fort of cheefe is 
 entirely made of fweet cow-milk: but at Rochefort in 
 Languedoc, they make it of ewe's milk ; and in other 
 places it is ufual to add goat or ewe's milk in a certain 
 proportion to that of the cow. There is likewife a 
 kind ©f medicated cheefe made by intimately mixing 
 the expreffed juice of certain herbs, as fage, baum, 
 mint, &c. with the curd before it is fafliioned into a 
 cheefe. — The Laplanders make a fort of cheefe of the 
 milk of their rein-deer ; which is not only of great fer- 
 vice to them as food, but on many other occafions. It 
 is a very common thing in thefe ch mates to have a 
 limb numbed and frozen with the cold : their remedy 
 for this is the heating an iron red hot, and thrufting it 
 through the middle of one of thefe cheefes; they catch 
 what drops out, and with this anoint the limb, which 
 foon recovers. They are fubjeft alfo to coughs and 
 difcafes of the lungs, and thefe they cure by the fame 
 fort of medicine : they boil a large quantity of the 
 cheefe in the frefh deer's milk, and drink the decoc- 
 tion in large draughts warm feveral times a-day. They 
 make a lefs ftrong decoftion of the fame kind alfo, 
 which they ufe as their common drink, for three or 
 four days together, at feveral times of the year. They 
 
 do 
 
C H E 
 
 , to prevent the mifchicfs they arc liable to from 
 vvater, which is otherwife their conllant drink, 
 not good. 
 
 lie hundred weight of cheefe pays on importation 
 37'7jd. and draws back on exportation is. r^d. at 
 rate of 6s. 8d. 
 Bijl nieihods of making Cheefe in England. Tlie double 
 /louccfter is a cheefe that pleafes almoft every palate, 
 he beft of this kind is made from new, or (as it is 
 called in that and the adjoining counties) covered milk. 
 An inferior fort is made from what is called half-cover' 
 ed m'dk; though when any of thefe cheefes turn out to 
 be good, people are deceived, and often purchafe them 
 for the bcft covered milk cheefe : but farmers who are 
 hontft have them {lamped with a piece of wood niade in 
 the Ihape of a heait, fo that any perfon may know them. 
 
 It will be every farmer's intercft (if he has a fuffi- 
 cient number of cows) to make a large cheefe from one 
 meal's milk. This, when brought in w^arm, will be 
 eafily changed jr turned with the rennet ^ but if the 
 morning or night's milk be to be mixed with that 
 which is frefh from the cow, it will be a longer time 
 before it turns, nor ■will it change fometimes without 
 being heated over the lire, by which it often gets dull 
 or foot, or fmoke, which will give the cheefe a very 
 difagreeabh flavour. 
 
 When the milk is turned, the whey fliould be care- 
 fully llrained from the curd. The curd fliould be bro- 
 ken fmall with the hands ; and when it is equally bro- 
 ken, it niuft be put by little at a time into the vat, 
 carefully breaking it as it is put in. The vat fliould 
 be filled an inch or more above the brim, that when 
 the whey is prefled out it may not ilirink below the 
 brim ; if it does, the cheefe will be worth very little. 
 But firfl, before the curd is put in, a cheefe-cloth or 
 ftrainer Ihould be laid at the bottom of the vat and 
 this fliould be fo large, that when the vat is filled with 
 the curd, the ends of the cloth may turn again over 
 the top of it. When this is done, it fliould be taken to 
 the prefs, and there remain for the fpace of two hours ; 
 when it fliorld be turned and have a clean cloth put 
 under it, and turned over as before. It muft then be 
 prefled again, and remain in the prefs fix or eight 
 hours ; when it fliould again be turned and rubbed on 
 rach fide with fait. After this it muft be prtffed again 
 for the fpace of 1 2 ,or 14 hours m.ore ; when, if any 
 of the edges projeft, they fhould be pared off : it may 
 then be put on a dry board, where it fliould be regu- 
 larly turned eveiy day. It is a good way to have three 
 or four holes bored i-ound the lower part of the vat, 
 that the w:hey may drain fo perfeftly from the cheefe 
 us not the leaft particle of it may remain. 
 
 The prevailing opinion of the people of Gloucefl:er- 
 fliire and the neighbouring counties is, that the cheefes 
 will fpoil if they do not fcrape and wafli them when 
 they are found to be mouldy. But others think that 
 -fuffering the mould to remain, mellows them, provided 
 they are turned every day. Thofe, however, who will 
 have the mould off, fliould caufe it to be removed 
 with a, clean dry flannel, as the wafliiiig the cheefes 
 is crJy a means of making the mould (which is a 
 fptc!;- of fungus rooted in the coat) grow again im- 
 mediately. 
 
 8ome people fcald the curd : but this is a bad and 
 jnercenary pradice ; it robs the cheefe of its fatnefs, 
 Vol. IV. Part L 
 
 [ 369 ] 
 
 CHE 
 
 and can only be done with a vie-.v to raiic* a gi-eater Cheefe. 
 quantity of whey butter, or to bring the cheefes for- -v— ' 
 ward for fale, by making them appear older than they 
 really are. 
 
 As moft people like to purehafe high-colonred 
 cheefe, it may be right to mix a little annatto with the 
 milk before it is turned. No cheefe will look yellow with- 
 out it ; and though it does not in the leall add to the 
 goodnefs, it is perfeftly innocent in its nature and efFefts. 
 
 It is not in the power of any perfon to make good 
 cheefe with bad rennet ; therefore the following re- 
 ceipt fliould be attended to. Let the veil, matu, ren- 
 net-tag (or by whatever name it is called), be perfeftly 
 fweet ; for if it be the leaft tainted, the cheefe will ne- 
 ver be good. When this is fit for the purpofe, three 
 pints or two quarts of foft water (clean and fweet) 
 fliould be mixed with fait, wherein fliould be putfweet- 
 briar, rofe leaves and flowers, cinnamon, mace, cloves; 
 and, in fliort, almoft every fort of fpice and aromatic 
 that can be procured ; and if thefe are put into two 
 quarts of water, they muft boil gently till the liquor 
 is reduced to three pints, and care Ihould be taken that 
 this hquor is not fmoked. It fliould be ftrained clean 
 from the fpices. Sec. and when found to be not warmer 
 than milk from the cow, it fliould be poured upon the 
 veil or maw. A lemon may then be fliced into it ; 
 when it may remain a day or two : After which it 
 fliould be ftrained again, and put in a bottle ; where, 
 if well corked, it will keep good for twelve months or 
 more. It will fmell like a perfume ; and a fmall quan- 
 tity of it will turn the milk, and give the cheefe a 
 •pleafing flavour. After this, if the veil be fidted, and 
 dried for a week or two near the fire, it will do for the 
 purpofe again almoft as well as before. 
 
 Chedder cheefe is held in high efteem ; but its 
 goodnefs is faid to be chiefly owing to tlic land where- 
 on the cows feed, as the method of making it is the 
 fame as is purfued throughout Som.erfetihirc, and the 
 adjoining counties. 
 
 Chefliire cheefe is much admired ; yet no people 
 take lefs pains with the rennet than the Chefliire far- 
 n . rs. But their cheefes are fo large as often to ex- 
 ceed one hundred pounds weight each ; to this (and 
 the age they are kept, the richnefs of the land, and the 
 keeping fuch a number of cows as to make fucli a 
 chetfe without adding a fecond meal's milk) their ex- 
 cellence may be attributed. Indeed they fait the curd 
 (which may make a diff"erence), and keep the cheefes in 
 a damp place after they are made, and are very carefiJ 
 to turn them daily. 
 
 But of all the cheefe this kingdom produces, none is 
 more highly eileenied than the Stilton, which is call- 
 ed the Parmefan of England, and (except faulty) is 
 never fold for lefs than is. or is. 2d. per pound. 
 
 The Stilton cheefes are ufiially made in fquare vats, 
 and weigh from fix to twelve pounds each cheefe. Im- 
 mediately after they are made, it is necefl"ary to put 
 them into fquare boxes made exaftly to fit them ; they 
 being fo extremely Vich, that except this precaution be 
 taken they are apt to bulge out, and break afunder. 
 They fliould be continually and daily turned in thefe 
 boxes, and muft be kept two years before they are pro- 
 perly m.ellowed for fale. 
 
 Some make them in a net, fomewhat like a cabbage 
 net \ fo that they appear, when made, not unlike an a- 
 3 -A. corn. 
 
CHE 
 
 [ 
 
 ] 
 
 C H E 
 
 Cheefe. corn. But thefe are never fo good as the other, having 
 
 ""'"v a thicker coat, and wanting all that rich flavour and 
 
 mellownefs which make them fo pleafing. 
 
 It is proper to mention that the making of thefe 
 cheefes is not confined to the Stilton farmers, as many- 
 others in Huntingdonfhire (not forgetting Rutland and 
 Noi-thamptonflilres) make a iimilar fort, fell them for 
 the fame price, and give all of them the name of Stil- 
 ton cheefes. 
 
 Though thefe farmers are remarked for cleanlinefs,, 
 they tnke very little pains with the rennet, as tliey in 
 general only cut pieces from the veil or maw, which 
 tliey put into the milk, and move gently about with 
 the iiand, by which means it breaks or turns it fo, that 
 they eafily obtain the curd. But if the method above 
 defcribed for making rennet .were put in pi aftice, they 
 would make their cheefe Itill better; at leall they would 
 not have fo many faulty and unfound cheefes ; for not- 
 withftandiug their cheefes bear fuch a name and price, 
 they often hnd them fo bad as not to be faleable; 
 which is probably owing to their being fo carelefs a- 
 bout the rennet. 
 
 It has been alleged, that as good cheefe might be 
 made in other counties, if people would adhere to the 
 Stilton plan, which is this — They make a cheefe every 
 morning ; and to this meal of new milk they add the 
 cream taken from that which is milked the night be- 
 fore. This, and the age of their cheefes, have been 
 fuppofed the only reafons why they are preferred to 
 others ; for from the niceft obfervation, it does not ap- 
 pear that their land is in any refpeft fuperior to that 
 of other counties. 
 
 Excellent cream cheefes are made In Lincolnfnl're, 
 by adding the cream of one meal's milk to milk which 
 comes immediately from the cow; thefe aie prefled 
 gently two or three time*, turned for a few days, 
 and are then difpofed of at the rate of is. per pound, 
 to be eaten whil j new with radifhes,. fallad, &c. 
 
 Many people give Ikimmed milk to pigs, but the 
 whey will do equally as well after cheefes are made 
 from this milk ; fuch cheefes will always fell for at 
 leaft 2d. per pound, which will amount to a large fur^i 
 annually where they make much butter. The pea- 
 fants and many of the farmers in the north of Eng- 
 land never eat any better cheefe ; and though they ap- 
 pear harder, experience hath proved them to be much 
 cafier of digeflion than any new milk cheefes. A 
 good market may always be found for the fale of them 
 at BriftoL 
 
 Account of the making of Parmefan Cheefe : by Mr 
 Zappa of Milan, in anfwer to queries from Arthur 
 Young, Efq.- 
 
 " Are the cows regularly fed m ftables ?" — From 
 the middle of April, or fooner if polTible, the cows 
 are fent to pallure in the meadows till the end of No- 
 ■vember ufually. 
 
 Or only fed in ftables in winter ?" — When the 
 fcafon is paft, and fnow comes, they are put into 
 ftables for the whole wintefj and fed with hay. 
 
 " Do they remain in the paftxire from morning till 
 night ? or only in hot weather ?" — Between nine and 
 ten in the morning the cows are fent to water, and 
 then to the pafturcs, where they remain four or five 
 feours at moft, and at three or four o'clock are driven 
 to the ilables if the feafon is frefh, or under porticos if 
 
 hot; where, for the night, a convenient quantity of hay 
 is given them. 
 
 " In what months are they kept at pafture tlie 
 whole day ?" — Moftly anfwered already ; but it might 
 be faid, that no owner will leave his cattle, without 
 great caufe, in uncovered places at night. It hap- 
 pens only to the fhepherds from the Alps, when they 
 pafs, becaufe it is impofSble to llnd ftables for all their 
 cattle. 
 
 " What is the opinion in the Lodefan, on the bcft 
 conduct for protit in the management of meadows I'* 
 — For a dairy farm of lOO cows, which yields daily a 
 cheefe weighing 70 to 75 lb. of 28 ounces, art wanted 
 1000 perticas of land. Of thefe about 800 are ftand- 
 ing meadows, the other 200 are in cultivation for corn: 
 and grafs fields in rotation. 
 
 " Do thev milk the cows morning and evening ?'* 
 — Thofe that are in milk are milked morning and 
 evening, with exception of fuch as are near calving. 
 
 " One hundred cows being wanted to make a Lo- 
 dcfan each day, it is fuppofed that it is made with the 
 inilk of the evening and the following morning ; or of 
 the morning and evening of the fame day: how is it?" 
 — The 1.00 cows form a dairy farm of a good large 
 cheefe; it is reckoned that 80 are in milk, and 20 
 with calves fucking, or near calving. They reckon 
 one with the other about 32 boccalis of 32 oz. of milk. 
 Such is the quantity for a cheefe of about 70 lb. of 28 
 ounces. They join the evening with the morning 
 milk, becaufe fo it is frefiier than if it was that of the 
 morning and evening of the fame day. The morning' 
 milk would be 24 hoiu's old when the next morning- 
 the cheefe ftiould be made. 
 
 " Do they llcim or not the milk to make butter 
 before they make the cheefe ?" — From the evening 
 milk aU the cream poffible is taken away for butter,, 
 mafcarponi (cream-cheefe), &c. The milk of the 
 morning ought to be ll<immed (lightly ; but everyone 
 ficims as much eream as he can. The butter is fold oa 
 the fpot immediately at 24 fous ; the cheefe at about 
 28 fous. The butter lofes nothing in w^eight ; the 
 cheefe lofes one-third of it, is fubje6l to heat, and re- 
 quires expences of fervice, attention, warehoufes, &c. 
 before it is fold ; and a man in two hours makes 45 to 
 50 lb. of butter that is fold direftly. However, it is 
 not pollible to leave much cream in the milk to' make 
 Lodefan cheefe, caWed grained cheefe ; becaufe if it is too 
 rich, it does not laft long, and it is neceflar)'^ to confume 
 it while young- and found. 
 
 " Is Parmefan or Lodefan cheefe made every day 
 in the year or not ?" — With 1 00 cows it is. In; 
 winter, however, the milk being lefs in quantity,, 
 the cheefe is of lefier weight, but certainly more de- 
 licate. 
 
 " After gathering or uniting the milk, either flclm- 
 med or not, what is exa6tly the whole operation — . 
 The morning of the 3d of March 1786, I have feeni 
 the whole operation,, having gone on purpofe to the 
 fpot to fee the whole work from beginning to end. At 
 16 Italian hours,, or ten in the morning, according to^ 
 the northern way to account hours, the lliimming of 
 that morning's milk, gathered only two hours before, 
 was finiftied. I did, meanwhile, examine the boiler or 
 pot. At the top it was eight feet (EngliHi) dia.neter, 
 or thereabout ; and about five feet three Inches deep,, 
 
 made 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
CHE t 5 
 
 Cheefe. made like a bell, and narrowing towards tlie bottom 
 to about two one-half feet. They joined the cream 
 produced that morning with the other produced by 
 the milk of the evening before. That produced by 
 this lail milk was double in quantity to that of the 
 morning milk, becaufe it had the whole night to unite, 
 and that of the morning had only two hours to do it, 
 in which it could not feparate much. Of the cream 
 ■fome was deftined to make mafcarponies (cream- 
 .cheefe), and they put the reft into the machine for 
 making butter. Out of the milk of the evening be- 
 fore and of that morning that was all put together 
 after ll<imming, they took and put into the boiler 272 
 boccali, and they put under it two faggots of wood ; 
 which being burnt, were fufficient to give the milk a 
 warmth a little fuperior to lukewarm. Then the boiler 
 being withdrav/n from the fire, the foreman put into it 
 the rennet, which they prepare in fmall balls of one 
 ounce each, turning the ball in his hand always kept 
 jn the milk entirely covered ; and after it was perfect- 
 ly dilTolved, he covered the boiler to keep the milk 
 defended, that it might not fufFer from the coldnefs of 
 the feafon, in particular as it was a windy day. I 
 went then to look on the man that was making maf- 
 carponies, &c. and" then we went twice to examine if 
 the milk was fufiiciently coagulated. At the 1 8 hours, 
 according to the Italian clocks, or noon, the true ma- 
 nufaftory of cheefe began. The milk vvas coagulated 
 in a manner to be taken from the boiler in pieces from 
 the furface. The foreman, with a ftick that had 18 
 points, or rather nine fmall pieces of wood fixed by 
 their middle in the end of it, and forming nine points 
 .in each fide, began to break exaftly all the coagulated 
 milk, and did continue to do fo for more than half an 
 hour, from time to time examining it to fee its Hate. 
 He ordered to renew the fire, and four faggots of 
 willow branches were ufed all at once : he turned the 
 boiler that the fire might a6l ; and then the imderman 
 beo-an to woik in the milk with a ftick hke the above, 
 but with only four fmaller fticks at the top, forming 
 eight points, four at each fide, a fpan long each point. 
 In a quarter of an hour the foreman mixed in the 
 boiler the proper quantity of fatfron, and the miik was 
 all in knobs, and finer grained than before, by the ef- 
 fe<9; of turning and breaking the coagulation, or curd, 
 continually. Every moment the fire was renewed or 
 fed ; but with a faggot only at a time, to continue it 
 regular. The milk was never heated much, nor does 
 it hinder to keep the hand in it to know the finenels 
 of the giain, which refines continually by the ftick- 
 work of the underman. It is of the greateft confe- 
 quence to mind when the grain begins to take a con- 
 fiftence. When it comes to this ftate, the boiler is 
 turned from tlie fire, and the undenTian immediately 
 takes out the whey, putting it into proper receivers. 
 In that manner the grain fubfides to the bottom of 
 the boiler ; and leaving only in it whey enough to 
 keep the grain covcied ahttle, the foreman extending 
 himfelf as'much as he can over and in the boiler, unites 
 with his hands the grained milk, making Hke a body of 
 pafte of it. Then a large piece of linen is run by him 
 under that pafte, wh le another man keeps the four cor- 
 ners of it, and the whey is direftly put again into the 
 boiler, by which is facilitated the means of ralfing that 
 pafte that is taken out of the boiler, and put for one 
 quarter of an hour into the receiver where the whey 
 
 71 1 Che 
 
 was put before, in the fame linen it was taken from 
 the boiler; which boiler is turned again direflly on 
 the fire, to extract the mafcarpa (whey -cheefe) ; and 
 is a fecond produft, eaten by poor people. After the 
 pafte remained for a quarter of an hour in that recei- 
 ver, it was taken out and turned into the wooden fornj 
 called fajfera, without any thing elfe made than the ro- 
 tundity, having neither top or bottom. Immediate-r 
 ly after having turned it into that round wooden form, 
 they put a piece of wood like a cheefe on it, putting 
 and increafing gradually weights on it, which ferve to 
 force out the remnant of whey ; and in the evening 
 the cheefe fo formed is carried into the warehoufe, 
 where, after 24 hours, they begin to give the fait. It 
 remains in that warehoufe for 15 or 20 days ; but in 
 fummer only from 8 to 12 days. Meanwhile the air 
 and fait form the cruft to it ; and then it is carried in- 
 to another warehoufe for a diff"erent fervice. In the fe- 
 cond warehoufe they turn every day all the cheefes 
 that are not older than fix months ; and afterwards it. 
 is enough if they are only turned every 48 or 60 hours, 
 keeping thein clean, in particular of that bloom which 
 is inevitable to them, and which, if neglefted, turns 
 mufty, and caufes the^ cheefe to aquire a bad fmell. 
 The Lodefan, becaufe it is a province watered, has a 
 great deal' of meadows, aad abounds with cows, its 
 produ6l being moftly in cheefe, butter, &c. How- 
 ever, the province of Pavia makes a great deal of that 
 cheefe ; and we Milanefe do likewife the fame from 
 the fide of Porte Tofa, Romana, Ticinefe, and Ver- 
 cillina, becaufe we have fine meadows and dairy 
 faiTOS. 
 
 CHEF.SF.-R.ennet. See Gallium and Runnet. 
 CHEGOE, or NiGUA, the Indian name of an in- 
 fe£l comm.on in Mexico, and alfo found in other hot 
 countries where it is c'<i]ltA pique, is an exceeding fmall 
 animal, not very unlike a flea, and is bred in the duft. 
 It fixes upon the feet, and breaking infenfibly the cu- 
 ticle, it neftles betwixt that and the true fldn, which alfo, 
 unlefs it is immediately taken out, it breaks, and pierces 
 at laft to the fleih, multiplying with a rapidity almoft 
 incredible. It is feldom difcovered until it pierces the 
 true fltin, when it caufes an intolerable itching. Tisefe 
 infe£ts, with their aftonifhing multiplication, would foon 
 difpeople thofe countries, were it lefs eafy to avoid 
 them, or were the inhabitants lefs dexterous in getting 
 them out before they begin to fpread. On the other 
 hand, nature, in order to leffen the evil, has not only 
 denied them wings, but even that conformation of the 
 legs and thofe llrong mufcles which are given to the fiea 
 for leaping. The poor, however, who are In fome 
 meafure doomed to live in the duft, and to a habitual 
 negledt of their perfons, fufier thefe infects fometimes 
 to multiply fo far as to make large holes in their flefh, 
 and even to occafion dangerous wounds. 
 
 CHEIRANTHUS, stock-gillilower, ox Wall- 
 Jlonver : A genus of the 39th natural order, S'lli- 
 quofte ; and belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of 
 plants. The germen is marked with a glandulous den- 
 ticle on each fide ; the calyx is clofe, with two of its 
 leaves gibbous at the bafe; the feeds plane. The fpecies 
 are \ 3 ; but the following three are moft worthy of notice. 
 I. The cheiri, or common wall-flower, witli ligneous, long, 
 tough roots ; an upright, woody, abiding ftalk, divided 
 into many ere£l angular branches, forming a bufhy 
 head from one to two feet high, clofely garniihcd with 
 3 A 2 fpear- 
 
 Cheefe 
 
Cbeiran- 
 ihus 
 li 
 
 Cheke. 
 
 CHE [ 37 
 
 fpear- fiuipuuv acute, fmooth leave?, and all the branches 
 tennhiating in long ere ft fpikes of numerous flowers, 
 which in diffei-ent varieties are yellow, bloody, white, 
 i.^c. 2. The incanus, or hoary cheiranthus, with lig- . 
 neous, long, naked, white roots ; and upright, ftrong, 
 woody, abiding item, from one to three feet high, 
 branchy at top, adorned with long, fpear-fliaped, ob- 
 tufe, hoary leaves ; and the top of the ftalk and all 
 the branches terminated by ereft fpikes of flowers 
 from one to two or three feet long, of different colours 
 in different varieties. 3. The annuus, or ten-weeks- 
 ftock, with an upright, woody, fmooth ftalk, divided 
 into a branchy head, 12 or 15 inches high, garniflied 
 with fpear-fhaped, blunt, hoary leaves, a little indented, 
 and all the branches terminated by long ereft fpikes 
 of numerons flowers of different colours in different 
 varieties. — The two fitfl forts are very hardy ever- 
 green biennials or perennials ; but the lad is an annual 
 plant, fo muft be continued by feed fown every year ; 
 and even the two firlf, notwithftanding their being 
 perennial, degenerate fo much in their flowers after 
 the firfl year, that it will be proper alfo to raife an 
 annual fupply of them. The feeds are to be faved on- 
 ly from the plants with fingle flowers ; for the double 
 ones bring no feeds to perfeftion. The feeds are to 
 be chofen from fuch flowers aathave five, fix, or more 
 petals, or from fuch as grow near to the double ones. 
 They may be fown in the full ground in the fpring, 
 and may be afterwards tranfplanted. When fine double? 
 of the two firft kinds are obtained, they may be multi- 
 plied by flips from the old plants, 
 
 CHEKAO, in natural hiftory, the name of an earth 
 fdund in many parts of the Eaft Indies, arid fometimes 
 ufed by the Chinefe in their porcelain manufactures. 
 It is a hard and ftony earth ; and the manner of ufing 
 It is this : they firft calcine it in an open furnace, arid 
 then beat it to a fine powder. This powder they mix 
 with large quantities of water : then ftirring the whole 
 together, they let the coarfer part fubfide; and pouring 
 off the reft yet thick as cream, they leave it to fettle, 
 and ufe the matter which is found at the bottom in 
 form of a foft pafte, and will retain that humidity a 
 long time. This fupplies the place of the earth called 
 hoache, in the making of that elegant fort of china- 
 ware which is all white, and has flowers which feem 
 formed by a mere vapour within its furface. The 
 manner of their ufing it is this : they fi^rft make the 
 vtffel of the common matter of the manufafture ; 
 when this is aVmoft dry, they paint upon it the flowers, 
 or whatever other figures they pleafe, with a pencil 
 dipt in this preparation o£ the chekao ; when this is 
 thoroughly dry, they cover the whole veffel with the 
 varnifli in the common way, and bake it as ufual. The 
 confcquenec is, that the whole is white but the body 
 of the vefTel, the figures, and the varnifh, being three 
 different fubftances, each has its own particular white ; 
 and'th« flowers being pairtted in the fineft white of 
 all, are diftinftly feen through the varxiifti upon the 
 veffel, and feem as if traced by a. vapour only. The 
 hoache does this as weH as the chekao; and has befides 
 his the quality of ferving for saaking the porcelain 
 ware either alone, or in the place of kaolin :. tha 
 chekao has not this property, nor any other fuhftance 
 befides this hoache, which appears-to be the fame with 
 Gur fteatites orfoap-rock. 
 
 CHEKE (Sir John), a celebrated ftatefman, gram- 
 
 2 ] CHE 
 
 marian, and divine, of an ancient family In the Ille of Chelte, 
 Wight, was born at Cambridge in the year 1514, and Che-kyangf . 
 educated at St John's college in that univerfity; where, " 
 after taking his degrees in arts, hf was firil chofen 
 Greek lefturer, and in 1540 profeffor of that lan- 
 guage, with a ftipend of 40 1. a-year. In this (lation 
 he was principally inftrumental in reforming the pro- 
 nunciation of the Greek language, v.'hich, having beta, 
 much negleftcd, was imperfeftly underftood. About' 
 the year 1543 he was incorporated mailer of arts at 
 Oxford, where, we are told, he had fliidied for foaie 
 time. In the folio vving year he was fent to the court 
 of king Henry VIII. and appointed tutor for the La- 
 tin language, jointly with Sir Anthony Cooke, to prince 
 Edward, about which time he was made canon of the 
 college newly founded in Oxford; wherefore he mult 
 have now been in orders. Ori the acceffion of his 
 royal pupil to the crown, Mr Cheke was fiift reward- 
 ed with a pcnfion of 100 merks, and afterwards ob- 
 tained feveral confiderable grants from the crown. In 
 1550 he was made chief gentleman of the privy-cham- 
 ber, and was knighted the following year; in 1552, 
 chamberlain of the exchequer for life ; in 1553, clerk 
 of the council ; and foon after fecretary of ftate and 
 privy- councillor. But thefe honours were of fhort 
 duration. Having concurred in the meafures of the 
 duke of Northumberland for fettling the crown on the 
 unfortunate Jane Grey, and afted as her fecretary 
 during the nine days of her reign, on the accclTion of 
 queen Mary, Sir John Cheke was fent to the tower, 
 and ftript of the greateft part of his pofleftions. In 
 September 1554 he obtained his liberty, and a licence 
 from her majefty to travel abroad. He went firll to 
 Bafil, thence to Italy, and afterwards returntd to 
 Strafbnrg, where he was reduced to the ntcciTity of 
 reading Greek leftures for fubfiftence. In 15'56 he 
 fet out in an evil hour to meet his wife at Bruffels : 
 but, before'he reached that city, he was feized by or- 
 der of king Philip 11. hoodwinked, and thrown into, 
 a waggon; and thus ignominioufly condufted to a 
 fhip, which brought him to the tower of London. 
 He foon found that religion was the caiife of his im- 
 prifonment ; for he was immediately vifited by two 
 Romifh priefts, who pioufly endeavoured to convert 
 him, but without fuccefs. However, he was at lafl 
 vifited by Fleckenham ; who told him from the queen, 
 that he muft cither comply or burn. I'fxis powerful 
 argument had the dcfired efteft ; and Sir John Cheke 
 accordingly complied in form, and his lands, upon cer- 
 tain conditions, were reftorcd : but his remorfe foon 
 put an end to his life. He died in September 1557, 
 at the lioiife of his friend Mr Peter Ofbonie iu Wood- 
 ftreet, London, and was buried in St Alban's church. 
 He left three fons, the eldeft of whom, Henry, was 
 knighted by queen Elizabeth. He wrote I. A Latin 
 tranilation of two of St Chryfoftom^s homilies. Londv 
 1543, 4to. 2. The Hurt of Sedition. Lond. 1549* 
 1576, 1641. 3. Latin Tranflation of the Englifli Com- 
 munion Service. Printed among Bucer's opufcula, 
 4. De pronunciatione Grvecx. Bafil, 1555, 8vo. 5. Se- 
 veral letters publifhed in his life by Strype ; . and a 
 great number of other books. 
 
 CHE-KYANG, or Tche-kiang, a maritime pro- 
 vince of China, and one of the moll confiderable ia 
 the empire ; is bounded on the fouth by Fo-kien ; on 
 tlic noixh and weft by Klang-nau and Kiangfi } and 
 
 on 
 
CHE L 373 ] . . C 
 
 Kie-Vyarg. on tbe eaft by the fea. The air I's pure and healtliful, inhabitants are Ingenious, 
 and the foil fertile, being vratered by a number of ri- 
 vers and canals, as well as fprings and lakes. The 
 chief produce is lilk ; a vaR quantity c>f which is cul- 
 tivated here, and for which the whole country is cover- 
 ed wich mulberry trees. Thefe arc purpoftly check- 
 ed in their growth by the natives, experience having 
 taught them, that the leaves of the fmalleft trees pro- 
 duce the bed filk. The ftuffs made in this province, 
 which are embroidered v>'ith gold and filver, are rec- 
 koned the beft in the empire : and notwithftanding a 
 vaft exportation to the Japan and Philippine iflands, as 
 well as to every part of China, and to Europe, fuch an 
 abundance is left in the province, that a complete fuit 
 of filk may be bought here as cheap as one of the 
 coarfeil woollen in F"rance. 
 * This province is alfo remarkable for a particular fpe- 
 cies of mulhrooms, which is exported to every part of 
 the empire. They are pickled, and then dried ; when 
 they will keep good for a whole year. When ufed they 
 muft be foaked in water, which renders them as frefli 
 as at firft. Here alfo the Lallow tree is met with ; and 
 the province affords excellent hams, and thofe fmall 
 gold fidres with which the ponds are ufually ftocked. 
 
 Che-kyang contains i i cities of the firft clafs, yz 
 of the third, and i 8 fortreffes, which, in Europe, would 
 be accounted large cities.. The principal of thefe are, 
 1. Hang-tcheou-fou, the metropolis, accounted by the 
 Chinefe to be the paradife of the earth. It is four 
 leagues in circumference, exclufive of the fuhurbs ; and 
 the number of its inhabitants are computed at more 
 than a million, and io,ooo workmen are fuppofed to be 
 employed within its trails in manufafturing of filk. Its 
 principal beauty is a fmall lake, clofe to the walls on 
 the weftern fide, the water of which is pure and lim-. 
 pid, and the banks almoft every where covered with 
 flowers. Its banks are Hkewift adorned with halls and 
 
 Chelfea. 
 
 H E 
 
 polite, and courteous to Chelidonias 
 ftrangers, but very fuperftitious. 
 
 CHEILIDONIAS, according to Pliny, an anniver- 
 fary wind, blowing at the appearance of the fwallov^s; 
 otherwife the Favonius, or Zephyrus. 
 
 CHELIDONIUM, Celandine, and Horned or 
 PRICKLY POPPY : A genus ot the monogynia order,, 
 belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and in the 
 natural method ranking under the zych order, Rhaadea.- 
 The corolla is tetvapetalous, the calyx diphyllous, the 
 filiqua unilocular and linear. There are fix fpecles, 
 none of which are remarkable for their beanty ; 
 but one of them, uiz. the majus, is an article in 
 the materia inedica It grows on old walk, among: 
 rubbifli, and in wafle lhady places. The herb 
 is of a bluilh green colour; the root of a deep red ; 
 and both contain a gold-coloured juice : their fmell Is > 
 difagreeable, the taifcc foniewhat bllteriih, very acrid, 
 burning and biting the mouth ; the I'oot is the moft 
 acrid. The juice takes off warts; cures tetters,, 
 ring-worms, aud the itch; and, diluted with milk,, 
 it confiimes opaque white fpots on the eye. — Horfes, 
 cows, goats, and fwine, refufe to eat the herb. 
 
 CHELIDONIUS. lapis, in natural hiflory, a flone 
 faid by the ancients to be found in the ftomachs of 
 young fwallows, and greatly ciied up for its virtues 
 in the falling-ficknefs ; but, from their dcfcription, it 
 appears to be only a fpecies of lycodontes, or bufo- 
 nitai. See Lycodontes, and Bufonit.^;. 
 
 CHELM, a town of Poland, capital of a palatinate 
 of the fame natne. It is fituated in the province of 
 Red Ruffia. E. Eong. 23. 30. N; Lat. 51. 25. 
 
 CHELMSFORD, the county town of Effex, fitua- 
 ted on the river Chehner, in E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat» 
 51. 40. It fends two members to parliament. 
 
 CHELONE, in botany : . A.genus of the ai»g!ofper" 
 mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants } 
 
 open galleries fupported by pillars, and paved with and in the natural method ranking under the 40th or 
 
 large fliig-ftones for the convenience of thofe who are 
 fond of walking ; and the lake itO:'! is interfered with 
 caufeways cafed with cut-ftone, openings covered with 
 bridges being left In them for the pafiage of boats. In 
 the middle are two iflands with a temple and feveral 
 pleafure-houfes, and the emperor has a fmall palace In 
 the neighbourhood. The city is garrlfoned by 3000 
 Chinefe and as many Tartars, and has under its jurif- 
 diftion feven cities of the third clafs; 2. Hou-tcheou- 
 fou is alfo fituated on a hike, . and manufaftures an in- 
 credible quantity of filk, infomuch, that the tribute of 
 a. city under Its jurifdiftlon amounts to more than 
 500,000 ounces of filver, 3. Ning-po-fou, by Euro- 
 peans called Llampo, is an excellent port,.oppofite to 
 Jiipan. Eighteen or twenty leagues from it is an 
 ifland called Tcheou-chan, where the £nglilh firft laud- 
 ed on their arrival at China. 4. Ning-po is remarkr 
 able for the filk manufactured there, which is much 
 ciTeemed in foreign countries, efpeclally Japan, where 
 it is exchanged for gold, filver, and copper. 5. Chao- 
 hing-fou, fituated in an extenfive and fertile plain, is re- 
 markable for a tomb about half a league diftant, which 
 Ib faid to be that cf Tu. The people of this province 
 are faid to be the moft verfed in chicanery of any in 
 China. 6. Tchu-tcheou-fou, remarkable for ha- 
 y'nifr in its neighbcurhood pines of an extraordinary 
 fcze, capable of containing 4c raeu lu theix trunks. The 
 4- 
 
 der, PerJonaU. The calyx is quinquepartite; the rudi- 
 ment of a fifth filament among the higheft ftamina, the 
 capfule bilocular. There are three fpecies, Wk. the Gla- 
 bra, theHirfuta, and the Penftemon. They are natives of 
 North America ; and are herbaceous flowery perennials, . 
 with upright ftalks two feet high,; decorated with fpear- 
 fhaped leaves, and beautiful fpikes of monopetalous, rin-- 
 gent flowers, red, rofe- coloured-, blue, and purple. They ' 
 flower from September to November, and are fome- 
 times fucceeded by ripe feeds In this country. They 
 are very hardy plants, and may be propagated by feedg 
 fown in any foil or fituation ; but the two firft multi- 
 ply fa faft by their creeping roots^ .that the feeds are ' 
 feldom regarded. 
 
 CHELSEA, a fine vlllige fituated on the- northern i 
 bank of the river Thames, a mile weftward of Weft- 
 minftjer, remarkable for a magnificent hofpital of In- 
 valids and old decrepit foldiers ; and a, pleafure-houfe, , 
 called Ranelagh, to which a -g^-eat deal of fine com- 
 pany refort in fummer ; and .a noble botanic garden 
 belonging: to the company of apothecaries. The royal ' 
 hofpital of invalids was begun by Charles II. carried 
 on by James II. and finlfhed by king William. It 
 confifls of a vaft range of buildings, that form three- 
 large fquares, in which there is an imconunon air of' 
 neatncfs and elegance obfervcd. It is under the dij- - 
 rediiou of comiuifTionero, who confiit g.enerally of the.: 
 
C II E [ 
 
 Chclfca. officers of ftate and of w ar. There is a governor withi 
 " 500 1. falary, a lieutenant governor with 400I. and f 
 major, with 25:0^ befides inferior officers, ferjeants, coi 
 porals and drums, with about 400 men, vvlio all d( 
 garrifon duty ; and there are above lc,^6o out pen- 
 fioners who receive an annuity of 7'. izs. 6d. each j 
 all which cxpence is defrayed by n poundage dedufted 
 from the army, deficiences being made good by par- 
 liament. — The botanic garden is very extenfive, en- 
 riched with a vail variety of domeftic and exotic 
 plants, the original (tock of which was given to 
 the 'apothecaries of London by Sir Hans Sloane. — 
 At R-anelagh Garden and amphitheatre the enter- 
 tainment is a fine band of mufic, with an organ and 
 
 374- ] CHE 
 
 fome of the beS. voices, ajid the regale is tea and 
 coffee. 
 
 CHELTENHAM, orCHiLTEvHAM, a market town 
 of Gloucellerihire, fsven miles north-eaftof Gloucefter. 
 W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 51. 50. It is chiefly remark- 
 able for its mineral waters, of the fame kind with thofe 
 of Scarborough. See Scarborough. 
 
 CHEMISE, in fortification, the wall with which a 
 baflion, or any other bulwark of earth, is lined for its 
 greater fupport and ftrength : or it is the folidity of 
 the wall from the talus to the flone-row. 
 
 Fire-CnsMisE, a piecd of linen cloth, fteeped in a 
 compolition of oil of petrol, camphor, and other combu- 
 ilible matters, ufed at fea, to fet fire to an ene.ny 's velTel. 
 
 Chelfert- 
 , ham, 
 Chemife. 
 
 € HEMISTR Y 
 
 'AY be defined. The ftudy of fuch phenomena 
 Definition. \y ]^ properties of bodies as are difcovered by 
 varioufly mixing them together, and by expofing 
 them to different degrees of heat, alone, or in mix- 
 ture, with a view to the enlargement of our know- 
 ledge in nature, and to the improvement of the ufeful 
 arts : or. It is the fludy of the effects of heat and mix- 
 ture upon all bodies, whether natural or artificial, with 
 a view to the improvement of arts and natural know 
 » ledge. 
 
 Antiquity. The fcience of chemiftry is undoubtedly of very 
 high antiquity; and, like moil other fciences, its origin 
 cannot be traced. In fcripture, Tubal Cain, the 8th 
 from Adam, is mentioned as the father or inllruftor 
 of every artificer in brafs or iron. This, however, 
 does not conftitute him a chemifl, any more than a 
 founder or blackfmith among us has a right to that 
 title. The name of chemifl could only belong to him, 
 whoever he was, who.firft difcovered the method of 
 extrafting metals from their ores ; and this perfon 
 mull neceffarily have lived before Tubal Cain, as eve- 
 ry blackfmith or founder mufl have metals ready pre- 
 pared to his hand. Neverthelefs, as Tubal Cain 
 lived before the flood, and the fcience of chemillry 
 mufl have exifled before his time, fome have con- 
 jeftured, that the metallurgic part, on account of its 
 extreme ufefulnefs to mankind, was revealed to Adam 
 3 by God himfelf. 
 Science j-^jg Jt vvill, Siphcas, an Egyptian, is confider- 
 
 loundc . jjy the chemifls as the founder of their fcience. 
 
 He was known by the Greeks under the name of 
 Hermes, or Mercur'ius Tr'ifmegtjlus ; and is fuppofed 
 to have lived more than 1900 years before the Chri- 
 lllan sera. A numerous liil of this philofopher's works 
 -is given by Clemens Alexandrinus ; but none of them 
 are now to be found, nor do any of them appear to 
 have been written profcfTetlly on chemillry. 
 
 Two illuflrious Egyptians, of the name of Hermes, 
 are recorded by ancient authors. The elder fuppofed 
 to be the fame with Mi^rahn, the graridfon of Noah, 
 the Hermes of the Greeks, and Mercury of the Ro- 
 mans. The younger Ffermes lived a thoufand years 
 afterwards; and is fuppofed to have rcllored the fci- 
 ences after they had fallen into oblivion, in confe- 
 quence of an inundation of the Nile. No lefs than 
 
 36,000 books are fald to have been written under the 
 Bame of Hermes ; but, according to Jamblichus, a cu- 
 ftom prevailed of infcribing all books of fcience with 
 the name of Hermes. Some authors deny the exift- 
 ence of Hermes, and maintain that his hiflory is alle- 
 gorical. 
 
 As the fcience of chemiftry fs fuppofed to have been Mofelfup- 
 wellknovsn to the Egyptians, Moires, who was'ikilled pofed to be 
 in their wifdom, is thence ranked among the number ^'^'ed in 
 of chemifls ; a proof of whole flcill in this fcience {g ciiemiflry. 
 thought to be, his difTolvIng the golden calf made by 
 the Ifraelites, fo as to render it potable. 
 
 Of all the Greeks who travelled into Eg\'pt in or- 
 der to acquire knowledge, Dcmocritus alone was ad- 
 mitted into their myfleries. The Egyptian priefts are 
 faid to have taught him many chemical operations ; 
 among which were the art of foftening ivory, of vi-^ 
 trifying flints, and of imitating precious iloncs. Dr 
 Black, however, is of opinion, that Democritus knew 
 nothing more of thefe arts than that tf making a coavfe 
 kind of glafs, as no mention is. particularly made of his 
 imitating any other precious flone thtn the emeal 
 whofe colour is green ; and the coarfer the glais the 
 greener it is. 
 
 After the time of Democritus, we mav know that 
 confiderable improvements were made in chemiflry, as 
 phyficlans began to make ufe of metallic preparations, 
 as cerufe, verdegrls, litharge, &c. Diofcorides de- 
 fcribes the diftillation of mercury fromcinnabar bymeans 
 of an emhlc, from which, by adding the Arabic Al, Derivation^ 
 comes the term Alembic. The art of diiliUation, how- of the wori 
 ever, at that time, was in a very rude flate ; the ope- Alembic, 
 ration being performed chiefly by feparating the air, 
 and more fubtlc part of tar, from the reft of the matter. 
 This was done by putting the matter to be diftilled in- 
 to a vefTel, the mouth of which was covered with a . ^ 
 
 wet cloth ; and by this the (Icams of afcendinfr va ^"i^'"^' , 
 ,/,,., r 1 ° , method of 
 
 pour were condenled, whica were atterwards procured (i,fl^im„g. 
 
 by wringing out the cloth. No other diftillation, be- 
 fides this kind, is mentioned by Galen, Oiibafius, ^11- 
 an, or Paulus iEgineta. 
 
 The precife time is not known when the three mine- 
 ral acids were firll difcovered; though, as no mention is 
 made of them by Geber, Avicenna, or Roger Bacon, it 
 isjpiobable that they were not known in the 12th cen- 
 6 tury. 
 
_ 7 
 
 Pliny* 
 
 ilafs-ma- 
 
 8 
 
 /Ichemy 
 full; men- 
 tioned by 
 Finiiicus 
 Maternus. 
 
 aiftory. C H E M 
 
 tury, Raymond LuIIy gives fome hints of his being 
 acquainted with the marine acid ; whence it is pro- 
 bable, that it was difcovered towards the end of the 
 13th, or beginning of the 14th, century. 
 
 Several chemical fads are related by Pliny, particu- 
 ountof thelarly the making ofglafs, which he afcribes to the fol- 
 erijjin of lowing accident. *• Some merchants in the Levant, who 
 had nitre on board their fhip, having occafion to land, 
 lighted a fire on the fand in order to prepare their food. 
 To fupport their veflels they took fome of the lumps 
 of nitre with which their ihip was loaded ; and the fire 
 afting on thefe, melted part of them along with the 
 fand, and thus formed the tranfparent fubftance called 
 glafs, to the great furpriTc of the beholders." But it 
 is probable, that the art of glafs-making was known 
 long before ; and it is by no means likely that it took 
 its rife from fuch an accident. 
 
 The next traces we find of chemiftry are to be ex- 
 trafted from the extravagant p-irfuits of the Alchemijby 
 who imagined it pofiible to convert the bafer metals 
 into gold or filver. The firft mention we find of this 
 ftudy is by Julius Firmicus Maternus, vv-ho lived in the 
 beginning of the fourth century, and fpeaks of it as a 
 well known pujfuit in his time. jEneas Blafius, who 
 lived in the fifth century, likewiie fpeaks of it ; and 
 Suidas explains the term by telling us, that it is the art 
 of making gold and filver. He ttlls us, that Diocle- 
 fian, when perfecuting the Chriftians, forbad all che- 
 mical operations, left, his fubjtfts fliould difcover the art 
 of making gold^ and thus be induced to rebel againft. 
 him. He fnppofes alfo, that the Argonautic expe- 
 rhe fable of dition was only an attempt to procure a f]<in or parch- 
 the Argo- ment. On which was written the recipe for making 
 ftauts. gold. It is a common praAice, however, in fome 
 places where gold is waflied down in fmall particles by 
 brooks and rivulets from the mountains, to fufpend in 
 the water the fkins of animals having wool or hair upon 
 them, in order to detain the heavier particles which 
 contain the gold; and this proablygave rife to the fable 
 of the golden firece. Suidas, however, who lived as 
 late as the tenth century, deferves very little credit, 
 efpecially as alchemy is ncit mentioned by any ancient 
 author. — The Arabian phyficians afford the mofl: clear 
 and diftindl evidence concering alchemy. Avicenna, 
 who lived in the tenth century, is faid by a difciple of 
 his to have wrote upon alchemy ; he mentions alfo 
 rofe-water, and fome other chemical preparations ; and 
 in the 12th century we find phyficians advifed to cul- 
 tivate an acquaintance with the chemiftsj and another 
 10 of the Arbian writers fay, that the method of pre- 
 Alchemy paring rofe-water, &c. was then well known. — From 
 this evidence of the exiftence of alchemy among the 
 Arabians, with the prefatory article Al, to denote 
 the greatnefs of the fcience, it has been conjeftured, 
 that the dodrine of the tranftnutation of metals firil 
 took its rife among the Arabians, and was introduced 
 into Europe by means of the Ciu'ades, and by the ra- 
 pid conquefts of the Arabians themftlves in Europe 
 as well as in Afia and Africa. Europe at that time 
 had been in a Hate of the greateft barbarity from the 
 incurfions of the northern nations ; but the Arabians 
 contributed to revive fome of the fciences, and intro- 
 duced alchemy among the refl, wliich continued till 
 the middle cf Cut. lyth century j at which time the 
 
 Origin of 
 
 fed to be 
 isiei ivcd 
 fiom tlie 
 Arabians. 
 
 I S T R Y. 375 
 
 extravagance of its profeflbra rofe to the greateft 
 height. _ It 
 
 Though the pretenfions of the alchemifls are now No credit 
 univerfally refuted, yet from fome of the difcoveriescjue to the 
 which have been made in chemiftry, we are even Y^t ^"^'•j^j.^^j^j^^ 
 in danger of giving fome credit to the poflibility of^j^j^^ 
 the procefs of tranfmutation. When we confider that 
 the metals are bodies compounded of parts which we 
 can take away and reftore, and that they are clofely 
 allied to one another in their external appearance, we 
 may be inchned to think favourably even of the pro- 
 jcfts of the alchemitls. The very fepafation of the 
 metals from their ores, the depriving them of their 
 dudtility and malleability, and the relloration of thefe 
 properties to them at pleafure, will appear very fur- 
 prifing to thofe who are unacquainted with chemiftry. 
 There are alio proceffes of the more difficult kind, by 
 which qiHckfilver may be produced from metals that Qulckfilver 
 are commonly folid, as from lead. Some of thefe weF^dixed 
 find in Boeihaave, Boyle, &c. authors of the greatell^'"""* 
 credit, who both fpeak of the operation and produdl 
 as reahties of which they were convinced by their own 
 experience. Thefe have been urged, not without fome 
 plaufibility, in favour of the tranfmutation of the im- 
 perfe£l metals into gold ; and hence the delufions of 
 aJchemy were not confined to the vain, the ignorant, 
 and the ambitious part of mankind ; but many ingeni- 
 ous and learned men, who took pleafure in the ftudy 
 of nature, have been feduced into this unhappy pur- 
 fuit. This happened chiefly in Germany, where the 
 variety of mines naturally turned the thoughts of che- 
 mifts principally towards the metals, though the nu- 
 merous failures of thofe who had attempted this art- 
 ought to have taught them better. 
 
 About the beginning of the i6th century, the pre- 
 tenders to alchemy were very numerous, and a multi- 
 tude of knaves, who had beggared themfelves in the at- 
 tempt, now went about to enfnare others, performing 
 legerdemain tricks, and caufing people believe that 
 they could aftually make gold and filver. A number 
 of the tricks they made ufe of are to be met with iuLe- 
 mery. Many books, with the fame defign of impofing 
 upon mankind, were written upon the fubjeft of al- 
 chemy. Theyaftiimed fiftitious names of the greateft: 
 antiquity, and contained rules for preparing the philo- 
 fopher's ftone ; a fmall quantity of which thrown into 
 abafe metal ftiould convert the whole into gold. They 
 are wrote in a myfterious ilyle, without any diftinfl 
 meaning ; and though fometimes proceffes are clearly 
 enough defcribed, they are found to be falfe and deceit- 
 ful upon trial, the produAs not anfwering.the preten- 
 fions of the authors. Their excufe was, that it was 
 vain to expeft plain accounts of thefe matters, or that 
 the books on thefe fubjeifts fhould be written diftinftly 
 and clearly ; that the value of gold was in proportion 
 to its fcarcity, and that it might be employed to bad 
 purpofes : they wrote only for the laborious and judi- 
 cious chemifts, who would underftand them provided 
 they made themfelves acqu^iiitid with the metals by 
 ftudy and experience. But in faft, no diftinft mean- 
 ing has ever been obtained, and the books have only 
 fcrved to delude and betray a great number of others 
 into the lofs of their lives. 
 
 But though the alchemifts failed ia the executio)i o£ 
 
 their 
 
3 /^ C H E M 
 
 Cheiwr ^'^"'■^ P"^jtcl:, we rmiil i\u\ own oiuftlvc-s Indebt- 
 delived '^^ '^.^ '"^"7 difcoveriea broi.Krlit to light du- 
 fome ad- ""g time they vainly fpont their iahour in tho ex- 
 vantages pe6tat!on of making gold. Some of thtfc are the me- 
 
 from the thods of prtparijig fpirit of wine, -aquafortis, volatile 
 labours of ^ii v •/ • i- "i i ' , . 
 
 the alche- ^^'^^^j' vitriolic acid, and gun-powder. Medicine too 
 inifts. was indebted to them for feveral valuable remedies ; 
 
 whence alfo it appears that many, who. had wailed their 
 time in the vain purfuit of the philofopher's ftorse, 
 
 ■ thought of trying fome of their moft elaborate prepa- 
 rations in the cure ofdifeafes; and meeting with fome 
 ;fuccefs, they prcfumed that difeafes were only to be 
 = cured by the afliilance of chemiftry ; and that the inoll 
 
 ■ elabon.te ofall its preparations, the philofopher's ilone, 
 ■would cure all .difeafes. Some cures they performed 
 -did indeed awaken the attention of phyficians; and 
 they Introduced the ufe of opium, which had formerly 
 ^been accounted poifonous. They fucceeded alfo in the 
 cure of the .venereal difeafe, which had lately made its 
 appearance, and .baffled the regular phyficians; but 
 ;the chemifts, by giving mercury, put a Hop to its ra- 
 vages, and thus introduced this valuable article into the 
 materia medica. 
 
 Account The, moft famous of the chemical profcffors was Pa- 
 of ^aracel racelfiis, well known for his arrogance, abfurdity, and 
 ifus. profligacy. He was bred to the ftudy of medicine ; 
 
 but becoming acquainted with the alcheniifts, travelled 
 about inlhe clwafter of a phyfician, and was at great 
 pains to colleft powerful medicines from all quarters. 
 Thefe he ufed with great freedom and boldnefs. His 
 rfuccefs in fome cafes operated fo upon the natural ar- 
 rogance and felf-fufficiency of his difpofition, that he 
 formed a defign of overturning the whole fyftem of 
 medicine, and fupplying a new one from chemiftry : 
 and indeed he found but very vs-eak adverfaries in the 
 fubtle theories of Galen with the refinements of the A- 
 rabian phyficians, which only prevailed in his time ; 
 and he no doubt had fome fhave in banifliing that ve- 
 neration which had been fo long entertained for thefe 
 .celebrated perfonages. 
 !Hiftory of From the time of Paracelfus, chemiftry began eve- 
 e.^hennftry r>' where to aiTume a new face. In our ovv-n country, 
 time of*^ i-ord Verulam amufed himfelf at his leifure hours 
 Paracelfus. with forming plans for promoting the fciences in ge- 
 neral, efpecially thofe which related to the ftudy of 
 The fcience ^""P found that chemiftry might turn 
 
 ftudied by out one of the moft ufeful and comprehenfive branches 
 .Xord Ve- of natural philofophy, and pointed out the means of its 
 ^rulam ; improvement. A number of experiments were propo- 
 fed by him ; but he obfervcd, that the views of che- 
 mifts were as yet only adapted to explain their parti- 
 cular operations on metals ; and he obferved, that, 
 Inftead of the abftrufe and barren philofophy of the 
 times, it was neceflary to r-ake a very large collec- 
 tion of fafts, and to compare them with each other 
 \ery maturely and cautiouiiy, in order to difcover the 
 common caufes and circumitances of conneiSlion up- 
 on which they all depend. He did not, however, 
 make any ooniiderable diicoveriea, and his works are 
 tedious and difagreeable to the reader. 
 *7 A fupcrior genius to Lord Verulam was Mr Boyle, 
 
 Bo\c^ ■'^^^who v.as born the very day that the former died. His 
 circumftances vi'cre opulent, his manners agreeable ; he 
 was endowed by nature with a goodnefs of heart ; and 
 iiiii inclination led him entirely to tljC ftudy of nature, 
 
 I S T R y. Hiftory 
 
 \sluch he wa-8 beft pkafed with cultivating irt the W-iy 
 of experiment. He confidercd the weight, fpring, and 
 quelitie« of the air ; and wrote on hydroftatics and 
 other fubjcfts ; and was poffeifed of that happy pene- 
 •tration and ingenuity fo well fuited to the making of 
 •experiments in philofophy, which ferves to deduce the 
 moil ufeful truths from the moil fimple and feemingly 
 iiiiigniticant fadls. As chemiftry was his favourite 
 fcience, he fpared no pains to procure from chemifts of 
 greateft note the knowledge of curious experiments, 
 and entertained a number of operators conftantly about 
 him. His difcoveries arc related in an eafy ftyle ; and 
 though rather copious, fuited to the tafte of the times 
 in which he lived, and free from that abfurd and my- 
 fterious air which formerly prevailed in chemical wri- 
 tings : nor does he betray a deftgn of concealing any 
 thing except fome particulars which were communica- 
 ted to him under the notion of fecrecy, or the know- 
 ledge of which might do more harm th.m good. It 
 is objected indeed, that he betrays a good deal of cre- 
 dulity with regard to fatls which are given on the 
 faith of others, and which may feem incredible ; but 
 this proceeded from his candour, and his being little 
 difpofed to fufpeft others. He ftiowed the neceftary 
 connetilion between philofophy and the arts; and faid, 
 that by attending the fhop of a workman, he learned 
 more philofophy than he had done in the fchools for a 
 long time. Thus his writings ftiowed an univerfal 
 tafte for the ftudy of nature, which had now made 
 fome advances in the other parts of the world. 
 
 Agricola is one of the firft and beft authors on the i8 
 fubjetl of metallurgy. Being born in a village in Mif- Chemiftry 
 nia, a country abounding in mines and metallurgic ^^^^^^^^^^^j^ 
 works, he defcribed them exaftly and copioufly. He fcurity. 
 was a phyfician, and cotemporary with Paracelfus, but 
 of a charafter very diff"cjent. His writings are clear 
 and inftru6live, as thofe of Paracelfus are obfcure and 
 ufelefs. Lazarus Erker, Schinder, Schlutter, PL-nktl, 
 &c. have alfo written on metallurgy, and defcribed 
 the art of aftaying metals. Anthony Neri, l)r Mer- 
 ret, and the famous Kunkel (who difcovered thephof- 
 phorus of urine), have defcribed very fully the arts of 
 making glafs, enamels, imitations of precious ilones, 
 &c. : but their writings, as Vv-ell as thofe cf fucceeding 
 chemifts, are not free from the illufions of alchemy; fo 
 true it is, that an obftinate and inveterate malady ne- 
 ver difappears at once, without leaving traces behind. 
 In a fliort time, however, the alchemical phrenzy was 
 attacked by many powerful antagonills, who contri-i 
 buted to refcue the fcience of chemiftry from an evil 
 which at once difgraced it and retarded its progrefs. 
 Among thefe, the moft diftinguiftied are Kircher a Je» 
 fuit, and Conringius a phyfieian, who wrote with much 
 fuccefs and reputation. 
 
 About the year 1 650 the Royal Society was form- ^9 
 ed by a number of gentlemen who were unwilling to^-^^^j^^^ 
 engage in the civil wars ; and being ftruck with the ti^uudcd. 
 extenilve views of Lord Verulam and Mr Boyle, con- 
 tributed to the expence of coftly experiments. This 
 example appeared fo noble, and the deftgn fo good, 
 that it has been followed by all the civihzed ftates of 
 Europe, and has met with the prote6lion of their re- 
 fpedlive fovereigns ; and from thefe chemiftry has re- 
 ceived confiderable improvements. In France, Geof- 
 froy, Lemery, Reaumur, 5cc. came to be diftinguilh- 
 
 ed; 
 
Theory. 
 
 ed ; and In Germany Margraaf, Pott, and others, have 
 made a confiderable figure .in thofe Ibcieties. Kunc- 
 kel, Begar, Stahl, and Hoffman, &c. have done great 
 fervice to fociety, by introducing new arcs, and the nu- 
 50 merous improvements they have made. 
 Oftheim- The chemifts who have made a figure in Germany 
 provements j^j^ J France are more in number than thofe whom our 
 different ^^^^^ has produced. In France, the fociety was en- 
 rations ill couraged by the fovereign ; and in It they have diveft- 
 chemiftiy. ed themfelves of that myfterlous air which was afFecl- 
 ed in former ages. In Germany, the riclmefs of the 
 country, and the great variety of mines, by turning the 
 attention of chemifts to tlie metals, have given that 
 alchymiftical air to their writings which we obferve in 
 them. The number of thofe who have applied them- 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 felves to chemiftry is very fmall In England, owing to 
 the great improvements made by Sir Ifaac Newton in 
 the fciences of aftronomy and optics ; which, by turn- 
 ing the general attention that way, has occafioned vs'hat 
 may be called a negleft of chemiftry. But if their 
 number be inconfiderable, they are by no means infe- 
 rior in merit and fame. The name of Boyle has always 
 been held in the higheft efteem, as well as that of Hales, 
 for the analyfis he has made of the air. Sir Ifaac 
 Newton alone has done jnore to the eftabliihing a ra- 
 tional chemical theory than ever was done before. C9 
 late, the tafte for the ftudy has became more general, 
 and many ufeful books have appeared ; fo that it is to 
 be hoped we fliall foon excel in this branch of fcience^ 
 as we have done in all the reft. 
 
 377 
 
 Part I. THEORY of CHEMISTRY. 
 
 11 
 
 Perfedl 
 Theory, 
 what. 
 
 ObjeCls of 
 Chemiftry, 
 
 Siippo(it!<>n 
 f)f e'emeiirs 
 the origin 
 of alchtm) . 
 
 ACCORDING to the definition we have given of this 
 fcience, the theory of it ought to confift in a 
 thorough knowledge of all the phenomena which refult 
 from every poffible combination of its objefts with one 
 another, or from expofing them in all poffible ways to 
 thofe fubftances which chemifts have found to be the 
 moft aftive In producing a change. So various, how- 
 ever, and fo widely extended are the objefts of che-< 
 miftry (comprehending all terreftrlal bodies whatever), 
 tliat a knowledge of this kind is utterly unattainable by 
 man. The utmoft that can be done in this cafe is, to 
 give fome account of the phenomena which accompany 
 the mixtures of particular fubftances, or the appearances 
 they put on when expofed to heat ; and thefe have been 
 already fo well afcertaincd, that, they may now be laid 
 down as rules, whereby we may, with a good deal of 
 certainty, judge of the event of our experiments, even 
 before they are made. 
 
 Here we muft obferve, that though the obje^^s of 
 chemiftry are as various as there are different fubftan- 
 ces in the v.-hole fyftem of nature, yet they cannot all 
 be examined with equal eafe. Some of thefe fub- 
 ftances a6: upon others with great violence ; and the 
 greater their activity, the more difhcultly are they 
 themfelves fubjefted to a chemical examination. Thus, 
 fire, which is the moft aftlve body in nature, is fo 
 little the fubjeft of examination, that it hath hi- 
 therto baffled the ingenuity of the greateft phllofo- 
 phers to underftand Its compofition. This fubftance, 
 therefore, though it be the principal if not the only 
 agent In chemiftry, is riot properly an objecl of It, be- 
 caufe It cannot be made a fubjeft of any chemical ope- 
 ration. 
 
 It hath been cuftomary to confider all bodies as com- 
 pofed of certain permanent and unchangeable parts 
 called elements ; and that the end of chemiftry was to 
 refolve bodies into thefe elements, and to recompofe 
 them again by a proper mixture of the elements 
 when fo feparated. Upon this fuppofitlon the alche- 
 mifts went ; who, fuppofing that all bodies were c©m- 
 pofed of fait, fulphur, and mercury, endeavoured to 
 find out thepr^l^ortions in which thefe exifted In gold, 
 and then to form that metal by combining them in a 
 fimilar manner. Had tliey taken care to afcertain the 
 real exiftence of their elements, and, by mixing them 
 together, compofed any one metal v/hatever, though 
 
 Vol. JV. Part I. 
 
 but a grain of lead, the leaft valuable of them all ; 
 their pretenfions would have been very rational and 
 well founded ; but as they never afcertained the exift- 
 ence of fuch elementaiy bodies, it is no wonder that 
 their labours were never attended with fuccefs. *4 
 
 Another fet of elements which were as generally '^f I'^^y''^ 
 received, and indeed continue to be fo in fome mea- 
 fure to this da)-, are fire, air, earth, and water. — 
 This doftrine of elements was ftrenuoully oppafed by 
 Mr Boyle ; who endeavoured to prove, that fire was 
 not an element />fr fe^ but generated merely from the 
 motion of the particles of terreftrial bodies among one 
 another; that air was generally produced from the fub<- 
 ftance of folid bodies ; and that water, by a great num- 
 ber of diftlUatlons, was converted into earth. His ar- 
 gun-tcnts, however, concerning fire were not at all ccn- 
 clufive ; nor doeB the expulfion of air from fixed bo- 
 dies prove that any of their folid parts were employ- 
 ed in the compofition of that air ; as later difcoveries 
 have fliown that air may be abforbed from the external 
 atmofphere, and fixed in a great number of folid fub- 
 ftances. His afTertion concerning water deferves much 
 confideration, and the experiment is well worth re- 
 peating ; but it does not appear that he, or any other 
 perfon, ought to have relied upon the experiment 
 which was intended to prove this tranfmutatlon. The 
 faft was this. Having defigned to try the pofTiblllty 
 of reducing water to earth by repeated diftlUations, 
 he diftilled an ounce of water three times over himfelf, 
 and found a fmall quantity of earth always remaining. 
 He then gave it to another, who diftilled it 197 times. 
 Th& amount of earth from the whole diftUlatlons was 
 fix drams, or :|:ths of the quantity of water employed ; 
 and tills earth was fixed, white, and infoluble in wa- 
 ter. — Here it is evident, that great fufplcions muft 
 lie agalnft the fidelity of the unknown operator, who 
 no doubt would be weaned out with fuch a number 
 of diftillatlons. The affair might appear trivial to 
 him ; and as he would perhaps know to which fide Mr 
 Boyle's opinion inclined, he might favour It, by mix- 
 ing fome winte earth with the water. Had the ex- 
 periment been tried by Mr Boyle's own hand, his 
 known character would have put the matter beyond a 
 doubt. 
 
 The decompofitlon of water, however, In another 
 way, by the combination of one part of it with the 
 3 B phio- 
 
578 
 
 C H E M I S T tl y. 
 
 Theory* 
 
 25 
 
 phlogiftic, and another with the earthy part of a metal, 
 is now well afcertained, and the experiments which 
 led to the difcovery are treated of under the articles 
 Aerology and Water. 
 JSxiftenceof Even the exiftence of earth as an element appears 
 elements as dubious as that of the others ; for it is certain that 
 is no fpecies of earth whatever, from which we 
 can produce two diflimilar bodies, by adding their o- 
 ther component parts. — Thus, the earth of alum has 
 all the charafters of fimplicity which we can defire in 
 any terreilrial fubftance. It is white, infipid, inodo- 
 rous, and perfeflly fixed in the fire ; neverthelefs, it 
 feems to be only an clement of that particular body 
 called alum ; for though alum is compofed of a pure 
 earth and vitriolic acid joined together, and Epfom fait 
 and felenite are both compofed of a pure earth com- 
 bined with the fame acid ; yet by adding oil of vitriol 
 to the earth of alum, in any poflible way, we (hall ne- 
 vevbe able to form either Epfom fait or felenite. In 
 like manner, though all the imperfeft metals are com- 
 pofed of inflammable matter joined v\'ith an earthy ba- 
 ils ; yet by adding to earth of alum any proportion 
 we pleafe of inflammable matter, we fhall never pro- 
 duce a metal ; and what is fl;ill more mortifying, we 
 can never make the earthy bafis of one metallic firb- 
 Itance produce any other metal than that which it ori- 
 ginally compofed. 
 Elements A little confidcration upon the fubjeft of elements 
 receffarily will convince US, not only that no fuch bodies have ever 
 invilible. been difcovered, but that they never will ; and for 
 
 this plain reafon, that they muft be in their own nature 
 invifible. — The component parts of any fubfl;ance may 
 with propriety enough be called the elements of that 
 fubflance, as long as we propofe carrying the decom- 
 pofition no farther ; but thefe elements have not the 
 leaft property refembling any fubfl:ance which they 
 compofe. Thus, it is found that the compound fait 
 called fal ammoniac^ is formed by the union of an acid 
 and an alkali : we may therefore properly enough call 
 thefe two the elements of fal ammoniac ; but, taken fe- 
 parately, they have not the leaft refemblance to the 
 \5ompound, which is formed out of them. Both the 
 acid and alkali are by themfelves fo volatile as to be 
 capable of diffipation into an invifible vapour by the 
 heat of one's hand ; whereas, when joined together, 
 they are fo fixed as almoft to endure a red heat with- 
 out going o'S. If, again, we were to feek for the ele- 
 ments of the acid and alkali, we muft not expeft to 
 find them have any properties refembling either an acid 
 or an alkali, but others quite diflferent. Any com- 
 mon element of all bodies muft therefore be a fubftance 
 which has no property fimilar to any other in the whole 
 fyftem of nature, ami confequently muft be impercep ■ 
 tible. 
 
 * fition above-m.entioned four elements, viz. fire, 
 
 con«:rn!n2 aii*> earth, and water, a kind oi ffth element has ge- 
 phlogifton. neially been added, but not ufually diftinguiftied by 
 that name, though it has apparently an equal, if not 
 a g"reater, right to the title of an element than any of 
 the others. This fubftance is called the phlogijlon^ or 
 inflammable principle;' on which the ignition of all 
 bodies depends. The exiftence of this element was firft 
 afTerted by Stahl, and from him the opinion has been 
 derived to other chemifts : but of late a new dodlrine 
 was broached by M. jLavoifier, who. denies the exift- 
 
 ence of phlogifton altogether. Though none of thefe Of the 
 fubftances therefore are properly the objefts of che- ^£ 
 miftry, yet as they have fo much ingroffed the atten- _ , ' ^ j 
 tion of modern chemifts, we lhall here give an ac- 
 count of the moft remarkable theories that have ap- 
 peared concerning them. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Element of Fire. 
 
 The opinions concerning the element of fire may 
 be divided into two general claffes; the one confidering 
 it as an eff"e(5l, the other as a caufe. The former is Two gene- 
 maintained by Lord Bacon, Mr Boyle, and Sir Ifaac j^'g^*^""^"^^ 
 Newton ; whofe refpeftable names for along time gave 
 fuch a fanftion to this theory, that it was generally 
 looked upon as an eftablifhed truth. Some learned 
 men, however, among whom was the great Dr Boer- 
 haave, always diffented, and infifted that fire was a fluid 
 univerfally diffufed, and equally prefent in the frozen 
 regions of Nova Zembla as in a glafs-houfe furnace, 
 only that in the latter its motion made it confpicuous^j 
 and by fetting it in motion in the coldeft parts of the 
 world, its previous exiftence there would be equally 
 demonftrable as in the furnace above-mentioned. 29 
 
 Lord Bacon defines heat, which he ufes as a fynony- Lord Ba- 
 mous term with fire, to be an expanfive undulatoi y mo- * 
 tion in the particles of a body, whereby they tend with ° 
 fome rapidity towards the circumference, and alfo a 
 little upwards. Hence, if in any natural body you 
 can excite a motion whereby it fliall expand or dilate 
 itfelf, and can reprefs and direft this motion upon it- 
 felf in fuch a manner that the motion fhall not proceed 
 uniformly, but obtain in fome parts and be checked in 
 others, you will generate heat or fire. ,0 
 
 The fame opinion is fupported by Mr Boyle in the Mr Eoyle's' 
 following manner : " The produftion of heat difcovers op'"'"". 
 nothing, either in the agent or patient, but motion, and 
 its natural eff"e£ls. When a fmith brillvly hammers a 
 fmall piece of iron, the metal thereby becomes exceed- 
 ingly hot : yet there is nothing to make it fo, except 
 the motion of the hammer imprefiing a vehement and 
 varloufly determined agitation on the fmall parts of 
 the iron ; which, being a cold body l;efore, grows hot 
 by that fuperinduced motion of its fmall parts : firft, in 
 a more loofe acceptation of the word, with regard to 
 fome other bodies, in comparifon of which it was cold 
 before ; then fenfibly hot, becaufe the motion in the 
 parts of the iron is greater than that in the parts of 
 our fingers ; at the 'fame time that the hammer and an- 
 vil, by which the percufTion is communicated, may, on 
 account of their magnitude, remain cold. It is not 
 neceflary, therefore, that a body fliould itfelf be hot 
 in order to communicate heat to another." 31 
 
 The arguments made ufe of by Sir Ifaac Newton Sentimentj- 
 are not intended pofitively to eftabiifti any kind of the- -^^^^^^^^ 
 ory relating to fire, but are to be found in a conjefture, 
 pubUfhed at the end of his Treatife on Optics, con- 
 cerning the nature of the fun and ftars. " Large bo- 
 dies (he obferves ) preferve their heat the loHgeft, their 
 parts heating one another ; and why may not great, 
 denfe, and fixed bodies, when heated beyond a certain 
 degree, emit light fo copioufly, as, by the emiflion and 
 reaftion of it, and the refleftions and itfraftions with- 
 in the pores, to grow continually hotter, till they arrive 
 at fuch a period of heat as is that of the fun ? Their 
 
 parts 
 
Theory. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 379 
 
 3* 
 Fire now 
 generary 
 allowed to 
 he an ele- 
 <nent /><;t fe 
 
 Z7, 
 
 Tv- o other 
 theories m- 
 ftituted. 
 
 34 
 In what 
 they dif- 
 fer from 
 the for- 
 mer. 
 
 35, 
 
 General 
 account of 
 Dr Black's 
 and Dr Ir- 
 vine's the- 
 ory. 
 
 parts may be further prefei-ved from fuming .away, not 
 only by their fixity, but by the vaft weight and denfity 
 of the atmofphere incumbent on them, ftrongly com- 
 prefling them, and condenfing the vapours exhaled from 
 them. Thus we fee, that warm water, in an exhaufted 
 receiver, fhall boil as vehemently as the hotteft water 
 expofed to the air ; the weight of the incumbent atmo- 
 fphere in this latter cafe keeping down the vapours, 
 and hindering the ebullition till it has received its ut- 
 moii degree of heat. Thus alfo a mixture of tin and 
 lead, put on a red hot iron m vacuo, emits a fume and 
 flame ; but the fame mixture in the open air, by i*afon 
 of the incumbent atmofphere, does not emit the leaftfen- 
 fible flame." In confequence of thefe experiments, Sir 
 Ifaac conjedlures, that there is no eflential diilinftion 
 betwixt fire and grofs bodies ; but that they may be 
 converted into one another. " Fire (he fays) is a body 
 heated fo hot as to emit light copioufly ; for what 
 (fays he) is a red hot iron but fire ?" 
 
 The hypothefes of thefe great men produced long 
 and violent difputes, which were never decifively fet- 
 tled : The difcoveries in eleftricity, however, furnifiied 
 fuch additional ftrength to the followers of Dr Boer- 
 haave, that fire is now believed to be an element and 
 fluid diftindt from all others, by at leaft as many as e- 
 fpoufe the contrary fyfliem; but the queilion is not de- 
 cided. Whether ihe fire itfelf is to be confidered as the 
 agent ? or. Whether its aAion is to be derived from 
 the principles of attraction and repulfion, the na- 
 tural agents fuppofed to influence other material 
 fubftahces ? This has produced two other fyfl:ems 
 of a kind of mixed nature, in which heat or fire 
 is confidered as a fubfl:ance difl;in6l from all others, 
 but which a€ts in other bodies according to its 
 quantity. Thefe fyftems have been promulgated by 
 Dr Black of Edinburgh and Dr Irvine of Glafgow. 
 They differ from the opinions of Mr Boyle, Lord Ba- 
 con, and Sir Ifaac Newton, in fuppofing heat to be a 
 fluid difl:in£t from aU other material fubftances ; and 
 they alfo diflfer from the hypothefis of Dr Boerhaave, 
 Lemery, and others, in fuppofing ditferent terreftrial 
 fubftances to be hot according to the quantity of fluid 
 contained, and not according to the force with which 
 it moves in them. 
 
 Dr Black is of opinion that heat, which he feems 
 to make fynonymous with fire, exifts in two different 
 ftates ; in one of which it affefts our fenfes and the 
 thermometer, in the other it does not. The former 
 therefore he calls Jenfihk heat, the latter latent heat. On 
 thefe principles he gives the only fatisfadlory explana- 
 tion of the phenomena of evaporation and fluidity that 
 has yet appeared, as fhall afterwards be more fully 
 explained. At prefent we fliall only obferve, that, ac- 
 cording to the theory of Dr Black, heat or fire it- 
 felf feems to be the agent ; but, according to that of 
 Dr Irvine, as far as we can gather it from the treatifes 
 of Dr Crawford and others, the principles of attrac- 
 tion and repulfion are the agents by which heat, as 
 well as other bodies, is influenced. Thus, odi the princi- 
 ples of Dr Black, we fay, that water is converted into 
 vapour by a quantity of heat entering into it in a la- 
 tent ftate, and thereby rendering it fpecifically lighter 
 than the atmofphere : according to the principles of 
 Dr Irvine, we fay, that water is converted into vapour 
 by having its capacity for attradling h^at from the 
 
 atmofphere increafed. So that, according to the former, Of the 
 the abforption of heat is the caw/s ; according to the ^'^"^p^jf^"' 
 latter, the effect, of its converfion into vapour. ^ 
 
 Dr Crawford, in his Treatife oa Heat, publlfh- 
 ed in 1788, informs us, that heat, in the philo-Dr Irvine's 
 fophical fenfe of the word, has been ufed to ex- theory^ ex- 
 prefs what is frequently called the element of Jire, in ^^'craw- 
 the abftract, without regard to the peculiar effefts f^ij. 
 which it may produce in relation to other bodies. 37 
 This, with Dr Irvine, he calls abfolute heat ; and the Abfolute 
 external caufe, as having a relation to the _ eff"e6ls it he^^ de- 
 produces, he calls relative heat. " From this view of ' 
 the matter (fays he), it appears, that abfolute heat ex- 
 prefles, in the abftradl, that power or element which, 
 when it is prefent to 2i certain degree, excites in all ani- 3? 
 mals the fenfation of heat ; and relative heat exprefles Relative 
 the fame power, confidered as having a relation to''"^^^ 
 the effefts by which it is known and meafured. 3^ 
 
 " The effeAs by which heat is known and meafu- How di- 
 red are three ; and therefore relative heat may admit of ''i^'^'^' 
 three fubdivifions. i. This principle is known by the 
 peculiar fenfations which it excites in animals. Con- 
 fidered as exciting thofe fenfations, it is called fenjihle , 
 heat. 2. It is known by the effeft which it produces 
 upon an inftrument that has been employed to meafurc 
 it, termed a thermometer. This is called the temperature 
 of heat in bodies. 3. It has been found by experiment, 
 that in bodies of different kinds the quantities of ab- 
 folute heat may be unequal, though the temperatures 
 and weights be the fame. When the principle of heat 
 is confidered relatively to the whole quantity of it 
 contained in bodies of different kinds, but which have 40 
 equal weights and temperatures, I fliall term it com- Comparn- 
 parative heat. If, for example, the temperatures and'^J^,^^^^*^ 
 weights being the fame, the whole quantity of heat in 
 water be four times as great as that of antimony, the 
 comparative heats of thefe fubilances are faid to be as 
 four to one." 41 
 
 In order to have a. proper conception of what isExperi- 
 meant by a difference in abfolute heat, when the tern- J^^^n^s 
 peratures are the fame, it will be neceffary to relate gj^^fj^ 
 fome experiments, by which Dr Black was firft led to led to the 
 the difcovery of latent heat. He obferves, that when difcoyery 
 two equal maffes of the fame matter, heated to difFe- ^^g^^*^^""^ 
 rent degrees, are mixed together, the heat of the mix- 
 ture ought to be an arithmetical mean betwixt the two 
 extremes. This, however, only takes place on mixing 
 hot and cold water together ; but if inftead of cold 
 water we take ice, the cafe is remarkably different. 
 Here the temperature of the mixture is much below A quantity 
 the arithmetical mean, and a quantity of heat is appa- ^j^'^f ^^"j^^ 
 rently lofl:. Now we know that the temperature of 1"'^*^^^ ' 
 ice newly frozen is generally 32 degrees of Fahrenheit; 
 fuppofing therefore the temperature of the water 
 which diffolves it to be 1 20=, the arithmetical mean is ' 
 7 1 ; but if the mixture indicates a temperature only ©f 
 60°, then we mud fuppofe that the ice contained 1 1"^ 
 of heat lefs than was indicated by the thermometer ; 
 and confequently, that water at 32° contains 1 1° more 
 of abfolute heat than ice at 32 ^. 43 
 
 The fame thing is made ftill more evident from the Great 
 condenfation of vapour. The fluid of water is not ca- ^"^"'jj^'^ 
 pable of fuftaining a great degree of heat ; and 212° produce ! 
 of Fahrenheit is the utmoil it can be made to bear, by the con- 
 without an extraordinary degree of preffure, as in Pa- denfation 
 3B2 pin's ^f^^P""^* 
 
44 
 
 Dr Black's 
 method i f 
 calculating 
 it. 
 
 4y 
 
 Mr Watt's 
 experiment 
 on the di- 
 ftillafion of 
 water in 
 •jacuo. 
 
 Difference 
 of abfolute 
 heat in dif- 
 ferent 
 fluids. 
 
 47 
 Thinneft 
 fluids con- 
 tain tlie 
 greatell 
 ijuantity 
 of heat. 
 
 48 
 
 Great dlf- 
 fcicnre be- 
 twixt the 
 calculations 
 of Drs Cleg- 
 horn and 
 CiBVvford. 
 
 49 
 
 Crawford's 
 account of 
 fenfible 
 heat. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 pia's digefter, or the admixture of faline fubftances : 
 the temperature of the fteam emiuted by it therefore 
 never can exceed 2 1 2 \ except in the cafes juft men- 
 tioned ; and it is often capable of bearing a great de- 
 gree of cold without being condenfed. When the con- 
 dcnfation takes place at laft, however, 5I very confi- 
 dtrable degree of heat is ahvays produced ; and Dr 
 Black has fuown, that, in the condenfation of fteam 
 by the refrigeratory of a common Itill, as much heat 
 is communicated to the water in the refrigeratory as 
 ■would be fufficient to make the water which comes 
 over as hot as red hot-iron, were it all to exift in a fen- 
 fible ftate. His method of making the calculation is 
 very ealy. For, fuppofmg the refrigeratory to con- 
 tain 100 pounds of water, and that one pound has been 
 diHilled; if the water in the refrigeratory has received 
 10 degrees of heat, we know that the dillilled pound 
 has parted with 1000. If in paffing through tl-.e worm 
 of the refrigeratory, it has been reduced to the tempera- 
 ture of 50° of Fahrenheit, having been at 212° whe:i it 
 entered it, then it has loft only 1 62° of fenlible heat ; all 
 the rell communicated to the water of the refrrgerato- 
 rj amounting to more than 800^, having been con- 
 tained in a latent ftate, and fuch as could not then af- 
 fect the tliermometer. This experiment was tried by 
 Mr Watt in a manner ftill more ftriking, by a diftilla- 
 tion of water in vacuo. Thus the fteam, freed from 
 the preifure of the atreofphere, could not conceive fuch 
 a degree of lenuble heat as in the common method of di- 
 ftilling. It Came over therefore with a very gentlewarmth, 
 fcarce more than what the haiui cotdd l)ear i neverthe- 
 lefs it had abforbed as much heat as though the di- 
 ft:illatioH had been performed in the common way; for 
 the refrigeratory had 1000 degrees of heat communi- 
 cated to it. 
 
 The difference of abfolute heat is likewlfe percep- 
 tible betwixt any two bodies of different denfity, water 
 and mercury for inftance : and in comparing thefe, it will 
 always be found that the thinneft fluids contain the 
 greateft quantity of abfolute heat ; as water more than 
 mercury, fpirit of wine more than water, ether more 
 than fpirit of wine, and air more than any of them. 
 Dr Black having brought equal bulks of mercury and 
 water, the former to a temperature of 50 degrees high- 
 er than the latter, found that, on mixture, there was a 
 gain of only 20 degrees above the original; but on rever- 
 fing the experiment, and heating the water 50 degrees 
 above^the mercury, there was a gain of 30 degrees on the 
 whole. " Hence (fays Dr Cleghorji in his thefts 
 de Igne) it appears, that the quantity of heat in water 
 is to that in mercury, when both are of equal tempera- 
 tures, as 3 to 2." Dr Crawford, however, tells us, 
 that " the fame quantity of heat which raifes a pound 
 of water one degree, will raife a pound of mercury 28 
 degrees ; whence it follows, that the comparative heat 
 of water is t© that of mercury as 28 to i : and confe- 
 quently, the alterations which are produced in the 
 temperatures of bodies by given quantities of abfolute 
 heat, may properly be applied as a meafure of their 
 comparative heats ; the alterations of temperature and 
 the comparative heats being reciprocally proportional 
 to one another. 
 
 " Senhble heat (continues DrCrawford) dependspart- 
 ly on the ftate of the temperature, and partly on that of 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 the organ of feeling; and therefore if a variation be pro- Of the 
 duced in the latter, the fenftble heat w;ll be different, Element 
 though the temperature continue the fame. Thtis water , j 
 
 at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit appears cold to 
 a warm hand immerfed in it; but on the contrary, that 
 fluid will appear warm if a hand be applied to it which 
 has a lower degree of heat than 62"". For this reafon, 
 the thermometer is a much more accurate meafure of 
 heat than the fenfes of animals. As long, however, 
 as the organs remain unchanged, the fenfible heat is in 
 proportion to the temperature ; and therefore thofc 
 term's have generally been confidered as fynonymous. 
 On this fubjeft Dr Reid obferves, that until the ratio Dr Reid*s 
 between one temperature and another be afcertained by obfervati(«i 
 experiment and indudlion, we ought to confider tern- '^"""''"^"S 
 perature as a meafure which admits of degrees, but not [u^j*^'*" 
 of ratios ; and coiifequently ought not to conclude, 
 that the temperature of one body is double or triple to 
 that of anather, unlefs the ratio of different tempera- 
 tures were deterniined. Nor ought we to ufe tlie ex- 
 preffions of a double or triple temperature, thefe being 
 expreffioRS which convey no diftindt meaning until 
 the ratio of difterent temperatures be determined." 
 
 In making experiments on the com.parative quanti- Difference 
 ties of heat in different bodies, our author chooles ra- betwixt 
 ther to ufe equal iveights than equal bulks of the fub- ^be calcula- 
 ftances to be compared. Thus he found the cempa- 1^""* °^ 
 rative heat of water to be to that of mercury as 28 tOan^^^ack. 
 I by weight, and 2 to i by bulk ; which differs very 
 confiderably from the conclufion of Dr Black, who 
 makes it only as 3 to 2, as has been already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 From the differences obferved in the quantities of CapfcUics 
 abfolute heat contained in different bodies, our author for contain- 
 concludes, that *' there muft be certain effential diffe-'»g heat 
 rences in the nature of bodies ; in confequence of ^'plained, 
 which, fome have the power of coUeding and retaining 
 that element in greater quantity than others.'' Thefe 
 different powers he calls the capacities for containing 
 heat. Thus, if we find by experiment that a pound 
 of water contains four times as much abfolute heat as 
 diaphoretic antimony, when at the fame temperature, 
 the capacity of water for containing heat is faid to be 
 to that of antimony as 4 to i. 
 
 " The temperature, the capacity for containing heat, How the 
 and the abfolute heat contained, may be diftinguifhed capacity, 
 from each other in the following manner : tcmpera- 
 
 " The capacity for containing heat, and the abfo- gJJJjj,'^ 
 lute heat contained, are diftinguifhed as a force diftindthcat, arc 
 from the fubjeft upon which it operates. When we to be di- 
 fpeak of the capacity, we mean a power inherent in itinguilhed, 
 the heated body ; when we fpeak of the abfolute heat, 
 we mean an unknown principle which is retained in 
 the body by the operation of this power ; and when 
 we fpeak of the temperature, we eoufider the Unknowri 
 principle as producing certain effefts upon the ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 " The capacity for containing heat may continue 
 unchanged, while the abfolute heat is varied without 
 end. If a pound of ice, for example, be fuppofed to 
 retain its fohd form, the quantity of its abfolute heat 
 will be altered by every increafe or diminution of its 
 fenfible heat : but as long as its form continues the 
 fame, its capacity for receiving heat is not affeded by 
 
'heory. 
 
 G H E M 
 
 55 
 
 [Fire cor- 
 
 tained in 
 Voiliesj art 
 !y hy iU 
 attrr.tSion 
 to them. 
 
 an alteration of temperature, and would remain un- 
 changed though the body were wholly deprived of its 
 heat." 
 
 In the courfe of his work, Dr Crawford obfervcs, 
 ravvford's that " he has not entered into the inquiry which has 
 1} inion been fo much agitated among the Englirn, the French, 
 oncernmg ^^^^ ^y^^ German philofophers, Whether heat be a fub- 
 ibiliiid. Ji'i'"^^ or a quality ? In fume places indeed he has ufed 
 expreflions which feem to favour the former opinion ; 
 but his fole motive for adopting thefe was, becaufe the 
 language feemed to be more iimple and natural, and 
 more confonant to the fafts which had been eftablifhed 
 by experiment. At the fame time, he is perfuaded 
 that it would be a very difficult matter to reconcile 
 many of the phenomena with the fuppofition that heat 
 i* a quality. It is not eafy to conceive, upon this hy- 
 pcthefis, how heat can be abforbed in the procefles of 
 fufion, evaporation, combuiHon ; how the quantity of 
 heat in the air can be diminifhed, and that in the 
 blood increafed, by refpiration, though no fenfible heat 
 or cold be produced. 
 
 *• Whereas, if we adopt the opinion that heat Is a di- 
 flinft fubitance, oran element fui generis y the phenome- 
 na will be found to admit of a fimple and obvious in- 
 terpretation. 
 
 •* Fire will be confidered as a principle ; which is 
 diilributed in variots proportions throughout the dif- 
 ferent kingdoms of nature. The mode of its union 
 with bodies will refemble that particular fpccies of 
 union, wherein the elements are combined by the joint 
 forces of preffure and attraftion. Of this kind is the 
 combination of fixed air and Avater ; for fixed air is 
 ^Y^ Pfjj|-y^^ retained in water partly by itsattraftion for that fluid, 
 ftf^heex- aiid pai-tly by the prefiure of the external air ; and if 
 tcrnal fluid, either of thefe forces be dimini^died, a portion of the 
 fixed air efcapcs. In like manner, it may be con- 
 ceived that elementary fire is retained in bodies, partly 
 fcy its attraftion to thefe bodies, and partly by the 
 a^lion of the furroanding heat ; and in that cafe a 
 portion of it will be dilengaged, either by diminifhing 
 the attraftive force, or by leffcning the temperature of 
 the circumambient medium. If, however, fire be a 
 fubftance which is fubje6^ to the laws of attraction, 
 the mode of its union with bodies feems to be diffe- 
 rent from that which takes place in chemical combi- 
 nation: for, in chemical combination, the elements ac- 
 quire new properties, and either wholly or in part lofe 
 thofe by which they were formerly charadlerized. 
 But we have no fufficient evidence for belie ving that 
 fire, in confequence of its union with bodies, does, 
 in any inllance, lofe its diftinguiHiing properties." 
 
 Dr Berkenhout, in his Firft Lines of the Theory 
 and Praftice of Philofophical Chemiftry, informs us, 
 *eii!inf? the that " heat, or the matter of heat, is by Scheele and 
 nature of Bergman fubftituted for fire, which they believe to be 
 the aftion of heat when increafed to a certain degree. 
 Tlie firft of thefe celebrated chemilb believed this mat- 
 ter of heat to be a compound of phlogifton and pure 
 air. He was certainly miftaken. It feems more phi- 
 lofophical to confider heat as an eJeBy of which fire is 
 the fole caufe. 
 
 " Heat I confider not as a diftinft fubftance, but as 
 ^°"c' ^i'^ ^" effedl of fire, fixed or volatile; in botli which llates^ 
 fire feems to exift in all bodies, folid and fluid. Fixed 
 fire I believe to be a conftituent part of all bodies. 
 
 56 
 
 Dr Berkei 
 iiout's opi- 
 
 lleat. 
 
 €is divi 
 
 nto fixed 
 i»nd vola 
 aie. 
 
 I S T R Y. 381 
 
 and their fpeclfic heat to depend on the quantity of '^'^ 
 fixed fire in each. This fixed, this latent fire, cannot ^'^^^^^^J^'f 
 be feparated from the other conftituent parts of bo- ' ^ 
 dies but by their decompofition : it then becomes vo- 
 latile and incoercible. If this hypothefis be true, fire 
 exiils, in all natural bodies that contain phlogifton, in 
 three different ftates: i. In that volatile ftate in which 
 it perpetually flucluates between one body and an- 
 other. 2. Combined with an acid, probably in the 
 form of fixed inflammable air or phlogifton. 3. Un- 
 combined and fixed, as a conftituent principle, deter- 
 mining the fpecific heat of bodies. 
 
 " Pure (or volatile) fire is diftinguiihed by the fol-Pr.re orta 
 lowing properties, i. It is effentially fluid, invifible, Iari!e fre 
 and without weight. 2. It is the immediate caufe of 
 all fluidity. 3. It penetrates and pervades all bodies 
 on the furface of the earth, and as far beneath the fur- 
 face as hath hitherto been explored. Water hath ne- 
 ver been found in a congealed ftate in the deepeft 
 mines. 4. It has a conftant tendency to difi"ufe itfelf 
 equally through all bodies, howfoever different in point 
 of denfity. A marble flab, a plate of iron, a decanter 
 of water, and a lady's muff, at the fame diftance from 
 the fire, and other external circumftances, being equal, 
 poflefs an equal degree of heat, which is precifely that 
 of the atmofphere in which they ftand. 5. It is per- 
 petually in motion from one body to another, and 
 from different parts of the fame body, becaufe external 
 circumftances are continually varying. 6. In fluctu- 
 ating from one body to another, it produces a conftant 
 vibration of their conitituent parts ; for all bodies ex- 
 pand and contradi in proportion to the quantity of 
 fire they contain. 7. Accumulated beyond a certain 
 quantity, it eff'efts the diffolution of bodies, by forcini^ 
 their conftituent parts beyond the fphere of mutual 
 attraction, called the attraction of cohejion^ which is the- 
 caufe of folidity. Hence the fovereign agency of -fire 
 in chemical operations." 
 
 Dr Crawford, befides the opinions already quoted, -^^ 
 tells us, that fire, in the vulgar acceptation of tlie ^J^^jV'^j^^"* 
 word, expreffes a certain degree of heat accompanied fin ir ion of 
 with light ; and is particularly applied to that heat fire, 
 and light which are produced by the inflammation of 
 combuftible bodies. But as heat, when accumulated 
 in a fufScienl quantity, is conftantly accompanied with 
 light ; or, in other words, as fire is always produced 
 by the increafe of heat, philofophers have generally 
 confidered thefe phenomena as proceeding from the 
 fame caufe : and have therefore ufed the word fire to 
 exprefs that unknown principle, which, when it is pre- 
 fent to a certain degree, excites the fenfation of heat 
 alone ; but, when accumulated to a greater degree, 
 renders itfelf obvious both to the fight ajid touch, or 
 produces heat accompanied with light. In this fenfe, 
 the element of fire fignifies- the fame thing with abfa- 
 lute heat. 
 
 Having premifed thefe generaJ definitions and re- 
 marks, he gives the properties of lireat in the following 
 words : 
 
 "I. Heat has a conflant tendency to diffufe itfelf over do 
 all bodies till they arc brought to the fame tempera- * 
 ture. Thus it is found by the thermometer, that ifto'aiff!!? 
 two bodies of different temperatures are mixed toge- itfelf e- 
 ther, or placed contiguous, the heat paffes from the qually over 
 one to the other till their temperatures become equal ; ^odie», 
 
 aod 
 
6i 
 It is con- 
 tamed in 
 confider- 
 able quan- 
 tity in all 
 bodies. 
 
 6z 
 Great de- 
 gree of cold- 
 at Glaf- 
 gow, 
 
 6^ . 
 
 In Siberia, 
 
 and at 
 Hudfon's 
 bay. 
 
 64 
 
 Quantity 
 of heat H- 
 nii-ed in 
 all bodies. 
 
 Bodies uni" 
 verfally ex- 
 panded by 
 iieat. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 and tiiat all inafii'mate bodies, when heated and placed 
 in a cold medium, continually lofe heat, till in proccfs 
 of time they are brought to the ftate of the furiound- 
 ing medium. 
 
 " From this property of heat it follows, that the va- 
 rious clafltis of bodies throughout the earth, if they were 
 not a£led upon by external caufes, would at length 
 arrive at a common temperature when the heat would 
 become quiefcent ; in like manner as the waters of the 
 ocean, if not prevented by the winds and by the at- 
 tractions of the fun and moon, would come to an equi- 
 librium, and would remain in a ftate of reft. But as 
 caufes continually occur in nature to difturb the balance 
 of heat as well as that of the waters of the ocean, thole 
 elements are kept in a conftant flu£luation. 
 
 *' II. Heat is contained in confiderable quantities in 
 all bodies when at the common temperature of the at- 
 mofphere. 
 
 *' From the interefting experiments which were made 
 on cold by Mr Wilfon, we learn, that at Glafgow, in 
 the winter of the year 1780, the thermometer on the 
 furface of fnow funk 25 degrees below the beginning 
 of Fahrenheit's fcale. 
 
 " We are told by Dr Pallas, that in the deferts of 
 Siberia, during a very intenfe froft, the mercury was 
 found congealed in thermometers expofed to the atmo- 
 fphere, and a quantity of that fluid in an open bowl 
 placed in a fimilar fituation, at the fame time became 
 folid. The decifive experiments of Mr Hutchins at 
 Hudfon's Bay prove, that the freezing point of mer- 
 cury is very nearly 40" below the zero (or 0°) of Fah- 
 renheit. From which it follows, that at the time of 
 Dr Pallas's obfcrvation, the atmofphere in Siberia muft 
 have been cooled to minus 40. By a paper lately 
 tranfmltted to the Royal Society we are informed, 
 that the fpirlt'of-wine thermometer in the open air at 
 Hudfons Bay fell to — 42 in the winter of 1 785 ; 
 and from the fame communication we learn, that by a 
 mixture of fnow and vitriolic acid, the heat was fo 
 much diminiftied, that the fpirit of wine funk to — 80, 
 v/hich is 1 1 2 below the freezing point of water. . 
 
 " Hence it is manifeft, that heat is contained in 
 confiderable quantities in all bodies when at the com- 
 mon temperature of the atmofphere. It is plain, how- 
 ever, that the quantity Inherent in each individual 
 tody is limited. This, I think, muft be admitted, 
 whatever be the hypothefis which we adopt concerning 
 the nature of heat ; whether we conceive it to be a 
 force or power belonging to bodies, or an elementary- 
 principle contained in them. For thofe who confider 
 heat as an element, will not fuppofe that an unli- 
 mited quantity of It can be contained in a finite body ; 
 and if heat be confidered as a force or power^ the fup- 
 pofition that finite bodies are aftuated by forces or 
 powers which are infinite is equally inadmiflible. 
 
 " To place this In another light, we know that bo- 
 dies are univerfally expanded by heat, excepting In a 
 very few inftances, which do not afford a juft objedlion 
 to the general faft ; bccaufe. In thofe inftances, by the 
 aAIon of heat a fluid is extricated that previoufly fepa- 
 rated the particles from each other. Since, therefore, 
 heat is found to expand bodies in the temperatures 
 which fall within the reach of our obfervation, we may 
 conclude that the fame thing takes place in all tempe- 
 ^-^tures." 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 Our author, by a fet of very accurate and laborious Of th& 
 
 ' ' Elemen' 
 of Fire. 
 
 experiments, determines that the expanfions in mercury E'ement 
 
 and feme other fluids are proportionable to the xjuati- 
 tities of heat applied ; " from which (fays he) it is ^5 
 manifeft, that the quantities of heat in bodies are limi- Expanfu n 
 ted, becaufe an infinite heat would produce an infinite of mercury, 
 expanfion. t^onfftT 
 " it is manifeft, that the number of degrees of fen - ^j^^ decrees 
 fible heat, as meafured by the thermometer, and cfti- of heat, 
 mated from the beginning of the fcale, muft be the 
 fame in all bodies which have a common temperature ; 
 for by the firft general faft It Is proved, that heat ha« 
 a conftant tendency to difFufe itfelf uniformly over 
 bodies till their temperatures become equal. From 
 which It m.ay be inferred, that if a quantity of heat 
 were added to bodies abfolutely cold, the f&me uniform 
 difFufion would take place ; and that if a thermometer, 
 altogether deprived of Its heat, were apphed to fuch 
 bodies, it would be equally expanded by them, the whole 
 of the fenfible heat which they had acquired being in- 
 dicated by that expanfion. -g^ 
 
 " III. If the parts of the fame homogeneous fub- Homoge- 
 ftance have a common temperatuie, the quantity of "pous bo- 
 
 abfolute heat will be proportional to the bulk or quan- j:^^" °l ^^'^ 
 r mi^i • riri^u^' lame tem- 
 
 tity of matter. i hus the quantity or ablolute heat in perature, 
 
 two pounds of water is double that which is contained contain 
 
 in one pound when at the fame temperature. quantities 
 
 " IV. The dilatations and contraaions of the fluid P™* 
 , , . , , 1-1 portionabl?. 
 
 in the mercurial thermometer arc nearly proportional f^ofe of 
 
 to the quantities of abfplute heat which are communi- their mat- 
 cated to the fame homogeneous bodies, or feparated ^^c'"' 
 from them, as long as they retain the fame form. Thus 
 the quantity of heat required to raife a body four de- 
 grees in temperature by the mercurial thermometer, is 
 nearly double that which Is required to raife it two 
 degrees, four times that required to raife It one degree, 
 and fo In proportion." 
 
 Thus we find, that Dr Black, Dr Irvine, Dr Cravv- 
 ford, and Dr Berkenhout, agree in fpeaking of fire or 
 heat as a fluid fubftance diftinft from all other bodies. 
 Mr Klrwan, in his Treatife of Phlogifton, agrees in the jvir Kir- 
 fame opinion. " Some (fays he) have thought,' tha,t wan's opf- 
 I fhould have included the matter of heat, or elemen- ^on- 
 tary fire. In the definition of inflammable air; but 33^^^.^"'"^ 
 fire is contained in all corporeal fubftances, to mention 
 it is perfedlly needleis, except where bodies diff^er from 
 each other in the quantity of It they contain." On Caven 
 the other hand, Mr Cavendifli, Phil. Tranf. Ixxlv. ^^jfj^.g 
 p. I41. tells us, that "he thinks it more likely that nipn that 
 there is no fuch thing as elementary heat :" but, as heit;^^. ""^^ ^ 
 gives n6 reafon for this opinion, it feems probable '^^"^ fubftati^ce 
 the greater part of philofophers either pofitively be- 
 lieve that heat is an elementary fluid diftiniSl from all 
 others, or find themfelves obHged to adopt a language 
 which neceflarily implies it. The only difficulty which Difficulty 
 now remains therefore is, to affix a proper Idea to the in defining , 
 phrafe quanliiy of heat, which we find univerfally made the phrafe 
 ufe of, without any thing to determine our opinions l"^^"'''^' "/ 
 concerning it. 
 
 That we cannot fpeak of a quantity of fire or heat in 'phis''phr;i{( 
 the fame lenfe as we fpeak of a quantity of water or can.iot be 
 any other fluid is evident, becaule we can take away ufed in the 
 the quantity of water which any fubftance contains, common 
 but cannot do fo with heat- Nay, in many cafes ^6^"^^^^^^'°^ 
 are fure, that a fubftance very cold to the touch does with regan 
 I yet to fire. 
 
f the 
 lemenl 
 ; Fire. 
 
 if Cleg- 
 orn's opi' 
 ion. 
 
 heory. C H E M 
 
 yet contain a very confiderable quantity of heat. The 
 vapour of water, for inftance, may be made much colder 
 than the ufual temperature of the atmofpherc without 
 being condenfed, when at the fame time we are certain 
 that it contains a great quantity of heat ; and the 
 fame may be faid of water, which, in the a£l of freezing, 
 throws out a great quantity of heat without becoming 
 colder; and in the a<^ of melting abforbs as much with- 
 out becoming warmer. It is not therefore by the mere 
 prefence or abfence of this fluid that we can determine 
 the real quantity of this fluid ; nor does it appear that 
 the word quantity can be at all accurately applied to 
 the element itfelf, becaufe we have no method of mea- 
 furing it. 
 
 Dr Cleghorn, in his inaugfural diflertation De Igney 
 throws fome light on this fubjeft, by obferving, that 
 *' the tliermometer fhows only the quantity of heat go- 
 ing out of a body, not that which is really contained 
 in it :" and he alfo infifts, that *' we can neither alTent 
 to the "opinion of Dr Boerhaave, who fuppofed that 
 heat was diftributed among bodies in proportion to 
 their bulks ; nor to the hypothefes of others, who 
 imagined that they were heated in proportion to their 
 denlities." But in what proportion, then, are they 
 heated ; or how are we to meafure the quantity which 
 they really contain, feeing the thermometer informs us 
 only of what they part with? 
 
 As this point is by no means afcertained, we cannot 
 leat of bo- form a direft idea concerning the abfolute quantity 
 lies cannot jj^^^ contained in any body; and therefore when we 
 fpeak of quantities of this fluid, we muft in faft, if we 
 mean any thing, think of the fenfible quantity flowing 
 out of them ; and though we fliould fuppofe the whole 
 of this fenfible heat to be removed, it would dill be 
 impoflible for us to know how much remained in a la- 
 tent ftate, and could not be diflipated. This difficulty 
 will ftill appear the greater, if with Dr Cleghorn and 
 others we fuppofe the fluid of heat to be fubjedl to the 
 concerning jjjypg Qf attraction and repullion. This gentleman 
 fuppofes, that the particles of heat (like the particles 
 of eleftric fluid according to theFranklinian hypothefis) 
 are repulfive of one another, but attrafted by all other 
 fubftances. " If any body (fays he), heated beyond 
 the common temperature of the air, is expofed to it, 
 the heat flows out from it into the atmofphere, and 
 diffufes itfelf equally all around till the air becomes of 
 the fame temperature with itfelf. The fame happens 
 to bodies fufpended in macuo. Hence it is juftly con- 
 cluded, that there exifts between the particles of heat 
 a repulfive power, by which they mutually recede from 
 each other. Notwithftanding this repulfive power, 
 however, the quantities of heat contained in different 
 fubftances, even of the fame temperature, are found to 
 be altogether diflFerent ; and from Dr Black's experi- 
 ments it now appears, that the quantity of heat is 
 fcarce ever the fame in any two different bodies: and 
 hence we may conclude, that terrefl:rial bodies have a 
 power of attrafting heat, and that this power is dlfler- 
 ent in different fubftances. — From thefe principles it 
 evidently follows, that heat is diftributed among bodies 
 diieftly in proportion to their attrafting powers, and 
 inverfely according to the repulfive power between the 
 Equili- particles of heat themfelves. Sueh is the dlftribution 
 brium of of heat among bodies in the neighbourhood of each 
 heat^de- other, and which is called the equilibrium of heaty, be- 
 
 rhe latent 
 
 be meafu' 
 '£d. 
 
 74 
 
 Cleg- 
 horn's hy- 
 pochefis 
 
 I S T R Y. 383 
 
 caufe the thermometer fhows no difference of tempera- 
 ture among them. For feeing the heat is diftributed ^^'j^j^^'^"' 
 according to the attrafting power of each, the ther- ^ ' j 
 mometer having alfo a proper attraftion cf its own, 
 can fliow no difference in the attracting power of each ; 
 for which reafon all bodies in the neighbourhood of 
 each other are foon reduced to the lame tempera- 
 ture." ~ 76 
 
 If we affent to Dr Cleghorn's hypothefis, the quan- The quair- 
 tlty of heat contained in any fuBftance depends, in the 'i*^)' o'^^^j^^^t' 
 firft place, on the attracting power of that fubftance, 
 which is altogether unknown; and, in the fecond by this h)i- 
 place, on the repulfive powers of the particles of heat pothelis. 
 themfelves, which are equally unknown. To deter- 
 mine the quantity, therefore, muft be impofiible. Nei- 
 ther will the mixture of two different fluids, as in Dr 
 Black's experiments, affift us in the leaft ; for though 
 water, heated more than mercury, communicatesagreat- 
 er heat to that fluid than the latter does to water } 
 this only fhows that water more readily parts with 
 fome part of the heat it contains than mercury does, 
 but has not the leaft tendency to difcover the quantity 
 contained in either. 
 
 Dr Crawford, as we have already feen, calls the de- 
 gree, or, if we may vary the plirafe, the quantity of 
 poiuer or element (fluid, if we may fubftitute a fynony- 
 mous word) exiliing or prcfent in any body, its abfo- 
 lute beat; and lays down a rule for determining the pro- 77 
 portional quantities of heat in different bodies. ** ItDr Craw- 
 will appear (fays he) from the experiments 1^^, j ^^f^^^ 
 wards recited, that if a pound of water and a pound 
 of diaphoretic antimony have a common temperature, the propor- 
 the quantity of abfolute heat contained in the for- tional quan- 
 mer is nearly four times that contained in the latter." 
 — The manner in which he illuftratcs this is as fol- 
 lows. 
 
 " If four pounds of diaphoretic antimony at 20 be 
 mixed with one pound of ice at 32, the temperature 
 will be nearly 26 ; the ice will be cooled fix degrees, 
 and the antimony heated fix. If we reverfe the expe- 
 riment, the effeft will be the fame. That is, if we 
 take fix degrees of heat from four pounds of antimony, 
 and add it to a pound of ice, the latter will be heated 
 fix degrees. The fame quantity of heat, therefore, 
 which raifes a pound of Ice fix degrees, will raife four 
 pounds of antimony fix degrees. 
 
 " If this experiment be made at different tempera- 
 tures, we fhall have a fimllar refult. If, for example, 
 the antimony at 15, or at any given degree below the 
 freezing point, be mixed with the ice at 32, the heat 
 of the mixture will be the arithmetical mean between 
 that of the warmer and colder fubftance. And fince 
 the capacities of bodies are permanent as long as they 
 retain the fame form, we infer, that the refult would 
 be the fame if the antimony were deprived of all its 
 heat, and were mixed with the ice at 32^ But it is 
 evident, that In this cafe the ice would communicate 
 to the antimony the half of its abfolute heat. For if 
 20G below frofl be conceived to be the point of total 
 privation, the antimony will be wholly deprived of its 
 heat when cooled to 200 degrees below 32, and the 
 heat contained in the ice when at 32 will be 200 
 degrees. If we now fuppofe them to be mixed toge- 
 ther, the temperature of the m.ixture will be half the 
 excefs of the hotter above the ojlder,, or the ice will 
 
CHE 
 
 be cooled too degrees and the antirxiony heated loo. 
 The one half of the heat, therefore, which was con- 
 tained in the ice previous to the mixture will be cnm- 
 municated to the antimony ; from which it is manifeit, 
 that after the mixture the ice and antimony muft con- 
 tain equal quantities of ahfoluie heat. 
 
 " To place this in another light, it has been proved, 
 that the fame quantity of heat which raifes a pound of 
 ice lis degrees will raife four pounds of antimony fix 
 degrees. And as the capacities of bodies, while they 
 retain the fame form, are not altered by a change of 
 temperature; it follows, that the fame quantity of heat 
 which raifes the ice 200 degrees, or any given number 
 of degrees, will raife the antimony an equal number of 
 degrees. 
 
 *« A pound of ice, therefore, and four pounds of 
 antimony, when at the fame temperature, contain 
 vqual quantities of abfolute heat. But it appears from 
 the third general fad (n"=67.), that four pounds of 
 antimony contain four times as much abfolute heat as 
 one pound of antimony ; and hence the quantity of 
 abfolute heat in a pound of ice is to that in a pound of 
 antimony as four to one." 
 
 y^om this quotation it is evident, that, notwith- 
 iiilufficicnt. {landing all the diftinftions which I) r Crawford has 
 laid down betwixt abfolute heat and temperature, it is 
 only the quantity of the latter that can be meafured ; 
 and all that we can fay concerning the matter is, that 
 when certain bodies are mixed together, fome of them 
 part with a greater quantity of heat than others ; but 
 how much they contain muft remain for ever un- 
 known, unlefs we can fall on fome method of meafu- 
 ring the quantity of heat as we do that of any other 
 
 M I S T R Y. 
 
 The or 
 
 ';8 
 
 His method 
 
 79 
 
 fluid. 
 
 Nlcho'lfon's Mr Nicolfon, who has coUefted the principal opl- 
 accountof nions on the fubjeft of heat, feems undetermined whe- 
 
 of hear'"'^^'' *° ^^^'^""^ ^^"^ doaWne of Boyle or of Bocrhaave 
 on the fubjeft. "There are two opinions (fays he) 
 concerning heat. According to one opinion, heat 
 confifts in a vibratory motion of the parts of bodies 
 among each other, whofe greater or lefs intenfity oc- 
 cafions theincreafe or diminution of temperature. Ac- 
 cording to the other opinion, heat is a fubtile fluid that 
 eafily pervades the pores of all bodies, caufing them 
 to expand by means of its elafticily or otherwife. Each 
 of thefe opinions is attended with its peculiar difficul- 
 ties. The phenomena of heat may be accounted for 
 by either of them, provided certain fuppofitions be al- 
 lowed to each refpeftively ; but the want of proof of 
 the truth of fuch fuppofitions renders it very difficult, 
 if not impoffible, to decide as yet whether heat confifts 
 merely in motion or in fome peculiar matter. The 
 word quantity, applied to heat, will therefore denote 
 either motion or matter, according to the opinion 
 made ufe of, and may be ufed indefinitely without de- 
 termining which. 
 Advanta- " The chief advantage which the opinion that heat 
 pc! of the is caufed by mere vibration pofTefles, is its great fimpli- 
 doiarine dty, Jt is highly probable, that all heated bodies 
 is^caufed* ^^'^ ^" inteftine motion, or vibration of their parts ; 
 by vibra- and it is certain that percuffion, friftion, and other 
 tion. methods of agitating the minute parts of bodies, will 
 likewife increafe their temperature. Why, then, it is 
 demanded, ftiould we multiply caufes, by fuppofing 
 the exiftence of an unknown fluid, when the mere vx- 
 N" 70. 
 
 bration of parts which is knovn to obtain may be ap- <^f ^be 
 plied to explain the phenomena?" of J-T*'"'^ 
 
 To this the reply is obvious, that the vibration of 
 parts is an e^cSlj for matter will not begin to move of j 
 ilfclf : and if it is an effi a, we muft fuppoie a caufe for AnA^ er tk 
 it ; which, though we fliould not call it a fluid, would MrNiclio 
 be equally unknown and inexplicable with that whofe * 
 exiftence is afferted by thofe who maintain that fire is g'^ 
 a daid pi'r fc. Dr Clcghorn, however, in the difTerta- Dr Ciejr- 
 tion already quoted, ah'erts, that *' heat is occalioned f'orn'sproi 
 by a certain fluid, and not by motion alone, as fome I 
 eminent writers have imagined; becaufe, i. Thofe "^"^"1"^^ 
 who have adopted the hypothefis of motion could 
 never even prove the exiftence of that motion for 
 which they contended ; and though it ftiould be 
 granted, the phenomena could not be explained by 
 it. 2. If heat depended on motion, it would inftati- 
 taneoully pafs through an elaftic body ; but we fee 
 that heat paflts through bodies flowly like a fluid* 
 3. If heat depended on vibration, it ought to be com- 
 municated from a given vibration in proportion to the 
 quantity of matter ; which is found not to hold true 
 in faft. On the other hand, there are numberlefs argu- 
 ments in favour of the opinion that heat proceeds from 
 elementary fire. i. Mr I^ocke hath obferved, that 
 when we perceive a number of qualities always exifting 
 together, we may gather from thence that there really 
 is fome fubftance which produces thefe qualities. 2. The 
 hypothefis of elementary fire is fimple and agreeable to 
 the phenomena. 3. From fo ne experiments made by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, it appears, that bodies acquire heat 
 and cold in vacuo, until they become of the fame tem- 
 perature with the atmolphere; fo that heat exifts is 
 the abfence of all other matter, and is therefore a fub- 
 llance by itfelf." 
 
 But though thefe and ether arguments feem clearly nifficuki' 
 to eftablifh the point that fire or heat is a diftinft fluid, concemiii 
 we are ftill involved in very tjreat difficulties concern- '^^^ 'i'*^"'' 
 ing its nature and properties. If it be fuppofed a jj^^ qI^h 
 fluid, it is impoffible to affign any limits to its extent; 
 and we muft of neceffity likewife fuppofe that it per- 
 vades the whole creation, and confequently conftitutes 
 an abfolute plenum, contrary to a fundamental princi- 
 ple of the received fyftem of natural philofophy. But 
 if this is the cafe, it is vain to talk ot its being abforb- 
 ed, accumulated, colledled, or attrafted by different 
 bodies, fince it is already prefent in all points of fpace; 
 and we can conceive of terreftrial bodies no otherwife 
 than as fponges thrown into the ocean, each of which 
 will be as full of fluid as it can hold. The diff'erent capa- 
 cities will then be fimilar to the dift'erences between bits 
 of wood, fjionge, porcms ftones, &c. for containing 
 water; all of which depend entirely on the ftrudture of 
 the bodies their.felves, and which, unlefs we could fe- 
 parate the water by prefliire, or by evaporation, would 
 be for ever unknown. Suppofing it were impoffible 
 to colleft this water in the manner we fpeak of, we 
 could only judge of the quantity they contained by the 
 degree to which they fwellcd by being immerfcd in it. 
 It is eafy to fee, however, that fuch a method of 
 judging would be very inadequate to the purpofe, as 
 fubftances might contain internal cavities or pores in 
 which water could lodge without augmenting the ex- 
 ternal bulk. This would fuggeft another method 
 of judging of the quantity, namely, the fpecific gra- 
 5 vlty ; 
 
lenient 
 If Fire. 
 
 :s itfelf 
 
 heory. C H E M 
 
 vity ; and we might reafonably fuppofe, that fubftan- 
 ces of the greatcft fpeci'fic gravity would contain the 
 fmalleft quantity of water, though ftill we could by 
 no means determine what quantity they did contain, 
 unlefs we could lay hold of the element itfelf. 
 
 This feems to be very much the cafe with elemen- 
 tary fire, if we fuppofe it to be a fluid pi:r fe. We 
 judge of its prefence by the degree of expanfion which 
 one heated body com.municates to another ; but this is 
 only fimilar to the calculation of the quantity of moi- 
 fture a fponge or any other body coHtainSj by what 
 it communicates to wood when It comes into contaft 
 with it; which never could be fuppofed to carry the 
 leaft pretenfions to accuracy, though we fhould afcer- 
 taln it with all imagrinable exaftnefs. It is likewifc 
 proibable that the moft denfe bodies contain the fmalleft 
 quantity of fire, as they generally communicate lefs 
 when heated to an equal temperature than thofe which 
 are more rare, though we are far ftom having any per- 
 fedl knowledge in this refpeft. 
 IDifficulty But the greateft difficulty of all will be, on the fup- 
 ftrifingfrom pofition that heat is a fluid, and an omniprefent one 
 i"that (^^^'^^ ^^'^^^ would be fome places 
 
 eat fliffu- where bodies could not be heated), to anfwer the 
 qucftion, Why are not all bodies of an equal tempera- 
 ture, excepting only the differences arifing from their 
 fpecific denfities, which render fome capable of 
 containing a greater quantity than others ? — The dif- 
 ficulty will not be leffened, though the omniprefence 
 of the flnid fliould be given up, if we fuppofe, as is 
 generally done, that heat has a tendency to difFufe it- 
 felf equably every way. If It has this tendency, w^hat 
 hinders it from doing fo ? Why doth not the heat 
 from the bur ning regions of the torrid zone difFufe It- 
 ftlf equally all over the globe, and reduce the earth to 
 one common temperature ? This indeed might require 
 time; but the experience of all ages has fliown that 
 there is not the leaft advance towards an equality of 
 temperature. The middle regions of the earth con- 
 tinue as hot, and the polar ones as cold, as we have any 
 reafon to believe they were at the creation of the 
 world, or as we have any reafon to believe they will be 
 while the world remains. This indeed is one of the 
 many inftances of the impropriety of eftablifliing gene- 
 ral laws from the trifling experiments we are capable 
 of making, and which hold good only on the narrow 
 fcales on which we can make them, but are utterly in- 
 fufficient to folve the phenomena of the great fyftem 
 of nature, and which can be folved only by obferving 
 other phenomena of the fame fyftem undifturbed by 
 F any manoeuvres of our own. 
 
 knother Again, fuppofing the objeAIon already made could 
 be got over, and fatisfaftory reafons fliould be given 
 why an equilibrium of temperature in the earth and its 
 
 S5 
 nother 
 from the 
 
 JlJ^PP^f^j'j^g atmofphere fhould never be obtained, it will by no 
 heat. means be eafy to tell what becomes of the heat which 
 is communicated to the earth at certain times of the 
 Pf Craw- y^^''* '^^^^ difficulty, or fomething fimilar, Dr Craw- 
 ford's folu- ford feems to have had in view when treating of the 
 ion. eflefts of the evolution and abforptlon of heat. Thus, 
 fays he, " the Deity has guarded againft fudden viciflTi- 
 tudes of heat and cold upon the furface of the earth. 
 
 " For if heat were not evolved by the procefs of 
 congelation, all the waters which were expofed to the 
 influence of the external air, whea its temperature was 
 Vol. IV. Part I. 
 
 I S T R Y. 385 
 
 reduced below 32", would fpcedily become fblid } and, Element 
 at the moment of congelation, the progrefs of cooling , 
 woifld be as rapid as it was before the air had arrived " ' 
 at its freezing point. 
 
 This is manifeft from what was formerly obfervcd 
 refpefting the congelation of difl"crent fluids. It was 
 fliown, that if the velocities of the feparation of heat 
 were equal, the times of the congelation would be in 
 proportion to the quantities of heat which the fluids 
 gave oft" from an internal fource in the freezing pro- 
 cefs. Whence it follows, that if no heal were evolved, 
 the congelation would be inftantaneous- 
 
 " In the prefeiit ft.ate of things, as foon as the at- 
 mofphere is cooled below 32°, the waters begin to 
 freeze, and at the fame time to evolve heat ; in con- 
 fequence of which, whatever may be the degree of cold 
 in the external air, the freezing mafs remains at 32*, 
 until the whole Is congealed ; and as the quantity of 
 heat extricated in the freezing of water is confiderable, 
 the progrefs of congelation in large mafles Is very 
 flow. — That the abforptlon and extrication of heat in 
 the melting and freezing of bodies has a tendency to 
 retard the progrefs of thefe proo^.flre3, is remarked by 
 Mr Wilkie in his Eflay on Latent Heat. — The fame- 
 doArine is likcwife taught by Dr Black in his lec- 
 tures. 
 
 " In the northern and fouthern regions, therefore, Severity of 
 upon the approach of winter, a quantity of elementary 
 fire is extricated from the waters, proportional to the^i^^ re- '** 
 degree of cold that prevails in the atmofphere. Thusgions miti^ 
 the feverity of the froft is mitigated, and its progrefs gated by 
 retarded ; and it would feem that, dur!.ng this rctarda- ^^^J'-^'^' e 
 tlon of the cooling procers,.the various tribes of animals 
 and vegetables which inhabit the circumpolor regions 
 gradually acquire power of refifling its influence. gg 
 
 " On the contrary, if, in the melting of ice, a quan- In'^n 'ations 
 tity of heat were not abforbed, and rendered infen- P''^'^''-""'^'^ 
 fible, that fubftance, when it was expofed to a medium j^^f'^^fc"^^" 
 warmer than 32°, would fpeedily become fluid, and the which con- 
 pi'ocefs of heating would be as rapid as if no alteration K^aled wa- 
 in its form had taken place. If things were thus confti- ter nielt§.^ 
 tuted, the vaft mafles of Ice and fnow which are coUeft- 
 ed in the frigid zones would, upon the approach of fum- 
 mer, fuddenly diflblve, and great inundations would an- 
 nually overflow the regions near to the poles. 
 
 '* But by the operation of the law of the abforp- 
 tlon of heat when the ice and fnow upon the- return of 
 fpring have arrived at 32% they begin to melt, and at 
 the fame time to imbibe heat : during this procefs, a 
 large quantity of elementary fire becomes infenfible; 
 in confequence of which the earth is flowly heated, 
 and thofe gradual changes are produced which are 
 eflentlal to the prefervaiion of the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms. 
 
 " We may remark, in the laft place, that this lawEqufui- 
 not only refifts fudden changes of temperature, butftribution 
 that it like wife contributes to a more equal diftribu- of heat pro* 
 tion of the principle of heat throughout the various 
 parts of the earth, in diff"ereht feafons and climates. J-Qn an?" 
 Thus the diurnal heats are moderated by the evapora- evolution, 
 tion of the waters on the earth's furface, a portion of 
 the fire derived from the fun being abforbed and ex 
 tingulflied by the vapours at the moment of their af- 
 cent. On the approach of night the vapours are again 
 condenfed, and falling in the form of dew, communicate 
 3C to 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 90 
 
 Heat of the 
 
 thus mitr 
 gated. 
 
 to the air and to the earth the fire which they had im- 
 bibed during the day. 
 
 '* It was before fliown, that, in the regions near to 
 the poles, when the vernal and fummer heats prevail, 
 provifion is made for tempering the feverity of the win- 
 ter cold, a quantity of elementary fire, upon the dif- 
 folution of the ice and fnow, being abforbed by the 
 waters, and depofited, as it were, in a great magazine 
 for the purpofe of mitigating the intenfity of the cold 
 when the froft returns. 
 " From the experiments of Hales, Halley, and Watfon, 
 torrid zone Jt appears, that vafl; quantities of water are continually 
 converted into vapour by die aftion of the folar rays up- 
 on the portion of the earth's furface which is expofed to 
 the light; and by the celebrated difcovery of Dr Black, 
 it is proved, that, in the procefs of evaporation, much 
 elementary fire is abforbed. It is manifeft, that this 
 caufe will have a powerful influence in mitigating the 
 intenfity of the heat in the torrid zone, and in pro- 
 moting a more equal diffufion of it through the earth. 
 For a confiderable portion of the heat, which is ex- 
 cited by the aftion of the folar rays upon the earth's 
 furface within the tropics, is abforbed by the aqueous 
 vapours, which being coUefted in the form of clouds, are 
 fpread like a canopy over the horizon, to defend the 
 fubjacent regions from the dire£l rays of the fun. A 
 great quantity of elementary fire is thus rendered in- 
 fenfible in the torrid zone, and Is carried by the dif- 
 perfion of the vapours to the north and to the fouth, 
 where it is gradually communicated to the earth when 
 the vapours are condenfed." 
 
 That all this takes place, as the Doftor has advanced, 
 tion totally cannot be denied ; but, by allowing it, the difficulty is 
 iiifufficient not removed in the fmalleft degree, as will appear from 
 th '^diffic'l ^ confideration of the phenomena which he him- 
 * ' "* 'felf has mentioned. — He owns that the fun communi- 
 cates fire to the earth : the queftion is. What becomes 
 ©f it, feeing the emiffion is continual ? In fummer, 
 the air, the earth, and the water, are heated to a 
 certain degree. On the fun's declining fouthward, 
 the air firft lofes its heat. Whither does it go ? It 
 does not afcend into the higher regions of the atmo- 
 fphere,forthefearecon[lantlyfound colder than the parts 
 below. It does not defcend to the earth and water ; for 
 thefe give out the quantity they had abforbed, as Dr 
 Crawford obferves. Neither does it go laterally to the 
 fouthern regions; for they are conitantly very hot, 
 and ought to impart their heat to thofe farther north, 
 inftead of receiving any from them. How comes it 
 then, that the atmofphere feems pei-petually to receive 
 heat without ever being fatiated ? or if the heat cannot 
 be found going off either upwards, downwards, or 
 fideways, how are we to account for its dlfappear- 
 
 91 
 
 This fola- 
 
 -5a 
 Heat moft 
 probably 
 the adlion 
 of an om- 
 nijprefent 
 fluid. 
 
 This queftion feems to be altogether unanfwerable 
 on the fuppofition that heat is occafioned by the mere 
 prefence of a fluid ; but if we fuppofe it to be only a 
 particular mode of a<ftion of an omniprefent fluid, the 
 whole difficulty vanifhes at once.— On this fuppofition 
 indeed the queftion will naturally arife. Whence does this 
 93 motion proceed, or by what is its aftion in general 
 Fire feems determined ? Dr Berkenhout, in enumerating the 
 deftitute ©f properties of matter, exempts fire from two of thofe 
 ^rS/^"^uf"2% afcribed to other material fubftances, viz. 
 
 gravitation and the vis inertia. " According to tlk€ 
 
 philofophers (fays he), matter cannot move without be- Element 
 ing either impelled or attracted. T doubt much whe- °^ 
 iher this be true of fire, and whether, when uncom- * 
 bined, motion be not one of its effentlal properties. — 
 Gravitation feems alio to be no property of fire, which 
 moves with equal facility in all dire£tion?, and may be 
 accumulated in hard bodies to any degree without in- 
 creafing their weight. Fire, being the caufe of vola- 
 tility, feems rather to be in contlant countcradllon to 
 gravity." 
 
 But however efiential we may fuppofe the motion of 
 fire to be to it, there cannot be any felf-exKlent mo- 
 bility in its parts, otherwife it would foon be diff'ufed 
 equally throug-hout the univei fe, and the temperature of 
 the whole reduced to an equilibrium. According to Diftribu- 
 the prefent conftltution of nature, we fee that the dillri- tion of heat 
 bution of heat is principally owing to the fun; and ^'j^'j^S ''^ 
 what we call its quantity, depends on the pofition of the 
 fun with regard to terreftrial objeils and the length of 
 time they are expofed to his rays. Heat is not pro- How heat 
 duced while the rays have a diredl paflage ; and there- 
 fore fluids through which they pafs eafily, as air, are^^^^,'^ ^ * 
 not heated by the rays of the fun. But when the rays 
 are impeded in their courfe, and refledled in confide- 
 rable quantity, a degree of heat takes place, which is 
 always greater or lefs in proportion to the intenfity of 
 the rays. — In the reflcfting fubflance, the heat will be 
 comparatively greater In proportion to the quantity of 
 rays which are abforbed or ftopped in their courfe by 
 it; but in any fubftance interpofed betwixt the fun and 
 the refledlng body, the heat Is proportionable to the 
 quantity of rays refledled. — Now it is plain, that when 
 the particles of Hght fall upon any opaque fubftance, 
 and enter its pores, which by their extreme fubtilty 
 they are well calculated to do, they muft make an at- 
 tempt to pafs direftly through it In their natural courfe; 
 but as this cannot be done, they will pufh laterally, 
 and in all direftlons, In confequence of being perpe- 
 tually urged by the impulfe of the light coming from 
 the fun : and thus an attlon will be propagated in all 
 directions as radii from a centre towards a circumfe- 
 rence, which when it takes place in that fubtile fluid 
 always produces what we call heat. 
 
 In contemplating the fyftem of nature, we perceive p^^^g 
 three kinds of fluids of extreme fubtilty, and very the identitj 
 much refembling one another, viz. fire, light, and elec- of fire, 
 tricity. That it fhould be agreeable to vulgar con- ^'.^^^'."."'^ , 
 ceptions to fuppofe thefe all to be ultimately the fame,^^" """^"F' 
 is not furprifing; and on examining the evidence of 
 their identity, it will certainly be found exceedingly 
 ftrong. They all agree in the property of exciting 
 the fenfation of heat in certain circuroftances, and in 
 not doing fo in others. Fire, we know, in the com- 
 mon acceptation of the word, always does fo ; but 
 when it aflumes the latent and invlfible ftate, as in the 
 formation of vapour, it lays afide this fecmingly effen- 
 tial property, and the vapour is cold to the touch. — ■ 
 Light, when colle£ted into a focus by a burning-glafs, 
 i. e. when its rays converge towards a centre, and di- 
 verge or attempt to diverge from one, produces heat alfo: 
 and fo docs the ele£lrlc fluid ; for it has been found that 
 the aura converging from a very large conduftor to the 
 point of a needle, is capable of fetting on fire a fmall car- 
 tridge of gunpowder, or a quantity of tinder, furround- 
 rner it*. There feems alfo to, be a connexion betwixt* 
 
 ^ fire"-'"'-^- 
 
Exceflive 
 Itledi icity 
 
 '99 
 leat in 
 
 rheory. C H E M 
 
 fire and eleftricity in another way ; for in proportion as 
 
 heat is dimininied, or the bodies aie cooled, eleftricity 
 
 fucceeds in its place. Thus all ele£lric bodies by heat 
 
 ^V- become conduftors of eleftricity, and cannot be ex- 
 onnection , „ r c .••^u*. 
 
 letween Cited or made to Ihow any hgns ot containing ttiat 
 
 ire or heat fluid; but as foon as the heat is removed, their eleftvic 
 ind ekdn- property returns. Water is naturally a condufting 
 fubllance: by being frozen its conduding power is lef- 
 fcned, which fiiows an approach to eledlricity ; and, 
 I by being cooled down to 20° below o of Fahrenheit, 
 
 the ice a<ftually becomes eledlric, and will emit fparks 
 * See Elec- by friaion like glafs*. The atmofphere is a natural 
 rieity. electric : but by a certain degree of heat it lofes this 
 property, and becomes a condiiftor ; nor is there any 
 doubt that its eleftric properties are increafed in pro- 
 portion to the degree of cold imparted to it. In the 
 winter time, therefore, we muft confider the frozen fur- 
 bf the polar ^^^^ earth, the water, and the atmofphere of the 
 
 E^mter! pohr regions, as forming one eleftrical machine of enor- 
 l motis magnitude; for the natural cold of thefe countries 
 
 I is often fufficient to cool the Water to more than io'^ 
 
 below o, and confequently to render it an eleAric. 
 That this is really the cafe, appears from the eXceflive- 
 ly bright aurora borealis and other eleftric appear- 
 ances, far exceeding any thing obferved in this coun- 
 try. In the fummer time, however, no fuch appear- 
 ances are to be feen, nor any thing remarkable except 
 an exceflive heat from the long continuance of the fun 
 above the horizon. This quantity of heat then being 
 ummer be- ftjcceeded by a proportionable quantity of eleftricity 
 ^rk^flutdhi winter, it is impofible to avoid concluding that the 
 iWfintfcr. h^^t in fummer becomes eleftric fluid in winter, which, 
 going off through the celeftial expanfe, returns again 
 to the grand fouice of light and heat from which it 
 originally came; thus making room for the fucceeding 
 quantities which are to enliven the earth during the fol- 
 lowing fummer. 
 
 Thus the difappearance of heat in winter, and of 
 eleftricity in fu.nmer, in thefe countries, will be very 
 Why thun- naturally and eafily accounted for. It is true, that the 
 der and phenomena of thunder and lightning fliow the exifl.- 
 ence of this fluid in vail quantities during the fummer 
 feafon : but thefe phenomena are only partial, and 
 though formidable to us, are trifling in comparifon with 
 the vaft quantities of eleftric matter difcharged by the 
 continual flafliing of the aurora borealis, not to men- 
 tion the fire-balls and meteors called falling Jlars, which 
 are very often to be feen in the northern countries. In 
 t!ie fummer-time, the air whiclv is an eleftric, heated by 
 the rays of the fun, is excited or made to part with 
 the fluid to the vapours contained in it ; and it is the 
 unequal or oppofite eleftricity of the clouds to one 
 another, or to the earth, which produces the lightning. 
 But in winter, when the air, earth, and vapours, all be- 
 come eledlric, they cannot difcharge fparks from one to 
 another as before; hut the whole, as one connefted and 
 vafl: eleilrified appaiatus, difcharges the matter almolt 
 in a continued ftream for many months. 
 Frat li "l.t From a confideration of thefe and other phenomena 
 tdid, and of nature, as well as of the befl. experiments which 
 •leAricity, bave hithei'to been made, we muft confider fire in the 
 jheeffeifls abflrafl as an omniprefent fluid, of fuch fubtilty as to 
 ^eifal flL.id pervade all terreftrial fiibftances. When by any means it 
 is made to diverge every way as from a centre, there it 
 operates as heat j expands, rarefies, or burns, according 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 387 
 
 lightning 
 take place 
 in fii miner 
 jand not in 
 tivinter. 
 
 to the Intenfity of its a£lion. Proceeding In ftratght Nature of 
 and parallel lines, or fuch as diverge but little, it ads f^^^^' 
 as light, atid fliows none of that power difcoverable in 
 the former cafe, though this is eafily difcoverable by 
 making it converge into a focus. In a quiefcent fl;ate» 
 or where the motion is but Uttle, it prc-fles on the fur- 
 faces of bodies, contrafts and diminifties thtm every 
 way in bulk, forces out the expanding' fluid within 
 their pores, and then a£ls as cold. In this cafe alfo, 
 being obliged to fuftain the vehement aftion of that 
 part of the fluid which is^in motion, it flies with violence 
 to every place where the preflure is lefl*ened, and pro- 
 duces all the phenomena of Klectricity. 
 
 ^ I. Of the Nature of Heat. 
 
 i6i 
 
 The manner in which the phenomena of heat may Particular 
 be folved and its nature, underflood, will appear from ^o^"^'*'" 
 the following propofitions. menfof 
 
 1. It is in all cafes obferved, that when light pro- heat, 
 ceeds in confiderable quantity from a point, diverging 
 
 as the radii of a circle from its centre, there a confi* 
 derable degree of heat is found to exilt, if an opaqud 
 body, having no great refleftive power, is brought near 
 that point. 
 
 2. This aAion of the light, therefore, may be ac- 
 counted the ultimate caufe of heat, without having re- 
 courfe to any farther fuppofitions ; becaufe nothing 
 elfe befides this aftion is evident to our fenfes. 
 
 3. If the point from which the rays are emitted is 
 placed in a tranfparent medium, fuch as air or water, 
 that medium, without the prefence of an opaque body, 
 will not be heated. 
 
 4. Another caufe of heat,- therefore, is the refift- 
 ahce of the parts of that body on which the light falls, 
 to the a£lion mentioned in Prop, i . Where this refift- 
 ance is veeak, as in the cafes juft mentioned, the heat is 
 either nothing, or very little. 
 
 5. If a body capable of refleding light very co- • See 
 pioufly is brought near the lucid point, it will not bc^^° article 
 heated *. g[£'^' 
 
 6. A penetration of the light, therefore, into the 
 fubftance of the body, and likewife a confiderable de- 
 gree of refiftance on the part of that body to the adion 
 of the light, are the requifites to produce heat. 
 
 7. Thofe bodies ought to conceive the greateft de- 
 grees of heat into whofe fubft;ance the light can beft 
 penetrate, /. e. which have the leafl: refleftive power, 
 and which mofl; ftronglj refiPcits adiori ; which is evi- 
 dently the cafe with black and folid fubflances. 
 
 8. By heat all bodies are expanded in their dimen- 
 Hons every way, and that in proportion to their bulk 
 and the quantity of heat communicated to them. 
 
 9. This expanfion takes place not only by an addi- 
 tion of fenjihk heat, but Hkewife of that which is latent. 
 Of this laft we have a remarkable infliance in the cafe 
 of fnow mixed with fpirit of nitre. The fpirit of 
 nitre contains a certaiij quantity of latent heat, which 
 cannot be feparated from it without effecting a change 
 on the fpirit itfelf ; fo that, if deprived of tin's lieat, 
 it would no longer be fpirit of nitre. — Befides this, it 
 contains a quantity of fenfible heat, of a great part of 
 vi'hich it may be deprived, and yet retain its charafter- 
 iftic properties as nitrous acid. When it is poured 
 upon fnow, the latter is immediately melted by the ac- 
 tion of the latent heat in the acid. The fnow cannot 
 
 3 C 2 be 
 
388 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Heat"'' melted or converted into water, without imbibing a 
 
 1^ , quantity of latent heat, which it receives immediately 
 
 from the acid which melts it. But the acid cannot 
 part with the heat without decompofition ; to prevent 
 which, its fenfibie heat occupies the place of that 
 which has entered the fnow and liquefied it. The mix- 
 ture then becomes exceedingly cold, and the heat 
 forces into it from all the bodies in the neighbour- 
 hood ; fo that, by the time it has recovered that quan- 
 tity of fenfibie heat which was loft, or arrived at the 
 temperature of the atmofphere around it, it will con- 
 tain a confiderably larger quantity of heat than it o- 
 riginally did, and is therefore obferved to be expand- 
 ed in bulk. Another inftance of this expanfive power 
 of latent heat is in the cafe of fteam, which always 
 ©ccupies a much larger fpace than the fubftance from 
 which it was produced ; and this whether its tempe- 
 rature is greater or lefs than the furrounding atmo- 
 fphere. 
 
 10. The difference between latent and fenfibie heat, 
 then, as far as we can conceive, is, that the expanfive 
 power of the former is direfted only againft the particles 
 ©f which the body is compofed ; but that of the latter 
 is direfted alfo againft other bodies. Neither doth there 
 feem to be any difference at all between them faither 
 than in quantity. If water, for inftance, hath but a 
 fmall quantity of heat, its parts are brought near each 
 
 .. other, it contrafts in bulk, and feels cold. Still, how- 
 ever, fome part of the heat is detained among the a- 
 queous particles, which prevents the fluid from con- 
 gealing into a folid raafs. But, by a continuation of 
 the contraftiiig power of the cold, the particles of wa- 
 ter are at laft brought fo near each other that the in- 
 terHal or laie72t heat is forced out. By this difcharge 
 a quantity of air is alfo produced, the water is con- 
 gealed, and the ice occupies a greater fpace than the 
 water did ; but then it is full of air-bubbles, which are 
 evidently the caufe of its expanfion. The heat then 
 becomes fenfibie, or, as it were, lies on the outfide of 
 the matter ; and confequently is eafily diffipated into 
 the air, or communicated to other bodies. Another 
 way in which the latent heat may be extricated is by a 
 conftant addition of fenfibie heat. In this cafe the bo- 
 dy is firft raifed into vapour, which for fome time car- 
 ries off the redundant quantity of heat. But as the 
 quantity of this heat is continually increafed, the tex- 
 ture of the vapour itfelf is at laft totally deflroyed. It 
 becomes too much expanded to contain the heat, 
 which is therefore violently thrown out on all fides into 
 the atmofphere, and the body is faid to burn, or be on 
 fire. See Combustion, Flame, and Ignition. 
 
 11. Hence it follows, that thofe bodies w'hich have 
 the leaft fhare of latent heat, appear to have the 
 greateft quantity of fenfibie heat ; but this is only in 
 appearance, for the great quantity they feem to con- 
 tain is owing really to their inability to contain it. 
 Thufi, if we can fuppofe a fubftance capable of tranf- 
 mitting heat through it as faft as it received it ; if fuch 
 a fubftance was fet over a 6re, it would be as hot as 
 the fire itfelf, and yet the moment it was taken off, it 
 would be perfectly cool, on account of its incapacity 
 to detain the heat among the particles of which it was 
 compofed. 
 
 1 2. The heat, therefore, in aU bodies confifts in a 
 «€rtaan violent adion of the elementary fire wilhin 
 
 TheofTJ 
 
 them tending from a centre to a ctrcumferencc, and Nature of 
 thus making an effort to fepaiate the particles of 
 the body from each other, and thereby to change its 
 form or mode of exiftencc. When this change is ef- 
 fedled,- bodies are faid to be diffipated in vapour, cal- 
 cined, vitrified, or burnt, according to their different 
 natures. 
 
 13. Inflammable bodies are fuch as are eafily raifed 
 in vapours ; that is, the fire cafily penetrates their 
 parts, and combines with them in fuch quantity, that, 
 becoming exceedingly light, thsy are carried up by 
 the atmofphere. Every fucceeding addition of heat 
 to the body increafes alfo the quantity of latent heat 
 in the vapour, till at laft, being unable to refift its ac- 
 tion, the heat breaks out all at once, the vapour is con- 
 verted into flame, and is totally decompofed. See the 
 article Flame, and Prop. 10, 
 
 14. Uninflammable bodies are thofe which have their 
 parts more firmly connected, or otherwife difpofed in 
 fuch a manner, that the particles of heat cannot eafily 
 combine with them or raife them into vapour. 
 
 15. Heat therefore being only a certain mode of 
 the adlion of elementary fire, it follows, that the ca- 
 pacity of a body for containing it, is only a certain 
 conftitution of the body itfelf, or a^difpofition of ita 
 parts, which caij allow the elementary fire contained in 
 it to exert its expanfive power upon them without be- 
 ing diffipated on other bodies. Thofe fubftances 
 which allow the expanfive power of the fire to operate 
 on their own particles are faid to contain a great deal 
 of heat ; but thofe which throw it away from thera- 
 felves upon other bodies, though they feel veiy hot, yet 
 philofophically fpeaking they contain very little heat. 
 
 16. What is called the quantity of heat contained in 
 any fubftance, if we would fpeak with the ftrifteft; 
 propriety,, is only the apparent force of its adlion, ei- 
 ther upon the parts of the body itfelf, or upon other 
 bodies in its neighbourhood. The expanfive force of 
 the elementary fire contained in any body upon the 
 parts of that body, is the quantity of latent heat contained 
 in it ; and the expanfive force of the fire exerted upon 
 other bodies which touch or come near it, is the quant't' 
 ty of feiifible heat it contains. 
 
 17. If what we call heat confifts only in a certain 
 adlion of that fluid called elementary Jire, namely, its 
 expanfion, or ailing from a centre to a circumference, 
 it follows, that if the fame fluid aft in a manner di- 
 reftly oppofite to the former, or prefs upon the par- 
 ticles of a body as from a circumference to a centre,, 
 it will then produce effects direftly oppofite to thofe 
 of heat, i. e. it will then be abfolute cold, and produce all 
 thje effefts already attributed to Colh. See that article. 
 
 18. If heat a-nd cold then are only two different 
 modifications of the fame fluid, it follows, that if a hot 
 body and a cold one are fuddenly brought near each 
 other, the heat of the one ought to drive before it a. 
 part of the cold contained in the other, /'. e. the two- 
 portions of elementary fire afting in two oppofite ways, , 
 ought in fome meafui-e to operate upon one another 
 as any two different bodies would when driven againft 
 each other. When a hot and a cold body therefore 
 are brought near each other, that part of the cold 
 body fartheft from the hot one ought to become colder. 
 than before, and that part of the hot body fartheft from, 
 the cold one ought to become hotter than before. 
 
"lieory. C H E M 
 
 ieiie alEf- ig. For the fame reafon, the greateft degree of cold 
 * in any body ought to be no obftacle, or at leaft very 
 , little, to its conceiving heat, when put in a proper 
 iituHtiQn. Cold air, coid fuel, &c. ought to become 
 as intenfely heated, and nearly as fooa, as that which 
 is hotter. 
 
 The two laft propofitions are of great importance. 
 When the firft of them is thoroughly eftablhhed, it 
 will confirm beyond a doubt, that cold is a pofdi've, as 
 well as heat ; and that each of them has a feparate and 
 diftinft power, of which the acHon of its antagoniil 
 is the only projjer limit ; i. e. that heat can only limit 
 the power of told, and 'o'lce wrfa. A ftrong confir- 
 mation of this propofition is the experiment related by 
 M. GeofFroy ; an account of which is given under the 
 article Cold. Another, but not fo well authen- 
 ticated, is related under the article Congelationt. 
 ■ — De Luc's obfervation alfo, mentioned by Dr 
 •Cleghorn, affords a pretty ftrong proof of it; for if 
 the lojver parts of the atmofphere are cooled by the 
 paffage of the fun's rays at fome diftance above, and 
 it hath been already (hown that they do not attraS 
 the heat from the lower parts, it follows, that they 
 mull expel pait of the cold from the upper regions. — 
 The other propofition, when fully eilabl.ifhed, will 
 . prove, that heat and cold are really convertible into 
 ' one another ; which indeed feems not improbable, as 
 we fee that fires will burn with the greatell fiercenefs 
 during the time of intenfe frofts, when the coldsft air 
 18 admitted to them and even in thofe difmal regions 
 of Siberia, when the intenfe cold of the atmofphere is 
 fulBcient to congeal quickfilver, it cannot be doubted 
 that fires will burn as well as in this country ; which 
 could not happen if heat was a fluid ^(?r fe, and capable 
 of being carried off, or abfolutely diminilhed in quan- 
 tity, either in any part of the atmofphere itfelf, or in 
 fuch terreftial bodies as are ufed for fueL 
 
 ^ 2 . Of the general EffeSs of Heat, 
 
 Having faid thus much concerning the nature of 
 beat in general, we come now to a particular explana- 
 tion of its feveral elFefts, which indeed conftitute the 
 whole of the a£live part of chemiftry. — Thefe are, 
 
 I. Expanfion, or incrcafe of bulk in every direction. 
 This is a neceffary confequence of the endeavour 
 which the fluid makes to efcape in all direftions, when 
 made to converge into a focus. The degree of expan- 
 fion is unequal in different bodies, but in the fame 
 body is always proportionable to the degree of heat 
 birtrumetits^P^'^^i* Thei'e are two different inftruments in ufe 
 for nu afu- for afcertaining the degrees of expanfion ; and as we 
 ring the ex- j^^ve already fhown, that the degree of heat can only 
 3edfefc known by thciexpanfion, thcfe effefts of heat upon 
 the inftrument are ufually taken for the degrees of 
 lieat themfelves. Thefe inftruments are called the 
 Thermometer and Pyrometer. The former is 
 compofed of a glafs tube, with a globe or rather oval 
 tube at one end, and exadly clofed at the other: it is 
 moft ufually filled with mercury or fpirit of wine; but 
 Kiercury is generally preferred on account of its ex- 
 panfions being more equable than thofe of any other 
 Suid. It has the difedvantage, however, of being 
 fobjeft to congelation ; which is not the cafe with fpi- 
 jrit of wine, when very higlily rectified. Spirit-of-wine 
 
 1 S T R y. 389 
 
 thermometers, therefore, ought not to be entirely dif- ^(^nei ai Ef. 
 ufed, but fecm rather a neceffary part of the chemi- °^ 
 cal apjiaratus, as well as thofe made with mercury. , "'^^ , 
 
 As no thermometer made with any fluid can mea- 
 fure either the (iegr es of heat about the point atWedge- 
 which it boils, or the degrees of cold below which it wo ci's im- 
 congeals, inftruments have been contrived by which l''^^'^^^""^ 
 the expanfion of fohd bodies, though much lefs than j:!^ J^^jg'^jf 
 what is occafioned by an equal degree of heat in a * 
 fluid, may become vifible. 'i'hefe were ufually called 
 Pyrometers i but Mr V/edgewood has lately contrived 
 a method of connecting the two together, in which 
 the higheft degree of lieat, exceedaig even .that of a 
 glafs-houfe furnace, may be racafured as accurately as 
 the moi-e moderate degrees by the common mercurial 
 thermometer-. See Thermometer. lof 
 
 Expanfion in fome cafes does not appear to be the^''^^*""*- 
 effea of heat, of which we have two remarkable in- ^J^^ 
 ftances, viz. of iron, which ahvays expands in cool- ^y' to'.d. 
 ing after it has been melted ; and of water, which ex- 
 pands with prodigious force in the acl of freezing. 
 The power with which iron expands in the aft of 
 pafliag from a fluid to a folid ftate, has never been 
 meafured, nor indeed does it feem eafy to do fo ; but 
 that of freezing water has been accurately computed. log 
 This was done by the Florentine Academicians, who Prodigious 
 having filled an hollow brafs ball of an inch diameter ^""^"^ ^^^^■^'^ 
 with water, expofed it to a mixture of fnow and falt,,fjj.^jj ^g^. 
 in order to congeal the water, and try v/hether its force zing, 
 was fufficient to burft the ball or not. . The ball, being 
 made very ftrong, refitted the expanding force of the 
 water twice, even though a confiderable part of its 
 thicknefs had been pared off when it was perceived 
 too ftrong at firft. At the third time it burft; and by 
 a calculation founded on the thicknefs of the globe 
 and the tenacity of the metal, it was found that the 
 expanfive power of a fpherule of water oiily one inch 
 in diameter, was fufficient to overcome a refiflance of 
 more than 27,000 pounds, or 13 tons and an half. 
 
 A power of expanfion fo prodigious, little lefs than Ufed as an- 
 double that of the moft powerful fteam-engines, and argument 
 exerted in fo fmall a body, feemingly by the force o^^j^cn-e^of * 
 cold, was thought to be a very powerful argument in c- rid as a 
 favour of thofe who fuppofe cold to be a pofitive fub- \ oiitive 
 ftance as well as heat ; and indeed contributed not a f^uhflance. 
 little to embarrafs the oppofite party. l)r Black's 
 difcoveiy of latent heat, however, has now afforded hy df ■> 
 a very eafy and natural explication of this phenome- Black's the- 
 non. He li^s ftiovvn, that, in the aft of cougelation, 'a- 
 water is not cooled more than it was before, but ra- '"'^"'^ ^^^'* 
 ther grows warmer: that as much heat is difcharged, 
 and pafTes from a latent to a fenfibi^; ftate, as, had it 
 been applied to water in its fluid ftate, would have ,op 
 heated it to 135°. In this procefs the expanfion is The expan- 
 occafioned by a great number of minute bubbles fud-^o" proda- 
 denly produced. Thefe were formerly fuppofed to be g^f^^^^^-^n 
 formed of cold in the abftraft ; and to be fo fubtile, air-bu>- 
 that, infinuating themfelves into the fubftances of thebles. 
 fluid, they augmented its bulk, at the fame time that, 
 by impeding the motion of its particles upon each 
 other, they changed it from a fluid to a folid. Dr 
 Black, however, has demonftrated, that thefe are anly 
 air extricated during the congelation ; and to the ex- 
 trication of this air he very juftly attributes the prodi- 
 gious expanfive force exerted by freezipg water. The 
 
 8b1j 
 
C H E M 
 
 General Ef- only queftlon, therefore, which now remains is, By what 
 Heat'*^ means this air comes to be extricated, and to take 
 . up more room than it naturally does in the fluid ? To 
 
 jjQ. this we can fcarce give any other anfwer, than that 
 This air part of the heat which is difcharged from the freezing 
 extricated water combines with the air in its unelallic flate, and, 
 tlie^heat"^ by reltoring its elafticity, gives it that extraordinary 
 coma^ncd f'^rce, as we fee alfo in the cafe of air fuddenly extri- 
 in the wa- cated in the explofion of gunpowder. Thus expan- 
 tcr, fion, even in the cafe of freezing, is properly an effedl 
 
 of heat; and mull therefore be confidered as a pheno- 
 menon uniformly and certainly attending the adlion of 
 ji, heat, and in all cafes to be afcribed to it. 
 Capacity of The only way in which the element or fluid of fire 
 a body for can be fuppofed to aA, and the way in which we can 
 containing j^.^^^ ^ rational idea of its being able to produce both 
 lame with heat and cold according to the diverfity of its aftion, 
 the a<5lion has been already explained fo fully, that it is needlefs 
 of heat up- at prefent to enter into any further difcuffion of the 
 CM that bo-^yj^j^^^^ ^viii eafily appear, that the capacity for 
 ^' 'Containing heat is nothing different from the aftion 
 
 of heat upon that body in expanding, and at lail alter- 
 ing its form in fuch a manner, as either to be able to 
 infmuate itfelf among the particles in much greater 
 quantity than before, ftill retaining its internal ac- 
 tion, though the external one becomes imperceptible ; 
 or fcattering them in fuch a manner, that it breaks 
 forth in great quantity in its pecuhar appearances of 
 fire and light ; in the former cafe producing vapour or 
 fmoke, and in the latter flame, as fliall afterwards be 
 Impombili- ^^^^y explained. It muft likewife appear, that 
 ty of deter- to determine the quantity of heat in any body is 
 mining the altogether impoffible : and with regard to the lowefl; 
 quantity of degree of heat, or a total expulfion of that fluid, fo 
 heat any ^^^^ ^^.^^^ ^^^^ determine what it is, the pro- 
 
 bability mu'il be, that nature does not admit of any 
 fuch thing ; for if heat confills in the expanfive ac- 
 tion of a certain fluid, and cold in its oppoiite or 
 contraflile aftion, there is very little reafon to fup- 
 pofe that the conftitution of nature will allow any one 
 of thefe adlions entirely to ceafe, as it does not ap- 
 pear by what means it could again be renewed. Cold, 
 as we have already feen, always tends to produce elec- 
 tricity ; and the connexion betwixt that and fire is fo 
 ftrong, that we cannot fuppofe the former to be car- 
 ried to any great extreme without producing the lat- 
 ter. Whatever we may therefore fuppofe concerning 
 the capacities of diff"erent bodies for containing heat, 
 or concerning the point of total privation of heat, mull 
 be altogether void of foundation- A rule, however, 
 has been given by Mr Kirwan for finding the point of 
 total privation, whicli, together with its demonfl:ra- 
 tion, we fliall fubjoin ; and as it is neceffary for the 
 better underftanding of this, to call to remembrance 
 what has been faid concerning the difference between 
 the temperatures and fpecific heats of bodies, we fhall 
 infcrt an epitome of the doftrine from Mr Nicholfon. 
 
 " If two equal bodies of different kinds and tem- 
 peratures be brought into contaft, the common tem- 
 perature will feldom, if ever, be the mean betwixt the 
 the capaci- original temperatures ; that is to fay, the furplus 
 d?e*s for ° of heat in the hotter body will be unequally divided 
 containing between them, and the proportions of this furplus re- 
 heat, &c. tained by each body will exprefs their refpedlive dif- 
 poiitions, affinities;, or capacities for heat. — If, there- 
 
 1 S T R Y. 
 
 hody con- 
 ■fains. 
 
 Mr Nichol 
 fon's ac- 
 count of 
 
 fore, a given fubfiiance, as for example fluid water, beGeneralEf- 
 taken as the ftandard of comparifon, and its capacity ^^^^^"^ 
 for heat be called one, or unity, the refpe£live capa- ■ _ '^-, , ,1 ' 
 cities of their bodies may be determined by experi- 
 ment, and expreffed in numbers in the fame manner 
 a» fpecific gravities ufually are. And becaufe it is 
 eltabhflied as well from reafon as experiment, that th? 
 fame capacity for heat obtains in all temperatures of a 
 given body, fo long as its flate of fohdity, fluidity, or 
 vapour is not changed, it virill follow, that the whole 
 quantities of heat in equal bodies of a given temperauure 
 will be as thofe capacities. And as the refpeftive 
 quantities of matter, in bodies of equal volume, give 
 the proportions of their fpecific gravities, fo the re- 
 fpeflive quantities of heat in bodies of equal weight and 
 temperature give the proportions of their fpecific heatS4 
 " A greater capacity for heat, or greater fpecific 
 heat, in a given body, anfwers the fame purpofe with 
 refpeft to temperature as an increafe of the mafs ; • 
 or the quantity of heat required to be added or 
 fubdufted, in order to bring a body to a given 
 temperature, will be as its capacity or fpecific heat. 
 
 The capacities not only differ in various bodies, 
 but alfo in the fame body, according as it is either 
 in a folid, fluid, or vaporous flate. All the experi- 
 ments hitherto made confpire to fhow, that the capa- 
 city, and confequently the fpecific heat, is greatefl 
 in the vaporous, lefs in the fluid, and leafl in the fo- 
 lid flate. 
 
 l^e quantity of heat that conflitutes the difference 
 between the feveral flates, may be found in degrees of 
 the thermometer. Thus, if equal quantities of water 
 at 162° and ice at 32° of temperature be mixed, the 
 ice melts, and the common temperature becomes 32°} 
 or otherwife, if eqtlal quantities of frozen and fluid wa- 
 ter, both at 23°, be placed in a hke fituation to acquire 
 heat from a fire, the water will become heated to 162°,. 
 whilethe ice melts without acquiring any increafe of tem- 
 perature. In either cafe the ice acquires 130° of heat, 
 which produces no other efFeil than rendering it fluid. 
 Fluid water, therefore, contains not only as much more 
 heat than ice, as is indicated by the thermometer, 
 but alfo 130", that is in fome manner or other em- 
 ployed in giving it fluidity. And as fluid water can- 
 not become ice without parting with 1 30" of heat be- 
 fides what it had above 32'" in its temperature ; fo al- 
 fo fleam cannot become condenfed into water with- 
 out imparting much more heat to the matters it is 
 cooled by, than water at the fame temperature would 
 have done. 
 
 " The heat employed in maintaining the fluid or 
 vaporous form of a body, has been called latent heat, 
 becaufe it does not affedl the thermometer. 114 
 
 " From the confideration of the fpecific heats of Mr Kir= 
 the fame body in the two ftates of fluidity and ^^^^'^^-^^'^'fj^^""- 
 ty, and the difference between thofe fpecific heats, is finding 
 deduced a method of finding the number of degrees point of ta- 
 which denote the temperature of any body immediate- cal priva- 
 ly after congelation, reckoned from the natural zero, ^'^^^ 
 or abfolute privation of heat. The rule is ; multiply 
 the degrees of heat required to reduce any folid to a 
 fluid flate, by the number exprelTmg the fpecific heat 
 of the fluid : divide this produft by the difference be- 
 tween the numbers expreflTmg the fpecific heat of the 
 body in each flate ; the quotient will be the number 
 Z . o{ 
 
heory. 
 
 and w= r 
 
 s — / 
 
 C H E M 
 
 eneralEf- of degrees of temperature, reckoned from an abfolute 
 ^ privation of heat. 
 
 « This theorem is Mr Kirwan's, and may be proved 
 thus. Let s reprefent the required temperature of the 
 body juft congealed, / = the number of degrees that 
 exprefs the heat required to reduce it to fluidity, n = 
 the fpecific heat of the folid, and m = the fpecific 
 heat of the fluid. Then s-\-l : s i : m : n. Whence 
 /n 
 
 j__ : — _ tiie temperature from the natural zero 
 
 m — K 
 
 in thermometrlcal degrees of the fluid. But becaufe 
 tlie ailual fall of the thermometer is to be produced 
 by cooling the fohd, muft pay attention to its capa- 
 city. The quantity of heat required to produce a 
 given change of temperature in a body is as its capa- 
 city; and confequently the changes of temperature, 
 when the quantity of heat is given, will be inverfely 
 
 /« In 
 
 as the capacities: therefore, n : w ; :-— — -=J'. 
 
 which is the rule above mentioned. 
 
 " If the data /, m, and n, be accurately obtained 
 by experiment, in any one infl;ance, and the difference 
 between the zero of Fahrenheit's fcale and the natural 
 zero be thence found in degrees of that fcale, this 
 difference will ferve to reduce all temperatures to the 
 numeration which commences at the natural o. So 
 that s being known in all cafes, if any two of the 
 quantities /, m, or «, be given in any body, the other 
 
 sm — sn 
 
 may be likewife had. For/=: 
 
 sm — //« 
 and nzz . 
 
 s 
 
 *♦ To give an example of this curious rule, let it be 
 required to determine how many degrees of refrigera- 
 tion would abfolutely deprive ice of all its heat ? The 
 degrees of heat neceffary to melt ice are 130 ; and the 
 fpecific heats of ice and water are as 9 to 10. The 
 number 130 multiplied by 10, produces 1300, and 
 divided by the difference between 9 and to quotes 
 1300: therefore if ice were cooled 1300 degrees be- 
 low 32°, or to — 1263 of Fahrenheit's fcale, it would 
 retain no more heat." 
 
 II. Fluidity is another effeft of heat, and is capable 
 of taking place in all bodies hitherto known, when 
 the fire is carried to a certain pitch. Theories have 
 been invented, by which fluidity was afcribed to the 
 fmoothnefs and round figure of the particles whereof 
 bodies were compofed, and folidity to an angular or 
 irregular figure. It has alfo been afcribed to a ttrong- 
 tr degree of attradlion between the parts of folids 
 
 1 -j^/ than of fluids. Dr Black, however, has fhown, that 
 luidity to , ' . , r M 
 
 e afcril.ed m the cafe 01 meltmg ice, we are certamly to alcnbe 
 
 ) the ab- the acquired fluidity of the water to the abforption of 
 
 orption of This was determined by a decifive experiment, 
 
 ^^'* in which he expofed a Florence-flaflt full of water to 
 
 the atmofphere In a warm room, vsTien he found that 
 
 the heat in the air evidently left it, to flow into the 
 
 ice in the bottle, and reduced it to fluidity. The air 
 
 thus deprived of its heat, he felt fenfibly defcending 
 
 like a cold blall from the bottle, and continuing to do 
 
 £0 as long as any of the ice remained unthawed ; yet 
 
 after it Vv'as all melted, the temperature of the fluid 
 
 Wcis no move tlian 32°. Different degrees of heat are 
 
 requifite for converting different folids into fluids,, for 
 
 which fee the Tabic of Degrees of Hs^r, 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 391 
 
 This theory receives an additional confirmation from General Ef- 
 the quantity of heat which is always known to be produ- ^g^^^''^ 
 ced by the converfion of a fluid into a folid. And that , _ , 
 this is really the cafe appears, i . From what happens in , ,5 
 the congelation of waters, it appears that ice is formed SenGble 
 very flowly, and with feveral circumfliances which fiip- heat produ- 
 port the theory. — Thus, if we expofe equal quantities 
 of water to the air, which is perhaps 10- below froftj^f ^ fluij 
 and add to one of ihefe a fmall quantity of fait or mto a folid. 
 fpirit of wine, and obferve the cooling of each, we 
 fliall find them both grow gradually colder, until they 
 arrive at the temperature of frofl; ; after which the wa- 
 ter containing the fait will continue to grow colder, 
 until it has arrived at the temperature of the air, at 
 tlie fame time that only a fmall quantity of the other 
 water is converted into ice. Yet were the common 
 opinion jufl;, it ought all to have been congealed by this 
 time ; infliead of which, it is fcarce grown a degree 
 colder during the whole time. Its remaining at the 
 fame temperature for fo long time, fliows that it has 
 been communicating heat to the atmofphere ; for it is 
 impoffible that any body can remain in contad with 
 another that is colder, without communicating heat to it. 
 Whence then comes this heat ? There mull be fome 
 fource adding to the fenfible heat of the water, fo as to 
 keep up its temperature to the freezing point : and this . - 
 fource of heat mufl; be very confiderable ; for it will 
 continue to aft for a very long time before the water 
 is changed into ice ; during all which time, even to -the 
 lafl: drop, the water is not a degree colder than 32° of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer. This, therefore, is the 
 lafenl heat of the water, which had formerly entered into 
 it during its tranfition from ice to a fluid ftate. 
 
 A fl;ill ilronger argument is derived from the fol- Argument 
 lowing experiment; which evinces that the fluidity of in fupport 
 water really depends upon Its latent heat, and that of the thco- 
 the fenfible heat is only a mean or condition to its ""^ 
 containing the latent heat. This experiment confifl:s ^!;!L^" 
 in expohng water contained in a covered bser-glafs to fluid tho* 
 the air of a cold frofty night; and when the atmo- cooled be- - 
 fphere is at the temperature of perhaps 10° or 12' be- 
 low froft, the water will acquire that temperature 
 without freezing: fo that the fluidity of the water 
 does not altogether depend on the quantity of fen- 
 fible heat contained in it. The congelation, however, . 
 may be brought on by touching it with a bit of ice, 
 with the extremity of a wire, by a fhock upon the 
 board, or otherwife diilurbing It ; and we then find 
 the temperature fuddenly raifed up to 32°, This 
 ftiows plainly, that the water has a difpofition to re- ■ 
 tain the quantity of latent heat, upon which Its flui- 
 dity mufl; immediately and neceffarily depend ; and it 
 retains it with a certain degree of force, fo as to keep 
 the water fluid In a temperature bel nv that in which 
 it ufually parts with the latent heat and congeals. By 
 difturbing It, however, we Infl:antly bring on the con- 
 gelation, which cannot take place without an extri- 
 cation of the latent heat; which then, being changed' 
 into the ordinal^ or moveable heat, raifcs the thermo- 
 meter as ufual. The quantity of heat difcharged from 
 the firft fmall . portion of ice formed in the water is 
 fufficient to prevent anymore latent heat fiomfepa-- 
 rating, and confequently from any more Ice being 
 produced till more of the fenfible heat is abllradlcd. 
 
 This doftrine extends not only to fuch bodies as 
 are aftually converted from a folid to a fluid, or from; 
 
ft ds of 
 Heat. 
 
 1x8 
 Heat the 
 
 univerfal 
 caufe of 
 fluidity. 
 
 39^ G H E M I 
 
 Genera! Ef. a fluid to a folld ftat^ but to fuch as are m a kind of 
 middle Hate betwixt folidity and fluidity 5 for every 
 degree of foftnefs depends on a certain degree of heat 
 contained in the body. Thus, for inftance, melted 
 wax, allowed to cool flowly, foon becomes opaque and 
 f^7^^^^J?/^J?^confiftent ; but it mull be colder ftiil before it attains 
 bodiiap its utmoft degree of hardnefs. There is there tore a 
 iroachir.fj certain degree of heat below which every body is folid, 
 to auidity. and above which every one is fluid ; the former being 
 called the congealing, and the latter the meltings point of 
 TT9 bodies. 
 
 Abforption By making experiments upon different fubftances, 
 t)i lieat the T^xi • ji i , . 
 
 univerfal iJo<!:tor was convinced that latent heat is the uni- 
 
 verfal caufe of fluidity ; and the dodtrine holds good in 
 all the experiments that have hitherto been made upon 
 fpermaceti, bees-wax, and fome of the metals. If 
 they are melted, allowed to cool flowly, and a thermo- 
 meter be inimerfed into them, we find, that as long as 
 they continue fluid, their fenfible heat diminiflies very 
 faft ; but as foon as they begin to grow folid, the fen- 
 fible heat continues greater than that of the air to 
 which they are expofed ; and during all this time it is 
 communicating heat to the air, without having its fen- 
 fible heat diminiflied : for the latent heat within the 
 fluid gradually receives a fenfible form, and keeps up 
 the temperature, proving a fource of fenfible heat, 
 which is communicated to the neighbouring bodies as 
 well as the furrounding air. The foftnefs and duftility 
 of bodies depend on this alfo. 
 
 III. Evaporation, A third effcft of the aftion of 
 heat is that of converting bodies into vapour, by which 
 . ^y^^. they are rendered fpeclfically lighter than the furround- 
 fornied by ing atmofphere, and enabled to rife in it. To account 
 tion^of'll^' ^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ theories have been invented ; but that of 
 on o a- -Q^ Black, who accounts for it, as w ell fluidity from 
 the abforption of latent heat, is now univerfally're- 
 ceived. The circumfl:ances by which he proves and il- 
 luftrates his dodtrine are the following; 
 
 I. When we attend to the phenomena of boiling wa- 
 ter, in a tea kettle for infi;ance, it may, when firft put up- 
 on the fire, be about the temperature of 48° or 50°. In a 
 quarter of an hour it will become heated to 212°. It 
 then begins to boil, and has gained 162° of vapour in 
 that time. Now, if the converfion of it into vapour de- 
 pended on the quantity of fenfible heat introduced, we 
 may aflt how long it will be neceflary to raife it all in 
 vapour ? Surely another quarter of an hour fliould be 
 fufficient ; but this is far from being the cafe. Dr 
 Black made fome experiments upon this fubjeft in 
 conjunftion with another gentleman. Having the op- 
 
 portunity of what is called a kitchen-table or a thick 
 c>n trie con- i c iv * i r* i ■ » 
 
 verfion of P^^^e ot calt iron, one end of which was made fenfibly 
 
 red-hot, they fet upon this fome iron veflels with cir- 
 cular fiat bottoms, of about four inches diameter, and 
 which contained a quantity of water. The tempera- 
 ture of the water was noted, as alfo when it began to 
 boil; and when the whole of it was boiled away, it was 
 found, that when fet on the table its temperature had 
 been 540 ; in four minutes it began to boil, and in that 
 fpace of time received 158° degrees of heat. Had the 
 evaporation, therefore, depended merely on the quan- 
 tity of fenfible heat introduced, it ought to have been 
 diliipated entirely in a fingle minute more. It was, 
 however, iB minutes in dilhpating; and therefore had 
 received 807 degrees of heat before it was all evapo- 
 N° 70. ^ 
 
 R Y. Theory, 
 
 1 this time, therefore, while tbe water con- General Ef- 
 y\y it wa3 receiving a ;;reat quantity of heat, ^^'^^^ 
 
 J 40 
 
 Vapour 
 
 tson of la 
 t€Ut heat- 
 
 Ill 
 
 Experi- 
 ments by 
 Dr Black 
 
 water into 
 vapour. 
 
 i T 
 
 rated. All 
 
 tinued to boil, ^ - ^ -1— ; 
 
 which muft have been flowing equally faft out of it ; 
 for the veffel was no hotter, and the iron plate conti- 
 nued equally hot, the whole time. The veffcls were 
 of different (hapes, fome of them cylindrical, fome co- 
 nical, others widening upwards ; one of the deCgns of 
 the experiment being to fliow how far the evaporation 
 was retarded by the particular form of the veflels. By 
 fufpending a thermometer in the mouth of one of the 
 evaporating vefl"els, the heat of the fl;eam was "found to 
 be exaaiy 212°; fo that as the great quantity of 
 heat abforbed was found neither to have remained in 
 the water, nor to have been carried away by the fl:eam 
 in a fenfible manner, we have nothing left to fuppofe, 
 but that it flew off »,s one of the component parts of 
 the fteam in a latent itate. 
 
 2. In an experiment to fliow the fixednefs of the 
 boiling point of water, Dr Black inclofed fome of that 
 fluid in a (Irong vial having a therm.ometer in it, and 
 flopped clofe with a cork. By the application of heat 
 he hoped now to be able to raife the- thermometer fome 
 degrees above the boiling point, which would be the 
 natural confequence of the confinement of the fteam. 
 When this was done, he pulled out the cork, and fup- 
 poled that the water would now all fly out in vapour : 
 but in this he was totally difappointed ; a fudden and 
 very tuniultuous boiling enfued, which threw out fome 
 of the water; but though fome quantity of fteam like- 
 wife iiTued, the quantity of water was not confiderably 
 diminiihed. The vial had been heated to 20° above 
 the boiling point, but almoft inftantly cooled down to 
 212°, when the cork was taken out. 
 
 3. Mr Watt, in making fome experiments on the 
 force of il.-am, had occafion to ufe Papin's digefter, 
 with a pipe proceeding from its fide ; the orifice of 
 which. was fliut with a valve prelTed down by one end 
 of a lever. Thus he heated fteam to 400° of Fahren- 
 heit ; after which, having fuddenly ftruck off the lever, 
 a euantiiy of fteam flew out with confiderable noife, 
 and^ with fuch violence as to make an imprefTion on the 
 ceiling of the room ; but this noife gradually diminifli- 
 ed, and after ten minutes ceafed entirely; rnd upon 
 opening the machine, he found the greateft part of the 
 water ftill remaining. 
 
 4. The change of fenfible into latent heat in the Boiling 
 formation of vapour, appears flill more evident ia the point of 
 boiling of water in 'vacuo. Mr Boyle took a quantity ^^''"■'f^'' 
 of water which had been previoufly boiled to purge it^^^'^^i^^^ 
 of its air, and put it whilft hot under the receiver of an Mr^ 
 air-pump. In confequence of this it began again to boil, Boyle, 
 and continued boiling till it was only lukewarm, and it 
 foon arrived at this temperature ; fo that in this cafe 
 alfo the heat had difappeared during tke converfion of 
 the fluid into vapour. Others have repeated the ex- And by 
 periment, asBoerhaave, Mufchenbroek ; and Robinfon, l^"" Robin- 
 who ledures on chemiftry in Glafgow, fays that the '^"'^ °^ ^^*^* 
 heat diminiflies very faft till it comes to 90° or 95'',^°*^* 
 which feems to be the boiling point of water in vacuo. 
 As a confiderable part'of the heat thus difappears, and 
 is to be difcovered neither in the water nor in the va- 
 pour, we muft conclude that it enters the latter as part 
 of its compofition. 
 
 5. Thus alfo we may underftand fome curious expe- 
 riments made by Dr Cullen upon ether and other vo- 
 latile 
 
124 
 
 Theory, C H E M 
 
 General Ef- latUe fluids. He employed fome perfons to make ex- 
 Heat"^ periments upon the cold produced by evaporation ; 
 
 and willing to repeat them himfelf in vacuo, he put 
 fome of the moft volatile liquors under the receiver 
 DrCullen'sof an air-pump. One of thefe was ether. It was 
 experiments contained in a glafs, in which there was alfo placed 
 on cold pro- f-Qj^jg water. When the air was extraded, the ether 
 vaporation." began to boil, and to be converted into vapour, till it 
 ' became fo very cold that it froze the water contained 
 in the velTel, though the temperature of the room was 
 about 50°. Here therefore there was a quantity of 
 heat which difappeared all of a fudden ; which it is 
 plain co\ild not be owing to its having any communi- 
 cation with that of the atmofphere or other cold bo- 
 dies, as they could not render it colder than they were 
 themfelves. Ether therefore is to be confidered as a 
 fluid fo volatile, that were it not for the prefTur; of the 
 atmofphere it would be perpetually in the ftate of va- 
 
 Heat expel- 6. That this heat which enters into the vapour is 
 
 I led in great not deftroyed, but remains in a latent ftate, is 
 
 i quantity by eafjiy p^Qygjl . fgr we find that a great quantity of 
 
 heat is expelled from vapour when it is condenfed again 
 fationotva- T . 1 • r j • • 11 t-u- • 
 
 pour. to ^orm the body it compoled originally. 1 his is ea- 
 
 fily afcertained by obferving the quantity of heat com- 
 municated to the water in the refrigeratory of a ftill 
 by any given quantity of liquid which comes over. 
 Thus, if the refrigeratory contain 1 00 pounds of 
 water, and the diftillation be continued till only one 
 pound has come over, fuppofing the water in the refri- 
 geratory to have received 8° of heat ; it is plain, that 
 if the whole of the quantity thus received could be 
 thrown into one pound of water, the latter would be 
 heated to 800'^ ; which is fufficient to make an equal 
 fpace of iron red-hot. But that this quantity of heat 
 is received by the water in the refrigeratory has ap- 
 peared from feveral experiments, which fliow that wa- 
 i ter, by being converted into vapour, abforbs between 
 
 126 800° and goC of heat. 
 Mr Watt's On this principle we may explain fome curious 
 expetimei tsgj(.p^j.;^gj,jg made by Mr Watt with regard to the 
 on the «^*-evaporation of fluids in vacuo. That gentleman had 
 fia-ds /« -ya-iormed a dehgn or converting water into Iteam witti 
 -no. lefs txpence of fuel, which he imagined might be 
 
 done by removing the prefTure of the air from the 
 water, which he thought would thus require a much 
 fmaller quantity of fuel to convert it into vapour. Dr 
 Black, however, perceiving that only the {mall quan- 
 tity of fenfible heat the fteam poffefled could thus be 
 carried off, informed him beforehand that hi.s project 
 would not be found attended with the advantages he 
 imagined. The experiment, however, was made in 
 the following manner: A flill was procured of tinned 
 iron, the body of which refembled that of a retort, 
 with a vefTcl ferving as a condtnfer ; the whole appa- 
 ratus being clofe, exceptintr a little hole in the extre- 
 mity of the condenfing veflel. He firfl exliaulled this 
 vefl'el of air by holding the condenfer over the retort, 
 in which fome boiling wattr was contained, until it was 
 entirely converted into iteam. He then fuddenly 
 ftopped the little hole, and removed the vfflels from 
 the fire ; when, after they were cooled, there was a 
 pretty perfeft vacuum formed by the condenfation of 
 the fteam. The retort was then put on the fire, and 
 turned fo that the pipe and condenfing veflel (hould 
 Vol. IV. Part 1. 
 
 I S T R Y. 393 
 
 hang downward ; and plunging them into cold water, General 
 
 heat was applied to the ftill till the water boiled, as^^^^"®^ 
 
 could be known by the noife. It was kept boiling, ' j 
 
 till a quantity of fteam was pufhed over and condenfed ' 
 
 with a very gentle heat, the ftill feeling little warmer 
 
 than his hand. After a certain quantity had been 
 
 diftilled, the apparatus was removed, and he had noted 
 
 the heat of the water in the refrigeratory % but though 
 
 the fteam all along came over with fo gentle a heat^ 
 
 he found the quantity communicated to the water in 
 
 the refrigeratory to be furprifingly great, not lefs than 
 
 1000'' ; fo that it would have been more than fufficient 
 
 to heat the quantity of liquor which came over red-hot. , ^ 
 
 IV. or the caufing bodies to fhine or emit Ignition « " 
 
 light in the dark. This may be confidered as a fpe- conftant 
 cies of inflammation, and ftiall therefore be explained ^^^^f^ 
 under that head : here we ftiall only obferve, that ig-heat 
 nition is a more fteady and conftant effedt of heat than ug 
 either the produftion of fluidity or vapour ; and ap- A.1I ignite(3 
 pears not only to be the fame degree with regard to^*"^'^*^" 
 any particular body, but the fame with regard to 
 kinds of matter. Dr Martin imagines, that a red hot 
 piece of iron is hotter than a red hot piece of ftone ; but 
 if you put into a crucible an hundred different kinds of 
 matter, as metals, glafs, &c. that are capable of bearing 
 a red heat, they will all begin to appear luminous about 
 the fame time, and their brightnefs will increafe equal- 
 ly as their heat increafes. But it is difficult to know 
 at what point this begins, as we have no way of afcer- 
 taining the beginning or loweft degree of ignition but 
 by the effett it produces on our fight, and we cannot 
 be fure that we perceive the loweft degree of light ; 
 for we know that other animals fee objefts with fuch 
 light as appears perfedt darknefs to us. Sir Ifaac 
 Newton's method of determining this has been already 
 mentioned. " ^ 
 
 Dr Boerhaave entertained a notion, that fome Metah may 
 metals, after being once brought into a ftate of fu- become 
 fion, could be made no hotter ; and propofes the pof- ^^^'^ 
 Ability of this as a queftion, " Whether the heat of^^^'^'^'^g 
 metals can be increafed after they are melted ?" There brought in- 
 is not, however, the leaft doubt but that their heat may to fulion. 
 be valtly increafed after they are melted; and we know 
 certainly that fuch as are of eafy fufion may be 
 heated to a vaftly greater degree after being melted ; 
 and why may not thofe requiring ftronger heats be the 
 fame ? We are fure that this is the cafe with filver, 
 wliich, after being melted, may be brought to fuch a 
 heat as to become too dazzling for the eye to bear it. 
 If Boerhaave's opinion were juft, it would be impof- 
 fible to caft any metal into moulds, becaufe it mult lofe 
 a little heat in being removed from the fire and in en- 
 tering the mould ; nor would they receive a proper 
 impreffion if they did not contain a greater quantity 
 6f heat than was neceffary for their fufion. 
 
 Ignition appears to be univeifal; and all bodies ca- i,Tnitfon an 
 pable of fupporting it without being converted into an univerfal 
 elaftic vappur that cannot be confined, are affefted ''^'^'^ of 
 the fame way. Water, which in its ordinary ftate 
 feeras very Kttle capable of enduring this heat, may be Water^may 
 confined in ftrong veflels fo as to become capable of be made 
 melting lead, which is more than half way betwixt a Sufficiently 
 red heat and that of boiling water. Experiments with 
 the eollpile fhow alfo that it can be made red-hot 
 for when the fteam pailes through burning fuel, it can. 
 
 3 l'> not 
 
394 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Theory- 
 
 General 
 £ffe(ft- of 
 Heat. 
 
 on. 
 
 133 
 Inflammati 
 on decom- 
 
 134 
 Spirit of" 
 
 not mlfs of being made red-hot. Dr Black has alfo 
 frequently feen the vapour of water heated by throw- 
 ing ft into the afh-pit of a furnace, fo as to produce a 
 very large and transparent flame in rifing up through 
 the vent. There is reafon therefore to conclude, that 
 ignition is one of the more general effefts of heat, only 
 that fome bodies are incapable of it until they be re- 
 duced to a (late of vapour. 
 
 V. The laft of the effeds of heat here to be taken 
 notice of is inflammation. It differs from ignition in 
 DifFerence this, that the bodies fubjeft to the latter gradually grow 
 betwixt ig' cooler as foon as they are taken out of the fire, with- 
 iiition and underffoincr any confiderable change; while thofe 
 fubjecT to inflammation become contmually hotter and 
 hotter, communicating a vaft quantity of heat to others, 
 and undergoing a kind of decompofition themfelves, 
 infomuch, that by this means they have been thought 
 to be reduced to their conftituent principles or ele- 
 ments. Some fubftances indeed fcem to be an excep- 
 in ae.com o-^tn air they burn totally away, 
 
 pounds but without leaving any refiduum or producing any foot, 
 does not de- Thefe are fpirit of wine, fulphur, and efpecially inflam- 
 Itroy bodies mable air ; which laft, by a proper mixture with de- 
 phlogifticated air, may be fo totally confumed, that 
 fcarce a fiftieth part of the two will remain. On a 
 careful examination of thefe fubftances, however, we 
 find that there is by no means a total confumption, or 
 indeed, properly fpeaking, any confumption at all, at 
 leaft if we meafure the quantity of matter by the weight 
 
 ^ of the fubftance employed. Thus, if we are at pains 
 
 wine yields to colkft the vapour of burning fpiiit of wine, we will 
 a great ^^^^ aqueous dew is colleded, which fome- 
 
 wTter by ^''"^^ equals the fpirit of wine itfclf in weight. With 
 being burn- regard to fulphur, the cafe is ftill more evident; for 
 ed» the vapour of this, when colleAed, not only equals 
 
 but greatly exceeds the weight of the fulphur employ- 
 ed ; and on burning dephlogifticated and inflam- 
 mable air together, as much water is found to be pro- 
 Water pro-duced as nearly equals the weight of both airs. In 
 duced by like manner, when we coUefl the afties, water, foot, 
 the defla- ^nd oil, procured by burning any of the common in- 
 gration of ^^^^^\^\^ fubftances, we will find, that they in gene- 
 catedand ral exceed the weight of the matter employed. 1 he 
 inflamma- great wafte of bodies by fire, therefore, is owing to the 
 ble air. diffipation of the volatile principles they contain, which 
 are carried off and rendered invifible by being mixed 
 with the atmofphere. 
 
 The procefs of Inflammation has long been explain- 
 
 ed from the prefence of a fubftance called Phlogijlon in 
 
 phlogifton. thofe bodies which are fubjeft to it, and which is fup- 
 pofed to be the fame In all bodies belonging to this 
 clafs ; the differences between them arifing from the 
 137 principles with which it Is combined. This doftrine, 
 Denied by which was firft introduced by Stahl, has given occa- 
 Lavoj- ^jQjj various and difcordant theories, that the 
 
 exiftence of phlogifton has been lately denied altoge- 
 ther by M. Lavoifier, who brought in a new method 
 of folvirg the phenomena of fire, heat, and ignition, 
 without any alliftance from this principle, 
 aga^nft i" ^ The foundation of M. Lavoifier's doftrlne is the 
 drawn from increafe of weight In metals by calcination. This in- 
 the increa- creafe he finds to be preciftly, or very nearly fo, pro- 
 of^ nTe'tals' P^Ttlonable to the decrtafe of weight in the air In 
 by cakLa- which they are calcined. His theory, therefore, Is, 
 that in the aft of calcination, the pure part of the air, 
 
 136 
 Of the ex- 
 iftence of 
 
 tion. 
 
 which he calls the acidifying or oxygenous principle, General 
 
 unites with the metal, and converts it into a calx. In °^ 
 
 like manner, in fubftances truly inflammable, the heat ^7 
 
 and flame arc fuppofed to proceed from the union of i^^p 
 
 the pure air, or the oxygenous principle, 'j ith the fab- His theory 
 
 ftance, and convertings it into thofe principles which 
 
 f , • r ■ n • rrf i_ • mation. 
 
 are round to remam alter inflammation, inus the in- 
 
 creafed weight of the fubftance is cafily accounted for;. 
 
 while the inflammation, in his opinion, is nothing more 
 
 than a combination of the inflammable body it- 
 
 felf with pure air, which has an attraftion for it : 
 
 and in confirmation of this It is urged, that when com- 
 
 buftion is perfoimed in empyreal or dephlogifticated. 
 
 air, the whole of the latter is abforbed ; but in com*- 
 
 mon atmofpherical air only one fourth, beirvg the quan* 
 
 tity of pure air contained in it; 140 
 
 OthtT arguments in favour of this opinion are, that -^''.iiun''cnt9 
 
 the calces of the perfed metals may be reduced without ^'"[^^^ 
 
 . ^ . . exilfceuce ox 
 
 addition by the mere emiflion of the oxygenous principle', phi.,j,);irron, 
 
 (dephlogifticated air) ; by an union with which they al- tioiuthe re- 
 fumc the form of a calx. Thus he evades a very '^"'^^i"" of • 
 ftrong argument ufed by the oppofite party ; who of*^ ^g^fg^ 
 duced, as a proof of the exiftence of phlogifton, thenier'ab^ 
 ufe of charcoal in the redudtion of metals to their pro- w:rhoutad« 
 per form. A difpute indeed took place betwixt M. dicion. 
 Lavoifier and Dr Piicftley concerning the reduflion "fj^jf^yfg ^ 
 the whole of a mercurial calx formed by an nnion ^^^.j^^^ 
 with the nitrous acid without addition ; the Doftor voilier and 
 maintaining, that the whole could not be reduced by l^"eftley. 
 mere heat, but that a very perceptible quantity was 
 always loft : but on a thorough examination of the 
 fnbjeft, the truth Teemed rather to lie on M. Lavoi- 
 fier's fide. See Aerology. 
 
 Another theory, fomewhat fimilar to that of Lavoi- Dr Lub- 
 fier'y, has been publiftied by Dr Lubbock, in an Inau- bock's theof 
 gural Diftertation in 1784. In this he fuppofes two''5''* 
 kinds of matter to exift in the unlverfe ; one he calls 
 the principium proprhnn, the other the pr'incipium for- 
 bile ; and it is this latter, which, according to our au- 
 thor, is the piinciple of mutability, or which, by be- 
 ing united in various proportions with the other, forms 
 bodies of all the different kinds we fee in nature. It' 
 is this principle, therefore, which he fuppofes to be ab- 
 forbed in the calcination of metals, and not empyreal 
 air, as M. Lavoifier fuppofes ; and he contends, that 
 this fame principle extends throughout the whole fy- 
 ftem of nature, even to the utmoft celeftial bounds* 
 
 It would exceed the limits of this treatife to give an Difputes 
 
 account of the various theories which have been invent- concerning 
 
 ed, and the areurrvents ufed for and aofainft them. ; norP^'"^'^"" 
 . , , . , ° - . , now entire- 
 
 inueed is there any occahon tor doing io, as late expe- jy 
 
 riments have reduced the difpute Into a much narrow- 
 er compafs than before, and furnlfhed the moft deci- 
 five arguments in favour of the exiftence, of phlogifton. 
 
 The greatelt objeftion to the belief of this prin- objedlions 
 ciple was, that it could neither be feen nor felt by ouragainft the 
 fenfes direftly, nor difcover Itftlf indireftly by ^^^^ ^^^'^^^^"^^ 
 weight it communicated to the bodies with which it from*^its'in- 
 was united ; on the contrary, the latter always became vifibility 
 lighter In proportion to the quantity they contained : and fuppo- 
 fo that it was imagined, inftead of being poflefTed oi^*^^ vyant o» 
 any fpecific gravity of its own, to be a principle of po-^"^"^* 
 fitive levity, fuch as that of heat or hght may be rea- 
 fonably fuppofed. This objeftion, however, is now 
 entirely removed ; and fhloglftoii in the abftra£t is 
 
 found 
 
"45 
 
 the fame. 
 
 T46 
 
 Decifive 
 
 proofs of 
 
 ley. 
 
 T47 
 Sfiiit of 
 
 wire and 
 rnetals con- , 
 
 Theory. C H E M I 
 
 General found to be no fubtile principle capable of eluding our 
 EfFtdls of refearches, but one very common, and eafily met with, 
 ' ■ • being no other than common charcoal. In the laft 
 edition of this work, under the article Phlogiston, 
 Common it was fhown, that inflammable air, deprived of its ela- 
 charcoalandfticity, and comVjined with metallic fubflances, is real- 
 phl )^')ftoM jy their phlogillon ; and that in the inflammable bo- 
 dies commonly ufed, what we call their phlogillon, 
 IS really their oil; and that which exifts in charcoal, and 
 cannot be driven off by diftlUation, id part of the em- 
 pyreumatic or burnt oil of the fabjeA which adheres fo 
 obftinately, A fimilar doArine f )on after appeared in 
 the Phil )fophical Tranfailions for 1782, and the iden- 
 tity of phlogiiton and inflam^iable air was clearly pro- 
 ved by Mr Kirwan. Still, however, it was infified by 
 the French phllofophers and others, that no faSs had 
 _ _ been adduced againft M. Lavoifier, nor any decifive 
 ^'i'vef h"^''^ proofs appeared of the exiftencc of phlogifton as a fub- 
 Dr Prieit- ilance ^fr^^. Fafts of this kind, however, have 'now 
 been difcovered by Dr Prieftley, and are related under 
 the articles Aerology, Charcoal, Phlogiston, 
 &c. It is fufficient at prefent to mention, that he 
 has been able to convert the pureft fpirit of wine, 
 and one of the hardell metals, viz. copper, as well 
 as feveral others, into a fubllance eniiirely refcm- 
 ve-tible iti- '^^'"g charcoal ; that by means of the heat of a burn- 
 lo charcoal, ing glafs in vacuo, he has diffipated this metallic char- 
 coal, as well as the common kind, entirely into inflam- 
 Charcnal mable air, with the affiftance only of a little water, 
 entirely dif- which feems necelTary to make it affume the aerial 
 fipated by form, and perhaps is the true folvent of it ; and by a 
 irfkmma- combination with the element of heat, with the aid of 
 bieair^ the cliarcoal, is enabled to refill condenfation in the 
 • See Ela/- '^^^"'O'^^^'^y** 'Phis inflammable air, when abfoi bed by 
 tic Vnpour. "metallic calces, again reduces them to their metallic 
 
 149 form ; fo that here is one faft by which the phlogillon 
 Metallic not only appears to our fenft s, but we are able to af- 
 ^^ll^^j^ '"j^^l"" certain its quantity with the utmoft precifion. Nor can 
 flammable ^'^"^^ ''"Y t)bjt(3ion, that the reduced metal is 
 air. lighter than the calx ; for this only proves that the 
 
 150 metallic earth, while a calx, is united to a heavy ingre- 
 Wliy metals (the bafis of dephlop-ifticated aii), and in the 
 a!C lighter , ^ , ■ \ 1 1 1 r r - n 
 
 jj^gjj. latter to a light one, viz. charcoal, the baiis 01 mnam- 
 
 ta!'.!c than mable air. 
 
 in their cal- Another cafe in wliith the exiftence of phlogifton 
 cined ftate. jg made equally evident to our fenfes, and where no 
 fuch objection can occur, is related under the article 
 ^ '5^* Aerology, n'^ 112. It is there (hewn, that "by the lofs 
 ticated^air" "^^ grain of ch^arcoal of copper (formed by the union 
 converted of fpirit of wine with the metal), and which like com- 
 int< aerial mon charcoal was confumed without havins: any refi- 
 acid by duum, he reduced four ounce-meafures of dephlogilli- 
 cated air till «nly one-ninth remained unabforbed by 
 water ; and, again, with the lofs of one grain and a 
 half of charcoal, fix and an half meafui-es of dephlogi- 
 flicaled air were reduced till five and an half meafiires 
 were pure fixed air." — Here, then, is an abfolute and 
 vmdeniable evidence, that fixed air is compofed of de- 
 phlogifticated air, and charcoal or pldogillon, and ele- 
 mentary fire. There were no other ingredients pre- 
 fent, and the charcoal nuift either have been annihila- 
 ted or difpofed of in the manner juft mentioned: but 
 the fuperior weight of the fixed air evidently fhows 
 that fome ingredient had been added to the dephlogi- 
 ilicated air; and which increafe was more than we can 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 39 S 
 
 charcua!. 
 
 fuppofe to arife from the condenfation of the dephlo-^^eneral 
 gifticated air during the operation, for this fometimes ^ 
 amounted to no more than one-thirtieth- part. < 
 
 The ftrongeil objedtion which can be made againft 
 the do£lrine of phlogifton may be drawn from the to-ObjeiStions 
 tal confumption of pure air in certain cafes of corabu- drawn from 
 ftion, for inftance, in that of phofphorus, inflammable '■^^ V"*^^'- 
 air, and iron, it mult be obierved, however, that m^^f ^gp^io. 
 no cafe whatever is the air totally confumed; andgifticated 
 in that of inflammable air water is produced by th^r^ir in fonie 
 union of the bafis of the latter, that is charcoal, '-^^^'* 
 with the bafis of dephlogifticated air, the oxygenous 
 principle of M. Lavoifier, and which appears to be 
 one of the component parts of Water. In the cafe 
 of phofphorus, the latter is converted into an acid ; 
 and in all probability a quantity of water is alfo pro- 
 duced, by which part of it is converted into cryftalline 153 
 flowers. The cafe of the iron, therefore, alone re-^''"'^ P*^'°* 
 
 mains to be confidered. Dr Prieftley's experiments 
 
 1 • r 1 • n 1 1 1 11 r • 1 P^^hed from 
 
 on this lubject are related at length under the article iron by he- 
 
 Aerology, n° 67 et feq. In them the iron burnt ing burnt 
 brilkly in dephlogifticated air, which, according to dephlo- 
 the common theory, fliould have indicated the expul- ^'^'^^^^'^ 
 fion of a great quantity of phlogifton ; yet the whole 
 refiduum, of which the fixed air, produced by the fup- 
 pofed union of the phlogifton or principle of inflamma- 
 bility, was only a part, fcarce amounted fometimes to 
 one-fourteenth of the air originally employed. 1^4 
 
 This argument, however, inftead of contradiclingl'heobjec- 
 the exiftence of phlogifton, only Ihows, that in fome '^i^j^g'^''^* 
 cafes the diilipation of a very fmall quantity of phlo- 
 gifton is necefiary to inflammation ; or that the aerial 
 principle may combine with the iron in its metallic 
 ilate. In this cafe only a very little quantity of 
 the phlogifton of the iron was diflipated ; for it was IJ5 
 not reduced to a calx, but to that kind of fcorije is not 
 which flies oft' in fcales by, beating the metal when^^^'^j^^^jy 
 led-hot with an hammer. A decifive proof of this burning In 
 was had by uniting iron thus combined with the dephlogifti- 
 bafis of dephlogifticated air with inflammable air. ^'^'^^^ 
 By this the metal was indeed reduced to peifeft 
 iron again ; but water was produced at the fame time ^j^^g^j^fj^g 
 from the union of the bafis of the two airs, that of the redudtion 
 inflammable airsbeing capable of furnifliing a fuperflu-of it by in- 
 cus quantity, which united with the other into the 
 form of a fluid. ^"^"157 
 
 The exiftence of phlogifton being thus proved, and Heat prq- 
 its nature afcertained, we may now proceed to deter duced in 
 mine the quellion. Whether the great quantity of heat 
 produced by the combuftion of inflammable bodies jj|^gg'°^^^°_ 
 proceeds from the bodies themfelves, or from the air ble bodies 
 which muft be admitted to them in order to make coming 
 them burn ? That the heat in this cafe proceeds from ^"^^"^ 
 the atmofphere is evident ; becaufe in all cafes of ^*'^* 
 combuftion there is a certain diminution undoubted- 
 ly takes place by means of the converfion of the de- 
 phlogifticated part of the atmofphere into fixed air. 
 It is proved, under the article Elastic Vapours^ that 
 elementary fire is the univerfal caufe of elafticity ia 
 fluids. By uniting a certain quantity of it with any 
 fubftance, the latter at length afl"umes an aerial or va- 
 porous form; and it is this vapour alone which is in- 
 flammable*. Different vapours no doubt contain dif- ' See the 
 ferent quantities of thefe ingredients; but in all cafes ^"•'^"^ 
 the bafis of the -dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere'^'"'"'* 
 3 D 2 muJl 
 
39^ 
 
 Genera! 
 ESc&i of 
 Heat. 
 
 158 
 Too much 
 phlogifton 
 prevents 
 the heat 
 from being 
 intuiie. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Too great 
 a quantity 
 of air has 
 the fame 
 effccSl. 
 
 160 
 
 Why the 
 fcilar heat 
 ai.d that of 
 eledtricity 
 are lb in- 
 tenfe. 
 
 161 
 
 Table of 
 the varii us 
 degrees of 
 heat. 
 
 muft unite with the phlogiftori of the inflammable 
 body, or with fomething elfe, fo that a decompofition 
 may enfue : and it is this decompofition which produces 
 the heat and light ; for then the fire contained in. the 
 atmofphere having no longer any thing to abforb it, 
 mull appear in its proper form. But in thofe cafes 
 where there is a great quantity of phlogifton, and con- 
 fequently much fixed air produced, the latter ablorbs 
 fo much heat in a latent ftate, that the quantity 
 communicated to furrounding bodies muft be greatly 
 diminifhed ; and if by an excefs of this ingredient, not 
 only fixed air, but the phlogiilicated kind and grofs 
 fmoke be alfo produced, this diminifhes the heat ftill 
 farther by the great abforption, and will even deftroy 
 it altogether. The remedy for this is either to dimi- 
 nifli the quantity of phlogifton, or to augment the 
 quantity of air ; which, by furRiihlng a greater quan- 
 tity of dephlogifticated bafis, affords an opportunity 
 for the evolution of a greater quantity of heat. On 
 the other hand, when the quantity of air is too great, 
 the phlogiftic matter cannot combine with the bafis of 
 the pure air in fufficient quantity to efFe£l a decompo- 
 fition ; and therefore the heat is abforbed in a latent 
 ftate, and the fire goes out. 
 
 From this theory, which is further illuftrated under 
 the articles Fire, FlaIwe, Heat, Phlogiston, &c. 
 we may not only have a rational idea of the manner in 
 which inflammation is generally accomphflied, but fee 
 why a fire may be put out both by too great a quan- 
 tity of fuel, and by too great a quantity of air. We 
 may alfo fee why the folar beams and eleftric fluid, 
 which contain no phlogiftic matter, excite a much 
 more powerful heat than asy we can raife in our hot- 
 teft furnaces. The difference between ignition and 
 inflammation will now likewife appear; fuch bodies 
 as are capable only of ignition containing little or no 
 phlogifton, but inflammable bodies a great deal. 
 
 The following table ftiows the moft remarkable de- 
 grees of heat from the congelation of mercury to that 
 of Mr Wedgewood's hotteft furnace. 
 
 Mercury freezes at - - 
 
 Weak fpirit of wine 
 
 Brandy at - - - 
 
 Cold produced by fnow and fait mixed 
 
 Strong wine freezes at 
 
 Vinegar freezes at 
 
 Water freezes at • 
 
 Temperature of fpring and autumn 
 
 Ordinary fummer weather ^ - 
 
 Sultry heat - - . 
 
 Heat of human blood 
 
 Feverifli heat 
 
 Bees wax melts 
 
 Serum coagulates 
 
 Spirit of wine boils 
 
 Water boils 
 
 Tin melts 
 
 Bifmuth melts 
 
 Oil of vitriol boils 
 
 Oil of turpentine boils 
 
 Lead melts 
 
 Quickfilver and linfeed-oil boil 
 Iron begins to fliine in the dark 
 Iron fliines bri/kly in the dark 
 ijroA Ihinfs in. the twilight 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 10 
 o 
 20 
 27 
 32 
 
 65 
 75 
 
 97 to 100 
 108 
 142 
 156 
 174 
 212 
 408 
 460 
 
 550 
 561 
 
 585 
 
 600 
 
 635 
 750 
 884 
 
 Iron red-hot from a common fire 
 
 Red heat fully vifible in day light ac- 
 cording to Mr Wedgewood 
 
 Heat by which his enamel colours are 
 burnt on - - - 
 
 Brafs melts - - 
 
 Swedifli copper melts 
 
 Fine filver melts 
 
 Fine gold melts 
 
 Leaft welding heat of iron; 
 
 Greateft ditto 
 
 Greateft heat of a common fmith's 
 forge . - 
 
 Caft iron melts , - 
 
 Greateft heat of Wedgewood's fmall 
 air-furnace - 
 
 Extremity of the fcale of his thermo- 
 meter * - - 
 
 to^O 
 
 1077. 
 
 1857 
 3807 
 4587 
 4-717 
 5237 
 12777 
 
 13427 
 
 17327 
 17977 
 
 21877 
 
 32277 
 
 Theory. 
 
 Attraiftion. 
 V ^■ 
 
 Sect. II. 0/ the DoElrine of EJeSlive Jttrac- 
 tioriy and of the different OhjeSls of Chemi/iry^ 
 
 Before we proceed to give a general theory of tlie Chcaiical 
 changes which happen upon the mixtures of difi'srent attradtiun,. 
 bodies together, or expofing them fingly to heat, we 
 mull oblerve,. that all depend on certain qualities 
 in bodies, by which fome of them are apt to join 
 tegether, and to remain united while they have an op- 
 portunity. The caufe of thefe qualities is totally un- 
 known ; and therefore philofophers, after the example 
 of Sir Ifaac Newton, have exprefled the apparent ef- 
 fect of this unknown caufe by the word attradion. 
 From them the word has been adopted by the che- 
 raifts, and is now generally ufed in fpeaking of the 
 phenomena which are obferved in the mixture of dif- 
 ferent fubftances ; but to diftinguifti it from other kinds,, 
 it is ufually called Eka'tve^ 
 
 This attradlion is not equally ftrong between all fub- 
 ftances ; in Gonfequence of which, if any body is com 
 pounded of two others, and another is prefented to it 
 which has a greater attradion for one of the compo- 
 nent parts than they have for one another, the fub* 
 ftance will be decompounded. A nevK compoimd is thea 
 formed by the union of that third fubftance witli one of 
 the component parts or elements (if we pleafe to call 
 them fo) of the firft. If the attradion between the 
 body fuperadded and either of the component parts o£ 
 the other is not fo ftrong as that between themfelves,- 
 no decompofition will enfue j or if the third fubftance 
 is attrafted by both the others, a new compofition will 
 take place by the union of all the three. jg^ 
 
 The objefts of chemiftry, as we have already ob- Objedls of 
 fierved, are fo various, that an enumeration of them chemiftry 
 all is impolTible. To eafe the mind, therefore, when 
 fpeaking of them, and render more ufeful any thing 
 that is faid or wrote on chemiftry, it is neceflary to 
 divide them into different claifes, comprehending in 
 each clafs thofe bodies which have the greateft refem- 
 blance to one another, and to which one common rule 
 applies pretty generally. — The divifion formerly ufed,. 
 was that of vegetables, animals, and minerals; but 
 this has been thought improper, as there are many 
 fubftances in each of thofe kingdoms which differ very 
 widely from one another, and which are by no means 
 fubjedi to the fame laws. The moft approved me- 
 thod, 
 
i64 
 Salts. 
 
 i'65 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Saks, thod, at prefefit, of arranging the objefts of chemiilry, 
 ■"v— — J 3 into falts, earths, metals, inflammable fubllances, 
 waters, animal and vegetable fubllances. 
 
 StCT III. Salts. 
 Salts are either fuftlle^ tliat is, capable of abiding 
 the fire, and melting in a ftrong heat, without being 
 difiipated ; or volatile, that is, being difperfed in va- 
 pour with a fmall heat. Their other properties are, 
 that they are fohible in water ; not inflammable, unleis 
 by certain additions ; and give a fenfation of taite 
 when applied to the tongue. 
 
 The moft general charadleriftic of falts is, that they 
 are all foluble in water, though feme of them with much 
 more difficulty than others. Moll of them have like- 
 wife the property of forming themfelves, in certain 
 circumftances, into folid tranfparent mafles of regular 
 figures, different according to the different fait made 
 ufe of, and which are termed cryjlah of that fait. In 
 this Hate they always contain a quantity of water; and 
 therefore the utmoft degree of purity in which a fait 
 can be procured, is when it has been well cryftallized, 
 and the cryilals are freed of their fuperfluous moitlure 
 by a gentle heat. They generally appear then in the 
 form of a white powder. 
 Phenomena In the folution of falts in water, the firfl thing ob- 
 Mtendj'ng fervable is, that the water parts with the air contain- 
 their folu- . which immediately rifes to the top in the 
 
 form of bubbles. This, however, is moll remarkable 
 ■^'hen the fait is in the dry form we have jufl now men- 
 tioned, becaufe there is always a quantity of air en- 
 tangled among the interflices of the powder, which ri- 
 fes along with the reft ; and this difcharge of air is 
 fometimes fo great, as to be miftaken for an effervef- 
 cence. From this, however, it is eflentially different. 
 See Effervescence. 
 
 Another thing obfervable in the folution of falts is, 
 that a confiderable change happens in the temperature 
 of the water in which they are diflblved ; the mixture 
 becoming either a good deal warmer or colder than ei- 
 tlier the fait or the water were before. la general, 
 however, there is an increafe of cold, and fcarce any 
 fait produces heat, except when it has been made 
 very dry, and deprived of that moifture which it na- 
 turally requires ; and thus the heating of falts by be- 
 ing mixed with water may be explained on the fame 
 principle with the heat produced by quicklime. See 
 Quicklime. 
 
 After fait has been dlffolved in a certain quantity 
 by water, no more of that fait will be taken up unlefs 
 the water is heated ; and as long as the heat continues 
 to increafe, the fait will be diffolved. When the wa- 
 ter boils, at which time it has attained its greateil 
 heat, and will take up no more fait, it is then faid to 
 be faturated with that fait. This, however, does not 
 prevent it from taking up a certain quantity of another 
 fait, and after that perhaps of a third, or fourth, with- 
 out letting go any of the firfl which it had diffolved. 
 How far this property of water extends, has not yet 
 been afcertained by experiments. 
 
 To the above rule there is only one exception 
 known as yet; namely, common fea-falt: for water 
 difTolves it in the very fame quantity when cold as 
 when boiling hot. It has been faid by fome, that all 
 deliquefcent falts, or thofe which grow moi£ on being 
 
 39? 
 
 Salts 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 expofed to the air, had the fame property : but this is 
 found to be a miilake. ~'i66~~' 
 
 This property of folubility, which all the falts pof- Mixture 
 fefs in common, renders them eafily mifcible together; and fepara- 
 and the property by which moft of them ftioot in- tio" of 
 to cryftals, renders thofe eafily feparable again which 
 have no particular attraftion for one another. This is 
 like wife rendered ftill more eafy by their requiring 
 different proportions of water, and different degrees 
 of heat, to fufpend them ; for by this they cryftallizc 
 at different times, and we have not the trouble of 
 picking the cryftals of one out among thofe of the 
 other. _ _ ^ 
 
 The manner in which the folution of falts in water Hfpothefij 
 is effected, is equally unaccountable with moft of the concenmig 
 other operations of nature. Sir Ifaac Newton fup- 
 pofed that the particles of water got between thofe ° * 
 of the fait, and arranged them all at an equal diftance 
 fiom one another: and from this he alfo accounts for 
 the regular figures they affume on paffing into a cry- 
 ftalline form ; becaufe, having been once arranged in 
 an orderly manner, they could not come together iu 
 diforder, unlefs fomething was to difturb the water in 
 which they were fufpended ; and if any fuch difturb- 
 ance is given, we find the cryftals are by no means fo' 
 regular as otherwife they would have proved. Others 
 have thought that thefe figures depend on a certain ^o- 
 lar'tty in the very fmall particles into which the fait is 
 refolved when in a ftate of folution. Thefe things,, 
 however, are merely conjedlural ; neither is- it a matter 
 of any confequence to a chemift whether they are right 
 or wrong. 168 
 
 Though folution is that operation which falts un- S . Its dc-' 
 dergo the moft eafily, and which fhould feem to affe6l j^'^'"^''''^^^- 
 them the leaft of any, a repetition of it proves n<^ver- jc^j^j'^j^jj^^ 
 thelefs very injurious to them, efpecially if it is fol- 
 lowed by quick evaporation ; and the fait, inftead of 
 being cryfi;allized, is dried v/ith a pretty flrong heat. 
 Newman relates, that a pound of fea-falt was reduced, 
 by 1 3 folutions and exficcations, to half an ounce ; and 
 even that was moftly earth. Where folution is requi- 
 red, therefore, it ought always to be done in clofe vef- 
 fels, in which alfo the fubfequent evaporation fliould 
 be perfumed, (fee Evaporation); and in all cafes 
 where cryftallization is prafticable, it ought to be" pre- 
 ferred to violent exficcation. 
 
 The two great divifions of falts are into acids and 
 alkalies. The former of thefe are known by their pecu- 
 liar tafte, which is> called aeid or four. They are not 
 found in a folid form ; neither are any of them, except 
 the acids of vitriol, of tartar, of phofphorus, and of 
 borax, capable of being reduced to folidity. The o- 
 thers, when highly concentrated, that is, brought to 
 the utmoft degree of ftrength of which they are ca- 
 pable, always become an invifible vapour, permanently 
 elaftic, until it comes in contaft with water, or fome 
 other fubftance with which they are capable of uni- 
 ting. For fuch acids the name oi Jails feems lefs pro- 
 per, as we can fcarcely fay that a vapoury which is al- 
 ready much more fluid than water, &au be dijfolved ia 
 that element. 
 
 The acids are divided into the mineral, the vege- 
 table, and the animal ; expreffing their different ori- 
 gin, or where they are moft commonly to be found. 
 The mineral acids are commonly reckoned three; the 
 
 vi. 
 
 165^; 
 Acids* 
 
398 
 
 Salts. 
 
 170 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 171 
 
 :Diffe;ent 
 acSlion of 
 ..alkalies and 
 .acids. 
 
 >7» 
 
 Neutral 
 felts. 
 
 CHE M I 
 
 vitriolic, the nitrous, and the marine. To this the 
 acid of borax ought to be added; but its weaknefs 
 makes it much lefs taken notice of as an acid than the 
 others. A Swcdifli chemift, however, Mr Scheele, 
 hath lately added feveral others, which are afterwards 
 taken notice of. 
 
 The vegetable kingdom affords only two diftinfl fpe- 
 cles of acids, at lead without the affiftance of fome 
 chemical operation. The one appears fluid, and when 
 concentrated to the utmoft degree becomes an iuvilible 
 vapour. This is produced from fermented liquors, 
 under the name of vuiegar. An acid fimilar to this, 
 and which is thought not to be effentially different from 
 it, is extrafted from mofl vegetables by diftillation 
 with a Itrong fire. The other is likewife a confe- 
 quence of fermentation ; and crufts on the bottom 
 and fides of caflcs in which wine is put to depurate 
 itfelf. In its crude ftate it is called tartar; and when 
 afterwards purified, is called the cream, or cryftals, of 
 tartar. As for the various acids produced in the dif- 
 ferent chemical procefTes to be afterwards related, we 
 forbear to mention them at prefent, it being juftly 
 fufpefted that fome of them are artificial. 
 
 The animal acids, which have hitherto been difco- 
 vered, are only two ; the acid of ants, and that of 
 tirine, which is alfo the acid of phofphorus. The firft 
 of thefe is volatile; and confequently mull be fuppofed 
 a vapour when in its flrongeft flate : the other is ex- 
 ceedingly fixed ; and will rather melt into glafs than 
 rife in vapours. Befides thefe, it is faid an acid is con- 
 tained in. blood, in wafps, bees, &c. : but no experi- 
 ments have as yet been made on thefe to determine 
 this matter with./iny degree of precifion. 
 
 The alkalies "are of two kinds ; fixed and volatile. 
 The fixed kind are fubdift'ided into two; the vege- 
 table, and minei-al or foflU alkalis The vegetable is 
 fo called, becaufe it is procured from theafhes of burnt 
 vegetables ; the foflile, becaitfe it. is found native in 
 fome places of the earth, and is the bafis of fea-falt, 
 which in fome places is dug out of mines in vail quan- 
 tity. They are called fxed., becaufe they endure a 
 very intenfe degree of heat without being dilfipated in 
 vapour, fo as even to form a part of the compofition 
 of glafs. The volatile alkali is generally obt^ed by 
 diftillation from animal fubflances. In its pure ftate 
 this alkali is perfetlly invifible ; but affefts the fenfe 
 of fmeUing to fuch a degree, as not to.be approached 
 with fafety. 
 
 The acids and alkalies are generally thought to be 
 entirely oppofite in their natures to one another. 
 Some, however, imagine them to be extremely fimi- 
 lar, and to be as it were parts of one fubftance vio- 
 lently taken from each other. Certain it is, that when 
 feparated, they appear as oppofite. to one another as 
 heat and cold. Their oppofite aftion indeed ver)' much 
 refembles that of heat and cold, even when applied to 
 the tongue ; for the alkali has a hot, bitter, burning 
 tafte,. while the acid, if not confiderably concentrated, 
 always gives a fenfation of coldnefs. In their aftion 
 too upon animal fubftances, the alkali diffolves, and 
 reduces the part to a mucilage ; while the acid, if not 
 very .much concentrated, tends to preferve it uncor- 
 rupted. 
 
 If an alkaline fait, and moderately ftrong acid in a 
 liquid ftate, be mixed together, they will immediately 
 
 S T R Y. r ^ Theory. 
 
 unite ; and, provided the alkali has not been depri- Sal-s. 
 ved of its fixed air, their union will be attended with ' ' 
 
 a very confiderable effervefcence : (fee Aerology.) 
 If the alkali has been deprived of air, no effervefcence 
 will enfue, but they will quietly mix together; but 
 if a due proportion of each has been added, the li- 
 quor will neither have the properties of an acid nor 
 an alkali, but will be what is called neutral. The bring- 
 ing the liquor into this ftate, is called faturattng the 
 acid or alkali, or combining them to the point of fa- 
 turation. 
 
 If the liquor after fuch a faturation be gently eva- 
 porated, a fahne mafs will be left, which is neither an 
 acid nor an alkah, but a new compound formed by 
 the union of the two, and which is called a perfect neu- 
 tral fait. The epithet perfeS is given it, to make a 
 diftinftion between the falts formed by the union of 
 an acid and an alkali, and thdfe formed by the union 
 of acids with earthy or metallic fubftances ; for thefe will 
 likewife unite with acids, and fome of the compounds 
 will cryftallize into regular figures ; but,becaufe of their 
 weaker union with thefe fubftances, the falts refulting 
 from combinations of this kind are called hnperfeS. 
 
 All acids, the volatile fulphureous one excepted, actable 
 change the blue infufions of vegetables, fuch as vio- colours * 
 lets, to a red; and alkalies, as well as fome of the changed by 
 imperfedl neutrals, change them to green. This is the ^<^'^s aud 
 niceft teft of an acid or alkali abounding in any fub- ^'''^^'^s* 
 ftance, and feems the moft proper method of determi- 
 ning whether a folution intended to be neutral really 
 is fo or not. 
 
 Though between every acid and alkali there is a Differerjces 
 very ftrong attraction, yet this is far from being the in the de- 
 fame in all ; neither is it the fame between the fame g ee.s of at- 
 acid and alkali in different circumftances of the acid, j.'^^^''"'' 
 When the acids are in a liquid Hate, and as free as 
 poffible of inflammable matter, between which and 
 the nitrous and vitriolic acids there is a very ftrong 
 attraAion, the vitriolic will expel any of the rell 
 from an alkaline bafis, and take its place. Thus, if 
 you combine the acid of fea-falt, or marine acid, to 
 the point of faturation, with the foffil alkali, a neu- 
 tral fait will be formed, which has every property of 
 common fait : but, if you pour on a certain propor- 
 tion of the vitrioHc acid, the acid of fea-falt will im- 
 mediately be expelled ; and the liquor, upon being e- 
 vaporated, will contain not the neutral fait formed by 
 an union of the marine acid with the alkali, but ano- 
 ther confining of the vitriolic acid joined with that al- 
 kali, and which has quite different properties from the 
 former. 
 
 When the acids and alkalies are applied to one ano- 
 ther in a liquid ftate, the vitriolic acid always ftiows 
 itfelf to be the moft powerful ; but when applied in a 
 folid form, and urged with a violent heat, the cafe is 
 ver)' much altered. Tiius, the acid of borax, com- 
 monly c?i\\t<S. fal fedatlvus, is fo weak as to be difen- 
 gaged from its bafis by every acid applied in a liquid 
 form, that of tartar alone excepted ; but if even the 
 vitriolic acid combined with an alkali be mixed with 
 this weak acid, then exficcated, and at laft urged 
 with a vehement fire, the vitriolic acid will be difen- 
 gaged from its bafis, and rife in vapours, leaving 
 the weaker acid in pofTeflion of the alkali. The fame 
 thing happens on adding the phofphorine or urinous 
 
 acid, 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 Saks, acid, or the acid of arfenic, &c. to combinations of 
 ^ - V the vitriolic or other acids with alkahne falts. — When 
 the acids are in a liquid ftate, therefore the moft power- 
 ful is the vitriolic ; next the nitrous ; then the ma- 
 rine ; then vinegar ; acid of ants ; and lafl.ly the fal 
 fedativusand tartar, which feem to be nearly equal in 
 this refpe6t. — If they are applied in a fohd form, the 
 moft powerful are the fal fedativus and phofphorine 
 acid; then the vitriolic, nitrous, marine, and vegetable 
 acids. 
 
 When they are reduced to vapoirr, the cafe is ex- 
 ceedingly different ; for then the marine acid appears 
 to be the moft powerfu', and the vitriolic the leaft fo 
 of any. It is impoffible, however, to preferve the 
 vitriolic acid in the form of vapour, without combin- 
 ing it with a certain quantity of inflammable matter, 
 1 which muft neceffarily dcftroy its ftrength. Dr Prieft- 
 ley foundj that the marine acid, when reduced to va- 
 pour, was capable of difuaiting the nitrous acid from a 
 fixed alkali. 
 
 Though the vitriolic acid fometimes affumes a foHd 
 form, it is by no means eafy to reduce it to this ftate 
 by mere concentration, without the afliftance of ni- 
 trous acid. Baldafart, however, pretends that he 
 difcovered, in the neighbourhood of a volcano, a pure 
 and icy oil of vitriol, from which nothing could be 
 precipitated by alkaline falts; though there is cer- 
 tainly very great reafon to doubt the accuracy of this 
 obfervation. Of late the nitrous acid has alfo been 
 found capable of affuming a folid form. This was 
 firft obferved by M. Bernhard in diftllling a very large 
 quantity of the acid. At that time he perceived a 
 white fait adhering to the infide of the receiver, which 
 on examination proved to be the acid of nitre in a con- 
 crete form ; being extremely corrofive, emitting red 
 vapours copiotifly on being expofed to the air, and at 
 length totally evaporating in it. Its fpeclfic gravity, 
 however, was far inferior to that of the glacial oil of 
 vitriol. - 
 
 Acids unite The acids have the property of uniting themfelves 
 ■with phlo- to many other fubftances befides fixed alkalies, and 
 gillon. forming neutral compounds with them. Of thefe 
 the chief is the principle of inflammability or phlb- 
 gifton. In the vitriolic, nitrous, and phofphorine a- 
 cids, the attraillon for this principle is very ftrong ; 
 fo great, that the two former will even leave a fixed 
 alkah to unite with it. In the marine acid it is lefs 
 perceptible ; in the liqnid vegetable or animal acid ftlll 
 lefs ; and in the acid of tartar, and fal fedativus, not 
 at all. 
 
 Befides this, all acids will dlffolve metallic and ear- 
 thy fubftances : with thefe, however, they do not in 
 general unite fo firmly with alkaline falts ; nor do they 
 unite fo ftrongly with metals as with earths. 
 
 In general, therefore, we may expeft, that after ha- 
 uradlions '^'"S dlffblved a metal in any acid whatever, if we add 
 an earthy fubftance to that folution, the acid will quit 
 the metal, which it had before difl'olved, .to unite with 
 the earth. In this cafe the folution will not be clear 
 as before, but will remain muddy, and a quantity of 
 po^vder will fall to the bottom. This powder is the 
 metalline fubftance itfelf, but deprived of one of its 
 component parts; and in this cafe it is faid to precipitate 
 in the form of a calx. 
 
 If to this new folution of the earthy fubftance in an 
 acid liquor, a volatile alkaline fait, not deprived of its 
 
 176 
 With mC' 
 tals and 
 earth. 
 
 177 
 
 Eledlive 
 
 17S 
 
 I S T R 
 
 fixed air, is added, the acid will quit the earth, and 
 unite with the alkaline £alt. The earth thus dif» 
 engaged will again precipitate., and lie at the bottom in 
 fine powder, while the volatile alkali and acid re- 
 main combined together, and the liquor again becomes 
 clear. 
 
 The attraflion between volatile alkalies and acids is' 
 confiderably lefs than between fixed alkah es and the 
 fame acids. If, therefore, a fixed alkali be now add- 
 ed to the liquor, the volatile alkali will be fepavated^ 
 and the acid will unite with the fixed alkali. The vo- 
 latile alkali Indeed, being perfeftly foluble in watery, 
 cannot precipitate, but will difcover its feparation by 
 the pungent fmell of the mixture ; and upon evapora- 
 ting the liquor, the volatile alkali will be dlffipated, and 
 a faline mafs, confifting of the acid and fixed alkali, , 
 will remain. 
 
 Laftly, If the acid employed \vas the nitrous, which T^etouatioB^ 
 has a ftrong attraction for trie principle of inflamma- "i^f^' 
 bility, if the faline m.afs be mixed with a proper 
 quantity of inflammable matter, and expofed to a 
 ftrong, heat, the acid v/ill leave the alkali with vaft ra- 
 pidity, combine v^^ith the^iflammable matter, and be 
 deftroyed in flame in a moment, leaving the alkali quite 
 pure. 179 
 
 Though the above-mentioned effefts generally hap- Exceptions- 
 pen, yet we are not to expect that they will invari- 
 ably prove the fame whatever acid is made ufe of ; 
 or even that they will be the fame in all poffiblc va- 
 riety of circumiiances in which the fame acid can be 
 ufed. — The acid of tartar is one exception, where the 
 general rule is in a manner reverfed ; for this acid will 
 quit a fixed alkali for an earth, efpecially if calcined, 
 and even for iron. If lead, meicury, or filver, are dif- 
 folved in the nitrous acid, and a fmall quantity of the 
 marine acid is added, it will feparate the ftronger ni- 
 trous acid, and fall to the bottom writh the metals in 
 form' of a- white powder. — The vitriohc acid, by it- 
 felf, has a greater attradlion for earthy fubftances- 
 than for metals ; and greater ftill for fixed alkaline 
 falts than for either of thefe : but if qulckfilver is dif- 
 folved in the nitrous acid, and this folution is poured - 
 into a combination of vitriolic acid with fixed alkali, .. 
 the vitrioHc. acid will quit the alkaH to unite with the 
 qulckfilver. Yet qulckfilver by Itfelf cannot ealily be 
 united with this acid. The reafon of all thefe anoma- - 
 lies, however, is fully explained in the following fee- - 
 tioH. 
 
 ^ I. OJthe Operations of Solution and Precipitation, 
 
 Th e chemical folution of folid bodies in acid or other ■ 
 menftrua, is a phenomenon which, though our familia- 
 rity with it has now taken off" our furprife, muft un- 
 doubtedly have occafionedthe greateft admlratlcn and 
 aftoniflilnent in thofe who firft obferved it. It would ' 
 far exceed the limits of this treatlfe to fpeak particu- - 
 larly of all the various circumftances attending the 
 folution of diff'erent fubftances in every poffible men- 
 ftruum. The following are the moft remarkable, col- 
 leAed from Mr Bergman's DiiFertation on MetaUic 
 Precipitates. . ^ ,^ . ^ , . ,gd^ 
 
 1. On puttmg a fmair piece of metal into any acid, Phcnomenia 
 it is dilfolved fometimes with violence, fometimes gent- ^"^"^'"K 
 ly, according to the nature of the menftruum and of '^^^ ' 
 the metal to be diflblved. * 
 
 2. The nitrous acid is the moft powerful In Its ac- 
 
 4 tioa. 
 
C H E M I 
 
 tion upon metallic fubftances, when unafllfted by heat. 
 So great indeed is the violence with which this acid 
 fometimes afts, that the metal, inftead of being diflbl- 
 ved, feparates inftantaneoufly from it in the form of a 
 Nitrous atid calx or powder fcarce foluble in any menftruum, at 
 the fame time that the heat, effervefcence, and noxious 
 vapours iffuing from the mixture, render it abfolutely 
 neceffary to moderate the aftion of the menftruum, 
 either by dilution or cold, or both. In other cafes, 
 however, as when put to gold or platina, the ni- 
 trous acid has no eifeft until it be united with the ma- 
 rine, when the mixture afts upon thofe metals, which 
 neither of the acids fingly would touch. 
 
 3. The aftion of the vitriolic acid, though in the 
 highett degree of concentration, i* more weak. It does 
 moreweak-not readily attack filver or mercury unlefs afllfted by 
 a boiling heat, nor will even that be fufficient to make 
 Marine a- upon gold or platina. 
 
 cid gfcneral- 4. The aiSion of marine acid, unlefs on fome particular 
 ly more fubftances, is ftill more weak ; but when dephlogiftica- 
 eit^her'^'ex- '^^Pi'^^^d of part of the phlogifton effential to 
 
 cej t when conftitution as an acid, it a£ls much more power- 
 dephlogifti- fully, and diftblves all the uictals completely. 
 
 5. The other acids, as thofe of fluor, borax, with 
 
 400 
 
 Sohition 
 and PrecL 
 pitation. 
 
 the moft 
 vidlent i 
 its opera 
 tiun. 
 
 t8» 
 
 Vitriolic 
 iicid a<5ls 
 
 cated. 
 
 The reft of ^^'^^^ ''^ obtained from the animal and vegetable 
 the acids kingdoms, are much inferior in their powers as folvents, 
 much unlefs in very few inftances. 
 
 weaker ftill. 6. Metals vary very much in their degrees of folu- 
 Different ^'^^^'^Y 5 fonie yielding to almoft every mejiftruum, and 
 degrees of Others, as has been already obferved, being fcarce ac- 
 folubility in ted upon by the moft powerful. 
 
 tnetals. 6, Zinc and iron are of the former kind, and gold 
 
 -Soludon ''"'^ filver of the latter, eluding the marine; and gold, 
 fometimes *^"lt'fs in one particular cafe, viz. when affifted by heat 
 promoted In a clofe veffd, the aftion of the nitrous acid alio, 
 by abftraft- Xhefe metals, however, which In their perfe6l ftate re- 
 itig a cer« .^q^ ^j^^ aftion of the moft powerful rrienftrua, may be 
 portion of diflblved much more readily when deprived of a cer- 
 , phlogifton. tain quantity of their inflammable principle. But 
 
 though the fcparation of this principle in fome degree 
 jg^ renders metals more folubie, the abftraftion of too m.uch 
 But js total- of It, particularly in the cafe of iron and tin, renders 
 Jy prevent- thefe rnetals almoft entirely infoluble. Manganefe is the 
 kfn°V^' remarkable inftance of this power of the phlo- 
 
 too^much-'^ giftic principle, in depriving metals of their folubility 
 exemplified by its abfence, or reftoring it to them by its prefence ; 
 in manga- for this fubftance, when reduced to blacknefs, cannot 
 cefe. dlffolved by any acid without the addition of 
 
 fome inflammable matter ; but when by the addition of 
 
 phlogifton it has become white, may be dilTolved in 
 
 any acid-. 
 
 S 1 f '''* '^^^ difTolutlon of metals by acids, even to their 
 ^ ° ^^j.y particle, is attended by a vlfible effervefcence: 
 metals at' / . r ' ., , /. , . , . ^ 
 
 tended with this is more perceptible according to the quicknels of 
 
 an efFervef- the folution; but more obfcure, and fcarcely to be feen 
 cence. ^t all, when the folution proceeds flowly. 
 
 8. The elaftic fluids extricated by thefe folutlons 
 various . ,. , r , • J J r 
 kinds of e- SI'S various, according to the nature or the acid and or 
 
 laftic fluids the metal employed. With the nitrous, the fluid pro- 
 txtricated. (}uced is commonly that called nitrous air ; with vitrio- 
 lic and marine acids the produce is fometimes inflam- 
 mable air, fometimes otherwife, according to the na- 
 ture of the metal afted upon. 
 
 9. Heat In a greater or fmaller degree is always 
 produced during the diffolution of metals J and the de- 
 
 No 70. 6 
 
 S T R Y. Theory, 
 
 gree of it is in proportion to the quantity of the mat- fioK.ctoii 
 ter and the quicknefs of the folution ; and hence, in ^f"^ Preci- 
 fmall quantities of metal, and when the folution pro- P"-^"""' ^ 
 ceeds very flowly, the temperature of the mafs u fcarce- j-^ 
 ly altered. _ ^ ^ Heat pro- 
 
 10. The calces of metals either yield no air at all, duccd du- 
 or only the aerial acid, unlefs when urged by a violent J?"^ dif- 
 heat almoft to ignition ; when, by means of vitriolic or tnetals" '^^ 
 nitrous acid, they yield a quantity of pure arr, after i^ 'i 
 other elaftic fluids, fuch as vitriolic, nitrous, or phlo- Little air 
 gifticated air. None of the dephlogifticated air is '^^^ 
 ufually produced by the marine acid in conjundlion j^^"^!^^^"^*"* 
 with metallic calces. when calci- 
 
 11. The folutlons of fome metals are coloured, o- ned. 
 thers are not. The colour of the former Is only that \9'^ 
 which Is proper to the calx, but rendered more vivid i^yr's ^f *^ 
 by the molfture. Thus folution* of gold and platina metallic 
 are yellow ; thofe of copper, blue or green ; folutlons calces. 
 
 of nickel of a bright green ; but thofe of cobalt are 
 red, although the calx is black. We may obferve that 
 even this red colour may be heightened to blacknefs. 
 Iron moderately calcined is green ; but this rarely con- 
 tinues upon .further dephloglftication. The white 
 calces of filver, lead, tin, bifmuth, arfenic, antiraeny, 
 and manganefe, are diflblved without colour ; but f®- 
 lutions of lead, tin, and antimony, are fomewhat yel- 
 low, unlefs fufficiently diluted. Mercury, however, 
 forms a fingular exception to this rule ; for the orange- 
 coloured calx of this metal forms a colourlefs folution. 
 The metals yielding coloured folutlons are gold, pla- 
 tina, copper, Iron, tin, nickel, and cobalt ; the reft, if 
 properly depurated, give no tinge. A folution of fil- 
 ver is lometimes of a blue or green colour at firft, al- 
 though there be no copper prefent ; the vitriolic acid 
 becomes blue with copper ; the nitrous may be made 
 either blue or green at pleafure ; the marine varies ac- 
 corduig to the quantity of water with which it Is di- 
 luted. Manganefe, when too much dephlogifticated, 
 renders both the vitriolic and marine acids purple. 19-} 
 
 With regard to the caufe of chemical folutlons, our Bergman's 
 author obferves, that though attradion murt be ^ook- 
 ed upon as the fundamental caufe, yet we may alfo chemtcal ^ 
 lay it down as a maxim, that no metal can be taken folutioii. 
 up by an acid, and at the fame time preferve the whole 
 quantity of phlogifton which was neceflary to it In its 
 metallic ftate. A certain proportlonof the principle of Solution 
 inflammability therefore may be conlidered as an ob- '"^P^^cd by 
 ftacle which mull be removed before a folution can '^'^'^^^'^^'^^ 
 take place. Thus, of all the acids, the nitrous attradls phh?>^i{>!in. 
 phlogifton the moft powerfully, and feparates it even 195 
 from the vitriolic. A proof of this may be had by ''"'P-'"y_ de- 
 boiling fulphur flowly In concentrated nitrous acid, j^llj"]^'^'"*^^" 
 At length all its phlogifton may be feparated, and the trous^acij. 
 vitriolic acid will remain, deprived of its principle of 
 inflammability. The extraordinary iolvent powers of 
 this acid, therefore, is conformed to the peculiarity ot 
 its nature in this refpeft. For this menftruum diffolves 
 metals for folution with the greateft eafe, moft com- 
 monly without any affiftance from external heat; which fi^jj^*^ ^ 
 in fome inftances would be hurtful, by feparating too fome metajj 
 much of phlogifton, as appears in the cafe of Iron, tin, prepared by 
 and antimony ; all of which may be fo far dephloglfti- "it' ous a- 
 cated by the nitrous acid, as to be rendered ^^tremcly 
 difficult of folution : for this reafon it Is very often after-* 
 neceifary, as has already bes^u obferved, to temper the wards. 
 
 aflivitv 
 
Theory. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 197 
 
 Why the 
 vitrioiic a 
 c!d cannot 
 a eft on 
 lea.l, Cl- 
 rer, &c. 
 without a 
 boiling 
 heat. 
 
 198 
 Why ma- 
 rine acid 
 adts en 
 Jome me 
 
 Soluti'in aftlvlty of this meiiflruiim by water. The vitriolic 
 ^"t tio-i ' ^'^'^ requires a boiling heat before it can aft upon iil- 
 nj^ ver or mercury. The reafon of this is, that by means 
 
 of the heat, the watery part of the menftruum is dimi- 
 niflied, its power is thereby increafed, and the connec- 
 tion of the metallic earths with the inflammable prin- 
 ciple diminilhed. Marine acid, which contains phlo- 
 gifton as one of its conftltuent principles, mull necef- 
 farily have little or no efFeft on thofe metals which re- 
 tain their principle of inflarhmability very obftinately. 
 But its watery part being diminilhed by boiling, it 
 afTumes an aerial form, and powei fully attra6is a lar- 
 ger quantity of phlogifton than before ; fo that in a va- 
 porous ftare it will diffolve metals, particularly filver 
 and mercury, which in its liquid form it would fcarce 
 tals and not be brought to touch. When dephlogifticated as much 
 on others, as poffible, it attrafts phlogifton with prodigious avi- 
 dity, diflolving all metals by its attraftion for their 
 phlogifton, and, uniting the inflammable principle to 
 itfelf, refiimes the ordinary form of marine acid. When 
 dephlogifticated by means of nitrous acid in aqua re- 
 gis, it difTolves gold and platina. On the fame prin- 
 ciples may we account for its inferiority in power to 
 the other acids. 
 
 Why feme It has alread)' been obferved that the metals differ 
 metals are much :n their degrees of folubility, which is owing to 
 hiWe than ^^^^ various degrees of force with which they retain 
 ©thers. pl^logifton. Thofe called perfeft metals effec- 
 
 tually relift calcination in the dry way. In this opera- 
 tion, the fire on the one hand, the great caufe of the 
 volatility of bodies, ftrenuoufly endeavours to expel the 
 phlogifton ; on the other hand, the bafts of the dephlo- 
 gifticated part of the atmofphere (the acidifying prin- 
 ciple of M. Lavoifier, and the pnnaphim forhile of Dr 
 Lubbock) attrafts the calx ftrongly. Experience, 
 however, fnows, that thefe two forces united, cannot 
 decompofe gold, filver, or platina to any confiderable 
 degree. All the other metals yield to thefe forces 
 when united, but not fingly. Iron and zinc retain 
 their inflammable principle fo flightly, that any acid 
 immediately afts upon them; but if the other metals be 
 properly prepared for folution by being calcined to a 
 certain degree, the acid will immediately take them up. 
 Any further privation, liowevtr, would be injurious, 
 and precipitate what was before diftblved. Thus the 
 precipitates ^^-^ when added to a lolution of tin or anti- 
 ■n folution . . .... 
 
 )f tin or iT»ony m marine acid, by its extraoroinary attraction 
 
 mtimony. for phlogifton carries oft" fuch a quantity of it, that 
 t^^e calces of the metals are immediately precipitated. 
 
 Different 
 kinils of 
 air produ- 
 ced during 
 the dilTo- 
 lutifin of 
 metals. 
 
 ioa 
 Pure vi- 
 triolic a- 
 cid cannot 
 
 200 
 Why ni- 
 trous acid 
 
 The various elaftic fluids which refemble air, an5 
 which are produced in plenty during the difiohition of 
 metals, may be reduced to theiollowing, in-x.. thofe ex- 
 tiicated by the vitriolic, nitrous, and marine acids, 
 fluor acid, vinegar, alkaline faks, and hepar fulphuris. 
 
 Pure vitriolic acid expofed to a violent heat, is in- 
 deed rtTolved into vapourti, but of fuch a nature, that 
 when the heat is gone, they condenfe again into an a- 
 cid liquor of the fame nature as btfore. But if any 
 l)e reduced fubftance be added which contains phlogifton in a fe- 
 " Tf^ 'm^" P^'^'^^^^ ftate, an elaftic fluid is produced by means of 
 but h'y a w^^'^^' fcarcely condenfible by the moft extreme 
 
 combina- Cold, unlefs it comes in contaft with water. This is 
 tion with called the volatile fulphureous acid, or vitriolic acid 
 phlogifton. air, which may be totally abforbed by water. In this 
 cafe the bond of union betwixt it and the phlogifton 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 I S T R Y. 40E 
 
 is fo weak, that the latter foon flies off totally, and Solution 
 
 common vitriolic acid is regenerated. ^".'^ Preci- 
 
 The nitrous acid undergoes a fimilar change in a 
 
 more obvious manner. Let a piece of filver, for in- 203 
 
 ftance, be put into a dilute nitrous acid, and the fur- N'""o"s a- 
 
 face of the metal will inftantly be covered with in- 
 
 numerable bubbles, which arifing to the top of the H-chln^ed^ 
 
 quor, there burft ; and if coUcfted, are found to be ni- 204 
 
 trous air. The nitrous acid faturatcs itfelf with plilo- Why til- 
 
 gifton more completely than the vitriolic; therefore j""""' 
 
 fi 1 n- a . . , . does not u- 
 
 the elaltic fluid produced, or nitrous air, does not unite nj^g ^[.^ 
 
 vv h water, and fcarce retains any veftige of an acid water, 
 nature. The vitriolic acid, however, differs from the 
 nitrous in this refpeft, that the phlogifton is abforbed 
 by the latter even beyond the point neceffary to obli- 
 terate its acid nature. In proof of this, our author 
 addu ces the decompofition of hepatic by means of ni- 
 trous air. 
 
 The marine acid exhibits different phenomena. Phenomen* 
 It naturally contains phlogifton, and therefore can ^'^'^'^'"^^ 
 by Its means be refolved into a kind of air fomewhat ^"^l^' 
 fimilar to that produced by the vitriolic acid when ar- 
 tificially united to the fame principle, and whicl^ has 
 the fanie property, wa. that of remaining permanent- 
 ly elaftic as long as it is kept from the contadl of wa- 
 ter. But as the acid we fpeak of naturally contains 
 phlogifton, there is no neceffity of adding more to 
 produce this effeft. In the mean time, the marine as 
 well as nitrous air, when in its expanded ftate, attrafts 
 phlogifton, and that with wonderful avidity. 206 
 
 When the marine acid is dephlogifticated, it yields 
 another elaftic fluid of a reddifli brown colour, having ^^P^^J^''^"* 
 an odour like that of warm aqua regia. This does mJ^ne a- 
 not unite with water, or only in very fmall quantity ;cid. 
 and by the addition of a proper proportion of phlogif- 
 ton may be reduced again to common marine acid. It 
 is faid that the marine acid may be dephlogifticated 
 by lead as well as by manganefe, the nitrous acid, and 
 arfenic. 
 
 The fluor acid abounds with phlogifton, and there- Of th° fluor 
 fore may, without any adventitious matter, be reduced acid, 
 to an elaftic fluid. This air is eafily diftinguiflied 
 from^ all others by its corrofion of glafs whilft hot. 208 
 
 Vinegar alfo contains phlogifton ; and for that rea- '^'^V 
 fon, when well dephlegmated, may be reduced without 
 addition into a permanently elaftic fluid, called acetous IfaTwith- 
 , cut addi- 
 
 , All thefe fluids feem to b? nothing elfe, according ''O"- 
 to Mr Bergman, than the acids themfelves expanded 209 
 by phlogifton. Perhaps (fays he) the matter ofHeat and 
 heat alfo enters their compofition." The experiments"?'^ r^^'"" 
 lately made on thefe fubjcfts, however, have put it be-^rfn"*!^^ 
 yond all doubt, that the expanfive principle is notof'elafti- 
 phlogifton but heat ; neverthelefs, it ftems highly pro- city, 
 bable, that thefe elaftic fluids do really confift of the 
 acid united to phlogifton, and expanded by heat. This 
 is alfo the cale_ with the cauftic volatile alkali, now 
 called alkaline air. 
 
 In the hepatic air, it has been ftiown by Mr Berg- Sulphir 
 man, that fulphur exifts which contains phlogifton; andexifts in 
 there is little reafon to doubt that the expanfive Wa"^ 
 power here is the fame as in other cafes. See He pa- 
 TIC Air. 
 
 The heat generated during the folution of metals is 
 by Mr Bergman fuppofed to be owing to the matter 
 3 E of 
 
402 
 
 Solution 
 and Precl 
 pitatiou. 
 
 proba!-)!y 
 proceeds 
 from the 
 folvent li- 
 quor. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 of heat which had been fixed in the metals ; but it 
 may with much more reafon be fuppofed to proceed 
 
 from the acid. Dr Black has demonftrated, that heat 
 
 is univerfally the principle of fluidity; and all fluids, 
 Heat in fo- whether acid or not, are found to contain a great 
 lution moft quantity of it. It is not probable that folids, even the 
 proba^ilv j^q^ inflammable, contain an equal quantity ; for it is 
 always obferved, that bodies in becoming fluid afaforb 
 heat, and throw it out again on becoming folid. Acids 
 in all probability contain a much greater quantity than 
 what is neceflary to their fluidity ; for we fee that the 
 nitrous acid, when poured upon fnow, parts with us 
 much heat as is neceflary to diflblve the fnow, at the 
 fame time that it fl:ill retains its fluidity. The cafe is 
 not fo with common fait, which is a folid : for though, 
 in a mixture of fait and fnow, the latter abforbs as 
 much heat from the fait as is neceflary for its own li- 
 quefaftion ; yet the fait could not be held in folution 
 by a liquid of this temperature, were it not that an 
 additional quantity is perpetually abforbed from the 
 adjacent bodies, particularly the atmofphere. But 
 were it polfible to prevent this adventitious increafe of 
 heat, there is not the leail reafon to believe that the 
 fait would be diflblved ; for the ftrongeft brine, when 
 reduced to the temperature of o of Fahrenheit, is 
 decompofed, the fait falling to the bottom in pow- 
 der, and the water being converted into ice. Add to 
 this alfo, that the cold produced by fpirit of nitre and 
 fnow is much more intenfe than that produced by com- 
 mon fait and fnow ; which undoubtedly fliows, that a 
 «. s^^t folid does not readily part with as much heat as a fluid, 
 
 Soild bo- , - , J ,r ri. 
 
 die? do not and confequently cannot be iuppoled to contam as 
 part with much. The folution of metals in acids alfo demon- 
 ftrates, that the folid fubftance has not parted with 
 heat, but abforbed it ; for as foon as the folution be- 
 comes folid again, i.e. when it cryftalhzes, the tem- 
 perature becomes higher than before. 
 
 The calces of metals have not that quantity of phlo- 
 gifton that is neceflary for their metallic fl;ate, but yet 
 are not entirely deftitute of it ; therefore, in their fo- 
 lution, fcarce any elaftic fluid is generated, unlefs the 
 Are be continued after exficcation. Such as contain 
 aerial acid, difcharge it immediately in the fame form 
 as they had received it. It is remarkable, that Dr 
 Prieftley mentions a calx of lead, which, with the acid 
 of phofphorus, produced an inflammable air. By means 
 of the nitrous acid and evaporation to drynefs, a pure 
 air is produced. Sometimes a fmall portionjof vitriolic 
 acid air is obtained by means of a proper degree of 
 fire from vitriolic acid, but a far gieater quantity of 
 
 fo much 
 heat as 
 fluids. 
 
 "3 
 •Why little 
 or no ela- 
 ftic fluid is 
 obtained 
 fr6m me- 
 tallic cal- 
 ces. 
 
 5lt4 
 
 Meraiiic 
 folutions 
 contain a 
 calx of ch? 
 
 pure air. 
 
 The folutions made by the menfl:rua above men- 
 tioned, contain a metallic calx intimately united with 
 the acid, the quantity of phlogifton left being va- 
 metal with rious according to the difl"erence of the menllrua and 
 various de- of the temperature; but the performance of the opera- 
 grees of ^[^-^^ either with or without intenfe heat, frequently oc- 
 phlogillon. ^^^^^^^^ ^ remarkable difference. That metals are lefs 
 calcined by the marine than by the nitrous acid, ap- 
 ■oears from pouring concentrated nitrous acid on tin or 
 antimony ; but the diff"erence, if it atlually does take 
 place, is lefs vilible in other metals. 
 
 Some modern chemilts have denied this calcination 
 of metals by folution. I'hey have infifted, that the 
 perfed metals ought to be excepted, as they do not 
 
 S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 yield to the moft intenfe fire. On this fubjec^, how- Solnrfon 
 ever, it may be obferved, i. That during their folu- 
 tion nitrous air is always generated, and that of a very 
 perfeft kind, which cannot happen without phlogi- 
 Hon ; but in this cafe there is nothing prefent which Rearons 
 can yield phlogifl:on except the metals. Therefore, t ^ r belie- 
 2. The metals, when precipitated from their menllrua ^^^j^'^j'^^'^*^ 
 by fixed alkalis, both with refpeck to their external 
 appearance and internal properties, appear to be cal- phlogifton. 
 cined. Thus the precipitate of gold rcfufes to unite 
 with mei-cury, and may be diflblved by marine acid and 
 other fimple menfl;rua, and that without the prviduc- 
 tion of any elafliic fluid. 3. Glafs may be ftained by 
 thefe calces ; but no metal in its perfcdl ftate can be 
 taken up by glafs. 216 
 
 The common objeAion is, that the calces of the Why the 
 perfect metals may be reduced by heat alone without ^^■^'^^^ '^^ ^ 
 the addition of charcoal. Many theories have been ^^llJ^l^ 
 invented to folve this phenomenon. Some have fup- niay be re- 
 pofed, that the matter of heat and light are the fame duce 1 vath- 
 with the phlogifton, and that thus the calces are redu- ".'"^ 
 ced in the fame manner as by charcoal or other fub- ' 
 ftances ufually termed phlogiJHc. But in this cafe we 
 ought to find the calces of the imperfeft metals alfo 
 reduced by a long continuance of heat, as well as the 
 more perfei\ ; which, however, has never yet been 
 known to take place. Some, among whole number 
 is Dr Lewis, have imagined, that the porofity of the 
 veflels, particularly thofe made of earthen ware, may 
 be fuch as to admit the pafliige of phlogiftic vapours 
 through them ; and he inftances the revival of globules 
 of lead in the middle of pieces of glafs upwards of 
 an inch in thicknefs, and that where there was not the 
 leaft appearance of a crack. But from an experiment 
 of Mr Kirwan's, to be afterwards related, it is much 
 more probable that the reduction is efi'efted by means 
 of the phlogifton contained in one part of the calx ar- 
 trafted by another ; by which means the latter is re. 
 duced to a perfetl metal, while the foi'mer becomes 
 fomewhat more dephlogifticated. In confequence of 
 this it appears, that the calx of the perfect metals is 
 never totally reduced : for if the operation be per- 
 formed in a glafs retort, the bottom of it is always 
 ftained ; which indicates the exiftence of a calx, in 
 however little quantity. 
 
 The following faft, Mr Bergman fays, has been D.fEculty 
 propofcd to him as an inextricable dilemma. " Silver "^"i'lcerning 
 cannot amalgamate with mercury except when in Jts*^*^^ 
 metallic ftate, yet both faUted and nitrated filver are^,£ j^iy',,. 
 taken up by mercury ; it is therefore not calcined by folved by 
 the acids, but adheres to them in its metallic form." iiergman. 
 This, however, may be eafily folved in the following 
 manner. It is well known that the calx of copper, 
 diflblved in the vitriolic acid, is precipitated in its me- 
 tallic form on the addition of iron, and that by means 
 of a double eleftive attraftion ; for the iron, dilTolving 
 in the acid, would form an inflammable air by its 
 phlogifton, were not the copper prefent which takes 
 it up, and thereby becomes iiifoluble as long as it re- 
 tains it ; but mercury has a ftronger attraftion for 
 acids than filver : if therefore falited or nitrated filver 
 be triturated with mercury, the iilver muft be preci- 
 
 pitated in a metallic ftate, and th^ uitrtury be calcined 
 by being diflblved. This alfo takes place, provided 
 there be raoifture fufiicieat to fuifer the eledive attrac- 
 tions 
 
and i-'reci- 
 pit Kin 
 
 4l8 
 
 Pliio^ifton 
 the caufe 
 of colour 
 in metal- 
 lic folu- 
 tions. 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Solution tioris to operate. The fuperabundant mercury greedi- 
 ly takes up the comminuted filver precipitate ; and the 
 arbo7-es Diana are nothing more than fuch an amalgam 
 cryftalHzed. But although the acids cannot take up 
 any frtetal while it retains ita full proportion of plilo- 
 gifton, various metallic falts are able to effeft that ib- 
 lution. Thus nitrated or falited mercury, boiled in 
 water together with the crude metal, can take up a 
 certain portion of it without dephlogifticati on J and 
 t he latter of thefe falts, even in the via fcca, becomes 
 a mercurius dulcis, which contains at the fame time a 
 crude and a calcined mercury. 
 
 Perfeft folutions (hould in general be tranfparent ; 
 but fome, as has been already mentioned, nre diftin- 
 guifhed by a peculiar colour. That phlogifton is the 
 chief caufe of colour appears fr«m hence, that the 
 black calx of manganefe tinges vitriolic acid of a red 
 colour ; but on the addition of fugar the tinge is en- 
 tirely deftroyed. Nitrous acid is rendered blue by 
 copper ; but when the metal is added in confiderable 
 quantity, it becomes of a very deep green. The ma- 
 rine acid, which dephlogiilicatcs the copper lefs, is 
 yet made green ; but by dephlegmation may be fp 
 condenfed as to become brown. Mr Bergman has 
 fometimes feen a folution of filver green, without the 
 prefence of the fmalleft particle of copper. This de- 
 pends on the abforption of nitrous air : for let fmoking 
 nitrous acid be diluted, on the addition of a certain 
 quantity of water it will be of a deep green ; by a 
 greater, blue ; and upon a ftill greater, becomes lim- 
 pid. By means of the water, the nitrous air is ex- 
 tended to a greater fpace ; and this attenuation gradu- 
 ally increafed varies the colours. Hence we fee why 
 nitrous acid is made green by a large quantity of 
 copper. 
 
 Metals dephlogifticated by acid folvents powerfully 
 attraft phlogillon ; nay, nitrated filver and mercury, 
 and falited antimony, corrode animal fubftances, in or- 
 der, as our authoj fuppofes, to extraft it. " This 
 metallic caufticity (fays he), which is only to be mo- 
 derated by phlogifton, ought to be carefully dillin- 
 guifhed from, the acid caufticity, which is reprefled by 
 alkalies, and the alkaline, which is mitigated by acids. 
 Colours vary according to the quantity of phlogifton 
 prefent ; and fome experiments ftiow, that by a fuffi- 
 cient quantity all colour is entirely deftroyed. 
 
 All metals may be precipitated by alkaline falts ; 
 which, by their fuperior power of attraftion, feparate 
 them from their menftrua ; but their difference with 
 lion of me- regard to their nature and preparation alters the na- 
 tal* by al- xmt of the precipitate. With the cauftic fixed alkali 
 kalme falts. calces fall almoft entirely pure, but loaded with 
 water. The weight is found to be increafed by the 
 water, and perhaps (fays Mr Bergman) by the matter 
 of heat ; but yet lefs than by the aerial acid. With 
 the aerated fixed alkali, by means of a double decom- 
 pofition, the aerial acid unites to moft calces. The vo- 
 ktile alkaH, which naturally contains phlogifton, fome- 
 times phlogifticates the precipitate. It throws down 
 a black or white precipitate of mercury ; nay, it makes 
 the orange-coloured precipitate white. Gold receives 
 its fulminating quantity from this precipitant, as is af- 
 terwards to be explained. The alkali, which is com- 
 monly called phlogyilcakd, generally precipitates metals 
 with an increafe of weight. 
 I 
 
 ai9 
 
 Attradion 
 of phln- 
 gifl-< n the 
 cr.ufe of 
 cwuftjcity. 
 
 320 
 Phenome 
 iia attend 
 injr the 
 precipita- 
 
 I S T R Y. 403 
 
 The acids frequently occafion precipitates, and that Solution 
 for various reafons. By means of elective attraftion, ^I'^ Pf^ci- 
 mercury, filver, and lead, are taken from the nitrous P'^^^^""' ^ 
 acid by the addition of the marine or vitriolic. Thefe 
 acids form with the metals new compounds which are Precipitates 
 difficult of folution in water; they are therefore pre- '«afii>ned 
 cipitated in greater or lelTer quantity according te ^i^"" ^^j^^'^*'. 
 cumftances. The nitrous acid is capable of decom-' 
 pounding falited tin and antimony by dephlogiftica- 
 ting the calx of the metals too much ; for when thefe 
 are too much calcined, they cannot be diflolved In any 
 inenftruum, as has been already obferved. ztx 
 
 Metallic folutions are fometimes difturbed by the^>' ''^^ P*^'"'! 
 neutral falts formed by an union of alkalies with acids. £■^['^3"'^""^ 
 Thofe which contain the vitriolic or marine acids de- 
 compofe folutions of filver, mercury, or lead, in ni-g,"j'^j j 
 trous acid, and precipitate the meta.ls. By forming a coutinua- 
 triple combination, the vegetable as well as the vola- tiun. 
 tile alkali> though faturated with vitriohc, nitrous, or 
 marine acid, precipitate platina from aqua-regia ; but 
 when the bafis is mineral alkali, the fait has no power .3^4 
 of this kind. Some metallic falts can decompofe '^^'^^ 
 others, and precipitate their bafes ; which may hap-|i^'^^|,'^J^,'p^fj. 
 pen whether the acid be diff'erent in the two falts or .thtrs. 
 not. Solution of gold affords an example of each of 42.5 
 thefe cafes. This is precipitated by martial vitriol ; 
 the reafon of which will appear from confidering the^'^j'^ ? 
 nature of the precipitate : for this, when well wafhed cipitated 
 and dried, not only fhows many fliining gold-coloured by Rreen 
 particles, but alfo unites with mercury by trituration, ^^'""^» 
 difTolves in aqua-regia, but not in marine acid alone, to- 
 gether with other circumftances which evince a complete 
 refufcitation of the gold. Martial vitriol, in its ordina- 
 ry ftate, contains phlogifton, but very loofely adhering; 
 fo that the calx of gold may eafily take it from the 
 folution to fupply the lofs it had fultained during the 
 folution. That this is the true foundation of the pro- 326 
 cefs, appears alfo from the following circumftances, "ot by 
 that the weight of the gold is exaftly recovered, ^"^ivvhen^de 
 that dephlogifticated vitriol will not precipitate thIsphi„gj{iiJ 
 metal. The reafon that the furrounding aqua-regia cated. 
 leaves this precipitate untouched is, that the men- 
 ftruum is diluted and weakened by a large quantity of 
 water ; for upon boiling it gently, fo as to expel part 
 of the water, the menftruum recovers its folvent power, 
 and takes up the precipitate again. 
 
 It is fomewhat more difficult to explain the reafon why^folu- 
 why the folution of gold in aqua-regia fhould be preci- lution of 
 pitated by a folution of tin in the fame menftruum. " P''^" 
 Here Mr Bergman firft fuppofed that the tin had ^^-'SSnll 
 traded a fuperabundance of acid, and taken it from tin. 
 the gold ; which being therefore deftitute of its pro- 
 per quantity, muft fall to the bottom : but on employ- 
 ing a folution containing a fuperabundant aqua regia, 
 the fame precipitation took place. The caufe is therefore 
 not in the menftruum. On examining the precipitate 
 itfelf, we find nothing like the metallic fplendor of 228 
 gold, but that it entirely rcfemblcs a calx. It is eafily T!r6 prc- 
 found by its weight, indeed, that It cannot confift en-^P*'.^''^ 
 tlrcly of gold ; and in fadl chemical examination '^""^l'^* c 
 fhows that it confifts partly of tin. It cannot be dif-tin. 
 folved by the marine acid alone, but is eaiily taken up 
 by the addition of a little nitrous acid. It fcarcely 
 unites with mercury by trituration. Thefe properties 
 feem to indicate, that the gold has fo far received phlo- 
 3 E 2. giftoa 
 
404 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci- 
 pitation. 
 
 419 
 
 Precipita- 
 tion (if me- 
 tals by one 
 another, 
 owing to a 
 double c- 
 leffHve at- 
 rraftion. 
 
 Variations 
 in the or- 
 <ier in 
 ■which the 
 metals pre- 
 cipitate one 
 another. 
 
 431 
 Mineral al- 
 kali why 
 preferred 
 as a preci 
 pitant by 
 Mr Uerg- 
 inan. 
 
 How he 
 prepared 
 his rauftic 
 aikali. 
 
 *33 
 Various 
 precipitate; 
 of gold. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 gifton as to refift the marine acid until it receive the 
 affiftance of the nitrous ; but its earthly appearance, 
 and difficulty of uniting with mercury, evince that it is 
 not in its complete metallic form. The following 
 therefore, according to our author, feems to be the 
 moft eafy ar.d rational explanation. The folution of 
 tin necelTary for this operation muft retain as much 
 phlogifton as it poffibly can, in a confidence with folu- 
 bility. This is dropped into a folution of gold very 
 much diluted ; by which means the phlogifton remain- 
 ing Ir.» the tin is more loofened, and of confequence 
 more eafily attrafted by the gold calx, which is there- 
 by brought to a ftate approximating to completion, fo 
 that it can no longer be retained by the menftruura ; 
 and the fame happens to the tin, by means of the de- 
 phlogiltication ; they muft both therefore fall to the 
 bottom mixed intimately with one another. It is 
 probable, fays he, that in this cafe it is the tin which 
 prevents the matter from uniting with mercury. 
 
 The metals precipate one another after a certain or- 
 der, which is the fame in all acid menftraa. This pre- 
 cipitation is occaiiontd by a double eleftive attraftion ; 
 for the metal to be precipitated exifts in the folution in 
 a calcined ftate ; but being reduced by the phlogifton 
 of the precipitant falls to the bottom, while at the fame 
 time the precipitant becomes foluble by calcination : 
 but if the precipitant has been calcined fo-that a part 
 of it being infoluble is mixed with the precipitate, the 
 metallic fplendor is wanting, and it puts on an eatthy 
 appearance. A pure precipitate is of the fame weight 
 with the metal before folution. The mixed precipi- 
 tates are lefs frequently met with, yet gold precipitated 
 by tin exhibits one of that kind. 
 
 Though the order in which the metals precipitate 
 one another is conftant and never inverted, yet there 
 are many anomalous circumftances which occur in the 
 matter. Thus zinc conftantly prevails over iron ; 
 iron over lead ; lead over tin ; tin over copper ; cop- 
 per over filver ; fdver over merciity, ^ff^:. yet it fome- 
 times happens, that a metal which, according to the 
 general rule, precipitates another in its metallic ftate 
 from one menftruum, precipitates it from another in 
 form of a calx, and not at all from a third. Thus zinc 
 precipitates iron from marine acid in its metallic ftate, 
 but from the nitrous only in form of a calx. Tin is 
 precipitated by lead from the marine aicd in its metal- 
 lic ftate, but is not thrown down from the nitrous 
 Ecid ; and from the acetous is precipitated even by iron 
 and zinc in form of a calx ; folution of lead in vinegar 
 is not precipitated by iron. 
 
 In Mr Bergman's experiments on this fubjeft he 
 employed the mineral alkali, as the degree of its fatu- 
 ratlon with fixed air was more conftant. When he 
 had occafion for a cauftic alkali, he prepared it by a 
 fmall quantity of burned lime kept in a clofe bottle ; 
 and the goodnefs of it was proved by its occafioning 
 no precipitation in lime water. Phlogifticated alkali, 
 or that by which Pruflian blue is prepared, was alfo 
 made ufe of. With thefe he made the following ob- 
 fervations. Gold diflblved in aqua regia is precipitated 
 by cauftic alkali almoft black ; by the aerated, yellow, 
 as well as by the phlogifticated, unlefs fome iron be 
 prefcnt, which frequently happens; but the whole of 
 the gold is fcarce ever precipitated, fo that the weight 
 eannot be afcertained. 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 Neither the cauftic nor aerated mineral alkali pre- Solution 
 ripitate one half of platina diffulvcd in aqua regia ; the ^'^^ freci- 
 precipitate is of an orange colour, which on drying be- P'^^ ^^^'^j^ 
 comes brown. An over-proportion of alkali redif- 
 lolves the precipitate, and the liquor becomes more Mineral 
 dark; nay, the precipitation is fo imperfeft, that the^''^^!'^.* 
 matter fcems to be diffolved even by neutral falts. J'r"^"?'*^ 
 1 he phlogiiticated alkali does not precipitate theperftdlly. 
 depurated folution, nor even make it turbid, but 
 heightens the colour in the fame manner as an excefs 
 of alkali. ^ ^33 
 
 Solution of filver in nitrous acid lets fall a 
 precipitate by the aerated alkah ; brown by the cau- 
 ftic, and of an obfcure yellow. By the nitrous and 
 marine acids it lets fall a white precipitate, which 
 with the former confifts of more diftinft particles, 
 w hich grow black more llowly with the light of the 
 fun. 
 
 Salited mercury lets fall a red precipitate, or ra- of mer- 
 ther one ol a ferruginous colour, by aerated alkali ; cury, 
 but of a more yellowifti or orange colour by the cau- 
 ftic. Nitrated mercury prepared without heat, yields 
 a ferruginojs precipitate with mineral alkali-; a black 
 with cauftic : and when prepared with heat, it yields 
 to cauftic alkali an orange or reddifli yellow precipi- 
 tate. By phlogifticated alkali it is precipitated from 
 all acids of a white colour ; but turns of a brownifh 
 yellow when dry. Salited mercury is very fparingly 
 precipitated by this alkali. The precipitate by phlo- 
 giiticated alkali is again diffolved, if too much of the 
 precipitant be made ufe of. — Corrofive fublimate muft 
 be very cautioully precipitated by cauftic, as well as 
 aerated fixed alkali ; for the part feparated may again 
 be diflblved by a large quantity of water. When too 
 much alkali is ufed, a new compound arifes of a pecu- 
 liar nature. 
 
 Solution of lead in fpiiit of nitre is precipitated down Precipitate* 
 white by aerated, cauftic, or phlogifticated alkali, of lead ; 
 By uftng too much alkah, the precipitate by the phlo- 
 gifticated kind is diffolved with a brownifh yellow co- 
 lour. Vitriol of lead and folution of lead in marine acid 
 are precipitated white. 
 
 Blue folution of copper in fpirit of nitre is precipi- of cupper j 
 tated of a bright green by aerated fixed alkali ; by the 
 cauftic of a greyifti brown, which grows reddifti by age. 
 By phlogifticated alkali copper is precipitated of a 
 greenifli colour, which grows afterwards of a brownifli 
 red, and upon exficcation almoft black. The aerial acid 
 takes up a fmall quantity of copper during the preci- 
 pitation, which is again depofitcd by the heat of boil- 
 
 Aerated fixed alkali precipitates iron of a green co- of iron - 
 lour from vitriolic and marine acid ; but the precipi- 
 tate becomes of a brownilh yellow, efpecially on ex- 
 ficcation ; with the cauftic alkali it approaches more 
 to black. In the precipitation fome part is held in 
 folution by the aerial acid, when the mild akali 
 is ufed. With phlogifticated alkali a Pruffian blue is 
 formed. 340 
 
 Tin is precipitated of a white colour by every alka- 
 line fait, even by the phlogifticated kind ; but at 
 length fome blue particles appear in the mixture: fo 
 that the whole, when collected and dried, appears of a 
 light blue colour. That thefe blue particles are occa- 
 fioned by iron appears by calcination ; for they become 
 
 fen a- 
 
24* 
 
 Of nickel ; 
 
 443 
 Of arfeiiic 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Solution ferruginous, and obey the ma^et^ Our author has al- 
 and t'reci- ^yays found a proportion of iron in tin. 
 ^ piuaon. "Biftnuth is thrown down of a fine white by water 
 241 and alkalies, particularly the former; phlogilUcated al- 
 ppecipitateskali throws down a yellow powder, which being mix- 
 of biimuth ; with, blue particles occafioned by Iron, at length ap- 
 pears green. This yellow fediment eafily dilfolves in 
 nitrous acid. 
 
 Nickel is precipitated of a whitifh green by fixed 
 alkalies; by the phlogiilicated alkali of a yellow; 
 and by exficcation it is condenfed into a dark brown 
 mafs. 
 
 Arfenic diflblved in acids, which prevent too great 
 dephlogiftication, may, to a certain degree, be precipi- 
 tated white by the fixed alkali, even when phlogilli- 
 cated, b'Jt the fediment is found foluble in water ; 
 yet nitrous acid, either alone, or joined with the ma- 
 rine, generally dephlogi ft icates the arfenical acid, which 
 thereby becomes unfit for feparation. Arfenic dil- 
 folved in marine acid, with the affiftance of a little 
 nitrous acid, depofited a white fediment on the addi- 
 tion of a large quantity of phlogilticated alkali. The 
 fediment was mixed with Pruffian blue. This was 
 difTolved in water, and freed by frequent filtration from 
 the blue particles ; and at length, on evaporating to 
 drynefs, yielded a femipellucid mafs. 
 
 Cobalt diflblved in acids is thrown down by fixed 
 alkali, whethei aerated or cauftic, of a reddilb blue, 
 which grows darker on exficcation, efpccially when the 
 former alkali has been ufed. Phlogifticated alkali 
 throws down a powder of almoft the fame colo\ir, 
 which, upon exficcation, becomes of a reddilh brown. 
 
 Zinc is precipitated white by aerated and caultic 
 fixed alkahes, as alfo by the phlogifticated alkali ; but 
 this laft becomes of a citron colour on exficcation : a 
 fmall portion of aerial acid may eafily efcape during 
 the precipitation. 
 
 Antimony is precipitated white by alkah'es.- When 
 the phlogilticated alkali is ufed, fome blue particles 
 are almoft always precipitated at the fame lime, thoutrh 
 the regulus had been prepared without any iron. This 
 operation (hould be cautioufly condufted, left fome 
 part be taken up by the alkahne fait. 
 
 Manganefe procured by reduAion from common 
 magnefia nigra, generally renders menftrua brown, 
 and with aerated alkali yields' a yellowiih brown fedi- 
 ment; with the cauftic, one ftill darker; with the phlo- 
 gifticated, firft a blue, then a white, powder is fepara- 
 ted, the mixture of which renders the mafs a black 
 green. To obtain a pure and white calx of manga- 
 nefe, we muft diffolve in pure vinegar the precipitate 
 thrown down by cauftic alkali ; for there ftill remains 
 a quantity of iron which is taken up by the aerial a- 
 cid. This acetous folution contains little or nothing 
 of iron. That metal may alfo at firft be feparated by 
 a fmall quantity of volatile alkali. 
 
 The common folution of the reguhis Is not per- 
 feftly precipitated by the aeratfd alkali; and upon e- 
 vaporating the remaining liquor fpontaneouily to dry- 
 nefs, grains of a metallic fpleiidour, and not unlike 
 copper, are depofited on the glafs. The nitrous acid 
 attracts thefe readily, though they are only partially 
 
 pitation. 
 
 244 
 Of cobalt ; 
 
 445 
 Of zinc ; 
 
 246 
 Of anti- 
 mony ; 
 
 447 
 Of man 
 ganele. 
 
 248 
 
 I S T R Y. 405 
 
 diflblved by it ; but on the addition of zinc, nothing Solution 
 falls befides the manganefe, though at firft it is a lit- Preci- 
 tie reddifh. With phlogifticated alkali, we obtain a 
 yellow precipitate like pure manganefe, provided the 
 folution has depofited the iron when too much de- 
 phlogifticated by age. But the new folution yields a 
 precipitate almoft hke that which is obtained from com- 
 mon regulus. The yellow fediment may be diflblved 
 in water. 
 
 The following is Mr Bergman's table of the quan- ^^'^ 
 titles of precipitate of diff"erent metals, thrown down^^"^"^ "^^^ 
 from various menftrua by the different alkalies. " On variations 
 comparing the weights (fays he), a queftion occursin the 
 concerning the caufe of fuch enormous differences ; weight o£ 
 and it is plain, that this caufe muft be fought for in F'^'^'P^' 
 the precipitates themfelves. — The fixed alkali fatura- 
 ted with aeral acid, when added to the folution, is 
 taken up by the more powerful menftruum ; and the 
 weaker is of courfe expelled, and is abforbed by the 
 calx as it falls, in greater or leffer quantity according 
 to circumftances. That this is actually the cafe is 
 eafily demonftrated : — Let a bottle containing a quan- 
 tity of nitrous acid be accui-ately weighed. Let there 
 be put Into it, for inftance, 132 parts of lead precipi- 
 tated by aerated alkali ; and not only an effervefccnce 
 will be obferved, which continues until the very laft 
 particle is diflblved, but when the folution is finiihed, 
 a deficiency of weight is difcovered, which amounts 
 nearly to 21, and which is undoubtedly owing to the 
 extrication of aerial acid. But 132 — 2i=rin; a 
 weight which ftill confiderably exceeds that of the 
 metal. Upon diftillation nearly eight of water are 
 difcovered. There yet remain therefore three, which 
 by violent heat are increafed by feven; for 132 of the 
 calx well calcined, yield no. The whole increment 
 of weight then does not depend on the water and aerial 
 acid. The iarae thing is evinced by confidering t]i_* 
 precipitate of lead by the cauftic alkali; in which caL-: 
 there can be no aerial acid, nor does any effervefcence 
 accompany the folution. If we fuppofe the quantity 
 of water equal in both cafes, yet even on this fuppo- 
 - fition the whole excefs of weight is not accounted 
 for; for 116 — 8=108. It is therefore probable, 
 that the matter of heat is attached to the calx (a). — In 
 proof of this opinion, and tliat cauftic alkalies contain 
 the matter of heat, our author adduces feveral argu- 
 ments, of which the following is the ftrongeft. — " Let Ar^mnenifi 
 the heat occafioned by the mixture of any acid and in favour 
 cauftic alkali be determined by a thermometer; let''^',''* 
 then an equal portion of the fame menftruum be fatu- °f 
 rated witri a metal ; atterwards, on the addition or anbein^^ au.^ . 
 equal quantity of cauftic alkali, it will be found, ei- mentedb-y 
 ther that no heat is generated, or a degree very much '''"^ 
 lei's than before. — Some of the matter of heat there- ''^ 
 fore is taken up and fixed, which alfo generally makes 
 the colours of the precipitates more obfcure ; and in 
 diftillation with fal-ammoniac, communicates to the vo- 
 latile alkah the quantity that had been taken away." 
 
 In this inftance alfo, however, our author feeras to 
 have been deceived. It has already been obferved, [nfy^° ■ 
 that in all folutions generating heat, it moft probably cient. 
 comes from the fluid. Acids contain a quantity fuf- 
 
 ficient 
 
 (a) Thisincreafe of weight is with more probabiHty to be afcribed to a remainder of the acid. 
 
4o6 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci 
 pltatl(,n. 
 
 A qutintit; 
 r)f the men 
 ftruuni re 
 t lined by 
 lonie i re- 
 cipitares. 
 
 252 
 Difftrence 
 i'l the pre- 
 tijiitates 
 <it rwer- 
 cury. 
 
 •^53 
 A^vanta- 
 
 ftes to lie 
 dr'iived 
 fron. the 
 rxan-.ina- 
 tion of me- 
 tal'ic pre- 
 cipitates. 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 ficient not only for their own fluidity, but for ren- 
 dering folid bodies fluid alfo. After they have dif- 
 folved the metal, however, this fuperfiuous quantity 
 is eriiployed ; and when the cauftic alkali is added, if 
 in a folid form, it is again employed in giving fluidity 
 to the alkali ; or if the alkali be already diiToived, the 
 increafed quantity of fluid makes the heat extricated 
 lefs perceptible. 
 
 " What has been faid of lead (continues our author), 
 is alfo true of the other metals, a few excepted, 
 which feem to take up little or no aerial acid ; fuch 
 are tin, antimony, gold and platina.— But fome pre 
 cipitates retain alfo a quantity of the menfl;ruum. 
 Thus, corrofive mercury, precipitated by aerated al- 
 ■ kali, retains a portion of marine acid, \\hich cannot 
 be waflied off by water ; but, by cauftic alkali, the 
 precipitate may be obtained, eitlaer free of the acid 
 altogether, or in a great meafure. In this cafe, as in 
 many others, the aerial acid feems to generate a triple 
 fait, fcarce at all foluble. The prcfence of the marine 
 acid is eafily difcovercd by folution of filver in ni- 
 trous acid, if the menftruum has been pure. Hence 
 we obferve another difference in mercury precipitated 
 from marine acid, according as we employ the aerated 
 or cauftic alkali ; the latter, well walhed, and put in- 
 to volatile alkali, is fcarcely changed in colour; but 
 the former inftantly grows white, generating a fpe- 
 cies of fal-alembroth, but containing fo little marine 
 acid as not to be eafily foluble in water. The calces 
 which retain any of their former menftruum, generally 
 give over on diftillation a fmall portion of fubllmate. 
 The mercurial calx juft mentioned, expofed to a fuf- 
 licient degree of heat, is partly l educed to crude mer- 
 cury, partly to mercurius dulcis, by means of its re- 
 maining marine acid. This mercurius dulcis did not 
 .exift in the precipitate ; for in that cafe it would be 
 eafily difcovered by acids in which it is not foluble, 
 and would grow black with cauftic alkali, neither of 
 which take place, fo that it muft be generated during 
 the diftillation." 
 
 Mr Bergman concludes his diftertation, with an e- 
 nueration of the advantages refulting from the care- 
 ful examination of metallic precipitates.— Thefe are, 
 I . That thus the theory of the operation will be more 
 perfectly underftood. 2. We may difcover the more 
 ufeful aiid remarkable properties. 3. A foundation is 
 thereby laid for elTaying in the moift way, from the 
 bare knowledge of the weights. It may be objec- 
 ted (fays he), tliat the dodlrine of the weights is very 
 fallacious ; that they vary in difiicrent precipitates ; 
 that by imperfedl precipitation fomething remains 
 in the liquor ; and that fometimes extraneous matters 
 remain in them. All this is true ; but if the mode of 
 operation be the fame, the refults of the experiments 
 will be equally conftant. Thus, let us fuppofe that 
 a certain quantity of metal a, precipitated in a certain 
 manner, makes a weight i ; if that fame manner be 
 exaftly employed, we may fairly conclude, that a quan- 
 tity of precipitate nb^ occurring in any cafe, is corre- 
 fpondent to a quantity of perfeft metal na; though, 
 in the fundamental experiment, the precipitation iseither 
 incomplete, or fome extraneous matter may be prefent. 
 4. The nature of metals is thus illuftrated. Platina, 
 nickel, cobalt, and manganefe, are fuppofcd by fome to 
 derive their origin from a mixture of other metals. But 
 if iron negefTarily enters into the compofition of platina, 
 
 S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 when the latter is diflblved In aqua reg'a, it ought to Solution 
 yield a Prullian blue on the addition of phlogifticated '^'■'^ 
 alkali ; which indeed is the cafe when coinmon platina '^'1'''^ ^'^'""'^ 
 is employed, but not with that which is well depurated. 
 In like manner, if iron, adhering very obftinately to Platina is 
 nickel, formed a great part of the latter, the precipi- not compo- 
 tates obtained from it by alkalies could not differ ^^'^''A'* 
 from martial precipitates fo much as they do in colour, " ' 
 weight, and other properties. The fame holds true Nor regu- 
 of cobalt and manganefe. The regulus obtained fromlu-' of uic- 
 the latter contains about 0.08 of iron, which affedls ^ 
 the mixture in the following manner. An hundred cobaft or 
 pounds diflblved in an acid menftruum, yields, by nianganefe. 
 treatment with phlogifticated alkali, a powder confifting is 7 
 paitly of blue, partly of brownifli yellow particles, ^^"''.^7 
 equal in weight to 150 pounds ; but eight pounds of 
 iron yield 48 of Pruflian blue, nearly 4 of the whole mafs r<ijr,ecl 
 of precipitate: whence it follows, that 100 parts of pure from man- 
 manganefe yield to phlogifticated alkali fcarcely ill ; -^''cle by 
 i.e. nearly fix times lels than an equal weight of iron. cu'^°J''a\'f 
 
 *' Laftly, by tliis method of examining precipitates, icali. 
 it may perhaps be poflible to determine the unequal 258 
 -quantities of phlogifton in different metals ; for a given ^^t^^'s coa- 
 weight of precipitating metal does not yield an equal ^f"!. 
 quantity or precipitate : thus, tor inftance, copper is c!ties of 
 able to precipitate from nitrous acid four times itsphlogiitoa, 
 weight of filver." 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Platina, 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Tir 
 
 Bifmuth, 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Arfenic, 
 
 ''aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 martial vitriol 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 
 falited 
 
 vitriolated 
 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 vitriolated 
 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 vitriolated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 pure water 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 derated mineral alkali 
 
 259 
 
 Yielded Taljieof 
 dry precip. cl'fleienc 
 
 tatLS. 
 
 I 10 
 
 100 
 
 34 
 36 
 
 1 29 
 112 
 145 
 133 
 13+ 
 1 10 
 104 
 
 119 
 132 
 116 
 
 H3 
 194 
 158 
 
 530 
 225 
 170 
 590 
 
 131 
 
 130 
 250 
 130 
 125 
 i8o 
 
 135 
 128 
 250 
 
 Arfenic, 
 
Theory. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 itedb 
 
 <— ■■ ■ 
 
 •ecipit J 
 
 Antimony 
 
 
 
 
 Mang. 
 
 
 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauflic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 
 Yielded 
 dry p: ecip. 
 
 i8o 
 i6o 
 140 
 142 
 
 161 
 
 495 
 140 
 
 138 
 
 138 
 180 
 168 
 150 
 
 a6i 
 Difference 
 "t-ctwixt 
 themical 
 attraclion 
 and that 
 of cohe- 
 fion. 
 
 C162 
 Geoffroy's 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 aerated mineral alkali 
 cauftic 
 
 phlogifticated 
 
 Kirwan's Kirwan has made a great number of experi- 
 
 dt finition ments on the attraftive powers of the mineral acids to 
 of chenii- various fubilances, and greatly illuftrated the opera- 
 cal attrac- ^^^^^ \io\}\ of folution and precipitation. Chemical at- 
 traftion, he obferves, " is that power by which the 
 invifible particles of different bodies intermix and u- 
 nite with each other fo inthnately, as to be infeparable 
 by mere mechanical means." Thus itdiff"ers from the 
 attraction of cohefion, as well as from that of mag- 
 netifm and eleftricity, as not afting with the indif- 
 ference obferved to take place in thefe powers, but 
 caufing a body already united to another to quit that 
 and unite with a third ; whence it is called ehalve at- 
 traftion. Hence attraftion of cohefion often takes 
 place betwixt bodies that have no chemical attraftion 
 for each other ; as for inftance, bifmuth and regulus of 
 cobalt, which cannot be made to unite together by 
 fulion, though they cohere with each other fo ftrong- 
 ly, that they cannot be feparated but by the blow of 
 a hammer. 
 
 To determine the degrees of attradion betwixt dif- 
 rule for ilrf- ferent fubftances, M. Geoffroy laid it down as a gene- 
 Tfirnuning ^^^^ when two fubftances are united, and 
 
 of dfemU^' either quits the other to unite with a third, that which 
 cal attrac- tluis unites to the third muft be faid to have a greater 
 tion. affinity to it than to the fubftance it has quitted.. In 
 
 "^^^ many cafes, however, the feemingly fingle decompo- 
 decompo- fiti"" i« ^^"^^1 ^ ^^^^^^^^ when the vi- 
 
 fitions, tho' trioHc acid expels the air from a fixed alkali, it does 
 feemingly not neceifarily follow, that the acid is more attratled 
 
 /Jn ^^^^^^ ^""^ ^^^^ though the 
 
 latter refigns its place to the acid, yet the acid gives 
 out its fire to the air ; whence a decompofition might 
 take place, even though the attraftive powers of both 
 the vitriolic and aerial acid to the alkali were equal. 
 
 To attain to any certainty in this matter, therefore, 
 it is neceffary to determine the quantity and force of 
 each of the attractive powers, and denote it by num- 
 determined ^^grs. The necefTity of this has been obferved by Mr 
 bcrs""^' I^orveau and Mr Wenzel, who have both propofed 
 ^^^265 methods for aniwering the purpofe ; but Mr Kirwan 
 True me- has fhowed that both are defedlive : and he tells us, 
 thod of in- that the difcovery of the quantity of real acid in each 
 veftigatinj/ ^^j- mineral acid liquors, with the proportion of real 
 ty of at- 3Cid taken up by a given quantity ot each balis at the 
 tradlioii point of faturation, led him unexpedtedly to what 
 each of the feems the true method of inveftigating the quantity of 
 Toflt ^^Tf a'^tradtion which each acid bears to the feveral bafes to 
 f^reiA ba- ^vhich it is capable of uniting : " for it was Impoiriblc 
 fcg. 
 
 often deu- 
 blc. 
 
 364 
 Force of 
 the attrac- 
 tive \ ow- 
 ers to be 
 
 407 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci- 
 pitation. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 (fays he) not to perceive, i. That the quantity of real 
 acid neceffary to faturate a given weight of each balls 
 is inverfely as the affinity of each bafis to fuch acid. 
 2. That the quantity of each bafis requifite to faturate 
 a given quantity of each acid is direttly as the affinity 
 of fuch acid to each bafis. Thus 100 grains of each of 
 the acids require for their faturation a greater quantity 
 of fixed alkali than of calcareous earths, more of this 
 earth than of volatile alkali, more of this alkali than of 
 magnefia, and more of magnefia than of earth of 
 alum. 
 
 *• If an acid be united to lefs of any bafis than is 
 requifite for its faturation, its affinity to the deficient 
 part of its bafis is as the ratio-which that deficient part 
 bears to the whole of what the acid can faturate. Thus, 
 if 100 grains of vitriolic acid, which can faturate no 
 of calcareous earth, be united only to 55, its affinity 
 to t"he deficient 55 parts fiiould be eftiniated one half 
 of its whole affinity ; but its affinity to the retained 
 part is as its whole affinity." 266 
 
 To explain the decompofitions in which thefe acids Method of 
 are concerned, we muft confider, firft, the P^^^'^"^^ '^'"^'"^ 
 which refift any decompofition, and tend to keep the portions af- 
 bodies in their prefent ftate ; and, fecondly, the powers fecfted by 
 which tend to effeft a decompofition and new union j acids alone, 
 the former our author calls qulefcent affinities, the latter ^67 
 divelknt. A decompofition will therefore always take Quiefcent 
 place when the fum of the divellent affinities is greater 
 than the quiefcent ; and, on the contrary, no decom- ^-^^ " 
 pofition will happen when the fum of the quiefcent 
 affinities is greater than that of the divellent. All we 
 have to do therefore is to compare the fums of each 
 of thefe powers. The method our author takes to 
 compare the affinities together is by the following 
 table ; in which the quantity of alkali, earth, &c. fa- 
 tu rated by 1 00 grains of each of the mineral acids, is 
 ftated. 
 
 Vc'g. fixed Mineral Calcsr 
 aikali. alkali, earth. 
 Vitriolic acid 215 165 1 10 
 Nitrous acid 215 165 96 
 Marine acid 215 158 89 
 
 Thefe numbers he confiders as adequate expreffions 
 of the quantity of each of the affinities. Thus the af- 
 finity of the vitriolic acid to fixed vegetable alkali Is 
 to the affinity with which it adheres to calcareous 
 earth as 215 to no; and to that which the nitrous ^69 
 acid bears to calcareous earth as 2 15 to 96, 6cc. Hence Expreffive 
 we fum up the powers of affinity betwixt any number 
 of different fubftances, and account for their decom- 
 pofitions, as in the following example of the double ^^gy have 
 decompofition, which takes place when a folution of for each 
 vitrioluted tartar and folution of Ume or chalk in ni- ^^^'^ 
 trous acid are mixed together. 
 
 Vol. Map- Earth of Q.liantity 
 alk. neiia alum, f acid ta- 
 
 Qo 80 7 c "p }'y 
 
 «„ „ - fTr- various ba- 
 
 79 71 55 
 
 ^licfceiit uiffinities. 
 Vitriolic acid to vege- 
 table fixed alkali, 
 Nitrous acid to calca- 
 • reous earth, 
 
 Sum of quiefcent 
 affinities 
 
 '15 
 96 
 
 311 
 
 Divellent j^JJiniiies. 
 
 Vitriolic acid to calca- 
 reous earth, 
 
 Nitrous acid to vege- 
 table alkali, 
 
 bafes. 
 
 270 ■ 
 Decompo- 
 firion cf 
 11 0 vitrlolated 
 tartar by 
 folution oC 
 
 2\ 
 
 Sum of divellent 
 affinities 
 
 325 
 
 J c ilcaicoua- 
 — earth ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Hence we fee that a double decompofition muft enfue. 
 The fame will be produoed, if Inflead of vkrlolated 
 tartar wc make ufe of Glauber's fait 5. for the fum of 
 
4o8 
 
 C E M I S T R Y. 
 
 So'iMtioii 
 end V red- 
 pit a tion. 
 
 571 
 
 Coinci- 
 dence of 
 the above 
 table with 
 fxperience, 
 
 Miftake of 
 Dr Crell 
 corredlcd. 
 
 373. 
 Formation 
 «)f triple 
 and qua- 
 druple falts. 
 
 274 
 Volatile al- 
 Jialies ]iar- 
 ticularly 
 form falts 
 of this 
 kind. 
 
 ns 
 
 Vitriolic 
 falts de- 
 compofed 
 by the ni- 
 trous and 
 marine a- 
 cids, 
 
 176 
 Tl*fe de- 
 compofi- 
 tions fup- 
 pofed to a- 
 rife from 
 compound 
 forces. 
 
 ilae qiuffcent aff.aitles Is 261, of the divellent 275 ; 
 with vitriolic ammoniac the fum of the quiefcent is 
 186, of the divellent 195, &c. In mixing vitriolated 
 tartar with foliition of magnefia in nitrous or marine 
 acids, a double decompofition takes place though in- 
 vilibly, as the vitriolic Epfom fait is very foluble in wa- 
 ter, and therefore cannot be precipitated hkc felenite. 
 In the former cafe the fum of the quiefcent powers is 
 290, of the divellent 295 ; in the fecond 286 and 
 295. 
 
 Other decompofitions take place in the fame manner; 
 and from all the fafts Avhich our author had occafion 
 to obferve, he concludes, that the quantity of each af- 
 finity, as determined in the above table, coincides ex- 
 actly with experience ; and that thefe decompofiltons 
 are perfeflly confillent with the fuperior affinity which 
 has been hitherto obferved in the vitriolic and nitrous 
 acids with fixed alkahes over the calcareous earths; 
 nor do they infringe in the leall the known laws of 
 affinity, as has been infinuated by fome chemifts. 
 One faft only, mentioned in Dr Crell's Journal, feems 
 to be repugnant to what is here advanced ; and that is, 
 that if folutions of one part of alum and two of com- 
 mon fait be mixed together, evaporated, and fet to 
 cryftallize, a Glauber's fait will be formed ; though, 
 in this cafe, the fum of the quiefcent affinities is 233, 
 and that of the divellent only 223. Mr Kirwan re- 
 peated this experiment without fuccefs ; and Dr Crell 
 himfelf owns that it will njt fucceed but iij the moft 
 intenfe cold. If it does fucceed at all, he fays the de- 
 compofition mult arife from a large excefs of acid in 
 the alum, which a£led upon and decompofed the com- 
 mon fait : and this explanation is confirmed by the 
 fmall proportion of Glauber's fait faid to be obtained 
 by this procefs ; for from 30 lb. of common fait and 
 16 of alum, only 15 lb. of Glauber's fait were produ- 
 ced ; whereas, if the whole of the alum had been de- 
 compofed, there fiiould have been formed, according 
 to Mr Kirwan's computation of the quantity of acid 
 in the diiferent falts, 29^ lb, or, according to Mr Berg- 
 man's, 22 lb. of Glauber's fait. 
 
 In fome cafes, the neutral falts have a power of 
 uniting, without any decompofition, or with only a 
 very fmall one, to a third fubftance ; thus forming 
 triple falts, and fometimes quadruple ; which often 
 caufes anomalies that have not yet been fufiiciently in- 
 veftigated. Volatile alkalies in particular are poffefied 
 of the power of uniting with neutral falts in this man- 
 ner. Hence they feem to precipitate magnefia from 
 Epfom fait, even when perfeftly cauftic ; but this is 
 owing to their combination with that fait, and form- 
 ing a triple one, which is infoluble in water. 
 
 It feems extraordinary that, according to Mr Kir- 
 wan's table, the three mineral acids fliould have the 
 fame affinity to vegetable fixed alkalies, when it is well 
 known that the vitriolic will expel either of the other 
 two from an alkaline bafis. In expHcation of this, 
 Mr Kirwan obferves, that nitre is decompofed by the 
 marine acid ; and that Glauber's fait and vitriolic am- 
 moniac are decompofed by that of nitre ; and that 
 t^iefe falts, as well as cubic nitre and nitrous ammo- 
 niac, are decompofed by the marine acid. 
 
 Mr Kirwan is of opinion, that thefe decompofitions 
 are the effeft of a double affinity, or at leaft of com- 
 pound forces. He fufpeded that they arofe from the 
 
 N°7i. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 difi'erent capacities of the acids for elementary fire ; Solution 
 and to determine this matter, he made the following ^"^^ Pieci- 
 experiments, in which the decompofitions were not ^"^'^ ''""'^ 
 difcovered by cryttallization, but by teils. 277 
 
 1 . Having procured a quantity of each of the three Experi- 
 
 mlneral acids containing the fame proportion of real"^^"'* ^'^ 
 
 acid, and reduced them to the temperature of -8^ °f tliL^ll^'the 
 
 Fahrenhtit, lOO grains of vitriolic acid, containlrg various de- 
 
 26.6 of real acid, was projefted upon 480 grains of oil ^rees of 
 
 of tartar at the fame temperature, by which the ther-^^*^^?"'* 
 
 momcter was raifed to 128°. "'•*^.„ I 
 
 ,,,, .J--.. mixtures. 
 
 2. An nunareu grains at ipint or nitre, containing 
 
 alfo 26.6, projedted on 480 grains of oil of tartar, pro- 
 duced only 1 20° of heat. 
 
 3. An hundred grains of fpirit of fait, the fpecific 
 gravity of which was 1220, and which contained the 
 ufiial proportion of real acid, raifed the thermometer 
 from 69 to 129. 
 
 " Hence (fays he) it follows, that the vitriolic acid Vitriolic 
 contains more fpecific fire, or at leaft gives out more ^cid con- 
 by uniting with fixed alkalies, than either the nitrous [(^^'g ^^^""^^ 
 or marine; and therefore when the vitriolic acid comes ^j.'^ous 
 in contact with either nitre or fait of Sylvius, its fire and ma- 
 palTes into thefe acids, which are thereljy rarefied to a 
 great degree, and are thus expelled from their aika- 279 
 fine bafis, which is then feized on by the vitriolic." — Difftcuitf 
 On this, however, it is obvious to remark, that, ac- ^^'^ 
 cording to Mr Kirwan's explanation, the marine acid, 
 as giving out more fpecific heat, ought to expel the 
 nitrous from an alkaline bafis; which, however, is not 
 the cafe. Something elfe, therefore, befides the mere 
 quantity of fpecific heat, mull here be taken into confi- 
 deration. Mr Kirwan, however, goes on to prove tlie 
 truth of his theoiy by the following experiments. 
 
 4. To 400 grains of vitriolic acid, whofe fpecific iiuifxni of 
 gravity was 1.362, fixty grains of nitre were added; on ^l^f "'""ous 
 which the thermometer fell from 68^ to 60°. During "jH'^jyJf 
 the time of this defcent, the nitrous acid was not ex- luted. ' * 
 pelled; for fome filings of copper, put into the mix- 
 ture, were not afted upon in the leaft; but in five 
 minutes afterwards they vifibly effervefced, which 
 fiiowed that the nitrous acid began to be expelled; for 
 
 tlie vitriolic acid does not ad upon copper but by a 
 boiling heat. _ ' ^g, 
 
 5. Sixty grains of nitre were put to 400 of oil ofBythefame 
 vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.870; the f her- 
 mometer inftantly rofe from 68° to 105=, and the „[. ""''^ted, 
 trous acid was expelled in a vifible fume. — " Thefe 
 experiments (fays Mr Kirwan) prove, i. That neu- 
 tral falts are not decompofed by mere folution in an 
 
 acid different from their own. 2. That the nitrous 
 acid, being converted into vapour, had imbibed a 
 large quantity of fire. But as the vitriolic acid, in with a 
 both thefe experiments, was ufed in much larger quan- fmall quan- 
 tity than was necefiary to faturate the alkali of the^i'v "fdi- 
 nitre, fixty grains of the latter were put into 64 of j"*^^"^' ^''"'^ 
 tlie above mentioned dilute fpirit of vitriol, which con- ^g^^* 
 tained the fame quantity of real vitriolic acid that the On the ex- 
 60 grains of nitre did of the nitrous ; Avith the addi- pulfion of 
 tion of 40 grains 'of water and a few copper-filings. ".'^'"'^ ^* 
 In lefs than two hours the copper was adled upon, "In^l'/j,'^^^^ 
 and confequently the nitrous acid was expelled. ted vitrio- 
 
 6. To 400 grains of oil of vitriol, of the fpe-iic. 
 clfic gravity of 1.870, 100 grains of common fait 
 were added. An effervefcence immediately enfued, 
 
 5 and 
 
 2 So 
 On tlie ex- 
 
On the de- 
 cern 
 
 fition of 
 vitnolated 
 taitar by 
 nitrous a- 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Solution, and the marine acid rofc m white vapours. A ther- 
 and Preci- mometer held in the liquor rofe only 4 degrees, but 
 ^ pitat.on. froth it afcended to 10", and fell again upon 
 
 being replaced in the liquor. Hence Mr Kirwan con- 
 Botb the eludes, that the vitriolic acid gives out its £re to the 
 nitrous and marine ; and that this latter received more than it 
 "^^■""'"^ ^" could abforb even in the ftate of vapour, and therefore 
 ceive fire communicated heat to the contiguous liquor. Tt ap- 
 from the pears to him alfo, that the nitrous and marine acids 
 vitriolic _ receive fire from the vitriolic, and are thrown into a 
 vaporous ftate, or at leaft rarefied to fuch a degree as 
 to be expelled from their alkaline bafis, tliough their 
 affinity with that bafis may be equally llroug with the 
 vitriolic. 
 
 7. To afcertain the manner in which vitriolated 
 tartar and Glauber's fait are decompofed by fpirit of 
 nitre, 60 grains of powdered tartar of vitriol were 
 put into 400 of nitrous acid, v/hofe fpecific gravity 
 was i.355> and which contained about 105 grains of 
 real acid. The thermometer was not aiTeiled by the 
 mixture ; but In 24 hours the vitriolic acid was in part 
 difengaged, as appeared by the acid m.ixture afting up- 
 on regulus of antimony, which neither pure vitriolic 
 nor pure nitrous acid will do by themfelves. On put- 
 ting the fame quantity of vitriolated tartar into 4C0 
 grains of fpirit of nitre whcfe fpecific gravity was 
 1.478, the thermometer rofe from 67'^ to 79°; the vi- 
 triolated tartar was quickly diffolved, and the regulus 
 of antimony fliowed that the vitriolic acid was dlfen- 
 
 Acids unite gaged. Hence it appeared, that the nitrous acid, ha- 
 Eo alkalies ying the fame affinity with the bafis of vitriolated tar- 
 tar as the vitttolic, but giving out, during the folu- 
 tion, more fire than was ntceflai-y to perform the folu- 
 tlon, the vitriolic, receiving this fire, was difengaged : 
 for as it cannot unite to alkalies without giving out 
 fire ; fo when it receives back that fire, it muil quit 
 them. The reafon why the nitrous acid, \idiich fpe- 
 cifically contains lefs fire than the vitriolic, gives out 
 fo much is, that its quantity in both thefe experi- 
 ments is far greater than that of the vitriolic ; it be- 
 ing in the firft as 105 to 17, and in the laft as 158 to 
 
 8. To 60 grains of fpirit of nitre, whofe fpecific 
 gravity was 1.355, Kirwan added 1000 grains of 
 water; and Into this dilute acid put 60 grains of vitrio- 
 
 by d'iluted lated tartar, containing exaftly the fame quantity of real 
 nitrous a- ^(^[^ ^j^g f^o grains of nitrous acid did. In eight 
 days the vitriolated tartar was almoft entirely dlflx)lved, 
 and without any fign of its decompofition ; and no 
 nitre v/as found upon evaporating the liquor. Hence 
 he concludes, that the nitrous acid can never decom- 
 pofe vitriolated tartar, without the affift;ance of heat, 
 but when its quantity is fo great that it contains con- 
 liderably more fire, and by the adt of folution is de- 
 termined to give out this fire. This fait is alfo dc- 
 compofed, iti fimilar circumftances, by the marine a- 
 cid ; though ftlU more flowly and with more difficulty 
 than by the nitrous, as appeafs by the following ex- 
 periments. 
 
 9. Into 400 grains of fpirit of fait, whofe fpecific 
 gravity was 1.220, were put 60 grains of vitriolated 
 taitar. The thermometer was not affefted in the leaft, 
 and the fait diflblved very flowly. Some pulverized 
 bifmuth was added to try whether the vitriolic acid 
 was difengaged ; and in 1 2 hours part of it was dif- 
 
 VoL. IV. Part II. 
 
 aS6 
 
 by giving 
 ©ut fire, 
 and qu t 
 tliCm by 
 receivin.' 
 
 Vitriolated 
 tartar can- 
 iiot be de- 
 compofed 
 
 cid. 
 
 a88 
 Deconi])o- 
 fjtion of 
 vitriolated 
 tartar by 
 marine a- 
 cid. 
 
 I S T R Y. 409 
 
 folved, fo that it could not be precipitated by water. Solution 
 This fhowed, that part of the vitriolic acid was dif- ^"'^j^^jy" ' 
 lodged ; for this femi-metal cannot be kept in folution ^' ' ' « 
 when much diluted with water, excepting by a mix- 
 ture of marine and vitriolic acids. i^g 
 In this experiment the quantity of marine acid was^^^*^'''^^' 
 
 much arreater than that of the vitriolic ; and therefore r ^, •* 
 ° . . ' . „ ccfs of this 
 
 it v/as capable or diliodging it. ihis circumltance a- expeti- 
 lone, however, is not fufficient ; the acid mull be dif- mcnt. 
 pofed to give out by folution that quantity of fire 
 which It is neceffary the vitriolic fhould receive in or- 
 der to its quitting the bafis to which it is united ; and 
 therefore when Mr Cornette added two ounces of fpl- 290 
 rit of fait to half an ounce of vitriolated tartar already \'itno!ated 
 diiTalved in water, no decompofition took place. The|.||^'^j 
 reafon of this w as, that as the vitriolated tartar was al- vvratei can- 
 ready difTolved, no cold nor heat was generated by not be de- 
 the mixture ; and therefore the fpirit of fait could not compcled 
 give out any fire. Glauber's fait is more eafily decompo- ''Jjj^^^^^^ 
 fed by marine acid than vitriolated tartar, on account 
 of Its being more eafily foluble in fpirit of fait ; and 
 likcwife becaufe its alkaline bafis takes up an equal 
 quantity of both acids : confequently the marine gives 
 out more fire In uniting to the bafis of Glauber's fait 
 than on being united to that of vitriolated tartar. Vi- 
 triolic ammoniac is alfo decompofed by means of ma- 291 
 rine acid ; but in all thefe cafes, the quantity of ma- Dccompo- 
 rine acid muft greatly exceed that of the vitriolic ^'f^o" of 
 
 contained in the fait to be decompofed; and it muft^'''"''''*: 
 1 111 T l ie - r -hr '.immoniac 
 
 be remarked, that according to trie obiervations of Mr^nd Glau- 
 
 Bergman, the decompofition of Glauber's fait or vi- bar's fait 
 
 triolic ammoniac by this acid is never complete. hy marine 
 
 On the fame principles the marine acid decompofes^''^^ never 
 falts which have the nitrous acid for their bafis. Mr^""^^^^''^' 
 Cornette found, that cubic nitre was more eafily de- Nitrous 
 compofed by It than that which has vegetable alkali falts de- 
 for its bafis. Accordingly, during the folution of '^""^1"*^^'^ 
 prifmatic nitre, only three degrees of cold were pro- 
 duced ; but fix by the folution of cubic nitre ; which 
 fhows that the fpirit of fait gave out more fire in the 
 latter cafe than in the former ; and its quantity mull 
 always be greater than that of the nitrous acid con- 
 tained in the mineral alkaline bafis ; becaufe this bafis 
 requires for its faturation more of the marine than of 
 the nitrous acid. The nitrous acid, however, in its Ma'^e 
 turn decompofcs fait of Sylvius and common fait; but falts de- 
 it mufl; always be in greater quantity than the marine compofed 
 to produce that effea:. ^'^^ 
 
 10. Sixty grains of common fait being added to ' 
 400 of colourlefs fpirit of nitre, whofe fpecific gra- 
 vity w^as 1.478, the misture quickly eff'ervefced and 
 grew red, yet the thermometer rofe but two degrees ; 
 which fliowed that the marine acid had aLforbed the 
 greater part of the fire given out by that of nitre ; 
 the decompofition was likewlfe hallened by the fupe- 
 rior affinity of the nitrous acid to the alkaline bafis of 
 the fea-falt : hence the decompofition of fea-falt by 
 means of nitre takes place without any folution ; but 
 fpirit of fait will not decompofe cubic nitre until It has 
 firft diflblved it. This mutual expulfion of the ni- 
 trous and marine acids by each other, is the reafon why 
 aqua-regia may be made by adding nitre or nitrous 
 ammoniac to fpirit of fait, as well as by adding com- 
 mon fait or fal ammoniac to fpirit of rtftre. 
 
 Selenite cannot be decompofed either by nitrous or 
 3 F marine 
 
410 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci- 
 pitation 
 
 494 
 
 Selenites 
 cannot be 
 
 cieci :f, J o- 
 fed by ma- 
 rine acid. 
 
 295 
 Wliy the 
 vitriolic 
 acid af- 
 fumes on 
 evapora- 
 tion the 
 bafes itl 
 had loft. 
 
 496 
 Difficuli ie^ 
 in deter- 
 mining the 
 attradtive 
 powers of 
 the acids 
 to metals. 
 
 297 
 Metallic 
 falts info- 
 luble in 
 water 
 without an 
 excefs of 
 acids. 
 
 298 
 Quantities 
 of the dif- 
 ferent me- 
 tals taken 
 up by a- 
 cid. 
 
 Metals 
 have a 
 
 greater af- 
 finity with 
 acids than 
 alkalies. 
 
 3©0 
 Why alka- 
 lies preci- 
 pitate the 
 «ietuls. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 marine acid ; becaufe it cannot be dlffolved in either 
 without the affiflance of foreign heat. It muft Uke- 
 wife be obferved, that in all decompofitlons of this 
 kind, when the liquor has been evaporated to a cer- 
 tain degree, the vitriolic acid expels in its turn the ni- 
 trous or marine acid to which it had already yielded 
 its bafis. The reafon of this is, that the free part of 
 the weaker acids being evaporated, tlie neutral falts 
 begin to cryilallize, and then giving out heat, the vi- 
 triolic abforbs it ; and thus reacting upon them, exijels 
 them from the alkali or earth to which they are united. 
 
 Mr Kirwan found much more difficulty in deter- 
 mining the attractive pov>'ers of the different acids to 
 the metals tlian to aJkalne falts or earths. Some of 
 the difficulties met with in this cafe arofe from the na- 
 ture of metallic fubftances themfelves. Their calces 
 when formed by fire always contain a quantity of air, 
 which cannot be extrafted from them without great 
 difficulty, and is very foon re-abforbed ; and if formed 
 by folution, they as conitantly i^etain a part of their 
 folvent or precipitant; fo that the prtcife weight of the 
 metalline part can fcarce be difcovered. Our author, 
 therefore, and becaufe metallic calces are generally in- 
 foluble in acids, chofe to have the metals in their 
 perfeft ftate : and even here they muft lofe a part of 
 their phlogifton before they can be diifolved in acids, 
 and a confiderable part remains in the folution of the 
 acid and calx ; which laft quantity he endeavoured to 
 determine. 
 
 A new difficulty now occurred, arifing from the 
 impoffibility of finding the real quantity of acid ne- 
 ceflary to faturate the metal, for all metallic folutions 
 contain an excefs of acid : the reafon of which is, 
 that the falts formed by a due proportion of acid and 
 calx are infoluble in water without a further quantity 
 of acid ; and in fome cafes this quantity, and even its 
 proportion to the aqueous part of the liquor, muft be 
 very confiderable, as in folutions of bifmuth. It was 
 
 100 grains of 
 Vitriolic 1 
 
 acid J 
 Nitrous / 
 
 acid ) 
 Marine ] 
 
 acid \ 
 
 Though from this table, compared with the former, 
 we might fuppofe that metals, having a greater at- 
 traftion for acids than alkalies, could not be precipi- 
 tated by them, yet Mr Kirwan obferves, that the com- 
 mon tables, which poftpone metallic fubftances to al- 
 kaline falts, are in reality juft, though there can fcarce 
 be any room to doubt that almoft all metaUIc fubftan- 
 ces have a greater affinity with acids than alkalies have. 
 The common tables, he fays, are tables of precipitation 
 rather than of affinity, as far as they relate to metaUIc 
 fubftances. Thefe precipitations, however, are con- 
 ftantly the refult of a double affinity and decompofi- 
 tion; the precipitating metal yielding its phlogifton to 
 the precipitated one, while the precipitated metal 
 yields Its acid to the other. Thus, though copper in 
 Its metallic form precipitates filver and mercury from 
 the nitrous acid, yet the calx will precipitate nei- 
 ther. 
 
 The fuperior attradion the nitrous acid has to filver 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Merc. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 270 
 
 260 
 
 
 412 
 
 390 
 
 432 
 
 318 
 
 255 
 
 255 
 
 120 
 
 
 375 
 
 416 
 
 304 
 
 265 
 
 265 
 
 130 
 
 400 
 
 420 
 
 438 
 
 312 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 In vain attempted to deprive thofe folutions of their Solution 
 excefs of acid by means of cauftic alkahes and lime- 
 water; for when deprived of only part of it, many of 
 the metals were precipitated, and all of them would 
 fo if deprived of the whole. As the folution of filver, 
 however, can be very much faturated, Mr Kirwan 
 began with it, and found that 657 grains of this folu- 
 tion contained 100 grains of filver, and 31.38 grains 
 of real acid, after making the proper allowance for 
 the quantity diffipated in nitrous air. Nine grains of 
 this folution tinged an equal quantity of folutioa of 
 litmus as red as xo ^ grain of real acid of fpirit of 
 nitre would have done ; whence our author concluded, 
 that 9 grains of his folution of filver contained an ex- 
 cefs of of ^ grain of real filver ; according to 
 which calculation, the whole quantity ought to have 
 contained 5.6 grains; which deduiied from jf.jS, 
 leaves 25.78 grains for the quantity of acid faturated 
 by 100 grains of filver. 
 
 As the vitriolic folutions of tin, bifmuth, regulus 
 of antimony, nickel, and regulus of arfenic, con- 
 tain a large excefs of acid, Mr Kirwan faturated 
 part of it with cauftic volatile alkali before he tried 
 them with the infufion of litmus ; and the fame me- 
 thod was ufed with folutions of iron, lead, tin, and 
 regulus of antimony in the nitrous and marine acids. 
 The proportion of vitriolic and marine acid taken up 
 by lead, filver, and mercury, were determined by com- 
 puting the quantity of real acid neceffaiy to precipi- 
 tate thefe metals from their folutions in the nitrous a- 
 cid ; which feemed to be the moft exaO: method of 
 determining this point. The refult of all the expe- 
 riments was, that 100 grains of each of thefe acidS 
 take up at the point of faturation of each metallic fub- 
 ftance, dephlogifticated to fuch a degree as is neceflary 
 for its folution in each acid, the quantities marked In 
 the following table. 
 
 Zinc. Bifmuth. Nickel. Cobalt. Reg. of ant. Reg. ofarfen. 
 250 
 
 310 
 
 290 
 
 250 
 320 
 
 320 
 
 300 
 
 275 
 310 
 
 360 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 350 
 
 194 
 
 220 
 
 370 
 
 198 
 
 290 
 
 301 
 
 rather than fixed alkali, appears from the following ex- Nitrous a- 
 perlment. If a folution of filver in nitrous acid becid attracts 
 poured Into a mixed folution of alkali and fea-falt, ''Iver more 
 the filver will be precipitated by the fea-fak into a luna ^J^^^l'^^*^ 
 cornea, and not by the loofe alkali contained In the 
 liquor. *' Now (fays Mr Kirwan), If the nitrous 
 acid had a greater affinity to the free alkali than to 
 the filver, it is evident that the filver would be preci- 
 pitated pure, and not In the ftate of luna cornea ; but 
 from Its being precipitated In this ftate, It is plain, 
 that the precipitation was not accompHffied by a fingle 
 but by a double affinity. Hence alfo the marine acid 
 appears to have a greater attraftlon to filver than the 
 nitrous has to fixed alkalies. The refult is fimilar 
 when we make ufe of folutions of lead or mercury In 
 the nitrous acid. Mr Bayen has alfo fhown, that vi- 
 triol of lead and corrofive fubllmate mercury cannot 
 be deprived of more than half their acid, even by cau- 
 ftic fixed alkalies. 
 
 With 
 
Theory. 
 
 Solution 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 With regard to lead, If perfeftly dry fait be projcft 
 and Pi-eci- ^}^ig meta^ heated to ignition, the common fait will 
 
 ^Illa tion. decompofed, and plumbum corneum formed. Nor 
 can we attribute this to the volatilization of the alkali 
 Sea-falt de- by heat ; for the alkali is as fixed as the lead, and 
 compofed rauft therefore be caufed by the fuperior attraction 
 in various y^r\^[Q\^ xh^ calx of this metal, even when dephlogifti- 
 means^of ^^t^^' ^'^^ marine acid. Mr Scheele informs 
 
 lead. "s, tliat if a folution of common fait be digelled with 
 litharge, the common fait will be decompofed, and a 
 cauftic alkali produced. It may alfo be decompofed 
 fimply by letting its folution pafs flowly through a fun- 
 nel filled with litharge ; and the fame thing happens 
 to a folution of calcareous earth in mai-ine acid ; which 
 (hows that the decompofition takes place merely by the 
 fuperior degree of attradion betwixt the acid and me- 
 tallic calx (a). 
 
 That acids have a greater attraftion for metallic 
 earths than volatile alkalies, is flill more evident. Luna 
 cornea is foluble in volatile alkalies; but if this folution 
 be triturated with four times its weight of quick fdver, a 
 tnercurius dulcis, and not fal ammoniac, is formed. The 
 reafon why alkahes and earths precipitate all metallic fo- 
 lutions is, that the metals are held in folution by an ex- 
 cefsof acid. Even if the alkaline and earthy fubftance 
 did no more than abforb this excefs of acid, a precipi- 
 tation muft necelTarily enfue ; but they not only take Up 
 this fuperabundant acid, but alfo the greater part of 
 that which is neceffary to faturate the metalHc earth. 
 This they are enabled to do by means of a double af- 
 finity ; for during the folution of metals, only a fmall 
 part'of the phlogiRon, comparatively fpeaking, efcapes, 
 the remainder being retained by the compound of acid 
 and calx. When therefore an alkali or earth is added 
 to fuch a fdlulion, the phlogifton quits the acid, and 
 joins with the calx, while the greater part of the acid 
 reunites to the precipitate. Notwithftanding this greet 
 affinity, however, of metaUic earths to acids, there are 
 but few inftances of their dtcompofmg thofe falts 
 which have an alkali or an earth for their bafis, by rea- 
 fon of the inability of the acids, while combined with 
 thefe bafes and thereby deprived of a great part of 
 
 303 
 Acids at- 
 traift me- 
 tallic earth 
 more 
 ftrongly , 
 than vola- 
 tile alluli. 
 
 304 
 
 Why the 
 
 tnetal'ic 
 ear hs fcl- 
 
 don-. ■r'e- 
 conip' fc 
 fait- ha- 
 viu'; :'.n 
 
 305 
 I)ecom]io- 
 fition <.if 
 
 ^iefcent Affinities. 
 Nitrous acid to fdver, 375 
 Vitriolic acid to ve- 7 ^ ^ 
 getable alkali, 5 ^ 
 
 Divellent Affinities, 
 Nitrous acid to ve- ^ 
 getable alkali, 5 
 Vitriolic acid to lilver, 
 
 215 
 
 605 
 
 411 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci- 
 pitation. 
 
 306 
 
 eaithor al- ^j,. ;^ gre, to volatilize the phlogilton combi- 
 
 their^bafis. ""^^ ^^^^^ metallic earths, which mrift neceffarily 
 be expelled before an acid can combine with them: and 
 as to the metallic calces, they are generally combined 
 w ith fixed air, which muft alfo be partly expelled ; but 
 ammonlacal falts (containing much more fire, for they 
 abforb it during their formation) for that reafon aft much 
 more powerfully on metals. Allowing then the affini- 
 ties ot the mineral acids with metalhc fubftances to be 
 as above, all double decompofitions, in which only faks 
 containing thele acids united to alkaline, terrene, or 
 metalHc bafes, are concerned, admit of an eafy explana- 
 tion ; nay, fays Mr Kirwan, I am bold to fay, they 
 vitrktlated cannot otherw ife be explained. Thus, if a folution 
 tartar hy of tartar vitriolate, and of filver in the nitrous acid, be 
 folution (.f ir.ixed in proper proportion, nitre andvitriol of filver will 
 filver ex- formed: and this latter for the mofl. part precipitated, 
 plained; 
 
 590 
 
 Thus alfo, if, inftead of a folution of tartar vltrio-And of^ 
 late, that of Glauber's fait, or of vitrioHc fal ^^'^^■^{^^"Jl^Jig^ 
 niac, felenite, Epfom fait, or alum, be ufed, the ba- '^^^^^^^ 
 lance is conftantly in favour of the divellent powers 5 and niac, &c. 
 a precipitation is the confequence, though but flight 
 when felenite or alum are uled. ^07 
 
 Solution of filver is alio precipitated by the vitriolic In what ca- 
 folutions of iron, copper, tin, and probably by many folution 
 other folucions of metals in the vitriolic acid ; for t^'SpreclpiTa-* 
 reafon, among others undoubtedly, that they contain ^e.i by fl- 
 an excefs of acid : but if a faturated folution of filver 'her nic- 
 be mixed with a very faturated folution of lead or mer-t^''* 
 cury in the vitriohc acid, the filver will not be preci- 
 pitated ; and in both cafes the balance is in favour of 
 the quiefcent affinities. 308 
 
 All the marine neutral falts, whether the bafis be al- ^^^"^'^ 
 kaUne, terrene, or metallic, decompofe the nitrous folu- j-^^ll^^^. 
 tion of filver ; and thefe decompofitions are conftantly rinefalti; 
 indicated by the balance of affinrties already defcribed. 
 The fame thing alfo takes place with folution of filver 
 in the vitrioHc acid, as is indicated alfo by the lame 3°9 
 table. The nitrous folution of lead is alfo decompo- f^^^lfo fc 
 fed, and the metal for the moft part precipitated, un-j^^^^^ 
 lefs the folution be very dilute in the form of vitriol of 
 lead, by all the neutral falts containing either the vi- 
 triohc or marine acid, excepting only the combination 
 of filver with marine acid, which precipitates it in no 
 other v?ay than by its exdefs of acid. 310 
 Solution of lead in mariire acid is decompofed by all ^°^^V°" 
 the neutral falts containing the vitriolic acid, excepting ^^'^.j^^" g_ 
 only felenite and folution of nickel in oil of vit: iol. Thefe dd decom- 
 can only precipitate it by virtue of an excefs of acid, pofed by 
 Nitrous folution of mercury is decompofed by all the ^"^'"'^^^'^ 
 neutral falts contaitiing the vitriolic acid, except vitriol ' 
 of lead, which only decompoies it by an exce ls of acid. Alfo ni* 
 
 All the falts containing marine acid decompofe the trous folu- 
 nitrous folution of mercury, excepting the combina- °^ 
 tions of marine acid with filver and lead, which decom- "^^^^ i ' 
 pofe it by fxcefs of acid. And by 
 
 Thefe fah s alio decompofe vitriol of mercury, tho'the falts 
 a precipitatioii does not always appear, owing, as Mr '^'^"'.^'"'"5 
 Kirwan fuppofes, to the facility with which a fmall quan- ^* 
 tity of the marine fait of mercury is foluble in an excefs 313 
 of acid. Marine lalt of filver, however, decompofes vitriol Vitriol of 
 of mercury only through its excefs of acid. Hence we m' rcury 
 fee why luna cornea can never be reduced by fixed al- fj^i h'^^^j, 
 kalles without lofs; and were it not that the atlion ofnne acid, 
 the alkah is affifted by heat, it never could be reduced 314 
 by them at all. Why luna 
 
 When oil of vitriol is mixed with a folution of cor- ^°nn!)t be 
 rofive fublimate, a precipitate falls: but this, as Mr reduced 
 Bergman remarks, does not proceed from a decompo- without 
 3 F 2 fition '°f« ,t>y 
 
 alkaline 
 falta. 
 
 (a) Thefe experiments have been repeated by many other chemlfts without fuccefs : and Mr Wiegleb 
 informs, that none of thofe who have attempted to decompofe fea-falt by means of lead, ever found their me- 
 thods anfwer the purpcfe. 
 
412 
 
 So'utlon 
 and Preci- 
 pitation. 
 
 315 
 Precipita- 
 tion of cor- 
 rofive mer- 
 cury by 
 oil of vi- 
 triol ex- 
 plained. 
 
 316 
 Table of 
 the affini- 
 ties to the 
 different 
 metals ex- 
 plained. 
 
 317 
 Of the 
 tjuantity of 
 phloijifton 
 contained 
 in the dif- 
 ferent me- 
 tals. 
 
 Method of 
 calculating 
 this quan- 
 tity exem- 
 plified in 
 regulus of 
 a.'-fQnjc. 
 
 3T9 
 Tabie i.f_ 
 the quanti- 
 ties of phlo- 
 gifton in 
 differeiit 
 metals,. 
 
 Exp.ri- 
 
 mf iit^ e^" 
 plaii'injij 
 the reduc- 
 tion of 
 ftlver per 
 
 C H E M 
 
 fitlon of tl»e mercurial fait, but from an abftraftion of 
 the water neceffary to keep the fublimate diffolved. 
 
 In the foregoing table t«^o different affinities are af- 
 figned to the vitriolic acid with regard to bif- 
 muth and nickel ; one fliowing the affinity which 
 thefe acids bear to the metals when dephlogiilica- 
 ted only by folution in the acids ; the other that 
 which the acids bear to them when more dephlo- 
 gifticatcd, as when they are dilfolved in the nitrous 
 acid. On the other hand, all the acids have lefa affi- 
 nity with the calces of iron, zinc, tin, and antimony, 
 when they are dephlogifticated to a certain degree ; 
 but our author found himfelf unable to give any cer- 
 tain criteria of this dephlogidication. 
 
 The moft difficult point to be fettled .was the pre- 
 cipitation of metals by each other from the mineral 
 acids. To determine this it was neceffary to find the 
 quantity of phlogifton in each of them, not only in 
 their natural ftate, but according to their various de- 
 grees of deplilogiftication by each of the acids. The 
 fubftance he chofe for determining the abfolute quan- 
 tity of phloglfton in a metallic fubrtance was regulus of 
 arfenic. An hundred grains of this femitnetal diffol- 
 ved in dilute nitrous acid yielded 102.4 cubic inches of 
 nitrous air; vi'hich, according to his calculations on ttiat 
 fubjeft, contain 6.86 grains of phlogifton : and hence 
 he concluded that 100 grains of regulus of arfenic con- 
 tain 6.86 grains of phlogifton. From this experi- 
 ment, three times repeated with the fame fuccefs, our 
 author proceeded to form, by calculation, a table of 
 the abfolute quantity of phlogifton contained in me- 
 tals, the relative quantity having been computed by 
 Mr Bergman, and his calculations adopted by our au- 
 thor. Thefe quantities are as follow. 
 
 too. grains 
 
 Gold 
 Copper 
 Cobalt 
 Iron 
 Zinc 
 Nickel 
 Regulus of ) 
 antimony 3 
 Tin 
 
 Regulus 
 arfenic 
 SiWcr 
 Mercury 
 Bifmuth 
 Lead 
 
 ■'1 
 
 Rc'ative 
 
 Abfo'ute 
 
 (^:antity. 
 
 Quai:tity. 
 
 394- 
 
 24.82 
 
 312 
 
 • 9.65 
 
 270 
 
 J 7.0 1 
 
 233 
 
 14.67 
 
 
 I 1.46 
 
 156 
 
 9.82 
 
 1 20 
 
 7.56 
 
 114 
 
 7.18 
 
 ■ 109 
 
 <).86 
 
 ICO 
 
 6.30 
 
 7+ 
 
 4.56 
 
 57 
 
 3-59 
 
 43 
 
 2.70 
 
 This point he likewlfe endeavoured to afcertain by 
 other experiments. As filver lofts a certain quantity 
 of phlogifton, which efcapcs and feparates from it du- 
 ring its folution in nitrous acid, he concluded, that if 
 the fojuiion was expofed to nothing from which it 
 could reobtain phlogifton, and this was dlftilled to dry- 
 nefs, and entirely feparated from the acid, as much fil- 
 ver fhould remain unreduced as correfpondcd with the 
 quantity of plilogifion loft by it ; and if this quantity 
 correfpondcd with that in the above table, he then had 
 good reafon to conclude that the table was juft. 
 
 For this purpofe 120 grains of ftandard filver were 
 diffolved in dephlogifticatcd nitrous acid diluted with 
 water, and he obtained from it 24 cubic inches of ni- 
 trous air. This folution was gently evaporated to 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 drynefs ; and he found that, during the evaporation, Solution 
 about a quarter of a grain of the filver had been volati- ii''d Preci-j 
 llzed. The dry refiduum was then dlftilled, and kept , 
 an hour in a coated green-glafs retort heated almoft to * ' 
 a white heat. Abundance of nitrous acid paffed off 
 during the operation, and a green and white fublimate 
 rofe into the neck of the retort, fome of it even paf- 
 fing over into the receiver. On breaking the retort, the 
 infide was penetrated with a yellow and red tinge, and 
 partly covered over with an exceedingly fine filver pow- 
 der, which could fcarcely be fcraped off. The re- 
 mainder of the filver was white, and perfedlly free 
 from acid, but not melted into a button. On being 
 collefted, it weighed 94 grains; confequently 26 grains 
 had been loft either by fublimatlon or vitrification ; 
 but of thefe 26 grains 9 were copper ; for 100 grains 
 of ftandard filver contain 7^- of copper, therefore only 
 1 7 grains of pure filver remained unreduced, being ei- ,j 
 ther volatilized or vitrified. The whole quantity of Quuntity 
 pure filver in 120 grains of ftandard filver amounts to ''f pi'^e mc- 
 1 1 1 grains ; then if n i grains of pure filver lofe 17 ^''^ 
 by being deprived of its phlogifton, ico grains of the Sn^arci 
 fame fliould lofe 15.3; and hy the above table 15.3 filver. ' 
 grains of filver fhould contain 0.945 of a grain of 
 phlogiflon. Now, 100 grains of pure , filver afford 
 14 cubic inches of nitrons air, which, according to our 
 author's calculation, contain 0.938 of a grain of 
 phlogifton ; and this differs from 0.945 only by .007 
 of a grain. ** In this experiment (fays Mr Kirwan) 
 only as much of the filver fublimed as could not regain 
 phlogifton ; the remainder regained it from the nitrous 
 air abforbed by the folution, and by that which remain- 
 ed in the acid and calx. If this were not fo, I do not 
 fee why the whole of the filver would not fublime." 
 
 Dr Prieftley having feveral times diffolved mercury Exarnina- 
 in the nitrous acid, and revivified it by diftilhng over*'°!^°^ 
 that acid, conilantly found a confiderable portion of it 2^Jcrimen> 
 unreduced. ^ To try whether that proportion corre- coiicerning 
 fponded with his calculation, Mr Kirwan examined the revival 
 Dr Prieftley's experiment, in-z. that having diffolved °^ 
 17 penny-weights 13 grains (321 grains) of mercury 
 in nitrous acid, 36 grains ren\pined unreduced. Ac- 
 cording to Mr Klrwan's calculation 56 grains ftiould 
 have remained unreduced; for 100 grains of mercury 
 afford 12 cubic inches of nitrous air; of confequence 
 321 grains ftiould afford 38.52, which contain 2. 5S 
 of phloglftlon : and if, as according to the table, 4.56 
 grains of phlogiliion be neceflary to metallize 100 
 grains of mercury, 2.58 grains will be necefHiry to 
 metallize 56 grains of the fame metal ; and our author 
 is fatisfied from his own trials, that more than 50 
 grains would have remained unreduced, if dephlogifti- 
 catcd nitrous acid had been ufed in diffulving the mer- 
 cury, and the folution performed with heat and a 
 ftrongacid: but that which the Dodor ufed was ofwhy^fo 
 the fmoking kind, and confequently contained a con- much of 
 fiderable quantity of phloglftlon already, which un- ''^^ "^'^'^l 
 doubtedly contributed to revive more of the metal JJ^g"") 
 than would otherwife have been done. It is true, DocftorV^ 
 Dr Prieftley afterwards revived a great part of what experi- 
 had originally remained unreduced ; but this happened ^ents. 
 after it had been fome time expofed to the free air, 
 from which the calces of metals always attraft phlogif- 
 ton ; as Is evident in luna cornea, which blackens on be- 
 ing expofed to the air. 
 
 By another experiment of Dr Prieftley's, it was 
 
 found >, 
 
Theory. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 415 
 
 Solution 
 and Preci- 
 \)itation. 
 
 324 
 Of the re- 
 v.val cf 
 lead from 
 nunium by 
 jiiflam- 
 niabie air. 
 
 32.? 
 Mr Kir- 
 wan 's re- 
 marks on 
 the expe- 
 rinicnts of 
 Dr i'l ieft- 
 ley. 
 
 326 
 Of the at- 
 
 found, that nearly five pennyweights of minluin, from 
 whence all its air was extrafted, that is, about Ii8 
 grains, abforbed 40 ounce-meafures, or 75.8 cubic 
 inches of inflamm?ble air, containing 2.65 grains of 
 phlogi'lon, by which they were reduced. An hundred 
 grains of minium, therefore, require for their reduc- 
 tion nearly 2.25 grains of phlogifton. In another 
 experiment made with more care, he found, that 480 
 grains of minium abforbed 1 08 ounce-meafures of in- 
 flammable air : fo that, according to this, 100 grains 
 of minium require for their redudlion 1.49 grains of 
 phlogifton ; and in two fucceeding experiments he 
 found the quantity flill lefs. On this Mr Kirwan re- 
 marlcf., i. That the whole of the minium was not de- 
 phlogifticated ; for it is never equally calcined, and 
 befidcs much of it muft have been reduced during the 
 espulfion of its air. 2. The quantity of phlogifton in 
 the inflammable air may have been greater, as this 
 varies wiih its temperature and the weight of the at- 
 mofphere: fo that on the whole thefe experiments con- 
 firm the refults expeffcd in the table. 
 
 Mr Kirwan next proceeds to confider the attraftion 
 
 nietalUc 
 calces lo 
 phlogifton. 
 
 gravity of 
 the diiTe- 
 rent nic- 
 taihc cal- 
 ces. 
 
 traaion of of metallic calces to phlogifton. Inflammable air, 
 when condenfed into a folid fubftance, he fuppofes not 
 only equal, but much fuperior, to any metallic calx in 
 fpecific gravity ; and therefore, if we could find the 
 fpecific gravity of any calx free both from phlogiffon 
 and fixed air, we would thus know the denfity which 
 phlogifton acquires by its union with fuch calx. It 
 Of fiMd'ng ^35' however, hitherto proved impofiible to procure 
 thefjiecific calccd in fuch a ftate ; as, during their dephlogiftica- 
 tion, they combine with fixed air or fome particles of 
 the menftruum, whence their abfolute weight is in- 
 creafed, and their fpecific gravity diminiflied. Hence 
 it appears, that the^ fpecific gravity of the calces differs 
 much lefs fi-om that of their refpeclive metals, than the 
 fpecific gravity which the phlogifton requires by its 
 union with thofe calces from that which it poffefTes in 
 its uncombined ftate. Hence, inftead of deducing the 
 quantity of afilnity betwixt phlogifton und metallic cal- 
 ces from the following propofition, that " the affinicy 
 of metaUic calces to phlogifton is in a compound ratio 
 ^28 of its quantity and denfity in each metal," he is obliged 
 Whence to deduce it from this other, that " the affinity of me- 
 iheir va- t^iijc calces to phlogifton is direftly as the fpecific 
 ""ees of'af- °^ lefpeAive metals, and inverfcly as the 
 InUy to quantity of calx contained in a given weight of thefe 
 phlogifton metals." This latter propofition is an approximation 
 to the former, founded on this truth, that the larger 
 
 may be de 
 termined. 
 
 pitation. 
 
 the quantity of phlogifton in any metal is, the fmaller Sohuion 
 is the quantity of calx in a given weight of that me- 
 tal;" and, that " the denfity which the pholgifton ac- 
 quires is as the fpecific gravity of the metal." This 
 latter propofition, however, is not flrlftly tru?, -fn* 
 this denfity is much greater; but its defetl is only fen- 
 fible with regard to thofe metals which contain a 
 confiderable quantity of phlogifton, as gold, copper, 
 cobalt, and iron. With regard to the reft, it is of no 
 importance. The fpecific gravity of the different me- 
 tals, then, being as reprefented in the firft column of 
 the following tabic, the affinity of their calces to phlo- 
 gifton will be as in the fecond ; and the third ex- 
 in numbers homogeneous with 
 the affinities of acids with their 
 
 preffes the affinities 
 thofe which exprcfs 
 bafis. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity, 
 
 H 
 
 1 1. 09 1 
 
 8.8 
 9.6 
 7-7 
 7-7 
 
 } 8.31 
 7.24 
 7 
 
 6.86 
 
 Prcpovtionable 
 Af-initi'js. 
 
 o 25 
 C.I 47 
 O.I I 8 
 0.1 16 
 
 O. ! 09 
 O.C99 
 0,092 
 0.090 
 
 0.089 
 
 0.0812 
 0.075 
 
 Real Affinities of Tabic of 
 Calx to Phlogift.the pro- 
 
 1041 
 612 
 491 
 483 
 
 454- 
 41 2 
 
 383 
 375 
 
 370 
 
 338 
 312 
 
 308 
 
 j-.ortional 
 affinities of 
 metallic 
 calces to 
 phl( giuoniu 
 
 Gold 
 Mercury 
 Silver 
 Lead 
 Copper 
 Bifmuth 
 Cobalt 
 Iron 
 
 Regulus of 
 Arienic 
 Zinc 
 Tin 
 
 Regulus of ^ 6.86 0.074 
 Antimony 3 
 
 From this table we way fee why lead is ufeful in Why'^lead' 
 cupellation ; namely, becaufe it has a greater affinity '■'fefitl in- 
 with phlogifton than the calces of any of the other '^^r^il^'^o'*' 
 imperfe£l metals ; confequently after it has loft its 
 own phlogifton, it attra£ts that of the other metala 
 with which it is mixed, and thus promotes their calci- 
 nation and vitrification. 
 
 The third point neceffary for the explanation of the Quaiitityoi: 
 phenomena attending the folution of metals, and their J hloglfton 
 precipitation by each other, is to determine the P^O" [^j^ 
 portion of phlogifton which they lofe by folution in calcination 
 each of the acids, and the affinity which their calces 
 bear to the part fo loft. Though our author was not 
 able to determine this by any direft experiment, yet 
 from various confiderations he was led to believe that 
 it was as follows :. 
 
 By the vitriolic 
 
 acid 
 By nitrous acid 
 By marine acid 
 
 Quantity of Phlogifton feparated 
 From Iron, Coiiper, Tin, Lead, Silver, Mercury, Zinc, Bifmuth, Cobalt, Nickel, Reg. (;f Ant. Reg. of Aff. 
 
 T 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 To 
 
 Entire 
 Entire 
 
 J 00 
 
 8J 
 
 To "o 
 
 Entire ^Vn 
 
 -A^o tVtt Entire Entire Entire 
 
 f 00 
 
 3»9 
 
 ^ni^^ of "^^^^ affinity of the calces to the deficient part of 
 calces t< "the their phlogifton may now be eafily calculated; for 
 deficient they may be confidered as acids, v/hofe affinity to the 
 deficient part of their bafis is as the ratio which that 
 part bears to the whol'e. Thus the affinity of iron, 
 thoroughly deprived of its phlogifton, being 375, as it 
 lofes two-thirds of its phlogifton by folution in the 
 vitrolic acid, the affinity of iron to thefe is two- 
 thirds of its whole affinity ; that is, two-thirds of 375, 
 cr 250. 
 
 6 
 To 
 
 Ji 
 
 J!_4 
 J 00 
 
 Thus we may eafily conftruA a table of the affinities tTfs'^of 
 of the phlogifton of different metals fiar their cal- thefe cal- 
 ces ; and from this and that formerly given, by which culationa 
 the affinities of the acids to the metallic calces was ex- f^^^^^^^^^ 
 prelfed, we may guefs what will happen on putting one j^g ^ 
 metal in the folution of another. Thus if a piece of ori thepi .e^ 
 copper be put into a faturated folution of filver, the ''omena of 
 filver will be precipitated; for the balance is in [fjiQ^*^""^*" 
 vour of the divellent powers, as appears from the fol- 
 lowing calculation.. 
 
 part of 
 ifieir phi 
 
414- 
 
 NitrouG acid to filver 375 
 Calx of copper to 
 phlogifton 
 of the 
 
 '} 363 
 
 354 
 Of the. ex- 
 cefs of a- 
 cid in fo- 
 lutions pro- 
 per for ma- 
 ting thefc 
 experi- 
 ments. 
 
 335 
 \Vh- the 
 metals are 
 more de- 
 phlogifli- 
 catcd by 
 mutual pre- 
 . cipitatidU 
 that! by di- 
 rect folu- 
 tion. 
 
 336 
 "Why cop- 
 per is '^il- 
 folved by 
 ffilution of 
 filver, mer- 
 cury, or i- 
 Ton. 
 
 337 
 Iron and 
 zinc the 
 only metals 
 difTolved by 
 vitriolic a- 
 cid. 
 
 338 
 Nitn.us a- 
 cid diffolves 
 all metals, 
 though it 
 has lefs af- 
 finity with 
 thorn than 
 the viti io- 
 11 c or ma- 
 rine. 
 
 339 
 Why if 
 cannot dif- 
 Iblve them 
 when much 
 concentra- 
 ted. 
 
 340 
 In what 
 cafes the 
 marine a- 
 cid can dif- 
 folve me- 
 tals, and 
 when it 
 cajinot. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 D'lveUeiit Affinities. 
 Nitrous acid to copper 255 
 Calx of filver to ) 
 
 phlogiilon 5 ' 
 
 Sum of the divel- ■> ^ 
 lent I 
 
 Sum of the quief- \ „ 
 cent affinities \ ' ^ 
 In making thefe experiments the folutlons muft be 
 nearly, though not entirely, faturated. If much fu- 
 perfluous acid "be left, a large quantity of the added 
 metal will be difFolved, before any precipitation can 
 be made to appear ; and when the folutlon Is perfeft- 
 ly faturated, the attraftion of the calces for one another 
 begins to appear ; a power which fometimes takes 
 place, and which has not yet been fully inveitigated. 
 
 In this way the precipitating metals are more de-, 
 phloglfticated than by direft folution in their re- 
 fpeftive menftrua ; and are even difiblved by men- 
 ilrua which would not otherwife alFedl them. The 
 reafon of this id, that their phlogifton is afted upon by 
 two powers inftead of one : and hence, though copper 
 be diredlly foluble in the vitriolic acid only when in 
 its concentrated ftate, and heated to a great degree ; 
 yet if a piece of copper be put into a folution of filver, 
 mercury, or even iron, though dilute and cold, and 
 expofed to the air, It will be difTolved ; a circtimftance 
 which has juftly excited the admiration of feveral emi- 
 nent chemitts, and which Is Inexplicable on any other 
 principles than thofe juft now laid down. From this 
 circumflance we may fee the reafon why vitriol of cop- 
 per, when formed by nature, always contains iron. 
 
 Mr KIrwan now proceeds to confider the folu- 
 tlons of metallic fubftances in all the different acids. 
 
 Vitriolic acid, he obferves, dlffolves only iron and 
 zinc of all the metallic fubftances, becaufe its afiinity 
 to their calces is greater than that which they bear to 
 the phlogifton they muft lofe before they can unite 
 with it. 
 
 Nitrous acid has lefs affinity with all metallic fub- 
 ftances than either the vitriolic or marine ; yet It dlf- 
 folves them all, gold, filver, and platina excepted, 
 though it has even lefs affinity with tliem than they 
 have with that portion of phlogifton which muft be 
 loft before they can diflolve in any acid. The reafon 
 of this Is, that it unites with phlogifton, unlefs when in 
 too diluted a ftate ; and the heat produced by Its union 
 with phlogifton is fufficient to promote the folution of 
 the metal. On the other hand, when very concen- 
 trated, it cannot diffolve them ; becaufe the acid does 
 not then contain fire enough to throw the phlogi- 
 fton into an aerial form, and reduce the folid to a li- 
 quid. 
 
 The marine acid dephlogifticates metals lefs power- 
 fully than any other. It can make no folution, or at 
 leaft Gjm operate but very flowly, without heat, in thofe 
 cafes where the metallic calx has a ftronger affinity 
 with that portion of the phlogifton which tnuft be loft, 
 than the acid : nor can it operate brifldy even where 
 the attraftlon is ftronger, provided the quantity of 
 acid be fmall ; becaufe fuch a little quantity of acid 
 does not contain fire enough to volatilize the phlogifton : 
 and hence heat is neceflary to affift the marine acid in 
 dlffolving lead. When dephlogiftlcated, it afts more 
 powerfully. 
 
 It has been obferved, that copper and iron mutual- 
 ly precipitate one another. If a piece of copper be 
 
 S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 put Into a faturated folution of iron frefK made, no Solution 
 precipitation will enfue for 1 2 hours, or even longer, ^".^ Preci» 
 if the liquor be kept clofe from the air ; but if the li- ^ 
 quor be expofed to the open air, the addition of vo- ^ ^ 
 latile alkah will fhow, in 24 hours, that fome of the whv cop- 
 copper has been difTolved, or fooner, if heat be ap- per and i- 
 phed, and a calx of iron Is precipitated. The reafon preci- 
 
 of this will be underftood from the foUowinjr ftate oi^'^^^f '^^'^ 
 
 rr • • another, 
 tne aranities. 
 
 Quiefcent. 
 
 Vitriolic acid to calx of 
 iron - - 270 
 
 Copper to its phlogi- 
 fton - - 360 
 
 Divelleiit. 
 
 Vitriolic acid to cop- 
 per - - 260 
 
 Calx of iron to phlo- 
 gifton - - 250 
 
 630 
 
 510 
 
 In this cafe no decompofttlon can take place, be- 
 caufe the fum of the divellent affinities is lefs than that 
 of the quiefcent ; but in the fecond, when much of 
 the phlogifton of the iron has efcaped, the affinity of 
 the calx of iron to the acid is greatly diminlfhed, at 
 the fame time that the affinity of the calx to phlogi- 
 fton is augmented. The ftate of the affinities may 
 therefore be fuppofed as follows. 
 
 Vitriolic acid to calx 
 of iron - 240 
 
 Copper to its phlo- 
 gifton - 360 
 
 Divellent, 
 Vitriolic acid to cop- 
 per - 260 
 Calx of iron to phlo- 
 gifton - 370 
 
 600 630 
 The increafe of affinity of the calx of Iron to phlo- 
 gifton is not a mere fuppofition ; for if w^e put lome 
 frefh iron to a folution of the metal fo far dephlogiftl- 
 cated as to refufe to cryftallize, fo much of the phlo- 
 gifton will be regained that the impoverifhed folution 
 will now yield cryftals. The reafon why the increafed 
 quantity of phlogifton does not enable the acid to re- 
 aft upon the metal is, becaufe it is neither fufficiently 
 large, nor attracted with a fufficient degree of force, 
 to which the accefs of air and heat employed contri- 
 bute confiderably. The diminution of attraftion in 
 calces of iron for acids is evident, not only from this 
 but many other experiments ; and particularly from 
 the neceffity of adding more acid to a turbid folution 
 of iron in order to re-eftablifh its tranfparency. 
 
 A dephlogiftlcated folution of iron is alfo precipita- 
 ted by the calces of copper. The fame thing happens 
 to a folution of Iron in nitrous acid ; only as the acid 
 predominates greatly in this folution, fome of the cop- 
 per is difTolved before any of the iron Is precipitated. 
 Copper precipitates nothing from folution of iron in 
 the marine acid, though expofed to the open air for 
 24 hours. 
 
 Solution of copper in the vitriolic acid is inftantly 
 precipitated by Iron ; the reafon of which is plain from 
 the common table of affinities : and hence the foun- 
 dation of the method of extrafting copper, by means 
 of Iron, from fome mineral waters. The precipitated 
 folution affords a vitriol of iron, but of a paler kind 
 than that commonly met with, and lefs fit for dyeing, 
 as being more dephlogiftlcated : the reafon of which 
 is, that copper contains more phlogifton than iron : 
 old iron is alfo ufed which has partly loft its phlo- 
 gifton. 
 
 34* 
 
 Increafe of 
 the attrac- 
 tio I of 
 calx of iron 
 'o phlogi- 
 ilon rle- 
 monftra- 
 ted. 
 
 343 
 Cake's of 
 copper pie- 
 :il itate de- 
 phlogifti- 
 cat( d folu- 
 tions of i- 
 ron. 
 
 344 
 
 Martial vl* 
 triol jirocu- 
 rcd by pre* 
 ci.iitation 
 of copper 
 lefs fit for 
 dyeing than 
 the com- 
 mon. 
 
Theory. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 415 
 
 Solution 
 and l*reci- 
 pitation. 
 
 compoied 
 by cait i- 
 ron. 
 
 Why 
 turiiteil fi 
 hition of 
 {llv c.n 
 fcarce be 
 precipita- 
 ted by i- 
 ron. 
 
 gifton. Hence tlie Iron is more dephlogiflicated by 
 precipitating copper than by mere diflblution in the 
 _ vitriolic acid ; and hence caft iron, according to the 
 
 obfervations of Mr Schlutter, will fcarcely precipitate 
 Solurion of a folution of copper ; becaufe it contains lefs phlo- 
 coppei- gifton than bar-iron, as Mr Bergman has informed us. 
 fcarcely de- ^/^^ Kirwan always found filver eafily precipitated 
 by means of iron from its folution in nitrous acid ; 
 though Bergman had obferved that a faturated folution 
 of filver could not be thus precipitated without great 
 difficulty, even though the folution v/ere diluted and 
 an excefs of acid added to it. What precipitation 
 
 346 took place could only be accomplifhed by fome kinds 
 'y ^. of iron. The reafon of this Mr Kirwan fuppofes to 
 
 be, that the folution, even after it is faturated, takes 
 up fome of the filver in its metallic form ; which Mr 
 Scheele has alfo obferved to take place in quickfilver. 
 The lall portions of both thefe metals, when diiTolved 
 in ftrong nitrous acid, afford no air, and confequently 
 are not depWog'ftlcated. This compound of calx, 
 therefore, and of filver in its metallic ftate, it may rea- 
 fonably he fuppofed cannot be precipitated by iron, 
 as the filver in itsmetaUIc form prevents the calx from 
 coming into contaft with the iron, and extradling the 
 - phlogifton from it ; and for the fame reafon iron has 
 been obferved not to precipitate a folution of mercury 
 
 347 in the nitrous acid. 
 
 Of the pre- ^inc cannot precipitate iron, as Mr Bergman has 
 zh^rand""^^^^'"' ""^^^ folution of the latter lofes part of its 
 iron by one phlogifton. Hence we may underftand why Newmann 
 another. denied that iron can be precipitated by means of zinc. 
 
 Mr Kirwan, however, has found, that zinc does not 
 precipitate iron from the nitrous acid ; but on the 
 contrary, that iron precipitates zinc. In a fhort time 
 the acid redifTolves the zinc and lets fall the iron, 
 owing to the calx of iron being too much dephlogifti- 
 cated. Iron, however, will not precipitate zinc either 
 from the vitriolic or marine acids. Moil of the me- 
 tallic fubftances precipitated by iron from the nitrous 
 ac'd are in fome meafure redlToIved fliortly after ; be- 
 caufe the nitrous acid foon dephlogifticates the iron too 
 much, then lets it fall, reafts on the other metals, and 
 diffolves them. 
 
 Dr Lewis obferves, that filver is fometimes not pre* 
 cipitated by copper from the nitrous acid; which hap- 
 pens either when the acid is fuperfaturated with filver 
 by taking up fome in its metallic form, or when the 
 filver is not much dephlogifticated. In this cafe, the 
 remedy is to heat the folution and add a little more acid, 
 which dephlogifticates it further ; but the nitrous acid 
 always retains a little filver. 
 
 It has commonly been related by chemical authors, 
 "e'formed'^ ^^^^ blue vitriol will be formed by adding filings 
 by boiling copper to a boiling folution of alum. Mr Kirwan, 
 a folution however, has fhowed this to be an error : for after 
 boiling a folution of alum for 20 hours with copper 
 filings, not a particle of the metal was diflblved ; the 
 liquor ftanding even the teft of the volatile alkah. The 
 alum indeed was precipitated from the liquor, but ftill 
 retained its faline form ; fo that the precipitation 
 was occafioned only by the diflipation of the fuperflu- 
 ous acid. 
 
 No metal is capable of precipitating tin In its me- 
 tallic form ; the reafon of which, according to Mr 
 Kirwan,, is, becaufe the precipitation is not the effeA 
 
 348 
 Why cop- 
 per feme • 
 times can 
 not preci- 
 pitate fil- 
 ver. 
 
 349 
 Blue vi' 
 
 of alum 
 "wi'h cop- 
 per filings. 
 
 350 
 Why tin 
 cannot he 
 precipita- 
 ted in ics 
 n:eta!iic 
 form. 
 
 of a double affinity, but of the fingle greater affinity Solution, 
 of its menftruum to eveiy other metallic earth. Me- ^"5' ^J'^^i- 
 tals precipitated froni the nitrous acid by tin are af- P"^ ^*^"' . 
 terwards rediffolved, becaufe the acid foon quits the ^51 
 tin by reafon of its becoming too much dephlogi- why me- 
 
 fticated. \ _ _ f'^^'^^'a u" 
 
 Lead precipitates metallic folutions in the vitriolic ^ 
 • -ii nil r 1 r r\ • ^^'^ ^""e al- 
 and marine acids but llowly, becaule the hrit portions fg^-^j^. j^ 
 
 of lead taken up form falts very difficult of folution, rediffwlved, 
 wliich cover its furface, and proteft it from the fur- 3J* 
 ther aftion of the acid ; at the fame time it conta-ins^^^^^^'P"^* 
 fo little phlogifton, that a great quantity of it muft be 
 diffolved before it will difi'blve other metals. A folu- 
 tion of lead very much faturated cannot be precipita- 
 ted by iron but with difficulty, if at all. Mr Kirwan 
 conjc£lures that this may arife from fome of the lead' 
 alfo being taken up in its metallic form, as is the cafe 
 with mercury and filver. Iron will not precipitate 
 lead from marine acid ; for though a precipitate ap- 
 pears., the acid is ftill adhering to tiie metal. On the 
 contrary, iron is precipitated from its folution in this 
 acid by lead, though very flowly. 353 
 Mercury is quickly precipitated from the vitriolic Precipita*' 
 
 acid by copper, thouo-h the difference between the fum °^ , 
 
 _ , ^ fV ^ •!• n re ■ • • -L ^ mercury by 
 
 of the quiefcent and divellent affinities is but very ^.^pp^j./ 
 
 fmall. The precipitation, however, takes place, be- 
 caufe the calx of mercury has a ftrong attraftion for 
 phlogifton ; and a very fmall portion of what is con- 
 tained in copper is fufficient to revive it. ^54^ 
 
 Silver, however, is not able to precipitate mercury It cannot be 
 from the vitriolic acid, unlefs it contains copper ; in 1 recipita- 
 whlch cafe a precipitation will enfue : but on diftilling ^"^^^^ from' 
 filver and turpeth mineral, the mercury will pafs over vitriolic a- 
 in its metallic form ; which fhows that the affinity of cid. 
 the calx of mercury to phlogifton is increafed by heat, 
 though the difi'erence betwixt the divellent and quief- 
 cent powers is very fmall. 355' 
 
 Mercury appeared to be precipitated by filver from Why nier'. 
 the nitrous acid, though very flowly ; but when the^^"^y^^"'^ 
 folution was made without heat, it was not at all pre- dpTtate'^one 
 cipitated. On the other hand, mercury precipitates another 
 filver from this acid, not by virtue of the fupeviority fiom the 
 of the ufual divellent powers, but by reafon of the at-^V^'""* 
 trafkion of mercury and filver for each other ; for they 
 form partly an amalgam and partly a vegetation, 
 fcarcely any thing of either remaining in the folu- ^ 
 
 , . . r 1 r 1 CoiTofive 
 
 Silver does not precipitate mercury from the lolu-fubiimate^ 
 
 tion of corrofive fublimate ; but, on the contrary, cannot be 
 
 mercury precipitates filver from the marine acid : and precipita- 
 
 if a folution of luna cornea in volatile alkali be tritura-^^jj J'^but" 
 
 ted with mercury, calomel will be formed ; yet on dl- i^na cornea 
 
 ftiUing calomel and filver together, the mercury will may be de- 
 
 pafs in its metallic form, and luna cornea will be form- j^o^po^^'l 
 
 ed. The fame thing happens on diftilling filver and JJ^.^^^''^^^ 
 
 corrofive fublimate, the affinity of calx of mercury to fublimate 
 
 phlogifton increafing with heat. by filver, in 
 
 Bifmuth precipitates nothing from vitriol of copperf'"^ dry 
 in 16 hours ; nor does copper from vitriol of bifmuth. ^''^^'^^ 
 The two metallic fubftances, however, alternately pre- Precirita- 
 cipitate one another from the nitrous acid, which pro-tu^n- of bif- 
 ceed from their difi"erent degrees of dephlogiftication. niuth. 
 
 Nickel will fcarcely precipitate any metal except it 
 be reduced to powder. A black powder is precipi-preopita- 
 tated by means of zinc from the folution of nickel ted ly iier* 
 
 Jiu 
 
fcTircely 
 precipitare 
 one ai:o- 
 tlier. 
 
 360 
 Precipita- 
 tion of cop 
 per, lead, 
 and bif- 
 muth, by 
 aickel. 
 
 361 
 Zinc can- 
 rot preci- 
 toitate co- 
 balt. 
 36a 
 
 416, G H E M I 
 
 Solution %i the vitriolic and nitrous acids, which has been 
 ^pita'Io" ^o"*^'" by Bergman to confift of arfenic, nickel, and a 
 little of the 7,1 nc itfelf. The latter, however, precipi- 
 tates nickel from the marine acid. 
 
 The folutions of iron and nickel in the vitriolic acid 
 mutually a£l upon thefe metals ; but neither of them 
 will precipitate the other in 24 hours, though on re- 
 maining longer at reft iron feems to have the advan- 
 tage. Iron, however, evidently precipitates nickel 
 from the nitrous acid ; and though nickel feems to 
 precipitate iron, yet this arifes only from the gradual 
 dephlogiftication of the iron. 
 
 Copper is precipitated in its metallic formi from the 
 vitriohc, nitrous, and marine acids, by nickel. The 
 vitriolic and nitrous folutions of lead feem to aft upon 
 it Vvfitjiout any decompcfition, the calces uniting to 
 each other. Lead feems for fome time to be atlcd 
 upon in the fame manner by the vitriolic and nitrous 
 folutions of nickel, bvit at lall nickel feems to have the 
 advantage ; but a black precipitate appears whichever 
 of them is put into the folution of the other. How- 
 ever, nickel readily precipitates vitriolic and nitrous 
 folutions of bifrauth ; but in the marine acid both 
 thefe femimetals are foluble in the folutions of each 
 other : yet nickel precipitates bifmuth very flowly, and 
 only in part ; while bifmuth precipitates a red powder, 
 fuppofed by Mr Kirwan to be ochre, from the folution 
 of nickel. 
 
 Cobalt is not precipitated by zinc either from the 
 
 vitriolic or nitrous acids, though it feems to have 
 
 fome effefl upon it when difTolved in that of fea-falt. 
 
 Iron precipitates cobalt from all the three acids, 
 
 • •1^.'^ j^'^" vet much of the femimetal is retained in the vitriolic 
 cipitated by , . r i • r • • 1 t i i 
 
 iron. '^"d nitrous iolutions or it, particularly the latter ; 
 
 363 which, after letting fall the cobalt, takes it up again, 
 
 Nickel pre- g^jj i^tg fall a depklogifticated calx of iron. Nickel 
 
 fonitTl^te- though it does not precipitate cobalt itfelf, as 
 
 rogeneous appears by the remaining rednefs of the folution, yet 
 
 niatterfroni conftantly precipitates fome heterogeneous matter from 
 
 it. Solution of cobalt in the marine acid becomes co- 
 
 ^ ^ lourlefs by the addition of nickel. Bifmuth is foluble 
 
 fcolutions . • • T 1 • CI- r 1 1 1 
 
 of fobah in the vitriolic and nitrous lolutions 01 cobalt, and 
 let fall a throws down a fmail white precipitate, but does not 
 white pow- jiffeft the metallic part. Nor can we attribute thefe 
 der on the f^Qjy^jQjjg Ju vitriolic acid to any excefs in that acid, as 
 addition ot , ... , 1 • i 1 ^r 
 
 bifmuth cr they are dilute and made without neat. Copper alio 
 
 precipitates from the folution of cobalt a white powder 
 fuppofed to be arfenic. 
 Precipita- The regulus of antim.ony has no effcifl on folution 
 tions of and of copper in vitriolic acid, nor is precipitated by it 
 of a?^"!"^ from the fame acid ; but it dilfolves flowly in vitriol of 
 antimony. With folution of vitriol of lead it becomes 
 red in 16 hours, but is fcarcely precipitated by lead 
 from the vitriolic acid. Powdered regulus alfo preci- 
 pitates vitriol of mercury very flightly. Bifmuth nei- 
 ther precipitates nor is precipitated by the regulus in 
 24 hours from the vitriolic acid. Tin precipitates the 
 regulus from the nitrous acid ; but if regulus be put 
 into a folution of tin in the fame acid, neither of the 
 A t'^'^ le r^ctals will be found in the liquid in 16 hours, either 
 fait foimcd by reafon of the dephlogiftication or of the union of the 
 by iron, re- calces to each other. 
 
 gulusof an Iron dees not precipitate regulus of antimony en- 
 *^'"^'."yi'^"" tirely from the marine acid; but feems to form a 
 marine a- ^^.-^^^p fait, confifting of the acid and both calces. 
 
 copper, 
 365 
 
 S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 The regulus may alfo be diflblvcd by marine fait of Solution 
 iron. ^'^'^ Preci- 
 
 Copper does not precipitate regulufj of antimony 1 't^^ion. ^ 
 from marine acid in 16 hours; and if the regulus be 
 put into marine fait of copper, it will be dilfolved, Another 
 and volatile alkalies will not give a blue, but a yellowilh formed by 
 white precipitate ; fo that here alfo a triple fait is ^ej^ulus of 
 fo,^^^^ ■ mar'nea-' 
 
 Solution of arfenic in vitriolic acid a£l:s upon iron, p,,^ 
 lead, copper, nickel, and zinc ; but fcarce give any copper, 
 precipitate : neitlier is arfenic precipitated by iron 3^^ 
 from the nitrous acid, thoujxh it is by conoer, and ^"^"^'P'/^" , 
 even filver gives a flight white precipitate. Regulus i^y aif.nic. 
 of arfenic, however, precipitates lilver completely in 
 1 6 hours : whence the former precipitate feems to be 
 a triple fait. Mercury alfo fl.ightly precipitates arfenic 
 from the nitrous acid, and feems to unite v/ith it, 
 though it is itfelf precipitated by regulus of arfenic in 
 
 . . . . . . 369 
 
 Bifmuth flightly precipitates arfenic from fpirit of Re^julus of 
 nitre, but regulus of arfenic forms a copious precipi- aifcnx pifs- 
 tate in the nitrous folution of bifmuth ; fo that Mr ^^■^^'^^^'^^^j^' '^^ 
 Kirwan is of opinion that the calces unite. It is not i^on^ ^hc 
 precipitated from this acid by nickel, but the calces n'trous a- 
 unite. Though regulus of arfenic produces a copious cid; 
 precipitate in the folution of nickel in nitrous acid, yet 
 the liquor remains green ; fo that the nickel is certainly 
 not precipitated. The white precipitate in this cafe 
 feems to be arfenic flightly dephlogiilicated. Regu- 
 lus of arfenic alfo produces a white precipitate in the 
 nitrous folution of cobalt, but the liquor ftill continues 
 red. 
 
 .370 
 
 Regulus of arfenic is precipitated from the marine And by 
 acid by copper; but the precipitate does not ftrike 
 blue colour with volatile alkali, becaufe the metal „ 
 unites with the arfenic. The arfenic 13 alio precipi- cid. 
 tated by iron. Tin is foluble in marine folution of ar- 
 fenic, but Mr Kirwan could not obfcrve any precipi- 
 tation ; nor does regulus of arfenic precipitate tin. 
 Neither bifmuth nor regulus of arfenic precipitate each 
 other from marine acid in 16 hours. Regulus of an- 
 timony is alfo afted upon by the marine folution of ar- 
 fenic, though it caufes no precipitate, nor does the 
 regulus of arfenic precipitate it. 
 
 ^2. Of the ^mHU'ies of Ac'ul, Allioli, iffc. contahied 
 in different Salts, ivith the Sfecific Gravity of the In- 
 gredients. 
 
 It is a problem by which the attention of the beft 
 modern chemifts has been engaged, to determine the 
 quantity of acid exifting in a dry Itate in the various 
 compound falts, refulting from the union of acid with 
 alkaline, earthy, and metallic fubftances. In this way 
 Mr Kirwan has greatly excelled all others, and deter- 
 mined the matter with an accuracy and precifion alto- 
 gether unlooked for. His decifions are founded on the 
 following principles. 
 
 1 . That the fpecific gravity of bodies is their weight 37' 
 divided by an equal-bulk of rain or diftilled water; the ^^^"j^f 
 latter being the itandard with which every other body bodies^ how 
 is compared. found. 
 
 2. That if bodies fpecifically heavier than water be 
 weighed in air and in water, they lofe in water part 
 of the weight which they were found to have in air ; 
 
 and 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 Contents, and that the weight fo loft is juft the fame as that of 
 Saks'^ ^" equal bulk of water ; and confequently, tliat their 
 . fpecilic gravity is equal to their weight in air, or ab- 
 
 folute weight divided by their lofs of weight in 
 
 water. 
 
 3. That if a folid, fpecifically heavier than a liquid, 
 be weighed firll in air and then in that liquid, the 
 weight it lofes is equal to the -weight of an equal vo- 
 lunie of that liquid ; and confequently, if fuch folid 
 be v^^eighed fini in air, then in water, and afterwards 
 in any other liquid, the fpecific gravity will be as the 
 weight loft in it by fuch folid, divided by the lofs of 
 weight of the fame foHd in water. This method of 
 finding the fpecific gravity of liquids, our author found 
 more exaft than that by the aerometer, or the compa- 
 rifons of the weights of equal meafures of fuch liquids 
 and water, both of which are fubje£l to feveral inaccu- 
 
 I S t ft Y. 
 
 4*7 
 
 racies. 
 
 ,•»/■» 
 
 To find 'he 4. That where the fpecific gravity of bodies is al- 
 weighr of ^gady known, we may find the weight of an equal 
 ^"l^'^of ^-a. hidk of water ; it being as the quotient of their abfo- 
 tcr where lute weight divided by their fpecific gravities : and this 
 the fpecific he calls their lofs of weight in water, 
 fnowif Thus where the fpecific gravity and abfolute weight 
 of the Ingredients of any compound are known, the 
 fpecific gravity of fuch compound may eafily be calcu- 
 lated ; as it ought to be intermediate betwixt that of 
 ^ the lighter and that of the heavier, according to their 
 Mathema- feveral proportions : and this Mr Kirvvan calls the ma- 
 ticalfpeci- thematical fpecific' gravity. But in faft the fpecific 
 
 fic gravify gravity of compounds, found by aftual experiment, 
 explained, f^j^^^^ 
 
 agrees with that found by calculation ; but is 
 
 often greater, without any diminution of the lighter 
 
 Increafed ingredient. Tliis increafe of denfity, then, Mr Kirwan 
 
 denfity of fuppofes to arife from a clofer union of the component 
 
 mixtures parts to each other than either had feparatelv with its 
 
 accounted ^ • . . j ..1 • ^. . 
 
 £jjj_ own mtegrant parts ; and this more mtimate union 
 
 miift, he thinks, proceed from the attradlion of thefe 
 
 parts to each other : for which reafon he fuppofed, 
 
 that this attrailion might be ettlmated by the increafe 
 
 of denfity or fpecific gravity, and was proportionabk 
 
 to it ; but foon found that he was miltaken in this 
 
 375 r : 
 
 Weights of With regard to the abfolute weights of feveral forts 
 diifcreiJt of air, our author adheres to the computations of Mr 
 kindsof air. j?Qji{-ana^ at whofe experiments he was prefent ; the 
 thermometer being at 55°, and the barometer at 294- 
 inchcs, or nearly fo. Thefe weights were as follow : 
 vCubic inch .of icommon air, - 0.385 
 'fixed air, - o-570 
 
 ;inanne acid air, 0.654 
 nitrous air, - 0.399 
 
 vitriolic acid air, 0.778 
 alkaline air, - 0.2 
 inflvimmable air, 0.03 
 *MefVio i of Mr Kirwan begins his inveftigatlons with the marine 
 fin lino- the acId ; endeavouring firft to find the exaft quantity of 
 quantity <^f rinvt acid it contains at any given fpecific jjravitv, and 
 otitaii.edin^"^" oy means of it determining the weight of acid 
 lpi.it of contained in all other acids. For if a given quantity 
 .fait. of pure fixed alkali were faturated, firlt by a certain 
 
 quantity of fpirit of fait, and then by determined 
 quantities of tlie other acids, he concluded, that each of 
 thefe quantities of acid liquor mull contain the fame 
 quantity of acid ; and this being known, the remaiji- 
 VoL.,IV.PartIL 
 
 point. 
 
 der, being the aqueous, part, muft alfo be known. Consents, 
 This coiielufion, however, refted entirely on the fup- '^^'^ 
 pofition that the fame -quantity of all the acids was^^^"' 
 requifite for the faturation of a, given quantity of fixed * 
 alkali ; for if fuch given quantity of fixed alkali mi!>'ht 
 be faturated by a fmaller quantity of one acid than of 
 another, the conclufion fell to the ground. The 
 weight of the neutral falts produced might indeed de- 
 termine this point in fome mcafure ; but ftill a fource 
 of inaccuracy remained ; to obviate which he' ufed the 
 following expedient, i. He fuppofed the quantities' 
 of nitrous and vitriolic acids necelfary to faturate a 
 given quantity of fixed alkali exadly the fame as that 
 of marine acid, whofe quantity he bad determined ; 
 -and to prove the truth of tliis fuppofitiou, he obferved 
 the fpecific gravity of the fpirit of nitre and oil of vi- 
 triol he employed, and in which he fuppofed, from 
 the trial with alkahes, a certain proportion of acid and 
 water. He then added to thefe more acid and water, 
 and calculated what the fpecific gravity ftiould be on 
 the above fupnofition ; and finding the refult agreeable 
 with the fuppofition, he cancluded the latter to be 
 exaft. The following experiments were made on the 
 marine acid. 
 
 Two bottles were fdled nearly to the top with di- Method of 
 Itilled water, of which they contained in all 1399.9 finding the 
 grains, and fucceffively introduced into two cyHnders 
 filled with marine air ; and the procefs was renewed, "."^ff 9"^' 
 until the water had imbibed, in 18 days, about 794"^ 
 cubic inches of the marine air. The thermometer did 
 not rife all this time above 55°; nor fink, unlefs perhaps 
 at night, above 50° ; the barometer flanding between 
 29 and 30 inches. This dilute fpirit of fait then 
 \veighed 1920 grains; that is, 520.1 more than before; 
 the weight of the quantity of marine air abforbed. 
 The fpecific gravity of the liquor was found to hz 
 1.225. Its lofs of weight in water (that is, the weight 
 of an equal bulk of water) lliould then be 1567.346 
 nearly ; but it contained only, as we have feen, I399'.9 
 grains of water: fubtraftlng this therefore from 
 1567.346, the remainder (that is, 167.446^ muff be 
 the lofs of 520.1 grains of marine ac?d ; and confe- 
 quently the fpecific gravity of the pure marine acid, 
 m fuch a condenfed ftate as when it is united to water, 
 muft beT-fi-^jfj., or 3.100. 
 
 Still, however, it might be fufpeded, that the den- 
 fity of this fpirit did not entirely proceed from the 
 mere denfity of the marine acid, but in part alfo from 
 the attraftion of this acid to water ; and though the 
 length of time requifite to make the water imbibe this 
 quantity of marine acid air, naturally led to the fiippo- 
 iition that the attraftion was not very confiderable, yet 
 the following experiment was more fatisfaaory. He 
 expofed 1440 grains of this fpirit of fait to marine acid 
 air for five days, tlie thermometer being at 50°, or be- 
 low ; and then found that it weighed 1562 grains, and 
 confequently had imbibed 122 grains more. Its fpeci- 
 fic gravity was then 1.253, ^vl"ch was precifdy what 
 It fiiould have been by calculation. 
 
 Being now fatiafied that the proportion of acid in^ ^'5 x 
 fpirit of fait was difeovered, our author determined to^^ptjfn' 
 hnd it m other acids alfo. For this purpofe he took of pure air ' 
 iho grains of very ftrong oil of tartar per Mquium, and ^" 
 found that it was faturated by 180 grains of fpirit 
 of fait, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.225; and by 
 ,3 ^ -calculafion 
 
4i8 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 379. 
 
 CJuantiries 
 
 Contents, calculation it appeared, that i8o grains of this fpirit 
 &r. ofthe contained 48.7 grains of acid, and 131. 3 of water. 
 ^ . Hence he drew up a table of the fpecific gravities of 
 
 acid liquors containing 48.7 grains of pure acid, with 
 different proportions of water, from 50 to 410 parts ; 
 the hquor with the firft proportion having a fpecific 
 gravity of i.497> and the latter weighing only 1.074. 
 Mr Baume had deternained the fpecific gravity of the 
 ftrongeil fpirit of fait made in the common manner to be 
 1. 187, and Bergman 1.190; but we are told in the 
 Paris Memoirs for 1700, that Mr Romberg had pro- 
 duced a fpiilt whofe fpecific gravity was 1.300 ; and 
 that made by Dr Prieilley, by faturating water with 
 marine acid air, muft have been about 1.500. The 
 fpirit of fait, therefore, whofe fpecific gravity is 1.261, 
 has but little attraction for water, and therefore at- 
 trafts none from the air ; for which leafon alfo it does 
 not heat the ball of a thermometer, as the vitriolic 
 and nitrous acids do ; though Mr Cavallo found that 
 ■ this alfo had fome effect upon the thermometer. Com- 
 mon fpirit of fait, Mr Kirwan informs us, is always 
 adulterated with vitriohc acid, and therefore unfit for 
 thefe trials. 
 
 _ Mr Kirwan now fet about inveftigating the quanti- 
 
 of acid, wa- ^^id, water, and fixed alkaU, in digeftive fait, or 
 kaVi I'n ^ combination of the marine acid with vegetable al- 
 geftive fah. kali. For this purpofe he to,ok 100 grains of a folu- 
 tion of tolerably pure vegetable alkali, that had been 
 three times calcined to whitenefs, the fpecific gravity 
 of which was 1-097 ; diluting alfo the fpirit of fait 
 . with different portions of water ; the fpecific gravity 
 of one fort being 1. 01 5, and of another 1.098. He 
 then found that the above quantity of folution of the 
 vegetable alkali required for its faturation 27 grains 
 of 'that fpirit of fait whofe fpecific gravity was 1.098, 
 and 23.35 grains of that whofe fpecific gravity was 
 1.115. Now, 27 grains of fpirit of fait, whofe fpe- 
 cific gravity is 1.098, contain 3.55 grains of marine 
 acid, as appears by calculation. The principles on 
 which calculations of this kind are founded, our author 
 gives in the words of Mr Cotes. 
 ,T J " The da^ requifite are the fpecific gravities of the 
 
 the fpecific mixture and of the two ingredients. Ihen, as the 
 gravities of difference of the fpecific gravities of the mixture and 
 thedifFerent lighter ingredient is to the difference of the fpe- 
 cific gravities of the mixture and the heavier ingredi- 
 ent ; fo is the magnitude of the heavier to the magni- 
 tude of the lighter ingredient. Then, as the magni- 
 tude of the heavier, multiplied into its fpecific gravity, 
 is to the magnitude of the hghter multiplied into its 
 fpecific gravity ; fo is tlie weight of the heavier to the 
 weight of the lighter. Then, as the fum of thefe 
 weights is to the weight of either ingredient ; fo is the 
 weight given to the weight of the ingredient fought." 
 Thus, in the -prefent cafe, 1.098 — i.ooo=.098 is the 
 magnitude of the heavier ingredient, viz. the marine 
 acid, and .098X3.100 = 0.3038 the weight of the ma- 
 rine acid; and on the otherhand,3.ioo — 1.098=12.002, 
 the magnitude of the water; and 2.002X1.000=2.002 
 its weight ; the fum of thefe weights is 2.3058 : then 
 if 2.3058 parts of fpirit of fait contain 0.3038 parts 
 acid, 27 grains of this fpirit of fait will contain 3.55 
 acid. In the fame manner it will be found, that 
 23.35 grains of fpirit of fait, whofe fpecific gravity is 
 J.I 15, contains 3.55 grains acid. 
 
 Ojir ^Hthor defcrlbes very particularly his method of 
 6 
 
 making the faturation of the alkali with the acid ; Conten.ts, 
 which, as it is always difficult to hit with precifion, we g^jj^^^* 
 Ihall here tranfcribe. " It was performed by putting ."^ ^ 
 the glafs cylinder which contained the alkaline folu- 
 tion on the fcale of a very fenfible balance, and at theMrku-- 
 fame time weighing the acid liquor in another pair ofwan' , me- 
 fcales; when the lofs of weight indicated the efcape [J^l-atinlfhe 
 nearly equal quantities of fixed air contained in the ^^.j^ ^^'^ 
 folution. Then the acid was gradually added by dip- kali wit!i 
 ping a glafs rod in it, to the top of which a fmall drop accuracy, 
 of acid adhered. With this the folution was ftirred, 
 and veiy fmall drops taken up and laid upon bits of 
 paper fl.ained blue with radifh juice. As foon as the 
 paper was in the leaft reddened, the operation was 
 completed ; fo that there was always a very fmall ex- 
 cefs of acid, for which half a grain was conflantly al- 
 lowed ; but no allowance was made for the fixed air, 
 which always remains in the folution. But as on this 
 account only a fmall quantity of the alkaline folution 
 was ufed, this proportion of fixed air mull have been 
 inconfiderable. If an ounce of the folution had been 
 employed, this inappretiable portion of fixed air would 
 be fufficient to caufe a fenfible error; for the quantity 
 of fixed air loft by the difference betwixt the weight 
 added to the 100 grains and the adlual weight of the 
 compound was judged of ; and when this difference 
 amounted to 2.2 grains, the whole of the fixed air was 
 judged to be expelled : and it was found to be fo ; as 
 100 grains of the alkaline folution, being evaporated 
 to drynefs, in the heat of 300°, left a refiduum which 
 amounted to lo^^ grains, which contained 2.2 grains 
 of fixed air." ^ 
 
 The refult of this experiment was, that 8.3 grains Q^i^'^fj^y 
 of pure vegetable alkah, freed from fixed air and water, mild and 
 or 10.5 of mild fixed alkah, were faturated by 3.55 cauftic 
 grains of pure marine acid ; and confequently the re- 
 fulting neutral fait fliould, if it contained no water, ^ 
 weigh 11.85 grains: but the falts refulting from this ^iveii 
 union (the folution being evaporated to perfedl dry- weight of 
 nefs in a heat of 160 degrees, kept up for four hours) '^^^j'"* 
 weighed at a medium 12.66 grains. Of this 11.85 
 grains were acid and alkali ; therefore the remainder, 
 Wz. 0.81 grains, were water. An hundi'cd grains of 
 perfedlly dry digcitive fait contain 28 grains acid, 
 6.55 of water, and 65.4 of fixed alkali. 
 
 In his experiments on the nitrous acid, Mr Kirwan 
 made ufe only of the dephlogifticated kind, which ap- 
 pears pure and colourlefs as water. 
 
 (fays he) cannot be made to exift in the form of air, as^^-jj^ when 
 Dr Prieftley has (hown ; for when it is deprived of pui e, cau- 
 water and phlogifton, and furnifhed with a due pro- " 't be 
 portion of elementary fire, it ceafes to have the pro- ^^^^^j'^^^ 
 perties of an acid, and becomes dephlogifticated air. ^g^j^j f^^^^ 
 Its proportion therefore could not be determined in 
 fpirit of nitre as the marine acid had been in fpirit of 
 fait in the laft experiment." — To determine the mat- 
 ter, the following experiments were made. ^g^ 
 
 1. To 1963.25 grains of dephlogifticated fpirit ofHow to de- 
 nitre, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.419, he gradually t^ra^ne 
 added 179.5 grains of diftilled water; and when it^ ^J"^"^*^' 
 cooled, the fpecific gravity of the mixture was found ^^id con-^ 
 
 to be 1.389. tamed in 
 
 2. To 1984.5 of this 178.75 grains of water were^iiitaf 
 then added, and the fpecific gravity of the mixture""'^* 
 found to be 1.362. 
 
 3. An hundred grains of a folution of fixed vege- 
 
 table 
 
 This pure acid ... 
 
 ^ - Nitrous 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 table alkali, wliofe fpecific gravity was 1.097, tlie fame 
 that had been formerly ufed in the experiments with 
 fpirit of fait, was found to be faturated by 1 1 grains 
 cf the fpirit of nitre, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.4 19, 
 by 1 2 of that whofe fpecific gravity was 1.389, and by 
 I ^.08 of that whofe fpecific gravity was 1.362. Thefe 
 quantities were the medium of five experiments ; and 
 it was found neceffary to dilute the acid with a fmall 
 quantity of water. When this was neglefted, part of 
 the acid was phlogifticated, and flew off with the fixed 
 air. Ten minutes were alfo allowed after each affu- 
 fion foi the matters to unite ; a precaution which was 
 likewife found to be abfolutely neceffary. 
 
 Upon the fuppofition, therefore, that a given quan- 
 tity of vegetable fixed alkali is faturated by the fame 
 weight of both acids, we fee that 1 1 grains of fpirit of 
 nitre, whofe fpecific gravity is 1. 41 9, contain the 
 fame quantity of acid with 27 grains of fpirit of fait, 
 whofe fpecific gravity is 1.098, or 3.55 grains. The 
 remainder of 1 1 grains, or 7.45 grains, is therefore 
 mere water ; and of confcquence, if the denfity of the 
 acid and water had not been increafed by their union, 
 the fpecific gravity of the pure nitrous acid fliould be 
 To find the 1 1-8729. But the fpecific gravity of the nitrous, as 
 fpecific gra- well as of the vitriolic acid, is augmented by its union 
 vity of the ^.j^h vv^ater ; and therefore the lofs of its weight in 
 P^r^"'""""* water is not exaAly, as it would appear by calculation 
 '387 from the above premifes, according to the rules al- 
 How to de- ready laid down. To determine therefore the real 
 termine the {pacific gravity of the acid in its natwal ftate, the 
 acciucd quantity of accrued denfity mull be found, and fub- 
 mixing' fpi- trafted from the fpecific gravity of the Ipirit ot nitre. 
 Tit of nin e whofe true mathematical fpecific gravity will then 
 with wa- 
 ter. 
 
 I S T R Y. 419 
 
 lofs of the 3.5-5 grains acid ; and confequently th* true Con' cnts, 
 fpecific gravity of the pure and mere nitrous acid is ^^^^^ ^ ° 
 
 385. 
 Proportion 
 of acid in 
 fpirit of ni- 
 tre ro that 
 in fpirit of 
 fait. 
 
 386 
 
 effed 
 
 appear. This our author endeavoured to 
 by mixing different portions of fpirit of nitre and 
 water, remarking the degree of diminution they fuf- 
 tained by fuch union ; but was never able to attain a 
 fufficient degree of exaftnefs in the experiment. He 
 had recourfe therefore to the following method, as af- 
 fording tnore fatisfaftion, though not altogether accu- 
 rate. Twelve grains of the fpirit of nitre, whofe fpe- 
 cific gravity by obfervation was 1. 389, contained, as 
 our author fuppofed from the former experiment, 3.55 
 grains of real acid, and 8.45 of water : then if the 
 fpecific gravity of the pure nitrous acid were i i.872,th^t 
 of this compound acid and water fhould be 1.37 1 ; for 
 the lofs of 3-55 fhould be 0.299, and thelofs of thewater 
 
 12 
 
 8.45, the fum of the loffes 8.749. Now, g-^^m.371: 
 
 but the fpecific gravity, as already mentioned, was 
 1.389 ; therefore the accrued denfity was at leaft o.i 8. 
 the difference betwixt i.389 and 1.37 1. This calcu- 
 lation indeed is not altogether exaft ; but our author 
 concludes, that 0.18 is certainly a near approximation 
 to the degree of denfity that accrues to 3.55 grains of 
 acid by their union to 7.45 grains of water : there- 
 fore, fubtraAing this from 1.419, we have nearly the 
 mathematical fp-cific gravity of that proportion of 
 acid and water, namely, 1.401. 
 
 Again, fince 1 1 grains of this fpirit of nitre contain 
 3-55 g™ns acid, and 7.45 of water, its lofs of weight 
 
 fliould be — — — =:7.8<rc ; and fubtrafting the lofs of 
 1. 40 1 ' -JJ ' o 
 
 of tiiisacid the aqueous part from this, the remainder 0.45 Is the 
 
 388 
 
 To deter- 
 inine the 
 matherria- 
 tical fpeci- 
 lic gravity 
 
 0.405 
 
 = 8.7654. This being fettled, the mathematical ^'"*T~-« 
 
 fpecific gravity and true increafe of denfity of the 
 above mixtures will be found. Thus the mathematical 
 fpecific gravity of 12 grains of that fpirit of nitre, 
 whofe fpecific gravity, by obfervation, was 1.389, muft 
 be 1.355 ; fuppofing it to contain 3.55 grains acid 
 and 8.45 of water. For the lofs of 3.55 grains acid 
 
 is o^'^/ -=o.40C, and the lofs of water 8.45 ; the 
 
 8.763 ^ 12 
 fumof thefe loffes 138.855. Then— — =1.355; and 
 
 con fequently the accrued denfityisi.389 — 1.355 =.03 4. 
 In the fame manner it will be found that the mathe- 
 matical fpecific gravity of 13.08 grains of that fpirit 
 of nitre, whofe fpecific gravity by obfervation was 
 1.362, muff be 1.315; and confequently its accrued 
 denfity .047. • 
 
 The whole of this, however, ftill refts on the fup-Expen- 
 pofit ion that each of thefe portions of fpirit of nitre men t to Jc-' 
 contain 3.55 grains of acid. To verify this ^^PP^^^' 'he^y^n- 
 tion, our author examined the mathematical fpecificgra-^j^y of real 
 vities of t^e firfl. mixture he had made of fpirit of nitre acid in fpi- 
 and wat^r In large quantities ; for if the mathematical rit of nitre, 
 fpecific gravities of thefe agreed exaftly with thofe of 
 the quantities he had fuppofed in fmaller portions of 
 each, he could not but conclude that the fuppofitions of 
 fuch proportions of acid and water, as he had deter- 
 mined In bach, were juft. 
 
 This being determined by proper calculations, MrTaWe of 
 Kirwan next proceeded to conftruft another table offi>ecificgra- 
 fpecific gravities, continuing his mixtures till the '"^"^^I^Qf'^ 
 thematlcal fpecific gravities found by obfervation 
 nearly coincided with thofe made by calculation. luconllruc- 
 this table the fpirit of nitre was mixed with water in ted. 
 various proportions, but after a different manner from 
 that obferved with the fpirit of fait. Nine grains of 
 the fpirit containing 3.55 grains of pure acid were 
 mixed with 5.45 of water ; the accrued denfity of the 
 mixture was found to be nothing, the mathematical 
 fpecific gravity 1-537, and the fpecific gravity by ob- 
 fervation was found the fame. When 10 grains of 
 fpirit were mixed with 6.45 of water, the accrued den- 
 fity was 0.009, the raaihematical fpecific gravity 
 1.458, and the fpecific gravity by obfervation 1.467. 
 In this manner he proceeded until 38 90 grains of 
 water were mixed with 42. 4 j of fpirit. In tliis cafe 
 the accrued denfity was found to be 0.002, the mathe- 
 matical fpecific gravity 1.080, and the fpecific gravity 
 by obfervation 1.082. 
 
 The intermediate fpecific gravities, in a table of this 
 kind, may be found by taking an arithmetical mean be- ^ 
 t vvixt the fpecific gravities, by obiervation, betwixt which 
 the defired fpecific gravity lies, and noting how much it 
 exceeds or falls (hort of fuch arithmetical mean ; and 
 then taking alfo an arithmetical mean betwixt the ma- 
 thematical fpecific gravities betwij^t which that fought 
 for muft lie, and a proportionate ^txcefs or defeft. 
 
 The fpecific gravity of the ftrongeft fpirit of nitre 
 yet made, is, according to Mr Baurae, 1-500, and ac- 
 cording to Mr Bergman 1.586. 
 
 Our author next proceeded to examine the propor- 
 3 G a tion 
 
420 
 
 G H E MI 
 
 Mr Kir 
 
 €?ontcnt«, tJon of aci^, water, and fixed alkali in nitre, in a man- 
 Salts*'^ ner fimilar to what he had already done with digeflive 
 «_ . fait ; and found that lOO grains of perfedlly dry nitre 
 
 contained 28.48 grains of acid, 5.2 of water, and 66.32 
 family • f of fixed alkali. 
 
 acid, water, Some experiments of the fame kind had been made 
 ^nitre de ^■^ refults of which our author com- 
 
 termiifed.' P^^^^ ^i^'^ thofe, of his own. The fpecific gravity of 
 39a the fpirit of nitre which M. Homberg made ufe of 
 Homberg's was 1.349; and of this, he fays, one ounce two 
 txpen- drachms and 36 grains, or 621 troy grains, are requi- 
 ^^°j^^*red to faturate one French ounce (472.5 troy) of dry 
 thofe of fait of tartar. According to Mr Kirwan's computa- 
 tion, however, 613 grains are fufiicient ; for the fpeci- 
 fic gravity lies between the fpecific gravities by obfer- 
 vation 1.362 and 1.337, and is nearly an arithmeti- 
 cal' mean between them. The correfponding mathe- 
 matical fpecific gravity lies between the quantities 
 marked in Mr Kirwan's table 1.3 15 and J. 286, being 
 nearly 1.300. Now the proportion of acid and water in 
 this is 2.629 of acid and 7-465 of water ; for 8.765 — 
 1.300=7.465 of water, and 8.765X.3oo=2.62Q of 
 acid; and the fum of both is 10.044. Now, fince 
 10.5 grains of mild vegetable alkali require 3.53 grains 
 of acid for their faturation, 472.5 will require 159-7; 
 therefore if 10.044 grains of nitre contain 2.629 
 grains acid, the quantity of this fpirit of nitre requi- 
 iite to give 159.7 will be 613.2 nearly, and thus the 
 difference with M. Homberg is only about eight grains. 
 
 M. Homberg fays he found his fait, when evapo- 
 rated to drynefs, to weigh 1 86 grains more than be- 
 fore ; but by Mr Kirwan'? experiment, it ihould 
 weigh but 92.8 grains more than at firfi; ; the caufe of 
 which difference will be mentioned in treating of vi- 
 accounted triolated tartar, as it cannot be entirely attributed to 
 the difference of evaporation. 
 
 He alfo alferts, that one ounce (472.5 Troy grains) 
 of this fpirit of nitre contains 141 grains of Troy of 
 real acid. According to Mr Kirwan's computation, 
 however, it contains only 123.08 grains of real acid. 
 But this difference evidently proceeds from his neglecEl- 
 ing the quantity of water that certainly enters into 
 the compofition of nitre ; for he proceeds on this ana- 
 logy, 621 : 186.6 :: 472.5 : 141. 
 
 Our author obferves, that the proportion of fixed 
 alkali afligned by him to nitre is fully confirmed by an 
 perimeiits experiment of Mr Fontana's Infertedln Rozier's Jour- 
 eonfiraied 1 77 8. He decompofed two ounces of nitre by 
 
 393 
 t)lfferent 
 refuhs ©f 
 Homberg 
 snd Kir- 
 wan's ex- 
 
 i<Qti 
 
 394 
 Mr Kir- 
 wan's ex- 
 
 by one of 
 Foi.tana. 
 
 S T R y. Theory. 
 
 dining to red. It 'contained fome WiiUifh matter, as^ontenrs. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 he perceived by its growing milky on the affufion uf'^*^ of the 
 
 395 
 
 pure diftilled water ; but he imagines it was as pure as' 
 
 the kind ufed in all experiments. 
 
 To 2519.75 grains of this oil of vitriol, whofe fpe-Exped- 
 
 cific gravity was 1. 8 19, he gradually added 1 80 grains meiirs on 
 
 of diftilled water, and fix hours after found its fpeci-°4^^^ 
 
 fic gravity to be 1.771. — To this mixture he again 
 
 added 1 78.75 grains of water, and found its fpecific 
 
 gravity, when cooled to the temperature of the atmo- 
 
 fphere, to be 1.7 19, at which time it was milky. The 
 
 fame quantity of the oil of tartar above mentioned was 
 
 then faturated with each of thefe kinds of oil of vitriol 
 
 in the manner already defcn'bcd. The faturation was 
 
 effeAed (taking a medium of five experiments) by 6.5 
 
 grains of that whofe fpecific gravity was 1.819, ^-9^ 
 
 grains of that whofe fpecific gravity was i. 771, and 
 
 by 7.41 of that whofe fpecific gravity was 1.719. 
 
 It was found neceffary to add a certain P''"portion i^j^j^^'^j^^jj ^£ 
 
 of water to each of thefe forts of oil of vitriol; for oil of vi- 
 
 when they were not diluted, part of the acid wastriolwhy 
 
 phlogifticated, and went off with the fixed air; ^i^^ "^"5ex^e"^ 
 
 knowing the quantity of water that was added, it was' ^^j^g^jj^j^" 
 
 eafy to find by the rule of proportion the quantity of 
 
 each fort of vitriol that was taken up by the alkali. 
 
 Hence it was fuppofed, that each of thefe quantities 
 
 of oil of vitriol of different denfitles contained 3.55 
 
 grains of acid ; as they faturated the fame quantity of 
 
 vegetable fixed alkali with 11 grains of fpirit of nitre, 
 
 which contained that quantity of acid. 
 
 It was next attempted to find the fpecific c:ravlty- ^'^1 , 
 r ^1 • 1- -1 • r ■■, ^ 1 ■'^ To find thij- 
 
 or the pure vitriQlic acid, in a manner limilar to that j-pg^i fic gra- 
 
 by which the gravity of the nitrous acid was found ; vity of ^ure 
 
 as it cannot be had In the fhape of air, unlefs when V'^i^ic 
 
 united with fiicll a quantity of plogifton as quite alters Its^""^' 
 
 properties. The lofs of 6.5 grains of oil of vitriol, whofe 
 
 fpecific gtavlty Is 1. 819, is y ^^g — 3-572 ; but as 
 
 thefe 6.5 grains contained, befides 3.55 of acid, 2.95. 
 of water, the lofs of this mull be ftibtrafted from the 
 entire lofs ; and then the remainder, or 0.622, is the. 
 lofs of the pure acid part in tliat ftate or denfity to 
 which it is redircedby Its union with water. The fpo* 
 cific gravity, therefore, of the pure vitriolic acid, in 
 
 this ftate of denfity. Is — 5'.707. But to find : 
 
 O.D22 
 
 dlftilling it vfi\h a ftrong heat for 1 8 hours. After the 
 dlfllUation there remained in the retort a fubflance 
 purely alkaline, amounting to 10 French drachms and 
 22 grains. Now two French ounces contain 945 
 grains Troy, and the alkaline matter 607 grains of 
 the fame kind : according to Mr Kirwan's com- 
 putation the two ounces of nitre ought to contain 625 
 grains of alkali. Such a-fmall difference he fuppofes 
 to proceed from the lofs in transferring from one vef- 
 fel to another, weighing, filtering, evaporating, Ss";:. 
 Mr Kirwan alfo fhows in a very particular manner the 
 agreement of his calculations with the experiments of 
 M. Lavolfier on mercury diffolved in fpirit of nitre; but 
 our limits will not allow us to infert an account of them. 
 
 When finding the quantity of pure acid contained 
 in oil of vitriol, our author made ufe of fuch as was 
 not dephlogiiKcated j bat, though pule, yet a Utile in- 
 4 
 
 its natural fpecific gravity, we muff find how much, 
 its denfity is Increafed by its union with this quantity 
 of water : and in order to obferve this, he proceeded ' 
 as before with the nitrous acid. 6.96 grains of oil of 
 vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.77 1, contained 
 3.55 of acid and 3.41- of water; then its fpecific gra- 
 vity by calculation fhould be 1.726; for the lofs of 
 3.55 
 
 3.55grainsofacidis y^^=:o.62.2 ; the lofs of 3.41 
 grainsof wateris3.4i ; the fum of the loffes 4.032 : then 
 
 — = 17.16; therefore the accrued denfity is 1.77 1: 
 
 4^032 ' J 1 1 
 
 — 1.726 = 0-45. Taking this therefore from 1^819, 
 
 its mathematical fpecific gravity will be 1.774. Then 
 
 the lofs of 6.5 grains of oil of vitriol, whofe fpecific 
 
 gravity by obfervatlon is 1.8 1 9, will be found to be 
 
 6.5 
 
 — ;—:= 4.663 ; but of this, 2.95 grains aie the lo£s 
 
Theory. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 421 
 
 Conten'^s, of tlie water it contains, and the remainder 0.714 are 
 fee of the 
 
 Salts 
 
 the lofs of the mere acid part. Then 
 
 3-55 
 
 IS near- 
 
 39S 
 
 m 
 
 rUfFerence 
 •with Mr 
 Homberg 
 accounted 
 ier. 
 
 ly the true fpecific gravity of the pure vitriolic acid. 
 The fpecific gravity of the moft concentrat'jd oil of 
 vitriol yet made, is, according to M. Baume and Berg- 
 man, 2.125. 
 
 Mr Kirv/an now conftrufled a table of the fpecific 
 gravities of vitriolic acids, of different ftrengths, in a 
 manner fimilar to thofe conftruited for fpirit of fait 
 and fpirit of nitre ; but for v/hich, as well as the others, 
 Quantity of we mull refer to Phil. Trnnf. voh 71. He then pro- 
 *'^'^» *|^J^^''ceeded to find the proportion of acid, water, and fix- 
 in vitriola- alkali, in vitriolated tartar, as he had before done 
 ted tartar in fal digettivus and nitre. — He found the falts re- 
 determined fulting from the faturation of the fame oil of tartar, 
 with portions of oil of vitriol, of different fpecific gra- 
 vities, to weigh at a medium 12.45 grains. Of this 
 weight only 11.85 gr^^i^s were alkali and acid. The 
 remainder, therefore, was water, viz. 0.6 of a grain. 
 Confequently 100 grains of perfeftly dry tartar vitrio- 
 late contain 21.58 grains acidj 4.82 of water, and' 
 66.67 fixed vegetable alkali. — In drying this fait, a 
 heat of 240 degrees was made ufe of, to expel the 
 adhering acid more thoroughly. It was kept in this 
 heat for a quarter of an hour,. 
 
 According to Mr Homberg, one French ounce, or 
 472.5 grains troy, of dry fait of tartar, required 297.5 
 grains troy, of oil of vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity 
 was 1.674, to faturate it : but by Mr Kirvvan's calcu- 
 lation, this quantity of fixed alkali would require 325 
 grains ; a difference which, confidering the different 
 methods tliey made ufe of for determining the fpeci- 
 fic gravities (Homberg's method by menfuration^ 
 giving it dways lefs than Mr Kirwan's) the different 
 deficcation of their alkalies, &c. may be accounted in- 
 con fiderable. 
 
 The fait produced, according to Mr Homberg, 
 weighed 1 82 grains troy above the original weight of 
 the fixed alkali; but by Kirwan's experiment, it (hould 
 weigh but 87.7 grains more. " It is hard to fay (adds 
 Mr Kirwan) how Mr Homberg could find this great 
 excefs of weight, both In nitre and tartar vitriolate ; 
 unlefs he meant by the weight of the fait of tartar the 
 weight of the mere alkaline part diftinft from the fix- 
 ed air it contained: and indeed one would be tempted 
 to think he did make the diffin£lion ; for In that cafe 
 the excefs of weight would be nearly fuch as he de- 
 termined It." 
 
 From Mr Homberg's calculations, he inferred that 
 one ounce (472.5 grains) of oil of vitriol contains 
 291.7 grains of acid. Mr Kirwan computes the acid 
 only at 2 1 3.3 grains; butHftmbergmadenoallowance for 
 the water contained in tartar vitriolate y and Imagined 
 the whole Increafe of Weight proceeded from the acid 
 that is united In it to the fixed alkali. Now the a- 
 queous part in 560 grains of tartar vitriolate amounts, 
 to 37 grains; the remaining difference may be attri- 
 4<M buted to the different degrees of deficcation, &c. 
 ^avif*^of acetous acid Mr Kirwan did not make any 
 
 the acetous experiment ; but by calculating, from thofe of Hom- 
 acid. berg, he finds that the fpecific gravity of the pure 
 acetous acid, free from fuperfluous water, fliould be 
 Zi30. " It Is probabft (fays Mr Kirwan), that Its 
 afiinlty to water is- not ftrong enough to caufe any Ir- 
 regular increafe ia iU deufity ; ^% leait what, can be 
 
 expreffed by three decimals : and hence its proportlonContents, 
 of acid and water may always be calculated from its ''^^ 
 fpecific quantity and abfolute weight." ' \ ^ 
 
 An hundred parts of foliated tartar, or, as it 
 
 ihould rather be called, acetous tartar, contain, when 
 well dried, 32 of fixed alkali, 19 of acid, and 49 parts 
 of water. — The fpecific gravity of the fl;rongeii; con- 401 
 centrated vinegar yet made is J. 069. — It is more dii- Specific 
 ficult to find the point of faturation with the vegetable ^^^^'^^ 
 than with the mineral acids, ,becaufe they contain amuci- negaf. ^' 
 lage that prevents their immediate union with alkalies; 
 and hence they are commonly ufed in too great quan- 
 tity : they fhould. he ufed niodcrattly hot, and iulli- 
 cient time allowed them to unite. 40s 
 
 From all the experiments above related, IVIr Kirwan ^'^^g*^^*^'* 
 concludes, 1. That the fixed vegetable alkali takes "P (intakes up 
 an equal quantity of the three mineral <icids, and pio-an equal 
 bably of all pure acids; for we have feon that 8.3 quantity of 
 grains of pure vegetable alkali, that Is, free from ax-^'^ "j' 
 ed air, take up 3.55 grains of each of thefe acids ; and"'^'^* ^' 
 confequently lOO parts of cauftic fixed alkali would 
 require 42^4 parts of acid to faturate them. But Mr 
 Bergman has found that 100 parts of cauilic fixed ve- 
 getable alkali take up 47 parts of the aerial acid; which, 
 confidering that his alkali might contain fome water, 
 differs but little from that already given. It fliould 
 feem, therefore, that alkalies have a certain deter- 
 mined capacity of uniting to acids, that is, to a given 
 weight of acids ; and that this capacity is equally fa- 
 tlated by a given weight of any pure acid Indlfcrimi- 
 nately. This weight is about 2.35 of the vegetable 
 alkali. 403 
 
 2. That the three mineral acids, and probably all Quantity of 
 pure acids, take up 2,253 t^i^^s their own weight o^jjg^gfl^^j^^'f 
 pure vegetable alkali, that is, are faturated by thatf^,uratg^^ijg 
 quantity. acids. 
 
 3. Tliat tlie denfity accruing to compound fub- 404 
 fiances, from the union of their compound parts, and ^''crealc f f 
 exceeding Its mathematical ratio, increafes from a w/- ^ompournl 
 nimutrif when the quantity ot one of them Is very Imnllfubllancei. u 
 in proportion to-tliat of the other; io ^ maximui/i, when 
 
 their qualities differ lefs : but that the attrailion, on 
 the contrary, of that part which is in the fmalleft 
 quantity to that which is in the greater, is at its maxi 
 mum when the accrued denfity is at its minimum; but 405 ; 
 not reciprocally : and hence the pcint of. faturation Is-^'hy de- 
 probably the maximum of denfity and the minimum of '^^^P^^'" ' 
 fenfible attraction of one of the parts. Hence no de-iome- 
 compofition operated by means of a fubftance that has times in- 
 a greater affinity with one part of a compound than with <^<"^^P let e, . 
 the other, and than thefe parts have with each othery^'l^^"^*^'^'^* 
 can be complete, unlefs the minimum affinity of this 406 
 third fubilance be greater than the maximum affinity Why the 
 of the parts already united. .Hence alfo few" decom-'a^^port^ionsi^ 
 pofitions are complete, unlefs a double affinity 
 venes ; and hence the lafl portions of th© feparated^^inately ° 
 fubftance adhere fo obftinately to that with which adiiere to 
 it was firft united, as all chemifts have obferved.-^'^hat with 
 Thus, though acids have a greater affinity to P^'o'^^s ,ui' ted ' 
 gifton than the earths of the different m.otals have to 
 it, yet they can nevsr totally dephlogifticate. thefe Acids can ^ 
 earths but only to a certain degree ; fo, though at- '•^ver total* - 
 mofpheric air, and. particularly depJdoglfticated air, at-^^y^^^Pl^'"" 
 tracts phloglftott- more ftrongly than the nitrous acid ^IgtaOj^ 
 does, yet not even dephlogiftlcated air can deprive the earths,:^ 
 nitrous acid totally of its phlogiilon ; as is evident from 
 
 the 
 
422 
 
 Contents, 
 • &r. of the 
 Salts. 
 
 408 
 
 G K E M T 
 
 the red colour of the nitrous acid, when nitrous air and 
 dephlogilJ:icated air are mixed together. Hence mer- 
 cury precipitated from its folution in any acid, even 
 by fixed alkalies, conftantly retains a portion of the 
 Why pre- acid to which it was originally united, as Mr Bayen 
 cipitates of has (hown. Thus alfo the earth of alum, when preci- 
 " d'^'^'lT pi*^^^'^^ ^^^^ manner from its folution, retains part 
 main "part acid; and thus feveral anomalous decompofi- 
 
 of the acid, tions may be explained. 
 
 409 4. That concentrated acids are in fome meafure phlo- 
 "^hi^^'-fr gifticated, and evaporate by union with fixed alkalies. 
 LeSnJen- 5- That, knowing the quantity of fixed alkali in 
 trated acidii. oil of tartar, we may determine the quantity of real 
 
 410 pure acid in any other acid fubftance that is difficult- 
 How to de-jy decompofed ; as the fedative acid, and thofe in ve- 
 qua'UtitV"' S^^^^^^^ ^"'^ animals. For 10.5 grains of the mild 
 pure acid in alkali will always be faturated by 3.55 grains of real 
 any fub- acid ; and reciptocally, the quantity of acid in any 
 iflance. ^^,[^ liquor beiflg known, the quantity of real alkali 
 
 in any vegetable alkaline liquor may be found. 
 
 Having thus determined the quantity of acid con- 
 tained in the liquids of that kind ufually employed in 
 chemiftry, as well as the Ipecific gravities of the acids 
 themfelves, Mr Kirwan became defirous of inveftiga- 
 tirig the gravity of fixed and volatile alkalies. But as 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 4T1 
 
 'Specific 
 
 gravity of thefe fubilances are not eafily preferved from uniting 
 fixed »ir themfelves with fixed air, he was led to confidcr the 
 dctermi- gravity of this in its fixed ftate, as an element necef- 
 "^^^ 412 f^^V f"'" ^^^^ calculation of the quantities of the alkalies. 
 Specific To find the fpecific gravity of the fixed vegetable 
 gravity of alkali, our author proceeded in a manner fimilar to that 
 ^vfi^^fF' already defcribed, excepting that he weighed it in 
 li inveftN ether inftead of fpirit of wine. The refults of his expe- 
 gated, riments are, 
 
 413 I. That 100 grains of this alkali contain about 6.7 
 Quantity of of earth ; which, according to Mr Bergman, is 
 
 LTntlTit.filiceous. It pafl^es the filter along with it when the 
 alkali is not faturated with fixed air ; fo that it feems 
 to be held in folution in the fame manner as in the li- 
 4^4 guor Ji/irum. 
 Quantity of ^ 'Yht quantity of fixed air in oil of tartar and dry 
 
 fixed air m ^^^^^3^1^ fixed alkali is various at various times, and 
 and dry vj- in various parcels of the fame fait ; but in the purer al- 
 
 oil of tartar . 
 
 415 
 
 Ts/lt Wat 
 fon's ac 
 
 getable fix- kalies it may be reckoned at a mtdium 21 grams in 
 ed alkali. ,oq. and hence the quantity of this alkali may very 
 nearly be gueffed at in any folution, by adding a known 
 weight of any dilute acid to a given weight of fuch a 
 folution, and then weighing it again ; for as 21 is to 
 100, fo ia the weight loft to the weight of mild alkali 
 in fuch folution. The fpecific gravity of mild and per- 
 fectly diy vegetable fixed alkali, four times calcined, 
 free from filiceous earth,- and containing 21 percent. o£ 
 fixed air, was found to be 5.0527. When it contains 
 more fixed air the gravity is probably higher, except 
 when it Is not perfectly dry ; and hence the fpecific 
 gravity of this alkali, when cauftic, was fuppofed by Mr 
 Kirwan to be 4.234. For this reafon the fixed alkalies, 
 when united to aerial acid, are fpecifically heavier than 
 when united either to the vitriolic or nitrous. Thus 
 Mr R. "VValfon, in the Philofophical Tranfaaions for 
 1770, informs us, that he found the fpecific gravity of 
 fSiclca dry fait of tartar, including the filiceous earth it natu- 
 vity of fait rally contains, to be 2.761 ; whereastthe fpecific gravity 
 f)f tartar, of vitriolated tartar was only 2.636, and thai of nitre 
 ^-935' The reafon why nitre is fo much lighter than 
 
 tartar vitrlolate is, that it contains much more water. Contents, 
 and the union of the acid with the water is lefs intimate. ^J^^°^ 
 
 Impure vegetable fixed alkalies, fuch aspcarl-afh, pot- ^ 
 afhes, &c. contain more fixed air than the purer kind. 
 According to Mr Cavendifli, peaii-afh contains 28.4 Y^rj^^^j^^g 
 or zo.T per cent* of fixed air. Hence in lyes made from is fo much 
 thefe (alts, of equal fpecific gravities with thofe of a lighter thaa 
 purer alkali, the quantity of faline matter will proba- ^^J^^^'j^'^''^'^ 
 bly be in the ratio of 28.4 or 28.7 to 2 1 ; but this ad- 
 dilional weigjht Is only fixed air. Much alfo depends Quantity of 
 on their age; the oldeft containing moll fixed air. Our fixed ,air in 
 author alfo gives a table of the fpecific gravities of differ- ^^^jg^j^^^J 
 cnt folutions of vegetable fixed alkali, in a manner fimilar jj^^ deter- 
 to what he had done before with the acids. He begins mined by 
 with 64.92 grains of a folution containing 26.25 Mr Cavcn- 
 grains ot fait, and 38.67 of water. The accrued den-^*^* 
 fity he finds to be .050, the mathematical fpecific gra- 
 vity 1.445, and the fpecific gravity by obfervation 
 1.495. By continually diluting the folution contain- 
 ing the fame quantity of fait, he brings the abfolute 
 weight of it at lafl to 341.94 grains, of which 317.49 
 are water ; the accrued denfity 0.0 1, the mathema- 
 tical fpecific gravity 1.061, and the fpecific gravity by 
 obfervation 1.062. 41S 
 
 In a fubfequent paper on this fubjeft, Philofophical Quantity ol 
 TranfaAlons, vol. 72, p. 170, our author correds a^'^'^J'^K" 
 fmall miftake concerning the quantity ot acid taken up fixed alkali 
 by 10.5 grains of mild vegetable alkali. In his former exactly de- 
 computations he had made no allowance for the fmall termiucd. 
 quantity of earth contained in this quantity of alkaH ; 
 which, though Inconfiderable in it, becomes of confe- 
 quence where the quantities are large. The error, how- 
 ever, occafioned by thisomiflion, isfenfible in hid calcula- 
 tiono concerning the quantities of acid, alkaH, &:c. con- 
 tained in the neutral falts, as well as in that concerning 
 the vegetable alkali. When the corre<9:ion is properly 
 made, he fays, it will be found that ico grains of fuch al-_ 
 kali, free from earth, water, and fixed air, take up 46.77 
 of the mineral acids, that is, of the mere acid part ; and. 
 100 gi-ains of common mild vegetable alkali take up 4,^ 
 36.23 grains of real acid. An hundred grains ot per- Of the 
 fedlly dry tartar vitrlolate contain 30.21 of real acid, ^|'*^'^'^^y °» 
 64.61 of fixed alkali, and 5.18 of water. Cryftallized ' 
 tartar vitrlolate lofesonly or]e percent, of water in a heat in lated tar*, 
 which its acid is not feparatcd in any degree ; and tar; 
 therefore contains 6.18 of water. An hundred grains 
 of nitre, perfeftly dry, contain 30.86 of acid, 66 of al- 
 kali, and 3.14 of water; but In cryftallized nitre the 
 proportion of water Is fomewhat greater ; for 100 
 grains of thefe cryftals being expofed to a heat of 
 1 8o» for two hours, loK three grains of their weight 
 without exhaling any acid fmcll ; byt when expoled to 
 a heat of 200 degrees, the fmell of the nitrous acid la 
 diftinftly perceived. Hence 1 00 grains of cryftallized . 
 nitre contain 29 89 of mere acid, 63 97 of alkali, and 
 6.14 of water. An hundred grains of digeltive fait 
 perfe6tly dry, contain 29.68 of marine acid, 63.47 of 
 alkali, and 6.85 of water. One hundred grains of 
 cryftallized digeftive fait lofe but one grain of their ^^i 
 weight before the fmell of the marine acid is perceived; in digcftiTiB 
 and hence they contain 7.85 grains of water. fak. 
 
 Another miftake, more difficult to bccorredled, was 
 his fuppofing the mixtures of oil of vitriol and water, 
 and fpirit of nitre and water, iiad attained their maxi- 
 mum of denfity when they had cooled to the tempera- 
 ture 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 Corrtenrs, ture of the atmofphere ; which at the time he made the 
 &c. of ihe experiment was between 50= and 60° of Fnhrenheit. 
 f^''*' The mixure with oil of vitriol had been fuffered to (land 
 fix hours ; but when the acid was fo much diluted as 
 Time^re- to occafion little or no heat, it was allowed to ftand on- 
 quired by ly for a very little time. Several months afterwards, 
 mixtures ofj^oypgygr^ many of thefe mixtures were found much 
 " 'd^and vfh^n he firft examined them ; and it was 
 
 water to ac-difcovered, that at ksft twelve hours reft was necef- 
 quiit their fary before concentrated oil of vitriol, to which even 
 utmoft den- t^lce its weight of water is added, can attain its iit- 
 *'^* moil denfity ; and ttill more when a fmaller pro- 
 
 portion of water is ufed. Thus when he made the 
 mixture of 2519.75 grains of oil of vitriol, whofe fpe- 
 cific gravity was 1.8 19, with 180 of water, he found its 
 .denfity fix hours after 1.7 71, but after 24 hours it was 
 1,798 : and hence, according to the methods of cal- 
 culating already laid down, the accrued denfity was at 
 leafl .o64,inftead of .045. But by ufing oil of vitriol 
 ftill more concentrated, whofe fpecific gravity was 
 1.8846, he was enabled to make a ilill nearer approxi- 
 mation ; and found, that the accrued denfity of oil of 
 vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity is 1.819, amounts to 
 o. 104, and confequently its mathematical fpecific gra- 
 vity is 1.715. Six grains and a half of this oil of vi- 
 triol contained, as has been already obferved, 3.55 of 
 mere acid, and the remainder was water. The weight 
 of an equal bulk of water is 3.79 grains ; and fubtrac- 
 ting from this the weight of the water that enters 
 into the compofition of the oil of vitriol, it will 
 be found, that the weight of a bulk of water equal to 
 the acid part is 0.84; and confequently the fpecific 
 gravity of the mere acid part is 4.226. Thus, by con- 
 flantly allowing the mixtures to reil at leaft i 2 hours, 
 until the oil of vitriol was diluted with four times its 
 weight of water, and then only fix hours before the 
 denfity of the mixtures was examined, he conllrufted 
 another table, in which icoo grains of liquor contain- 
 ed 612.05 of pure acid, 387.95 of water, the ac- 
 crued denfitv bein? .07, and the mathematical fpecific 
 gravity 1.877. Increafing the quantity of water till 
 the acid weighed 7000 grains, and the water 6387.95, 
 he found the accrued dtnfity .059, and the mathema- 
 tical fpecific gravity 1.069. ^7 ^ fimilar correftion 
 of his experiments on the acid of nitre, he found its 
 denfity to be 5.530 ; a fimllar table was conftru£led 
 for it, for which we refer our readers to the 7 2d vo- 
 lume of the Phibfophicai Tranfaftions. 
 AtteHation Thefe experiments were made when the thermome- 
 ef the den- ter ftood between ^0° and 60° of Fahienhelt ; but, as 
 lity cf^acids Jt might be fufpcfted that the denfity of acids is con- 
 r^'^of ^''^^'■^^^y altef^ed different degrees of temperature, he 
 keat.^*^* " endeavoured to find the quantity of this alteration in 
 the following manner : To calculate what this denfity 
 would be at 55S he took fome dephlogifticated fpirit 
 of nitre, and examined its fpecific gravity at different 
 degrees of heat ; which was found to be as follows. 
 
 Degrees 
 of heat. 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 86 
 
 Specific 
 giavity. 
 
 1.4587 
 1 .4 ;g2 
 1.4123 
 
 The total expanfion of fhis fpirit of nitre, therefore, 
 from 30 to 120 degrees, that is, by 90° of heat, was 
 0.0527; for 1, 4650=4123-1-. 0527. By which wefee, 
 
 I S T R Y. 423 
 
 that the dilatations are nearly proportional to the de- 2°"'^''"' 
 grees of heat : for beginning with the firft dilatation ^J' °^ ^'^^ 
 
 from 30 to 46 degrees, that is, by 16 degrees of heat, _j 
 
 we find that the difference between the calculated and 
 obferved dilatations is only ,0-0°^ > a difference of no 
 confequence in the prefent cafe, and which might arife 
 from the immerfion of the cold glafs-ball filled with 
 mercury in the liquor. In the next cafe the differ- 
 ence is dill lefs, amounting only to -s-pVoo* 
 
 With another, and fomewhat ftronger fpirit of nitre, 
 the fpecific gravities were as follow : 
 
 Des^rees Specific 
 
 (if hfat. gravity. 
 34 1.4750 
 
 49 *-46s3 
 150 1.3792 
 
 Here alfo the expanfions were nearly proportional tc 
 the degrees of heat ; for 116^ of heat, the difference 
 between 34 and 130, produce an expanfion of 0.0958 ; 
 and 15° of heat, the difference between 34 and 49, 
 produce an expanfion of 0.C097 ; and by calculation 
 0 0123: which laft differs from the truth only by 
 
 From this experiment we fee, that the ftronger the strong fpj- 
 
 fpirit of nitre is, the more it is expanded by the fame rit of nitre 
 
 degree of heat ; for if the fpirit of nitre of the laft ex- "^"''f f^" 
 
 • ^ 1 J • ^1 r • • paiided by 
 
 penment were expanded in the fame proportion as in ^^^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 the former, its dilatation, by 116 degrees of heat, ^eak, and 
 
 ftiould be 0.0679; whereas it was found to be 0.0958. why. 
 
 As the dilatation of the fpirit of nitre is far great- 
 er than that of water by the fame degree of heat, and 
 as it confifts only of acid and water; it clearly follows, 
 that its iuperior dilatability muft be owing to the acid 
 part : and hence the more acid that is contained in 
 any quantity of fpiiit of nitre, the greater is its dilata- 
 bility.' We might therefore fuppofe, that the dilata- 
 tion of nitre was intermediate betwixt the quantity of 
 water it contains and that of the acid. But there 
 exifts another power alfo which prevents this fimple re- 
 fult, vix. the attraftion of the acid and water to each 
 other, which makes them occupy lefs fpace than the 
 fum of their joint volumes; and by this coiidenfation our 
 author explains his phrafe of accrued denfitv. Taking Exadl quan»- 
 tlus mto the account, we may conuder the dilatation j^^j^jj^j 
 o£ the fpirit of nitre as equal to thofe of the quan • fpirit of 
 titles of water and acid it contains, minu& the con- nitre, 
 denfatlon they acquire from their mutual attraction; 
 and this rule holds as to all other Heterogeneous com- 
 pounds. 4j6^ 
 
 To find the quantities of acid and water in fpirit of '-'^ 
 nitre, whofe fpecific gravity was found in degrees 
 temperature different from thofe for which the table.^vjj(_^. c^,^, 
 was conftrufted, viz. 54°, 55°, or 56° of Fahrenheit, camcu m 
 the fureft method is to find how much that fpirit of'i"^"<'i 
 nitre is expanded or contlenfed by a greater or leffer de- 
 gree of bent;, and then, by the rule of proportion, 
 find what its denfity would be at 55°. But if this 
 cannot be done, we {haU approach pretty near the trut,h, 
 if we allow -rh^^ every 1 5° degrees of heat above or 
 below 55° of Fahrenheit, when the fpecific gravity 
 is between 1.400 and 1.500. and -t^tj when the fpe- 
 cific gravity is between 1.400 and 1.500. — The di- 
 latations of oil and fpirit of vitriol were found to be ex- 
 ceedingly irregular, probably by reafon of a white 
 foreign matter, which is more or lefs fufpended or dif^^ 
 folved in it, according to its greater or lefier dilution 5,. 
 
424 
 
 Contents, 
 &c. of the 
 Salts. 
 
 447 
 
 Dilatation 
 of fpli it of 
 fait by va- 
 rious de- 
 greesof 
 heat. 
 
 and this matter our author did not feparate, as he in- 
 tended to try the acid in the Hate in which it is com- 
 monly ufed. In general he found that 15° of heat 
 caufed a difference of above t^sit in 'ts fpecific gravity, 
 when it exceeds 1.800, and of tttoo when its fpecific 
 gravity ia between 1.400 and 1.300 — The dilatations of 
 fpirit of fait are very nearly proportional to the degrees 
 of heat, as appears by the following table. 
 
 cDegrees Specific 
 i of Heat. G avity. 
 
 33 i.igi6 
 
 54 1. 1 860 
 
 66 1.1820 
 
 128 I 1631 
 
 Hence -rtfso niould be added or fubtrafted for every 
 21° above or below 55*^, in order to reduce it to 55', 
 the degree for which itsproportion of acid and water was 
 calculated. The dilatability of this acid is much greater 
 than that of water, and even than that of the nitrous 
 418 acid of the fame denfity. 
 f Qiiantiry of Qur author next proceeds to cotifider the quantity of 
 t kci u^M) P"""^ acids taken up at the point of faturation by the 
 vark)'u'iiib-^^''^°"^ fubftances they unite with. — He begins with the 
 glances. mineral alkali. Having rendered a quantityof this cau- 
 4^9 flic in the ufual manner, and evaporating one ounce 
 Mineral al- cauflic folution to perfect drynefs, he found it 
 
 prepared contain 20.25 grains of folid matter. He was af- 
 for thefe fured, that the watery part alone exhaled during eva- 
 cxperi- poration, as the quantity of fixed air contained in it 
 ajents. y^j-y fnialj, and to diflipate this a much greater 
 
 heat would have been requifite than that which he 
 ufed. This dry alkali was diiTolved in twice its weight 
 of water; and faturating it with dilute vitriolic acid, 
 he found it to contain 2.25 grains of fixed air,; that be- 
 ing the weight which the faturatcd folution wanted of 
 being equal to the joint weights of water, alkali, and 
 fpirit of vitriol employed. 
 ■Quantityof The quantity of mere vitriolic acid neccffary to fa- 
 vitriolic titrate 100 grains of pufe mineral alkali was found to 
 acid necef- be 60 or 61 grains; the faturated folution thus form- 
 turatc"it*" heing evaporated to perfeft drynefs weighed 36.5 
 grains; but of this weight only .28.38 were alkali 
 and acid; .the remainder, that is, 8.12 grains, there- 
 fore, were water. sHence 100 grains of Glauber's 
 Ouantit ' of P^'"^^'^^y "t"'^<^> contained 29.12 of mere vitriolic 
 ingredient^s acid, 48,6 of mere alkah, and 22.28 of water. But 
 in Glau- Glauber's fait cryftallized contains a much larger pro- 
 ber's fait, portion of water ; for 100 grains of thefe cryftals heat- 
 .ed red hot loft 55 grains of their weight; and this lofs 
 Mr .Kirwan fuppofes to arife merely from the evapo- 
 ration of the watery part, and the remaining 45 con- 
 tained alkali, v/ater, and acid, in the fame propor- 
 tion as the 100 grains of Glauber's fait perfeftly dried 
 above mentioned. Then thefe 45 contained 13.19 
 grains of vitriolic acid, 21.87 of fixed alkali, and 9.94 
 of water : confequently 100 grains of cryllallized Glau- 
 ber's fait contain 13.19 vitriohc acid, 21.87 of al- 
 kali, and 64.94 of v/ater. 
 O 1 ^I'^'t of faturating the mineral alkali with dephlogifti- 
 
 nuneralal- cated nitrous acid, it was found that ico grains of the 
 kali taken alkali took up 57 of the pure acid in the experiment 
 up by de- moft depended upon ; though in fome others this 
 
 P^]"^.'^'*^^* quantity varied by a few grains : lie concludes, there- 
 ted mtrcus i / , . r II 1- . 1 L .1 • -J 
 
 acid • fore, that the quantity of alkah taken up by this acid 
 nearly tlic fame as that taken up by the vitric- 
 
 CHEMISTRY. Theory, 
 
 lie. Suppofing this quantity to be 57 grains, then 100 Contents, 
 grains of cubic nitre, perfectly dry, contain 30 of acid, of the 
 52.18 of alkah, and 17.82 of water: but cubic nitre ^ 
 cryftaUized contains fomething more water ; for ico * 
 grains of thefe cryflals lofe about four by gentle dry- 
 ing ; therefore 100 grains of the cryftallized fait con- 
 tain 28.8 of acid, 50 09 of alkali, and 21. ti of wa- 
 ter. 
 
 An hundred grains of mineral alkali require from gy j^^g^j^^ 
 63 to 66 or 67 grains of pure marine acid to faturate acid, 
 it ; but Mr Kirwan fuppofes that one reafon of this 
 vatiety is, that it is exceeding hard to hit the true 
 point of faturation. Allowing 66 grains to be the 
 quantity required, then 100 grains .of perfeftly dry 
 common fait contain nearly 35 grains of real acid, 
 53 of alkah, and 13 of water; bat loo grains of the 
 cryftallized fait lofe five by evaporation.: fo that 1 00 
 grains of thefe cryflals contain 33.3 of acid, 5.0 of al- 
 kali, and 16.7 of water. 
 
 The proportion of fixed air, alkali, and water, was Propo^jon 
 thus invefligated,: 200 grains of thefe cryttals were of tixed air, 
 difTolved in ,240 of water ; the folution was faturated ^"^^''j and 
 by fuch a quantity of fpiiit of nitre as contained 4° ^^f^ated 
 of pure nitrous acid ; whence it was inferred that i^y this fatU" 
 thefe 200 grains of fait of foda contained 70 of pure latiou. 
 alkahne fait. The faturated folution weighed 40 
 grains lefs than the fum of its original weight, and 
 that of the fpirit of nitre added to it ; confequently it 
 h)ft 40 grains of fixed air. The remainder of the ori- 
 ginal weight of the cryftals therefore mull have been 
 water, w'z. 90 grains. Conleqiiently 100 grains of 
 thefe cryftals contained 35 of alkali, 20 of fixed air, 
 and 45 of water. This proportion differs confiderably- 43S 
 from that affigned by Mr Bergman and Lavoifier, which ^!|^^''^""' 
 our author imputts to their having made ufe of foda Bertrtran 
 recently cryftallized ; but Mr Kirwan's had been made and Lavoi- 
 for fome months, and probably loll much water and ^i'^'^'^- 
 fixed air by evaporation, which altered theptoportion of ^"^"'^'^ ^"^^^ 
 the whole. According to the calculations of Bergman 
 and Lavoifier, 100 grains of this alkali take up 80 
 of fixed air. The fpecific gravity of the cryiiallized 
 mineral alkali, weighed in ether, was found to be 
 
 1-42 . ... 436 
 
 The proportion of the different ingredients in vo- Propor- 
 latile alkalies can only be had from the experiments tion^ of in- 
 lately made by Dr Prieftley concerning alkahne air. gradients 
 He informs us, that i ro «f a meafure of this, and one ^"j^^^ii'^g'^*^ 
 meafure of fixed air, faturate one another. Then, fup- 
 pofing the meafure to contain 100 cubic inches, 
 185 cubic inches of alkaline air take up 100 of fixed 
 air } but 1 85 cubic inches of alkaline air weigh at a 
 medium 42.55 grains, and 100 cubic inches of fixed 
 air weigh 57 grains ; therefore 100 grains of pure 
 volatile alkali, free from water, take up 134 of fix- 
 ed air. 
 
 On expelling its aerial acid from a quantity of this 
 volatile alkali in a concrete ftate, and formed by fub- 
 limation, he found, that 53 grains of it were fixed 
 air: according to the preceding calculation, ico giains 
 of it fiiould contain 39.47 of real aJkali, and 7.5^ of 
 water, the reft being fixed air. — On faturating a quan- 
 tity with the vitriolic, nitrous, and marine acids, 100 
 grains of the mere alkah \vere found to take up io6 
 of niere vitriolic acid, 115 of the nitrous, and 130 of 
 the marine acid. The fpscific gravity of the volatile 
 
 alkali 
 
4n 
 Experi- 
 ments on 
 calcareous 
 earth. 
 
 Quantity 
 ol marine 
 acid fatu- 
 rated by 
 this earth. 
 439 
 
 Proportion •^yater, and earth ; loo grains of it contaii 
 ("lentfin 3^ 34°^ ^^''^^ ^"'^ likewife of earth, and fi 
 natural 3 2 of water. The artificial gypfum conta; 
 
 Theory. C H 
 
 Con'ents, alkali weighed in ether (b) was 1.4076. The propor- 
 tion of water in the different amnion iacal falts could not 
 be found on account of their volatility ; but was fup- 
 pofed to be very fmall, as both volatile alkali and 
 fixed air cryftallize without the help of water when in 
 an aerial ftate. 
 
 In making experiments on calcareous earth, it was 
 firft diflblved in nitrous acid ; and after allowing for 
 the lofs of fixed air and water, 100 grains of the pure 
 earth was found to take up 104 of nitrous acid; but 
 only 91 or 92 of mere vitriolic acid were required to 
 precipitate it from the nitrous folution. 
 
 Of the marine acid 100 grains of the pure calcare- 
 ous earth require 112 for their folution. The liquor 
 at firft is colourlefs, but acquires a greenifh colour by 
 ftanding. 
 
 Natural gypfum varies in its proportion of acid, 
 
 ining from 
 from 26 to 
 
 32 ot water, l ive artiftcial gypfum contains 32 of 
 earth, 29.44 of acid, and 38.56 of vv^ater. When 
 w^ll dried, it lofes about 24 of water ; and therefore 
 contains 42 of earth, 39 of acid, and 19 of water, ^sr 
 hundred. 
 
 Nitrous felenite (folution of calcareous earth in ni- 
 trous acid) carefully dried, contains 33.28 of acid, 32 
 of earth, and 34.72 of water. 
 
 The fame quantity of marine felenite (folution of 
 calcareous earth in marine acid), well dried, in fuch a 
 manner as to lofe no part of the acid, contain of the 
 latter 42.56, of earth 38, and of water 19.44. 
 
 Magnefia, when perfeftly dry and free from fixed 
 air, cannot be diflblved In any of the acids without 
 heat. Even the ftrongeft nitrous acid did not a6t up- 
 acids with on it In 24 hours in the temperature of the atmofpherc ; 
 out heat, but in a heat of 1 80°, the mineral acids, diluted with 
 four, or even fix, times their quantity of water, had a 
 very fenfible effeft upon it : but the quantity of acid 
 diflipated by heat rendered It Impoffible to afcertain 
 how much was neceffary for folution, except by precipi- 
 tation after It had been diffolved. For this purpofe 
 the cauftic vegetable alkali was employed ; by which 
 it appeared that 100 grains of pure magnefia take up 
 125 of mere vitriolic acid, 132 of the nitrous, and 140 
 of the marine. All of thefe folutlons appeared to con- 
 tain fomething gelatinous ; but none of them reddened 
 vegetable blues ; and that in the marine acid became 
 greenllh on ftanding for fome time. 
 
 An hundred grains of perfeftly dry Epfom fait con- 
 tain 45.67 of mere vitriolic acid, 36.54 of pure earth, 
 g"^'^'^"^* and 17.83 of water. Solution of common Epfom fait, 
 lipfon°falt • ^^owever, reddens vegetable blues, and therefoi-e con- 
 'tains an excefs of acid. A like quantity of nitrous 
 In nit' ous Epfom, well dried, contains 35.64 of acid, 27 of pure 
 Epfom. earth, and 37.36 of water. The folution of marine 
 
 k= Epfom cannot be tolerably dried without lofinof much 
 Cannot be /, • 1 , m r 
 
 iomic' in ot its acid together with the water. 1 he Ipecinc gra- 
 
 marine Ep- vity of this earth is 2.3296. 
 
 fom. Moft writers on chemlftry have faid that earth of 
 
 Earth of 'i^"™ contains fcarce any fixed air ; but Mr KIrwan 
 alum con- Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 tiiiis a 
 
 f^reat quan- -— 
 
 ^ ( B ) The fixed and volatile alkalies were weighed 
 
 water. 
 
 E M I S T R Y. 
 
 425 
 
 nat 
 \gypfum ; 
 
 440 
 In nitrous 
 felenite ; 
 
 441 
 
 In marine 
 felenite. 
 
 444 
 
 Calcined 
 magnefia 
 will not 
 diflblve in 
 
 443 . 
 Proportion 
 of the in- 
 
 found that It contained no lefs than lS per cent, though Contents, 
 it had been previoufly kept red-hot for half an hour. °^ 
 It diffolved with a moderate eftervefcence in acids un- ^ 
 til the heat was raifed to 220°; after which the folu- 
 tion was found to have loft weight in the proportion 
 
 above mentioned. 
 
 447 
 
 An hundred grains of this earth, deprived of the Quantity 
 fixed air, require 1 3 3 of the pure vitriolic acid to dif- 
 folve them. The folution was made in a very dilute alum! ^* 
 fpirit of vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.093, ^"'i 
 in which the proportion of acid to the water was near- 
 ly as I to 14. It contained a flight excefs of acid, 
 turning the vegetable blues to a brownifii red ; but It 
 cryftallized when cold, and the cryftals were of the 
 form of alum. Oiu- author, therefore, is of opinion, 
 that this is the true proportion of acid and earth to be 
 ufed In the formation of that fait, though there was 448 
 not water enough to form large cryftals. Perceiving T^'^i^ fait al- 
 that the liquor contained an excefs of acid, more 
 earth was added; but thus It was found Impoffible ,-2^5 of acU; 
 to prevent It from tinging vegetable blues of a 
 red colour until a precipitation was formed : and 
 even when this was the cafe, though one part of 
 the fait fell In the form juft mentioned, yet the reft 
 would ftill redden vegetable blues as before ; though 
 here our author doubts whether this be a mark 
 of acidity. An hundred grains of alum, when dried, 
 contain 42.74 of acid, 32.14 of earth, and 25.02 of 
 water ; but cryftallized alum lofes per cent, by defic- 
 catlon : therefore 100 grains of it contain 23.94 of 
 acid, and 58.06 of water. An hundred grains of this Proportion 
 pure earth take up, as near as can be judged, 153 of of pure 
 pure nitrous acid. The folution ftill reddened vege- '^^'"''i of 
 table blues ; but after the above quantity of earth was ^^Y^ 
 added, an infoluble fait began to precipitate. The u ou JacJd • 
 folution, when cold, became turbid, and could not be 
 rendered quite clear by 500 times its quantity of wa- 
 ter. An hundred and feventy-three grains of pure By marine 
 marine acid are required for the diffolution of 1 00 acid, 
 grains of earth of alum, but the liquor ftill red<lened 
 vegetable blues. After this an infoluble fait was form- 
 ed ; but it is difficult to afcertain the beginning of ita 
 formation preclfely both In this and the preceding 
 cafes. The fpecific gravity of pure argillaceous earth, 
 containing 25 per cent, of fixed air, is 1.9901. 451 
 In the experiments made by our author on metals, Experi- 
 the acids employed were fo far dephlogifticated as to 
 be colourlefs ; the metals were for the moft part redu- ""^ 
 ced to filings, or to fine powder in a mwtar. They Beft me- 
 were added by little and httle to their refpeftive men-thod of dif- 
 ftrua; much more being thus diffolved than if the^^^J^^J^^ 
 whole had been thrown In at once, and the folution 
 was performed in glafs vials with bent tubes, 
 
 An hundred grains of bar-iron, in the temperature Proportion 
 of 56°, require for their folution 190 grains of the real"^ 
 acid, w^iofe proportion to that of the water, with ^^"^ "Pj.j'^J^- 
 which it fhould be diluted. Is as i to 8, 10, or 12. acid. 
 It would aft on iron, though Its proportion were 
 greater or leffer, though not fo vigoroufly ; but by 
 applying a heat of 200° towards the end, 123 grains 
 3 H of 
 
 In ether on account of their great folubility in 
 
4.54 
 Qu-mtity 
 01 i;iflam- 
 mable air 
 
 455 
 Why vitri- 
 olic air is 
 jirodncfd 
 liy diilbl- 
 ving iron 
 in concen- 
 trutod oil 
 vi vitriol. 
 
 456 
 Solution of 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 of real acid would be fufficient. The air produced by 
 this folution is entirely inflammable, and generally 
 amounts to 155' cubic inches. 
 
 By the aflillance of a itrong heat, iron is alfo folub'e 
 in the concentrated vitriolic acid, though in fmaller 
 quantity ; and inftead of inflammable air, a large quan- 
 tity of vitriolic air is produced, and a httle fulphur is 
 fublimed towards the end. The reafon of this is, that 
 the concentrated vitriolic acid, containing much lefs 
 fpccific fire than the dilute kind, cannot expel the 
 phlogilton in the form of inflammable air (which ab- 
 sorbs a vaft qiiantity of fire), but unites with it when 
 further dephlegmated by heat, and thus forms both vi- 
 triolic air and fulphur. An hundred grains of iron 
 diflblved without heat afford more tlian 400 of vitriol; 
 and 100 grains of vitriol, when cryilaUized, contain 
 25 of iron, 20 of real acid, and 55 of water. Wliea 
 calcined nearly to rednefo, thefe cryftals lole about 40 
 J)er cent, of water. 
 
 The calces of iron are foluble in tlie vitriolic acid 
 
 iron m vi- 
 triolic acid 
 
 the cakes of according to tlie quantity of phlogiilon tlicy contain ; 
 
 [he more phlogiflicated being more readily loluble, and 
 thofe which are depldogifticated lefs fo. The latter 
 not only require more real acid for theii folution, but 
 afford only a thick liquor or magma by evapen-atlon, 
 'r;:;;t u{ die inilead of cryllals like the others. Hence alio folu- 
 dt jj/uogiiti- of i;on, when newly made, diiriiniQi, and conie- 
 fated caK-eSq^j^j,^)^ phlogilHcate, the fuperincumbent air by their 
 f^f^,' gradual emiflion of phlogiilon; at the fame time that 
 ihuiizv ' ' ' 
 
 ■pfi) ortion 
 o!" iron dif- 
 lblved in 
 iiitrims 
 acid. 
 
 4.T9 
 Ouantif y 
 fit nitrous 
 air obtain- 
 ed from 
 this folu- 
 tion. 
 
 460 
 Why no in- 
 flammable 
 air is here 
 produced. 
 
 461 
 Viiriolic 
 acid a(£ls 
 on iron in 
 a much 
 more di- 
 lute ftate 
 than ni- 
 trous. 
 
 Iron talten 
 up hy the 
 
 the calx, becoming more and more dephlogilHcated, 
 gradually falls to the bottom, unlefs more acid be added 
 to keep it in ffdsition. 
 
 An hundrt d gniins of iron require for their folution 
 in nitrous acid 142 grains of real acid, io diluted that 
 its proportion to water (hould be as j to 1 3 or 14; 
 and when this laft proportion is ufed, the heat of a 
 candle may be employed for a few feconds, and the 
 accefs of common air prevented. Thus about 18 cubic 
 inches of nitrous air are produced, the rell being ab- 
 forbed by tlie folution, and no red vapours appear. 
 But if the proportion of acid and water be as 1 to H 
 or 10, a nuich greater quantity of metal will be de- 
 phlogiib'caied by the application of heat, though very 
 little of it be held in folution. Thus, from too grains 
 of iron Mr Kirwan has obtained 83.87 cubic Inches of 
 nitrous air ; and by diililling the folution, a IHll greater 
 quantity may be obtained which had been abforbed. 
 The reafon that nitrous fohitions of iron or other me- 
 tals yield no inflammable air is, becjuife this acid has 
 lefs affinity to water, and more to phlogiilon, than the 
 vitriolic, andlikewife contains much lefs fire than either 
 that or the marine (fee n"' 278) ; and therefore unites with 
 phlogiilon, infliead of barely expelling it. Hence alfo 
 the vitriolic acid, though united with 30 times Its 
 weight of water, will ilill vifibly att on Iron, and fcpa- 
 rate inflammable air in the temperature of 55°; where- 
 as nitrous acid, diluted with 1 5 times its weight of 
 water, has no perceptible effeft on the metal in that 
 temperature. The calces of iron, if not too much de- 
 phlogillicated, are alfo foluble in the nitrous acid. 
 
 Tw^o hundred and fifteen grains of real marine acid 
 are required for the folution of ico grains of Iron, 
 marii.e acid. When the proportion of water to the acid is as four to 
 one, it efiervefces rather too violently with the metal; 
 
 S T R Y. Theory- 
 
 and heat Is rather prejudicial, as it volatilizes the acid. Contents, 
 No marine air flies off ; and the quantity of inflam- ^^^^ 
 mable air is exaftly the lame as with diluted vitriolic '\ j 
 acid. The Cvalces of iron are alfo foluble In marine 
 acid, and may be dilHnguiflied by their reddilh colour Calccs of 
 when precipitated by fixed alkalies, while the precipi- iron preci- 
 tates of the metal are greeuifh. Tjeddillf 
 
 An hundred and eighty-three grains of leal vitriolic 
 acid are required to dIHblve an hundred grains of cop- their folu- 
 per ; the proportion of acid to that of water being as i tion in ma.- 
 to 1.5, or at leaft as i to 1.7 ; and a ilrong heat inuil™*^ 
 alfo be applied. Mr Kirwan fays he never coidd dillblve Prop^^ij^ 
 the whole quantity of copper; but to diflblve a given of crpper 
 quantity of it, afl:ill greater heat mull be employed in the diffolved b/ 
 proportion of 28 to 100 ; but this refiduum alfo is 
 luble by adding more aciu. Copper dephlogiiUcated 
 in this manner is foluble by addiag warm wciLcr to tlie 
 mafs. 465 
 
 By treating 128 grains of copper in this manner, we fnflamma- 
 
 obtaln 1 1 cubic inches of inflammable air and 65 of '''p ^'f 
 
 vitriolic acid lur. When Inflammable air was obtained, ^ir obtained 
 
 however, our author tells us the acid was a little more from fo u- 
 
 aqueous. The reat'on why copper cannot be dcphlo- "on of co;^)- 
 
 frifticated by dilute vitriolic acid, or even by the con- 
 
 " , rr n r 1 • tnolic acid. 
 
 centrated kind without the amitance or tieac, is its 
 
 ftrong attradlion to phlogiilon, and the great quantity Why tliis 
 it contains. metal can. 
 
 ~An hundred grains of vitriol of copper contain 2 7 ^^^^l'^*^^^^^ 
 of metal, 30 of acid, and 43 of water; iH of which ^[■i.^j^j,'!,';^^ 
 lail are loll by evaporation or flight cakiaation. An trioiic ai id. 
 hundred grains of copper, when diflolved, aiiord 373 467 
 ofbhie vitrioL ^ o^TlT" 
 
 An hundred grains of copper require 130 of pure 
 nitrous acid for their diflclution. If the acid be fobluevi- 
 far diluted that Its proportion of water be as i to 14, triol. 
 the aflillance of heat will be neceflary, but not other- 
 wife. This folution affords 67-^ inches of nitrous 
 air. — The calces of copper are foluble in the nitrous Tolve l by 
 ^q[(\^ i.itrousacid. 
 
 A like quantity of this metal requires 11 90 grains marine 
 of rtal marine acid, as well as the alfiflance of a mode-^^^j^ 
 rate heat, to dilfolve them ; the proportion of water 
 being as 4y to r. By employing a greater heat, more 
 of the acid will be requifite, as 'much more wiU be dif- 
 fipated: the concentrated acid adls more vigoroufly. — 
 Calces of copper are llkewife foluble in the marine acid» 
 though lefs eafily than in the nitrous. 
 
 The vitriolic acid diffolves tin but in fmall quantity; Aftion of 
 
 468 
 Quantity of 
 
 an hundred grains of the metal requiring for their fo- ^^^^l^*^!^*" 
 lutlon 872 of real acid, whofe proportion to watei m cin. 
 fliould not be lefs than 1 to 0.9. A Ilrong heat is alfo 
 required. When the adion of the acid has ceafed, 
 fome hot water fliould be added to the turbid folution, 
 and the whole again heated. The metal is foluble in 
 a more dilute acid, but not in fuch quantity. —The (nflamraf 
 folution above mentioned affords 70 cubic inches of ia-ble air ob- 
 flammable air. — The calces of tin, excepting that P^'^" ' J^*"^^^^^'"^ 
 cipitated from marine acid by fixed alkalies, are info- ' 
 luble In the vitriol c acid. 
 
 An hundred grains of tin require 1200 of real ai- Tiji diffol- 
 trous acid ; whofe proportion of water ihould be at rii-^ 
 leaft 25 to I, and the heat employed not exceeding 
 60"^. The quantity of air afforded by fuch folution is 
 only 10 cubic inches, and It is- not nitrous. The fo- 
 
 lutioa 
 
Theory. 
 
 C II E M 
 
 473 
 In marine 
 acid. 
 
 474. 
 
 Lead vv ith 
 
 vi'rioUc 
 
 acid. 
 
 475 
 f^carce fo- 
 liible in 
 dilute vi- 
 triolic acid. 
 
 _476_ 
 With ni- 
 trous acid 
 
 477 
 "With ma- 
 rine acid. 
 
 47^5 _ 
 Stiver with 
 vifriolic 
 £cid. 
 
 479 
 With ni- 
 trous acid. 
 
 lut'on is not permanent ; for in a few days it depofites 
 a whitifh calx, and in warm weather buiiU tat vlul. 
 1"he calces of tin are infoliible in this acid. 
 
 Four hundred and thirteen grains of pure marine 
 acid are required to diffolve loo grains of tin, the pro- 
 portion of water being as 4-r to i. The aluttance of 
 a moderate heat is alfo required. About 90 cubic in- 
 ches of inflammable, and 10 of marine air, are afford- 
 ed by the folution ; but the calces of tin are nearly 
 infoluble in this acid. 
 
 An hundred grains of lead require 600 grains of 
 real vitriolic acid for their folution, the proportion 
 being not kfs than T of acid to — "f water ; and it 
 will ilill be better if the quantity of water be lefs i for 
 which reafon, as in copper, a greater quantity of me- 
 tal fhould be employed than what is expefted to be 
 diflblved. A ftrong heat is alfo requifite ; and hot 
 water fhould be added to the calcined mafs, though in 
 fmall quantity, as it occafions a precipitation. — Tliis 
 metal is alfo foluble, but veiy fparingly, in dilute vi- 
 triolic acid. Its calces are fomething more foluble. An 
 hundred grains of vitriol of lead, formed by jjrecipita- 
 lion, contain 73 of lead, i yof real acid, and 10 of water. 
 
 With fpirit of nitre, 78 grains of real acid are re- 
 quired for the folution of 100 of lead, with the afiill- 
 ?nce of heat towards the end. The proportion of acid 
 to that of water maybe about i to 11 or 12. This 
 folution produces but eight cubic inches of air, which 
 is nitrous. The calces of the metal arc foluble in th is 
 acid ; but lefs fo when much dcphlogillicated. An 
 hundred grains of minium require 81 of real acid. An 
 hundred grains of niti-ous fait of lead contain about 60 
 of the metal. 
 
 Six hundred grains of the real marine acid are re- 
 quired for the folution of 100 grains of lead ; the fpe- 
 cific gravity of the rxid being 1.141, though more 
 would be dilTolved by a ftronger acid. — The calces of 
 lead are more foluble in tins acid than the metal itfelf 
 An hundred grains of minium require 327 of real acid; 
 but white lead is much lefs foluble. The fame quan- 
 tity of plumbum corneum, formed by precipitation, 
 contain 72 of lead, 1 8 of marine acid, and 10 of water. 
 
 An hundred grains of filver require 530 of real vi- 
 triolic acid to diffolve them ; the proportion of acid to 
 water being not lefs than as I to : and when fuch a 
 concentrated acid is ufed, it a6ts flightly even in the 
 temperature of 60° ; but a moderate heat is required 
 in order to procure a copious folution. The calces of 
 filver fonned by precipitation from the nitrous acid 
 with fixed alkalies are foluble even in dilute vitriolic 
 acid without the alfiftance of heat. An hundred grains 
 of vitriol of filver, formed by precipitation, contain 74 
 grains of metal, about 17 of real acid, and 9 of water. 
 
 An hundred grains of tlie jnireft filver require' for 
 their folution 36 of nitroiis acid, diluted with water 
 In thve proportion of one part of real acid to llx of 
 Avater, applying heat only when the folution is almoft 
 faturated. If the fpirit be much more or much lefs 
 dilute, it will not aft \\'ithout the affiftance of heat. 
 The lafl portions of fiver thus taken up afford no 
 air. Standard fdvcr requires about 38 grains of real 
 acid to diffolve the fame proportion of it ; and the fo- 
 lution affords 20 cubic inches of nitrous air ; whereas 
 100 grains ^f filver revived from luna cornea affoid 
 about 14, 
 
 I S T R Y. 427 
 
 Mr Kirwan has never been able to diffolve filver In Content-, 
 the marine acid, though Mr Bayen fays he effefted ^"^j'^ '^'^ 
 
 the diifolution of three grains and a half of it by dige- 'J ^ f 
 
 ftion for fome days with two ounces of flrong fpirit of 
 
 fait. Newmann informs us alfo, that leaf-filver is cor- of the dif- 
 
 roded by the concentrated marine acid. It is diffolved, f^^lution of 
 
 however, by the dephlogifticated fpiiit of fait, as wcll''^^^.'* 
 
 as by the phlogifticated acid when reduced to a ftate^j-j^j. 
 
 of vapour. An hundred grains of luna cornea contain 
 
 75 of filver, 18 of acid, and 7 of water. ^gj, 
 
 Mr Kirwan "found that kind of aqua regia to fucceed Beft kind 
 bell in the difl'olution of gold, which was prepared by of aqua re- 
 mixing together three parts of the real marine acidp^ f^^"" 
 with one of the nitrous acid. Both of them o'>^ght g^j^"^ 
 alfo to be as concentrated as poffible ; though, when 
 this is the cafe, it is almofl impofTible to prevent a 
 great quantity from efcaping, as a violent effervefcence 
 takes place for fome time after the mixture. Aqua 
 regia made with common fait or fal ammoniac and 
 fpirit of nitre, is much lefs aqueous than that pro- 
 ceeding from an immediate combination of both 
 acids ; and hence it is the fitteft for producing cn'ftals 
 of gold. Very little air is produced by the folution of 
 this metal, and the operation goes on very flow. It 
 is, however, better promoted by allowing it fufficient 
 time, than by applying heat. An hundred grains of Quantity 
 gold require for their folution 246 grains of real acid, '• 
 
 the t'.vo acids beincj in the proportion above mentioned. ^ 
 rin irrii- i ifi -n- i • -i- aqua regia. 
 i liough foluble m the dephlogiiticated marine acid, it 
 
 is only in very fmall quantity, unlefs the acid be in a 
 fiate of vapour; for in its liquid ilate it is too aque- ^g, 
 ous. In vitriolic and nitrous acids it is infoluble, tho' Calces of 
 the calces are fomewhat foluble in the nitrous, m^ore gold foluble 
 eaulyin the marine, but fcarcely at all in the vitriolic 
 acid. Mr Kirwan fays, that gold in its metallic flate 
 maybe diffufed through the concentrated nitrous acid, acTdl! 
 tho' not diffolved in it ; contrary to the opinion of other 484 
 chcmifls, who have afhrmed that a true diifolution takes '^^'^ 
 pla^^e. iir^'toKir'^' 
 
 An hundred grains of mercury require for their fo- ^van be dif- 
 lulion 230 grains of real vitriohc acid, whofe propor- fylved in nl- 
 tion to that of water is as i to ^s- A ftrong heat is t^ous acid, 
 alio requifite, and the air produced is vitriolic. Mtrcur - 
 
 cipitate per fc k ftill lefs foluble. — An hundred grains with'^vi?i io- 
 of vitriol of mercury, produced by precipitation, con- lie acid 
 tain 77 of metal, 19 of acid, and 4 of water. 
 
 In fpirit of nitre, 100 grains of mercury are diffol- wiih fj.irit 
 ved by 28 of real acid, whofe proportion to the water of nitre, 
 it contains is as i to ItVo* I" this acid the folution 
 takes place without heat ; but it may alfo be diffolved 
 in a m.uch more dilute acid, provided heat be applied. 
 About 12 cubic inches of air are produced when heat 
 is not applied ; but M. Lavoifier found the produce 
 much greater. This, fays Mr Kirwan, v\as evidently 
 caufcd by his ufing red or yellow fpirit of nitre, which 
 already contains much phlogifton. Precipitate is 
 much lefs eafily diFiolved in the nitrous acid, which 
 Mr Kirwan fuppofes to be owing to the attraction of 
 the aerial acid. 2d 486 
 
 The marine acid, in its common phlwgifticated Rate, With ma- 
 does not aft on mercurj', at leaft in its ufual Hate of '"'"^ 
 concentration ; though M. Romberg, in the Paris 
 Memoirs for the year 1700, affirms, that he diffolved 
 it by feveral months digeftion in this acid. When de- 
 phlugiflicated, it certainly afts upon it, though very. 
 
 3 H 2 wcaklv 
 
 triolic and 
 nitrous 
 
428 
 
 Contents, 
 &c. of the 
 Salts. 
 
 .487 
 
 Zisic with 
 vitriolic 
 ^i(l ; 
 
 With ni- 
 trous acid. 
 
 489 
 Lefs metal 
 ciiffolved 
 by concen- 
 trated than 
 hy diluted 
 nitrous acid. 
 
 490 
 With ma- 
 tine acid. 
 
 491 
 
 Bifmuth 
 fcarce fi>- 
 luble in 
 vitriolic 
 acid. 
 
 49a 
 
 Quantity 
 diffolved in 
 fjpirit of 
 riitre. 
 
 493 
 Scarce fo- 
 llble in ma- 
 rine ricids. 
 
 2d 493 
 Nickel 
 Vii'h vi- 
 triolicacid; 
 
 494 
 V/ith ni- 
 li oui acid. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 weakly while in a liquid ftate. Precipitate perfe is 
 alfo foluble in the marine acid with the afliftance of 
 heat. An hundred grains of corrofive fubUinate con- 
 tain 77 of mercury, 1 6 of real acid, and fix of water. 
 The like quantity of mercurius dulcis contains 86 of 
 metal and 14 of acid and water. 
 
 Zinc requires for its folution an equal quantity of 
 real vitriolic acid, whofe proportion to that of water 
 may be as i to 8, 10, or 12. Heat mull be applied 
 towards the end, when the faturation is almoft com- 
 pleted. By the help of heat alfo this femimetal is fo- 
 luble in the concentrated vitriolic acid, but a fmall 
 quantity of black powder remains in all cafes undif- 
 folved. An hundred cubic inches of inflammable air 
 are produced. An hundred grains of vitriol of zinc 
 contain 20 of zinc, 22 of acid, and 58 of water. The 
 calces of zinc, if not exceedingly dephlogiilicated, are 
 alfo foluble in this acid. 
 
 An hundred and tv/enty-five grains of real nitrous 
 acid, whofe proportion to water is that of i to 12, 
 are required for the folution of 100 grains of this femi- 
 metal, applying heat flightly from time to time. A 
 concentrated acid diffolves lefs of the metal, as a 
 great quantity of the menftruum efcapes during the 
 effervefcence. No nitrous air can be procured, the 
 acid being partly decompofed during the operation. 
 The calces of zinc, if not too much dephlogiilicated, 
 are likewife diflblved by the nitrous acid. 
 
 An hundred grains of zinc require for their diflblu- 
 tion 210 grains of real marine acid, the proportion of 
 it to the water being as i to 9. If a more concentra- 
 ted fpirit of fait be made ufe of, a coniiderable part of 
 it will be diffipated during the effervefcence, and confe- 
 quently more will be required for the folution. The 
 calces of zinc are alfo foluble in the marine acid. 
 
 Only three g^-ains of bifmuth were dilTolved by 200 
 of oil of vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.863, 
 though a ftrong heat was ufed at the fame tinae. A 
 greater quantity was indeed flightly dephlogiilicated ; 
 but when the gravity of the acid was reduced to 1.200, 
 only a fingle grain of the metal was diffolved by 400 
 of it. The calces of this femimetal are much more 
 foluble. Four cubic inches of vitrioHc air were af- 
 forded by the folution of three grains of bifmuth. 
 
 In fpirit of nitre, 100 grains of real acid are only 
 required to dilTolve 100 grains of the metal. The 
 proportion of water to the acid ought to be as 8 or 9 
 to I ; in which cafe a gentle heat may be applied.. 
 The folution affords 44 cubic inches of nitrous air. 
 The calces of bifmuth are alfo foluble in this acid. — 
 Only three or four grains of it were diifolved by 400 
 of marine acid, whofe fpecific gravity was 1.220. 
 
 About four grains of nickel were diflblved in an 
 hundred of the concentrated vitriolic acid with the 
 alfiftance of a flrong heat ; but its calces are much, 
 more foluble. — An hundred grains of nickel require 
 for their folution 112 of real nitrous acid, whofe pro- 
 portion to water is as i to 1 1 or 12. The produft of 
 nitrous air is 79 inches. The calces are alfo foluble.. 
 A moderate heat is neeeflary for the diflblution of the 
 metal; but a concentrated acid afts fo rapidly that 
 much of it ii diflipated.— Only four or five grains of 
 nickel are diflblved by 2rOO of fpirit of fait whofe fpe- 
 cific gravity was 1.220. An acid of this degree of 
 .trength ads v/ithout the afliftance of heat,, though 
 
 S T R y. Theory, 
 
 a weaker acid requires it, and diflblves illll Icfs of the Contencs, 
 metal. The calces of nickel are alfo foluble with dif- ^^:^f 
 ficulty in this acid. ... , ' — ~ ^ -j 
 
 Four hundred and fifty grains of real vitriolic acid, 
 whofe proportion to water is not lefs than i to t^, With ma- 
 are required for the diflblution of 100 grains of co-nneacid; 
 
 bait, aflilled by a heat of ^£70° at leail. A folution ^ , 496 _ 
 
 , . , , ' • ... J ui t^obaitvvith 
 
 is obtained by pounng warm water on the dephJo- 
 
 gifticated mafs. — The calces of cobalt, however, are acid ; 
 more foluble ; fo that even a dilute acid will ferve.— 
 In fpirit of nitre, the like quantity of cobalt requires with fpi- 
 220 grains of real acid, whofe proportion to water is rit of nitre ; 
 as I to 4; giving a heat of 180' towards the end. — The 
 calces of the metal are foluble in the nitrous acid.— ^^g 
 An hundred grains of fpirit of fait, whofe fpecific gra- With fp.Tit 
 vity is 1.178, diflblves, with the affiilance of heat, of fait; 
 two grains and a half of cobalt ; and a greater quanti- 
 ty will be diifolved by an acid more highly concen- 
 trated.— The calces of cobalt are more foluble. 
 
 An hundred grains of regulus of antimony require Reguh.s of 
 for their folution 725 grains of real vitriohc acid, antnnony 
 whofe proportion to water is as i to t-'o, afliiled by ^^i^^^^''^'.^" 
 a heat of 400 '. A large quantity of regulus fliould ' * 
 be put into the acid; and the refulting fait requires 
 much water to dlflblve it, as the concentrated acid 
 lets fall much when water is added to it. A lefs con- 
 centrated acid will likewife diflblve this femimetal, 
 but in fmaller quantity. The calces of antimony, even 
 diaphoretic antimony, are fomewhat more foluble. Nine wj^jj 
 hundred grains of real nitrous acid are required for the trouiacid. 
 folution of 1 00 grains of regulus ; the proportion of 
 acid to the water of the folvent being as i to 12, and 
 aflifted by an heat of 110°; but the folution becomes 
 turbid in a few days. The calces are miach lefs foluble 
 in this acid. — Only one grain of the regulus is dif- 
 folved by 100 of fpirit of fait, whofe fpecific gravity iuble in the 
 was 1.220, with the aflifliance of a flight heat; and marine 
 that which is only 1.178 dilfolves ftill lefs; but Mr^"*^' 
 Kirwan is of opinion that the concentrated acid would, 
 in a long time, and by the afliftance of a gentle heat, 
 diflblve much more. The calces diflblve more eafily 
 in the marine acid. ^ 
 
 Eighteen grains of regulus of arfenic are_ diflblved Regulus of 
 in a heat of 250° by 200 grains of real vitriolic acid, arfenie with 
 whofe fpecific gravity is 1.87 1. About feven of thefe ^^^.J^^'c 
 parts cryftalhze on cooling, and are foluble in a large ^'^^ ' 
 quantity of water. The calces of arfenic are more 
 foluble in this acid.— An hundred and forty grains of 
 real nitrous acid are requlfite for the folution of i 00 trous acid 1 
 grains of regulus of arfenic ; the proportion of acid^ to 
 the water being as i to 11. The folution aff"ords 102 
 cubic inches of nitrous air, the. barometer being at 
 30 and the thermometer at 60. Calces of arfenic are 
 likewife foluble in this acid. _ 504 . 
 
 An hundred grains of fpirit of fait, whofe fpecific With fpirit 
 gravity is 1.220, difl"olve a grain and an half of regu-°^-*^^' 
 lus of arfenic ; but the marine acid, in its common 
 ftate, that is, when its gravity is under 1.17, does 
 not at all afl^eft it. The arfenical calces are lefs foluble 
 in this than in the vitriolic or nitrous acids. 
 
 § 3. Of the ^antity of Phlog'yhn conialned in dlferent 
 Sulflances. 
 
 Having gone through all the various bafes with 
 which acida are ufually combined, and afcertained the 
 
 quantity 
 
 5or 
 
 Scarce fo- 
 
505 
 
 Quantity 
 
 gi'lon con- 
 tuiiied in nl 
 ti ous air. 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Quantity of quantity of difTerent ingredients contained in the com- 
 Phlo^ifton pQui^js refultine: from their union, we ou?ht next to 
 Subftances. g''^'^ account oi our author's experiments on phlo- 
 u— Y— J gifton; but as his fentiments on that fubjeft are taken 
 notice of elfewhere, we fhall content ourfelves with 
 briefly mentioning the very ingenious methods by 
 which he difcovers the quantities of it contained in va- 
 rious kinds of air and in fulphur. 
 
 Having proved that inflammable air» In its concrete 
 ftate, and phlogifl;on are the fame thing, Mr Kirwan 
 proceeds to eftimate the quantity contained in nitrous 
 air in the following manner. 
 
 " An hundred grains of filings of iron, diflblved in 
 a fiifficient quantity of very dilute vitriolic acid, pro- 
 duced, with the afliftance of heat gradually applied, 
 155 cubic inches of inflammable air; the barometer 
 being at 29.5, and the thermometer between 50^ and 
 60°. Now, inflammable air and phlogifl;on being 
 the fame thing, this quantity of inflammable air a- 
 mounts to 5.42 grains of phlogifton. — Again, 100 
 grains of iron diflVjlved in dephlogifticated nitrous acid, 
 in a heat gradually apphed and raifed to the utmofl:, 
 afford 83.87 cubic inches of nitrous air. But as this 
 nitrous air contains nearly the whole quantity of 
 phlogiflon which iron will part with (it being more 
 completely dephlogiflicated by this than any other 
 means), it follows, that 83,87 cubic inches of nitrous air 
 contain at leaft 5.42 grains of phlogifton. But it may 
 reafonably be thought, that the whole quantity of 
 phlogifton which iron will part with is not expelled 
 by the vitriolic acid, but that nitrous acid may expel 
 and take up more of it. To try whether this was 
 really the cafe, a quantity of green vitriol was cal- 
 cined until its bafis became quite infipid; after which, 
 two cubic inches of nitrous air were extrafted from 
 64 grains of this ochre ; and confequently 100 grains 
 would yield 3.12 cubic inches of nitrous air. If 83.87 
 cubic inches of nitrous air contain 5.42 of phlogifton ; 
 tlicn 3.12 cubic inches of this air contain 0.2 of phlo- 
 gifton. The nitrous acid, therefore, extrafts from 
 100 grains of iron two-tenths of a grain more phlo- 
 gifton than vitriolic acid does. Therefore 83.87 
 cubic inches of nitrous air, containing nearly the 
 whole phlogifton of the iron, have 5.62 of this fub- 
 flance. Hence 100 cubic inches of nitrous air contain 
 6.7 grains of phlogifton." 
 
 With regard to the quantity of phlogifton in fixed 
 air, after proving at length that it is compofed of 
 
 2d J05 
 cf phlogif- 
 
 ton in fixed dephlogifticated air united to the principle of inflam- 
 ^5 mability, Mr Kirwan afcertains the quantity of the 
 
 latter in the following manner : " Dr Prieftley, in the 
 fourth volume of his Obfervations, p. 380, has fatis- 
 fdftorily proved, that nitrous air parts with as much 
 phlogifton to common air, as an equal bulk of inflamma- 
 ble does when fixed in the fame proportion of common 
 air. Now, when inflammable air unites with common 
 air, its whole weight unites to it, as it contains no- 
 thing elfe but pure phlogifton. Since, therefore, ni- 
 trous air phlogifticates common air to the fame de- 
 gree that inflammable air does, it muft part with 
 a quantity of phlogifton, equal to the weight of a vo- 
 liime of inflammable air, fimilar to that of nitious air. 
 But 100 cubic inches of inflammable air weigh three 
 grains and a half ; therefore 100 cubic inches of ni- 
 trous air part with 3.5 grains of phlogifton, when 
 ^.ey communicate their phlogifton to as much common 
 
 I S T R Y. 429 
 
 air as will take it up. In this procefs, however, the Qinntity of 
 nitrous air does not part with the whole of the phlo- p'''"^'^°" 
 gifton it contains, as appears by the red colour it con- subfbn'ce"'^ 
 ftantly alfumes when mixed with common or dephlo- ■ . ^ 
 gifticated air ; which colour belongs to the nitrous 
 acid, combined with the remainder of its phlogifton, 
 whence the acid produced is always volatile. 
 
 *' One meafure of the pureil dephlogifticated air 
 and two of nitrous air occupy but x| o of one meafure, 
 as Dr Prieftley has obferved. Suppofe one meafure to 
 contain 100 cubic inches, then the whole, very near- 
 ly, of the nitrous air will difappear (its acid uniting to- 
 the water over which the mixture is made), and 97 
 cubic inches of the dephlogifticated air, which is con- 
 verted into fixed air by its union with the phlogifton 
 of the nitrous air; therefore 97 cubic inches of de- 
 phlogifticated air take up all the phlogifton which- 
 200 cubic inches of nitrous air will part with ; and 
 this we have found to be feven grains: therefore 
 a weight of fixed air equal to that of 97 cubic inch- 
 es of dephlogifticated air, and 7 of phlogifton, will 
 contain feven grains of the latter. Now, 97 cubic 
 inches of dephlogifticated air weigh 40.74 grains; to 
 which adding 7, we have the whole weight of the fix- 
 ed air, = 47. 74 grains, =: 8 3. 755 cubic inches ; and con- 
 fequently 100 cubic inches of fixed air contain 8.357 
 grains of phlogifton, the remainder being dephlogifti- 
 cated air. An hundred grains of fixed air therefore, 
 contain 14.661 of phlogifton, and 85.339 of elemen- 
 tary or dephlogifticated air. Hence alfo 100 cubic 
 inches of dephlogifticated air are converted into fixed 
 air by 7.2165 grains of phlogifton, and will be then 
 reduced to the bulk of 86.34 cubic inches* 506 
 
 To find the quantity of phlogifton in vitriolic acld^" vitrioiio 
 air, our author purfued the following method. "'^^'^ 
 
 1. He found the quantity of nitrous air afforded 
 by a given weight of copper, when dilTolved in the 
 dephlogifticated nitrous acid, and by that means how 
 much phlogifton it parts with» 
 
 2. He found the quantity of copper which a given 
 quantity of the dephlogifticated vitriohc acid could dif- 
 folve; and obferved, that it could not entirely fat-urate 
 itfelf with copper without dephlogifticating a further 
 quantity which it does not diffolve. 
 
 3. He found how much it dephlogiftlcates what it 
 thoroughly diffolves, and how much it-dephlogifticates 
 what it barely calcines. 
 
 4. How much inflammable air a given quantity of 
 copper aflfords when diffoived In the vitriolic acid to 
 the G:reateft advantas^e. 
 
 5. He deducts from the whole quantity of phlogi- 
 fton expelled by the vitriolic acid the quantity of it 
 contained in the inflammable air ; the remainder (liows 
 the quantity of it contained in the vitriolic acid air. 
 
 The conclufion deduced from experiments conduct- 
 ed after this manner is. that 100 cubic inches of vi- 
 triohc air contain 6.6 grains of phlogifton, and 71.3 
 grains of acid; and 100 cubic inches of this air wcia;h- 
 ing 77.8 grains, 100 of it muft contain 8.48 grains 
 phlogifton, and 91.53 of acid. 
 
 To find the quantity of phlogifton in fulphur, Mr Quan-i'-- o" 
 Kirwan propofed to eftimate that of the fixed air pro- pblog-iihm 
 duced during its. combuftion. For this purpofe he Sul: htr. 
 firmly tied and cemented to the open top of a glafs- 
 bell a large bladder, deftined to receive the air ex- 
 panded by combuftion, which genendly efcapes when 
 
 thi* * 
 
riiie acid 
 air, 
 
 430 C H E M I 
 
 Qi^^nuty of^i^is precaution is not ufed. Under this bell, con- 
 !n'!M''rctn taining about 30CO cubic inclu-s of air, a CJUidlt- of 
 siiblia' cc's i'ulphur, weighing 347 grains, was placed ; its wick, 
 
 . i which v/as not conuuned, weighing half a gram. It 
 
 508 was fupported by a \ery thin concave plate of tin, to 
 Proper me- prevent the fulphur from running over during the coni- 
 hurnfntn i l^ufiion ; and both were fupported by an iron wire fixed 
 ' "in a flielf in a tub of water. As foon as the fulphur 
 h'egan to burn with a feeble flame, it was covered with 
 the bell, tlie air being fqnee/.ed out of the bladder. 
 'I'he iiifide of the bell was foon filled v.-ith white fumes, 
 ft' that the flame could not be feen ; but in about an 
 hour after all the fumes were thoroughly fubfided, and 
 5 he glufs become cold, as much water entered the 
 liell as was equal to 87.2 cubic inches; which fpacc 
 our author conchides to have been occupied by fixed 
 air, and which muft have contained 7.287 grains of 
 phlogifton. The candle of fulphur being weighed was 
 found to have loft 20.75 grains; therefore 20.75 
 grains of fulphur contain 7.287 of phlogifton, behdes 
 the quantity of phlogifton which remained in the vi- 
 triolic air. ' This air muft have amounted to 20.75 — 
 7.287=13.463 grains, which, as already fiiown, con- 
 tain 1. 41 grains of phlogifton. Therefore llie whole 
 quantity of phlogifton In 20.75 g^"^'''-^ fulphur is 
 8.428; of confequence too grains of fulphur contaui 
 59.39 of vltrlohc acid, and 40.61 of phlogifton. 
 OuStv The quantity of phlogifton contained in marine 
 c^'hlo jf- acid air was found by the following method.— Eight 
 ton in ma- grains of copper diffolved in colourlefs ipint of fait 
 afforded but 4.9 inches of Inflammable air ; but when 
 the experiment was repeated over mercury, 91.28 cu- 
 bic Inches of air were obtained. Of thefe only 4.9 
 cubic Inches were Inflammable; and confequently the 
 remainder, 86.38 Inches, were marine air, weighnig 
 56.49 grains.— Now, as fpirit of fait certainly does 
 not dephloglftlcate copper more than the vitriolic acid 
 does. It follows, that thefe 4.9 cubic Inches of inflam- 
 mable air, and 86.38 of marine air, do not contain 
 more phlogifton than would be feparated from the 
 fame quantity of copper by the vitriolic acid ; and 
 fmce 100 grains of copper would yield to the vitriolic 
 acid 4.32 grains of phlogifton, 8.5 grains^of copper 
 would yield 0.367 grains of phlogifton. This there- 
 fore is the whole quantity extrafted by the _ marine 
 acid, and contained In 91.28 cubic inches of air ; and, 
 deduftlng from this the quantity of phlogifton con- 
 tained In 4.9 cubic Inches of inflammable air =:o.i7_i 
 grains, the remalndei*, viz. 0.367 — 0.171=0.196, is 
 all the phlogifton that can be found In 86.38 cubic 
 Inches of marine air. Then 100 cublc_ inches of it 
 contain but 0.227 of a grain of phlogifton, 65.173 
 grains being acid. — Hence we fee why it ads fo feebly 
 on oils, fpirit ofwIne,£ffc.andwhy it Is not di (lodged from 
 any bafis by uniting with phlogifton, as the vitriolic and 
 nitrous acids are, its affinity to It being inconflderable. 
 § 4. Remarks on the Doarhies of the ^lantity and Jpe- 
 c'tfic Gravity above delivered. 
 
 •fj, -fr ■ • To this doftrine of the fpecific gravity and quan- 
 cJjeSkln.' tity of acid contained in different fubftances, Mr Keir 
 to K.rwan'shas made feveral objeaions. i. Mr Kirwan fuppofes, 
 doctrines, t^^t marine acid gas Is the pure and folid maiinc acid 
 divefted of all water and other matter. Its apparent 
 drynefs in this refpeft, however, Is no argument that 
 
 510 
 Why ma- 
 rine acid 
 a<5ts fo 
 weakly. 
 
 ad 5 10 
 Mr Keir's 
 
 S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 it really contains no water; for water icfelf, reduced Remarks 
 to a flute of vapour, poffeffcs no moiftening P'''opfi'ty. ^"l^J^"" 
 Tiieic is great reafon to believe that water is a conlti- t,'j,,g, 
 tuent part of fjme gales, and it is certain that all of v.«— y-— ,»j 
 them are capable of holding it in folulion. As raoift 
 materials, therefore, are employed in the preparation 
 of mui-ineacid air, there feems no reafon to believe, that 
 in any way in which Mr Kirwan c<)uld obtain it, there 
 was reafon to fuppofe it perfedly free of water ; ia 
 wfu'ch cafe the denlity of the acid would be greater, 
 and its quantity fmallerthan lie fuppofes. 
 
 2. A confiderable part of the denfity of the acid ab- 
 foi "bed in the experiment, probably arofe from the con- 
 denfation wliich always accompanies the union of a 
 concentrated acid with water. Mr Kirwan allows this 
 to be the cafe with the nitrous and vitrolic acids, but 
 thinks it too inconilderable to deierve notice in the ma- 
 rine. Hii reafoning, however, does not app;;ar fa- 
 tisfaftory, or his experiments on the fubje£t conchi- 
 five. He obfcrves, that the length of tim.e taken 
 up in effecting an union between the marine gas and 
 water, is no argument againll their attrafting one an- 
 other iirongly when once united; and it is certain 
 that part of this acid gas is very quickly abforbed by 
 water. He alfo finds fault with his accuracy in cal- 
 culation; aiid afierts, that if matters are fairly flated, 
 the realdenfiry of the m.arine acid gas will be con- 
 fiderably lefs than Mr Kirwan makes it. 
 
 3. A great obltacle even to an approximation to- 
 wards the real denfity of the acid, arifes from the con- 
 dcnfation which the water, as well as the acids, muft 
 fufier in the procefs : and in this cafe, where a ge- 
 neral condenfation takes place, he alks, " How 
 fliall we determine the part of the condenfation that 
 belongs to the water, and the part that the acid iuf- 
 tains This, with other confiderations, makes Mr 
 Keir " doubt of the poffibility of folving the qutftion 
 concerning the adual denfity of pure and folid acids.'' 
 The inveiUgation of the queftion, indeed, he does not 
 confider as a matter of great confequence, as every ufe- 
 ful application may be oljtalned, by Hrfl Inveftigating 
 the comparative ftrengths of different portions of the 
 fame acid rendered more or lefs dilute ; and then by 
 finding out the ftrength of the vitriolic, nurous, and 
 marine acids of known denfities, fo that they may be 
 compared togetlier. " Homberg (fays he) has the me- 
 rit of making the fir!t effay towards this inveftiga- 
 tion. Bergman and Wenzel have fupplied the de- 
 fetl of Homberg, by taking into confideiation the gas 
 united with alkaline fubftances ; and Mr Kirwan, by 
 ufing determinate quantities of acid hquors of known 
 denfiiii'S, has confiderably improvtd the method of 
 Bergman : and whoever lucceeds thefe able cheinifts 
 in this inquiry, may avail himl'elf greatly of their ia- 
 bom-s, particularly thofe of Mr Kirwan." He con- 
 cludes with ftating the refulis of the inquiries made by 
 the chemifts above mentioned; on which he makes the 
 following remarks. 
 
 •« The difcorJancy of thefe re fults Is very ftriking, Orent dif- 
 and gives but an humiliating reprefentation of the pi-e- fercnces in 
 cifion of our prefent knowledge in chemiftry. A g''^.^*^ [^("jj"' ^'f 
 part of the difference arifes undoubtedly from the dif- j^,ff5,rent 
 ferent views in which thefe authors confidered the dry- authors, 
 ncfs or pvu-Ity of the acids. Mr Kirwan, as we have 
 feen, endeavoured to find their denfity and quantity in 
 
 5 » 
 
rheorv. 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 431 
 
 a ftatc of perfeit drynefs and purity ; which he fup- 
 pofed to exift in the marine ?.cid gas : with which he 
 compared and iiii^crred the dcuuties and quantities of 
 the nitrous and vitriohc acidy, upon the fuppoiition 
 that equal quantities of thefe feveral acids are fatu- 
 rated by a given weight of fixed alkali. Beiides the 
 uncertainty of his principles, from wliich he deduces 
 the denlity and quantity of the marine acid, his appli- 
 cations from thence to deduce the denuties of the pure 
 nitrous and vitriolic acids, being founded on the above 
 fuppofition, muft partake of its defedls. The alkali 
 which he happened to fix on as the ftandard by which 
 he compared the ftrengths of the different acid liquors, 
 in arder to determine the quantity of real acid they 
 contained, and thence to determine their denfity in a 
 folid Hate, was the fixed vegetable. Having found 
 that 100 grain J uf his real marine acid could faturate 
 215 grains of this alkali, he infers, that tl:t fame pro- 
 jKTrtion is applicable to the other acids : and accord.- 
 ingly we find that 100 grains of each of the pure and 
 real mineral acids are faturated by an equal quantity, 
 215 grains of this alkali. But if we exaaiinc the 
 other columns of his table, we fhall at once fee, that, 
 in other fubftances ffjluble by acids, this equality docs 
 not exift ; and that every inch lubftance has a ratio 
 peculiar to Itfelf, with refpeil to the proportions of 
 thefe acids neceflary for its faturatlon. It is evident, 
 therefore, that if ^^r Kirwan had fixed on the mineral 
 alkali, the volatile alkali, lime, or any other fub- 
 ftance, as a flandard, inftead of vegetable alkali, his 
 determination of the denllties of the real vitriolic and 
 nitrous acids would have been different ; and as no 
 reafon can be afligned why the vegetable alkali or any 
 other fubftance fnould have the prerogative over the 
 reft, it is obvious that there can be no fuch general 
 ftandard, but that each fubftance pofTeflts fblely the 
 capacity of determining the proportions of the fevei^al 
 acids neceffary for its faturatlon. 
 
 " The other chemifts were contented to confider as 
 the pure and dry acid, that which aclually remains in 
 the neutral fait, after this has been rendered as dry as 
 p offible by expofure to a red heat : and having made 
 tlieir alkalies as dry as they could, they fuppofed thefe 
 alkalies to retain the fame weight in the dried neutral 
 fait ; and that the augmentation of the weight gained 
 by the alkali during the formation of the neutral fait 
 fhfiwed the weight of the dry acid. The uncertainty 
 which affects this method arifes from the different ca- 
 pacities which difTerent neutral falts may poflefs of re- 
 taining more or lefs water, either as a conflituent part 
 of the diy fait, or merely by the ftrength of adhefion 
 4)r affinity. Nevertheltfs, this method being founded 
 folely on expeiiment, without any theoretical Induc- 
 tions, feems to furniih fome approximation, not per- 
 haps of the abfolute quantity of the acids in their 
 drleft poITible Itate, but of the acids as they a£fually 
 *xift in thefe falts comparatively with each other. 
 Though the difagreements between Bergman's and 
 Wenzel's refults are little in comparifon of the diffe- 
 rence between them and Kirwan's, yet as their expe- 
 riments were made nearly in the fame manner, and 
 upon the fame grounds, there feems to be fufficient 
 reafon to wifli for a careful repetition of their experi- 
 ments, or of others with the fame view, and lefs liable 
 to objeclions. 
 
 The only difference in the methods employed by Remarks 
 thefe two celebrated chemifts coulifted in the mode ofo" 'y^^"^' 
 faturatlon. Bergman probably ufed the common me- ^^-^.^^^^ 
 thud, but Wen/.el employed a very pecuhar one. He l— -y— ^ 
 added to his alkali a greater quantity of acid than v.-as 
 ntceffary for the faturatlon ; and after the alkali was 
 dlifolved, he added a lump of zinc, or of oyfter-fliell, ia 
 order to fatuiate completely the fuperfiuous acid. By 
 obferving how much of the zinc or oyftcr-fhcll the acid 
 dlifolved, and knowing- how much of thefe fubftances 
 was foluble in his acid by former experiments, he in- 
 fen-ed the quantity of acid left for the faturatlon of 
 the alkali. Having thus afcertained the quantity ne- 
 ceflary to faturate the alkali, he mixed together the 
 proper proportions of thefe, and formed his neutral 
 fait by evaporating the mixture and drying the fait 
 with a red heat. Perhaps the difference In the refults 
 obtained by thefe two chemifts might arife from their 
 different modes of faturatlon. The common method 
 of afcertalning the point of faturatlon by means of 
 litmus or other blue vegetable juices, appears fuffi- 
 clently exadf. Is fimplei", and therefore preferable to 
 that ufed by Wenzel. 
 
 " The ftandard for comparing the ftrengths of acids, 
 and likewife of alkalies with one another, may be ei- 
 ther an acid or an alkaline fubftance ; and if we had 
 one of each, the proportion of whole quantities requi- 
 fite for their mutual faturatlon were well afcertained, 
 the convenlency in making the expernnents would be 
 obvious, and the ceilalnty greater. Alkaline, and the 
 earthy fubftances that are foluble In acids, are feldcm 
 pure enough for this purpofe. Tiiey generally con- 
 tain quantities, which are not conftant, of fixed ah-, 
 liliceous earth, magnefia, neutral falts, and inflammable 
 mattei, which render any of thole that are commonly 
 met with unfit for the purpofe without a very lkiifi;l 
 and careful purification. The chemiils v/ho have made 
 experiments to determine the proportions of acids and 
 alkahes requlfite for each other's faturatlon, have fcarce- 
 ly been explicit enough in explaining the means of pu- 
 rifying the alkalies which they employed ; for thofe in 
 commerce are quite uncertain in flrength and purity : 
 and as to the general rules for making allowances for 
 any heterogeneous fubftances they may contain, the j 
 are quite inapplicable to delicate experlTuents. No 
 other method feems proper for afcertalning the pu- 
 rity of alkahes but that of cryftallization ; of whiclv 
 both the vegetable and mineral alkahes are fufceptibl;^, 
 efpecially the latter, which on account of its being 
 more eafily reducible into cryftals, is therefore prefer- 
 able. Thefe alkaline cryftals, however, are not tit to 
 be ufed as a ftandard, becaufe they either are apt to 
 be infufficlently dried, or, upon expofure to air, to lofe 
 a part of the water of their cryftallization, and to fall 
 into powder. Even if they fliould be taken, as is pot- 
 fible with due care, at the exaft ftate of dry but entire 
 cryftals, another uncertainty arifes from a property 
 which feems to be common to them all, namely, that 
 of retaining a greater or fmaller quantity of water- ac- 
 cording to the degree of heat in which they were 
 cryftaUized; the colder the weather the greater quau - 
 tity of water entering into the compofition of the cry-- 4t'i jio 
 Hals. It feems poflible, however, to make a pretty 
 accurate ftandard of mineral alkali in the following "J^/..^";.,^^ 
 manner : Let the alkali be purified by repeated folu-ua alk,il-r e 
 
432 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 tion raid cryilullizatlon, ufiiig only fuch as are formed 
 firft, and rejofting the remaining liquors. Let the 
 pure cr^'ftals be expofcd to a dry air until they have 
 completely efflorefced or fallen into a di-y white pow- 
 der ; which alteration may be facilitated by bruifing 
 the cryllals, and changing the furface of the powder. 
 Let this powder be then expofed for a certain and de- 
 terminate time to a conftant heat, as that of boihng 
 v/ater for 1 2 hours ; letting the furface expofed be in 
 fome given proportion, fuppofe of a fquare inch to an 
 ounce of the powder of cryllals, and let it be flirred 
 every two hours. When thus dried, let them be put 
 while hot into a bottle, and well flopped. This pow- 
 der I have found to be an uniform and conftant ftand- 
 ard for afcertaining the ftrength of acids ; and alfo, by 
 ■comjjarifon by means of acids, of other alkaline fub- 
 flances." 
 
 With regard to an acid ftandard, our author re- 
 commends oil of vitriol ; which, he fays, as it comes 
 from the hands of the Britilh manufafturers, is of the 
 fpecific gravity of about 1.846, but foon becomes 
 >\'eaker, unlefs carefully kept from the external air ; 
 and in general he rates it at 1.844. O"*^ P'^''"^ 
 acid mixed with nine of water, is of a very convenient 
 llrength for ufe ; and as every ten grains of the mix- 
 ture contain one of the ftandard acid, the computations 
 m-e thus rendered eafy : and by thefe ftandards, the 
 ftrength of all acids, alkalies, and fubftances foluble in 
 ^th ^To "^'^y meafured and compai-ed together. 
 
 His method To determine the fpecific gravity of liquors with 
 of iindinjif ciccuracy, our author recommends the method of weigh- 
 the fpecific j^g them in a phial fitted with a glafs-ftopper, which 
 can only enter a certain length into the neck. In 
 this way, he obferves, no other inconvenience can en- 
 fue than the flight one, that the glafs-ftopper, by very 
 frequent ufe, is apt to wear itfelf and the neck of the 
 phial alfo ; fo that after a great number of experiments, 
 it will at laft diminifli, in fome meafure, the capacity 
 of the phial itfelf. This, however, is but very trifling, 
 and may be correfted at any time. Mr Keir has be- 
 fides found, that after fome hundreds of experiments, 
 the error amounted only to one quarter of a grain in 
 loi grains. 
 
 " The methods hitherto praftifed (fays he) for af- 
 certaining the quantities of acids and alkalies contain- 
 ed in neutral falts, feem to be liable to feveral objec- 
 tions befides thofe above mentioned, arifing from the 
 different proportions of water remaining in a neutral 
 fait, after expofure to a red heat, which heat is alfo 
 very indefinite. In boiling the faturated mixture of 
 acid and alkali to drynefs, and afterwards in expofing 
 this fait to a red heat, it has been fuppofed that nothing 
 but water is expelled ; and fome chemifts, who have 
 given the refults, have alfo determined the weight of 
 the alkali which enters into the neutral mixture, by 
 evaporating to drynefs an equal quantity of the alka- 
 line folution which had been employed in the fatura- 
 t!on, and weighing the dry folution, on the fuppofi- 
 ■fition that nothing is expelled but water. It is cer- 
 tain, however, that in the evaporation both of alkalies 
 and neutral falts, a confiderable portion of the faline 
 matter is elevated towards the end, when the liquor 
 becomes concentrated and acquires a degree of heat 
 coufiderably above that of boiling water. The fol- 
 K°7i. 1 
 
 Theory. 
 
 irravity of 
 riiiFcrenc 
 
 lowing method appears bell for determining the reia- 'f^emark<! 
 tive quantities of acid and alkali, or other fubftance"" 
 exiitmg in neutral laits. trines 
 
 " To a given number of grains, fuppofe 100 of the ■ 
 ftandard vitriolic acid, or to a proportionable quantity of 
 any other acid, add as much of the alkali or other fo- 
 luble fubftance as is requifite for the faturation, and 
 note the quantfty required, which fuppofe to be 150 
 grains. ^Ve have thus a folution of the neutral fait, 
 which is the objeft of the experiment ; the quantities 
 of acid and bafis contained in which are known, and 
 the general pi-oportion of the quantity of the acid to 
 its bafis in the neutral fait determined, viz. as 100 
 to I JO. The next thing to be difcovered is the weigUl 
 of the diy neutral fait contained in this folution, in 
 order to know the proportion of the dry neutral fait 
 to its acid and bafis. For this purpofe, let a given 
 quantity of the fame neutral fait, either in the ftate 
 of cr)-ftals or dried to any given degree, be diffolved in 
 Avater. Let this folution be brought to the fame den- 
 fity as the former, by adding water to the heavier of 
 the two : then, by knowing the weight of each folu- 
 tion, and the quantity of dry neutral fait which was 
 aftually diffolved in one of them, the quantity con- 
 tained in the other may be deduced ; and thence the 
 quantities of ftandard acid, or of other acid pro- 
 portioned to it, and of the alkali employed, or 
 other foluble fubftance contained in a given quantity 
 of the neutral fait, are determined ; alio the quantity 
 of water contained in the neutral fait, that is greater or 
 lefs than what is contained in the quantity of acid em- 
 ployed, will be known, over and above any water that 
 may have been contained in the alkali or other bafis of 
 the neutral fait ; tlie quantity of which water, if any, 
 cannot be determined. 
 
 " By this method may be afcertained the propor- 
 tion of the acid, of the bafis, and of the neutral fait, to 
 each other ; not indeed the quantity of acid and of al- 
 kali deprived of all water, but the quantity of acid, 
 equal in intenfity of acidity to a known portion of 
 the ftandard acid ; and alfo the quantity of fuch alkali 
 or other foluble fubftance as was employed ; the rela- 
 tive ftrength of which is known from its ratio to the 
 ftandard acid." 
 
 The tranflator of Wiegleb's Syftem of Chemiftry oJj'gVi'n 
 totally difagrees with Mr Kirwan's calculation of the to Kirwan's 
 quantity of phlogifton contained in fulphur; but as his calculation 
 objeftion feems to arife rather from an inclination to "^.^ 
 the antiphlogillic doArine than a real difcuffion of the " 
 fubjeft, this can have but little weight. It is poflible fuiphur. 
 indeed that Mr Kirwan may have over-rated the quan- 
 tity of phlogifton this fubftance contains, which is in- 
 deed larger than that allowed by other chemifts. 
 " Brandt (fays the tranflator), who has been moft ge- 
 nerally followed, reckons it only at tV > ^nd it has al- 
 ways appeared to me, that the weight of phlogifton in 
 fulphur is almoft infinitely fmall." His objeftion pro- - 
 ceeds on a maxim which he thinks he has demonftra- 
 ted, viz. that fulphur is compofed, not of the vitriolic 
 acid and phlogifton, but of the 6afe of vitriolic acid 
 and phlogifton. No experiments hitherto made, how- 
 ever, have been able to fhow this bafe diftincL from the 
 acid ; nor have we any reafon to fuppofe that the in- 
 creafe of weight in the vitriolic acid above the fulphur 
 
 from 
 
Theory. G H E M 
 
 ^ %mh$. ^ from which it « produced, arifes from any thing be- 
 *~''V''*~' fides the acceflion of mere water, which the air parta 
 with during the combuftion. Hence, if the fulphur is 
 burnt in a very moift air, the quantity of acid obtained 
 will be four or five times the weight of the fulphur. 
 
 Sect. IV. Earths. 
 
 These are divided into five clafTes : i. Abforbent, 
 alkaline, or calcareous earths : 2. Argillaceous earths 
 or clay: 3. The flinty: 4. The fufible earths : and, 
 5. The talks. 
 
 I. The firA clafs comprehends all thofe that are ca- 
 pable of being converted into hme. They are found 
 of various degrees of hardnefs ; but none of them are 
 capable of totally refilling the edge of a knife, or 
 ftriking fire with fteel. They are found to confift of a 
 very friable earth, joined with a large quantity of air 
 and fome water. They effervefce with an acid when 
 poured on them ; by which they are diftinguiflied from 
 all other kinds of earth, except the argillaceous. 
 When calcined by a ftrong fire, they part with the 
 water and air which they contained, and then acquire 
 a great degree of caufticity, lofe their power of ef- 
 fervefcing with acids, and become what is a cal- 
 Quicklime. 9'"'^^^^^^- They are foluble in acids, but not equal- 
 ly fo in all. The vitrioHc and tartareous acids form 
 compounds with them very difficultly foluble ; the fe- 
 leniteSf formed by the vitriolic acid and calcareous 
 earth, requiring, according to Mr Beaumc, an ounce 
 of water to diffblve a fingle grain of it. The folubi- 
 lity of the tartareous felenite hath not yet been de- 
 termined. — With the other mineral acids, the calca- 
 reous earths become eafily foluble ; and by proper ma- 
 nagement form concretes which appear luminous in the 
 dark, and are called p/jo/phori. 
 Argiiiace- 2. The argillaceous earths diiTer from the calca- 
 •u». reous, in not being convertible into quicklime. When 
 
 mixed into a pafte with water, and expofed to the 
 fire, they (brink remarkably, crack in many places, 
 and become exceflively hard. By being gently dried 
 in the open air before they are turned, they do not 
 crack, and thus may be formed into veffels of any 
 fhape. Of this kind of earth are formed all the brown 
 fort of earthen ware. The pureft kind of argillaceous 
 €arth naturally found, is that whereof tobacco-pipes 
 are made. 
 
 All the argillaceous earths are foluble in acids. With 
 the vitriolic they diflblve into a gelatinous tough liquor 
 very difficultly cryftaUizable ; but which, on the addi- 
 tion of fome fixed or volatile alkali, may be (hot into 
 cryftals of the fait called alum. With the other acids 
 they form aftringent falts of a fimilar nature. 
 
 The attraction between the argillaceous earths and 
 acids is very weak, yielding not only to alkaline falts 
 both fixed and volatile, but even to fome metals, par- 
 ticularly iron ; but thefe earths have as yet been but 
 little the fubjeft of chemical examination in this way. 
 They have a remarkable property of abforbing the 
 colouring matter of cochineal, Brafil-wood, life, as have 
 alfo the calces of fome metals. 
 
 Both the calcareous and argillaeeous, and indeed all 
 earths when pure, refift the utmott violence of fire ; 
 but when mixed together will readily melt, efpecially 
 if In Gontad with the burning fuel. Dr Lew's having 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 433 
 
 Earths, 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 made covers to fome crucibles of clay and chalk mixed 
 together, found that they melted into a yellow glafs, 
 before the mixtures in the crucibles were fufed in the 
 leaft. But though they melted thus readihr when in 
 contaft with the fuel, it was with great difficulty he 
 could bring them to a tranfparent glafs when put into 
 a crucible. 
 
 The other fpecies of earths, vh. the flinty, fufible, 
 and talky, being no other way the fubjedts of che- 
 miftry than as they are fubfervient to the making of 
 glafs, all that can be faid of them will moft properly 
 come under that article. For their diff"erent fpecies, 
 fee Mineralogy. 
 
 Befides the above mentioned fpecies of earths, there Anomalous 
 are others which may be called anomalous, as having 
 fome refemblance of the calcareous and argillaceous, 
 and yet being eflentially different from them. Thefe 
 are the white earth called magnefta alba, the earth of 
 burnt vegetables, and that produced from burning a- 
 nimal fubfliances. 
 
 Magnefia alba was at firft; prepared from the thick Magnefia. 
 hquor remaining after the cryftallization of nitre ; |and 
 is now found to be contained in the Hquor called bit- 
 tern, which is left after the feparation of common fait 
 from fea-water. In the former cafe it was united with 
 the nitrous, in the latter with the vitriolic, acid. It 
 is alfo found naturally in the foft kind of ftone called 
 Jleatites or " foap Hone and in the concrete ufed for 
 taking fpots out of cloaths, called French chalk. It 
 difl'ers from the calcareous earths, In not acquiring any 
 caufticity when deprived of its air, of which it con- 
 tains fo large a quantity as to lofe two-thirds of its 
 weight when calcined. From the argillaceous it dif- 
 fers in not burning hard when mixed with water, nor 
 forming a tough dudile paflie. It is eafily foluble In 
 all the acids, even the vitriolic ; with which it forms 
 the bitter purging fait commonly called Epfom fait, 
 fi-om its being firfl: difcovered in the waters of Epfom. 
 With all the other acids it likewife forms purgative 
 compounds, which are either very difficultly or not 
 at all cryftaUizable. — Like other pure earths, it can- 
 not be melted by itfelf ; but, on proper additions, runs 
 into a beautiful green glafs. 
 
 The earth of burnt vegetables is thought by Dr Vegetable 
 Lewis to be the fame with magnefia alba ; but on try- ^'"^ animal 
 ing the common wood aflies, they were found to be 
 very different. This kind of earth is fufible, by rea- 
 fon of the alkaline falts contained in it. Animal earth 
 is both very difficult of folution in acids, and impof- 
 fible to be melted in the ftrongeft fire. It diflblves, 
 however, in acid liquors, though flowly; but the na- 
 ture of the compounds formed by fuch an union are as 
 yet unknown. The fofter parts of animals, fuch as 
 blood, flefh, i!fc. are faid to yield a more foluble earth 
 than the others. Animal earth has lately been fup- 
 pofed to be compounded of calcareous earth and phof- 
 phoric acid ; but this opinion is ftiown to be erroneous 
 under the article Bones. The phofphoric acid pro- 
 duced from thefe, is with reafon fuppofed to be only 
 the vitriolic acid changed. 
 
 Sect.V. Inflammable Subjiances. 
 
 516 
 
 These comprehend all vegetable, animal, and fome PJ^enomena 
 mineral fubfl;ances. They are diftinguiflied from all ^^"""'"So 
 3 I others, 
 
434 
 
 Inflam- 
 mable Sub- 
 fiances. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 317 
 
 On diftilla. 
 tion. 
 
 518 
 Treated 
 with diffe 
 lent acids. 
 
 519 
 Singular 
 produc- 
 tions. 
 
 others, by emitting a grofs thick fmoke and flame, 
 when a certain degree of heat is applied. To this, 
 however, fpliit of wine and all preparations from it are 
 exceptions. They burn without the leaft fmake ; and 
 if a glafs bell is held over the burning fplrit, no foot 
 is formed, only a quantity of water is found condenfed 
 on its fides. Even the grofler oils, if flowly burnt with 
 a very fmall flame, will yield no foot; and an exceeding 
 great quantity of water, fully equal in weight and bulk 
 to the oil employed, may be obtained from them. We 
 can fcarcely, however, credit, that fo great a quantity of 
 water comes from the oil ; as this would be a real tranf- 
 mutation ; and Ave know that, befides water, the oils 
 contain alfo fome quantity of fixed air, as well as earth. 
 It is probable, therefore, that, as it is Impoflible to 
 fuftain flame without a decompofition of that part of 
 the air which rufhes In to fupport it, part of the water 
 in this cafe comes from the air, which always contains 
 moifture in abundance. 
 
 Inflammable matters, on being burnt, generally leave 
 behind a fmall quantity of earthy matter called afies ; 
 but to this, fplrit of wine, camphor, the more volatile 
 oils, and the mineral oil called naptha, are exceptions. 
 . Vegetable fuftances, when diftlUed In clofe veffels, give 
 out a quantity of air, fome acid, and an empyrcumatic 
 oil, leaving behind a black fpongy mafs called charcoal. 
 To this too there are a few exceptions, viz. fpirit of 
 wine, and the preparations from It, camphor, and per- 
 haps fome of the more volatile oils, or naphtha. Ani- 
 mal fubftances yield only a very fetid empyreumatic 
 oil, and volatile alkali. 
 
 In general, all inflammable matters are afted upon 
 with fome violence by the vitriolic and nitrous acids, 
 excepting only camphor and naphtha. With the vi- 
 triolic acid, when In a liquid ftate, they render It vola- 
 tile and fulphureous ; If in 'a dry fl:ate, they form ac- 
 tual fulphur. With the nitrous, they firft Impart a high 
 colour and great degree of volatility to the acid ; then 
 a violent flame enfues, if the matter Is attempted to 
 be dried. With fpirit of wine the effefts are confi- 
 derably different ; and very volatile compounds are 
 formed, which are called ether, on account of their ex- 
 ceeding great difpofitlon to rife in vapour. Similar 
 compounds are likewlfe produced, but with more dif- 
 ficulty, from the marine acid and concentrated vine- 
 gar. The fal fedativus of borax mixes with fplrit of 
 wine, and caufes It burn with a green flame ; but does 
 not feem to produce any other change upon it. How 
 the acid of phofphorus and of ants aft upon fplrit of 
 ■wine, is not exaftly known ; but that of tartar by dl- 
 geftion with It, Is converted Into the acetous acid. With 
 any other inflammable matter, the phofporine acid re- 
 produces phofphorus. 
 
 There are two fingularltles obferved among the In- 
 flammable fubfl:ances. One Is that bituminous matter 
 called amber, which yields a volatile fait of an acid 
 nature on diftlUation : "When combined with alkalies, 
 this acid is found to yield compounds fimllar to thofe 
 made with the acetous acid and alkali. The other Is, 
 that gum called benzoin, which is ufcd as a perfume, and 
 yields by fubllmatiun a kind of votatlle fait in fine Alin- 
 ing cryftals like fmall needles, and of a molt grateful 
 odour. Thefe diflblve very rtadily in fpirit of wine ; 
 but not at all in water, unlels It Is made very hot ; fo 
 ^t they feeia to contain more oily than faline matter. 
 
 Neither the nature of thefe flowers, however, nor that Metalline 
 of the fait of amber, is fully known. 
 
 Subltances. 
 
 Sect. VI. Metalline Stihjlances. 
 
 These are diftlngulfhed from all other bodies by 
 their great fpec'^ic gravity, exceeding that of the moft 
 denfe and compaft ftones. Tiie heavleft of the latter 
 do not exceed the fpecific gravity of water in a greater 
 proportion than that of 4 to i ; but tin, the llghteft of 
 all the metals, exceeds the fpecific gravity of water In 
 the proportion of 7 to i. They are alfo the raoft 
 opaque of all known bodies, and reflcd the niys of light 
 mod powerfully. _ 
 
 Metallic bodies poflTefs the quality of diffolvlng in Metals fo» 
 and uniting with acid falls, in common with earths luble in a- 
 and alkalies ; but, in general, their union Is lefs per- cids. 
 fe£l, and they are more eafily feparable. They ef- 
 fervefce with acids, as well as calcareous earths and 
 alkahes ; but their effervefcence is attended with very 
 different appearances. In the eff"ervefcence of acids 
 with alkalies, or with calcareous earths, there is a dll- 
 charge of the fluid called fxecl air, which is fo far from 
 being Inflammable, that it will immediately extinguifh 
 a candle, or other fmall flame immerfed In it. The 
 mixture alfo is notably dimlnifhed in weight. When 
 a metallic fubftance is dilfolved in an acid, the weight 
 of the mixture is never very much dimlnifhed, and 
 fometimes it Is increafed. Thus, an ounce of quick- 
 filver being flowly dropped Into as much aquafortis as 
 was fufficient to diffolve it, and the folution managed 
 fo as to take up almofl; a whole day, the whole was 
 found to have gained feven grains. There is alfo a re- 
 markable difference between the nature of the vapour 
 difcharged from metals and that fro;n alkalies; the 
 former, in mf)ft cafes, taking fire and exploding with 
 violence ; the latter, as already obferved, extingulililng 
 flame. ' 511 
 
 The metallic fubftances, at leafl: fuch as we are able Their com^ 
 to decompound, are all compofed of a certain kind of po^"'""- 
 earth, and the inflammable principle called phlogijlon. 
 The earthy part by itfelf, In whatever way It Is pro- 
 cured, goes by the name of calx. The other principle 
 has already been proved to be the fame with charcoal. 
 When thefe two principles are feparated from one an- 
 other, the metal Is then faid to be calcined. The calx Calcination 
 being mixed with any inflammable fubft:ance, fuch as ^ndjevivi- 
 powdered charcoal, and urged with a ftrong fire, '° 
 melts into metal again ; and It is then faid to be re- 
 duced, or revificated: and this takes place whether 
 the metal has been reduced to a calx by diflblutlon in an 
 acid, or by being expofed to a violent fire. If, how- 
 ever, the calcination by fire has been very violent and 
 long continued, the calx will not then fo readily 
 unite with the phloglfl:on of the charcoal, and the re- 
 dattion will be performed with more difficulty. Whe- 
 ther, by this means, fia. a long continued and violent 
 calcination, metallic earths might entirely lofe their 
 property of combining with phlogifton, and be changed 
 Into thofe of another kind, deferves well to be inquired 
 
 into. 
 
 S»3 
 
 When a metallic fubfl^ance is difTolved In any kind of Calcination 
 acid, and an alkali or calcareous earth not deprived ^"''J"^^ 
 of its fixed air is added, the alkali will immediately J^,g^„ht"by 
 be atiraded by the acid, at the fame time that the fix- acids. 
 
 ed 
 
M. Lavoi- 
 fier's expe- 
 limcntf. 
 
 Theory. G H E M I 
 
 Metalline ed air contained in the alkali is difengaged, and the 
 Subftanccs. ^^■[^ metal, having now no acid to keep it dlf- 
 
 folved, immediately joins with the fixed air of the al- 
 kali, and falls to the bottom. Something fimilar to 
 this happens when metals arc calcined by lire. In 
 this cafe, there is a continual decompofition of the air 
 which enters the fire ; and the fixed air contained in 
 it, bting, by this decompofition, let loofe, combines 
 with ti\e calx ; whence, in both cafes, there is a confi- 
 derable incrcafe of weight. If the air is excluded from 
 a metal, it cannot be calcined even by the mott vio- 
 lent fire. 
 
 Reafon of When a raetal is precipitated by a mild alkali, or by 
 the increafe an uncalcined calcareous earth, the i-eafon of the in- 
 of wei|;htin ^^^^fg of ^^v^jg^it {g very evident; namely, the adhe- 
 taices''''^ fion of the fixed air to the metalline calx : but, though- 
 it is not fo much increafed when precipitated by can- 
 flic alkali, or by quicklime, there is neverthelefs a very 
 evident increafe, which is not fo eafily accounted for. 
 M. Lavoifier has mentioned fjme experiments made 
 on mercury and iron dilFolved in aquafortis, which 
 deferve to be taken notice of, as in a great meafure 
 accounting for the phenomenon already mentioned of 
 th^folution of metalline fubftances gaining an addi- 
 tion of weight ; and likewife (how the proportion of 
 increafe of weight with the mild, or calcined calcareous 
 earth. 
 
 " Exaftly 12 ounces of quickfilver (fays he) were 
 put f^ito a matrafs, and 12 ounces of fpirit of nitre 
 poured on it. Immediately a fpontaneous effervef- 
 cencc enfued, attended with heat. The red vapours of 
 the nitrous acid arofe from the mixture, and the Hquor 
 afTumed a greenifh colour. I did not wait till the fo- 
 lution was entirely accompliflied before I Weighed it ; 
 it had loft one drachm 18 grains. Three hours after, 
 the mercury was nearly all dlffolved: but having again 
 weighed the folation, I was much attonifhed to perceive 
 that it had increafed inftead of being diminifhed in 
 weight ; and that the lofs, which was one drachm 1 8 
 grains at firft, was now only 54 grains. The next 
 day the folution of the mercury was entirely finlfhed, 
 and the lofs of weight reduced to 1 8 grains ; fo that in 
 1 2 hours the folution, though confined in a narrow neck- 
 ed matrafs, had acquired an augmentation in weight 
 of one dr-achm. I added fome diftilled water to my fo- 
 lution, to prevent it from. cryftalHzing; the total weight 
 of it was then found to be 48 ounces i drachm and 1 8 
 grains. 
 
 " I weighed feparately, in two veflels, 8 ounces 
 15 grains of the above folution, each of which por- 
 tions, according to the preceding experiment, ought 
 to contain 2 ounces of nitrous acid and 2 ounces of 
 quickfilver. On the other fide, I prepared 6 di-achms 
 36 grains of chalk, and 4 drachms 36 grains of lime ; 
 thefe proportions having been found by former ex- 
 perim.ents juft neceffary to faturate two ounces of ni- 
 trous acid. I .put the chalk in the one veffel, and the 
 lime in the other. 
 
 " An effervefcence attended the precipitation by 
 chalk, but without heat ; the meirury pi-ecipitated in 
 a light yellow powder, at the fame time the chalk 
 was diffolved in the niti-ous acid. The precipitation 
 by the lime was efFeCiled without e£Fer%'efcence, but 
 with heat; the mercury was precipitated in a brownifh 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 powder. When the precipitates were well fublided, Metallme 
 I decanted off the liquors from them, and carefully 
 edulcorated them. After which, I caufed them to be " ' 
 dried in a heat nearly equal to that in which mercury 
 boils. 
 
 " The precipitate by the chalk weighed 2 ounces 2 
 drachms 45 grains ; that by the lime weighed 2 ounces 
 I diachm 45 grains. 
 
 *' Sixteen ounces of the nitrous acid, the fame aa 
 employed in the former experiments, were placed in 
 a mati-afs, and fome iron filings gradually added. The 
 effervefcence was brifk, attended with great heat, red 
 vapours, and a very rapid difcharge of elaftic fluid : 
 the quantity of iron neceffary to attain the point of 
 faturation was 2 ounces 4 drachms ; after which, the 
 lofs of weight was found to be 4 dr-achms 19 grains. 
 As the folution was turbid, I added as much diftilled 
 water as made the vv-hole w^eight of the folution to be 
 exaftly 6 pounds. 
 
 " I took two portions, each weighing i 2 ounces of 
 the above folution, and containing 3 ounces of nitrous 
 acid, and 2 drachms 36 grains of iron filings. I pla* 
 ced them in two feparate veflels. To one were added 
 6 drachms 36 grains of chalk ; and to the other 4 
 drachms 36 grains of flaked lime, being the quantities 
 neceffary to faturate the acid. 
 
 " The precipitation was effefted by the chalk with 
 effervefcence and tumefaftion, that by the lime witJi- 
 out either effervefcence or heat. Each precipitate 
 was a yellow brown ruil of iron. They were wafhed 
 in feveral parcels of diftilled water, and then dried in 
 an heat fomewhat fuperior to that ufed in the laft ex* 
 periment. 
 
 " The precipitate by the chalk, when dried, was a / 
 greyifh ruft of iron, inclining even to white by veins. 
 It weighed 6 drachms 35 grains. That by the lime was 
 rather yellower, aiid weighed 4 drachms 69 grains. 
 
 " The refult of thefe experiments (fays M. La- Confequen- 
 voifier) are, I. That iron and mercury diffolved in ces from his 
 the nitrous acid acquire a i-emarkable increafe of^^P^f*- 
 weight, whether they be precipitated by chalk or by ^^'^^^ » 
 lime. 2. That this increafe is greater in refpedl to 
 iron than mercury. 3. That one reafon for thinking 
 that the elaftic fluid contributes to this augmentation 
 is, that it is conftantly greater when an earth is em- 
 ployed faturated with elaftic fluid, fuch as chalk, than 
 when an earth is uftd which has been deprived of it, 
 as lime. 4. That it is probable that the increafe of 
 w^eight which is experienced in the precipitation of 
 lime, although not fo great as that by chalk, proceeds 
 in part from a portion of the elaftic fluid which re^ 
 mains united to the lime, and which could not be fepa- 
 rated by the calcination." 
 
 But though We are naturally enough inclined to Not well 
 think that the increafe of weight in the precipitates founded, 
 formed by lime proceeded from fome quantity of ela- 
 ftic fluid or fixed air which remained combined with 
 the lime, it is by far too great to be accounted for in 
 this way, even according to the experiments men- 
 tioned by M. Lavoifier himfelf, and which, from thfc 
 manner in which they are told, appear to have been 
 performed with the greateft accui^acy. He found, 
 that I ounce 5 drachms and 36 grains of flaked lime 
 confained 3 drachms and 3 quarters of a grain of water, 
 3 I 2 and 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 3 so 
 What me- 
 tal a^-e cal- 
 cinable, & 
 with what 
 degrees of 
 licat. 
 
 541 
 
 Rufting of 
 metals. 
 
 54a 
 Fufibility 
 of metal- 
 lic com- 
 pounds. 
 
 543 
 Rrtat fufi- 
 bility of 
 compounds 
 of tin and 
 l)jfmuth. 
 
 544 
 
 ©ne fufiblg 
 by the heat 
 •f boiling 
 water. 
 
 and only 1 6 grains and an half of claftic fluid were fe- 
 parable from it. In the experiments above related, 
 where only 4 drachms and 36 grains were employed, 
 the quantity of elaftic fluid could not exceed 6 or S 
 grains. Yet the calx was increafed in mercury by no 
 lefs than 105 grains, and in iron by 203 grains; a 
 quantity quite unaccountable from the elaftic fluid or 
 fixed air which we can fuppofe to be contained in the 
 \ime made ufe of. It is much more probable, that the 
 increafed weight of metallic precipitates, formed by 
 lime, arifes from an adhefion of part of the acid. 
 
 Metals are found to be compounded of a kind of 
 earth mixed with the inflammable principle or phlo- 
 gifton ; and, by a difBpation of the latter, all metallic 
 bodies, gold, filver, and platina excepted, are capabk 
 of being reduced to a calx, but very dift"erent degrees 
 of heat are required for calcining them. Lead and tin 
 begin to calcine as foon as th-ey are melted, long be- 
 fore they are made red-hot. The fame happeris to the 
 femimetals bifmuth and zinc ; the latter indeed, being 
 combuftible, cannot bear a greater heat in open veffels 
 than that which is barely fufficient to melt it. Iron 
 and copper require a red heat to calcine them ; though 
 the former may be made partly to calcine by being 
 frequently wetted in a degree of heat confiderably below 
 that which is fufficient to make it red. 
 
 Moft metals undergo a kind of fpontaneons calcina- 
 tion in the open air, which is called their nifiing; and 
 which has given occafion to various conjeftures. But 
 M. Lavoifier has fliown, that this arifes from the fix- 
 able part of the atmofphere attaching itfelf to their 
 earthy part, and difcharging the phlogifton. Accord- 
 ing to him, no metallic body can ruft but where 
 there is an abforption of air ; and confcquently metals 
 can be but imperfedtly rufted when kept under a re- 
 ceiver. 
 
 If two metals are mixed together, the compound 
 generally turns out more fufible than either of them 
 was before the mixture. There are indeed great 
 differences in the degrees of heat requifite to melt 
 them. Thus, lead and tin melt below that degree of 
 heat which is required to make quickfilver or hnfeed- 
 oil boil. , Silver requires a full red heat, gold a low 
 white heat, copper a full white, and iron an ex- 
 treme white heat, to make it melt. The feraimetal 
 called bifmuth melts at about 460° of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, and tin at about 422". When mixed 
 in equal quantities, the compound melted at 283°. 
 When the tin was double the bifmuth, it required 334" 
 to melt ft ; with eight times more tin than bifmuth, 
 it did not melt under 392°. If to this compound lead 
 is added, which by itfelf m.elts in about 540°, the fu- 
 fibility is furpriiingly increafed. Mr Homberg pro- 
 pofed for an anatomical injection a compound of lead, 
 tin, and bifmuth, in equal parts ; which he tells us 
 keeps in fufton with a heat fo moderate that it will 
 not finge paper. Sir If'ac Newton contrived a mix- 
 ture of the above-me.itioned metallic fubftances, in 
 fuch proportions that it melted and kept fluid in a beat 
 ftill fmaller, not much exceeding that of boiling water. 
 A compound of two parts of lead, three parts of tin, 
 ^nd five of bifonuth, did but juft ftiffen at that very 
 heat, and fo would have melted with very little more ; 
 and when the lead, tin, and bifmuth, were to one ano- 
 
 ) 
 
 Theory. 
 
 ther in the proportions of I, 4, and 5, the compound Metalline 
 melted in 246^. We have feen, however, a piece pf S-ibftances.^ 
 metal compounded of thefe three, the proportions un- * ' "'" "* 
 known, which melted, and even underwent a flight 
 degree of calcination, in boiling water, and barely Itif- 
 fened in a degree of heat fo gentle that the hand could, 
 almoft bear it. 54J 
 
 A flight degree of calcination feems to give the Solubility 
 acids a greater power over metalline fubftances ; a.^||^ 
 greater makes them lefs foluble ; and if long and vio- [,y'^'j,^j 
 lently calcined, they are not afted upon by acids at t on. 
 all. Of all the acids, the marine has the greateft at- 
 traction for metallic calces, and volatilizes almoft every 
 one of them. 
 
 Sulphur readily unites with moft rruetals, deftroys ElFe-6lsof 
 their malleability, and even entirely diflblves them.. ^"'p'^"'' 
 On gold and platina, however, it has no effedl, till'"^"^** 
 united with a fixed alkaline fait, when, it forms the 
 compound called hepar fulphur'is ; which is a very 
 pov^'erful folvent, and will make even gold and pla- 
 tina th<;mfelves foluble in, water, fo as to pafs the 
 filter. This preparation is thought to be the means 
 by which Mofes diflblved and gave the Ifi-aelites to 
 drink the golden calf which they had idolati-ouily fct 
 
 up. ' 
 
 When a metal is diflblved in an acid, it may be 
 
 precipitated, not only by means of calcareous earths 
 and alkalies, but alfo .by fome other metals : for acids 
 do not attraft all metals with equal ftrength ; ^d it 
 is remarkable, that when a metal is precipitated by 
 another, the precipitate is not found in a calcined ftate,, 
 but in a metallic one. The reafon of this is, tliat the 
 precipitating metal attrafts the phlogifton which is ex- 
 pelled from that w hich is diflblving, and immediately 
 unites with it, fo as to appear in its proper form. The 
 various degrees of attradliion which acids have for the 
 diff^erent metals is not as yet fully determined. The 
 beft authenticated are mentioned in the Table of Affi- 
 nities or Eleftive Attradlions (Sed. IX.); 
 
 MetalUne fubftances are divided into metals and fe-Divifion In] 
 mimetals. The metals which are diftihguifhed from to metals 
 the femimetallic fubftances by their malleability or^"^ femi- 
 ftretching under the hammer, are in number fcven;"^^^*' 
 gold, filver, copper, iron, lead., tin,, and platina. To 
 thefe is added quickfilver ; which Mr Bi-own's expe- 
 riments have ftiown to be a real malleable metal, as 
 well as others, but requiring fo little heat to keep it 
 in fufion, that it is always found in a liquid ftate. The 
 femimetals are bifmuth or tin-glafs, zinc, regulus of 
 antimony, and cobalt, nickel, and arfenic. This laft ^^g 
 fubftance is now difcovered to be compounded of an acid Proj erties 
 of a peculiar kind and phlogifton ; and as. the quantity 
 of the latter is gi-eat or fmall, the arfenic afliimes ei- 
 ther a metallic or faline form. It hkewife unites with 
 fidphur, with which it forms a compound of a red or 
 yellow colour, according as more or lefs fulphur is 
 ufed. This compound is eafily fufible ; though the 
 arfenic, by itfelf, is fo volatile as to go all off^ in vapour 
 rather than raelt. In common with the falts, it pof- 
 fefles the properties of diflblving in water, and uniting 
 itfelf to alkalies. Water will diflblve about -rV of its 
 weight of pure arfenic ; but if arfenic is boiled in a 
 ftrong alkaline lixivium, a much greater proportion 
 will be dilfolved. Indeed ftrong alk.aline lixivia v.'ill difr 
 
 folye 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 Waters, &c. folve a part of almofl every metalline fubllance, except 
 gold, filver, and platina ; but, excepting copper, 
 which may be formed into cryftals by means of the vo- 
 latile alkali, none of them wiU affume a cryftalline 
 form when united with alkaUes. Arfenic, on the 
 contrary, unites very readily with fixed alkalies, and 
 {hoots with them into a neutral fait. If it is mixed 
 v.'ith nitre, it unites itfelf to the alkaline bafis of that 
 fait, and expels the acid in very volatile fumes, which 
 are difficultly condenfed into a blue hquor. The rea- 
 fon of this is the great attraftion between the nitrous 
 acid and phlogifton, which are always difpofed to unite 
 when a proper degree of heat is applied. Was the 
 phlogifton contained in large quantity in the arfenic, 
 and the heat fufficiently great, a violent deflagration 
 would enfue ; but as the acid of arfenic attradls the 
 alkaline part of the nitre, at the fame time that the ni- 
 trous acid attrafts the phlogifton, a double decompo- 
 lition enfues, in a lefs degree of heat than would other- 
 wife be neceffary ; and die niti'ous acid arifes in a very 
 volatile ftate, as it always is when combined with phlo- 
 gifton, which is the occafion of the bluenefs in aqua- 
 fortis fo produced. The arfenic is alfo decompofed by 
 being deprived of its proper quantity of phlogifton ; in 
 confequence of which its acid attaches itfelf to the fix- 
 ed alkali of the nitre, and forms a neutral arfenical 
 fait. For the extraftion of metallic fubftances from 
 their ores, and the various methods of refining them, fee 
 Metallurgy. 
 
 Sect. VII. JVaters. 
 
 The pure element of water, like that of fire, is lb 
 much an agent in moft chemical operations, as to be it- 
 felf very little the objeS of practical chemiftry. Some 
 late experiments, however, have ftiown that this fluid 
 really confifts, in part at leaft, of phlogifton, and an in- 
 vifible fubftance which forms the bafis of pure air; and 
 confequently water is generated in the deflagration of 
 dephlogifticated air ; but as the bafis of the former 
 cannot be perceived by itfelf, we can as yet fay nothing 
 about it. Waters, therefore, can only be the objedts 
 "Water.howof chemiftry, in confequence of the impurities they 
 far an objedl contain : and as thefe impurities are moft commonly 
 of chemi- ^£ faline kind, it is impoffible that any general theo- 
 ry can be given of waters, diftint5l from that of tlie 
 falts contained in them ; which all depend on the ge- 
 neral properties belonging to falts, and which we have 
 already mentioned. Any thing that can be faid with 
 regard to water*, then, muft be poftponed. to the parti- 
 cular confideration of the properties of each of the fa- 
 line bodies with which water is capable of being adul- 
 terated- W e n^all therefore refer entirely to the article 
 Water in the order of the alphabet, for what caabc 
 faid on thisfubje£t. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Animal and Vegetable Subjlances. 
 
 Ch/m?cal The general chemical properties of thefe have been 
 properties, already taken notice of under the name of injlanitnalle 
 fuhjlances. They agree in giving out a very thick fe- 
 tid oil, when diftilled by a ftrong fire ; but in other 
 refpe£ls they differ very confiderably. Moft kinds of 
 Tegetables give out an acid along with the oil ; but all 
 animal fubftf^nces (ants, and perhaps fome other infefts, 
 excepted) yield only a volatUe alkali. Soxne kinds of 
 
 3 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 437 
 
 vegetables, indeed, as muftaid, afford a volatile alkali Chemical . 
 on diftillation, fimilar to that from animal fubftances ; ^h arajSlers. 
 but inftanccs of this kind are very rare, as well as of ' ^ 
 animals affording an acid. Both animal and vegetable 
 fubftances are fufccptible of a kind of fermentation, 
 called putrefaalon, by which a volatile alkali is produ- 
 ced in great plenty : there is, however, this remark- 
 able difference between them, that many vegetable 
 fubftances undergo two kinds of fermentation be- 
 fore they arrive at the putrefactive ftage. The firft is 
 called the vinous, when the ardent fpirits are produced, 
 which v.-e have already mentioned when fpeaking of 
 inflammable fubftances. This is fucceeded by the ace- 
 tous, wherein the vegetable acid called nmegar is pro- 
 duced in plenty : anS laftly, the putrefafhive ftage fuc- 
 ceeds when a volatile, alkali is only produced ; not the 
 fmalleft veft-ige either of ardent fpirits or of vinegar re- 
 maining. On the other hand, animal fubftances feem 
 fufceptible only of the p.utrefa£tive fermentation ; no 
 inftance having ever occurred where there was the leaft 
 drop, either of ardent fpirit or of vinegar, produced 
 from a putrified an-'mal fubftance. (See Fermenta.- 
 TiON and Putrefaction.) 
 
 Sect. IX. Of the Chemical CharaBersy and Tables 
 cf Ele£Hve Atira^ion. 
 
 55"' 
 
 The numerous marhs or charaders by which the an- Inventioa 
 cient chemifts ufed to denote many different fubftances, mark* 
 were invented rather from a fuperftitious and fantafti- jjj.j^^'^'^''* 
 cal principle than from any real necelfity ; or, perhaps, 
 like the enigmatical language ufed by the alchemifts, 
 they have tJiereby fought to conceal their myfteries 
 from the vulgar. In contriving thefe marks, they af- 
 fefted a great deal of ingenuity ; intending them as 
 fyrabfjis of the q^ualities poffeffed by each or the diffe- 
 rent fubftances. A circle being fuppofed the moft per 
 fed figure, was therefore ufed to reprefent the moft per- 
 feftmetal in nature, thatisj^o/J. Silver being hkewife a 
 perfeil and indeftruftible metal, is placed next to gold ; 
 but, on account of its inferiority, is expreffed only by a 
 crefcent, as if but half gold. A circle was likewife ufed 
 to denote fait of any kind, as being fome thing elaborate 
 and perfeft. A crofs was ufed to denote acrimony of 
 any kind, and confequently employed for the acrimo- 
 nious falts of vitriol, alkali, &c. Hence all the in- 
 ferior metals have the crofs fome how or other com- 
 bined with the marks defigned to reprefent them. 
 Thus, the mark for quickfilver denotes, that it hath the 
 fplendor of filver, the weight of gold, but its perfeilion 
 is hindered by an acrimony reprefented by the crofs at 
 bottom, &c. Fire is reprefented by an equilateral 
 triangle, having oire of its angles uppermoft. This 
 may be confidered as a rude reprefentation of flame, 
 which is always pointed at top. Water, again, is re- 
 prefented by a triangle, with an angle downwards, 
 ftiowing the way in which that element exerts its 
 ftrength, &c. AH thefe marks, however,, as they 
 were of no real ufe at firft, fo they are now becoming 
 every day more and more negledled. Such of them, 
 however, as may moft readily occur in chemical books 
 are reprefented and explained on Plate CXXXII. 
 
 The French chemifts have of late attempted to in- New che« 
 troduce a kind of new chemical language ; and by a- "^"^^^ '•'^^ 
 dopting it thcmfelves, may perhaps make it at laft uni- S"*S«*- 
 
 Tcrfa}, 
 
438 G H E M I 
 
 Eietllve verfal, as h is now Jmpoffible to underftand their wri- 
 Attradtion. tings without knowing it. See the Table at the end 
 
 * of this article. 
 Of ^aMes of "^^^^^^ njjinities, or elcBive attraSions, are but of 
 affinities, late invention. They are confequences of an impro- 
 ved ftate of chemiftry, when the different fubrtances 
 were found to a6l upon one another in moft cafes ac- 
 cording to a fixed and fettled rule. The moft appro- 
 ved table of this kind for a long time was that compo- 
 fed by Mr GeofFroy. It was, however, found to be 
 very incomplete, not only as to its extent, but like- 
 wife as heat and fome other circumftances were found 
 to vary the attraftions confiderably, and fometimes 
 •even to reverfe them. Other tables have been conftruc- 
 ted by Mr Gellert, &c. but none hath yet appeared fo 
 complete but that many additions may be made to it. 
 The following is that at prefent exhibited by Dr Black 
 in his courfe of chemittry. 
 
 1. Vitriolic Acid. 
 Phlogifton 
 
 Terra ponderofa 
 
 Fixed alkali 
 
 Calcareous earth 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 
 Quickfilver 
 
 Silver 
 
 Volatile alkali 
 Magnefia 
 Earth of alum. 
 
 2. Nitrous Acid. 
 Phlogifton 
 
 Fixed alkali 
 
 Calcareous earth 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 -Lead 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 
 Quickfilver 
 
 Silver 
 
 Volatile alkali. 
 
 3. Marine AciB. 
 Fixed alkali 
 Calcareous earth 
 Zinc 
 Iron 
 Ijead 
 Tin 
 Copper 
 
 Regulus of antimony 
 Quickfilver 
 
 Silv-T 
 
 Spirit of wine 
 Volatile oils 
 Gold. 
 
 4. Sulphur. 
 Fixed alkali 
 Calcareous earth 
 Iron 
 Nickel 
 
 Copper 
 Lead 
 Tin 
 Silver 
 
 Regulus of antimony 
 
 Quickfilver 
 
 Arfenic. 
 
 5. HepAR SuLPHURlS is 
 
 partially decompounded 
 by 
 
 Quickfilver 
 
 'Solution of fixed alkali 
 Lime-water 
 Volatile alkali. 
 
 6. Fixed Air. 
 Calcareous earth 
 Fixed alkali 
 Magnefia 
 Volatile alkali. 
 
 7. Alkaline Salts. 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 Marine acid 
 Acetous acid 
 Volatile vitriolic acid 
 Sedative fait 
 Fixed air 
 Sulphur 
 Exprefled oils. 
 
 8. Calcareous Earth. 
 Vitriolic acid 
 
 Nitrous acid 
 Marine acid 
 Acid of tartar 
 Acetous acid 
 Sulphureous acid and fe- 
 
 dative fait 
 Sulphur. 
 
 9. Metallic Substan- 
 ces, Lead and Regulus 
 of Antimony excepted. 
 
 Marine acid. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 
 Sulphur and acetous acid. 
 
 10. Lead. 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Marine acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 Acetous acid 
 Exprefied oils. 
 
 n. Regulus of Anti- 
 mony. 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 Marine acid 
 Acetous acid. 
 
 12. Arsenic^. 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 Copper 
 
 Tin 
 
 Lead 
 
 Silver 
 
 Gold. 
 
 13. Regulus of Anti- 
 
 mony with Metals. 
 Iron 
 Copper 
 Tin 
 Lead 
 Silver 
 Gold. 
 
 14. QuiCKSILt'ER, 
 
 Gold 
 
 Lead and tin 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc, bifmuth, and regu- 
 lus of antimony. 
 
 15. Silver. 
 
 Lead 
 
 Copper 
 
 Iron. 
 
 16. Waters 
 Fixed alkali 
 Spirit of wine 
 
 Milk, alkahne falts, and 
 fome neutrals. 
 
 1 7. Spirit of Wine. 
 Water 
 
 Oils and refins. 
 
 Theory, 
 
 Attraction, 
 
 In confequence of heat, fedatlve fait and the other 
 folid acids decompound vitriolated tartar, nitre, and 
 fea-falt. 
 
 Double Eleftive Attraflions; which, in fome 
 cafes, may be confidered as exceptions to the 
 foregoing table. 
 
 I. Thofe which happen In mixtures of watery fub* 
 ftances. 
 
 6. 
 
 C Acids 
 
 < Calc.eatths, orme- 
 C tallic fubftances 
 C Vitriolic or marine 
 s acids 
 
 ^Alkalies or earths 
 C Lead 
 
 ■< Nitrous, marine, or 
 C acetous acids 
 r Silver 
 
 ■s Vitriolic, nitrous, 
 C or acetous acids 
 5 Volatile alkali 
 I Acids 
 
 C Nitrous, marIne,or 
 ■s acetous acids 
 C Calcareous earths 
 
 Volatile alkali 
 Fixed air. 
 
 Mercury, filver, or lead. 
 
 Nitrous or acetous acids. 
 Vitriol acid 
 Alkalies, earths, or 
 
 M. S. 
 Marine acid 
 
 Alkaline falts, earths, or 
 
 M. S. 
 Fixed air 
 Fixed alkali. 
 
 Volatile alkali, magnefia, 
 
 or earth of alum 
 Vitriolic acid. 
 
 5 Vol. alkali 
 7 Acids 
 
 II. Thofe which happen in diftillations or fublima- 
 tions, and require heat. 
 
 Fixed air 
 Calcareous earths. 
 Nitrous, marine, or ace* 
 
 tous acids 
 Fixed alkali. 
 Acetous acid 
 Fixed alkali, or abforbent 
 earths. 
 
 Vol. alkali 
 
 Vitriol, acid 
 Vol. alkali 
 I Nitrous, marine, or 
 vitriohc acids 
 
Theorv, 
 
 hcmical 
 Jperations. 
 
 C Reg. of antimon. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 CHE 
 
 Marine acid 
 Quickfilver. 
 
 M 
 
 III. Thofe which happen in mixtures by fullon. 
 
 I. 
 
 f Tin Iron 
 
 l_ Silver Lead. 
 
 C Copper Sulphur 
 
 ^' ^Gold Lead. 
 
 5 M. S. Sulphur 
 
 3- I Gold Reg. of ant. 
 
 The firft of thefe tables requires very little expla- 
 nation. The names printed in fmall capitals, are thofe 
 of the fubftances which have the affinity with or at- 
 tra£l thofe below them. Thus, vitriolic acid attracts 
 moft powerfully the phlogifton, or inflammable prin- 
 ciple ; next, fixed alkaH ; then, calcareous earth ; and 
 fo on, in the order in which they are marked. — The 
 tables of double eledlive attractions cannot be made 
 quite fo diftinft ; though an explanation of one ex- 
 ample will make this likewife eafy to be underftood. 
 Thus in Table I. the firft cafe is, *' If a combination of 
 acids with calcareous earths or metallic fubftances is 
 mixed with a combination of volatile alkali and fixed 
 air, the acids will unite themfelves to the volatile al- 
 
 kali, and the fixed air 
 tallic fubftance. 
 
 to the calcareous earth or me- 
 
 5S4 
 
 Sect. X. Of the different Operations in Prac- 
 tical Chemiflry, and the proper Injiriimerits for 
 performing each, 
 
 Operatii-ns The moft remarkable operations in chemiftry, and 
 in chemi- by which the greateft changes are made upon thofe 
 ^•y- bodies which are the objefts of that fcience, may be 
 comprehended under the following names. i . Solu- 
 tion. 2. Filtration. 3. Precipitation, or coagulation. 
 4. Evaporation. 5. Cryftallization. 6. Diftillatlon. 
 7. Sublimation. 8. Deflagration. 9. Calcination. 10. Fu- 
 fion. II. Maceration, or digeftion. To which we 
 j.^ may add, X2. Trituration, or levigation. 
 Chemifts, Before we proceed to a particular account of each 
 how divid- of thefe operations, it is neceflary to take notice, that 
 there are two diiferent things propofed by thofe who 
 enter on the praAice of chemiftry. Some have no- 
 thing farther in view than the enlargement of their 
 knowledge,, or making improvements in arts which 
 are to be praftifed by others for their own advantage. 
 Others defign to follow chemiftry as a trade, by which 
 they hope to enrich themfelves, or to get a comfortable 
 livelihood. But the apparatus and utenfils neceffary 
 for performing the very fame op^ations are exceed- 
 ingly different when experiments only are to be made, 
 from what they muft be when thefe operations are 
 performed with a view to profit ; and fo great is this 
 difFcrence, than thofe who purfue chemiftry with a 
 view to advantage, will always find themfelves very 
 confiderable lofers if they follow the plan of an appa- 
 ratus or a laboratory defigned only for making expe- 
 riments. Along with the apparatus, therefore, which 
 is commonly defcribed in chemical books, and proper 
 only for experiments, we fhall alfo give that which is 
 neceflary for preparing great quantities of any chemi- 
 cal article in the way of trade. 
 Glafs vcf- In general, thofe who praAice chemiftry merely 
 
 fels, when an experimental view, ought, as mucli as pof- 
 
 'to be ufed. ^ ' & ' r ^ 
 
 I S T R Y. 439 
 
 fible, to make ufe of glafs veffels, as not being liable Chemical 
 
 to be corroded by the moft powerful folvents ; and, pperatiom. 
 
 by their tranfparency, giving an opportunity of ob- 
 
 ferving what paffes within them during the operation. 
 
 But by thofe who pradlife chemiftry with a different 
 
 view, thefe veflcls ought, with equal care, to be a- 
 
 voided, on account of their expence and brittleuefs. 
 
 This laft quality, iadeed, is poffefled by glafs in fo 
 
 eminent a degree, that glafs veflels will fometimes 
 
 fly to pieces, and that with confiderable violence, 
 
 when ftanding by themfelves, and nothing touching 
 
 them. The principal objefts which a chemift ought 
 
 to have in view, in performing his operations, ought 
 
 to be to fave time and fuel, efpecially the former; and 
 
 for this purpofe, he would find himfelf a confiderable 
 
 gainer, though he fhould be at much greater expence 
 
 in his apparatus than he would otherwife have occa- 
 
 fion for. 
 
 On the fubjeft of chemical veflels Dr Black ob- Dr Black's 
 
 ferves, that " with regard to the material of which ".^f'^''"'^- 
 
 thefe are compofed, we are very much at a lofs : and '^i""* 
 . , , , ^ r 1 • 1 • cheniicai 
 
 indeed there are ao iuch materials in nature as are ca- veflels. 
 
 pable of anfweriug the purpofes of chemifts in abfo- 
 lute perfe6lion. — The qualities are, i . Tranfparency, 
 to allow us to fee the changes going on; 2. The power 
 of refifting the aftion of acids and corrofive fubftan- 
 ces ; 3, That they bear fudden alterations of heat and 
 cold v^'ithout breaking ; 4. That they be ftrong,, in order 
 to confine elaftic vapours ; and, 5. That they bear very 
 great heat without melting. As thefe qualities, how- 
 ever, are not to be met with united in any one fub- 
 ftance, the chemifts are obliged to have recourfe to 
 different fubftances which poffefs fome of them dif- 
 ferently. Thefe are, glafs , metal, and earthen ware. Good and' 
 Glafs is poflefled of the two firft properties, but has^^at^ quali- 
 the inconvenience of being apt to crack and fly in 
 pieces, on any fudden tranfition from heat to cold, or^i;^! 
 from cold to heat. The beft method of remedying chemical 
 this defeft, is to have the glafs made very thin, and veffels. 
 of a round figure, that it may be all heated as equally 
 as poflible ; as it is the unequal application of the heat 
 which caufes it break. Another requifite in the choice 
 of chemical glaffes, is that they be well annealed. If 
 this is not done, the glafs will either immediately fly Extreme 
 to pieces, or be liable to break on the fmalleft acci- ^'''g'^li'y «f 
 dent. That fuch glafl"es fliould be liable to be broken ^^Uanneal- 
 on every flight occafion, is a phenomenon that has hi- g^. 
 therto received no explanation. If you touch them 
 with a diamond, with a piece of flint, glafs, l^c. or 
 expofe them to the heat of the fun, they break imme- 
 diately. Dr Black has had great veflels of glafs, 
 which broke immediately on his throwing a little fand 
 into them to clean thtm. This manifeftly depends upon 
 the fame principles as the qualities of what are called 
 glafs tears. 
 
 Glafs when well annealed is univerfally to be pre- 
 ferred, where great and fudden changes of heat, or 
 much ftrength, are not required. Flint -glafs is the 
 beft- ; but the coarfer kinds, as bottle-glafs, are very 
 apt to break. ^ f,o 
 
 The metals have the third and fourth , qualities ^nd^ 
 \^ perfeftion, but are deficient in all the reft. The j^^*^ 'Ij^'j^^''^'* 
 moft troublefome property is, that they are liable a ^ n^^^^ 
 lobe corroded by acids and other bodies, as is the reriais tit- 
 cafe with iron and copper; though this is in fome.chprnical 
 
440 
 
 C H E M 
 
 561 
 
 Of earthen 
 ware. 
 
 Chemical meafure remedied by tmnmo; 5 which, though it wants 
 O peratior s. f^j^^^ q£ ^Yie. qualities from its melting too foon, yet 
 " refifts the a£tion of many acrid fubftances without be- 
 ing fo readily injured by them ; but it is not entirely 
 free from this imperfedtion, and is liable to be fome- 
 what corroded and rulled. In nice operat'.ons, there- 
 fore, recourfe is had to filver and even to gold vcf- 
 fels. 
 
 ■ Earthen ware poffeffes only the fifth quality in per- 
 feftion, viz. that of bearing a violent heat without fu- 
 fion. The bafis of thefe veffels is clay, which, when 
 good, is very convenient for the fonnation of veffels, 
 and it has been ufed from the earlieft ages of chemi- 
 ftry for this purpofe. The requilite quahties are, i. 
 A confiderable degree of toughnefs when mixed with 
 water. 2. A great degree of hardnefs when burnt in 
 the fire with a violent degree of heat. The bell kind 
 of clay thus contrafts a degree of hardnefs fcarce in- 
 ferior to flint, as is the cafe with that of which tobacr 
 co-pipes are made; but moft other kinds, fuch as that 
 of which bricks are conftrufted, are apt to melt with 
 a ftrong heat into a fpongy matter. Clay, however, 
 can feldom be ufed alone; for when burnt to ex- 
 treme hardnefs, the veffels are very hable to crack. 
 This is remedied by mixing fand reduced to a parti- 
 cular degree of finenefs, with the clay of which the 
 veffels are made. For this purpofe both the fineft 
 and the coarfeft particles of the fand muft be thrown 
 away. 
 
 Black lead Another fubflance known by the name of black 
 a valuable lead, ufed in the making of pencils, refifts the fire ex- 
 -inaterial for ^.g£(]jngiy. This, however, does not contain an ore 
 feme pur- ^£ ^ezd, but fulphur, and fome mineral fubflances ; 
 
 when mixed with clay, however, it makes it refift the 
 fire furprifingly. But there are fome particular cafes 
 in which neither fand nor black lead can be ufed as a 
 material ; for the fand is eafily corroded by acrid mat- 
 ters, and the black lead would produce other inconve- 
 m'ences. Clay is therefore to be taken in its unbutnt 
 ftate, reducing it to a powder like fand ; then burn- 
 ing this powder with a violent heat, fo as to convert it 
 into fand. Mixing it then with raw clay, it forms a 
 compofition which anfwers very well for making che- 
 mical veffels, and may be employed in thofe particular 
 cafes where fand would not anfwcr. Pott of Berlin 
 has written upon the different kinds of earthen ware 
 proper to be employed in the conflruftion of chemical 
 veffels. There is a French tranflation of it in four or 
 Porcelain ^'^^ volumes. In cafes where the utmofl compaflnefs 
 veffels when of texture is required, porcelain veffels are to be cho- 
 to be ufed. fen ; which is compofed of the finefl clay, mixed with 
 a ftony matter, that has the quality of melting in a 
 violent heat, and gives more compaAnefs to the clay 
 than it is naturally capable of receiving ; but thefe are 
 rather too collly for moft operations. Reaumur has 
 taught a way of converting glafs into porctlaln. 
 
 We fhall now proceed to a particular defcription 
 of each of the operations above mentioned. 
 ^^^f I. Solution. By this is undtrftood the diffolving a 
 
 Solution. ^^^.^ fubflance in a fluid, fo as that the fi lid fhall totally 
 difappear, and become part of a tranfpartnt liquor. 
 This operation applies particularly to falts, earths, and 
 metals ; as well as to fevcral undluous and inflammable 
 fubflances. For performing this operaticm in a fmall 
 way, common vials are in many cafes fuflicient. Where 
 N°7i. 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory 
 
 the folutton h attended -With efFervefcence and a dif- Chen^ical 
 charge of vapours, the long-necked glafTes called Qpgratior.i 
 vmtrafes, o\- bolt-hecuh, (fig. 5-)» are neccffary. F^^' pj^tc 
 
 rence flafks are indeed exceedingly well adapted for CXXXIV. 
 this operation, as being of the proper fliape, and ca- 
 pable of bearing heat fo well, thai they may be filled 
 with any fluid, and fet on a common fire hke a me- 
 talHne veffel. Solution is much promoted by agitating 
 the veffel, and by heat. In fome cafes, indeed, it will 
 not take place till the mixture becomes very hot ; and 
 in fuch cafes it will be proper to make the fluid boil- 
 ing hot by itfelf, and then flowly to add the fubflance 
 to be diffolved. 
 
 When large quantities of fallne matter are to be 
 diffolved, metaUine veffels muft be ufed : but before any 
 are made ufe of for this purpofe, it will be neceffary 
 to make an experiment whether the fait receives any 
 impregnation from the metal of which the veffel in- 
 tended to be made ufe of is formed ; and if this Is 
 found to be the cafe, it muft not be ufed. The me- 
 tals moft liable to be corroded by fallne bodies are 
 iron and copper ; and indeed, unlefs it be for the fingle 
 purpofe of diffolving fixed alkaline falts, iron veffels 
 feem totally unfit for fallne folutlons of any kind. Cop- 
 per veffels are alfo very liable to be corroded, and to 
 communicate very mifchicvous qualities to the liquors 
 which corrode them ; for which reafon, they ought 
 never to be made ufe of for the purpofes of folution. 
 The metal leaft liable to be corroded, next to gold and 
 filver, is lead ; and therefore achemift ought rather to 
 provide himfelf with leaden veffels than thofe of any 
 other metal. But though lead is not apt to be corroded 
 by many kinds of falts, there are fome which are found 
 to a6l upon it, and to form therewith a very dangerous 
 poifon. The vegetable acid of vinegar is particularly 
 apt to receive a dangerous impregnation from this me- 
 tal; and therefore no folution of any fait containing this 
 acid ought to be made in leaden veffels. It appears to 
 be very little affefted by the vitriolic or marine acids; 
 and therefore any fallne fubftance containing either of 
 thefe acids may be fafely enough diffolved in veffels 
 made of lead. 
 
 In order to fave time in making folutlons, the Vef- 
 fels ought to be as large as poffible ; though even In 
 this there muft be a certain hmii : for two fmall vef- 
 fels filled with water will fooner acquire the neceffary 
 degree of heat than one large one ; and in proportioa 
 as the veffel is made more capacious, the fides and bot- 
 tom muft be thicker, which confiderably increafes the 
 expence. Fifteen or twenty Engllfli gallons is the 
 utmoft capacity of which they ever will be required; 
 and Is rather above what will on molt occafions be 
 neceffary. They ought to be of a conical figure, 
 round at the bottom ; and to have a cover of thick 
 plate-iron all around that part which is expofed to the 
 aftion of the fire, that the lead may not bend on the ap- 
 plication of heat, which It would otherwife be very 
 apt to do. When the folution is to be made, the leaden 
 veffel is firft to be filled up with water fo far as to have 
 room for the quantity of fait Intended to be diffolved : 
 a fire Is then to be applied fo as to make it boil : and 
 then the fait is to be added flowly, fo as fcarcely to 
 hinder the boiling ; for If a great quantity was thrown 
 in at once, fo as to cool the liquor very much, great 
 part af the fait would concrete on the bottom, In fuch 
 
 a 
 
Theary. C H E M 
 
 Chemical a manner as not only to be very difficultly foluble, but 
 pP^*"^^'"'". even to endanger the melting of the vefTel. It is of 
 fome confequence alfo to avoid the hot fleam which 
 pioceeds from the boiling water, and which ifliies with 
 great force from a narrow-mouthed vefiel fuch as we 
 have been defcribing. That the operator may be out 
 of the reach of this, and likewife dj/Tolve the fait in a 
 regular and gradual manner, without any danger of 
 its concreting on the bottom, it will be proper to 
 have a leaden, or even a wooden, veflel, with a long 
 handle ; which is to be filled with the fubftance to 
 be diflblved, then immerfed in the boiling liquor, 
 and fliaken about in it, till the fait is made into a kind 
 of thick pap, which will be in no danger of concre- 
 ting. It will alfo be proper not to faturate the water 
 perfeftly with fait ; for it will in that cafe be impof- 
 fible to hinder part of it from fettling on the bottom, 
 where it foon acquires fuch a degree of heat as to melt 
 the lead. Before any faline fubftance is put into water 
 for folution, it ought to be pounded and fifted through 
 a hair fieve. 
 
 Where large quantities of metal are to be dilTolved 
 in acids, efpecially the nitrous acid, glafs veffels are in 
 a manner indifpenfable ; although the common ftone- 
 ware bottles, efpecially thofe made in Holland, will an- 
 fwer the purpofe very well, as not being liable to cor- 
 rofion, and not fo apt to break as the glafs veffels are. 
 They may be got of fuc^ a fize as to hold three or four 
 gallons : but no vefTel in which metalline folutions are 
 made ought ever to be above half full. 
 
 In folutions of oily and inflammable fubftances, cafl 
 iron vefTels are perhaps the moft proper of any ; though 
 copper ones are generally preferred. The copper is 
 exceflively foluble in oil, efpecially If it is left to cool in 
 fuch a vefTel ; but Iron is not foluble in any inflammable 
 matter except fulphur. Copper has, however, this ad- 
 vantage over iron, that it is fooner cooled, as the vcfTels 
 made of copper are thinner than they can be made of 
 cafl iron : fo that if too great heat is applied to a cop- 
 per vefTjl, it may be eafily remedied by taking it off the 
 fire ; but in a cafl iron vefTel the heat continues fo long 
 as may fometimes produce dangerous confequences, 
 even after the fire is removed. 
 
 I)r Black obferves, that for the purpofe of folution, 
 if no particular nor uncommon confequence follow the 
 for fofution. application of the two bodies to each other, and if 
 none of them be very volatile, any glafs or porcelain 
 vefTel that can refifl the adlion of the fubflances will an- 
 fwer the purpofe ; but it often happens that they break 
 out into violent ebullition, which produces fleam ; and 
 here a common vefTel is not fo proper, as we would 
 wifh to have the vapour confined or condenfed. We 
 therefore choofe a clofe vefTel that will bear the heat 
 fuddenly produced by the mixture, or the heat that 
 may be neceflary to promote the action of fuch bodies 
 upon one another. Of this kind is the phuda chemica, 
 or matrafs, in which the vapours will have time to cir- 
 culate and to be condenfed again, without being allowed 
 to efcape. Where the matter is in fmall quantity, 
 fmaller vtfTels fom.ewhat of the fame form are ufed, as 
 Florentine flalks, which bear fudden changes of heat 
 and cold remarkably well, on account of their thin- 
 nefs. In order to promote thfe aftlon of bodies, ic is 
 fotnetimes necefTdry to make the Huidii boil^ and for 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 .^65 
 Dr Black's 
 tlirt clions 
 
 566 
 PelkJin. 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 this purpofe we mufl have a matrafs with a large neck. Chemical 
 or apply another vefTel to it that will receive thefe Op^ations. 
 fleams, and give them Hill more room for their conden- ^ 
 fation, and diredl them to fall back again, when con- 
 denfed, into the matrafs. This is called circulation. Mac- 
 quer defcribes another vefTel called the pelican, which 
 has been made ufe of for this purpofe ; but it is hard- 
 ly ever employed, on account of its being fo trouble- 
 fome to procure and manage it ; and the advantages 
 arifing from it may be obtained by a more fimple ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 To this head we mufl refer Papin's digefler, which Papfn's di, 
 is reprefented Fig. 4. It is generally made of cop-gefcer. 
 per, very thick and flrong, open at the top, with , 
 a lid fitted to it, which applies very exaftly. There 
 ai-e ufually two projeftlons on the fide, defigned 
 to make the lid go in a particular manner, but they 
 are unnecefTary. There are other two, to which are 
 fitted the two fides of a crofs bar BB ; in which crofs 
 bar there is a flrong fcrew D, by which the lid can be 
 pi-efTed down very ftrongly. Its ufe is to force wa- 
 ter to bear a flronger heat than it can do under the 
 ordinary prefTure of the atmofphere. It is fometimes 
 furnifhed with an apparatus for letting out the fleam, 
 left it fhould be in danger of burfting the vefTel. A pipe 
 is pafTed through the lid which is fitted with a valve, 
 on which pafTes a lever at a very fmall diftance from its 
 centre of motion ; and this can be made to prefs on the 
 valve with different weights, according to the diftance 
 of thefe weights from the centre. In one conftruded 
 by Dr Black, there was another pipe below, into which 
 a thermometer could be introduced, in order . to mea- 
 fure the degree of heat to which the fteam was raifed. 
 This machine was pretty much employed fome time 
 ago, and its effeds were much admired ; but we find 
 that noft things which can be difTolved in this way, 
 can likewife be difTolved in the ordinary way by boil- 
 ing water, provided it is continued for a longer time, 
 as animal bones, from which the gelatinous parts are 
 indeed extrafted very quickly by this vefTel ; but the 
 fame change is produced by boiling them in watei for a 
 long time in the ordinary degree of heat. 
 
 II. Filtration. This operation is generally the 
 attendant of folution : very few fubftances, of the faline 
 kind efpecially, are capable of being difTolved without 
 leaving fome impurities, from which they muft be 
 freed ; and the doing of this, fo as to render the folu- 
 tion perfeftly tranfparent, is what is underftood by the 
 word jiltration. 
 
 For purpofes merely experimental, a glafs funnel 
 and piece of paper are generally fufiiclent. The pa- 
 per Is formed into a conical cap, which being placed iu 
 the funnel with its point downwards, the funnel is then 
 placed in the mouth of a vial ; and the folution or 
 other liquor to be filtered is poured into the paper cap, 
 through which the liquor palTes tranfparent, leaving its 
 impurities on the paper. F'or the purpofe of filtration, 
 paper has come into fuch general ufe, that a particular 
 kind of it is prepared under the name of filtering paper, 
 Tnis is of a reddifh colour; but Dr Lewis prefers the 
 whitirii grey paper which comes from Holland about 
 the pill boxes, as not giving any colour to the folutions 
 which pafs through it. 
 
 This operation, though apparently fo fi.iiple and 
 3 K eafy, 
 
 568 
 
 Filtration. 
 
442 G H E M I 
 
 CfiemTcal eafy, \s nevertKelefs attended with very troublefome 
 Opera tions, circumftances, on account of the great time it takes 
 Even where very fmall quantities of liquor are to 
 be filtered, merely for experiment's fake, the innpuri- 
 ties frequently fettle on the paper fo foon, and obltnift 
 its pores to fuch a degree, that the operator is often 
 quite wearied out : often, too, the paper breaks ; and 
 thus the whole is fpoiled, and the operation mull be 
 begun over again. 
 
 To avoid thefe inconveniences, another method of 
 filtration hath been propofed ; namely, to ufe a num- 
 ber of cotton threads, the ends of which are to be im- 
 merfed in the liquor, and the other ends are to hang 
 over the fide of the velfel which contains it, and to 
 hang lower than the furface of the liqour. By this 
 means they will adl as fo many capillary fyphons, (lee 
 Syphon) ; the liquor will arife in them quite pure, and 
 be difcharged from their lower extremities into a v^fTcl 
 placed to received it. That the liquor may flow free- 
 ly into the cotton, it will be proper to wet the threads 
 before they are ufed. 
 
 In point of efficacy, no doubt, this method excels 
 every other ; and where the operator has abundance 
 of time and patience, may be proper for experiments ; 
 but, in the way of trade, fuch a contrivance is evi- 
 dently ufelefs. For filtering large quantities of liquor, 
 therefore, recourfe has been had to large funnels ; 
 earthen cullenders, or bafons full of holes in the bot- 
 tom, lined with filtering paper; and to conical bags of 
 flannel or canvas. 
 
 The inconveniences attending funnels, when ufed 
 only in the way of experiment, are much greater 
 when they are employed for filteriiig large quantities 
 of liquor ; and therefore they are generally laid afide. 
 The earthen cullenders, too, do not anfwer any good 
 purpofe; nor indeed does filtration through paper in 
 general fuccced well. The conical flannel or canvas 
 bags are greatly preferable : but they have this in- 
 convenience, that the preffure cf the liquor is direfted 
 chiefly againft one particular point, or a fmall part of 
 the bottom, and therefore the impurities are forcibly 
 driven into that place ; and thus the operation be- 
 comes infufferably tedious. 
 
 The beft method of obviating the inconveniences 
 cf filtration feems to be the following. Let a wooden 
 frame of about three feet fquare be made, having 
 four holes, one in each corner, about three quarters of 
 an inch in diameter. This frame is to be fupported 
 by four feet, the ends of which muft proje6\ an inch 
 er two through the holes. Thus the whole may be 
 pccafionally fet up and taken down, fo as to go into 
 very little compafs ; for if the feet are properly pla- 
 ced, each with a little projeftion outwards, there wil^ 
 te no danger of its falling. A fquare piece of can- 
 vas muft alfo be procured, fomewhat lefs than the 
 v.'Ooden frame. On each corner of it there muii be 
 a very ftrong loop, which flips on one of ,thc projefl- 
 ing ends of the feet, fo that the canvas may hang a 
 little flack in the middle of the frame. The liquor to 
 be filtered is now poured into the canvas, and a vef- 
 fel placed underneath to receive it. At firfl: it will 
 pafs through very foul ; but being returned two or 
 three times, will become perfeftly tranfparent, and 
 will continue to run with great velocity, if the filter 
 is kept conftaatly full. A filter of the fize juft now 
 
 S T R Y. Theory, 
 
 mentioned will contain ten gallons of liquid ; which is Chemical 
 a very great advantage, as the heat of fuch a quan- Operatioii t. 
 tity of liquor is not foon diflipated, and every folution 
 filters much faller when hot than when allowed to 
 cool. 
 
 The advantages of a filter of this kind above others 
 arife from the pre Jure of the liquor being more equally 
 diffufed over a large fpace, -by which the impurities 
 are not forced fo llrongly into the cloth as to Hop it 
 up entirely. Yet even here, where large quantities of 
 liquor require filtration, the cloth is apt to be flopped' 
 up fo as to make tlie operation not a httie tedious and 
 difagreeable. It will be proper therefore to have feve-- 
 ral cloths, that one may be applied as foon as another 
 is taken ofl".- 
 
 To promote the operation of filtration, it is very 
 proper to let the liquors to be filtrated fettle for fome< 
 time ; that fo their grofler feculencies may full to the 
 bottom, and thus there will be the fewer to retard the 
 laft part of the operation. Sometimes, however, thefc 
 feculencies refufe to fettle till after a very long time ; 
 and where this happens to be the cafe, a httle pow- 
 dered quicklime thrown into the boiling liquor remark- 
 ably promotes the feparation. This, however, can 
 only be ufed in certain cafes. ^ 
 
 In fome cafes, the difcovery of a ready way of HI- Schemes for' 
 tering a large quantity of liquor woul i be a matter of Bltenng 
 great confequence ; as where a town is fupplifed with '^'><e quan- 
 river water, which is generally far from being clear, ^^.'^'^"'^ 
 and often imparts a difagrceable colour to clothes 
 waihed with it. Some years ago, a fcheme was pro- 
 pofed by a chemiit for filtering muddy water in any 
 quantity. His method was, to have a large caflc co- 
 vered over in the bottom with ftraw to the depth of 
 fome inches, and then filled up with faud. This calk 
 was entirely open at one end; and had a hole in ths 
 other, which, by means of a leaden pipe, commu- 
 nicated with a large refeivoir of the water to be fil- 
 tered, and which ilood confiderably higher than the 
 caflc. The water which .defcendcd through the pipe 
 into the caflc, having a tendency to rife up to the fam.e 
 level with that in the refervoir, would prefs violently- 
 againft the fand, and, as he thought, run over the 
 mouth of the caflc perfedlly filtrated, and free from its 
 impurities. By this contrivance, indeed, a very Vio- 
 lent prefl'ure was occafioned, if the height of the re- 
 fervoir was confiderable : but the confequence was, net 
 a filtration, but a greater degree of impurity in the wa- 
 ter ; for tlie fand was forced out of the caflc along with-' 
 it, and, however confined, the. water always rofe as mud--- 
 dy as it went in,. 
 
 Where water is to. be filtered in krge quantity, as' 
 for the purpofes of a family, a particular kind- of foft 
 fpongy fl.ones, called JUtering jhnes, are employed. 
 Thefe, however, though the water percolates througk 
 them very fine, and in fufiicient quantity at firft, are 
 liable to be obftrufted in the fame manner as paper, 
 and are then rendered ufelefs. A better method feems 
 to be, to have a wooden veflel, lined with lead, three 
 or four feet wide at top, but tapering fo as to end in a 
 fmall orifice at the bottom. The under part of the 
 veflel is to be filled with very rough fand, or gravel, 
 well freed from earth by wafhing. Over this, pretty 
 fine fand may be laid to the depth of 12 or 14 inches, 
 but which muft likcwife be wtil iiccd from earthy 
 
 partlckso 
 
Theory. 
 
 G H E M I S T R 
 
 Chemical 
 OperaticDE 
 
 Precipta- 
 tion. 
 
 Edu'rcora- 
 tion. 
 
 particles. The veffel ma}' then be filled up to the top 
 with water, pouripg' it gently at firtt, kit the fand 
 fhould be too much difplaced. It will foon filter thro' 
 the fand, and run out at the lower orifice exceeding- 
 ly tranfparcnt, and likewife in very confiderable quan- 
 tity. When the upper part of the fand begins to be 
 ftopped up, fo as not to allow a free pufTage to the 
 water, it may occafionally be taken off, and the earthy 
 matter wafhed from it, when it will be equally fervice- 
 able as before. 
 
 III. Precipitation, or Coagulation. This ope- 
 ration is the very reverfe of folution, and is the bringing 
 a body fuddenly from a fluid to a folid ftate. It differs 
 from cryftallization, in that it generally requires lefs 
 time J and in cryftallization the fubftance affumes re- 
 gular figures, whereas precipitates are always in the 
 form of powders. 
 
 Precipitation is generally preceded by folution and 
 filtration : it is jifed for feparating earths and metals 
 from the acids which had kept them fufpended. When 
 a precipitation is made of the more valuable metals, 
 glafs vefTels are to be ufed. When earths, or the 
 imperfe£l metallic fubftances, are to be precipitated in 
 large quantity, wooden ones anfwer every purpofe. 
 If a metal is to be precipitated by an alkali, this fait 
 muft firft be diffolved in water, then filtered, and 
 gradually added to the metallic folution. If particular 
 circumftances do not forbid, the fait for precipitation 
 fhould be chofen in its cauftic ftate, or deprived of its 
 fixed air, becaufe then a very troublefome effervef- 
 cence is avoided. To promote the operation alfo, 
 the mixture, if contained in a glafs, is to be lhaken ; 
 or if in any other veffels, to be well ftirred after every 
 addition of alkali. If an earth is employed to precipi- 
 tate a metal, the mixture muft be in a'manner con- 
 ftantly ftirred or ftiaken, in order to promote the pre- 
 cipitation : and if one metal is to be precipitated by 
 another^ that which is ufed as a precipitant muft be 
 beaten into thin plates, that fo they may be frequent- 
 ly cleaned from the precipitating metal, which would 
 otherwife very foon totally impede the operation. 
 
 Sometimes a precipitation enfues on the addition of 
 water or fpirit of wine : but ip moft cafes care m.uft 
 be taken not to add too muf:h of the iubllance which 
 is ufeid to precipitate the other ; becaufe, in fuch a 
 cafe, the precipitate may be diffolved after it has been 
 thrown down. Thus, though volatile alkali will fe- 
 parate copper from aquafortis, it will as effeftually 
 diffolve the precipitate, if too much of it is ufed, as the 
 acid itfelf. It i« proper, therefore, to proceed cauti- 
 oufly, and examine a fmall quantity of the liquor from 
 time to time. If an addition of the precipitant throws 
 down any more, it will be proper to add fome more 
 to the whole folution. 
 
 It is fcldom or Rever that precipitation can be per- 
 formed fo pei-fe<Slly, but that one or other of the in- 
 gredients will prevail ; and though they fiiould not, a 
 new com.pound, confifting of the acid united with the 
 alkali, or other fubftance ufed for precipitation, is 
 contained in the liquor through which the precipitate 
 falls. It is proper, therefore, to wafh all precipitates ; 
 otherwife they can never be obtained perfectly pure, 
 or free from a inixture of faline fubftances. This is 
 beft done by pouring the whole into a filter, and let- 
 ting the fluid part run oft as longas.it will drop, with- 
 
 " ^ 443 
 
 out fhaking the cloth. Some water iis then t6 be cau- Cfiemical 
 tioufly poured all over the furface of the precipitate, Opcrationj, 
 fo as to difturb it as little as poflible. This water will *' 
 pufh before it the faline liquor which is mixed with 
 the powder, and render it much purer than before. 
 A fccond or third quantity of water may be ufed, in 
 order to wafli off" all the faline matter. This is called 
 edulcorating the precipitate. 571 
 
 IV. Evaporation. This operation confifts in difli-^''*ro'** 
 pating the moft fluid or volative parts of any fubftance**^* 
 
 by means of heat. It moft generally fucceeds folu- 
 tion and filtration, being a preparatory for the opera- 
 tion of ciyftallization. 
 
 For the evaporation of faline folutions, which have 
 been already filtered, and which it is of confequence 
 to preferve from even the leaft impurities, diliilling 
 veffels are unqueftionably the moft proper ; both as, 
 by their means, the folution vvill be kept perfectly 
 free from duft, and as the quantity of liquor evaporated 
 can be known with certainty by meafuriug that which 
 comes over. This alfo is probably the moft expediti- 
 ous method of evaporating, and which requires the leaft 
 fuel. (See the detached articles Evaporation and 
 Distillation). With regard to veffels for evapora- 
 tion, the fame thing muft be applicable which was men- 
 tioned above under Solution. No faline liquor muft be 
 evaporated in a veflel which would be corroded by it .; 
 and hence iron veffels are abfolutely improper for eva- 
 porations of any kind of faline liquor whatever. — 
 Lead is in this cafe the m.etal moft generally ufeful. It 
 muft only be ufed, however, where the evaporation 
 is not carried to drynefs ; for, on account of the great 
 fufibility of this metal, nothing could be exficcated in 
 it without great danger of its melting. Where a fa- 
 line liquor therefore is to be perfeftly exficcated, the 
 evaporation, if performed in lead veffels, muft be car- 
 ried on fo far only as to form a faline pellicle on the 
 furface of the liquor. It is then to be drawn off ; for 
 which purpofe, all evaporating veffels fiiould have a 
 cock near the bottom. The liquor muft now be put 
 into a number of ftone-ware bafons, fet on waim fand, 
 where the exficcation may be finiflied. 
 
 V. Crystallization. This, tliough commonly ac- Cryftall:i*> 
 counted one of the proceffes in chemiftry, is in reali-tion. 
 
 ty only a natural one, and which the chemift can only 
 prepare for, leaving the operation entirely in the hand? 
 of nature.— By cryftallization is meant the fepara- 
 tion of a fait from the water in which it has been dif- 
 folved, in tranfparent inaffcs regularly figured, and 
 differently formed, according to the different nature of 
 the fahs. 
 
 This procefs depends upon the conftitution of the 
 atmofphere more than any other ; and therefore if 
 difficult to be perform.ed, nor does it always fucceed 
 equally well ; neither have there yet been laid down 
 any rules whereby beautiful and regular cryftals ca» 
 with certainty be formed at all times. 
 
 As the different falts affume very different figures 
 when cryftallized, they are not fubjeft to the fame ge- 
 neral rules in cryftalhzation. Nitre, Glauber's fait, 
 vitriol of iron, and many others, cryftallize beft on 
 having their folutions fet in a cold place after proper 
 evaporation. Sal polychreft, and common fait, require 
 the folution to be kept as hot as the hand can bear it 
 during the time of cryftallizing. Soluble tartar too, 
 3 K 2 and 
 
444 
 
 Chemical 
 Operations 
 
 574 
 IViffilla- 
 
 ?late 
 
 Cxxxir 
 
 C H E M 
 
 and other dell que fee nt falts, require to be kept warm 
 while this operation is going on; and thete are many 
 fiiline fubllances, fuch as the combinations of calca- 
 reous earths and magnefia with acids, which can fcarce- 
 ly be cryrtalHzed at mU. 
 
 Mr Beaumc lias difcovered, that when two or more 
 falts art difiblved in the lame quantity of water, when 
 one cryftallizts, the cryllals of that fait will not con- 
 tain the leaft quantity of any of the others ; neither, 
 although the liquor was acid or alkaline, will the cry- 
 ftals for that reafon be either acid or alkaline, but will 
 remain perfectly neutral ; and the acid or alkaline li- 
 quor wliicli adheres to the outfide of the cryftals may 
 be abforbed by merely fpreading them on filtering pa- 
 per. — Hence we are furnifhed with a better method 
 of flioottng falts into large and well formed cryftals than 
 merely by diffolving them in water ; namely, by ad- 
 ding to the folutions, when fet to cryftallize, a certain 
 quantity of acid or alkaline liquor, according to the 
 nature of the falts themfelves. Thcfe additions, how- 
 ever, are not equally proper for all falts ; and it is not 
 yet determined what kinds of falts ought to be cry- 
 ilallized In alkaline, and what In acid liquors. — So- 
 luble tartar and Seignette's fait cryftallize beft when 
 the liquor is alkaline. Sal fcdatlvus, fal Glauberl, and 
 fal polychreft, require an acid If cryftalllzed in the 
 cold ; but fal polychreft forms into very fine and large 
 cryftals when the folution Is alkaline, and kept as hot 
 as the hand can eafily bear. 
 
 The beft general direftlon that can be given with 
 regard to the regular cryftaUIzation of falts is, that 
 they ought to be fet to ci-yftallize In as large a quan- 
 tity at once as poflible ; and this, as far as we have ob- 
 ferved, without any limit ; for by this means, the cr^r- 
 ftals are formed much larger and better figured than 
 they pofrft)ly can be by any other method hitherto 
 known. — Ac- to the form of the veflels In which falts 
 are to be cryftalllzed, little can be fald with certainty. 
 They are generally flat, and wider at top than at the 
 bottom. The only proper material. In the large way, 
 is lead. 
 
 VI. Distillation. This is a kind of evaporation; 
 only In fuch a manner, that the part of the liquor eva- 
 porated Is not diflipated In the air, but pi-eferved by 
 making the fttam pafs through a fpiral pipe, which 
 goes through a large veftt'l fuU of cold water, or Into 
 cold glafs receivers. ' 
 
 This Is one of the moft common chemical opera- 
 tions ; and as there are a variety of fubjefts which re- 
 quire to be diftilled, there is confequently a confider- 
 able variety both In the form of the diftilHng veffels 
 to be ufed on different occafions, and llkewife in the 
 materials of which they are made, as well as the mia- 
 nagenient of the fire during the time of the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The moft fimple and eafily performed diftillation 
 is that by the common copper ftill, (fig, 3). It con- 
 fills of two paits ; one called the lody, and the other 
 the head. The body is a cylindrical veifel of cop- 
 per, which is fometlmes tinned over in the In fide ; 
 but where diftillation Is performed without any re- 
 gard to the refiduum, the tinning is ufelefs. 7'he up- 
 per part of the body terminates in a kind of arch, in 
 the middle of which is a circular aperture, about one 
 aalf, or fomething lefs, in diameter, of the breadth of 
 
 I S T R y. Theory, 
 
 the whole body. — Into this aperture, a round head, Chemical 
 made likewife of copper, is fitted, fo as to be remove- Oper ations. 
 able at pleafure. In the top, or fometimes in the fide " 
 of the head, is inferted a pewter pipe, which commu- 
 nicates with a fpiral one of the fame metal, that pafTes 
 through a large wooden vefTcl, called the refrigeratory ^ 
 filled with csjld water ; each of its ends projefting a 
 little above and below. The ftill is to be filled two 
 thirds full of the fubilance to be diftilled, the head put 
 on, and the junctures well clofed with a mixture of 
 linlfeed meal and water, or common flour or chalk and 
 water will anfwer the fame purpofe. This mixture 
 is called the luiing, or lute. A fire being kindled un- 
 der the flill, the vapours will arlle ; .and, being con- 
 denfed by the cold water through which the fpiral 
 pipe called the worm paffes, will run in a ftream 
 more or lefs ftrong as the fire is more or lefs hattily 
 urged, and Is catched in a receiver fet underneath. 
 
 This kind of diftilling veflels is proper for procuring 
 the eflential oils of vegetables, vinous Ipirits from fer- 
 mented liquor, and for the leftification of thefe after 
 they arc once diftilled. Even the acetous acid may 
 be very conveniently diftilled in a copper veflel, pro- 
 vided the worm and all the delcending paits of tlic 
 pipe which communicates v/Ith it be of pewter, other- 
 wife a mifchlevous impregnation of copper would bs 
 communicated to the diftilled vinegar. The reaion 
 of this Is, that copper is not diflcjlYed by vinegar, or 
 in very Imall quantity, when that acid is boiled in it ; 
 but if the metal is expofed to the aftion of the acid 
 when cold, or to its vapours, a confiderable dilfolu- 
 lion takes place. For this reafon, too, the ftill mull be 
 waftied out after the operation while it continues hot, 
 and muft be very carefully freed from the leaft remains 
 of acid, otherwife It will be much corroded. 
 
 Copper-ftills ought to be of as large a fize as pof- 
 fible : but Dr Lewis very juftly oblerves, that, in com- 
 mon ones, the width of the worm is by no means pro- 
 poitionable to the capacity of the ftill: hence the va- 
 pour which iflues from a large fuiface being violently 
 forced through a fmall tube, meets with fo much re- 
 fiftance as fometimes to blow off the ftlll-head. This 
 inconvenience is ridiculoufly endeavoured to be pre- 
 vented by ftrongly tying or otherwife forcing down 
 the head ; by which means. If the worm fliould hap- 
 pen to be choaked up, a terrible explofion would 
 enlue : for no ligatures, or any other obftacle what- 
 ever, have yet been found ftrong enough to refift the 
 elaftic force of fteam ; and the greater obftacle it has 
 to overcome, the greater would the explofion be. — 
 Dangers of this kind might be totally avoided by ha- 
 ving the worm of a proper degree of widenefs. 
 
 Sometimes, however, matters are to be diftilled, Mineral a- 
 fuch as mineral acid fpirits, which would corrode anycidshow 
 kind of metalline veflels ; and for thefe only earth, or '^'i^iUcd. 
 the clofeft kind of ftone-ware, can be ufed. Thefe 
 are more eafily condenfed than the fleams of aqueous 
 or vinous liquors, and therefore do not require to be 
 pafled through a pipe of fuch a length as is ufed for 
 condenfing the fteams from the common ftill. In thefe 
 cafes, where a violent heat Is not neceffary, and the 
 diftillation is to be performed in glafs veffels, the re- 
 tort is ufed (fig. 4.) When a fluid is to be put into 
 tin's vefftl, the retort muft be laid upon its back on 
 land, or any other foft malter that will fupport it; 
 
 with- 
 
 57« 
 
operations. 
 
 577 
 JLutirii; [or 
 
 Theory. C H E M 
 
 Chemical without breaking. A fannel muft alfo be procured 
 with a long ftem, and a litile crooked at the extremi- 
 ty, that the h"quor may pafs at once into the belly of 
 the retort, without touching any part of its neck ; 
 otherwife the quantity which adhered to the neck 
 would pafs into the receiver when the retort was pla- 
 ced in a proper fituation for dilHiling, and foul the 
 produce. When the veflTel is properly filled, vhich 
 ought never to be above two thirds, it is to be fct in 
 a fand bath ; that is, in an iron pot, of a proper thick- 
 nefs, and covered over in the bottom, to the depth 
 of one or two inches, with dry fand. When the re- 
 tort is put in, fo as to ftand on its bottom, the pot is to 
 be tilled up with fand, as far as the neck of the retort, 
 A glafs receiver is then to h: applied, which ought to 
 be as large as poffible, and likewife pretty ftrong ; lor 
 which reafon it will be proper not to let the capacity 
 of it be above what is neceffary to hold ten gallons. 
 In the hinder part of it (liould be drilled a fmall hole, 
 which may be occafionally fliut by a fmall wooden peg. 
 The mouth of the receiver ought to be fo wide as to 
 let the nofe of the retort enter to the middle of it, or 
 very near to it ; for if the vapours are difchargfd very 
 near the luting, they will aft upon it much more 
 llrongly than when at a diilance. It is likewife pro- 
 per to have the neck of the retort as wide as maybe; 
 for this has a very great efFeft in the condenfation, 
 by prefenting a larger furface to the condenfing va- 
 pour. 
 
 The luting for acid fpirits ought to be very diffe- 
 a£id Ipii its. rent from that ufed in other diftillations; for thefe will 
 penetrate the common lutes fo as to make them liquid 
 and fall down into the receiver. Some have ufed re- 
 torts, the necks of which were ground to the recei- 
 vers with emery ; but thefe are very difficult to be 
 procured, and are expenfive, and confequently have 
 never come into general ufe. Various kinds of lutes 
 have been propofed, but the preference feems due to 
 a mixture of clay and fand. We are not to under- 
 Hand, however, that every kind of clay is fit for this 
 purpofe : It muft only be fuch as is not at all, or very 
 little, affefted by acids; and this quality is only poffef- 
 fed by that kind of which tobacco-pipes is made. Trial 
 ought to be made of this before the diftillation is be- 
 gun, by pouring a little nitrous acid on the clay in- 
 tended to be made ufe of. If a violent effervefcence 
 is raifed, we may be fure that the clay is unfit for the 
 purpofe. Finely powdered alabafter would anfwer 
 extremely well, had It the duftllity of clay. As this 
 kind of lute remains foft for a confiderable time, it 
 ought to be farther fecured by a bit of rag fpread with 
 fome ftrong cement, fuch as quicklime mixed with 
 the white of an egg, isfc. M?.tters, however, ought 
 to be managed In fuch a manner, that the luting may 
 give way, rather than the veffels burft ; which would 
 not only occafion a certain lofs of the materials, but 
 might endanger the perfons who were ftanding by. 
 j.g The iron pots commonly ufed for diftillations by the 
 
 Jtnlnam a- fand-bath, or bahieum aremx, are commonly made very 
 '.r.a, thick V and are to be fold at large founderies, under 
 the name of Jand-pots. The ftiape of thefe, however, 
 is by no means ehgible : for, as they are of a figure 
 nearly cylindrical, if the retort is of fuch a fize as al- 
 moft to fiU their cavity,, it cannot, be put into them 
 
 I S T R Y. 445 
 
 when full, and often pretty heavy, without greit dan- Chemical 
 ger of touching the fides of the pot ; and in this cafe, Qi'^^'^ tiang. 
 touching and breaking are fynonymous expreffions. It " 
 is much better, therefore, to have them in the figure 
 of a punch-bowl ; and the common caft-iron kettles, 
 which may be had much cheaper than the fand-pota 
 ufually fold, anfwer exti emely well. If the dittilliiig 
 veffel is placed in a pot filled with water, the dlltilla- 
 tion is fald to be performed in a water-bath, or bah 
 newn war'ne. 
 
 When the matter to be condenfcd is very volatile, 
 
 a number of open receivers with two necks, called 
 
 adopters (fig. 7.), may be ufed, with a clofe receiver 
 
 at the end. Each of thtfe adopters muft be luted with , 
 
 , 1 1 i- 1 • • 1 Adoptersoj? 
 
 as much care as when only a iingle receiver is uiade aj^jj^i ^ 
 
 ufe of. Velfels of a fimilar kind were formerly much 
 ufed by chemifts for particular fublimatlons, under the 
 name of aludcls. 
 
 Formerly, inftead of retorts, a vefTel called a aicurbif, 
 (fig. 5, and 6.) with a head like the common ftill, called 
 an alembic, were ufed ; but the more fimple figure of 
 the retort gives it greatly the preference. It is but 
 {ddom that veflels of this kind are ufeful, which will 
 be taken notice of when defcribing the particular ope- 
 rations : and if at any time an alembic head ftiould be 
 neceffary, its ufe may be fuperfeded by a crooked 
 glafs tube, which will anfwer the purpofe equally 
 well. 
 
 Sometim.es a very violent fire is required in diftil- 
 lations by the retort. Here, where it is polTible, glafs 
 or earthen velfels fhould be avoided, and iron pots lub- 
 ftltuted in their ttcad. The hardeft and beft caft iron, 
 however, will at lait melt by a vehement heat ; and 
 therefore there is a neceffity for ufing earthenware, 
 or coated glafs. This laft is better than moft kinds- 
 of earthen ware, as being lefs porous ; for when the 
 veffel is urged by a very Intenfe heat, the glafs mtlts, 
 and forms a kind of femivitreous compound with the 
 infide of the coating, fo that its figure is ftill prefer- 
 ved, and the accidental cracks in the luting arc filled 
 
 "P* 580 
 
 For coating of vefTtls, mixtures of colcothar of vi- Cnatmg of 
 triol, fand, iron filings, blood, chopped hair, \jffc. have glafl'es. 
 been recommended. We cannot help thinking, how- 
 ever, that the fimple mixture of tobacco-pipe clay and 
 fand is preferable to any ©tlier; efpecially if, as Dr 
 Black diredts, that part next the gjafs Is mixed with 
 charcoal duft. 
 
 The proportions recommended by the Dodlor for 
 luting the joints of veffels, are four parts of fand and 
 one of clay ; but for lining the infides of furnaces, and, , 
 we ftiould think, likewife for coating glafs veffels, he 
 direfts 6 or 7 of fand to i of clay ; that the contrac- 
 tion of the clay in drying may thereby be the more 
 effedually prevented. Befides this, he direfts a mix- 
 ture of three parts of charcoal-duft with one of clay 
 to be put next the furnace itfelf, as being more apt to 
 confine the heat ; but poffibly the firil compolltion 
 might be fufficieut for glaffes. 
 
 The coating of large glafles muft be a very troublc- 
 fome and tedious operation ; and therefore coated, 
 glafs is never ufed but in experiments. When large 
 diftillations are to be performed in the way of trade,., 
 rtcourfe muft be had either to iron pots, or to earthen- 
 
446 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 Chemical 
 Operations 
 
 5Sr 
 
 Sublima- 
 tion. 
 
 58a 
 ■Defligra- 
 Cion. 
 
 ware. Of the tftofl: proper kinds of earthen ware for 
 refifting violent heats, we fhall take notice under the 
 article Fu/ton. 
 
 In all diftillatlone by the retort, a confiderable quan- 
 tity of air, or other incondenfible vapour, ia eKtrica- 
 ted ; and to this it is abfoluiely neceffary to give vent, 
 or the veflels would be barR, or the receiver thrown 
 off. For this purpofe, Dr Lewis recommends an open 
 pipe to be inferted at the luting, of iuch an height as 
 will not allow any of the vapour to efcape ; but this 
 we cannot approve of, as by that means a conftant 
 communication is formed between the external atmo- 
 fphere and the matters contained in the retort and 
 receiver, which is at all times to be avoided as much 
 as poflible, and in fome cafes, as the diftlUation of phof- 
 phorus, would be very dangerous. The having a 
 fm all hole drilled in the receiver, which is to be now 
 and then opened, muit anfwer the purpofe much bet- 
 ter, although it takes more attendance ; but if the ope- 
 rator is obliged to leave the vefTels for fome time, it 
 will be convenient either to leave the little hole open, 
 or to contrive it fo that the wooden peg may be pulh- 
 ed out with lefs force than is fufficient to break the 
 lute. 
 
 VII. Sublimation. This, properly fpeaklng, is only 
 the diftillation of a dry fubftance; and therefore, when 
 volatile matters, fuch as fait of hartfliorn, .are to be 
 fublimed, the operation is performed in a glafs retort 
 fet in a fand bath, and the fait pafTes over into the re- 
 ceiver. The cuG.mbit and alembi -> were formerly much 
 in ufe for; this purpofe ; and a blind head, without any 
 fpout, was^applied. Amuch fimpler apparatus,however, 
 is noW:made ufe of. A globe made of very thin glafs, 
 or an ablu-ng veflel of .tlie fame kind, anfwers the more 
 common purpofes of fublimation. For experiments, 
 Florence ilalks are excellent ; as being both very 
 cheap, , and havmg tht neceCary fliape and thinnefs re* 
 quifite for bearing the heat without cracking. The 
 matter to be fublimed muft not, on almoft any occa- 
 fion, take up more than a third part of the fiibliming 
 veffel. It is to be fet in a fand-bath, that the heat 
 may be more equally applied than it could otherwife 
 be. The heat mull be no greater, or very little, than 
 is neceffary for fublimation, or it will be in danger of 
 flying out at the mouth of the fubliming veffel, or of 
 choaking it up fo as to feurft. The upper part of the 
 velTel, too, muft by no means be kept cool, but 
 flightly covered with fand, that the matter may fettle 
 in a kind of half-melted ftate, and thus form a com- 
 pa£l hard cake, which is the appearance fublimates 
 are expedled to have. Hence this operation re- 
 quires a good deal of caution, and is not very eafily 
 performed. 
 
 VIII. Deflagration. This operation is always per- 
 formed by means of nitre, except in making the flow- 
 ers of zinc. It requires open veflels of earth or ir^on ; 
 the latter are very apt to be corroded, and the former 
 to imbibe part of the matter. To perform this pro- 
 cefs with fafety, and without lofs, the nitre ought to 
 be mixed with whatever matter is to be deflagrated 
 with it, and throvVn, by little and little into the vefl'el 
 previoufly made red-hot. If much is put in at once, 
 a great deal will be thrown out by the violent commo- 
 tion ; and to perform this operation in clofe velFels is 
 in a manjier impoflible, from the prodigious quantity 
 
 5S4 
 
 FulioBe 
 
 Theory. 
 
 of elaftic vapour genei-ated by tli2 nitre. Care muil al- Chemical 
 fo be taken to remove the whole mixture to fome di- '^i'erationio 
 ftance from the fire, and not to bring back ai y fpark * 
 from the quantity deflagrating, with the fpoon which 
 puts it in ; otherwife the whole would irremediably be 
 confumed at once. . 
 
 IX. Calc iNATiO!^. This is the fubjedting any mat- QjJ^jjjjj^Jjjj^i 
 ter to a heat fo violent as to dilhpate fome part " 
 of it, without melting what remains. It is often 
 praflifed on metallic fubftances, particularly lead, for 
 obtaining the calx of that metal -called minium, or red. 
 
 lead. 
 
 This operation, as indeed ail other chemical ones, is 
 beft performed in large quantities, where a particular 
 furnace is conftru6led on-purpofe, and a fire kept chi 
 •day and night without interruption. The flame is made 
 to play over the furface of the metal, and it is conti- 
 nually ftirred fo as to expofe different parcels of it to 
 the adlion of the heat. 
 
 X. FusiG>f» This is when a folid body is expofed 
 to fuch a degree of heat as makes it pafs from a folid 
 to a fluid ftate ; and as diifcrent fubllances are poffef- 
 fed of very different degrees of fufibihty, the degrees 
 of melting heat are very various. 
 
 Befides the true fufion, there are fome kinds of falts 
 which retain fo large a proportion of water in their 
 cryftals, as to become entirely fluid upon being expo- 
 fed to a very fmall degree of heat. This is com- 
 monly called the <watery fufion ; but is really a folut'ton 
 oi the fait in that quantity of water retained by it in 
 its cryftalline form : for fuch falts afterwards become 
 fohd by the evaporation of the water they contained ; 
 and then require a ftrong red heat to melt them tho- 
 roughly, or perhaps are abfolutely infufible. 
 
 Of all known fubftances, unftuous and inflammable 
 ones become fluid with the leaft heat ; then come the 
 more fufible metals, lead, tin, and antimony ; then 
 fome of the more fufible falts; and then the harder me- 
 tals, filver, gold, copper, and iron ; then the mix- 
 tures for making glafs ; and laft of all, the metal call- 
 ed platina, which has hitherto been incapable of fu- 
 fion, except by the violent aftion of the fun-beams in 
 the focus of a large burning glafs. This fubftance 
 feems to be the moft refraftory of all others, even the 
 hardeft flints melting into glafs long before it. (See 
 Platina.) 
 
 Fufion of fmall quantities of matter is ufually per- 
 formed in pots called crucibles; which, as they are re- 
 quired to ftand a very violent heat, muft be made of 
 the moft refradlory materials poflible. 
 
 The making of crucibles belongs properly to the Crucibles, 
 potter : but as a chemifi ought to be the judge of their P'oper n^*" 
 compofition, we fliall here give fome account of the '^"^^^ 
 different attempts to make thefe veflfcls of the necef- 
 fary ftrength. 
 
 All earthen veflels are compofed, at leaft partly, of 
 that kind which is called the argillaceous earth or clay^ 
 becaufe thefe only have the neceflary duftility, and can 
 be formed into veflels of the proper form. Pure clay 
 is, by itfelf, abfolutely unfufible ; but is exceedingly 
 apt to crack when expofed to fudden changes of heat 
 and cold. It is alfo very apt to melt when mixed 
 with other fubftances, fuch as calcareous earths, &c. 
 When mixed in a certain proportion with other 
 materials, they are changed by violent heat into 
 
 58f 
 
Theory. 
 
 C H E M I S 
 
 Chemical a kind of half-melted fubftance, fuch as our ftone- 
 Ofierations. bottles. They cannot be melted completely, however, 
 ^*^* by almoft any fire ; they are alfo very compaft, and 
 will contain the moft fufible fubftances, even glafs of 
 lead itfclf ; but as they are very apt to crack fiom fud- 
 den changes of heat and co d, they are not fo much 
 ufed ; yet, on particular occafions, they are the only 
 ones which can be made ufe of. 
 
 The more dtnfe any kind of veiTels are, the more apt 
 they are, in general, to break by a fudden application 
 of heat or cold : hence crucibles arc not, in general, 
 made of the greateft denfity poffible ; which is not at 
 all times required. Thofe made at Hefle, in Germany, 
 have had the beft reputation foa- a long time. Mr 
 Pott, member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, 
 hath determined the compofition of thefe crucibles to 
 be, one part of good refraftory clay, mixed with two 
 parts of fand, of a middling finenefs, from which the 
 fineft part has been fifted. By fifting the _ finer _ par- 
 ticles from the fand, too great compaftnefs is avoided : ■ 
 but at the fame time this mixture renders them apt to- 
 be corroded by vitrifying matters kept a long time in 
 fufion ; for thefe do not fail to aft upon the fand con- 
 tained in the compofition of the crucible,.and, forming 
 a vitreous mafs, at laft run through it. 
 
 This inconvenience is prevented, by raixingj inftead 
 ©f fand, a good baked cky in grofa powder. Of a 
 compofition of this kind are made the glafs-houfe pots, 
 which fometimes fuftain the violent heat employed in 
 making glafs for feveral months. They are, however, 
 gradually confumed by the glafs, and become con- 
 j.- ftantly more and more thin. 
 Mafina a As the containing veffel, however, maft alw-ays be 
 defuahle expoftd to a more violent heat than what is contained in 
 material. It, cniiribles ought to be formed of fuch materials as 
 are not vitrifiable by the heat of any furnace whatever. 
 But froxn the attempts made to melt platina, it appears, 
 that of all known fubftances it would be the moft defirable 
 for a melting veflel. Heffian crucibles, glafs-houfe pots, 
 Sturbridge qlay, in ftiort every fubftance which could 
 be thought of to refift the moft violent heat, were melt- 
 ed in fuch a manner as even to ftop up the pipes of 
 large bellows, wh'le platina was not altered in the 
 leaft ; and Meffrs Macquer and Beaume have fhown, 
 that though platina cannot be melted fo as to caft vef- 
 fels of it, it may neverthelefs be cupelled with lead fo 
 as to become malleable, . and thus veflels might other- 
 j-"'*^, wife be made from that fubftance. The extreme fcar- 
 mcthcd!.f city of this mineral, however, leaves as yet little room 
 niakingcru- to hope for any thing from it, though Mr Achard has 
 cibles of found a method of forming crucibles from this refrac- 
 platina. tory fubftance. It confifts in moulding the precipitate 
 made with fal ammoniac into the form of a crucible, 
 and then applying a fudden and very violent heat, which 
 fufcs this calx. 
 
 Mr Pott has made fo many experiments upon clays 
 mixed with different fubftances, that he has in a manner 
 cxhaufttd the fubjeft. The bafis of all his compofitions 
 was clay. This he mixed in different proportions with 
 metallic calces, calcined bones, calcareous earths, talcs, 
 amianthus, afbeftus, pumlce-ftones, tripoli, and many 
 others ; but he did not obtain a perfeft compofition 
 from any of them. The beft crucibles, according 
 to Scheffer, cannot eafily contain metals diflblved by 
 fulphur, in the operation of parting by means ' ef ful- 
 
 TRY. 447 
 
 phur. They may be made much more durable and Chemical 
 folid, by fteeping them ^ few days in linfeed-oil, andQp"^"""V 
 ftrewing powdered borax upon them before they are 
 dried. 5^8 
 
 The refult of Mr Pott's experiments are : I. Cru- 
 cibles made of fat clays are more apt to crack when ex- ' 
 pofed to fudden heat, than thofe which are made of 
 lean or meagre clays. Meagre clays are thofe which 
 contain a confiderable quantity of fand along with the 
 pure argillaceous earth : and /a/ clays are thofe which ' 
 contain but little. 2. Some crucibles become porous 
 by long expofure to the fire, and imbibe part of the 
 contained metals. This may be prevented, by glazing 
 the internal and external furfaces ; which is done by 
 moiftening thefe with oil of tartar, or by ftrewing up- 
 on them, when wetted with water, powdered glafs of 
 borax. Thefe glazings are not capable of containing 
 glafs of lead. 3. Crucibles made of burnt clay grofs- 
 ly powdered) together with unburnt clay, were much 
 lefs liable to crack by heat than crucibles made of the 
 fame materials where the burnt clay was finely pow- 
 dered, or than crucibles made entirely of unburnt clay. 
 4. If the quantity of unburnt clay be too great, the 
 crucible will be apt to crack in the fire. Crucibles 
 made of 10 ounces of unburnt clay, 10 ounces of grofs-- 
 ly powdered burnt clay, and three drachms of cal- 
 cined vitriol, are capable of retaining melted metals,- 
 but are pervaded by glafs of lead. The following' 
 compofition is better than the preceding : Seven oun- 
 ces of unburnt clay, 14 ounces of grofsly powdered 
 burnt clay, and one drachm of calx of vitriol. Thefe 
 crucibles may be rendered more capable of containing- 
 glafs of lead, by lining their internal furfaces, before 
 they are baked, with unburnt clay diluted w'th water. 
 They may be further ftrengthened by making them 
 thicker than is ufually done ; or by covering their ex- 
 ternal furfaces with fomc unburnt clay, which is called 589 
 arming them. 5. The compofition of crucibles moft Materials 
 
 caoable of containine: the glafs of lead, was 18 parts r?'^'^/^^^' 
 
 r n J j u ..1 v. u 1 ble of refift- - 
 
 of grofsly powdered burnt cJay, as much unburnt clay, j ^ gj^f^ ^. 
 
 and one part of fufible fpar. Thefe crucibles muft lead, 
 not, however, be expofed too fuddenly to a violent 
 heat. 6. Crucibles capable of containing glafs of 
 lead very well, were made of 24 parts of unburnt clay, 
 fofir parts of burnt clay, and one part of chalk. Thefe 
 require to be armed. 7. Plume alum powdered, and 
 mixed with whites of eggs and water, being applied- 
 to the internal furface of a Heffian crucible, enabled it 
 to retain for a long time glafs of lead in fufion. 
 8. One part of clay, and two parts of Spanifti chalk, 
 made very good crucibles. The fubftance called Spa- 
 nijh chalk is not a calcareous earth, but appears to be a 
 kind of fteatites. 9. Two parts of Spanifti chalk, and' 
 one part of powdered tobacco-pipes, made good lining 
 for common crucibles. 10. Eight parts of Spaniih 
 chalk, as much burnt clay, and one part of litharge, 
 made folid crucibles. 1 1. Crucibles made of black lead^ 
 are fitter than Heifiap crucibles for melting metals ; but 
 they are fo porous, that fufed falts pafs entirely thro ' 
 them. They are more tenacious than Heflian cru- 
 cibles, are not fo apt to burft in pieces, and are 
 more durable. 12. Crucibles placed with their bot- 
 toms upwards, are lefs apt to be cracked during the 
 baking, than when placed differently. 13. The paft(=( 
 ef which crucibles are made, ©ught not to be too 
 
 A. moi4 " 
 
44B 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 590 
 
 Dr I>ewib's 
 
 «>hftrva- 
 
 eions. 
 
 CJiemical moifk ; die, when dried and baked, they will not 
 Operations. fufficiently compaft : hence they ought not to be 
 fo moift as to be capable of being turned on a pot- 
 ter's lathe ; but they mufl be formed in brafs or wood- 
 en moulds. 
 
 On this fubje£l Dr Lewis hath alfo made feveral 
 obfervations ; the principal of which are, i. Pure clay 
 foftened to a due confillence for being worked, not 
 • only coheres together, but fticks to the hands. In 
 drying, it contra&s I inch or more in 12 ; and hence 
 it is very apt to crack, unlefs it is dried exceeding flow- 
 ly. In burning, it is fubjeft to the fame incoHve- 
 nience, unlefs very flowly and gradually heated. "VVnen 
 thoroughly burnt, if it has efcapedthofe imperfeftions, 
 it proves folid and compafi: ; and fo hard as to ftrike 
 fire with fleel. VelTels made of it are not penetrated 
 by any kind of liquid ; and refill falts and glaffes 
 brought into the thinneft fufion, excepting thofe which 
 b>y degrees corrode and diffolve the earth itfelf, as 
 glafs of lead.; and even this penetrating glafs is refift- 
 cd by it better than by almoft any other earth ; but, in 
 counterbalance to tliefe good qualities, they cannot be 
 heated or cooled, but with fuch precautions as can 
 rarely be compHed with in the way of bufinefs, with- 
 out cracking, or flying in pieces. 
 
 2. Clay that has been once expofed to any confider- 
 able degrees of heat, and then po-wdered, has no longer 
 any tenacity. Frefli clay, divided by a due propor- 
 tion of this powder, proves lefs tenacious than by it- 
 felf; not fticking to the hands, though cohering fuf- 
 ficiently together. It Ihrinks lefs in drying, is lefs 
 apt to crack, and lefs fufceptible of injury from alte- 
 rations of heat and cold; but at the fame time is lefs 
 fol d and compact. Confiderable differences are ob- 
 ferved in thefe refpefts ; not only according to the 
 quantity of dividing matter, but according as it is in 
 finer or coarfer powder. 
 
 3. Veffels m.ade with a moderate proportion of fine 
 powder, as half the weight of the clay, are compaft 
 and fol d, but Hill very apt to crack, from fudden 
 heat or cold : thofe witli a larger proportion, as twice 
 or thrice the quantity of the clay, are free from that 
 imperfection, but fo friable as to crumble between the 
 fingers. Nor does there appear to be any medium be- 
 tween a difpofition to crack and to crumble ; all the 
 compounds siade of clay and fine powders having the 
 one or the other, or both imperfe£lions. Coarfer 
 powders of the fi/.e of middling fand, form, with an 
 equal weight of clay, compounds fufficiently folid, and 
 mucli lefs apt to crack than the mixtures with fine 
 powders. Two parts of coarfc powder, and one of 
 clay, prove moderately folid, and but little difpofed to 
 crack : a mixture of tliree parts and one, tho' heated 
 and cooled fuddenly, does not crack at all, but fuffers 
 very fluid fubftances to tranfude through it ; folidity, 
 anc refiitance to quick viclffitudes of heat and cold, 
 feeming here alfo to be incompatible. 
 
 4. Pure clay, mixed with pure clay that has been 
 burnt, is no otlier than one fimple earth ; and is nei- 
 ther to be melted nor foftened, nor made in any de- 
 gree tra,pfparent with the moft intenfe fire?. 
 
 5. Mixtures of clay with gypfeous earths burn 
 whiter than clay alone; in certain proportions, as two 
 parts of clay to three of gypfum, they become, in a 
 
 No 72. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 moderate fire, femi-tranfparent, and in a ftrong one Chemical 
 they melt. Operations. 
 
 6. Calcareous earths in fmall proportion bake to- " 
 lerably compact and white ; and added to other com- 
 pofitions, feem to improve their compaftnefs. If the 
 quantity of the calcareous earth nearly equals that of 
 
 the clay, the mixture melts into a yellow glafs ; if it 
 confiderably exceeds, the produdl acquires the quali- 
 ties of quicklime. 
 
 7. Veflcis made from clay and fand, in whatever 
 proportion, do not melt in the ftrongeft fire ; but they 
 fometimes bend or foften, fo as to yield to the tongs. 
 Glalfes in thin fufion penetrate them by dlffolving the 
 fand. If gypfeous or calcareous earths are urged In 
 fiich crucibles with a vehement heat, the veffels and 
 their contents run all Into one mafs. In moderate 
 fires, thefe yeflels prove tolerably compact, and retain 
 moft kinds of falts in fufion : but they arc liable to 
 crack, efpcially when large ; and do not long fuftain 
 melted metals, being buril by their weight. Such are 
 the Hefiian crucibles. 
 
 8. Mixtures of clay and black-lead, which fee'ms a 
 fpecies of talc, are not liable to crack from alterna- 
 tions of heat and cold ; but are extremely porous. 
 Hence black-lead crucibles anfwer excellently for the 
 melting of metals, and fl;and repeated fufions ; whilft 
 falts flowing thin, tranfude through them almoft as 
 water through a fieve : fulphureous bodies, as antimo- 
 ny, corrode them. 
 
 9. Pure clay, foftened with v/ater, and incruftated 
 on earthen veffels, that have been burnt, does not ad- 
 here to them, or fcales off again upon expofure to 
 the fire ; applied to unburnt veffcls, it adheres and in- 
 corporates. Divided clay unites with them in both 
 ftates. Vitreous matters, melted in veffels of pure 
 clay, adhere fo firmly as not to be feparated ; from 
 veffels of divided clay they may be knocked off by a 
 hammer. 
 
 10. The faline fluxes which promote the fufion of 
 clay, befides the common ones of all earths, alkali and 
 borax, are chiefly arfenic fixed by nitre, and the fulible 
 fait of urine; both which have little effeft on the other 
 earths though mixed In a large proportion. Nitre, 
 which readily brings the cryftalline earths Into fufion, 
 and fal mirabile and fandirer, powerful fluxes for the 
 calcareous earths, do not perfectly vitrify with clay. 
 Burnt clay does not dlflfer in thefe refpeds from fuch 
 as has not been burnt; nor In that Angular property 
 of vitrifying with gypfeous or calcareous earths, with- 
 out any faline or metallic addition ; the utmoft vehe- 
 mence of fire feeming to deltroy only its dudttlity, or 
 that power by which It coheres when its pans are 
 moiflened with water. 
 
 But though it feems impoffible to make perfeft 
 
 veflTels from mixtures of clay in Its two different ftates, 
 
 of burnt and unburnt, more Is to be hoped from the 
 
 mixtures which are employed in making porcelain. Ma- 
 
 nufaftorles of this kind of ware have been atttmptedjvjofe per- 
 
 In diff"crent countries, (fee Porcelain) ; and in fomefeft -.tflVls 
 
 placts the qualities requifite for chemical veffels have''" '•'>,'ed 
 
 been e'ven to It in aT^ery furprifinff degree. Thecount^"'" ^''""^ 
 J T • rr 1 ui J 1 r 1 porcelain, 
 
 dc lyiuraguais, a rrench nobleman, and member of the 
 
 :.:::iJ- iny of fciences, has diftinguiflied himfelf in a 
 
 very eminent manner by attempts of this kind. The 
 
 6 traiiflator 
 
Theory. C H E M 
 
 Chemical tranflator of the chemical diftionary afllires us, that he 
 Operations. j^. fj-Qj^ g gentleman of undoubted veracity, that 
 ' * this nobleman having heated a piece of his porcelain 
 red hot, threw it into cold water, without breaking or 
 59J cracking it, 
 Mr Rcau- The moil ufeful attempt, however, for the purpofes 
 ^lain chemiftry, feems to be the difcovery by Mr Reau- 
 
 mur of converting common green glafs into porce- 
 lain. This was publifhed as long ago as the year 
 T 739 ; yet we have fcarce heard of any chemift, no not 
 Dr Lewis himfelf, who has made trial of chemical 
 ve/Tels formed of this fort of porcelain, although the 
 very ufe to which Mr Reaumur thought the prepara- 
 tion could be applicable was that of bringing chemical 
 vefFcls to a degree of perfeftion which could not other- 
 wife dc done. The following is the refult of Mr Reau- 
 mur'fr experiments. 
 
 Green glafs, furrounded with white earthy matters, 
 as white fand, gypfum, or plafter of Paris, ^c. and 
 expofed to a confiderable heat not ftrong enough to 
 alter its figure, as that of a potter's furnace, acquirco 
 different fhades of blue, and by degrees begins to 
 grow white. On breaking the glafs, the white coat 
 appears to be compofcd of fine, white, gloffy, latin- 
 like fibres, running Iranfverfely, and parallel to one ano- 
 ther ; the glafs in the middle being fcarcely altered. 
 On continuing the cementation, the change proceeds 
 further and further, till at length the white fibrous 
 parts from both fides meet in the middle, and no ap- 
 pearance of glafs remains. By this means, entire vef- 
 fels of glafs may be changed into porcelain. 
 
 The fubliance into which glafs is thus converted, is 
 «paque, compa£l, internally of great whitenefs, equal 
 to that of the fineft china-ware ; but, externally, of a 
 much duller hue. It is confiderably harder than glafs, 
 much lels fufible in the fire, and fuftains alterations of 
 heat and cold without injury. Veffels of it, cold, bear 
 boiling liquors ; and may be placed on the fire at once, 
 without danger of their cracking. " 1 have put a vef- 
 lel of this porcelain (fays the author) into a forge, 
 furrounded it with coals, and kept vehemently blow- 
 ing for near a quarter of an hour ; I have melted 
 glafs in this veffel, without its having fuffered any in- 
 jury in its figure." If means could be found of giving 
 the outfide a whitenels equal to the internal part, glafs 
 veffels might thus be converted into a valuable kind 
 of porcelain, fuperior to all that have hitherto been 
 made. Chemiftry, fays he, may receive from this 
 difcovery, in its prefent flate, fuch veffels as have been 
 long wanted ; veffels which, with the compaftnefs 
 and impenetrability of glafs, are alfo free from its in- 
 conveniences. 
 
 The common green glafs bottles yield a porcelain 
 of tolerable beauty; window-glaffcs, and drinking- 
 glaffes, a much inferior one ; while the finer kinds 
 of cryftalline glaffes afforded none at all. With re- 
 gard to the cementing materials, he found white fand 
 and gypfum, or rather a mixture of both, to anfwer 
 beft. Coloured earths generally make the external 
 furface of a deeper or lighter brown colour ; foot and 
 charcoal, of a deep black, the internal part being al- 
 ways white. 
 
 The account of this kind of porcelain given by Mr 
 experi- Reaumur, induced Dr Lewis, who had alfo obfcived 
 raciits. ^jjg {Vj^g changes on the bottom of glafs-retorts ex- 
 VoL. IV. Part IL 
 
 593 . 
 Dr Lewis's 
 
 I S T R Y. 449 
 
 pofed to violent heat in a fand-bath, to make further Chemicil 
 experiments on this matter ; an account of which he ^i^'^''^'^'^'"'*' 
 has publifhed in his Philufophlcal Commerce of Arts, ' 
 The refults of his experiments were, i. Green glafs, 
 cemented with white fand, received no change in a 
 heat below ignition. 2. Tn a low red heat, the change 
 proceeded exceeding ilowly ; and in a flrong red heat, 
 approaching to white, the thickeft pieces of glafs 
 bottles were thoroughly converted in the fpace of 
 three hours. 3. By continued heat, the glafs fuffered 
 the following progieflive changes: firft, its furface 
 became blue, its tranfparency was diminifhed, and a 
 yellowifh hue was obfervable when it was held between 
 the eye and the light. Afterwards it was changed a 
 little way on both fides into a white fubftance, exter- 
 nally flill bluifli ; and, as this change advanced liill 
 further and further within the glafs, the colour of the 
 vitreous part in the middle approached nearer to yel- 
 low : the white coat was of a fine fibrous texture, and 
 the fibres were difpofed nearly parallel to one another, 
 and tranfverfe to the thicknefs of the piece : by de- 
 grees the glafs became white and fibrous throughout, 
 the external bluifhnefs at the fame time going off, and 
 beinfir fucceeded by a dull whitifh or dun colour. By 
 a flill longer continuance in the fire, the fibres were 
 changed gradually from the external to the internal 
 part, and converted into grains ; and the texture was 
 then not unlike that of common porcelain. The grains, 
 at firfl fine and fomewhat gloffy, became by degrees 
 larger and duller ; and at lafl the fubftance of the glafs 
 became porous and friable, like a mafs of white fand 
 flightly cohering. 4. Concerning the qualities of this 
 kind of porcelain, Dr Lewis obfervcs, that, while it 
 remained in the fibrous ftate, it was harder than com- 
 mon glafs, and more able to refift the changes of heat 
 and cold than glafs, or even porcelain ; but, in a mo- 
 derate white heat, was fufible into a fubftance not fi- 
 brous, but vitreous and fmooth, like white enamel : 
 that when its texture had become coarfely granulated, 
 it was now much fofter and unfufible : and laflly, that 
 when fome coarfely granulated unfufible pieces, which, 
 with the continuance of a moderate heat, would have 
 become porous and friable, were fuddenly expofed to 
 an intenle fire, they were rendered remarkably more 
 compaft than before ; the folidlty of fome of them 
 being fuperior to that of any other ware. ^.^^ 
 
 It feems furprifing that tliis able chemift, who on This fub* 
 other occafions had the improvements of the arts fojeftftill 
 much at heart, did not put fome veffels of this kind *"^P'^'^^^*^' 
 of porcelain to other fevere trials, befides attempting 
 to fufe it by icfelf with a violent fire : for though 
 pieces of it were abfolutely unfufible, we are not fure 
 but they might have been corroded by alkaline falts, 
 acids, calcareous earths, or glafs of lead ; nay, it fhould 
 feem very probable that they would have been fo: in 
 which cafe they would not be much fuperior to the 
 veffels made from earthy materials. When a firft- 
 rate chemift publiflies any thing in an imperfeft ftate, 
 inferior ones are difcouraged from attempting to finifh 
 what he has begun ; and thus, notwithflanding that 
 thefe experiments have been fo long publifhed, no- 
 body has yet attempted to inveftigate the properties 
 of this kind of porcelain, by getting chemical veflels 
 made of it, and trying how they anfwer for crucibles, 
 or retorts. 
 
 3 ^ Ali 
 
450 . 
 
 Chemical 
 Operations, 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Theory, 
 
 J95 [596] 
 Stone-ware 
 velTels cor- 
 foded. 
 
 597 
 Wtdge- 
 woi d's 
 ware. 
 
 598 
 Macera- 
 tion, 
 
 592 , 
 
 Levigation, 
 
 All tliat lias been faid concerning the proper mate- 
 rials for crucibles, mud likewife be applicable to the 
 materials for retorts, which are required to ftand a 
 very violent heat. Mr Reaumur's porcelain bids falreft 
 for anfwering the purpofe of retorts, as well as cru- 
 cibles. The great difadvantage of the common earthen 
 ones, is, that they fufFer a quantity of volatile and 
 penetrating vapours to pafs through them. This is 
 very obfervable in the diftillation of phofphorus ; and 
 though this fubflanee has not hitherto been ufed for 
 any purpiofe in medicine, and very little in the arts, 
 its acid only being fometimes ufed as a flux, if vefltls 
 could be made capable of confining all the fl;eams, and 
 at the fame time bearing the heat necelTary for its di- 
 flillation, phofphorus, perhaps, might be obtained in 
 fuch quantity, as to (how that it is a preparation not 
 altogether ufelefs. 
 
 V/ith regard to flone-ware veffels, and all thofe in 
 which the compofition of fand or flint enters, we fliall 
 only further obferve, that they will be corroded by 
 fixed alkaline falts, efpeclally of the cauttic kind, in a 
 very moderate heat. Dr Black, having evaporated 
 fome cauftic ley in a fl:one-ware bafon, and then 
 melted the dry fait in the fame vefTel, found it (o 
 corroded, as afterwards to be full of fmall holes ; and 
 he found nothing to refift the aAion of this fait fo well 
 as filver. On the fubjeft of chemical veflels, we have 
 now, however, to add the improved earthen ware of 
 Mr Wedgewood ; in which the propei-ties of compaft- 
 nefs, infufibility, and the power of refitting fudden 
 changes of heat and cold, are faid to be united, fo 
 that it promifes to be a very valuable addition to the 
 chemical apparatus, 
 
 11. Maceration, or Digestion. This is the 
 mixing two bodies, generally a folid and a fluid, toge- 
 ther, and then expofing them to a moderate degree 
 of heat for a confiderable length of time, that fo they 
 may have the better opportunity of aAing upon one 
 another. Digeftion is ufually performed in the glafles 
 already mentioned, called matrajfes or bolt-heads; and 
 is done in a fand heat. When any of the fubftances 
 are very volatile, as fpirit of wine ; or when the matter 
 requires to be heated fo confiderably that a quantity of 
 vapour will be raifed, the necks of the bolt-heads 
 ought to be pretty long ; or a tin pipe may be infert- 
 ed, q£ fufficient length to prevent the efcape of any 
 part of the fteam. 
 
 12. Levigation. This is the reducing any body 
 to a very fine powder, which fliall feel quite foft be- 
 tween the fingers or when put into the mouth. It 
 is performed by grinding the fubftance upon a flat 
 marble fl;one, with fome water, or by rubbing it in a 
 marble mortar. In the large way, levigation is per- 
 formed by mills drawn by horfes, or driven by water ; 
 fome of them are fo fmall as to be turned by the hand. 
 They confift of two fmooth ftonea, generally of black 
 marble, or fome other ftone equally hard, having fe- 
 veral grooves in each, but made to run in contrary di- 
 reftions to one a-nother when the mill is fet in mo- 
 tion. The m.atter being mixed with water, is put in 
 fey a funnel, which is fixed into a hole in the upper 
 ftone, and turhs along with it. The under militone 
 }ias round it a wooden ledge, whereby the levigating 
 Scatter is confined for fome time, and at length dif- 
 
 charged» by an opening made for that purpofe, wKen Ciien)ical 
 it has accumulated in a certain quantity. • 
 
 In this operation, when the matters U) be levigated ' '^ 
 are very hard, they wear off a part of the mortar, or 
 Hones on which they are levigated; fo that a fub- 
 ftance perfeftly hard, and which could not be worn 
 by any attrition, is as great a defideratum for the 
 purpofes of levigation, as one which could not be 
 melted is for thofe of fufion. Dr Lewis propofes the 
 porcelain of Mr Rcamur as an improvement for levi- 
 gating planes, mortars, l^c. becaufe, while in its fi- 
 brous ftate, it is confiderably harder than glafs, and 
 confequently much lefs liable to abrafiun by the hard- 
 er powders. 
 
 In many cafes levigation is very much accelerated 
 by what is called elutriation. This is the method by 
 which many of the painters colours are prepared of 
 the requifite finenefs; and is performed by mixing*ip.ny 
 fubftance, not totally reduced to the neceflliry degree 
 of finenefs, with a fufficient quantity of water, and 
 ftiiring them well together. The finer parts of the.- 
 powder remain fome time fufpended in the water, 
 while the groffer particles fall to the bottom. The 
 reparation is then eafily made, by pouring off" the wa- 
 ter impregnated with thefe fine parts, and commit- 
 ting the reft to the levigating mill, when it may a- 
 gain be waflied ; and this may be repeated till all the- 
 powder is reduced to the utmoft finenefs. Subftanceii; 
 foluble in water cannot be levigated in this manner. 
 
 Of Chemical Furnaces. 
 
 The two general divifions we have already men- 
 tioned of thofe who praftife ehemiftry, namely, thefe 
 who have no other view than mere experiment, and 
 thofe who wifti to profit by it, render very differeni: 
 kinds of furnaces neceffaiy. For the firft, thofe fur- 
 naces are neceffary which are capable of afting upon 
 a fmall quantity of matter, yet fufficient for all the 
 changes which fire can produce, from fimple digeftion 
 to the molt perfeA vitrification. For the others, thofe 
 are to be chofen which can produce the fame changes 
 upon very large quantities of matter,, that as much 
 may be done at once as poflible. 
 
 To avoid the trouble and expence of a number of Portable 
 furnaces, a portable one hath long been a defideratum furnace, 
 among thofe chemifts who are fond of making expe- 
 riments. One of the beft of thofe, if not the very 
 beft, that hath yet appeared, is that defcribed in 
 Shaw's edition of Boerhaave'a ehemiftry, and repre.- 
 fentedfiff, I, ^'^te 
 
 This furnace is made of earth ; and, as the work- ' 
 manftiip of a furnace requires none of the neatnefs or 
 elegance which is required in making potters veflels, 
 any perfon may eafily make a furnace of this kind for 
 himfelf, who has time and patience for fo doing. With 
 regard to the raott proper materials, all that we have 
 faid concerning crucibles and retorts muft be appli-, 
 cable to the materials for conftrufting a furnace; only 
 here we need not care fo much for the porofity, or 
 difpofition to crumble, as when crucibles or other dif^ 
 tilhng veffels are to be made. 
 
 Plate-iron is commonly direfted for the outfide of 
 portable furu iccs ; but vvc cannot help thinking this 
 is a very needlefs expence, feeing the coating which. 
 
 i4> 
 
Theory. C H E M I 
 
 Chemical it necefiarlly requires on the infide may be fuppofed 
 l-uniacee. harden to fiich a degree as foon to fupport itfelf, 
 ^"""V""-' without any afliftance from the plate-iron. This will 
 be the lefs neceflary, if we confider, that, for the 
 thicknefs of the walls of any furnace where a confide- 
 rable heat is wanted, two or three inches are by no 
 means fufficient. When the infide of a furnace is 
 heated, the walls, if very thin, are foon penetrated 
 by the heat, and great part of it by this means difli- 
 pated in the air. If they are of a fufficient thicknefs, 
 the heat cannot penetrate fo eafdy; and thus the inner 
 part of the furnace preferves the heat of the fuel, and 
 communicates it to the contained velfel. In the con- 
 ftruftion of a portable furnace, therefore, it will be 
 convenient to have all parts of it fix inches thick at 
 leaft. This will alfo give it a fufficient degree of 
 ftrength ; and, as it is formed of feveral different 
 pieces, no inconvenience can follow from the weight 
 of each of them taken feparately. 
 
 In B'jerhaave's chemiftry, this furnace is reprefent- 
 ed as narrower at the bottom than at the top ; but we 
 cannot fuppofe any good reafon for fuch a form, (ee- 
 ing a cylindrical one muft anfwer every purpofe much 
 better, as allowing a larger quantity of air to pafs 
 through the fuel, and likewife not being fo apt to be 
 overturned as it neceflarily muft be where the upper 
 part is confiderably heavier than the lower. We have, 
 therefore, given a reprefentation of it as of a cylindri- 
 cal form. 
 
 The furnace confifts of five or more parts. C, re- 
 prefents the dome, or top of the furnace, with a fhort 
 earthen funnel E for transmitting the fmoke. B, B, B, 
 are moveable cylinders of earth, each provided with 
 a door D, D, D. In Boerhaave's chemiftry thefe doors 
 are reprefented as having iron hinges and latchets ; 
 but they may be formed to more advantage of fquare 
 pieces of earth, having two holes in the middle, by 
 which they may be occafionally taken out, by intro- 
 ducing an iron fork. In like manner, the domes and 
 cylinders, in Boerhaave's chemiftry, are reprefented 
 with iron handles ; but they may be almoft as eafily 
 taken off by the cheaper contrivance of having four 
 holes in each, two direftly oppofite to one another, 
 into which two (hort forks may be introduced when 
 the parts are to be feparated. 
 
 In the lowermoft cylinder is to be placed an iron- 
 grate, a little below the door, for fupporting the 
 fire. In the under part is a fmall hole, big enough 
 for introducing the pipe of a pair of good perpe- 
 tual bellows, when the fire is to be violently excited. 
 Dr Lewis prefers the organ-bellows to any. other kind. 
 
 When the belbws is ufed, the whole muft ftand 
 upon a clofe cyUnder A, that the air may be confined, 
 and made to pafs through the fueh By having more 
 bellows, the fire may be excited to a moft intenfe 
 degree. In this cafe, the pipe of every one of them 
 muft ent r the cylinder B. 
 
 Each »of the cylinders fhould have, in its upper part, 
 a round hole, oppofite to its door, for carrying off 
 the fmo ke, by means of a pipe inferted into it, when 
 the furnace is ufed for diftillations by the fand-bath. 
 Each cyhnder ought likewife to have a femicircular 
 cut in the oppofite fides, both above and below, that 
 when the under cut of the upper cylinder is brought 
 -dir-e'^lly above the upper cut of the lower one, a per- 
 
 45 X 
 
 Chemical 
 Furnaces. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 feA circle may be formed. Thefe are for giving a 
 
 paffage to the necks of retorts, when diftillation by 
 
 the retort is to be performed. The holes may be ^ 
 occafionally filled with ftopples made of the fame ma- 
 terials with the body of the furnace. 
 
 The moft convenient fituation for a furnace of this 
 kind would be under a chimney ; the vent of which 
 might be eafily ftopped up by a broad plate ;«f iron, 
 in which a hole ought to be cut for the reception of 
 the earthen tube of the dome. By this means the 
 ule of a long tube, which at any rate muft be very 
 troublefome, might be eafily avoided, and a very 
 ftrong blaft of air would pafs through the fuel. If It 
 18 found convenient to place the furnace at fome di- 
 ftance from the chimney, a plate-iron pipe muft be 
 procured to fit the earthen pipe of the dome, and 
 carry the fmoke into the chimney. This pipe will 
 alfo be of ufe, when the furnace is ufed for dii illa- 
 tions by the fand-bath ; it muft then be inierttd into 
 the hole oppofite to the door of any of the cyhnders, 
 and will convey away the fmoke, while the mouth of 
 the cylinder is totally covered with a fand-pot. f>ot 
 
 For portable furnaces, Dr Lewis greatly rccom-^'' ^'^^''^ ^ 
 mends the large black crucibles, marked n° 60, on|°^jj^^.g,^ 
 account of their refitting a violent heat, and being 
 very eafily cut by a knife or faw, fo that doors, iScc. 
 may be formed in them at pleafure. The bottom 
 of one of thefe large ones being cut out, a grate is to 
 be put into the narrow part of it. For grates, the 
 do6lor recommends caft-iron rings, having each three 
 knobs around them. Thefe knobs go into correfpond- 
 ing cavities of the outer rings, and the knobs of the 
 outermoft reft on the crucible, which is to be indented 
 a little to receive them, that fo the grate may reft: 
 the more firmly, and the furnace not be endangered 
 from the fwelling of the iron by heat. When thi« 
 is to be made ufe of as a melting- furnace, and a vio- 
 lent heat to be excited, another crucible muft be in- 
 verted on that which contains the fuel, which ferves 
 inftead of the dome of the laft mentioned furnace : and 
 as whatever is faid of it muft likewife be applicable 
 to the two crucibles when placed above one another, 
 we need give no farther defcription of the docftor'a 
 portable furnace. (^oz 
 
 No doubt, the great experience of Dr Lewis in olijeftion 
 chemical matters muft give very confiderable weight [" ^'^^g 
 to any thing he advances ; and the warmth with which 
 he recommends thefe furnaces muft convince us, that 
 he has found them abundantly anfwer the purpofes of 
 experiments. We cannot help thinking, however, 
 that where a very great and lafting heat is to be given, 
 the thinnefs, and even the fornix of thefe crucibles, is 
 fome objeftion to their ufe. It is certain that inch a 
 permanent, or, as the workmen call it, a folid heat, 
 can never be given where the walls of a furnace are 
 thin, as when they are of fufficient thicknefs. They 
 are alfo very apt to bur ft with great heat ; and, for 
 this reafon, Dr Lewis defires his hirnace to be 
 ftrengthened with copper hoops. This difpofition to 
 burft proceeds from the inner parts, which are more 
 intenfely heated than the outer, expanding more than 
 thefe do, and confequently burfting them. Hence 
 the dodlor defires his furnace to be ft;rengthened alfo 
 by putting it within another crucible of a larger fize, 
 and the intermediate fpace to be filled up with a mix- 
 3 L 2 ture 
 
45^ 
 
 chemical 
 Furnaces 
 
 ad 602 
 Dr Black's 
 furnace 
 fchbed. 
 
 6c3 ^ 
 How adap' 
 ted to the 
 various o- 
 jierations 
 t)f chemi- 
 
 C H E M 
 
 tare of fifted afhes and water. For mod chemical 
 procefles, where only a fmall degree of heat is requi- 
 fite, thefe furnaces anfwer beyond any thing that has 
 liitherto been attempted. The whole is to be fup- 
 ported by an iron ring with three feet. 
 
 Dr Black has contrived a furnace in which all thefe 
 "inconveniences are avoided. Two thick iron plates, 
 above and bclov/, are joined by a thinner plate, forming 
 the body of the furnace, which is of an oval foim. 
 The upper part is perforated with two holes; the one, 
 A, pretty large, which is the mouth of the furnace, 
 and whicli is of a circular form ; the other behind it, B, 
 of an oval form, and dciigned for fattening the end of 
 the vent which is fcrewed down upon it. The under- 
 moft thick plate has only one large circular opening 
 G near to the middle, but not altogether fo, being 
 nearer to one fide of the ellipfe than the other, where 
 the round hole in the top is placed; fo that a line paf- 
 fing this circular hole has a little obhquity forwards. 
 The afh-pit HH ishkewifc made of an elliptical form, 
 and a very fmall matter widened ; fo that the bottom 
 of the furnace is received within the elhpfe. A little 
 below, there is a border E that receives the bottom of 
 the furnace; and except the holes of the damping-plate 
 DD, the parts are all clofed by means of foft hite, 
 upon which the body of the furnace is prefTed down ; 
 by whicii means the joining of the two parts, and of 
 all the different pieces, are made quite tight ; for the 
 body, fire-place, afh-pit, vent, and grate, are all fepa- 
 rable from one another. As the furnace comes from 
 the workman, the grate is made to apply to the out- 
 fide of the lower part. It confifts of a ring laid on its 
 edge, and then bars likewife laid on their edges : and 
 from, the outer ring proceed four pieces of iron, by 
 means of which it may be fcrewed down ; fo it is kept 
 out of the cavity of the furnace, and preferved from 
 the extremity of the heat. Thus it lafts much longer, 
 and is indeed hardly liable to any decay ; for by be- 
 ing expofed to the cool air, it is kept fo cool, that it 
 is never hurt by the heat of the fuel. The fides, 
 which are made of plate iron, muft be luted within, 
 to confine the heat, and preferve them from its aftion. 
 
 To adapt this to the various operations of chenii- 
 ftry, we may obferve, that for a melting furnace it is 
 very convenient ; we need only provide a cover for the 
 opening above, which is made the door ; and which, 
 being immediafely over the grate, is convenient 
 for introducing the fubrtances to be afted upon, and 
 for allowing us to look into the vefTel and take it out. 
 This cover may be a piece of tile, or two bricks ren- 
 dered flat and fquare. Dr Black commonly ufes a 
 kind of lid with a rim containing a quantity of lute ; 
 and to augment the heat, we may increafe the height 
 of the vent. It can be employed in moft operations 
 iln the way of effaying ; and the fituation of the door 
 allows us to fee the fubftances very readily. It does 
 cot admit the introdudlion of the muffle ; but can be 
 employed in all thofe operations where the muffle is 
 made ufe of ; and in Cornwall in England fuch a fur- 
 nace is made ufe of for effaying of metals. To pre- 
 ferve the fubftance from the conta6l of the fuel, they 
 cut off about a third part of the length of a brick, 
 and then put it on one end on the middle of the grate. 
 They choofe their fuel of large pieces, that the air 
 znay have free pafTags through it, and open a little of 
 
 I S T R Y. Theory. 
 
 the door, which occafions a ftream of air to flow in ; Chemical 
 and this flrikes upon the fubftance and produces the ^"'■"^•ces- 
 effe<ft defired : fo that it may be ufed in the calcina- * * . 
 tion of lead to convert it into litharge. It alfo an- 
 fwers vei7 i" operations for producing vapour. 
 If we defire to employ it in diftillations which require 
 an intenfe heat, the earthen retort is to be fufpended 
 by means of an iron ring having three branches Stand- 
 ing up from it, and which hangs down about half a 
 foot from the hole ; fo that the bottom, of the retort 
 refts upon the ring, and is immediately hung over the 
 fuel ; and the opening between the mouth of the fur- 
 nace and retort is filled up with broken crucibles and 
 potfiierds, which are covered over with aflies that 
 tranfmit the heat very flowly ; fo it anfwers for di- 
 ftillations performed with the naked fire. Dr Black 
 has fometimes cauied them be provided with a hole in 
 the fide, from which the neck of the retort maybe made 
 to come out ; and in this way has diftilled the phof- 
 phorus of urine, which requires a very llrong heat. 
 For diftillations with retorts performed with the fand- 
 bath, there is an iron pot fitted for the opening of the 
 furnace, which is fet on and employed as a fand-pot,. 
 The vent of the furnace then becomes the door; and" 
 it anfwers very well for that purpofe ; and is more 
 eafily kept tight than if it were in the fide, and may- 
 be kept clofe with a lid of charcoal and clay. In like 
 manner it anfwers well foi' the common fUll, which may 
 be adapted to it ; part of it being made to enter the 
 open part of the furnace, and hang over tlie fire, as in 
 Plate CXXXIII. fig. 7. and 8. that the bottom part of 
 that ftill may be made to enter ; and the vent becomes 
 the door, by which frefh.fucl may be added. Indeed it is 
 feldom neceffary to add frefli fuel during any operation. 
 In the ordinary diftillations it is never necefiary ; and 
 even in diftiUing mercury, phofphorus, &c. it generally 
 contains enough to finifh the operation; fo eifeftually 
 is the heat preferved from lofs or diflipation, and fo 
 very flow is the confumption of the fuel. 504 
 
 For luting this and other furnaces, the doftor f.nds L"''»gP''0' 
 nothing preferable to a fimple mixture of fand and^^"" 
 clay. The proportions for Handing the violence ^f*"'""^'^^" 
 fire are four parts of fand to one of clay ; but when 
 defigned for the lining of furnaces, he ufes fix or feven 
 of fand to one of clay, the more effeftually to prevent 
 the contraAion of the latter ; for it is known from ex- 
 periments, that clay, when expofed to a fl;rong heat, 
 contrafts the more in proportion to its purity. The 
 fand fettles into lefs bulk when wet, and does not 
 contraa by heat, which it alfo refifts as well as the clav 
 itfelf. ^ 
 
 Befides this outfide lining next the fire, Dr Black 
 ufes another to be laid on next the iron of the furnace ; 
 and this confifts of clay mixed with a large proportion 
 of charcoal duft. It is more fit for containing the 
 heat, and is put next to the iron, to the thicknefs of fioy 
 an inch and a half. That it may be pretty dry when Method of 
 firft put in, he takes three parts by weight of the applying 
 charcoal duft, and one of the common clay, which ''^^ 
 muft be mixed together when in dry powder, other- 
 wife it is very difficult to mix them perfeftly. As 
 much water is added as will form the matter into balls • 
 and thefe are beat very firm and compad by means of 
 a hammer upon the infide of the furnace. The other 
 lute is then fpread over it to the thicknefs of about hal£ 
 i an 
 
Theory. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 453 
 
 Chemical an inch, and tin's is alio beat folid by hammering ; af- 
 Fiiaiaces. which it is allowed to dry flowly, that all cracks 
 and fiflures may be avoided : and after the body of the 
 furnace is thus lined, the vent is fere wed on and lined 
 in the fame manner. It miifl then be allowed to dry 
 for a long time ; after which a fire may be kindled, 
 and the furnace gradually lieated for a day or two. 
 The fire is then to be raifed to the greatelt intenfity ; 
 and thus the luting acquires a haidneis equal to that of 
 free-ftone, and is afterwards as lading as any part of 
 the furnace (a). 
 
 When furnaces are ufed in the large way, they are 
 always built of brick, and each particular operation 
 has a furnace allotted for itfclf. The melting-furnace, 
 where very large quantities of m.atter are not to be 
 inelted at once, requires only to be built of brick in 
 fuch a form as we have already defcribed ; only, as it 
 would perhaps be troublcfome to procure a dome of 
 the proper figure, the forepart of it may be left en- 
 tirely open for the admifiion of melting veffels. The 
 opening may be clofed up with bricks and earth du- 
 ring the operation. There is no neceflity for having 
 the iniide of a circular form ; a fquare one will anfwer 
 the purpofe equally well. According to the author 
 of the Chemical Dictionary, when the internal diame- 
 ter D C of fuch a furnace is 1 2 or 1 5 inches, the dia- 
 CXXXIV. n-ieter of the tube GI 8 or 9 inches, and its height 18 
 or 20 feet, and when the furnace is well fupplied with 
 fuel, an extreme heat is produced; in lefsthan an hour 
 the furnace will be white and dazzling like the fun ; 
 its heat will be equal to the ftrongeft glafs-houfe fur- 
 nace ; and in lefs than two hours will be melted what- 
 ever is fufible in furnaces. The hotteft part is at HF, 
 4 or 6 inches above the grate. A plate-iron tube may 
 be advantageoufly fupplied by a fliort chimney of 
 bricks, built under a pretty high vent, fo as the whole 
 may eafily be flopped, except that paflage which 
 tranfmits the fmoke of the furnace. By this means 
 a very ftrong cun-ent of air will be made to pafs 
 through the fuel. 
 
 On this fubje£l Dr Black informs us, that Mr 
 Pott of Berlin employs one alnioft fimilar to the above, 
 for making experiments on earthen ware ; by which he 
 fhowed that many fubftances formerly reckoned infu- 
 fible, might neverthelcfs be melted by fire raifed to a 
 very intenfe degree ; and that feveral of thefe bodies, 
 •when mixed together, form compounds which maybe 
 melted without any difficulty. From this a tube arifes 
 f^Qy to fome height, and there is an additional tube which 
 Reafons for may be put on to the height of above i o feet. The 
 makii g the fire-place is narrow below, but widens towards the 
 fire-place o'naiddle, and contrafts again at top, for the fake of the 
 vefTels which are put into it, and which are wider at 
 top than at bottom. Thus the vefTel is equally heat- 
 ed, and there is room above for containing a quantity 
 of fuel, which defcends as fail as it is confumed. Dif- 
 ferent reafons have been afligned for this form : thus 
 Dr Boerhaave imagines that the melting furnace fhould 
 be made of a parabolic form, and Macquer that it 
 (hould be in the form of an ellipfe ; and that the cru- 
 cible fhotdd be. placed, in one of the foci, where they 
 
 imagined the heat would be concentrated; but it is Chemical 
 very plain, that the materials are fuch as are not ca- ^"''"^'^ ^^^^^ 
 pable of reflefting the rays of heat in a regular man- 
 ner ; and even though they could do fo, it would 
 be to no purpofe, becaufe the heat and light do 
 not come from any fingle point, but from a great 
 number, ftriking the furnace in all poffible direc- 
 tions, and which muft confequently be reflefted in 
 directions as numerous. The furnace is made of iron 
 lined with clay; and as it is difficult to beat out the iron 
 into this roundifli form, it may as Avell be made cylin- 
 drical ; and it is cafy to give the infide what form we 
 pleafe by means of a luting of clay ; neither need the 
 dome liave the roundifli form, but may be fimply made 
 conical. The vent (hould be made about two-thirds of 
 the diameter of the furnace, or fuch as wiU give au 
 area of about one-half the grate. A fmall portable 
 furnace of this kind is very convenient for ordinary 
 crucibles ; the largett of v.'hich are only about four or 
 five inches high ; the wideil part of the furnace may 
 be beat out about 10 inches diameter; and when 
 made of thin plate iron, and lined within, are^vcry 
 convenient, and may be heated at very httle expence 
 of fuel. But for heating much larger veiTels, it is pro- 
 per to conftrudl them of brick, when they have pretty 
 much the fame form; only it is neceffary to make them 
 fquare, and round on the infide with a luting of fand and 
 clay. The top is genej-ally made flat, and covered over 
 with two or three bricks; the vent goes a little back- 
 wards, and then is raifed to a proper height. Where 
 the veffel to be heated is very large, it is common to 
 leave the front open for putting in the veffel; and then 
 to build it up with bricks, clay, and fand ; which can 
 be eafily pulled down again when the operation is over. (,cS 
 
 There are fome cafes in which it is neceflary to When bel* 
 have a rapidity of inflammation even beyond what this 
 furnace can give ; and in thefe we have recourfe to bel-"^''*^- 
 lows of various confl.ruftions, by which the air can be - 
 compreff^sd, and made to enter the fuel with great ve- 
 locity. Thefe again are fometiines wrought by wa- 
 ter ; but there is another machine which produces a 
 greater effeft, viz. the ivater-blnJI, defcribed by Lewis 
 in his Commercium Philofoph. Technkum. gop 
 
 The eolipiletoo may be employed for driving air in- In w-hhc 
 to fuel. The e fie 61 of this has been confidered as a'^^^?'.''"'^ 
 proof that air adts by its elafticity in animating fuel, be- 
 as an elaftic fluid vapour from the eolipile produces the made ufe--- 
 fame effeffc. But when we contrive to fend lleain in- of. 
 flead of air, the fame eff"e£l; is not produced ; and the 
 true manner in which this inftrument increafes the in- 
 flammation is by driving air through the fuel ; the 
 fteam from the veffel fpreading and mixing with the air, 
 and driving it before it, makes it flirike upon the fuel. 
 
 Chemilts have generally believed that a wide and 
 high afli-hole greatly increafes the power of a meltiug 
 furnace; but this advantage is found to be merely ima- 
 ginary, as well as that of introducing the air through 
 a long tube to the afh-hole ; ualefs where the furnace 
 is placed in a clofe room, fo that it is neceffary to fur- 
 niffi a greater blafl^ .of air than can otherv/ife have ac- 
 eefij. 
 
 For 
 
 (a) Thefe furnaces, of different fizes, from 30s. to 50s. price, may be purchafed from Joh;. S.bbald fmith 
 £4anburgh; who has had the advantage of making them, under the immediate infpedion of Dr Black,. 
 
454 G H E M I 
 
 Chemical For the fonn of the furnaces neceflary in eflaying 
 ^ Furnaces, j^j^j fmelting of ores or makuig glafs, fee JEssaying, 
 
 g Glass, and Smelting. 
 Stills, fand- When large ftills, fand-pots, &c. are -to be fixed 
 \ ots, &c. with a view to daily ufe, it is a matter of no fmall 
 how to fet. confequence to have them put up in a proper manner. 
 
 The requifites here are, i. That the whole force of 
 the fire fiiould be fpent on the dift tiling veflel or fand 
 pot, except what is neceflarily imbibed by the walls of 
 the furnace. 2. , That the veflel fhould be fet in fuch 
 a manner as that they may receive heat even from the 
 furnace walls; for a ftill which contains any liquid 
 can never be made fo hot as a piece of dry brick. 3. It 
 is abfolutely neceflary that the force of the fire be not 
 allowed to coUedt itfelf upon one particular part of 
 the veflel; otherwife that part will foon be deflroyed. 
 4. The draught x)f air into furnaces of this kind ought 
 to be moderaie; only fo much as will prevent fmoke. 
 If a fl:rong blaft of air enters, not only a great part of 
 the heat will be wafted by going up the chimney, but 
 the outfide of the veflel will be calcined every time the 
 fire is kindled, and thus mull be foon rendered unfit 
 for ufe- 
 
 There are few of the common workmen that are 
 capable of building furnaces properly ; and it is very 
 neceflary for a chemift to know when they are pro- 
 perly done, and to make the workmen aft according 
 to his directions. As the ftill, or whatever veflel is to 
 be fixed, muft have a fupport from the furnace on 
 which it is built, it is evident the <whole of its furface 
 cannot be expofed to the fire. For this reafon many 
 of thefe veflels have had only their bottom expofed to 
 the fire, no more fpace being left for the aftion of 
 the heat, than the mere circular area of the ftill bot- 
 tom ; and the fire, paflin gdireftly through a hole in the 
 tack part of the building, which communicated with 
 a chimney, and confequently had a ftrong draught, 
 fcatce fpent any of its force on the ftill, but went fu- 
 rioufly up the chimney. By this means an extraordi- 
 nary wafte of fuel was occafioned ; and that part of 
 the ftill-bottom which was next the chimney receiving 
 the whole force of the flame, was foon deftroyed. 
 Attempts were made to remedy this inconvenience, 
 by putting the iire fomething forward, that it might 
 be at a greater diftance from the chimney, and con- 
 fequently might not fpend its force in the air. This 
 too was found to avail very little. A contrivance was 
 then fallen upon to make the ycnt pafs round the body 
 of the ftill in a fpiral form. This was a confiderable 
 improvement ; but had the inconvenience of making 
 the fire fpend itfelf ufelefsly on the walls of the fur- 
 nace, and befides wafted that part of the ftill which 
 touched the under part of the vent. A much better 
 method is to build the back part of the furnace entirely 
 dole, and make the fire come out through a long nar- 
 row opening before ; after which it pafles out through 
 a flue in the back and upper part of the fur nance into 
 the chimney. 
 
 The only inconvenience of this form is, that the 
 ■vent muft either be very wide, or it is apt to choak 
 up with foot, which laft is a very troublefome circum- 
 ftance. If the vent is made very wide, a prodigious 
 draught of air ruflies through the fuel, and increafes 
 the heat to fuch 'a degree as to calcine the metal of 
 syhich the ftill is made j and, on the other hand, no- 
 I 
 
 S T R Y. Theory 
 
 thing can be more difagreeable than to have the vent ^'hcmic;*! 
 of a furnace flopped up with foot. Thefe inconve- 'Fwrnates 
 niences, however, are totally avoided by making two "•*~~v"~ 
 finall vents, one on each fide of the diftilling veflTel, 
 which may communicate with a chimney by means of 
 two tubes either of plate-iron or formed with clay 
 or bricks, which may be occafionaily taken off" if they 
 happen to be choaked up. The veflel is to be fu- 
 fpended by three trunnions, fo that the whole furface 
 may be expoCed to the fire, excepting a ring the thick- 
 nefs of a brick all round; fo that a very ftrong heat 
 will be communicated although the furnace draws but 
 little. The two fmall vents on each fide will draw ihe 
 flame equally ; and by this means the moft equable 
 heat can be preferved, and may be puflied fo far as to 
 make the whole bottom and fides of the veflel intenfe- 
 ly red. Such a conftruftion as this is more efpecially 
 ufeful for fand-pots, and thofe which are ufed for diftil- 
 ling alkaline fpirits from bones. 
 
 In the ufe of the furnaces hitherto defcribed, the at- 
 tendance of the operator is neceflary, both for infpec- 
 ting the procefles, and for fupplying and animating 
 the fuel. There are fome operations, of a flower 
 kind, that require a gentle heat to be continued for 
 a length of time ; which demand little attendance in 
 regard to the operations themfelves, and in which, of 
 confequence, it is extremely convenient to have the at- 
 tendance in regard to the fire as much as pofiible dif- 
 penfed with. This end has been anfwered by the fur- 
 nace cafled athanor ; but the ufe of it has been found 
 attended with fome inconveniences, and it is now gene- 
 rally laid afide. git 
 
 Sundry attempts have been made for keeping up a Lanip-fur 
 continued heat, with as little trouble as in the athanor, 
 by the flame of a lamp ; but the common lamp-fur- 
 naces have not anfwered fo well as could be wiflred. 
 The lamps require frequent fnuffing, and fmoke much; 
 and the foot accumulated on the bottom of the veflel 
 placed over them, is apt, at times, to fall down and 
 put out the flame. The largenefs of the wick, the 
 irregular fupply of oil from the refervoir by jets, and 
 the oil being fuff"ered to fink confiderably in the 
 lamp, fo that the upper part of the wick burns to a 
 coal, appeared to be the principal caufes of thefe in- 
 conveniences ; which accordingly were found to be 
 in great meafure remedied by the following conftruc- 
 tion. 
 
 The lamp confifts of a brafs pipe 10 or 12 inches Fig. 8, 
 long, and about a quarter of an inch wide, inferied at 
 one end into the refervoir of the oil, and turned up at 
 the other to an elbow, like the bole of a tobacco-pipe, 
 the aperture ot which is extended to the width of near 
 two inches. On this aperture is fitted a round plate, 
 having 5, 6, or 7 fmall holes, at equal diftances, round 
 its outer part, into which are infcrted as many pipes 
 about an inch long : into thefe pipes are drawn threads 
 of cotton, all together not exceeding what in the com- 
 mon lamps form one wick : by this divifion of the wick, 
 the flame expofes a larger furface to the aftion of the 
 air, the fuliginous matter is confumed and carried oft, 
 and the lamp burns -clear and vivid. 
 
 The refervoir is a cylindric veflel, eight or ten 
 inches wide, compofed of three parts, with a cover 
 on the top. The middle partition communicates, 
 by the lateral pipe, with the wicks ; and has an up- 
 right 
 
ory. ' C H E M I 
 
 leal right open pipe foldered into its bottom, whofc top 
 
 aces, reaches as high as the level of the wick ; fo that, 
 when this part is charged with oil, till the oil rifes up 
 to the wicks in the other end of the lamp, any fur- 
 ther addition of oil will run down through the up- 
 right pipe into the lower divifion of the refervoir. 
 The upper divifion is defigned for fupplying oil to the 
 middle one ; and, for that purpofe, is farnilhed with 
 a cock in the bottom, which is turned more or lefs, 
 by a key on the outfide, that the oil may drop faft 
 enough to fupply the confumption, or rather fafter,fbr 
 the overplus is of no inconvenience, being carried off 
 by the upright pipe ; fo that the oil is always, by this 
 means, kept exa6Uy at the fame height in the lamp. 
 For common ufes, the middle divifion alone may be 
 made to fufRce ; for, on account of its width, the fink- 
 ing of the oil will not be confiderable in feveral hours 
 burning. In either cafe, however, it is expedient to 
 renew the wicks every two or three days ; oftener or 
 fcldbmer accoiding as the oil is more or Icfs foul ; for 
 its impure matter, gradually left in the wicks, occa- 
 fions the flame to become more and more dull. For 
 the more convenient renewing of them, there (hould be 
 two of the perforated plates; that when one is removed, 
 another, with wicks fitted to it, may be ready to fup- 
 ply its place. 
 
 One of the black-lead pots, recommended by Dr 
 Lewis for his portable furnace, makes a proper fur- 
 nace for the lamp. If one is to be fitted up on pur- 
 pofe for this ufe, it requires no other aperture than 
 
 S T R Y. 455 
 
 one in the bottom for admitting air, and orte in the Chemical 
 fide for the introduaion of the elbow of the lamp. 
 The refervoir ftands on any convenient fupport with- 
 out the furnace. The ftopper of the fide aperture 
 confifts of two pieces, that it may be conveniently put 
 in after the lamp is introduced ; and has a round hole 
 at its bottom fitting the pipe of the lamp. By theft- 
 means, the furnace being fet upon a trevet or open 
 foot, the air enters only underneath, and fpreads 
 equally all round, without coming in ftreams, whence 
 the flame burns tteady. It is not advifable to attempt 
 raifing the heat higher than about the 450th degree of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer; a heat fomewhat more than 
 fufficient for keeping tin in perfeft fufion. Some havS 
 propofed giving a much greater degree of heat in lamp- 
 furnaces, by ufing a number of large wicks ; but when 
 the furnace is fo heated, the oil emits copious fumes,- 
 and its whole quantity takes fire. The balneum, o¥ 
 other veflfel including the fubjeft-matters, is fupported 
 over the flame by an iron ring, as already defcribed ia 
 the fand-bath and fl:ill : a bath is here particularly ne- 
 ceflary, as the fubjeft would otherwife be very un- 
 equally heated,-only a fmall part of the velFel being cx- 
 pofpd to the flame. Since the new invention of Ar- 
 gand's lamps, which perfeftly confume the oil, at- 
 tempts have been made to conttru6t lamp-furnaces on 
 their principles ; though, on the whole, it is to be 
 doubted whether they are preferable to the above con*^ 
 iirudion or not. 
 
 Part. II. PRACTICE. 
 
 Sect. I. Salts. 
 
 § I. 6/ the Vitriolic ^cid, and its Combinations. 
 
 6ia npHE vitriolic acid is never found pure, but always 
 Never A united with fome proportion, either of phlogifton 
 f""* or metallic and earthy fubftances. Indeed there is 
 fcarce any kind of earth which does not contain fome 
 portion of this acid, and from which it may always 
 fome way or other be feparable. When pure, the vi- 
 triolic acid appears in the form of a tranfparent co- 
 Iburlefs liquor. By diftilling in a glafs retort, the a- 
 queous part arifes, and the liquor which is left becomes 
 gradually more and more acid. This operation is ge- 
 nerally called the reaijcation, or de^hkgmation, of the 
 fica- acid. After the diftillation has gone on for fome time, 
 the water adheres more fl:rongly to what remains in 
 the retort, and cannot be forced over without eleva- 
 ting part of the acid along with it. The remain- 
 ing acid, being alfo exceedingly concentrated, begins 
 to lofe its fluidity, and puts on the appearance of a 
 clear oil. This is the ftate in which it is ufually fold, 
 and then goes by the name of oil of viiriol. If the 
 difl:illation is- ftill farther continued, with a heat be- 
 low 600° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the acid gra- 
 dually lofes more and more of its fluidity, till at laft 
 it congeals in the cold, and becomes like ice. In this 
 ftate it is called the icy oil of vitriol. Such exceedingly 
 great concentration, however, is only praftifed on this 
 acid for curiofity. If the heat be fuddenly raifed to 
 6qq°, the whole of the acid rifes, and generally crack* 
 
 the receiver. Clear oil of vitriol is immediately turn- 
 ed black by an admixture of the fmalleft portion of in- 
 flammable matter, gj.^. 
 
 The icy oil of vitriol, and even that commonly' fold, AnraSo 
 attrafts the moifture of the air with very great force, moifture 
 Newmann relates, that having expofed an ounce of this^"".""^ ''^^ 
 acid to the air, from September 1736 to September 
 1-73,7, at the end of the twelvemonth it weighed fe- 
 ven ounces and two drachms ; and thus had attraftcd 
 from the air above fix times its own weight of moi- 
 flure. This quantity, however, feems extraordi- 
 nary ; and it is probable, that in fo long a time fome 
 water had been accidentally mixed with it ; for Dr 
 Gould, profeflbr at Oxford, who feems to have tried 
 this matter fully, relates, that three drachms of oil of 
 vitriol acquired, in 57 days, an increafe only of fix 
 drachms and an half. The acid was expofed in a 
 glafs of three inches- diameter ; the increafe of weight 
 the firft. day was upwards of one dfacKm ; in the fol- / 
 lowing days lefs and lefs, till, on the fifty-fixth, it 
 fcarce amounted to half a grain. The liquor, when 
 faturated with humidity, retained or loft part of its 
 acquired weight accx)rding as the atmofphere was in 
 a moift or dry ftate ; and this difference was fo fen-- 
 fible as to afford an accurate hygrometer. Hoffman 
 having expofed an ounce and two fcruples in an open 
 glafs-difti, it gained fcven drachms and a fcruple in 
 I4.days. . . .. 61? 
 
 This acid, when mixed with a large quarrfity of Produdtivc 
 water, makes the temperature fomething colder than both of coli^ 
 before ; but if the acid bears any confiderable propor-^^'* 
 
 tioii. 
 
45^ 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 VitrioHc A- t!on to the water, a great heat is produced, fo as to 
 Combina-* make the veflTel infiipportable to the liand ; and therc- 
 tious. ^"""^ ^^I'^h mixtures ought very cautiouOy, or rather 
 ' ' not at all, to be made in glafs veffels, but in the com- 
 mon ftone-bottles, or leaden vefTels, which are not apt 
 to be corroded by this acid. The greatell heat is pro- 
 6x6 duced by equal parts of acid and water. 
 -?EalTfIm-^ Though the vitriolic acid unites itfelf very ftrongly 
 -rated by it. "^^^^ alkalies, both lixed and volatile, it does not fa- 
 turate near fo much of the latter as of the former. A 
 pound of oil of vitriol will faturate two of the com- 
 mon fixed alkali, but fcarce one of volatile alkali. The 
 fpecific gravity of good oil of vitriol is to water as ] 7 
 617 to 8. 
 
 Pradlce 
 
 .EfFcdls on If tjje concentrated acid is applied fliofhtly and fu- 
 tlie human . - .r' o ' 
 
 ibody. 
 
 perficially to the fkin of a living animal, it raifes a 
 violent burning heat and pain ; but a 'larger quantity 
 prefTed on, fo as to prevent the ingrcfs of aerial moi- 
 Iture, occafions little pain or erofion. If diluted with 
 a little water, it proves corrofive in either cafe. Large- 
 ly diluted with water, this acid is employed medicinal- 
 ly for checking putrefaftion, abating heat, and quench- 
 ing thirft ; in debilities of the ftomach, and heart- 
 burn. To perfons of weak and unfound lungs, to wo- 
 men who give fuck, to hydropic or emaciated perfons, 
 it is injurious. Some recommend it as a collyrium 
 for fore eyes ; but as it coagulates the animal juices, 
 corroding and indurating the folids, it feems very un- 
 
 6i3 fit for being applied to that tender organ. 
 .Difficulty rpj^g ^j^j.;^}; 
 
 c acid is fo much ufed in different arts 
 rin^Tt'^by manufactures, that the making of it has become a 
 
 itf.lf. trade by itfelf ; and the procuring it in plenty, and at 
 a cheap rate, would be a very advantageous piece of 
 knowledge to any perfon who could put it in praAice. 
 This, however, is very far from being eafily done ; 
 for though it exifts in almoft every mineral fubftance, 
 the attraction betwixt this acid and the bafes with 
 which it unites, is found to be fo ftrong, that we can 
 only decompofc fuch combinations by prefenting ano- 
 ther fubftance to the acid, to which it has a greater 
 attraction than that one wherewith it is joined. Thus 
 the firft combination is itideed diflblved, but we have 
 another from which it is equally difficult to extricate 
 the acid by itfelf. Thus, if we want to difengage the 
 vitrioHc acid from any metallic fubftance, fuppofe iron, 
 this may be eafily done by throwing a calcareous earth 
 into a folution of green vitriol. We have now a com - 
 pound of vitriolic acid with the calcareous earth, which 
 is known by the name of gypfum or felenites. If we 
 want to decompofe this, we muft apph/ a volatile or 
 a fixed alkali; and the refult of this will conftairtly be 
 a new combination, which we are as unable to decom- 
 - pofe, and indeed more fo, than the firft. There are 
 two general methods which have been in ufe for pro- 
 curing the vitriolic acid in fuch quantity as to fupply 
 the demands of trade. The one is from pyrites, and 
 the other from fulphur. 
 
 I. From Pyrites, with the making of Copperas, and 
 obtaining the pure Oil of Vitriol from it. 
 
 619 
 
 whcix** Pyrites are found in large quantity in the coal-mines 
 feund. England, where moft of the copperas is made. 
 
 They are very hard and heavy fubftances, having a 
 ■ iind of braffy appearance, as if they contained that 
 N° 72. 
 
 metal ; and hence they are called Imjfes by the work- Vitriolic a 
 men. A very large quantity of thefe is coUeded, and^'^ '■^^'^'^ 
 fl)read out upon a bed of ftilf clay to the depth of three jjo^^"""^" 
 
 leet. After being fome time expofed to the air, the -'y-..«j 
 
 uppermoft ones lofe their metallic appearance, fplit, 
 and fall to powder. The heaps are then turned, the 
 under part uppermoft, fo as to expoTe frefh pyrites to 
 -the air. ^Vhen they are all reduced to powder, which 
 generally requires three years, the liquor, which is 
 formed by the rain-water running from fuch a large 
 mafs, becomes very acid, and has likewife a ftyptic 
 vitriolic tafte. It is now conveyed into large citterns 
 lined with clay, whence it is pumped into a very large 
 flat veffel made of lead. This veffel, wliich contains 
 about 15 or 20 tons of liquor, is fupported bycaft-iron 
 plates about an inch thick, between which and the 
 lead a bed of clay is interpofed. The v.-hole reils 
 upon narrow arches of brick, under which the fire is 
 placed. Alongft with the liquor, about half a ton or 
 more of old iron is put into the evaporating veffel. 
 The liquor, which is very far from being faturatcd 
 with acid, afts upon the iron, and, by repeated filling 
 up as it evaporates, difiolves the whole quantity. By 
 the time this quantity is diffolved, a peUicle is formed 
 on the furfiice. The fire is then put out; and as fuch 
 a prodigious quantity of liquor does not admit of filtra- 
 tion, it is left to fettle for a whole day, and then is 
 let off' by a cock placed a little above the bottom of 
 the evaporating veflel, fo as to allow the impurities to 
 remain behind. It is conveyed by wooden fpouts to 
 a large leaden ciftern, five or fix feet deep, funk in tho 
 ground, and which is capable of containing the whole 
 quantity of liquor. Here the copperas cryftallizes 
 on the fides, and on fticks put into the liquor. The 
 cryftallization ufually takes up three weeks. The 
 liquor is then pumped back into the evaporatint"- vef- 
 fel ; more iron, and freih liquor from the pyrites, 
 are added ; and a new folution takes place. 
 
 Copperas is ufed, in dyeing, for procuring a black 
 colour; and is an ingredient in making common ink. 
 It is alfo ufed in medicine as a corroborant, under the 
 name of fait of fled ; but before it is ufed with this 
 intention, it is redilfolved in water, and cryftallized, 
 with the addition of a little pure oil of vitriol. Wlie- 
 ther it is at all mended by this fuppofed purification, 
 either in appearance or quality, is very doubtful. 
 
 This procefs furnifiies us firft with a very impure 
 vitriolic acid, which could not be applied to any ufeful 
 purpofe ; afterwards with an imperfect neutral fait, 
 called green vitriol, which is applicable to feveral pur- 
 pofes where the pure acid itfelf could not be ufed ; 
 but ftill the acid by itfelf is not to be had without a 
 very troublefome operation. f^^^ 
 
 Though this acid adheres very ftrongly to iron, it is Diftiilation 
 capable of being expelled from it by fire; yet not 
 without a very violent and long-continued one. If ^"^'^ 
 we attempt to diftil green vitriol in a retort, it fwtlls''"'^^ 
 and boils in fuch a manner by the great quantity of 
 water contained in its cryftals, that the retort will al- 
 moft certainly crack; and though it fhould not, the fait 
 would be changed into an hard ftony mafs, which the 
 fire could never fufficiently penetrate fo as to extri- 
 cate the acid. It muft therefore be calcined previous 
 to the diftillation. This is beft done in flat iron-pans, 
 fet over a moderate fire. The fait undergoes the wa- 
 
 terj' 
 
Pradice. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Vitriolic A 
 cid and it* 
 t'oinbiiia- 
 tiotis. 
 
 6ll 
 ^referva- 
 tives of 
 Wood. 
 
 6X2 
 tleftifica* 
 iion. 
 
 ■ tery fufion, (See Fusion); after which It becomes 
 opaque and white. By a continuance of the fire, it be- 
 comes brown, yellow, and at lait red. For the pur- 
 pofes of dillillation, it may be taken out as foon as it 
 has recovered its folidity. 
 
 The dry vitriol, being now reduced to powder, is to 
 be put into an earthen retort, or rather long neck 
 (a kind of retort where the neck iffues laterally, that 
 the vapours may have little way to afcend), which it 
 imay nearly fill. This retort muft be placed in a fur- 
 nace capable of giving a very ftrong lieat, fuch as the 
 melting furnace we have already defcribed. A large 
 receiver is to be fitted on ; and a fmall fire made in 
 the furnace, to heat the veffels gradually. White 
 fumes will foon come over into the receiver, which 
 will make the upper part warm. The fire is to be 
 kept of an equal degree of ilrength, till the fumes be- 
 gin to difappear, arid the receiver grows cool. It is 
 then to be increafed by degrees; and the acid will be- 
 come gradually more and more difficult to be raifed, 
 till at lait It ref^uires an extreme red, or even white, 
 heat. When nothing more will come over, the fire 
 muft be fufFered to go out, the receiver be unluted, and 
 Its contents poured into a bottle fixed w*ith a glafs 
 ftopper. A fulphureous and fufi'ocating fume will 
 come from the liquor, which muft be carefully avoided. 
 In the retort, a fine red powder will remain, which is 
 ufed In painting, and is called colcothar of vitriol. It 
 Is ufeful on dcicount of its durability ; and, when 
 mixed with tar, has been employed as a prefervative 
 of wood from rotting ; but Dr Lewis prefers finely 
 powdered pit-coal. As a prefervative for mafts of 
 (hips, he recommends 1 mixture of tar and lamp- 
 black; concerning which he relates the following anec- 
 dotCi 
 
 " I have beeti favoured by a gentleman on board of 
 a vefTel In the Eaft Indies, with ian account of a violent 
 thunder-ftorm, by which the maln-maft was greatly da- 
 maged, and whofe effefts on the different parts of the 
 maft were pretty remarkable* All the parts \vhich 
 were grekfed or covered with turpentine were burft in 
 pieces : thofe above, between, and below the greafed 
 parts, as alfo the yard-arms, the round-top or fcaffold- 
 Ing, coated with tar and lam.p-black, remained un- 
 hurt." 
 
 Oil of vitriol, when dliUUed Iii this manner, is al- 
 ways of a black colour, and muft therefore be redll- 
 fied by diftillation in a glafs retort. When the acid 
 'has attained a proper degree of ftrength, the black- 
 ncfs either "flies off, or feparates and falls to the bot^ 
 tom, and the Uquor becomes clear. The diftillation 
 Is then to be difcontinued, and the clear acid which is 
 left in the retort kept for ufe. 
 
 This was the firft method by which the vitriolic 
 " acid was obtained ; and from its being diftilled from 
 ■vitriol has ever fince retained the name of ell cf vttr'ioh 
 Green vitriol is the only fubftance from which it is 
 pra&icable to draw this acid by diftillation ; when 
 tolnbined with calcareous earths, or even copper 
 (though lo this latt it has a weaker attraftion than to 
 iron), it refifts the fire moft obftlnately. Vv^hen diftil- 
 lation from vitriol was praftifed, large furnaces were 
 trefted for that purpofe, capable of containing an 
 hundred long ;necks at once : but as it has been difco. 
 vered to be ^nore eafily procurable from fulphur, this 
 
 Vol. IV Part II. 
 
 457 
 
 method has been laid afide, and It Is novv needlefs to "^"'•■'iolic A' 
 
 Combina- 
 tions. 
 
 623 
 
 defcribe thefe furnaces. 
 
 II. To procure the Vitriolic Acid from Sulphur. 
 
 This fubftance contains the vitriolic acid in fuch 
 plenty, that every pound of fulphur, according to MrQy^,,^-; 
 Kirwan's calculation, contains more than one-half of acid in lul- 
 pure acid; which being in a ftate perfeftly dry, IspbHa 
 confequently of a ftrength far beyond that of the moft 
 highly rectified oil of vitriol. Common oil of vitriol 
 requires to be diftilled to one-fourth cf its quantity be- 
 fore it will coagulate when cold ; and even in this ftate 
 it undoubtedly contains fome water. No method, 
 however, has as yet been fallen upon to cortdenfe all 
 the fteams of burning fulphur, at leaft in the large 
 way, nor is any other profitable way of decompofingQ^^^J^^fj^ 
 fulphur known than that by burning ; and in this way^^duced 
 the moft fuccefsful operators have never obtained more from it. 
 than 14 ounces of oil from a pound of fulphur. 625 
 
 The difficulties here are, that fulphur cannot be Methods ot 
 burnt but in an open veflel ; arid the ftream of air, "''^'^'^'"g 
 which is admitted to make it burn, alfo carries off the ^^thli 
 acid which is emitted in the form of fmoke. Toprocefs. 
 avoid this, a method waS contrived of burning fulphur 
 In large glafs globes, capable of containing an hogf- 
 head or more. The fume of the burning fulphur was 
 then allowed to circulate till It condenfed Into an acid 
 liquor. A greater difficulty, however, occurs here ; 
 for though the fulphur burns very well, Its fteams will 
 never condenfe. It has been faid, that the condenfa- 
 tion is promoted by keeping fome warm water conti- 
 nually fmoking in the bottom of the globe ; and even 
 Dr Lewis has afferted this : but the fteam of warm 
 water Immediately extingulfties fulphur, as we have 
 often experienced ; neither does the fume of burning 
 fulphur ieem at all Inclinable to join with water, even 
 when forced Into contad with it. As it arifes from 
 the fulphur. It contains a quantity of phlogifton, which 
 In a great meafure keeps it from uniting with water ; 
 and the defideratum Is not fomething to make the ful- 
 phur burn freely, but to deprive the fumes of the 
 phlogifton they contain, and render them mifclble with 
 water. For this purpofe nitre has been advantage- 
 oufiy ufed. This confumes a veiy large quantity of 
 the phlogifton contained in fulphur, and renders the 
 acid eafily condenfible : but It Is plain that few of the 
 fumes, comparatively fpeaking, are thus deprived of 
 the Inflammable principle ; for the veffel in which the' 
 fulphur and nitre are burnt, remains filled with a vo- 
 latile and moft fuffocating fume, which extinguifiiefi 
 flame, and Iflues in fuch quantity as to render it high- 
 ly dangerous to ftay near the place. It has been 
 thought that nitre contributes to the burning of the 
 fulphur in clofe veffels ; but this too Is a miftake. 
 More fulphur may be burnt In an oil of vitriol globe 
 without nitre than with it, as we have often experien- 
 ced ; for the acid of the fulphur unites with the alkahne 
 bafis of the nitre, and forms therewith an uninflam- 
 mable compound, which foon extingulihes the flame, 
 and even prevents a part of the fulphur from being 
 burnt either at that time or any other. 
 
 In the condenfation of the fumes of fulphur by means EfFervef- 
 of nitre, a remarkable effervefcence happens, which < ence be- 
 naturally leads us to think that the condenfation is*^een the 
 produced by fome ftruggle between the vitriolic andj^'.jph'ifgp^, 
 3 nitrousfumcfc 
 
45^ 
 
 Viti iolicA- 
 cid and its 
 Cotmbina- 
 tions. 
 
 627 
 J.ead vef- 
 felsj an im- 
 prsivcEacnt 
 
 628 
 
 Vitrinlated 
 
 tax tar. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 •nitrous acids. — Dr Lewis Is of opinion, that the acid 
 thus obtained is perfectly free from an admixture of 
 the nitrous acid : but in this he is certainly mlftaken ; 
 for, on reflifying the acid produced by fulphur and 
 nitre, the firil fumes that come over are red, after 
 which they change their colour to white. How the ni- 
 trous acid fiiould exift in the liquor, indeed, does not ap- 
 pear ; for this acid is totally deftruaible by deflagra- 
 tion with charcoal : but it does not follow, that be- 
 eaufe the nitrous acid is deftroyed when deflagrated 
 with charcoal, it muft Hkewife be fo if dephlagrated 
 with fulphur. Indeed it certainly is not ;, for the 
 clyffus of nitre made with fulphur is very different from 
 that made with charcoal. 
 
 The proportions of nitre to the fulphur, ufed in the 
 large oil of vitriol works, are not known, every thing 
 being kept as fecret as poflible by the proprietors. Dr 
 Lewis reckons about fix pounds of nitre to an hun- 
 dred weight of fulphur ; but from fuch experiments as 
 we have made, this appears by far too Httle. An ounce 
 and an half, or two ounces, may be ardvantageoufly 
 ufed to a pound of fulphur. In greater proportions, 
 nitre feems prejudicial. 
 
 A very great improvement in the apparatus for 
 making cU of vitriol, lies in the ufing lead velTels in- 
 ftead of glafs globes. The globes are fo apt to be 
 broken by accident, or by the aftion of the acid upon 
 them, that common prudence would fuggefl the ufe 
 of lead to thofe who intend to prepare any quantity 
 of vitriolic acid, as it is known to have fo little effeft 
 upon the metal. The leaden veffels, according to the 
 beft accounts we have been able to procure, are cubes 
 of about three feet, having on one fide a door about 
 fix inches w ide. The mixture of fulphur and nitre 
 is placed in the hollow of the cube, in an earthen fau- 
 cer, fet on a fland made of the fame materials. The 
 quantity which can be confumed at once in fuch a 
 veffel is about two ounces. To prevent the remains 
 from flicking to the faucer, it is laid on a fquare bit 
 of brown paper. The fulphur being kindled, the 
 door is to be clofe fhut, and the whole let alone for 
 two hours. In that time the fumes will be condenfed. 
 The door is then to be opened ; and the operator muft 
 immediately retire, to efcape the fuffbcating fumes 
 which iflue from the veffel. It will be an hour before 
 he can fafely return, and introduce another quantity 
 of materials, which are to be treated precifely in the 
 fame manner. 
 
 Where oil of vitriol is made in large quantities, the 
 flownefs of the operation requires a great number of 
 globes, and conflantattendance day and night. Hence 
 the making of this acid is very expenfive : The appa- 
 ratus for a large work ufually cofls L. ! 5Q0. 
 
 Vitriolic Acid combined, 
 
 I. With Fixed Jliali. Dilute a pound of oil of vi- 
 triol with ten tim.es its quantity of water ; diflolve alfo 
 two pounds of fixed alkahne fait in ten pounds of wa- 
 ter, and filter the folution. Drop the alkali into the 
 acid as long as any effervefcence arlfes ; managing 
 matters fo that the acid may prev-ail. The liquor will 
 now be a folution of the neutral fait called vitrioiated 
 tartar, which may be procured in a dry form, either 
 by exficcation. or cryftallization. Id cafe the latter 
 
 3. 
 
 6^x 
 Ufes. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice, 
 
 method is made ufe of, fome more alkali mufl be added Vkjiolic A- 
 when it is fet to evaporate, for this fait cryftallizes beft ^^^jjjf,^^'* 
 in an alkaline liquor. _ tlom. 
 
 Other methods, befides that above defcribed, have — ^ 
 been recommended for preparing vitrioiated tartar;.; 
 particularly that of ufing green vitriol inflead of the 619 [630 } 
 pure vitriolic acid. In this cafe the vitriol is decom-P^^j^'^'-^nt 
 pofed by the fixed alkali-: but as the alkali itfelf dif- 
 folves the calx of iron after it is. precipitated, it is next vitrioiated 
 to impoffible to procure a pure fait by fuch a procefs ; tartar, 
 neither is there occafion to be folicitous about the pre- 
 paration of this fait by itfelf, as the materials for it are 
 left in greater quantity than. will ever be demanded, afr 
 ter the diftillation of fpirit of nitre. 
 
 Vitrioiated tartar is employed in medicine as a 
 purgative ; but is not at all fuperior to other falts 
 which are more eafily prepared in a cryflalline form- 
 It is very difficultly foluble in water, from which pro- 
 ceeds the difficulty of cryfliaUizing it:, for if the 
 acid and alkali are not very much diluted, the fait 
 will be precipitated in powder, during the time of fa- 
 turation. — It is very difficult of fufion, requiring a 
 ftrong red heat ; but, notvvithflanding its fixednefs in- 
 a violent fire, it arifes with the fteam of boiling water 
 in fuch a manner as to be almofl; totally diifipated along^, 
 with it by ftrong boiling,— This fait has been ufed in> 
 making glafs; but with little fuccefs, as the glafs 
 wherein it is an ingredient always proves very brittle and 
 apt to crack of itfelf. 
 
 If, inftead of the vegetable fixed alkali, the vitriolic Glauber's 
 acid is faturated with the foflile one called the fait of^^"^^- 
 Soda, a kind of neutral fait will be produced, having- 
 veiy different properties from the vitrioiated tartar. 
 This compound is called Glauher\ fait. It diffolves 
 eafily in water, flioots into long and beautiful cryflals,- 
 which contain a large quantity of water, in confe 
 quence of which they undergo the aqueous fufion- 
 when expofed to heat. They are alfo more eafily fu- 
 fible than vitrioiated tartar. — This kind of fait was for- 
 merly much recommended as a purgative, and from its- 
 manifold virtues was intitled by its inventor fal mira-^- 
 bile. It is, however, found to pofTefs no virtue diffe- 
 rent from that of other purgative falts ; and its ufe is, 
 in many places, entirely fuperfeded by a fait prepared 
 from the bittern, or liquor which remains after the cry- 
 .ftallization of fea-falt, which fiiall be afterwards de- 
 fcribed. 653 . 
 
 II. With volatile alkaU. Take any quantity of vo- Giau'^ci 's 
 latile alkaline fpirit ; that prepared with q^iicJ^i™^ ImmoSlV 
 is preferable to the other, on account of its raifing 
 no effervefcence. Drop into this liquor, contained, 
 in a bottle, diluted oil of vitriolj lhaking the bottle 
 after every addition. The. faturation is known to. 
 be complete by the volatile fmell of the alkali being 
 entirely deftroyed. When this happens, fome more- 
 of the fpirit muft be added, that the alkali may 
 predominate a little, becaufe the excefs will fly off 
 during the evaporation. The liquor, on being fil^ 
 tered and evaporated, will flioot into fine fibrous.- 
 plates like feathers. This falt^ when newly pre- 
 pared, has a fulphureous fmell, and a penetrating 
 pungent tafte. It readily diflblves in water, and in- 
 creafes the coldnefs of the liquor ; on ftandiug for a 
 little time, it begins to feparate from the water, and 
 
 vege. 
 
1 
 
 Praaice. 
 
 Viti iolic A 
 cid 3i:dits 
 Combina- 
 tions. 
 
 Projiert'C 
 
 C H E M 
 
 vegetate, or arlfe in cMorcfcences up the fides of the 
 glafs. It eafily melts in the fire ; penetrates the com- 
 mon crucibles ; and if fublimed in glafs veffels, which 
 requires a very confiderable heat, it always becomes a- 
 cid, however exadly the faturation was performed. 
 
 This fait has been dignified with the names of Gku- 
 her''s fea-ei fal ammoniac, o\- philofopMc fal ammoniac, from 
 the high opinion which fome chemiils have entertained 
 of its activity upon metals : but from Mr Pott's expe- 
 riments, it appears, that its effeds have been greatly ex- 
 aggerated. It diffolves or corrodes in fome degree all 
 thofe metals which oil of vitriol difTolvcs, but has no 
 efie£l upon thofe on which that acid does not ad by 
 itfelf. 
 
 Gold is not touched in the leaft, either by the fait 
 of thefaits.|jj fuilon, or by a folution of it: the fait added to a 
 folution of gold in aqua-regia occafions no precipita- 
 tion or change of colour. On melting the falts with 
 inflammable matters, it forms a fulphureous compound, 
 which diffolves gold in fufion, in the fame manner as 
 compofitions of fulphur and fixed alkaUne fait. Melt- 
 ed with filver, it corrodes it into a white calx, w^hich 
 partially diflblves in water : it likewife precipitates fil- 
 ver from its folution iu aquafortis. It a£ts more pow'- 
 erfuUy on copper ; elevates a part of the metal in fub- 
 limation, fo as to acquire a bluifh colour on the fur- 
 face ; and renders the greateft part of the refiduum fo- 
 luble in water. This folution appears colourlefs, fo 
 that it could not be fuppofed to hold any copper ; but 
 readily difcovers that it abounds wath that metal, by 
 the blue colour it acquires on an addition of volatile 
 alkali, and the green calx which fixed alkalies precipi- 
 tate. In evaporation it becomes green without addi- 
 tion. Iron is corroded by this fait in fufion, and dif- 
 folved by boihng in a folution of it. Zinc diffolves 
 more freely and more plentifully. Lead unites wath 
 it, but does not become foluble in water. Tin is cor- 
 roded, and a part of the calx is foluble in boiling wa- 
 ter. Of regulus of antimony a)fo a fmall portion is 
 made foluble. Alkalies precipitate from the folution 
 a bluiili powder. Calcined bifmuth-ore treated with 
 its equal weight of the fak, partly diffolted in water 
 into a pale red liquor, which became green from heat, 
 in the fame manner as tindtures made from that ore by 
 aqua-regia. The undiflolved part yielded ftill, with 
 frit, a blue giafs. On treating manganefe in the fame 
 manner, aluminous cryftals were obtained : the un- 
 diffolved part of the manganefe gave ilill a violet colour 
 to glafs. 
 
 III. With Calcareous Earth. This combination 
 may be made by faturating diluted oil of vitriol 
 with chalk in fine powder. The mixture ought to 
 be:made in a glafs; the chalk mull be mixed with 
 a pretty large quantity of water, and the acid drop- 
 ped into it. The glafs mufl be well (haken after 
 every addition, and the mixture ought rather to be 
 over faturated with acid ; becaufe the fuperfluous 
 quantity may afterwards be wafhed off ; the felcnite, as 
 it is called, or gypfum,^ having very little folubility in 
 water. 
 
 This combination of vitriolic acid with chalk or cal- 
 careous earth, is foimd naturally in fuch plenty, that 
 it is leklomor never made, unlefsfor experiment's fake, 
 ♦r by aceideftt. Mr Pott indeed fays, that he found 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 459 
 
 «35 
 
 fome flight differences between the natural and artifi- Y'trioUc A- 
 cial gypfum, but that the former had all the effential g'^^^'^jf^"* 
 properties of the latter. . ^ , ti .ns. 
 
 The natural gypfums are found in hard, femitran- y— — ' 
 
 fparent maffes, commonly called alahajler, or plnjler of 
 Paris. (See Alabaster, Gypsum, and Plaster.) 
 By expofure to a moderate heat, they become opaque, 
 and very friable. If they are now reduced to fine 
 powder, and mixed with water, they may be call in- 
 to moulds of any fliape : they very foon harden with- 
 out fhrinking ; and are the materials whereof the com- 
 mon white images are made. This property belongs 
 likewife to the artificial gypfum, if moderately calcined. 
 
 Mr Beaume has obferved, that gypfum may be dif- Beiumc'* 
 folved in fome meafure by acids ; but is afterwards fe-obferva- 
 parable by cryflallization in the fame ftate in which it^^""®' 
 was before folution, without retaining any part of the 
 acids. This compound, if long expofcd to a pretty 
 flrong heat, lofes great part of its acid, and is con- 
 verted into quicklime. In glafs veffels it gives over 
 no acid with the moft violent fire. It may be fufed 
 by fuddenly applying a very intenfe heat. With clay 
 it foon melts, as we have obferved when fpeaking of 
 the materials for making crucibles. A. like fufion takes 
 place when pure calcareous earth is mixed with clay ; 
 but gypfum bubbles and fwells much more in fufioa 
 with clay than calcareous earth. 
 
 From natural gypfum we fee that vitriolated tartar 
 may be made, in a manner fimilar to its preparation 
 from green vitriol. If fixed alkaline fait is boiled with 
 any quantity of gypfum, the earth of the latter will be 
 precipitated, and the acid united with the alkali. If 
 a mild volatile alkali is poured on gypfum contained ia 
 a glafs, and the mixture frequently fhaken, the gyp- 
 fum will in like manner be decompofed, and a philoja- 
 phic fal ammoniac will be formed. With the caulHc vo- 
 latile alkaH, or that made with quicklime, no decora- 
 pofition enfues. 6j7 
 
 IV. With Argillaceous Earth. The produce of Alum ol 
 this combination is the aftringent fait called 
 much ufed in dyeing and other arts. It has its ^.^.'^^^''^^^.^^ 
 name from the Latin word alumen, called crTUTr»p(a 
 by the Greeks ; though by thefe words the ancients 
 expreffed a ftalaftitic fubftance containing very little 
 alum, and that entirely enveloped in a vitriolic mat- 
 ter. The alum ufed at prefent was firft difcovered 
 in the oriental parts of the world ; though we know 
 not w^lien, or on what occafion. One of the moft an- whence the 
 cieat alum-works of which we have any account was name of 
 that of Roccho, now Edeffa, a city of Syria : and fromf ckah;m 
 this city was derived the appellation of Roch-alutn; an'^ deiivecfc 
 expreffion fohttle underllood by the generahty, that it 
 has been fuppofed to fignify rock alum. From this, and 
 fame works in the neighbourhood of Conllantinuple, as 
 well as at Phocsa Nova, now Foya Nova, near Smyr- 
 na, the Itahans were fupplied till the middle of the 
 15th century, when they began to fet up works of a 
 fimilar kind in their own country. The firll Italian /^]^,^f 
 alum-work w-as eftabhfhed about 1459 by Bartholo- works fet 
 mew Perdix, or Pernix, a Genoefe merchant, who had up in Italy, 
 difcovered the proper matiix, or ore of alum, in the 
 ifland of Ifchia. Soon after the fame material was 
 difcovered at Tolfa by John de Caftro, who had vifit- 
 ed the alum manufaftories at Conflantinopie. Ha- 
 3 M a vin^ 
 
CHEMI STRY. 
 
 640 
 
 In Spain, 
 England, 
 and Swe- 
 den. 
 
 641 
 
 Its compo- 
 nent parts 
 firft d'fco- 
 
 VitrioUc A- vlng obferved the ilex'aquilifoUiim to grow in the neigh- 
 ""' bourhood of the Turkifh manufaftories, and finding 
 
 the fame near Tolfa, he concluded that the materials 
 for alum were to be found there alfo ; and was quickly 
 confirmed in his fufpicions by the taite of the itones in 
 the neighbourhood. Thefe alum-works profpered ex- 
 ceedingly, and their fuccefs was augmented by an edldl 
 of Pope Pius II. prohibiting the ufe of foreign alum. 
 
 In the i6Lh century an alum manufactory was erec- 
 ted at Alamaron, in the neighbourhood of Carthagena, 
 where it ftill continues. Several others were erefted in 
 Germany ; and in the reign of Queen Ehzabeth one 
 was erefted in England by Thomas Chaloner. The 
 preparation of this fait was aot known in Sweden tiU 
 the I yth century. 
 
 The component principles of this fait were long un- 
 known ; but at laft Meffrs Boulduc and Geoffroy dif- 
 vered b covered, that it confifted of argillaceous earth fuperfa- 
 Meir. Boul- ^^^^ vitriolic acid. This is confirmed by the 
 due and • experiments of other chemifts. It is found to redden 
 Geoffroy. the tinfture and paper of turnfole ; and ou taking away 
 the fuperabundant acid, it lofes its folubiHty and all 
 Miflake of the other properties of alum. Mr Morveau, indeed, 
 Morveau ^ill not admit of a fuperabundance of acid in alum, 
 which he thinks would neceffarily be feparated by 
 wan. edulcoration and cryftallization ; and he is of opinion 
 with Mr Kirwan, that the turning vegetable juices red 
 is not any unequivocal fign of the prefence of an acid. 
 In the prefent cafe, however, we certainly know that 
 there is a fuperabundance of acid, and that a certain 
 portion of the vitriolic acid adheres to the clay Icfs te- 
 nacioufly than the remainder. If we put a piece of 
 iron into a folution of alum, it will attraft this portion 
 of acid; and the vitriolated clay, when deprived of the 
 infoluble in fuperfluous quantity, will fall down to the bottom in an 
 water. infoluble powder. 
 
 Alum in its ordinary ftate contains a confiderable 
 quantity of water, and cryftallizes by proper manage- 
 ment into oftohedral and perfectly tranfparent and co- 
 lourlefs cryftals. When expofed to a moderate fire, 
 it melts, bubbles, and fwells up ; being gradually 
 changed into a light, fpongy, white mafs, called burnt 
 alum. This, with the addition of fome vitriolic acid, 
 may be cryftallizcd as before. The principles it con- 
 tains, therefore, are water, vitriohc acid, and argilla- 
 Aj4 ceous earth. The proportions may be afcertained in 
 Bergman's following manner, i. The water and fuperfluous 
 method of vitriolic acid may be diflipated by evaporation, or ra- 
 fmding the ther diilillation ; and the lofs of weight fuftained by 
 and*^ dieir'* ^^^'^ quantity of liquid which comes 
 
 proper- o'*'^'^ ^"^o receiver, Ihows the quantity of aqueous 
 phlegm and unfaturated acid. 2. By combining this 
 with as much cauftic fixed alkali as is fufficient to fa- 
 turate the acid which comes over, we know its propor- 
 tion to the water ; and by redittilling this new com- 
 pound, we have the water by itfelf. 3. The earth may 
 be obtained by precipitation with an alkali in its cau- 
 ifig the pure ftic Itate, either fixed or volatile : but this part of the 
 earth of procefs is attended with confiderable difficulty ; for the 
 alkalies firft abforb the fuperfluous acid, after which 
 the earth combined to faturation with the acid falls to 
 the bottom, and the digeftion with the alkaline fait 
 muft h^e continued for a very cgnfiderable time before 
 the acid is totally feparated. By analyfing alum in 
 •ithis manner, Mr Bergman determined the principles of 
 
 ^43 
 Alum de- 
 prived of 
 its fuper- 
 fluous acid 
 
 tions. 
 
 645 
 
 Difficulty 
 in obtain 
 
 alum. 
 
 Pradlice. 
 
 alum to be 38 parts of vitriolic acid, 18 of clay, and Vitriolic A- 
 44 of water, to 1 00 of the cryltallized fait. ^'^^ ^"'1 »u 
 
 It has been a quellion among cheraifts, whether the 9'^"''^'"*- 
 earth of alum is to be confidered as a pure clay or not. , j 
 
 The fait was extradted from common clay by Meffrs 646 
 Hellot and Geoffroy. The experiment was rc])eated P™po'- 
 with fuccefs by Mr Pott; but he feemed to confider it^/""^j 
 rather as the produftion of a new fubltance during the accor^in >■ 
 operation, than a combination of any principle already fo Mr Btr- 
 exiiting with the vitriohc acid. Margraaf, however, 
 from lome veiy accurate experiments, demonftrated, ^J^rJ'^l 
 that all kinds of clay confiit of two principles mecha- tht, ea,.^^^ of 
 nically mixed; one of which conftantly is the pure alum be a 
 earth of alum. This opinion is efpoufed by Bergman ;r"' e day 
 who concludes, that fince an equal quantity of it may - 
 be extraaed from clay by all the acids, it can only be ComMonert 
 mixed with thefe clays ; for if it v/as generated by the parts of all 
 menilrua during the operation, it muft be procured in '"'""^s 'f -by 
 different quantities, if not of different qualiues alfo, ac- j|^^eaigated 
 cording to the difference of the folvents made ufe of. griaf.*'^' 
 Notwithftanding this, the matter feems to be rendered 649 
 fomewhat obfcure by an experiment of Dr Lewis. J't^wis's 
 «' Powdered tobacco-pipe clay (%s he) being boiled in t*|^d[n'"^"^' 
 a confiderable quantity of oil of vitriol, and the boiling S^o.y^fhat 
 continued to drynefs, the matter when cold difcovers clay under- 
 very httle tafte, or only a flight acidulous one. Ex-!?"es f me 
 pofed to the air for a fev/ days, the greateft part of 
 it was changed into lanuginous efFiorci'cences tafting vertfd*^imo 
 exadtly like alum. The remainder, treated with frelh earth of 
 oil of vitriol, in the fame manner exhibits the fame*^""^* 
 phenomena till nearly the whole of the clay is convert- 
 ed into an aftringent fait." Plence he concludes, that 
 the clay is in fome degree changed before the alumi- 
 nous fait is produced. Without this fuppofition, in- 
 deed, it is difficult to fee why the fait fliould not be pro- 
 duced immediately by the combination of the two 
 principles. An hundred parts of cryltallized alum re- Solubility 
 quires, according to Mr Bergman, in a mean heat of alum in 
 141 2 parts of diitilled water, but in a boihng heat ^'^'"'V.''"*^ 
 only 7 5 of the fame parts for its folution. The fpeci- 
 fic gravity of alum, when computed from the increafe 
 of bulk in its folution, is 2.071 when the air-bubbles 
 are abftrafbtd ; but if they are fuffered to remain, it is 
 no more than 1.757. Thefe bubbles confift of aerial 
 acid, but cannot be removed by the air-pump, though 
 they fly off on the apphcation of heat. g^j 
 
 Theores from which alum is preparedfor fale, accord- Bergman's 
 ing toMr Bergman, are of tvf o kinds ; one containing the account of 
 alum already formed, the other its principles united by ^'^^g^^*^*^^ 
 roafting. What he calls the aluminous fchift, is no-^u^.'' 
 thing but an argillaceous fchift impregnated with a dried 63 a 
 petroleum, from whence the oil is eafily extrafted by Compo- 
 diftiUation ; but .by applying proper menfti ua it difco- "f "he^T^^ 
 vers leveral other ingredients, particulariy an argilla- minous 
 ceous martial fubftance, frequently amounting to |. offthift. 
 the whole; a filiceous matter amounting to^ ; and com- 
 monly alfo a fmall proportion of calcareous earth and 
 magnefia ; the reft being all pyritous. By roafting How rhan- 
 this ore the bituminous part is deftroycd and the py- j;edbyrc.ail- 
 rites decompofed ; on which part of the vitriolic acid'"^* 
 adheres to the iron of the pyrites, and the reft to the 
 pure clay of the fchift, forming green vitriol with the 
 former, and alum with the latter. If any calcareous 
 earth or magnefia are prefent, gypfum and Epfom fah 
 will be produced at the fame time. No fait is obtained 
 
 by 
 
Prac>ice» 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 461 
 
 654 
 
 The prc- 
 
 fence of 
 
 itrioiicA-by lixiviating this fchlft before calcination, though Mr 
 cid and us gergman thinks nothing more Is neceffary for theprcxiuc- 
 tion of the fait but the prefenceof a pyrites. This, he 
 tells us, is generally difperfed through the mafs in form 
 of very miauie particles, though it fometimes appears 
 in fmail nuclei. The goodncfs of the ore, therefore, 
 depends on the proper proportion of the pyrites to the 
 necefSry" ''clay, and its equal diftribution through the wiiole. The 
 for the pro- moil denfe and ponderous is moft efteemed, while that 
 dutStion of which contains fo much pyrites as to be vihble Is rc- 
 aium. je6lcd as having too much iron. The ore which pro- 
 duces lefs than four pounds of alum from 100 of the 
 ore does not pay the expence ot manufafturing in Swe- 
 den. Sometimes this kind of ore produces lalts with- 
 out the application of fire ; but this muft be attributed 
 ^55 to a kind of fpontaneous calcination. 
 Ores con- That fpecies of ore which contains the principles 
 alum ready already united mto alum, accordmg to Mr cergman, is 
 formed, on- to be met with only In volcanic countries ; and of this 
 ly to be met j5_Jn(j tlje principal Italian ores of alum, particu- 
 Vfuh hi vol- ^^^^ employed at Tolfa near CIncelles, for boilir.t^ 
 came coun- , •' r, < \t -mt 1 .^..'^ 
 
 tiies Koman aium. Mr Monnet, however, is or opinion, 
 
 that even this ore does not contain alum perfeftly 
 formed, but a combination of nearly equal parts of 
 clay and fulphur, which, by expofure to air during 
 calcination, is conveited into alum. He found a little 
 6s6 martial earth alfo contained in it, to which he afcribes 
 Aliinmious ^'^^ reddlih colour of that alum. The aluminous ore 
 oieat o- Solfatara In Italy confills of old lava whitened by 
 the phlogifticated vitriolic acid. The clay thus be- 
 comes a component part of the aluminous fait, and the 
 mafs efilorefces In the fame manner, and for the fame 
 reafon, as the mafs left after boiling tobacco-pipe clay 
 in oil of vitriol mentioned by Dr Lev/is. Mr Berg- 
 man, who examined this ore, found, that 100 pounds 
 of it contained eight of puie alum, befides four of pure 
 clay ; and that the remainder was filiceous. I'his pro- 
 poition, however, muft be very variable, according to 
 the quantity of rain which falls upon the ore^ 
 
 A variety of aluminous ores are to be met with in 
 differsnt parts of the world. In Haflia and Bohemia 
 
 fatara in 
 Italy. 
 
 f>S7 
 Analyzed 
 by Mr 
 Bergman. 
 
 658 
 Aluminous 
 ores in 
 Hallia, Bo 
 
 heniia, and this fait Is obtained from wood impregnated with bitu- 
 Scania. men. At Hclfingborg in Scania, a turf is found con- 
 fifting of the roots of vegetables mixed with nuts, draw, 
 and leaves, often covered with a thin pyrltous cuticle, 
 which, when elixated, yields alum : Even the fulphu- 
 reous pyrites is generally mixed with an argillaceous 
 matter, which may be feparated by menllrua. In 
 fome places, fulphur, vitriol, and alum are extraftcd 
 from the fame material. The fulphur rifes by diftilla- 
 tion ; the refiduum is expofed to the air till it efflo- 
 refces, after which a green vitriol is obtained by lixl- 
 AlunUlate elation, and alum from the fame liquor, after no more 
 found at vitriol will cryllallize. The alum Jlate, from which this 
 fait is made near York in England, contains a confi- 
 derable quantity of fulphur j and therefore produces 
 alum on the principles already mentioned. 
 
 Mr Bergman has given very particular dirtftions 
 for the pre- for the preparation of this fait from its ores, and mi- 
 paration of nutely dcfcrlbes the feveral operations which they muft 
 "'"■^'^^ undergo. Thefe are, 
 
 ^Tfg of K-OA STING. This is abfolutely neceflary in order 
 
 roafling the to deftroy the pyrites ; for on this the formation of the 
 ore. alum entirely depends ; as the fulphur of the pyrites 
 
 v.'IU not jiart with its phlogifton without a burning 
 
 2 
 
 (>S9 
 Alum ful- 
 phur and 
 vitriol ex 
 tra<iled 
 from the 
 iame ore. 
 660 
 
 York in 
 Jinglaud. 
 
 661 
 Bergman 
 diredions 
 
 heat in the open air. By long expofure to the air, '"'^^'""[j'^i^' 
 
 deed, the fame effeft will follow; but unlefs the ore be^^^^":^^^' 
 
 of a particular kind, and loofe in texture, fo that the air tigas. 
 
 can freely pervade It, the procefs we Ipeak of cannot i— —y— ^ 
 
 take place. The hard ores, therefore, cannot be 663 
 
 treated in this manner ; and the earthy ores are 
 
 only unfit for fpontaneous calcination, but for ''rafting 
 
 alfo, as they will not allow the air to pervade them and (}je fame 
 
 extinguifti the fire. Such as are capable of fpontane- efFed. 
 
 ous calcination, (hould be fupplied with fome quantity 
 
 of water, and laid on a hard clay bottom, as u^g^ f,'jr 
 
 for making green vitriol. The roafting is performed i^j^h opera- 
 
 in Sweden In the following manner. Small pieces of tions. 
 
 the ore are ftrewed upon a layer of burning (licks to 
 
 the thicknefs of half a foot. When the fticks are ^^^''^f ,f 
 
 r 1 1 r , 1 1 r roaftlllg UlS 
 
 coniumed, tht le are covered, nearly to the lame in 3^^=. 
 thicknefs, with pieces burned before and four times den. 
 lixiviated : Thus, ftrata are alternately laid of fuch a 
 thicknefs, and at fuch iatervals of time, that the fire 
 may continue, and the whole mafs grow hot and 
 fmoke, but not break out into flame. The upper ftra- 
 ta may fometimes be increafed to a double thicknefs 
 on account of the long continuance of the fite. When 
 eight ftrata are laid, another row is placed contiguous 
 to the former ; when this is finifhed, a third; and fo 
 on until the heap be of a proper fize, which rarely re- 
 quires more than three rows. When the ore is once 
 roafttd, it ftill contains fo much phlogifton that water 666 
 a6ls but little upon it ; but after the operation is two How often 
 or three times repeated, the ore yields its principles (^^^^ 
 more freely : the roafting may even be repeated to ad- ^^tvoAed. 
 vantage till the whole be reduced to powder. The bi- 
 tumen keeps up the fire ; for which reafon alternate 
 layers of the crude ore are ufed ; and in rainy weather 
 thefe layers of unburntore fhould be thicker. An heap^ 
 20 feet broad at the bafe, two feet at the top, and con- 
 fifting of 26 rows, is finifhed in three weeks, but re- 
 quires two or three months to be well burned, and 
 three weeks to cool. The greater pyrltous nuclei ex- 
 plode like bombs. In this procefs the fulphur of the 
 pyrites is flowly confumed, and the phlogifticated acid, 
 penetrating the mafs, is fixed ; after which the re- 667 
 malnlng phlogifton is gradually diflipated. The chief ^^^8^'' 
 art confifts in moderating the heat in fuch a manner a*heat'too"^ 
 to avoid with fafety the two extremes ; for too fmallmuch. 
 a fire would not be capable of forming the fait, while 
 a heat too ftrong would deftroy It by melting the ore. 
 The fcoria are infoluble in water, and therefore thrown 
 away as ufelefs. They are produced by violent winds^, 
 or by a ftrong heat too much clofed up ; for it is ne- 
 ceflary to make holes in the red ftrata, that the fire 
 may reach the black ftratum which is to be laid on. 66? 
 Another method of burning was Invented by the ceic- Rmnian's 
 brated Rinman, and is prattifed at a place called Gar-^^^"^ 
 phyttan in Sweden.. There the ore itielf is fet on fire; ol^at Ga!^ 
 and after burning Is boiled, and yields alum in the fame ^ j^^jj 
 manner as the former. The heaps are formed in the 
 following manner ; Firft the fchlft, burning from the 
 furnace, is laid to the depth of four feet ; if the fire be 
 flow, then wood is added ; after that a thin ftratum of 
 ehxated fchlft ; the third confifts of fchlft not burned; 
 and the fourth of elixated fchlft a foot and a half thick;, 
 after that the burning fchlft, and fo on. This method,, 
 however, is attended with fome inconveniences. Thr 
 vitriolic acid is partly diflipated by the fire, and thuja- 
 
 the: 
 
C H E M 
 
 670 
 
 Method of 
 
 4^2 
 
 yitriolie A tlje quantity of alum I'sdlmininjed : forauch fehlft alfo 
 Combing.*' i"eq«ifitc in this method that it cannot all be elixa- 
 tiows. > thus the heap muft be perpetually increafing. 
 
 ' The haid ores containing bitumen, fuch as thofe of 
 
 •M^h^A r"^*^^^^' burned upon wood for fome" hours like 
 Inirning the''''^^^""^' ""'^''^ ^^^^ become pervious to water, and 
 hard ores efflorefce. The fire is extinguiflied as foon as the 
 at Tolfii in flame becomes white, and the fmell of fulphure- 
 ^'^^^y- om acid begins to be perceived. When the ore 
 '^cools, thofe patticles which were nearefl to the fire 
 are placed outermolt, and thofe which had been outer- 
 moft widiin, the fire being again lighted. The ore is 
 fufficiently burned when it can be broken with the 
 hands.. It is then heaped up near certain trenches, 
 and uateted five times a-day, particularly when the 
 fun fliines clear ; the operation being deftroyed by a 
 continued rain and cloudy fty. In fome places the 
 ore is firft burned and afterwards elixated ; neither is 
 there any way of knowing the proper methods of ma- 
 naginir it but by experiment. 
 ^ ^ 2. Elixation. This is performed in fome places with 
 burnecfore^'^"^' ^"'^ others with cold, water. At Garphyttan 
 atGarphyt-'fi Sweden, where the latter method is choien, the rc- 
 -tan v/ith ceptacles, in the year 1 772, were of hewn (lone, having 
 ■«ald water, their joints united by fome cement capable of refifting 
 the liquor. Every fet confifted of four fquare recep- 
 tacles difpofed round a fifth, which was deeper than 
 the reft. The firft receptacle is filled with roafted 
 fchift, and the ore lies in water for 24 hours ; the wa- 
 ter is then drawn off by a pipe into the fifth; from 
 thence into the fecond^ containing fchift not yet wafted; 
 from that, in like manner, after 24 hours, through the 
 fifth into the third, and fo into the fourth. The lixi- 
 vium is then conveyed to the fifth, and allowed to 
 ftand in it ; and laftly, is drawn ofF.into a vefl'cl appro- 
 nther me- priated for its reception. — In other places the water 
 thods. pafles over the fchift that has been waftied three times 
 ^"^^ for fix hours; then that which has been twice wafhed, 
 circum- ^^^^ what has been once waflied, and laftly, the ore 
 fiance by which has been newly roafted. Thofe who fuperintend 
 which the the alum man ufaftories are of opinion that the alum 
 be'dcfko^ is deftroyed by paffing the water firft over the newly 
 ^' burnt ore, and then over that which has been previouf- 
 673 ly elixated. 
 Of the ro- The lixivium, before boiling, ought to be as richly 
 P^'jj^ J. .'• impregnated with alum as poflible, in order to fave 
 viumbefore though this is frequently negleded. In fome 
 boiling. places the tafte is ufed as the only criterion ; but in 
 others the weight of water which fills a fmall glafs 
 bottle is divided into 64 equal parts, each of which is 
 called in Sweden a panning ; and the quantity by 
 which the fame bottle, full of lixivium, exceeds it when 
 filled with water, is fuppofed to indicate the quantity 
 of fait diflblved. — This method may undoubtedly be 
 reckoned fufBciently accurate for work conducted on 
 a large fcale : and though Mr Bergman gives formula 
 by which the m.atter may be determined to a fcrupu- 
 lous exadlnefs, it does not appear that fuch accuracy 
 is either neceffary or indeed prafticable in works con- 
 4u£ted in a great way. 
 
 Thofe who manage the alum manufaftories aflert, 
 that the cold lixivium ought to be made no richer than 
 when the weight of the bottle filled with lixivium 
 .exceeds it when filled with water by 4! pannings, 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice 
 
 which /hows "the water to be loaded with i-*t of its Y»»'iolic A 
 weigrht of alum. If the overplus amounts to fix pan- 
 nmgs, which indicates its containing -^ -^ or lalt, cry- ^-^^.^^^ 
 ftalo are then depofited. — Congelation is of no ufe t 
 to concentrate the aluminous lixivium ; for water 
 faturated with alum freezes almoft as readily as pure 
 water. 674 
 
 3. Boiling the ley for chrystallization. The Conftruc- 
 ley being firft brought from the pits through canals made 
 for the purpofe, is put into a leaden boiler, at the back ^^^j^j''*'' '*^ 
 of which is a refervoir, out of which the lofs fuftained by 
 evaporation is conftantly fupplied, fo that the furface 
 of that in the boiler continues always nearly at the fame 
 height. Various figns are ufed by diff"erent manufac- 
 turers to know when the ley is properly evaporated t 
 fome determining the matter by the floating of a new 
 laid egg ; others by dropping a fmall quantity on a 
 plate, and obferving whether it cryftallizes on cooling ; 
 and laftly, others weigh the lixivium in the bottle f,j^ 
 above-mentioned. The boiling is fuppofed to be fi- Proper 
 niftied if the increafe of weight be equal to 20 pan- 
 nings ; that is, if the water be loaded with -rrs^ rntedlL^' 
 its own weight. It might, however, take up above -j-quor. 
 of its weight, or nearly 27 pannings ; but as it has to 
 be depurated by ftanding quiet before the cryftals are 
 formed, the liquor muft not be fully faturated with 
 fait. 
 
 The lixivium, when fufficiently concentrated by Of the firft 
 evaporation, flows through proper channels into coolers, cfy^^-^Uiaa- 
 where it is allowed to reft foi about an hour to free it ' 
 ■ from the grofler fediment ; after which it is put into 
 wooden or fiione receptacles to cryftallize. In eight 
 or ten days the remaining liquor, commonly called 
 ?nother ley, or mag'ijlral ivater, is let off into another vef- 
 fel. A great number of cryftals, generally fmall and 
 impure, adhere to the bottom and fides of the veffel, 
 which are afterwards coUedled and waftied in cold 
 water. ^ _ 
 
 When a fufBcIent quantity of the fmall cryftals are Depuraticn 
 collefted, they m.uft then be put into the boiler for de- "f the cry- 
 puration. They are now diflblved in as fmall a quan-^^^* 
 tity of water as poflible ; after which the hxivium is 
 poured into a great tub containing as much as the 
 boiler itfelf. In 16 or 18 days the hoops of the tub 
 are loofed, and the aluminous mafs boind with an 
 iron ring ; and in 28 days more the refiduum of the 
 folation is let out through a hole, and coUefted in a 
 trench ; after which the faline~ mafs, which at Gar- 
 phyttan in Sweden amounts to 26 tons, is dried and fold 
 as depurated alum. The boiler emptied for the firft 
 cryftsllization is next filled two-thirds full with the 
 magiftral lixivium ; and as foon as the liquor arrives 
 at the boiling point, the other third is filled with crude 
 lixivium, with which the evaporation is alfo conftantly 
 fupplied. A certain quantity of the aluminous im- 
 purities left by waftiing the falls of the firft cryflalliza- 
 tion in water is then added, and the above defcribed 
 procefs repeated. Only the firft boiling in the fpring 
 is performed with the crude lixivium alone, the reft 
 are all done as juft now related. — Mr Bergman re- Bergman's 
 marks, that the time required for cryftallization may remarks in 
 undoubtedly be fhortened. The refervoirs ufed in the proper 
 Sweden for this purpofe (he fays), are deep, and n^*"' coo^rs^ 
 row at the top ; on which account they are not only 
 
 long 
 
Praaice. C H E M 
 
 ITitiiolic A- long In cooling, but the evaporation, which is abfo- 
 id and its lutely neceflary for the cryftallization, goes on very 
 i^^,K,,,._ flovvly, excepting in extremely warm weather, at the 
 fame time that the doors and windows are difpofed in 
 fuch a manner as to direft a current of air along the 
 fnrface. In Italy he tells us that conical refervoirs are 
 ufed with the wide part uppermoft. 
 
 It is remarkable, that pure alum cannot be obtained 
 in very confiderable quantity by merely evaporating 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 4^3 
 
 ^ombina- 
 ions. 
 
 679 
 ^lum can- 
 
 aotbeform 
 
 ^dbymere-^^j ^^^jjj^g Igy^ The reafon of this is, that the 
 and 'lixivium fometimes acquires fuch a confiftence, that it 
 
 ly evarora- 
 
 ley 
 Cou 
 the t xcefs 
 »f add. 
 
 680 
 
 all by pure 
 clay. 
 
 ooliiigthe both cryftallizes with difficulty, and produces 'im 
 on ac- pm-g cryftals. The caufe was unknown till the time 
 ""^.f-r. of Mr Bergman, who has (hown that it proceeds 
 from an excefs of vitriolic acid. Hence alfo we may 
 fee the reafon why alkaline falts, volatile alkali in its 
 pure ftate, or even putrefied urine, when added to this 
 thick folution, produce good cryftals of alum when 
 This excefs they cannot be obtained otherwife,_ It is remarkable 
 cannot be that this impediment to cryftallization is not re- 
 removed by j^oyeti by mineral alkali, though it is fo by the ve- 
 SiThoJ'^h getable and volatile alkalies, which is a phenomenon 
 it maybe by hitherto unexplained. According to our author, how- 
 ve^etahl'e ever, an addition of pure clay, to abforb the fuper- 
 and volatile abundant acid, is preferable to any other ; and indeed 
 ^"'/J"' it is reafonable to think fo, as the union of vitriolic 
 and belt ot ^^.^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^j^. jj^fi^ed, which is not 
 
 the cafe with any of the alkalies. — To afcertain this, 
 he made the following experiments. 
 Experiment ^' He dlffolved 2 15 grains of pure altim in diftilled 
 fliowint^"^ water, in a fmall cucurbit, and evaporated it over the 
 that an ex- fire till the furface of the liquor ftood at two marks^ 
 ceftofvi- ^,i,;ch Indicated,, in a former evaporation, that it was 
 imide^.'^thefit cryftallization, 2. Having poured out this into 
 ciyftalliza- a proper glafs vefl'el, he dilTolved^ other 215 grains, 
 don of a- and added to the folution 24I grains of concentrated 
 lum. vitriolic acid. 3. This folution being likewife poured 
 
 out, the experiment was repeated a third time, with 
 the addition of 53 grains of vitriolic acid; and the 
 glaffes being at laft fet in a proper place for cryftal- 
 lization, the firft yielded 155-^-, the fecond 130, and the 
 68^ third loo^- grains of alum. 
 Expe:i-ment This fhows that an excefs of vitriolic acid impedes 
 to deter- cryftallization of the alum ; but to determine how 
 
 "r'rV'^r far this could be remedied by the addition of clay, far- 
 of adding ther experiments were neceffary. Haying thereiore 
 clay to the employed a magiftral refiduum, in which the excefs 
 ^•^y- of acid was nearly in the proportion already related, 
 
 he added two drachms of clay in fine powder to- a 
 kanne, or Swedifli cantharus, of the liqnor : he boil- 
 ed the mixture for ten minutes; and on feparating 
 the clay that rems(ined, he found that 294- grains were 
 diffolved, which indicates an increafe of 141 grains of 
 alum. On gently boiling the liquor for half an hour, 
 75 grains of the clay were diffolved, which indicated 
 an increafe of 416 grains of alum. 
 Advantages The addition of clay muft therefore be much pre- 
 t-f ufingclay ferable to that of alkaline falts, not only as the former 
 rather thanp^Qjy(,gg ^ confiderable increafe of alum, but alfo as 
 alkalies. there is no danger of adding too much j for we have 
 already ftiown, that when the Hquor is entirely de- 
 prived of its fuperabundant acid, the neutralized clay 
 is infoluble in water. The earth itfelf, however, dif- 
 folves . fo flowly, that there is not the leaft danger of 
 
 the acid belnfr overfaturated by fimplT boiling them Vitriolic A- 
 
 , ° ' cid and its 
 
 together. ^ j ' Combina- 
 
 AUun, as commonly made, though depurated by a tjon,., 
 
 fecond cryftalHzation, yet is almoft always found con- ' r--^ 
 
 taminated by deplilogifticated vitriol ; whence it grov/s 684 
 yellow, and depofits an ochre in folution when old. Alum gen»> 
 This is equally ufeful in fome arts with the purett kind, i,y 
 and is even fo in dyeing where dark colours are re- dephlogiiti- 
 quired ; but where the more lively colours are wanted, cated vi- 
 every thing vitriolic muft be avoided. This is done trio!, 
 by the addition of pure clay, which precipitates the ^j^.^ ^^^^.^^ 
 iron, and produces an alum entirely void of any no- j-g^^g^ji^.^ 
 xious or heterogeneous matter. Nor is this contrary by the ad- 
 to the law^s of chemical attraftion ; for though iron Is diti"" 
 diflblved by a folution of alum, and the earthy bafe of P'^'"'= 
 alum precipitated, and though in a folution- of vitriol 
 and alum the white earth falls firft on an addition oC 
 alkali, and then the ochre; this happens Only in confe- 
 quence of employing phlogifticated ar metallic iron, or- 
 fuch as Is but very little dephlogiftlcated-; for if the- 
 inflammable principle be any further diminlftied, the 
 attraftlon is thereby fo much weakened, that the 
 clay has a greater attraftlon for the vitriolic acid than' 
 the' iron. The truth of this may be proved in many 
 different v;ays. Thus, let a portion of alum be dif- 
 folved in a folution of highly dephloglftlcated vitriol, , 
 and an alkali then added, the ochre of the vitriol will . 
 be firft depofited, and then the clay: and provided 
 there be a fufficient quantity of the latter, the iron 
 will all be precipitated ; and hence we fee that an alu- 
 minous folution mixed only with- one of dephloglftl- 
 cated vitriol may readily be freed from It. 686 
 
 But a folution of alum containing perfeft vi- Perfed vj-. 
 triol cannot be freed from it effeftually either by I^J^j^^'^^fy'^J' 
 clay or alkali ; for the former effedls no decompo- ^.^j i^y ^i^j^ 
 fition, and the latter, although it can deftroy the vi- 
 triol, will undoubtedly decompofe the alum In the 
 firft place. As long, therefore, as the folution is rich- 
 in alum, it may be- employed in the common manner ; 
 but when the vitriolic fait begins to predominate, it 
 muft either be cryftallized in its proper form, or be 
 deftroyed in fuch a manner as to produce alum, which 
 maybe accomplifhed in the following manner. Let How the 
 the lixivium be reduced to a tenacious mafs with clay, phlogifton 
 and formed into cakes, which muft be expofed In ^" 
 houfe to the open air. Thus the phlogifton, which ^^.^^^^ ^.j^^ 
 is powerfully attracted by the dephlogilllcatcd part of vitriol, 
 the atmofphere, by degrees feparates. from the Irouj 
 while the clay Is taken up by Its fuperlor attraftion 
 for the acid» The calcination Is accelerated by fire; 
 but It muft he cautioully employed, left the acid Ihould 
 be expelled. ^gg . 
 
 In the alum manufaftorles in Sv?eden, a confide^ jrpfom fait - 
 rable quantity of vltriolated magnefia, or Epfom fait, may be 
 is mixed with the alum. Mr Bergman direfts this to l"'^*^"'^^^ 
 
 be feparated by means of an uncalcined calcareous f. 
 
 11-1 -ij/i i-i-t_ 1 1- mother 
 
 earth, which entirely deltroys both the alum and vi.- quor. 
 
 triol ; falling down to the bottom with the acid in 
 
 form of a felenitic matter. This muft be added to the 
 
 boiling liquor gradually, left the effervefcence ftiould 
 
 caufe the mafs to fw^ell and run. over the top of the 
 
 veftel. A juft proportion deftroys both the alurai- - 
 
 nous and vitriolic fait, 'on being properly agitated and 
 
 Keatcd j neither is there any danger of the Epfom 
 
CHEMISTR Y. 
 
 689 
 
 SupeiHu- 
 ous acid 
 mijjht be 
 advantage- 
 ©wfly dif- 
 tilled. 
 
 Ejfotn fait, 
 
 fait being decomposed in this proceis, the iincalcined 
 earth being unable to feparate the mag^efia from the 
 acid. Were this method follow ed in the Swedifh ma- 
 nufaftories, he is of opinion, that as much Epfom 
 fait might be produced from them as would fupply the 
 confumpt of that kingdom. 
 
 With regard to the quantit)- of fuperfluous acid 
 found in the magiitral lixivium, Mr Bergman informs 
 us, that it amounted to five ounces in one kanne ; fo 
 that in a fingle boiler there is nearly 2501b. But vi- 
 triol, when well dcpl)logifl:icated, retains its acid fo 
 loofely that it may be eafily fcparated by fire. He has 
 ho doubt, therefore, that if the furface of fuch a lixi- 
 vium were firfl increafed in order to let the phlogifton 
 evaporate, the liquor might afterwards be advanta- 
 geoufly committed to dillillation for the fake of its 
 acid. 
 
 From what has been above delivered, the neceflity 
 will be fufficiently apparent of not continuing the 
 codtion even with pure clay to perfed fatufation of 
 the liquor: and this is further confirmed by M. 
 Beaume, who relates, that having boiled four ounces 
 of earth of alum with two ounces of the fait, in a fuf- 
 ficient quantity of water, the acid became faturated to 
 fuch a degree with earth, that the liquor loft its alu- 
 minous tafte entirely, and alTumed that of hard fpring 
 water. After filtration and evaporation, only a few 
 micaceous cryftals, very difficult of folution, were fonri'^ 
 
 ed by letting the liquor ftand for fome months, ^- 
 
 Dr Sieffert informs us, that by boiling half an ounce 
 of alum with half a drachm of flaked lime, cubical 
 cryftals of alum may be obtained. 
 
 V. With Magnejia. The earthy fubftance called i7ia^- 
 nefia alba is never found by itfelf, and confequently this 
 combination cannot originally take place by art. The 
 vitriolic acid, however, is found combined with magne- 
 fia in great plenty in thebitter hquor which remains af- 
 ter thexryftalhzation of common fait; from whence the 
 magnefia is procured by precipitating with a fixed alkali. 
 If this liquor, which, when the common fait is extrac- 
 ted, appears like clean oil of vitriol, is fet by for fome 
 time in a leaden veffel, a large quantity of fait (hoots, 
 very much refcmbling Glauber's fal mirabile. This 
 fait is in many places fold inftead of the true Glauber's 
 fait ; and is preferred to it, becaufe the true fal mi- 
 rabile calcines in dry air, which the fpurious kind does 
 not. If after the firft crj'ftallization of the bittern, 
 ihe remainder is gently evaporated farther, a frefh 
 quantity of Glauber's fait will ihoot ; and if the liquor 
 is then haftily evaporated, a fait will ftill be cryftal- 
 lized ; but inftead of large regular cryftals, it will 
 concrete into very fmall ones, having fomething of 
 the appearance of fnow when taken out of the liquid. 
 Thcfe falts are effentially the fame, and are all ufed 
 in medicine as purgatives. The fait ftiot into fmall 
 cryftals is termed Epfom fait, from its being firft pro- 
 duced from the purging waters at Epfom in England. 
 The bittern affording this kind of fait in fuch great 
 plenty, thefe waters were foon neglefted, as they 
 yielded it but very fparingly, and the quantity pre- 
 pared from them was infufficient for the demand. 
 Neumann fays, that having infpiffated 100 quarts of 
 Epfom waterj he fcarce obtained half an ounce of fa- 
 No 72. 
 
 69^ 
 
 Pra^llce. 
 
 line matter. — According to MrScheele's experiments, Vitriolic A* 
 if a folution of Epfora and common fait be mixed to* ^'^^ "* 
 gether, a double decompofition enfues, and the mix- 
 ture contains Glauber's fait and a combination of mag- '.' ^ .^ y 
 nefia with marine acid. From this lixivium the Glau- 
 ber's fait may be cryftallized in winter, but not in 
 fummer ; a great degree of cold being neceffary for 
 this purpofe. From twelve pounds of Epfom fait and 
 fix of Common fait, Mr Sch'eele obtained, in a tempera- 
 ture three degrees below the freezing point, fix pounds 
 of Glauber fait ; but in a degree of cold confiderably 
 greater, the produce was feven pounds and three 
 quarters. 
 
 yi. IViih Sihet\ Oil of vitriol boiled on half its With ulvef 
 weight of filver-filings, corrodes them into a faline mafs. 
 This fubftance is not ufed in medicine nor in the arts. 
 The only remarkable property of it is, that it has a very 
 ftrong attraftion for mercury ; coagulating and hard- 
 efiing as much quickfilver as the acid weighed at firtt- 
 If the hard concrete be diluted with frefli acid, it 
 melts eafily in the fire, and does not part with the 
 mercury in the greateft heat that glafs veflels can fu- 
 ftain. The vitriolic acid, by itfelf, ftrongly retains 
 mercury, but *iot near fo much as when combined 
 with filver. 
 
 ^ Silvef thus corroded by the vitriolic acid, or preci- 
 pitated by it from the nitrous, may in great part be 
 diffolved, by cautioufly applying a very httle water at 
 a time ; and more effectually by boihng in frefh oil of 
 vitriol. 
 
 VII. With Copper. With this metal the vitriolic acid Coppcl-. 
 cannot be combined, unlefs in its concentrated ftate, 
 and ftrongly heated. If pure oil of vitriol is boiled on 
 copper filings, or fmall pieces of the metal, it diffolvea 
 it into a liquor of a deep blue colour, which eafily 
 cryftallizes. The cryftals are of a beautiful blue co- 
 lour, and are fold under the iiame of blue vitriol or Ro' 
 man 'vitriol. , 
 
 Where fulphur is found in great plenty, however. Blue vitr-of, 
 Roman vitriol is made by ftratifying thin plates of cop- 5^ow made» 
 per-with fulphur; and upon flowly burning the fulphur, 
 its acid corrodes. the copper. The metal is then to be 
 boiled in water, that the faline part may be diffolved. 
 The operation is to be repeated till all the copper is 
 confumed ; and all the faline liquors are to be evapo- 
 rated together to the cryft;dlizing point. By this 
 method, however, a great part of the acid is loft ; and 
 in Britain, where the fulphur muft be imported, we 
 fhould think the pure acid preferable for thofe who 
 prepare blue vitriol. 
 
 This fait, on being expofed to the fire, firft turns Phenomena 
 white, then of a yellowilh red colour. On urging it on cUftilla- 
 with a ftrong fire, the acid flowly exhales, and a dark ^^ion. 
 red calx of copper remains. The whole of the vi 
 triolic acid cannot be expelled from copper by heat i 
 as much of it ftill remains as to render a part of the 
 metal folubie in water. After this foluble part has 
 been extracted, a little acid is ftill retained, amounting 
 to about ^ of the calx. 
 
 Vitriol of copper is employed in medicine as a cau- 
 ftic, in which refpeft it is very ufcful ; but when ufed 
 internally, is dangerous, as indeed all the preparations 
 of copper are found to be. It has, neverthelefs, ac^ 
 
 cording 
 
 695 
 Ufes. 
 
Praclke. 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 696 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Vlnrinlic cording to Neitmann, been recommended in all kinds 
 cS!bTna'^'°^ intermittents, and the lepra. The fmalleft por- 
 tioi.s. ' f^ysj occafions a ficknefs and naufea; a fome- 
 
 w— y-«w what larger, reaching and violent vomitings, accom- 
 panied often with convulfions. If the quantity taken 
 has been confiderable, and is not foon difcharged by 
 vomiting, the ftomach and inteftines are corroded, in- 
 tenfe pains, inflammations, and death, fucceed. 
 
 VIII. IVit/j Iron. The vitriolic acid does not aft up- 
 on this metal till confiderably diluted. Common oil of 
 vitriol requires to be mixed with ten or twelve times its 
 quantity of water before it will a£l brilldy on the me- 
 tal. In this ftate it effervefces violently with iron fi- 
 lings, or frnall bits of the metal, and a great quantity 
 of inflammable vapour is difcharged (fee Air). The 
 liquor aflumes a fine green colour ; and by evaporation 
 and flow cooling, very beautiful rhomboidal crvftals 
 Salt of Heel. ^O''"^^'^- Thefe are named fait of Jleel, and are 
 ufed in medicine ; but for the fait made with the pure 
 acid and iron, the common copperas, 
 impure acid extrafted from pyrites, 
 
 697 
 
 ftituted. 
 
 vitriolic 
 scid. 
 
 made v/ith the 
 is commonly fub- 
 This is generally efteemed a venial fraud, 
 and no doubt is fo in medicinal refpecls ; but when 
 it is confidered, that, by this fubftitution, common 
 copperas is impofed on the ignorant, at the price 
 698 of 2 s. per pound, the affair appears in a different light. 
 Precipifa- Pure- vitriol of iron is originally of a much more 
 ti'in of iron, 1 ^1 1 
 
 from the beautitul appearance than common copperas, and re- 
 tains its colour much better ; the reafon of which 
 is, that the fait thus prepared has more phlogifton 
 than the copperas. If either of the kinds, however, 
 are expofed to the air for a fufficient length of time, 
 part of the acid is diffipated, and the vitriol becomes 
 yellowifli or brownirti. If the fait is now diflblved in 
 water, a brown precipitate falls, which is part of the 
 iron in a calcined ftate. If the liquor is feparated 
 from this precipitate by filtration, a fimilar one forms 
 in a ftiort time, and by long ftanding a confiderable 
 quantity fubfides. According to Dr Lewis, the pre- 
 cipitation is greatly expedited by a boiling heat ; by 
 which more of the metal feparates in a few minutes 
 than by fl;anding without heat for a twelvemonth. This 
 change takes place in no other metallic folutions. 
 The calx of iron, precipitated by quicklime from 
 fjoufe paint- gi-een vitriol, appears, when dry, of a yellow colour.; 
 
 Tfelow for 
 
 jng. 
 
 700 
 Prefei-va- 
 
 .(five for 
 wood. 
 
 70T 
 Til). 
 
 a!3d is recommended in the Swedifll tranfaftions, in- 
 fl;ead of yellow ochre, as a colour for houfe-painting. 
 Solutions of green vitriol are alfo recommended for 
 preferving wood, particularly the wheels of carriages, 
 from decay. When all the pieces are fit for being 
 joined together, they are direfted to be boiled in a 
 folution of vitriol for three or four hours ; and" then 
 kept in a warm place for fome days to diy. By this 
 preparation, it is faid, wood becomes fo hard, that 
 moifliure cannot penetrate it ; and that iron nails are 
 not fo apt to rufl; in this vltriolated wood as might be 
 expefted., but laft as long as the wood itfelf. 
 
 IX. tV'ith Tin. This metal cannot be diflblved in the 
 vitriolic acid, but in the fame manner as filver; namely, 
 by boiling concentrated oil of vitriol to drynefs upon 
 filings of the metal. The faline mafs may then be 
 diflblved in water, and the folution will cryftallize. 
 The falt,-however, formed by this union, is not ap- 
 plied to any ufeful purpofe, A fait of tin, indeed. 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 70a 
 Lead. 
 
 S T R Y. 465 
 
 formed by the union of vitriolic acid with this tnetal, Vitriolic 
 has been recommended for fome medical purpofes, and 1^'^^'^,*"'^ 
 procelles are given for it in the difpeniatones ; but„o„s 
 they have never come much into piaflice. - — _j 
 
 X. With Lead. While lead is in its metallic ftate, 
 the vitriolic acid adb very little upon It, either in a di- 
 luted or concentrated ftate : but if the metal is dlf- 
 folved in any other acid, and oil of vitriol- added, a 
 precipitation immediately enfues, which is occafioned 
 by the combination of vitriolic acid with the lead. 
 This precipitate will be more or lefs white as the 
 metal is more or lefs deprived of Its phlogifton by 70, 
 calcination before folution. If a little ftrong fpirit of ■• beautiful 
 nitre is poured upon litharge, which is lead calcined to "^^''^ 
 
 the greateft degree poflible without vitrification, the 
 acid unites itfelf to the metal with confiderable ef- 
 fervefcence and heat. Some water being now poured 
 on, and the phial containing the mixture fliaken, a 
 turbid folution of the litharge is made. If a little oil 
 of vitriol is then added, it throws down a beautifully 
 white precipitate ; and the acid of nitre, being left at 
 liberty to aft upon the remaining part of the litharge, 
 begins anew to diflblve it with effervefcence. When 
 it is again faturated, more oil of vitriol Is to be drop- 
 ped in, and a white precipitate is again thrown down. 
 If any of the litharge is ftill undlflblved, the nitrous 
 acid, being fet at liberty a fecond time, attacks it as 
 at firft ; and by continuing to add oil of vitriol, the 
 whole of the litharge may be converted into a mofl; 
 beautiful and durable white. Unfortunately this co- 
 lour cannot be ufed in oil, though in water it feems 
 fuperior to any. If the procefs is well managed, 
 an ounce of fpirit of nitre may be made to convert 
 feveral pounds of litharge into a white of this kind. Quicufl.. 
 
 XI. With ^ickflver. The diflbliitlon of quickfilver ver.*^ * 
 in vitriolic acid cannot be performed but by a concen- 
 trated oil and ftrong boiling heat. The metal is firft 
 corroded into a white calx, which may afterwards be 
 eafily diflblved by an addition of freih acid. Every 
 
 time it is diflblved, the mercury becomes more and 
 more fixed and more difficult to dry. If the exficca- 
 tion and dlflolutlon has been repeated feveral times, 
 the matter becomes at laft fo fixed as to bear a degree 
 of red heat. This combination Is the bafis of a medi- 
 cine formerly of fome repute, under the name of tur- 
 bith mineral. The procefs for m.aking turbilh mineral 
 is given by tlie author of the Chemical DIftionary as 
 follows : 
 
 " Some mercury is poured into a glafs retort, and Turbit}i 
 upon it an equal quantity of concentrated oil of vitriol, mineral, 
 or more, according to the ftrengtli of the acid. Thefe 
 matters are to be dlftlEed together, "in the heat of a 
 fand-bath, till nothing remains in the retort but a dry 
 faline mafs, which is a combination of the vitriolic acid 
 and mercury. The acid which paffes into the re- 
 ceiver is very fuffbcating and fulphureous ; which qua- 
 lities it receives from the phlogifton of the mercuiy. 
 The white fahne mafs which is left at the bottom of 
 the retort is to be put Into a large veflel ; and upon 
 it are to be poured large quantities of hot water at 
 This water weakens the acid, 
 mercury ; which is then pre ® 
 cipitated towards the bottom of the veflel, in form 
 of a very fhining yellow powder. The water with 
 3 N wliich 
 
 feveral different times, 
 and takes it from the 
 
466 
 
 vitriolic 
 Acid and it' 
 Combiiia- 
 elons. 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y, Praaice, 
 
 which It 19 wafhed contains the acid that was united plicnoracna aUo occur In tliia cafe as In making tur- Viti'iolic 
 
 with the mercury, and llkewife a little mercury ren- bith mineral; a vc^y fufFocating Tulphurcwis acid rif^js; ^^^'^^^.^^^ 
 
 dtrtd folable by means of the very large quantity of and, as Mr Geoffroy obferves, a trite fulphur fublimeSti,'','^ 
 
 acid. i"^^ ^^'^ ncxk of the retort ; a white, faline, tumcii^jd, . 
 
 Moll diemiils have believed, that a portion of vl- mafs remains in the vefTel ; and wlien the veiTels are 
 
 706 
 Dr Lewis's 
 djr^idions. 
 
 707 
 'Zl'nc. 
 
 White vi- 
 iricl. 
 
 triohc acid remains united with the turbith mineral, 
 only too httlc to rendtr it foluble in water. But Mr 
 Beaumc, having fx.:unined -this matter, affirms, that 
 turbith mineral contains no acid, when it has been 
 lufficiently wafhed ; and that, by frequently boihng 
 this preparation In a large quantity of diftilled water, 
 not a vcftige of acid will adhere to It." 
 
 Dr Lewis, who is of opinion that the whole of this 
 mercurial calx is foluble in a very large quantity of 
 water, defires the water with which it is waflied to 
 be impregnated with fome alkaline fait ; which makes 
 the yield of turbith greater than when pure water is 
 \ifcd. The author of the Chemical DiAionary alfo 
 ohferves, that the precipitate remains white till well 
 freed from the acid ; and the more perfectly it i« 
 wafhed, the deeper yellow colour it acquires. 
 
 XII. P/id'' Zinc. This fcmimet:d is not a£led upon 
 })V the vitriolic acid in its concentrated ftate; but, when 
 diluted, is diffolved by it with effervefcence, and with 
 the extrication of an inflammable vapour in the fame 
 manner as iron. Neumann obferves, that, during the 
 difiblution, a grey and blackiflr fpongy matter fell to 
 the bottom ; but, on (landing for fome days, was ta- 
 ken up, and dilTolved in the liquor, nothing being left 
 but a little yellowifh dull fcarcely worth mentioning. 
 Six parts of oil of vitriol, diluted with an equal quan- 
 tity of water, diffolves one part of zinc. 
 
 The produft of this combination is tt'hke vitriol ; 
 which is ufed iu medicine us an ophthalmic, and in 
 painting for making oil-cokairs dry quickly : what is 
 ufed f"or this purpofe, however, is not made in Bri- 
 
 unlute-d, a while fume ifl'ues, as in the fmoking fpirit 
 of libavius. See CombinatioriJ of marine acid nvith tin. 
 Infra. ^ _ 
 
 XIV. IVirl:) Reguhs of Cobalt. From a combination ofRegulusof 
 the vitriolic acid with cobalt, a red fait. may be obtained, '^ou'iu., 
 To procure It, one part of cobalt, reduced to a very 
 
 fine powder, may be mixed with two or three of con- 
 centnited acid, diluting the liquor after it has been 
 digefted for 24 hours, and then hltering aiid evapora- 
 ting it. 
 
 XV. With. Arfenic. Neumann relates, that powdered ^jf^j^j^.^ 
 white arfenic being dilliiled in a retort with oil of vitriol, 
 
 a tranfparent fublimate like glafs arofe, wliich in a few 
 days loft its tranfparency, and became opaque like the 
 arfenic itfelf. The arfenic remaining in the retort 
 fuilained an open fire without any fcniible alteration. 
 The author of the Chemical Dictionary fays, that if a 
 concentrated vitriol c acid is dilliiled from arfenic, the 
 acid which comes over fmells exactly like marine acid. 
 When the folution is dilliiled till no more acid rifes, 
 tlie retort is then almoft red-hot, and no arfenic is fub- 
 limed ; but it remains fuffd at the bottom of the re- 
 tort ; and, when cold, is found to be an heavy, com- 
 pa£l mafs, brittle and tranfparent as cryftal-glafs. This 
 kind of arfenical glafs, expofed to the air, foon lofes 
 its tranfparency from the moilture it attracts, which 
 dilfolves and partly dehquiates it. This deliquium is 
 extremely acid. — By digeiling one part of arfenic with 
 two of concentrated oil of vitriol, diluting the folutiori 
 with water, and then filtering and evaporating, we ob- 
 tain a yeIlo\\'ifh fait which Ihoots into pyramidal, tran- 
 
 to 
 
 tain, but c^mies from Germany. It is made at Goflar fparent, and fliining cryilals. None of the three lail 
 by the following procefs. An ore containing lead 
 and filver, having been prevloufly roafted for the ob- 
 taining of fulphur (fee Metallurgy), Is Hxivia- 
 ted with water, and afterwards evaporated in leaden 
 boilers, as for the preparation of green vitriol : but 
 
 mentioned combinations have been found applicabl 
 any ufeful purpofe. 
 
 XVI. With Oil. The produft of this combination is a 
 thick black fubllance, very much refembling baliam of 
 fulphur in colour and confiftence ; to which it is fome- 
 
 here a regular cryftallization is prevented; for when times fubftituted. If this fubllance is dilliiled with a 
 
 ihe fait has aflumed any kiud of cryllalllne form, thefe gentle heat, great part of the acid becomes volatile, 
 
 cryflals are made to undergo the watery fufion In and evaporates in white fumes, having a pungent Imell 
 
 copper caldrons. It is then kept conftantly ftirring refembhng that of burning fulphur. This goes by the 
 
 till a coufiderable part of the moifture is evaporated, 
 and the matter has acquired the confiftence of fine fu- 
 gar. White vitriol gtneral'y contains fome ferrugi- 
 nsus matter," froni which it may be entirely freed by 
 {tmie frefh zinc ; for this femimetal precipitates frpm 
 the vitriolic acid ail other metallic fubftances; but not 
 
 7TS.; 
 Oii.. 
 
 7'.? 
 
 Volatile 
 
 709 
 
 Regulus f; 
 aoiimcny, 
 
 name o{ volatile or fnlphureous vitriolic acid ; and a f'^h j-^j j^^'^^^.^^ 
 was formerly prepared from it by faturation with fixed yg/j, 
 alkali, which was thought to poflcfs great virtues. From 
 Its inventor it was called the fulpJyureous fait of Stahl. 
 The moft finglar property of this volatile acid is, 
 that though the vitrlohc in Its fixed ftate is capable of 
 withftanding this Itrong attraftion, the vitriohc acid is expelling any other acid from Its bafis, the volatile 
 more eafily expelled by diftillation from white than one is expelled by every acid, even that of vmegar. 
 green or blue vitriol. Towards the end of the dl- It is very difficultly condenfible, as we have already 
 filiation ef white vitriol, the acid arlfes exceedingly taken notice ; and, when mixed with_ water, feems 
 concentrated, though fulphureous : fo that, if mixed fcarcely at all acid, but rather to have a bitterlfli tafte. 
 with common oil of vitriol, It will heat It almoft as Several methods have been propofed for procuring 714 
 much as oil of vitriol heats water. this acid from burning fulphur, which yields it in its How pro- 
 
 f XIII. JVith Regulus of Antimony. To combine vitriolic greateft degree of volatility, as well as concentration ; 
 . acid with regulus .of antimony, the fiime method muft be but the produce is fo exceedingly fmall, that none ofj^J,/"' 
 ufed, as direfted for uniting it with quickfilver, for them are worth mentioning.^ Dr Prieftley has given 
 making turbith mineral, vm. to employ a very con- very good direftions for obtaining the volatile vitriolic 
 e<:ntrated acid, and to diftil in tlofe vclh !». The fame acid iu the form of air. His method was, to pour, on 
 
 lom-t: 
 
Charcoal. 
 
 7t6 
 Sul; hur 
 
 prepared 
 from vitrio 
 luted tarur 
 
 Spirit of 
 wiue. 
 
 Ether. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 fome oil of vitriol contained in a phial, a very fmall 
 quantity of oil olive ; as much as was fufficient to co- 
 ver it. He then apphed the proper apparatus for the re- 
 ception of air in quickfilver (fee Air) ; _and,_ holding 
 a candle to the phial, the volatile vitriolic acid rufhed 
 out in great quantity. Had he received this air in wa- 
 ter, inllead of quickfilver, the confequence would have 
 been, that fome part of it, at leaft, would have been 
 abforbed by the water, and a fulphureous acid liquor 
 produced. This feems indeed almoft the only method 
 of procuring the fulphureous vitriolic acid of any to- 
 lerable ih-ength ; but it is never required in the form 
 of a liquor, except for experimental purpofes. The 
 only iiftful property hitherto difcovered about this kind 
 of acid is, that it is remarkably dellruAive of colours 
 of all kinds ; and hence the fumes of fulphur are em- 
 ployed to whiten wool, &.c. 
 
 XVII. With Phhg'tjlnn of charcoal. If charcoal is mix- 
 ed with concentrated vitriolic acid, andthe mixturediftil- 
 led, the fame kind of acid isat firftobtained, whichcomes 
 over ^vhen oil is ufed ; and towards the end, when the 
 matter begins to grow dry, a true fulphur fubhmes. 
 The beft way, however, of producing fulphur from 
 the vitrioHc acid is by combining it, when in a per- 
 feftly dry ftate, with the phlogifton. By this means 
 fulphur may very readily be made at any time. _ The 
 procefs is generally direftcd to be performed in the 
 following manner. 
 
 Reduce to fine powder any quantity of vitriolated 
 tartar. Mingle it carefully with a i6th part of its 
 weight of charcoal-duft. Put the whole into a covered 
 crucible fet in a melting furnace. Give a heat fuffi- 
 cient to melt the fait ; and when thoroughly melted, 
 pour it out on a flat ttone. The vitriolated tartar and 
 charcoal will now be converted into a fulphureous 
 mafs ■ fimilar to a combination of alkahne falts with 
 fulphur. Sec AlkaTme Salts, below. 
 
 XVIII. IVith Spirit of nvine. The refult of this combi- 
 nation is one of the moft extraordinary phenomena in 
 chemiftry ; being that fluid, which, for its extreme de- 
 gree of volatility, was firft diRinguilhed by the name of 
 ether : and now, fince a liquor of the Kke kind is dif- 
 Qoyered to. be prepaiable from fpirrt of wine by means 
 of other acids, thisfpecies is diiting'uilhed by the name 
 oivitriolic ether. The method of pieparing this fubtle 
 liquor recommended by M. Beaume, feems to be the 
 beft of any hitherto difcovered. 
 
 Mix together equal parts by weight, _ of highly rec- 
 tified fpirit of wine and concentiated oil of vitriol, or 
 fomewhat more than two meafures of fpirit of wine with 
 one of the acid. The mixture is to be made in a flint 
 glafs retort, the bottom and fides of which are very 
 thin, that it may not break from the heat which is 
 fuddenly generated by the union of thefe two fubftan- 
 ces. The fpirit of wine is firft put into the retort, 
 and then the acid is poured in by a glafs-funnel, fo 
 that the ftream may be dircfted againft the fide of the 
 glafs ; in which cafe it will not exert much of its force 
 on the fpirit, but will He quietly below at the bottom. 
 The retort is now to be very gently fnaken, that the 
 «icid may mingle with it by little and little. When 
 the mixture is completed, very httle more heat will be 
 neceffary to make the hquor boil. 
 
 This mixture is to be diftilled with as briflc and 
 Ciuick a heat aspulHbie; for which reafon, immediately 
 6 
 
 I S T R Y. 4^7 
 
 after the acid and fpirit are mixed, the retort (hould ^'^V^J^'^j^g 
 be put into a fand furnace heated as much as the mix- [^^^^^^^^J 
 ture Is. The diftillation fliould be continued only till jions. 
 about one third of the liquor is come over ; if it is v— 
 continued farther, part of the vitriolic acid rifes in a 
 fulphureous ftate. In the retort a thick, black, acid 
 matter remains, which is fimilar to a combination of 
 oil of vitriol with any inflammable matter, and from 
 which a little fulphur may be obtained. Along with 
 the fulphureous acid, a greenifii oil, called oleum w- 
 trioli clulcis, arifes, which has a fmell compounded of 
 that of the ether and fulphureous acid : and Mr Beaume 
 has fhown that it is compounded of ihefe two ; for if 
 it is reftifted with an alkali, to attraft the acid, it is 
 changed into ether. If, after the diftillation of the 
 ether, fome water be poured into the retort, the li- 
 quor by diftillation may be brought back to the ftate 
 of a pure vitriolic acid. 
 
 As the tteams of the ethereal liquor are exceedingly 
 volatile, and at the fame time a quick fire is neceffary 
 to the fuccefs of the operation, the receiver muil be 
 carefully kept cool vith very cold water or with 
 fnow. Care muft alfo be taken to prevent any of 
 the fulphureous acid fteams from coming over ; but as 
 it is impolfible to prevent this totally, the liquor re- 
 quires reftificatlon. This is the more neceffary, as a 
 part of the fpirit of wine always rifes unchanged. 
 From this acid the liquor is eafily fet free, by adding 
 a fmall quantity of alkaline fait, and re-diftllling with 
 a very gentle heat ; but as fpirit of wine is hkewife 
 very volatile, the diftillation mutt be performed^ in a 
 very tall glafs. Dr Black recommends a matrafs, or 
 bolt-head, with a tin-pipe adapted to the head, fo as 
 to convey the fteams at a right angle, to be conden- 
 fed in the receiver. When this fluid is to be prepa- 
 red in great quantities, the ether, by proper manage- 
 ment, may be made to equal half the weight of the 
 fpirit of wine employed. Mr DoUfufs has made many 
 important experiments on this fubjpA ; of vi-hich the 
 following is an abftta<£l : i. Two pounds of vitriolic 
 acid were mixed with as much of fpirit of wine, and 
 the mixture diftilled with a very gentle fire. The firft 
 ten ounctfs- that came over confifted of a liquor ftrong- 
 ly impregnated with ether, and of an agreeable odour. 
 This was put by itfelf and marked A. It was follow- 
 ed by a ftronger ethereal liquor, of which a fmall quan- 
 tity only would mix with water. Of this there were 
 12 ounces, which were alfo put by themfelves, and 
 marked B. By continuing the procefs two ounces 
 more were obtained, which fmelled of fulphur, and 
 were marked C. The diftillation was now cotitinucd 
 with a view to concentrate the vitriolic acid, when 
 three drachms of a thicker kind of ether were found 
 fwimming on a weak fulphureous acid. This thick 
 liquid was not in the Icall volatile, and in confiftence 
 refembled an expreffed oil. 2. Twenty-four ounces 
 of fpirit of wine were now added to the refiduum of the 
 former diftillation, and the procefs recommenced. The 
 firft feven ounces that came over were poured to the 
 dulcified fpirit marked A. Next pafled over ten oun- 
 ces of a tolerably pure ether, which was mixed with the 
 contents of B ; befides two ounces that had a fulphu- 
 reous fmell, which were mixed with C. By a repeat- 
 ed dcphlegmatlon of what remained in the retort were 
 obtained five ounces of a weak fulphureous acid ; and 
 3 N 2 the 
 
468 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Ac/'land' ^^^'"g ^''t^ ounces of 
 
 Combina-^'^P'"'' wine, yielded firft fix ounces of the liquor 
 tions, marked A ; then four ounces of pure ether put into 
 y— »i that marked B ; and after that another ounce marked 
 C. By continuing the diiUlIation four ouaces of weak 
 fulphureous acid were obtained, on which floated a 
 little oil of wine. -5. The remainder, which was very 
 thick, and covered with a flight pellicle, was mixed 
 with 20 ounces of fpirit of wine, and yielded five oun- 
 ces of dulcified fpirit marked A ; efght ounces of pure 
 ether marked B ; and at lafl one ounce of the lame, 
 which had rather a fulphureous fmell. This was fol- 
 lowed by a few drops of acid ; but the remainder fro- 
 thed up with fuch violence, that an end was put to the 
 operation, in order to prevent its pafling over into the 
 receiver. 
 
 By thefe four diftillations there were obtained from 
 fix pounds of fpirit of wine and two of oil of vitriol, 
 28 ounces of dulcified fpirit of vitriol and 38 of ether; 
 which lafl;, when reftified by diftillation over mangancfe^ 
 yielded 28 ounces of the belt ether. At the end of 
 this diftillation were produced 13 ounces of weak ace- 
 tous acid ; and the Hquor of the laft running marked 
 C, a{Forded, by t edification, four ounces of good 
 ether. The fulphureous acid liquor yielded four oun- 
 ces of weak acetous acid, and tliree drachmsof naphtha 
 refembling a diftilled oil in confidence. 
 
 By thefe procefFes the vitriolic acid was rendered 
 quite thick and black ; its weight being reduced to 24 
 ounces. The blacknefs was found to be owing to a 
 powder which floated in the liquid, and could neither 
 be feparated by fubfiding to the bottom nor rifing ta 
 the top. The liquor was therefore diluted with eight 
 ounces of water, and filtered through powdered glafs ; 
 by which means the black fubfl;ance was colle^aed, 
 partly in powder, and partly in grains of different 
 fizes. It felt very foft between the fingers, and left a 
 flain upon paper like Indian ink ; but though waflied 
 with 24 ounces of water, fl:ill tafted acid. Half an 
 ounce of it diftilled in a retort yielded a drachm and 
 an half of weak acetous mixed with ahttlc fulphureous 
 acid ; the refiduum was a black coal, which by calci- 
 nation in an open fire for a quarter of an hour, yielded 
 25 grains of white alhes, confifting of felenite, calcare- 
 ous earth, and magnefia. A drachm of it digefted 
 with nitrous acid, which was afterwards diftilled from 
 it, and then diluted with diftilled water and filtered, 
 yielded a few cryftals, which appeared to be genuine 
 fait of tartar, an infoluble feknite being left behind. 
 On reftifying the vitriolic acid freed from the black 
 matter and diluted with eight ounces of water, nine 
 ounces of fulphureous acid were firft obtained, after 
 which followed an ounce of acid rather high-coloured, 
 and then the vitriolic acid qu-ite colourlefs. It now 
 weighed only i ounces, and its fpecific gravity was 
 but 1.723, while that of the acid originally empbyed 
 had been 1.989. 
 
 On repeating the procefs with fix pounds of fpirit 
 ©f wine to two of oil of vitriol, the firft \2 ounces 
 that came over were fpirit of wine almoft totally un-^ 
 changed ; then two ounces fmelling a little of ether ; 
 and afterwards two pounds, of which about one third 
 were ether. When about five pounds had been drawn 
 off, the diftilling liquor began to fmell fulphureous ; 
 and after nine ounces more had been drawn off, the 
 
 I S T R Y. Pradlce. 
 
 frothing up of the matter in the retort obliged him to Vitriolic 
 put an end to the operation. The acid was then ^'^'^ 
 filtered through pounded glafs as before, and after- j,-*™ 
 wards committed to diftillation. The three firft ^ f 
 
 ounces were a weak fulphureous acid ; then followed, 
 an ounce moi'e concentrated, and of a red colour ; 
 then another of a yellowifh' caft ; after which the reft 
 of the acid came over quite colourlefs.. The whole 
 weighed 27 ounces, and the fpecific gravity of it com- 
 pared with diililled water was as 1.667 to -ooo. 
 
 Ether is the lighteft of all known fluids, except Propertiet 
 air; and is fo volatile, that In Daaw its boiling point is "f ether, 
 20" below o' of Fahrenheit's thermometer. If a fmall 
 quantity is poured out on the ground, it inftantly eva- 
 porates, diftufing its fragrance all through the rooni, 
 and fcarce perceptibly moiftening the place on which 
 it fell. It difficultly mixes with water, as being of 
 an oily nature : ten parts of water, however, will take 
 up one part of ether. Its great volatility renders it 
 ferviceable in nervous difeafes, and removing pains, 
 when rubbed, on with the hand, and kept from evapo- 
 rating immediately. By fpontaneous evaporation, it 
 produces a great degree of cold. (See Evaporatiokt 
 and Congelation). The moft extraordinary pro- 
 perty, however, is, that if gold is din"olved in aqua- 
 regia (fee Metallic Sub/lances^ below), and ether add>r 
 ed to the folution, the gold wiil leave the acid and 
 perm.anently unite with the ether. The exceeding 
 great volatility of ether renders it very eafily inflam- 
 mable even on the approach of flame ; and therefore 
 it ought never to be dift;illed, or even poured from 
 one veflel to another, by candle-light. If a lefs quan- 
 tity of the vitriolic acid is added to the fpirit of wine 
 than what is fuiiicient to produce ether, the produft 
 is called fpiritus vitrioli dulcis. The following experi- 
 ment made by Wallerius, induced liim and others to 
 think, that the vitriolic acid was convertible into the 
 nitrous.. 
 
 " Some fait of tartar (fays he) being mixed with Experiment 
 tlie dulcified fpirit of vitriol, or perhaps with the in favour of 
 ether (for the author expreftes himfclf a little ambi- '^^^^ 
 guoufly), the full bottle flopt with a cork, tied over ^j^-^Jl'^^^^^^ 
 With bladder, and laid on its fide ; on ftanding for four to nitrous 
 months, the greateft part of the fpirit was found to acid, 
 have efcaped, and the fait was ftiot into hexangular 
 prifmatic cryftals refembling nitre. It tafted ftrongly 
 of the fpirit, but had no other particular cafte. Laid 
 on a burning coal, it crackled, exploded with a bright 
 flafli, and fl.ew into the air. He afterwards found, 
 that by adding to the fpirit a drop or two of any acid, 
 the fait eryftallizes the fooner ; that in this cafe it has 
 a fourifh taftc, but in other refpefts is the fame with 
 that made without acid. ' This falt-petre (fays the au- 
 thor) promifes, from the violence of its explofion, to 
 make the ftrongeft gun-powder in the' world, but a 
 very dear one. Though the experiment fliould not 
 be applicable to any ufe in this way, it will probably 
 contribute to iiluilrate the generation of nitre : as it 
 palpably fi^ows nitre, that is, the acid or charafterittic 
 part of nitre, produced from the vitriolic acid and 
 phlogifton." 
 
 We cannot here help again regretting that chemifts j^^^'^^'^^j^ 
 of fuperior abilities ftiould fornetimes leave, very import- f,ve. 
 ant difcoveries only half finifhed, fo that chemills of 
 an inferior rank know not what to make of them. Had 
 
 V/ alierius, 
 
Practice. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 469 
 
 Wallerlus, who feems more than once to have beeu in 
 poffeffion of this fah, only poured on it a few drops of 
 oil of vitriol, the peculiar colour and fmell of the fumes 
 muft have been a much more convincing proof of the 
 reality of the traiiimutation than that of mere defla- 
 gration } becaufe the latter can be otherwife accounted 
 for. 
 
 It is certain, that many fuftances, water Itfelf not 
 excepted, will explode with great violence if fuddenly 
 ap "I'cl'tio:- heated beyond what they are able to bear. If fpirit 
 of wine is confined in a clofe veffel, it will alfo by 
 means of heat burft it as elFectuall)' as water ; and as 
 the vapours of this fubilance are inflammable, the ex- 
 plofion will be attended with a flafh if any flame is 
 near. In like manner ether, on the approach of a 
 candle, takes fire, and goes off in a flafh like Hghtning; 
 but this happens, not from any thing nitrous, but from 
 its great volatility and inflammability. If therefore the 
 vapours of the ethereal liquor are confined, and heat 
 is apphed fuddenly to the containing veffel, their great 
 volatility will caufe them make an inftantaneous effort 
 againit the fides of it, which increafing with a fwift- 
 nefs far beyond that of aqueous or fpirituous vapours, 
 will make a much quicker as well as a much ftronger 
 explofion than either of them ; and if a flaming fub- 
 ftance is near, the explofion will be attended with a 
 bright flafh like that of the ether itfelf. 
 
 In the experiment now before us, the fait tailed 
 ftrongly of the fpirit, or ethei-, from which it was 
 made. The fpirit was therefore confined in the cry- 
 ftals of fait ; and his volatile liquor, which, even under 
 the preffure of the atmofphere, boils with the heat of 
 100'^ of Fahrenheit, was, in a confined ftate, fubjefted 
 to the heat of a burning coal ; that is, to more than 
 ten times the degree of heat neceffary to convert it 
 into vapour. The confequence of this could be no 
 other, than that the particles of fait, or perhaps the 
 air itfelf, not being capable of giving way foon enough 
 to the forcible expanfion of the ether, a violent ex- 
 plofion would happen, and the fait be thrown about; 
 which accordingly came to pafs, and might very reafon- 
 ably be expefted, without any thing nitrous contained 
 in the fait. 
 
 Mr Cavallo defcribes an eafy and expeditious method 
 of purifying ether, though a very expenfive one ; as 
 out of a pound of the common kind fcarce three or 
 four ounces will remain of that which is purified. The 
 method of purifying it,, he fays, was communicated 
 to him by Mr Winch chemift in London, and-is to be 
 performed in the following manner. '* Fill about a 
 quarter of a ftrong bottle with common ether, and 
 pour upon it twice as much water ; then ftop the 
 bottle and give it a (hake, fo as to mix the ether for 
 fome time with the water. This done, keep the 
 bottle for fome time without motion, and the mouth 
 of it downwards, till the ether be feparated from the 
 water, and fwims above it ; which it will do in three 
 or four minutes. Tlien opening the bottle with the 
 mouth ftill inverted, let the greatfeft part of.the water 
 run out very gently ; after this, turn the bottle with 
 the mouth upwards ; pour more water upon the ether, 
 /haking and feparating the water as before; Repeat 
 this operation three or four times ; after which the 
 ether will be exceedingly pure, and capable of diffol- 
 ving elaftic gum, though it could not do fo before.'' 
 
 Gavallo's 
 xneihovi of 
 purifying 
 ether. 
 
 As great part of the ether undoubtedly remains Ni'ti ous 
 
 mixed with the water after this procefs, our author p '^'f 
 
 . , , 11-1 1 Lombina- 
 
 remarks, that it might be worth while to put the wa- ^-^^^^ 
 
 ter into a retort and diftil the ether from it, v/hich _ — ^ 1 ■J 
 will come fufficiently pure for common ufe. He ob- 
 ferves alio, that " it is commonly believed that water 
 combines with the pureft part of the ether when the 
 two fluids are kept together; though the contrary 
 feems to be eftabhihed by this procefs. According 
 to Mr Waftrumb, we may obtain from the refiduum 
 of vitriolic ether a refin containing vitriolic acid, vine- 
 gar, Glauber's fait, felenite, calcareous earth, filex, 
 iron, and phofphoric acid. 
 
 §2. Of the Nitrous yield and its Coml'inaticns. 
 
 This acid is far from being fij plentiful as the vitriolic. 
 It has been thought to exift in the air ; and the expe- 
 riments of Mr Cavendifh have fliown, that it may be 
 artificially compofed, by taking the eltdtric fpark in 
 a mixture of dephlogitticated and phlogillicated air. 
 See Aerology, n° 77. ir 734 
 
 With regard to the preparation of nitre, Dr Black ob- Of the pr€» 
 ferves, that it is made in great plenty in the more fouth- P'-^' ^i^ioa ob- 
 ern parts of Europe ; likewifc in the fouthern parts of "''^'^'^* 
 Perfia, in China, the Eaft Indies, and in North Ame- 
 rica. We have had no accounts of the manner in 
 which it is prepared in the Eaft Indies, no perlon on the 
 fpot having taken particular notice of the manufafture. 
 The general account is, that it is obtained from the 
 foil of certain diftrifts which are called fcdtpelre grounds ; 
 where the foil is very cold, barren, and unhealthy^. 
 The fait is there ready formed by nature. It is 
 only neceffary to gather large quantities of the earth, 
 and to put it into a cavity through which a great 
 quantity of water is poured, which diffolves the nitre 5 - 
 and the lixivium runs into an adjacent pit, out of 
 which it is lifted in order to be evaporated and obtain- 
 ed is the form of cryftals. This account, however, 
 has been thought unfatisfaftory ; becaufe there is hard- 
 ly any pait of Europe in which it is found in this 
 manner. It is difcovered indeed in fome very large oifcovered i 
 dillriths in Poland, particularly in Podolia, where the in fome 
 country is flat and fertile, and had been once very po- ^^^j^^^^n 
 pulous,, but is now in a great meafure deferted. It is pqI^^^ . 
 there obtained from tumuli or hillocks, which are the 
 remains of former habitations ; but thefe are the only 
 places in which it is found in any confiderable quan- , 
 tity. In Spain, it is laid that the inhabitants ex- j^, Spain • 
 traft it from the foil after a crop of corn. It has been md Am««<- 
 foiind in America in hme-ltone grounds, in the floors iica» 
 of pigeon-houfes, tobacco-houfes, or the ruins of old 
 ftablcs, where a number of putrefying vegetables were 
 once collefted. In general, hovTever, it is extracted 
 from artificial compounds or accidental mixtures, where 
 animal and vegetable fubftances have been fuUy putre- 
 fied by being expofcd to the air with any fpongy or. 
 loofe earth, efpecially of the calcareous kind, and open 
 to the north or north-eaft wind, and more or lefs co- j^p^^-^^g^ , 
 vered from the heat or rains. This laft particular is for its for- - 
 abfolutely neceffary to its formation in any quantity ; niation. 
 for the heat, by evaporating the moifture too much, ^ 7*^, , 
 prevents it from being produced, and the rains walh it ^ .'j^jg^j^j^ ' 
 away after it is already made. Cramer, an author of ^^oii ^.dft 
 the greateft credit, informs us in his Docimai'tics, thatfoi making: 
 he made a. little hut expcfcd to the frelh air of the"'^''^' 
 
 country^ , 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 729 
 
 )'ovv pie- 
 y.a-ed in 
 Hanover. 
 
 73" 
 In other 
 parts 'if 
 Germany. 
 
 731 
 In France. 
 
 73^1 
 Dr B ack's 
 conclufions 
 concerning 
 the riatiire 
 of falt- 
 petie. 
 
 733 
 Snppofcd to 
 be the laft 
 rffctft of pu- 
 trcfadlion. 
 
 couatr)', wuh wliKlows to admit the winda. In this 
 he put a mixture of garden mold, the rubbifli of lime, 
 and putrid animal and vegetable fubilances. This he 
 frequently moifteued with urise ; and in a month or 
 two found his compofition very rich in nitre, yielding 
 at leall one-eighth p:irt of its weight. 
 
 It is manutadlurcd in Phiropc bv n'.aking artificial 
 compounds v»ith lefs trouble. In Hanover it is got 
 by collcci:Ing the rakings of the Ptreets; which arc built 
 up into mud-walls that are allowed to remain a certain 
 time, when the furface is found covered with a wli'te 
 falinc efflorefcence. A perfon is employed to fcrape 
 this off ; and putting it into a vcfTel, it is wafhed with 
 water to dilTolve the nitre, and the remaining earthy 
 matter is again plaftered on the mud-walls, and frelh 
 matter brought from the ftreets to renew them occa- 
 fionally : and by this fimple method a confiderable 
 quantity is obtained. In Germany the peafants are 
 directed by law to build mud-walls of this kind with 
 the dung and urine of animals, and fome Itraw. After 
 they have Hood for fome time, and the vegetable and 
 animal fubftances are rotten, they aflbrd a confiderable 
 quantity of nitre. In France it is obtained from ac- 
 cidental colleftions of this kind ; as where loofe earth 
 has been long expofed to the contaft of animal fub- 
 Itances, as the ruins of old ftables, pigeon-houfes, &c. 
 Sometimes from the mould upon the ground where 
 dunghills have been lying. A particular fet of people 
 go about in fearch of thefe materials ; and when, by 
 making a fmall effay, they find that they will turn to 
 account, they put the materials into a large tub with 
 a perforated bottom, and another which is water-proof 
 put below it. Some ftraw is interpofed betwixt the 
 two ; and on pouring water upon the materials, it 
 foaks through them, undergoes a kind of filtratioo in 
 pafiing through the ftraw, and is then drawn off by a 
 cock placed in the under-tub, and boiled to a proper 
 confidence for cryftallization. The cryftals are at firil 
 brown and very impure, but by repeated diffolutlon 
 and cryllallization become pure and white. 
 
 From thefe particulars relating to the hlftory of falt- 
 petre, Dr Black concludes, that It is not properly a 
 fofiil, being produced at the furface of the ground. 
 Margraaf difcovercd a fmall quantity of it in the ana- 
 lyfis of fome of the waters about Berlin, and others have 
 found it In the wells about fome great cities : but no 
 true nitre has ever been found In fprings ; fo that this 
 nitrous fait may be fuppofed to have derived its origin 
 from the quantity of putrid matters with which all 
 cities abound. All rich and fertile foils are found to 
 contain It ; and in the hot countries, where the pro- 
 dufts of nature are numerous, and puti-efaftion carried 
 on vtry fad, they a)f often very rich In nitre. This 
 may happen in fome places from the conflux of wa- 
 ters ; which remaining for fome time on the furface, 
 and afterwards exhaling, left the fallne pailicles be- 
 hind. 
 
 On the whole, Dr Black concludes, that neither 
 nitre nor Its acid does exift in the air, becaufe it 
 might eafly be dttefted there ; though many have 
 embraced this opinion from Its being ufually found at 
 the furface. of the ground. He Is of opinion, that It 
 is the efFedl of the laft llage of putrcfaifion of animal 
 and vegetable fubftances ; and it is Ecver to be found 
 except where thefe or their eiBu via are prefcnt, and 
 
 Pradlce. 
 
 It has -been a Ni'rous 
 
 never till the putrefadion is complete, 
 matter of difpute, whether it exifted in thofe matters A^'^'^^"'^ 'ts 
 before the procefs of putrefaftlon, or was produced by 
 it. Bat it is pretty certain, fays the Doftor, that ^ , / 
 it originated In them; for the fun-flower, tobacco, and 
 ether plants, are found to contain it before putrefac- 
 tion : and fome have even afferted, that plants placed 
 in the earth, deprived of all its faline fuljftances, will 
 yield it. The compofitlons recommended by Cramer 
 are the fitteft for producing a complete degree of pu- 
 trefadioa, provided they contain a moderate degree 
 of humidity, and that the quantity expofed to the air 
 be defended from too great a heat by the fun, which 
 would dry up its moifture ; and llkevvife from too great 
 a degree of cold, which llkewlfe checks fermentation. 
 The importance of the calcareous earth in fuch a com- 
 pofition would likewlfc favour the conclufions juft now 
 drawn ; for the moft remarkable effed: of this earth is 
 to promote and pcrfeft the putrefafllon of thefe fub- 
 ftances. It would feem, therefore, that the true fe- 
 cret of the produ6tIon of nitre is to mix properly to- 
 gether animal and vegetable fubftances with earth, 
 particularly of the calcareous kind ; expofing them to 
 the air wath a moderate degree of humidity, fufficient 
 to promote their putrefaftion In the moft eftedlual 
 manner ; and when the putrefaftlon is carried to the 
 utmoft height, we may then expert that nitre will be 
 produced. -^^^ 
 The diftlnguifhlng charaderiftic of the nitrous acid Dlftin- 
 is its great difpofition to unite with the phlogifton ; 
 and, when fo united, firft to become exceedingly vo-^.tfj^^of the 
 latile, and at laft to be diffipated in a very white bright nkroas acid, 
 flame : this is called its dttonat'ion ox deflagration. In 
 the ftrongeft ftate in which this acid Is procurable In a 
 liquid form. It is of a reddilh yellow colour, and con- 
 tinually exhales in denfe, red, and very noxious fumes; 
 and in this ftate Is called fmoklng, or, from its inventor, 
 Glauber's, fplrit of nitre. 
 
 I. To extraft the Nitrous Acid by means of the 
 Vitriolic. 
 
 Into a glafs retort put two pounds of good fait- Spint^of 
 petre, and pour upon it J 8 ounces of concentrated oilintrc. 
 of vitriol; fet the retort in a fand heat, and lute on 
 a large receiver with the com.pofitlon already recom- 
 mended, for refiiting acid fumes; the mixture will grow 
 very warm, and the retort and receiver will be filled 
 with red vapours. A finall fire is then to be kindled, 
 and cutloully raifed till no more drops will fall from 
 the nofe of the retort. What comes over will be a 
 very ftrong and fmoking fpirit of nitre. . , 
 
 In this procefft, the nitrous acid Is generally mixed Redtilica- 
 with part of the vitrlohc which comes over along with tioa. 
 it, and from which it muft be freed If defigned for 
 aloe purpofes. This is moft efi'eftually done by dlf- 
 fulviiig in it a fmall quantity of nitre, and rediftilling 
 the mixture. The vitriolic acid which came over in 
 the firft diftillatlon is kept back by the nitre in the fe- 
 cond, combining with its alkaline bafis, and expelling 
 a proportionable quantity of the nitrous acid. 
 
 We have here direfted the pure vitriolic acid to be Dift-Jreiit 
 ufed, in order to expel the nitrous one ; but for this methous of 
 purpofe any combination of the vitriolic acid with a ^^■^'^'^^"'S* 
 metallic or earthy bafis may be ufed, though not with 
 equal advantage. If calcined vitriol is made ufe of, 
 
 a4 
 
Pra£llcei 
 
 Nitrous as much phloglflon is communicated by the calx of 
 Acid and i s Iron contained in that fait as makes the nitrous acid 
 Gombina- exceedingly volatile, fo that great part of it is lofl. 
 
 If calcined alrim, or felenite, is made ufe of, the vitrio- 
 lic acid in thefe fubftances immediately leaves the 
 earth' with which It was combined, in order to unite 
 with the alkaline bafis of the nitre, _ and expels its 
 acid : but the moment the nitrous acid is expelled from 
 the alkali, it combines with the earth which the vitrio- 
 lic acid had left ; from which it cannot be driven 
 without a violent fire ; and part of it remains obfli- 
 nately fixed, fo as not to be expelled by any degree 
 of heat. Hence the produce of fpirit, when nitre is 
 diftilled with fuch fubltances, always turns out confi- 
 derably lefs than when the pure vitriolic acid is ufed. 
 Alum is preferable to felenite, for the purpofes of 
 diftilling fpirit of nitre ; becaufe the acid does not ad- 
 here fo ftrongly to argillaceous as to calcareous earth. 
 
 According to Weigleb, the nitrous acid may be ex- 
 pelled not only by clay, gypfum, and other fubftances 
 containing the vitriolic acid, buL even by various kinds 
 of vitrifiable earth. Clean pebbles, quartz in the form of 
 fand, pieces of broken china and Hone ware, powdered 
 glafs, Iffc. mixed with nitre in the proportion of fix to 
 one, always expel the acid, though imperfeftly. In' 
 France the acid is always extrafted by means of clay. ' 
 
 The reafon of thefe decompofitions is, that the al- 
 kaline bafis of the nitre attrafts the filiceous earth, 
 whofe fixednefs in a vehement fire gives it an advan- 
 tage over the volatile nitrous acid, in the fame manner 
 that the weak acid of phofphorus or arfenic will alfo 
 expel it by Veafon of their fixednefs in the fire. 
 
 Even fpirit of fait, according to MargraafT's experi- 
 ments, may be ufed for dilliUing the Ipirit of nitre. 
 That celebrated chemift informs us, that on diftilling 
 nitce with eight or nine times its quantity of ftiong 
 marine acid, a fpirit comes over which confifts chiefly 
 of the nitrous acid, but has alfo fome portion of that 
 of fea-falt. The reafon of this is fhown in Mr Kir- 
 wan's experiments on chemical attradions*. In the 
 piefent caie, however, the decompofition may be faci- 
 litated by the ftrong attraction of the nitrons acid for 
 phlogifton ; for it is well known, that on mixing the 
 nitrous and marine acids together, the latter is always 
 dephlogifticated. It leems therefore that in this cafe 
 a double decompofition takes place, the nitrous acid 
 uniting itfelf to the phlogifton of the marine, and the 
 latter attaching itfelf to the alkali of the nitre. 
 
 Spirit of nitre is very ufeful in the arts of dyeing and 
 refining, where it is known by the name of aqua for- 
 th ; and therefore an eafy and cheap method of pro- 
 curing it is a valuable piece of knowledge. Many 
 difFicuIties, however, occur in this procefs, as well as 
 that for the vitriolic acid. Oil of vitriol, indeed, al- 
 ways expels the nitrous acid with certainty ; and on 
 diftilling the mixture, a fpirit of nitre arifes : but if a 
 glafs retort is ufed for the pnrpofe of diftilling this a- 
 cid, the quantity of refiduum left in diftillation is fo 
 great, and fo infoluble in water, being no other than 
 vitriolated tartar, that the retort muft always be broken 
 in order to get it out ; and the produce of fpirit vs'iil 
 fcarce afford the breaking a retort. If earthen re- 
 torts are made ufe of, they mult certainly be of that 
 kind called iloae-ware, and the price of them will be 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 • Pee 
 
 73^ 
 Ulcs. 
 
 47^ 
 
 very little If at all inferior to that of glafs. Iron pots Nitrous ^ 
 are laid to be made ufe of in the diftillation of common Q^jj^ij^'^'^j^' 
 aquafortis in large quantities ; but they have the great ^ions. 
 inconvenience of making a quantity of the acid fo vo- u-— y— 
 latlle, that it not only will not condenfe, but fpteads its 
 fuffocating vapours all around in fuch a manner as to 
 prove very dangerous to thofe who are near it. If an 
 iron vefTcl, therefore, is thought of for the purpofe of 
 diftilling aquafortis, it will be proper at leaft. to at- 
 tempt luting over the infide with a mixture of gyp- 
 feoud earth and fimd, to prevent as much as pofiible 
 the acid from attacking the metal. 
 
 Dephlogifticated fpirit of nitre is obtained by diftil- 
 ling the fmoking kind with a gentle heat, until what 
 remains is as colourlefs as water. It is diftinguinied 
 by emitting white and not red fumcs like the other 
 kind, when fet in a warm place. It muft be kept- 
 conftantly In the dark, otherwife it will again become 
 phlogifticated, and emit red vapours by the aflion of 
 the light ; the fame thing will alfo take place if it be 
 heated with too violent a fire. 
 
 II. To procure the Nitrous Acid by means of Arfinic. 
 
 739 
 
 Pulverife equal quantities of dried nitre and white Blue aijua. 
 cryttalline arfenic ; mix them well together, and diftil fortis. 
 in a glafs- retort with a fire very cautioufly applied ; 
 for the arfenic adls on the nitre with fuch a violence, 
 and the fumes are here fo volatile, that unlefs great 
 care is taken, a moft dangerous explofion will almoll 
 certainly happen. As, in this cafe, the nitrous fumes 
 arife in a perfeAly dry ftate, fome water muft be put 
 into the receiver, with which thty may unite and con-, 
 denfe. The aquafortis fo produced will have a blue 
 colour, owing to the inflammable principle feparated 
 from the arfenic, by which its extreme volatility is 
 likewife occafioned. If this blue aquafortis is expo- 
 fed to the air, its colour foon flies oif. If inftcad of 
 the white arfenic we employ the pure arfenic acid, the 
 diftilled liquor will have no blue colour. 
 
 Nitrous Acid combined; 
 
 I. With Vegetable Jixed Mali. This fait, combined ^^,^^^0 
 with the nitrous acid to the point of faturation, regene- ^ P^'-s» 
 rates nitre. It is obfervable, however, according to 
 Neumann, that there is always fome diffimilarity be- 
 tween the original and regenerated nitre, unlets quick- 
 lime is added. The regenerated fait, he lays, always 
 corrodes tin, which the original nitre docs not; owing 
 probably to a (juantity of pldogifticated acid remaining 
 
 in it. Boihng with quicklime deprives it of this quality, 
 and makes it exaftly the fame with original nitre. 
 
 II. W'uh FoJiU alkali. The neutral fait arifing from q^i^-'^.'^j^j^j.^^ 
 a combination of the nitrous acid and follile alkali is 
 fomewhat different from common nitre; being moie 
 difficult to cryftallize, inclining to deliquate in the air, 
 
 and fliooting into cryllals of a cubical form, whence 
 it gets the name of cubic nitre. Its qualities are found 
 fomewhat inferior to the common nitre ; and therefore 
 it is never made, unlcfs by accident, or for experi- 
 ments. 
 
 Nitre is one of the moft fufible falts. It is liqnefied Fufibiifp-. 
 in a heal much lefs than what is neceffary to make it 
 red ; and thus remain in tranquil fufion, without fwel- 
 liug. If nicre thus melted be lefc to cool and fix, 
 
 whe. - 
 
: tions. 
 
 1A3 
 Ufes. 
 
 472 G H E M I 
 
 ^kroua whether It has been made red-hot or not in the fufion, 
 Combina- coagulates mto a white, femi-tranfparent, fohd mafs, 
 called mineral cryjlal, having all the properties of nitre 
 itfelf. By this fufion, Mr Beaume obfcrves that nitre 
 lofes ve«y little, if any, of the water contained in its 
 cryftals, fince the weight of mineral cry Hal is nearly 
 the fame with that of the nitie employed. 
 
 When nitre is kept in fufion with a moderate heat, 
 and at thefame time does not touch anyinflammable mat- 
 ter, nor even flame, it remains in that Itate without 
 fufiering any very fenfible alteration ; but if it is long 
 kept in fufion with a flirong Fire, part of the acid is de- 
 llroyed by the phlogifton which penetrates the crucible; 
 and hence the nitre becomes more and more alka- 
 line. 
 
 Nitre is of very extenfive ufe in different arts ; be- 
 ing the principal ingredient in gun-powder ; and fer- 
 ving as an excellent flux to other matters ; whence its 
 ufe in glafs making. (See Glass.) It is alfo poffef- 
 fed of a confiderable antlfeptic power ; whence its ufe 
 in preferving meat, to which it communicates a red 
 colour. In medicine, nitre is ufed as a diuretic, feda- 
 tive, and cooler ; but very often fits uneafy on the fl;o- 
 mach. The refemblance of the cryftals of nitre to 
 thofe of Glauber's fait has fometimes been the occa- 
 fion of dangerous miftakes. Dr Alexander mentions 
 a fwelling over the wholi- body of a woman, occafioncd 
 by her taking a folution of nitre inftead of Glauber's 
 fait. Two mift-akes of the fame kind we have alfo 
 known. In one an ounce, and in the other upwards 
 of two onnces, of nitre vrere fwallowed. The fymp- 
 toms occafioned were unlverfal coldnefs and fhivering, 
 extreme debihty and ficknefs at fl:omach, cold fweats, 
 and faintings. Neither of the cafes proved m.ortaL 
 The cure was eflPedled by cordials and corroborants. 
 
 A.procefs has obtained a place in the difpenfatories 
 for a fuppofed purification of nitre by means of flower 
 of brimftone. A pound of falt-petre is to be melted 
 in a crucible, or fmall iron veflel ; and an ounce of 
 flowers of fulphur thrown upon it, by fmall quantities 
 at a time : a violent deflagration enfues on each addi- 
 tion ; and after the whole is put in, the fait is poured 
 out in moulds, and then called fal prunella. It has 
 been difputed whether the nitre was at all depurated 
 by-this procefs ; Dr Lewis thinks it is not. From 
 our own experience, however, we can affirm, that by 
 this means a fediment falls to the bottom, which car- 
 ries with it any impurities that may have been in the 
 nitre, and leaves the fluid fait clear and tranfparent as 
 water. This precipitate i^i probably no other than a 
 vitriolated tartar formed by the union of the fulphu- 
 reous acid and alkali of the nitre, which being lels fu- 
 fible than the nitre, fubfides in a folid form and clari- 
 fies it. 
 
 III. With ^oZ3/iZ?./^/ia//. The nitrous acidfeems pecu- 
 liarly adapted to an union with volatile alkali ; fatura- 
 ting as much, or rather more of it than the fl:rongeft vi* 
 triolic acid is capable of doing. The produ£l is a very 
 beautiful fait, called 'volatile nitrey or mtrous fal ammo- 
 niac. It very readily difiblves, not only in water, but 
 in fpirit of wine, which difl:inguifties it from the vitrio- 
 lic and common kind of fal ammoniac. It alfo requires 
 lefs heat for its fublimation : indeed care miufl; be ta- 
 ken not to apply too great a heat for this purpofe, as 
 
 TRY. 
 
 Pradlce* 
 
 the nitrous fal ammoniac has the property of dcfla^ Nitrous 
 grating by itfelf without any addition of inflammable 
 
 744 
 Sal pruneL 
 ia. 
 
 . 745 
 Nitrous am 
 moniac. 
 
 matter ; and this it does more or lefs readily, as the J^"" 
 volatile alkali with which it was made was more or 
 lefs impure and oily. 
 
 The medical virtues of this kind of nitre have not D'- Ward's 
 been inquired inta. It feems to have made the prln- '"^'^^ 
 cipal ingredient in the famous Dr Ward's white drop, 
 M'hich was celebrated as an antifcorbutic ; with what 
 juftice, thofe who have tried it mufl: determine. 
 
 ^ IV. With Calcareous Earths. Thefe the nitrous acid Cakareou* 
 diflblves into a tranfparent colourlefs liquor; but for this ""^c. 
 purpofe it mult beveiy much diluted, or the folution will 
 have a gelatinous coHfillence. This compound is not ap- 
 plicable to any ufeful purpofe. It has a very acrid 
 tafte;^ and, if infpiffated, attracts moifture from the air. 
 If it is totally dried, it then refembles an earthy mat- 
 ter, which deflagrates very weakly. By diiHllation 
 in a retort, almoll all the acid may be expelled, and 
 what Httle remains flies off" in an open fire. 
 
 _Mr Pott, who has particularly examined the com- Nitrous acid 
 bination of nitrous acid with quicklime, fays that the <^econipo- 
 acid fuffered remarkable aherations by diftillation from 
 quicklime, and repeated cohobations upon it. By 
 thefe experiments he obtained a fah more fenfibly 
 fcfceptible of cryfl.aUi2ation and detonation, than what 
 can be obtained by a fingle combination. From his 
 experiments it would feem, that nitrous acid, by this 
 treatment with quickhme, was capable of being en- 
 tirely decompofed. 
 
 If a folution of chalk in the nitrous acid be evapo- 
 rated to drynefs, and then gently calcined, it acquires 
 the property of fliining in the dark, after having been 
 expofed to the fun's rays, or even to the light of a 
 candle.^ ^ This fubfl:ance, from its inventor, ts called pho?ho» 
 Baldnnn's phofphorus ; or, from its being neceflTary to rus. ^ 
 keep it in a glafs hermetically fealed, phofphorus her- 
 meticus, (See Earths). 
 
 V. With Jrgillaecous Earths and Magnefia. All that i$ 
 known concerning the combinations of nitrous acid 
 with thefe earths is, that the firlt produce allringent, 
 and the fecond purgative, compounds, fimilar to alum 
 and Epfom fait, and which are not fufccptible of cry- 
 ftallization. 
 
 ^ VI. With Gold. — Till very lately, it has been the opi- 
 nion of chemiflis, that the nitrous acid fey itfelf was inca- 
 pable of adling upon this metal.— Dr Brandt, how- 
 ever, produced before the Swedifli academy of fcien- 
 ces, a folution of gold in the nitrous acid, obtained 
 in parting, by that acid, a mixture of gold and filver. 
 — The mixed metal was boiled with aquafortis in a 
 glafs body fitted with a head and receiver, the hquor 
 poured oiF, and the Co6tion repeated with frefli parcels 
 of ftronger and fl:ronger nitrous fpirits, till all the fil- 
 ver was judged to be extraded. The laft parcel was 
 boiled down till the matter at the bottom looked like 
 a dry fait ; on boihng this in frefh aquafortis in dole 
 veffels, as before, a part of the gold was diflblved, 
 and the liquor tinged yellow. But though gold is by 
 this means truly foluble in the nitrous acid, the union 
 is extremely flight ; the gold being not only precipi- 
 tated on the addition of filver, but likew ife Jpontane- 
 oufly on expofure to the air.— Dr Lewis very juftly 
 obfcrves, that this folution may liave been often .made 
 
 .unknown 
 
 150 
 Gold. 
 
I'raclice. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 751 
 
 Silver. 
 
 75 a 
 Lunar cau- 
 ftic. 
 
 753 
 Colours 
 produced 
 Ly folution 
 wl filver. 
 
 unknown to the cliemifls who did fo ; and probably 
 occafioned the miftakes which fome have fallen into, 
 who thought that they were in pofleffion of aquafor- 
 tis capable of tranfmuting filver into gold. Notwith- 
 ftanding thefe authorities, Mi- Kirwan is of opinion 
 that the nitrous acid is in no cafe able to difiolve 
 gold ; the metal being only intimately mixed or dif- 
 fufed through it. 
 
 II. With Siher. — Pui-e fpirit of nitre will dilTolve its 
 own weight of filver ; and Hioots with it into fine white 
 cryftals of a triangular form, confifting of very thin 
 plates joined clofely one upon another. Thefe cryfhals 
 are fomewhat deliquefcent ; of an extremely bitter, 
 pungent, and naufeous tafte; and, if taken internally, 
 are highly coirofive and poifonous. They rnelt in a 
 fmall heat, and form, on cooling, a dark-coloured mafs 
 ilill more corrofive, called lunar cauftic or lapis itifer- 
 na/is. They readily difiolve in water ; and, by the 
 afQftance of warmth, in fpirit of wine. In the yida 
 Natures Ciirioforim, tom.vi. there is a remarkable hi- 
 llory of filver being volatilized by its combination with 
 the nitrous acid. Four ounces of filver being dif- 
 folved in aquafortis, and the folution fet to diilll in 
 an earthen retort, a white tranfparent butter arofe in- 
 to the neck, and nothing remaining behind ; by de- 
 grees the butter liquefied, and pafl'ed down into the 
 phlegm in the receiver. The whole being now pour- 
 ed back into the retort, the filver arofe agftn along 
 with the acid. The volatilization being attributed to 
 the liquor having ftood in a laboratory where charcoal 
 was bringing in, the experiment was repeated with a 
 frefli folution of filver, and a little powdered charcoal, 
 with the fame event. 
 
 Solution of filver in the nitrous acid ilaii^s hair, 
 bones, and other folid parts of animals, and different 
 kinds of wood, of all the intermediate fhades from a 
 light brown to a deep and lafting black. The liquors 
 commonly fold for fl;aining hair brown or black, are 
 no other than folutions of filver in aquafortis, fo far 
 diluted in water as not fenfibly to corrode the hair. 
 
 It gives a permanent ftain likewife to fundry ftones ; 
 not only to thofe of the fofter kind, as marble, but to 
 fome of confiderable hardnefs, as agates and jafpers. 
 The folution for this purpofe fliould be fully faturated 
 with the metal ; and the ftone, after the liquor has 
 been applied, expofed for fome time to the fun. M. 
 du Fay obferves (In a paper on this fubjedl in the 
 French memoirs for 172S), that if the folution be 
 repeatedly applied, it will penetrate in the whitifh 
 agate, or chalcedony'', about one-twelfth of an inch : 
 that the tinfture does not prove uniform, on account 
 of the -veins in the ftoite : that the colours, thus com- 
 municated by art, are readily dillinguifhablc from the 
 natural, by difappearing on laying the ftone for a 
 right in aquafortis: that, on expofing it to the fun 
 afterwards for fome days, the colour returns : that 
 the folution gave fomewhat different tinftures to dif- 
 ferent ftones ; to oriental agate, a deeper black than 
 to the common chalcedony ; to an agate fpotted with 
 yellow, a pui-ple ; to the jade ftone, a pale brownifh ; 
 to the common emerald, an opaque black; to common 
 granite, a violet unequally deep ; to ferpentine ftone, 
 an olive ; to marble, a reddlfn, which changed to pur- 
 ple, and fixed in a brown : that on flates, talcs, and 
 .^mlanthus, it had no e£Fe6t. 
 V-OL. IV. Part IL 
 
 S T R Y. 473 
 
 If a folution of filver be diluted with pure water, aNitrous 
 confiderable quantity of pure mercury added, and the ^^'^'^ 
 whole fet by in a cold place ; there will form by de- nations^ 
 grees a precipitation and cryftalllzation refembhng a l— 
 little tree, with its root, trunk, and branches, called 754 
 arbor Diana: or the philojophic fdvsr tree. Another kind Arbor Dia- 
 of artificial vegetation may be produced by fpreadlag 
 a few drops of folution of filver upon a glafs plate, 
 and placing in the middle a fm.all bit of any of the 
 metals that precipitate filver, particularly iron. The 
 filver quickly concretes into curious Ramifications all 
 over the plate. 
 
 Like other metalKc folutions, this combination of Solution of 
 the nitrous acid with filver is decompofed by fixed and filler de- 
 volatile alkalies, calcareous earths, and feveral metals, <^'^'"^r°^^'i' 
 (fee the Table of Affinities) ; but v/ith feveral pecu- 
 liar circumftances attending the precipitation. With 
 metals, the filver is readily and copioufiy thrown down 
 at firft, but flowly and difficultly towards the end. 
 The menftruum generally retains fome portion of the 
 filver, as the filver almoft always does of the metal 
 which precipitated it. For recovering the filver from 
 aquafortis after parting, the refiners em.ploy'copper. ' 
 The folution, diluted with water, is put into a cop- 
 per veflel, or into a glafs one with thin plates of cop- 
 per, and fet in a gentle warmth. The filver begins 
 immediately to feparate from the liquor in form of fine 
 grey fcales, or powder ; a part of the copper being 
 diflblved in its place, fo as to tinge the fluid more or 
 lefs of a blulfti green colour. The plates are now and 
 then ftiaken, that fuch part of the filver as is depo- 
 fited upon them may fall off", and fettle to the bottom. 
 The digeftion is continued till a frefti bi-ight plate, 
 kept for fome time in the warm liquor, is no longer 
 obferved to contrafl any powdery matter on the fur- 
 face ; when the liquor is poured off, and the preci- 
 pitate waftied with frefli parcels of boihng water. It 
 is obfervable, that though the acid in this procefs fa- 
 turates Itfelf with the copper, in proportion as it lets 
 go ,the filver, yet the quantity of copper which it takes 
 up Is not near fo great as that of filver which it de- 
 pofits. One drachm of copper will precipitate three 
 of filver, and faturate all the acid that held the three 
 drachms diffolved. ^ 
 
 Calcareous earths, as chalk or quicklime, throw Charaders 
 down a part of the filver, but leave a very confide- curioufly 
 rable part fufpended In the liquor. If the earth be ' •^'"l^-ed on 
 moiftened with the folution into the confiftence of a '^^ 
 pafte, and expofed to the fun. It changes Its white by means 
 colour to a dark purplifti black ; diftinft charafters of rhe fun's 
 may be exhibited on the matter, by intercepting a''^'^'^' 
 part of the fun's light by threads, flit paper, ijfc. placed 
 on the outfide of the glafs. Culinary fire does not af- 
 feft Its colour : after the mafs has been exficcated by 
 this, it changes as before, on expofure to the fun. 
 
 Mild volatile alkaline fpirlts, added to a folution of 
 filver, precipitate but little, and cauftic volatile alka- 
 lies none. Pure fixed alkalies, and alkalies rendered 
 cauftic by quicklime, thiow down the whole. Fixed al- 
 kahes Impregnated with inflammable matter by calci- 
 nation with animal coals, occafion at firfl a confide 
 rable precipitation ; but if added to a larger quantity, 
 take up great part of the metal again. Mr Mar- 
 graaff relates, that edulcorated calces of filver totally 
 dilToLve, both in a lixivium of thefe alkahes and in vo- 
 3 O latile 
 
474 
 
 Nitrous 
 Acid and 
 its Combi- 
 nations. 
 
 757 
 Copper. 
 
 75S 
 Verditer. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 latfle fpirits ; and that the marine acid precipitates the 
 filver from the volatile, but not from the fixed, alka- 
 line folution. Kunckel reports, that the calx precipi- 
 tated by volatile fpirits made with quicklime, fulmi- 
 nates or explodes in the fire; and that by infpifiating 
 a folution of pure filver, melting the dry refiduuin, 
 pouring it on fpirit of urine fuperfaturated with fait, 
 and fetting the mixture in a gentle warmth, a blood- 
 red mafs is produced, fo tough as to admit of being 
 wound about the fingers. 
 
 III. With Cqfper. The nitrous acid very readily dif- 
 folves this metal into a green-coloured and very cauilic li- 
 quor. The folution, if properly evaporated, will cry- 
 flallizc ; but the cryftals are deliquefcent, and there- 
 fore difficult to be preferved. The cnly ufe of this 
 combination is for the preparation of the pigment cal- 
 led verditer. Of this there are two kinds, the blue and 
 green. The blue is by far the brighteft colour, and 
 confequently the moft valuable. It has been faid that 
 this is obtained by precipitating a folution of copper 
 by any calcareous earth ; and therefore is fold by the 
 refiners, who have large quantities of folution of cop- 
 per accidentally made. The folution is faid to be pre- 
 cipitated by chalk, or whiting ; and that the precipitate 
 is the beautiful blue colour called verditer. By this 
 method, however, only the green kind can be obtain- 
 ed. The blue we have found to be ©f a quite different 
 nature, and formed by precipitation with a gentle heat 
 from a folution of copper in volatile alkali. See the 
 article CotouR-MAKiNG. 
 
 IV. With Iron. On this metal the concentrated nitrous 
 acid afts very violently, and plentifully corrodes, but 
 does not diflblve it; the calx faUing almoft as faft as 
 difiblved ; and when it is once let fall, frefh acid will 
 not take it up again. If the acid was diluted at firft, 
 it takes up a confiderable proportion, provided the 
 metal be leifurely added. If the folution is perform- 
 ed with extreme flownefs, the colour will be green ; 
 but if otherwife, of a dark red. It does not cryftal- 
 lize ; and, if infpiflated to drynefs, deliquates in the 
 aij"- 
 
 V. With Tin. Concentrated nitrous acid afts upon tm 
 with great force, but only corrodes the metal into a 
 white indilToluble mafs. In order to obtain a perfeft 
 folution of tin in the nirous acid, the metal muft be put 
 in by very little at a time, and a diluted aquafortis 
 made ufe of. This folution has been confiderably ufed 
 in dyeing, and is remarkable for heightening red co- 
 lours of all kinds ; but the folution made with aqua- 
 regis is preferable. 
 
 VI. With Lead. Proof aquafortis, lowered with an e- 
 qual quantity of water, diffolves about half its weight of 
 lead. On diluting the folution with a large quantity 
 of water, it turns milky, and depofites great part of 
 the metal. The folution ftioots, upon exhaling part of 
 the menftruum, into fmall pyramidal cryftals with fquare 
 bafes, of an auftere fweet tafte. 
 
 In the memoirs of the French academy for 1733, 
 fuppofed ro ^j^^^.^ jg ^ particular account of an experiment, in which 
 from'lead!'' mercury is faid to have been extraded from lead by 
 diflblving it in the nitrous acid. During the diffolu- 
 tion, there fell a precipitate, which is plainly proved 
 to be mercury, and was looked upon to be one of the 
 canftituent parts of the lead feparated by this fimple 
 procefs : it feems probable^ however, that the mercury 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Pradice. 
 
 ?6o 
 Tin. 
 
 761 
 Lead, 
 
 764 
 CJuickfilver 
 
 in this cafe had been contained in the aquafortis ; ^o"" Nitrous^ 
 pure lead diffolved in pure aquafortis gives no fuch pre- 
 cipitate. ^ nations. 
 
 The cryftals of lead in the nitrous acid, when J 
 
 thrown into the fire, do not deflagrate as other com- 
 binations of this acid with metallic or faline bafes ; 
 but crackle violently, and fly around, with great dan- 
 ger to the by-ftanders. If they arc rubbed into very 
 fine powder, they may then be melted without any 
 danger. By repeated diflblutions in frefh aquafortis, 
 they at laft form a thick fluid like oil, which cannot 
 be dried without great difficulty. This compofition Is not 
 adapted to any particular ufe, and is a violent poifon. 76.? 
 
 VII. With ^ickfiher. Aquafortis, of fuch a degree Qiiickfil- 
 of ftrength as to take up half its weight of filver, dif-^'^''* 
 folves with eafe above equal its weight of mercury in- 
 to a limpid Hquor, inteniely corrofive and poifonous, 
 which fpontant-oufly ftioots into white cryftals. Thefe 
 cryftals, or the folution exficcated, and moderately 
 calcined, afl'unie a fparkling red colour ; and are ufed 
 
 in medicine as an efcharotic, under the name of ^^^Rg/'^rec'- 
 precipitate. The precipitate has fometimes been gi- piute.'^'^'^^" 
 ven internally, it is faid, in very large quantities ; 
 even a whole drachm at one dofe. But this would 
 feeni incredible ; and the prefent praftice does not 
 countenance the taking of red precipitate inwardly. 
 This folution feems to have been what gave the efficacy 
 to Ward's white drop. 
 
 When red precipitate is prepared in quantit)', It Is 
 proper to diftil the mercurial folution ; becaufe moft; 
 of the aquafortis may then be faved. It is exceeding- 
 ly pure, if by purity we mean its being free of any ad- 
 mixture of vitriolic ©r marine acid; but is confiderably 
 tainted with the inflammable principle of the mercury 
 extricated during the diffolution. In confequence of 
 this, it is very volatile and fmoking ; which has gene- 
 rally, though improperly, been taken as a fign of ftrength 
 in the nitrous acid. , 
 
 VIII. WithBifmuth. This femimetal is vei7 readily afted gifmufh, 
 upon by the nitnius acid. Proof aquafortis diffolves 
 about half Its weight of bifmuth. If the metal was ha- 
 
 ftily added, the folution proves of a greenifli colour; 
 if otherwife, It is colourlefs and tranfparent. Unlefs 
 the acid was diluted with about an equal quantity of 
 water, a part of the bifmuth cryftallizes almofl; as fafl: 
 as it diffolves. The metal is totally precipitated both 
 by fixed and volatile alkalies. The laft, added in 
 greater quantities than are fufficient for precipitation, 
 take it up again. The liquor generally appears 
 greenifh ; by alternate additions of the alkaline fpirit 
 and folution, It becomes bluifh or purple. Fixed alka- 
 lies calcined with inflammable matter likewife diffolve 
 the bifmuth after they have precipitated it. 
 
 The only ufe of this compound is for the precipi- Magiftery^ 
 tate, which is ufed as a cofmetic, under the name of of bifnautb. 
 magiftery of bifmuth. The common way of preparing 
 this is by diluting the folution veiy largely with water^ 
 upon which it turns milky, and a fine white precipi- 
 tate falls, which is to be well edulcorated with water, 
 and is then employed as a cofmetic both In wafhes and 
 pomatums. 
 
 Concerning the preparation of this cofmetic, Neu- 
 mann obferves, that there are fundry variations. — 
 " Some (fays he) take aqua-regia for the menfl;ruum ; 
 and for the precipitant a folution of fea-falt, alkalies, 
 ^ fpirit 
 
C H E M 
 
 767 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 769 
 Regulus of 
 cobalt. 
 
 770 
 Regulus of 
 cobalt, how 
 ilifcovered 
 
 fpint of wine, Sec. Some mix with the folution of 
 bilmuth a folution of benzoin in fpirit of wine, and 
 thus obtain a magiflery compounded of bifmuth and 
 benzoin. Others add a fohition of chalk to the me- 
 talline folution, and precipitate both together by al- 
 kalies. I have made trial .vith a good number of dif- 
 ferent precipitants ; and found, that with common 
 fixed alkali and caullic alkali, with watery and vinous 
 alkahne fpirits, the magiflery was white, and in con- 
 fiderable quantity ; the liquor, after the precipitation 
 with volatile fpirits, appearing blue. That oil of vi- 
 triol threw down a white precipitate very copioufly : 
 but that with fpirit of fait, or fpirit of vitriol, the 
 precipitate was in very fmall quantity, in colour like 
 the foregoing ; diftilled vinegar making no precipita- 
 tion at all. Common rectified fpirit of wine, and tar- 
 tarized fpirit, common water, and lime-water, gave 
 white precipitates. Solutions of nitre, vitriolated tartar, 
 fal mirabile, alum, borax, common fait, fal ammoniac, 
 the combination of marine acid with calcareous earth, 
 and terra foliata tartari, all precipitated the bifmuth 
 white. With a folution of gold in acjua-regia the ma- 
 giflery proved grey ; ,with a folution of the fame metal 
 in aqua-regia made with fpirit of fait, the precipitate 
 was likewife grey, and in fmall quantity ; with folu- 
 tion of copper in aquafortis, white, and in very fmall 
 quantity, the liquor continuing blue ; with folution of 
 "vitriol of copper, white ; with folution of mercury fub- 
 limate, white and plentiful ; with folution of iron in 
 aquafortis, yellowifh ; with folution of lead in aqua- 
 fortis, and of fugar of lead, white ; with folution of 
 zinc in aquafortis there was little precipitate; and with 
 folutions of filver, tin, regulus of antimony, and of 
 mercury, in the fame acid, none at all." 
 
 IX. With Zinc. Upon this femimetal the nitrous acid 
 a£lswith greaterviolence than any other, and will forfake 
 any other metallic fubflance for it. The whole is very 
 foon difFolved into a tranfparent colourlefs liquor. The 
 calces of flowers of zinc are likewife foluble in the 
 nitrous acid ; but neither the folution of the flowers, 
 nor of the metal itfelf, has been yet found applicable to 
 any ufeful purpofe. Neumann remarks, that on ex- 
 tra£ling with nitrous acid the foluble parts of calamine, 
 which is an ore of zinc, the folution, infpifTated to 
 drynefs, left a reddifh brown mafs, which on digeflion 
 with fpirit of wine exploded and burfl the vefTel. 
 
 X. With Regulus of Antimony. The nitrous acid rather 
 corrodes than difTolves this femimetal. The corroded 
 powder forms a medicine formerly ufed under the 
 name of bezoar mineral, but now difregarded. 
 
 XI. With Regulus ofColalt. This femimetal difTolves 
 readily in the nitrous acid, both in its metallic form 
 and when reduced to a calx. The folution is of a red 
 colour. Hence the nitrous acid furnifhcs means of 
 difcovering this femimetal in ores after flrong calci- 
 nation ; very few other calces bfcing foluble in the ni- 
 trous acid, and thofe that are not influencing the 
 colour. 
 
 XII. With Nickel. This femimetal is eafily diffolved by 
 the nitrous acid into a deep green liquor j but neither 
 this folution, nor indeed the femimetal of which it is 
 made, has hitherto been found of any ufe. 
 
 XIII. Withylrfenic. This fubflance is readily'difiblved 
 by the nitrous acid ; which abftradls the phlogiflon, 
 
 I S T R Y. 475 
 
 and leaves the pure arfenical add behind. See belovir Nitrous 
 Acid of Arfenic. Acid and 
 
 XIV. With Expreffed Oils. Thefe, as well as all other 
 
 fatty or uniluous fubflances, are confiderably thickened ' .. ^ ■ 
 and hardened by their union with the nitrous acid. 771 
 There is only one preparation where this combination O'ls* 
 is applied to any ufe. It is the unguentum cttrinum of ^7* 
 the (hops. This is made by adding to fome quantity ^^^^j^]^ 
 of melted hog's-lard a folut ion of quickfilver in the num. 
 nitrous acid. The acid, though in a diluted flate, and 
 combined with mercury, neverthelefs afls with fuch 
 force on the lard, as to render the ointment almofl of 
 the coniiflence of tallow. 
 
 XV. With Finous Spirits. If highly redified fpirit of Spid^tf 
 wine and flrong fpirit of nitre are fuddenly mixed to- wine, 
 gether, the acid inflantly becomes volatile, and is dif- 
 fipated with great heat and effervefcence in highly 
 noxious red fumes. If the acid is cautioufly poured 
 
 into the fpirit, in the proportion of five, fix, or even 
 ten parts of fpirit to one of acid, and the mixture di- 
 flilled in a glafs retort fet in a water-bath, an exceed- 
 ingly fragrant and volatile fpirit comes over, ufed in 
 medicine as a diuretic and cooler, under the name of 
 fpiritus nitri dulcis. This liquor is not acid ; nor has SpiritHs ni- 
 what remains in the retort any more the charafteriftics rri dulcis. 
 of nitrous acid, which feems to be entirely decompofed 
 in this procefs. (See the following article.) 
 
 With the nitrous acid and fpirit of wine, may alfo Nitrous 
 be made an exceedingly volatile liquor, called w/Vrowj- 
 ether, to diflinguifh it from the vitriolic above men- 
 tioned. The proportions of nitrous acid and fpirit of 
 wine to each other for nitrous ether, are two of the acid 
 by weight to three of the fpirit. Dr Black's procefs 
 for making it is as follows. Take four ounces of 
 flrong phlogiflicated nitrous acid ; and having cooled 
 it by putting it into a mixture of fait and fnow, or 
 into water cooled very near the freezing point, by put- 
 ting pieces of ice into it, he pHts it into a phial, 
 and pours upon it an equal quantity of water, likewife 
 cooled very low, in fuch a manner that the water may 
 float as much as pofTible on the furface of the fpirit. 
 Six ounces of flrong fpirit of wine are then put in, fo 
 as to float in like manner on the furface of the water ; 
 the phial is placed in a vefTel containing cold water : 
 and fo great is the power of cold in reflraining the ac- 
 tion of bodies, that if the mixture was too cold, no 
 ether would be produced ; but at the temperature 
 jufl mentioned, the ether begins to be formed in a few 
 hours, with fome little efl'ervefcence, and an expulfion 
 of a fmall quantity of nitrous air. We mull provide for 
 the efcape of this elaflic fluid, by having an hole in the 
 cork, or the vefTel would be broken. The 
 whole of the ether will be formed in a few V / \ ^ 
 days, and may be feparated from the rcfl ^ 
 of the hquor by means of a funirel, fhaped J 
 as in the margin. 
 
 To procure the nitrous ether in large quantities, Wouife's 
 Mr Woulfe recommends the following procefs. Put i roccfs for 
 into a retort four pounds of nitre, then mix together i''"?'^*}'^'"^ 
 four pounds of vitriohc acid, and three pounds five quantit^s, 
 ounces of fpirit of wine. Thefe are poured on the 
 nitre by adding only two ounces at a time : the vi- 
 triolic acid afting on the nitre, produces a fufiiciemt 
 degree of heat j and the acid of the nitre uniting with 
 3 O 2 the 
 
777 . 
 Inquiry in- 
 to the na- 
 ture of e- 
 ther. 
 
 nitre. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 the fplrit, forms a nitrous ether, which flies off from 
 the mixture, and is condenfed in a number of veffels 
 placed in cold water. — To obtain good nitrous ether 
 readily, and at one diftillation, Mr Dollfufs advifes to 
 diftil four parts of nitre of manganefe, four of vitriolic 
 a(;id, and tight parts of fpirit of wine. 
 
 Macquer fuppofes that ether is the moft oily part 
 or quinteffence of fpirit of wine. But it cannot be 
 proved that ether contains any oil. And, befides, if 
 this were the cafe, thofe acids which have the ilrongell 
 attraction for water would produce the greateft quan- 
 tity of ether ; which is found not to be the cafe: audit 
 is moft probable that ether is produced by a combina- 
 tion of fome part of the acid with a portion, particu- 
 larly the inflammable part, of tin? fpirit of wine ; and 
 it has been (hown by chemical experiments, that every 
 kind of ether contains a part of the acid employed. 
 Dr Black himfelf has formed ether without any fpirit 
 at all, by expofing nitrous acid highly phlogifticated 
 for fome months to the light of the fun. This was 
 owing to the attraftion of the principle of inflamma- 
 bility ; which it is well known that light has the power 
 of afFordincr to. bodies that attraft it with force. 
 
 Nitrous Acid decomposed, 
 
 77^ 
 
 Oils fired !• -By EJfential Otis. If equal quantities ef llrong 
 by fpirit of nitrous acid and oil of cloves are poured into the fame 
 veflel, the mixture infliahtly takes fire ; both acid and 
 oil burning with great fury till only a light fpongy coal 
 remains. Dr Lewis obferves, that this experiment 
 does not always fucceed, and that there are but few 
 oils which can be fired with certainty, without attend- 
 ing to a particular circumfl:ance firfl; difcovered by M. 
 Rouelle, and communicated in the French Memoirs 
 for the year 1747. *' On letting fall into the oil equal 
 its quantity of acid, the mixture effervefces, fwells, 
 and alight fungous coal arifes: a little more of the acid 
 poured upon this coal fets it infl;antly on fire. By this 
 method almoll all the diftilled oils may be fired by fpi- 
 rit of nitre of moderate ftrength. Expreffed oils alfo 
 may be fet on fire by a mixture of the nitrous acid and 
 oil of vitriol ; the uie of which laft feems to be to ab- 
 forb the aqueous humidity of the fpirit of nitre. 
 
 II. By Charcoal. By this fubftance the nitrous acid 
 cannot be conveniently decompofed, unlefs it is combi- 
 ned with an alkaline or metallic bafe. For the purpofe 
 of decompofing the acid, common faltpetre is moft 
 convenient. The proportions recommended by Dr 
 Lewis for alkalifating nitre, are four ounces of the fait 
 to five drachms of powdered charcoal. If thefe are 
 carefully mixed, and inje6led by little and little into a 
 tubulated retort made red hot, and fitted with a large 
 leceiver and a number of adopters, a violent deflagra- 
 tion will enfue on every addition, attended with a great 
 quantity of air, and fome vapours which will circulate 
 for fome time, and then condenfe in the veflels. This 
 liquor is called cly/fus of nitre. If fulphur is ufed inftead 
 of nitre, the clyfliis is of a different kind, confifting of 
 a mixture of the nitrous and vitriolic acids. The re- 
 fiduum, when charcoal is ufed, is a very ftrong and pure 
 alkali ; with fulphur it is vitriolated tartar. To pre- 
 vent the lofs occafioned by the violent deflagration, 
 when this operation is performed in open veffels, Dr 
 Black recommends to have the materials fomewhatmoifl:. 
 
 III. By Vinous Spirits. In the piocefs already men- 
 
 . 779 
 Uitre alka- 
 lized. 
 
 780 
 Clyffus of 
 aitrc. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 tioned for mdk.\ng fpiritiis nitri Jukis, a total decompo- Marines 
 fition of the acid feems to talce place : for neither the 
 dulcified fpirit itfeif, nor the acid matter left in the re- ji^tiJ^^^"^'' 
 tort, fliow any figns of deflagration with inflammable . __j 
 matters, which is the peculiar chara6leriflic of nitrous 
 
 . . -8r 
 
 Mr Pott has given an analyfis of the oleaginous rc- Rgc/j.^,ujjj 
 
 Cduum of the diftillation. Diftilled by a ftronger fire, of fpiritus 
 it gave over a yellow, acid, Jlightly empyreumatic '^it^ i ciuiris 
 fpirit; which being faturated with fixed alkali, the '''^'''"'-^ ' 
 liquor evaporated, and the dry neutral fait laid on ' ' * 
 burning coals, did not deflagrate. After this fpirit a- 
 role a red empyreumatic oil ; and in the bottom of 
 the retort was left a fliining black mafs like fout; which, 
 burnt in a crucible, left a white fixed earth, convert- 
 ible by a vehement fire into giafs. Ancjther parcel 
 of the above refiduum was evaporated to the cunfift- 
 ence of pitch. In this ftate it gave a yellow tinfture 
 to fpirit of wine, flamed vividly and quietly on burn- 
 ing coals, and at laft fweiied up like bitumen. Ano- 
 ther portion was faturated with alkaline ley, with, 
 which it immediately effervefced, and then evapora- 
 ted as the former. It gave, as before, a yellow colour 
 to redlified fpirit of wine, and a much deeper yellow to 
 dulcified fpirit of nitre ; and in the fire difcovered no 
 footftep of detonation. M. Macquer fuppofes this acid 
 to have been not the nitrous, but the acetous, v/hich. 
 enters into the compofition of the fpirit of wine ; and 
 his conjecture is now confirmed by late experiments. 
 
 §3' Of t/je Marine ^cicl and its Combinations, . 
 
 This acid is never, at leaft very rarely, found but 
 in a ftate of faturation with the mineral alkaK ; in 
 which cafe it forms the common fait ufed in food. Al- 
 moft the only exception to this is human urine, and 
 perhaps that of fome other animals ; for there the ma- 
 rine acid is found faUirated, not with the mineral, but 
 the common vegetable, fixed alkali. From being found, 
 in fuch plenty in the waters of the ocean, it has the, 
 name of marine acid. 
 
 It is commonly thought that this acid is no other, 
 than the vitriolic, fomehow or other difguifed by the. 
 inflammable principle;, to which fome have added ano- 
 ther, called by them a mercurial earth. 
 
 The reafons given for this fuppofition, however, 
 are but. very flight, confifting chiefly in the refem- 
 blance between the volatile vitriolic acid and the ma- 
 rine, both in the white colour of their vapours, and 
 likewife the great volatility of both. A s to the exift- 
 ence of that principle called a mercurial earth, it hath 
 never been pi-oved ; and, till that time, can never be 
 allowed to be an ingredient in the compofition of any 
 fubftance whatever. As we do not remember to have 
 read of any experiments where the marine acid was 
 direftly produced from that of vitriol, we fliall con- 
 tent ourfelves with relating one very remarkable faft. 
 which happened to fall under our own obfervation. 
 
 As vitriolated tartar, or Glauber's fait, when fufed 
 with charcoal- duft, is converted into an hepar fui- 
 phuris, attempts have been made on this principle 
 to feparate the pure alkali from the refiduum of Glau- 
 ber's fpirit of nitre and fpirit of fait. In an attempt 
 of this kind, which, by the bye, proved unfuccefsful,, 
 as all others of the fame kiad muft do, 30 or 40 
 
 pounds 
 
 78a 
 Marine ; 
 acid. 
 
 783 
 Marineja- 
 cid thought: 
 to be the 1 
 fame with 
 the vitrio- 
 lic. 
 
 784 
 A tranfmu^ 
 Nation. 
 
Fraaice. C H E M 
 
 Msiine pounds of the mafs for Glauber's fait were fufed in a 
 Itrong iron pot, with a fufficient quantity of common 
 coal powdered and fifted. As the quantity of pow- 
 dered coal was pretty large, the mats was thereby 
 hindered from flowing into thin fiifion ; and, that the 
 whole might be perfeftly alkalifated, it was frequent- 
 ly flirred up with an iron ladle, and kept very intenfe- 
 ly heated for fome hours. The mafs was now taken 
 out by means of an iron ladle, and laid on a flat fl:one'; 
 and, as it was but half fluid, every ladlcful concreted 
 into a black irregular faline mafs, which had the ap- 
 pearance of a cinder ; but which, hov.'ever, confifted 
 of an hepar fulphuris mixed with fome coal-duft. As 
 there was a confiderable quantity of this matter, and 
 the ladlefuld were thrown at random above one ano- 
 ther, it fo happened, that between two or three of the 
 pieces, a kind of cliimney was formed, fo that there 
 being a fraall draught of air through the interftices, 
 and the maircs containing a quantity of coal duft, the 
 internal parts were in a hate of ignition, while the cx- 
 letnal were quite cold. From thefe ignited places a 
 white fume-arofe; which being coUefied on the colder 
 mafies, alTumed the form of white flowers. Thefe were 
 found to be genuine fal ammoniac, compofed of a vola- 
 tile alkali and marine acid ; both of which v/e have 
 the greateft reafon to think were produced at that very 
 time, and that a double tranfnuitation took place ; 
 namely, of the vitriolic acid into the marine, and of 
 the fixed alkali into the volatile. Our reafons for be- 
 ing of this opinion are, i. That the matter had been 
 fubjefted to fuch an extreme and long continued heat, 
 that, had any fal ammoniac been pre-exittent in the 
 mixture, it muft have certainly been diflipated, as this 
 fait always fublimes with a degree of heat below ig- 
 nition. 2. Though the matter was taken out of the pot 
 of a very intenfs red heat, fo that the faline part was 
 evidently melted, yet no aminoniacal fume iffued from it 
 at that time, nor till the mafles had been for fome time 
 cxpofed to the air, and were become cool, excepting 
 only thofe inter fl.ices where the air kept up a burning 
 heat, by a fmall draught being formed from the fitua- 
 tion of the faline malTes. 3. In thofe ignited places, 
 when cool, the fixed fait was entirely decompofed,. 
 neither alkaline fait, Glauber's fait, fixed alkali, nor 
 fulphur remaining ; but the whole was confumed to a- 
 kind of ferruginous aflies. We are therefore of opi- 
 nion, that the marine acid and volatile alkali are, in 
 fome cafes, mere creatures of the fire, and mofl: com- 
 monly produced at the fame time, from the flow com- 
 buftion of mineral fubftances. Hence, where heaps 
 of hot cinders are thrown out, fmall quantities of the 
 true fal ammoniac are always formed, when the ignited 
 ones happen to fall in fuch a manner as to occafion a 
 fmall draught of air through them. 
 
 The marine acid, or fpirit of fait, is weaker than 
 either the vitricdic or nitrous ; though Dr Piieftley 
 ▼ations on hath obferved, that, when concentrated to the utmoft 
 mamca- ^g^^ree, in which flate it was pcrfetlly invifible and 
 elaftic as air, it was then able to feparate the nitrous 
 acid from an alkali. In fome other cafes, too, it ap- 
 pears not only fl;ronger than the nitrous, but even than 
 the vitriolic; of which we fliall take notice in courfe. 
 — Mr Berthollet fays, that he has been able alfo to 
 procure the marine acid in a folid fl:ate, by diftilhng it 
 in Mr Woulfe's^apparatus, kept perfedtly cool with ice. 
 
 7S5 
 Dr Prieft- 
 ley's obfer- 
 
 I S T R Y. 477 
 
 The yellow colour of the marine acid is fometimes Marine 
 owing to iron, which may be precipitated from it by^*^'^ 
 means of an alkali. In certain cafes, however, it is^^^^j^^^^ ^" 
 obfer-ved to have a much darker and neaidy a brown ' 
 colour, without containing the fmalleft particle of this 
 metal. — Mr Dollfufs is of opinion, that the yellow co- 
 lour of the marine acid is owing to a portion of de- 
 phlogifl:icated air which it generally contains. A pretty 
 ftrong pr-oof that it emits this kind of air indeed is, 
 that a candle will biirn longer in a bottle containing 
 fome marine acid, than it wdll in an equal quantity of 
 common air. 
 
 I. To pi-ocure the Marine Acid by means of the Vi- 
 triolic. 
 
 726 
 
 Put any quantity of fea-falt into a tubulated glafs- Spirit of 
 retort, to which a large receiver is firmly luted, ha-^^'^"^*^^' 
 ving a quantity of water in it, more or lefs as you 
 want your fpirit of fait to be more or lefs ftrong. 
 Having placed your retort in a fand-bath, take of con- 
 centrated oil of vitriol half as much as you put fait 
 into the retort. Through the aperture in the upper 
 part of the retort, pour a fmall quantity of the vitrio- 
 lic acid ; a violent efi'ervefcence will immediately a- 
 rife, and white vapours will afcend, and come over into 
 the receiver. Thefe vapours are the marine acid in^ 
 its moft concentrated ftate.; and, as they are. very 
 greedy of moifture, they will unite with the water in- 
 a very fliort time, unlefs too much oil of vitriol is put 
 in at once ; in which cafe, part of them will be difli- 
 pated through the fmall hole in the receiver. When 
 you perceive the firft fumes condenfed, add a httle more ^ 
 oil of vitriol, taking care to ftop the aperture of the 
 retort as foon as you drop in the vitriolic acid, that 
 the marine acid may not efcape. Continue this by- 
 intervals,, till your acid is all put in ; and then make 
 a very gentle fire, that the retort may be no warmer 
 tlian the hand can bear. This degree of heat muft 
 be continued a long time, otherwife very much of the 
 acid will be loft. To per-form this operation perfeftly,. 
 no more acid fliould be forced over-, than what the wa- 
 ter in the receiver can take up ; and by this means 
 the operator's patience will be rewarded with a vaftly 
 larger produce of acid than can be procured by hafty 
 diftillatrofti When the vapours become a little more 
 fixed, a greater heat is neceflary, but nothing equal 
 to what the nitrous acid requires. For diftilling fpi- 
 rit of fait, Mr Wiegleb recommends four pounds of. 
 oil of vitriol to fix of common fait. — It may alfo be 
 obtained from the bittern remaining after the cry 
 ftallization of common fait, by adding one pound of 
 oil of vitriol to five of bittern. It may even be ob- 
 tained from this hquid by fimple diftillation without 
 any additional acid; but a violent fire will then be ne- 
 ceflary, and it is almoft impoflible to prevent the li- 
 quor from fwelling and running over the neck of the 
 retort in the beginning of the procefs. 
 
 The marine acid cannot be procured by means of Why dilliU 
 combinations of the vitriolic acid with metallic and Ration of 
 earthy bafes, as the nitrous is ; for though, by 
 of calcined viti-iol, for inftance, the marine acid is ef-perasdoCs 
 feftually expelled from its alkaline bafis, yet it imme-noc fuc- 
 diately combines with the calx of iron left by the vi-ceed. 
 triolic acid, and not only adheres obftinately, but even 
 fublimes the metal ; fo that what little I'pirit tan be 
 
47^ C H E M I 
 
 Marine obtained, is never pure. This inconvenience is not 
 its"combi- ^^^^^ ^K^" uncalcined copperas is made ufe of : 
 nations. ^'^^ the marine acid has a very llrong attraction to 
 y—— water ; which partly diffolvcs its union with the me- 
 talline calx. If gypfum is ufed, inllead of calcined 
 vitriol, not a drop of fpirit will be obtained. Alum 
 and fal catharticus amarus anfwer better. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Pra(5lice, 
 
 788 
 
 II. To procure the Marine Acid by means of the 
 
 A^ua regis. ^ Take equal quantities of fca-falt and Glauber's fpi- 
 rit of nitre ; put the fait into a retort, and pour on it 
 the nitrous acid; let them ftand for 10 or 12 hours; 
 then dillil with a gentle heat; an acid Hquor will come 
 over, which is a compound of the nitrous and marine 
 acids, called aqua-regis.^ When the diilillation is ii- 
 nifhed, and the veffels cooled, pour back the dillilled 
 liquor on the mafs which is left on the retort, and 
 diftil again : the fecond produce will be more of the 
 nature of fpirit of fea-falt than the former. Continue 
 to do this, pouring the diftilled liquor either on the 
 mafs left in the retort, or upon frefh fea-falt, till you 
 ©bferve that no nitrous acid arifes. No experiments 
 have been made on this fpirit of fait, by which we can 
 judge whether it is different from that procured by the 
 vitriolic acid or not. 
 
 III. To procure the Marine Acid, by diftilling Salt 
 
 Spirit of fait Put into a retort any quantity of common fait which 
 t''"!^' has not been dried, and dillil in a fand heat till no- 
 thing more wiU come over. In the receiver you will 
 have a liquor confidcrably more acid than vinegar, in 
 weight about the fourth part of the fait employed. 
 On the dry fait left in the retort, pour fome water, 
 fomewhat lefs in quantity than the liquor which came 
 over. Let it ftand till the fait has thoroughly imbi- 
 bed the moifture, and then diilil again. You will again 
 have an acid, but weaker than the former. Repeat 
 this fix or feven times ; after which you will obtain 
 no more marine acid in this way. It has been thought 
 that fea-falt was capable of total decompofition by 
 means of moifture alone ; but that is found to be a 
 miftake. The reafon of any acid being procurable in 
 this way, is the impurity of the common fait, which is 
 always mixed with a quantity of fal cathaiticus ama- 
 rus, and of marine acid combined with magnefia, from 
 which laft it is feparable by moifture. If a pure fait 
 be formed by combining marine acid with fait of foda, 
 no fpirit will be obtained. 
 
 IV. To dephlogifticate the Marine Acid. 
 
 The marine acid, when mixed either with that of 
 nitre or with manganefe, lofes that peculiar fmell by 
 which it is ufually difl;inguifhed, and acquires one much 
 more volatile and fuffbcating. When mixed with the 
 former, the compound is called aqua-regia ; when fub- 
 jeiSled to the aftion of manganefe, the produdl is called 
 dephlogijl'tcatecl fpirit of fait. The method of procuring 
 this acid recommended by Mr Scheele is as follows ; 
 Mix common muriatic acid in any quantity with levi- 
 gated manganefe in a glafs retort ; to which lute on 
 with blotting paper a receiver capable of containing 
 about 1 2 ounces of water. Put about two drachms of 
 liquid into it ; and in about a quarter of an hour, or 
 fomewhat more, a quantity of elaftic fluid, which is the 
 
 790 
 Marine a- 
 acid de- 
 phlogifti- 
 cated by 
 that of 
 nitre or by 
 manganefe. 
 
 791 
 
 Scheek's 
 method of 
 dephl;igiA- 
 yticating it 
 by maKga- 
 
 true dephlogifticated fpirit of fait, will pafs over, and Marine 
 communicate a yellow colour to the air in the receiver; f^*^'^ 
 after which the latter is to be feparated from the i'*^- nations" 
 tort. If the paper has been clofely applied, a quantity ^ j- 
 of the air will now rufti out with fome violence ; a cork 
 mult therefore inftantly be put into it, and another re- 
 ceiver applied, having in like manner two drachms of 
 water in it, which will alfo be filled in a fliort time ; 
 and thus may feveral phials full of this aerial acid be 
 procured in a ftiort time. Care ftiould be taken, that 
 the retort be placed in fuch a manner as that any drops 
 of liquid which chance to arife may fall down again in- 
 to it. The water put into the receivers feems to con- 
 dcnfe the vaoours of the marine acid ; and it is moil 
 proper to ufe frnall receivers, on account of the great 
 quantity of vapour which is loft at every operation. 
 
 The effefts of this dephlogifticated marine acid, Prnpmies 
 which can fcarcely be condenfed into a liquid, are, i.ot dephlo- 
 The lute is corroded in diftillation, and the corks be- H^-'^'.'-^'^^ 
 come yellow, as from aquafortis. 2. Paper coloured ^^j'^"' '^^ 
 with lacmus becomes nearly white, as well as all vege- 
 table red, blue, and yellow flowers ; and the fame 
 change is likewlfe produced upon the green colour of 
 vegetables ; nor can any of thefe colours be recovered 
 either by alkalies or acids. 3. Exprefted oils and ani- 
 mal fats, expofed to the vapour, become as tenacious 
 as turpentine. 4. Cinnabar grew white on the fur- 
 face ; and when it was waflied, a pure folutlon of corro- 
 five fubhmate was obtained ; but fulphur was not 
 changed. 5. Green vitriol became red and deliquef- 
 cent ; but white and blue vitriol remained unchanged. 
 6. Iron filings were diffolved ; and on evaporating the 
 folution to drynefs, comm.on muriatic acid was obtain- 
 ed by diftillation with marine acid. 7. In like man- 
 ner all the metals, even gold itfelf, were diflblved; and 
 by precipitation with volatile alkali, the folution of 
 gold yielded aurum fulmlnans. 8. The cauftic volatile 
 alkali produced a white cloud, and emitted a number 
 of air-bubbles, which on burfting difcharged an elaftic 
 vapour. 9. Fixed alkali was changed into common 
 fait, which decrepitated in the fire. 10. Arfenic be- 
 came dehquefcent, infefts died, and fire was inftanta- 
 neoufly extingulfticd in the vapour. 
 
 Thefe phenomena pioceed from the ftrong attrac- Miftake c£ 
 tion of dephlogifticated marine acid for the phlogifton Stalil ac- 
 it has loft; and which Is one of the eftential parts of it, counted for. 
 without which it can fcarce at all be condenfed into a 
 liquor. " Perhaps (fays Mr Scheele) Stahl obtained 
 fuch a dephlogifticated muriatic acid by means of iron; 
 and from the yellow colour of the cork was led to fup- 
 p<jfe that the muriatic acid had been changed into the 
 nitrous. If you make a mixture of manganefe, muria- 
 tic acid, or diluted vitriolic acid, and alcohol ; and af- 
 ter fome days digeftlon diftil it by a gentle fire, no ef- 
 fervefcence enfues : but the fpirit of wine goes over ; 
 and, what is very remarkable, has a ftrong fmell of ni- 
 trous ether. , 
 
 Jin 70 x 
 
 A new fait has been produced by Mr Bertholet from New fait 
 the union of dephlogifticated fpirit of fait with vege- rcfembling 
 table alkali. This appears to be of the nitrous kind, "'^'"'^ 
 as having a cool tafte and detonating ftrongly in the j^*^ ^erthc- 
 fire. The compound was in very finall quantity, and 
 feemed to require more pure air for its compofition than 
 an eqnal bulk of acid. The greateft part of the fait 
 produced was the common fait of Sylvius, or digeftive 
 fait, formed by acombination of the phlogifticated ma- 
 rine 
 
Marine 
 Acid and 
 its Combi 
 rations. 
 
 • See Ae- 
 
 Pradlce. 
 
 vine acid with alkali. Six parts of the dephlogifticated 
 acid are required to give their air to one of the fait. 
 When the fixed alkali is employed, forae of the dephlo- 
 gifticated acid efcapes with the pure air ; and in gene- 
 ral, when not expofed to a bright heat, the fait we fpeak 
 of is formed. Some of tlie dephlogifticated acjd re- 
 mains in its proper form after the fait is made, and 
 may be feparated by the volatile alkali. It is to be 
 obferved, that if the cauftic alkali be employed, and 
 the folution much concentrated, even though not un- 
 der the influence of a bright light (for it is the light 
 which produces the extrication of the dephlogifticated 
 
 air*), a great effervefcence will enfue, and a quantity 
 
 ro%;i,n*'36, of dephlogifticated airefcapc; whence, of confequence, 
 little fait can be obtained. 
 
 This fait is foluble in greater quantity in hot than 
 cold water ; and not only detonates like nitre, but 
 with much greater violence. The reafon is, that, like 
 nitre, it not only contains dephlogifticated air, but has 
 it in greater quantity; an hundred grains of fait giving 
 75 of air. Attempts have been made to procure gun- 
 powder by means of this fait, but as yet they have 
 been attended witli little fuccefs. 
 
 The other properties of this fait as yet difcovered 
 are, that it flioots into rhomboidal cryftals ; it does 
 not precipitate mercury, filver, or lead, from their fo- 
 lutions in nitrous acid ; and it gives out its air again in 
 fuch a pure ftate as fcarcely to be paralleled in any 
 other fubftance. 
 
 With the mineral alkali the dephlogifticated acid 
 forms a deliquefcent fait, foluble in fpiric of wine ; and 
 which, even in a fluid ftate, detonates with burning 
 charcoal. With lime, when fo far quenched that the 
 air in its interftices is feparated, the dephlogifticated 
 acid unites but weakly. It may be recovered from 
 the lime, however, provided the hght be obfcure, with 
 very Httle lofs, and almoft unchanged. 
 
 Marine Acid combined, 
 
 704 
 
 Sal digefti- I. IVlfh Vegetable Fixed Alkali. This combination is 
 vus lylvii. accidentally formed after the diftillation of volatile 
 fait s, by means of fait of tartar {i^t. Alkaline Salts'). It 
 was formerly known by the name of Jal digejliiius Syl- 
 Dil ; and a proccfs for making it was inferted in the 
 difpenfatories, under the name of fpirltus falls marlnl 
 coagulatus ; but as it has been found to poffefs no vir- 
 tues fuperior, or even equal, to common fait, it is fallen 
 into difufe. 
 
 The cryftals of this kind of fait are not cubical, like 
 thofe of common fait, but parallelopipeds, and if thrown 
 into the fire crack and leap about with violence. They 
 are foluble in greater quantity by hot water than cold; 
 and therefore are cryftallized by evaporating the folu- 
 tion to a pellicle, and then letting it cool. — It is very 
 remarkable, that though by a dire61; combination of 
 vitriolic acid with vegetable fixed alkali, the fait caUed 
 vkrlolated tartar is formed ; yet if this alkali is once 
 faturated with fpirit of fait, fo as to form a fal digejli- 
 Tus, upon the ^ecompofition of this fait by means of 
 oil of vitriol, the refiduum of the diftillation will not 
 be a vitriolated tartar, but a fait eafily foluble in water, 
 and which bears a ftrong refemblance to Glauber's 
 fait. Whether, by means of fpirit of fea-falt, the 
 vegetable alkali could be converted into the mineral, 
 or fait of foda, is a q^ueftion well worthy of being folved. 
 
 CH EMISTRY. 
 
 479 
 
 II. with Mineral Alkali. This combination is the com- Marine 
 mon alimentary fait, and is never made but for expe- f^'^^^ 
 riment's fake ; as the marine acid cannot be had but l^^^fjo""^ '" 
 from fea-falt. For the extradlion of this fait from fea- , ■ ' j 
 
 195 
 
 water, fee the article Salt. 
 
 III. With Volatile Alkali. The produce of this com-Salammo- 
 blnation is the common fal ammoniac, which is ufed niac, 
 in different arts,, and which has the property of making 
 tin unite very readily with iron and copper, fo is much 
 ufed by copperfmiths and in the manufadlory of tinned 
 iron. 
 
 Sal ammoniac is ufually fold in large femi-tranfparent 
 cakes, which are again capable of being fublimed into 
 mafles of the like kind. If they are diflblved in water, 
 the fait very eafily ftioots into fmall cryftals hke fea- 
 thers. Expofed to a moift air, it deliquates. It is one 
 of the falts which produces the moft cold by its folu- 
 tion; fo as to fink the thermometer 1 8 or 20 degrees, 
 or more, according to the temperature of the atmo- 
 fphere. According to Mr Gellert, a folution of fal 
 ammoniac has the property of diflblving refins. Ac- 
 cording tO' Neumann, the volatility of fal ammoniac is 
 fo much diminlftied by repeated fublimations, that at 
 laft it remains half fluid in the bottom of the fublime- 
 ing veflel. In its natural ftate, it fublimes with a de- 
 gree of heat neceflaiy to melt lead. Pott fays, that a 
 fmall quantity of fal ammoniac may be produced by 
 diftilling fea-falt with charcoal, or with alum, or by 
 diftilling marine acid with Armenian bole.. The fame 
 author affirms, that the inflammability of fulphur is 
 deftroyed by fubliming it w'ith twice its quantity of 
 fal ammoniac. 
 
 The method of making this fait was long unknown; How niadei- 
 and it was imported from Egypt, where it was faid 
 to be prepared by fubllmation from foot alone, or 
 from a mixture of fea-falt, urine, and foot. That it 
 fiiould be produced from foot alone is very impro- 
 bable ; and the other method, from the known prin- 
 ciples of chemiftry, is abfolutely Impoflible. The 
 compofition of this fait, however, being once known,, 
 there remained no other defideratum than a method 
 of procuring thofe component parts of fal ammoniac 
 fufilciently cheap, fo as to afford fal ammoniac made 
 in Britain at a price equally low with what was im- 
 ported. The volatile alkali Is to be procured in plenty 
 from animal fubftances or from foot ; and the low 
 price of the vitriolic acid made from fulphur aflfbrds; 
 an eafy method of decompofing fea-falt, and obtaining 
 its acid at a low rate. A fal-ammoniac work has, ac- ■ 
 cordingly, been eftabliflied for feveral years paft in Edin- 
 burgh : the principal material made choice of for pro- 
 curing the volatile alkali is foot ; and though no per- 
 fons are admitted to fee the work, the large quantities 
 of oil of vitriol brought into it, and the quantities of 
 genuine fal mirablle which are there made, evidently 
 fhow that the procefs for making fal ammoniac alfo 
 produces Glauber's fait, by the decompofition of com- 
 mon fait by means of vitriolic acid. The method o£ 
 Gondufting the procefs is unknown ; but it is plain-, 
 that there can be no other difficulty than what arifes 
 from the volatility of the vapours of the alkali and of 
 the marine acid. In the common way of diftilling thofe 
 fubftances, a great part ef both is loft ; and if it is at- 
 tempted to make fal ammoniac by combining thefe 
 two when diftilled by the common apparatus, the pro^^ 
 
 dace 
 
Fixed fal 
 ammoniac. 
 
 798 
 Phofpho- 
 
 TUS. 
 
 799 
 Solution of 
 gold in fpi- 
 rit of fait. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 duce will not pay the coft ; a little ingenuity, how- 
 ever, will ealily fuggeft different forms and materials 
 for diflilling-veffels, by which the marine acid and vo- 
 latile alkali may be united without lofmg a particle of 
 either. 
 
 If a folution of vitriolic or Glauber's fecret fal am- 
 moniac is mixed with fea-falt, the vitriolic acid feizes 
 the alkahne bafis of the fea-falt, and expels the ma- 
 rine acid ; which immediately unites with the volatile 
 alkali left by the vitriolic acid, and forms a true fal 
 ammoniac. If this folution is now evaporated to dry- 
 ncfs, and the faline mafs fnblimcd, the fal ammoniac 
 rifes, and leaves a combination of vitriolic acid and 
 mineral alkali at the bottom. This fixed mafs being 
 diffolved, filtered, and evaporated, aifords Glauber's 
 falts. This has fometimes been thought a preferable 
 method of making fal ammoniac, as the trouble of di- 
 ililling the marine acid was thereby prevented ; but it 
 is found vaffly inconvenient on another account, name- 
 ly, that when fal ammoniac is mixed with any fixed fait, 
 it is always more difficult of fublimation, and a part of 
 it even remains entirely fixed, or is deilroyed. The 
 mafs of Glauber's fait alfo, by reafon of the inflam- 
 mable and oily matter contained in impure volatile al- 
 "kalles, is partly changed into a fulphureous mafs, fo 
 that the folution refufes to cryftalHze ; at leaft the opcr 
 ration is attended with intolerable trouble. 
 
 IV. W'lih Eartl^s. The combinations of this acid 
 with earths of any kind have never been found applica- 
 ble to any purpofe, and therefore they are feldom made 
 or inquired into. The combination with calcareous 
 earth is indeed pretty frequently made accidentally, in 
 the diftillation of volatile alkali from fal amm.oniac 
 by means of chalk or quicklime. When melted in 
 a ci-ucible and cooled, it appears luminous when 
 flruck, and has been called phofphoriis fc'mtillans . Sec 
 Earths. 
 
 V. With Gold. The marine acid has no adlion on 
 gold in its metallic ilate, in w^hatever manner the acid 
 be applied ; but if the metal is previoufly attenuated, 
 or reduced to a calx, either by precipitation from aqua 
 regis or by calcination in mixture with calcinable me- 
 tals, this acid will then perfeftly diffolve, and keep it 
 permanently fufpended. Gold, precipitated from aqua- 
 regis by fixed alkalies, and edulcorated by repeated 
 ablutions, may be diffolved even in a very weak fpirit 
 of fait by moderate digellion. This folution appears 
 of the fame yellow colour as that made in aqua-regis ; 
 gives the fame purple ftuin to the fldn, feathers, bones, 
 and other folid parts of animals ; the fame violet ftain 
 to marble ; and ftrikes the fame red colour with tin. 
 Even when common aqua-regia is made ufe of for the 
 menftruum, it feems to be chiefly by the marine acid 
 in that compound liquor that the gold is held in folu- 
 tion. In diflillation the nitrous acid arifes, and the 
 marine acid remains combined with the gold in a blood- 
 rtd mafs, foluble, Hke moftof the combinations of me- 
 tallic bodies with this acid, in fpirit of wine. If, to- 
 wards the end of the diftillation, the fire is haftily 
 ralfed, part of the gold diftils in a high faffron-colourcd 
 liquor ; and part fublimes into the neck of the retort 
 in clufters of long (lender cryftals of a deep red colour, 
 fufible in a fmall heat, dellquating in the air, and eafily 
 foluble in water. By repetitions of this procefs the 
 whole of the., gold may be elevated, except a fmall 
 
 N** 72. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 quantity of white powder whofe riature is 'not known. Marine 
 —This red fublimate of gold is faid to be eafily fufible . 
 with the heat of one's hand, and to be fhown by the j^^^^ 
 
 Papifts for the blood of St Januarius ; the fublimate » - , } 
 
 contained in a phial, being wanned by the hands of 8co 
 the priefts who hold it, conftitutes the miracle of that Blood of St 
 faint's blood melting on his birth-day. Januarius. 
 
 VI. With Silver. Strong fpirit of ialt corrodes leaf- silver 
 filver into a white powder, but has no eft'ecl on filings 
 
 or larger maiTes of the metal. If apphcd in the form 
 of vapour to maffesof filver, and ftrongly heated at the 
 fame time, it readily corrodes them. Thus, if filing:s, 
 grains, or plates, of filver are mixed with about twice 
 their weight of mercury fublimate, and expofed to a 
 moderate fire, in a retort, or other diftilling veffel, a 
 part of the marine acid in the fublimate will be fepa- 
 rated and unite with the filvrr, leaving the mercury 
 to arife in the form of mercurlus dulcis. Marine acid 
 is commonly fuppofed to be incapable of diffolving 
 filver into a liquid ftate ; but Henckel i^elates, that if 
 red filver ore, wliich confifts of filver intimately mix- 
 ed with red arfenic, be digefted in fpirit of fait, the fil- 
 ver will be extrafted and kept permanently diflblved. g^^ 
 
 The combination of marine acid with filver is called Luna cor- 
 /una cornea. The moft ready way of preparing it is'^'^^* 
 by diffolving filver in the nitrous acid, and then ad- 
 ding fpirit of fait, or a folution of fea-falt, when a 
 precipitation inftantly enfues ; the marine acid expels 
 the nitrous, and, uniting with the filver, falls to the 
 bottom in form of a white powder. The lame pre- 
 cipitation would take place, if a folution of filver was 
 made in the vitriolic acid. 
 
 Luna cornea weighs one-fourth more than the filver jfs propcr- 
 enr.plcyed; yet, when perfectly waftred, it is quite in- ties, 
 fipid to the tafte. It does not difl'olve in water, fpi- 
 rit of wine, aquafortis, or aqua-regis ; but is in fome 
 fmall degree a6led upon by the vitriolic acid. It 
 melts in the fire as foon as it grows red-hot ; and, on 
 cooling, forms a ponderous brownifti mafs, which be- 
 ing caft into thin plates, becomes femitranfparent, and 
 fomewhat flexible, like horn ; whence its name lum 
 cornea. A ftronger fire does not expel the acid fi-om 
 the metal, the whole concrete either fubliming entire, 
 or paffmg through the crucible. It totally dlffolves in 
 volatile alkaline fpirits without any feparation of the 
 metal. Expofed to the fire in a clofe copper veflel, 
 it penetrates the copper, and tinges it throughout of 
 a filver colour. Kunckel obferves, that when care- 
 fully prepared, melted in a glafs veffel, and fuffered to 
 cool ilowly, to prevent its cracking, it proves clear 
 and tranfparent ; and may be turned into a lathe and 
 formed into elegant figures. He fuppofes this to be 
 the preparation which gave rife to the notion of malle- 
 able glafs. 
 
 VII. With Copper. In the marine acid, copper dlf- 
 folves but flowly. The folution, if made without heat, 
 appears at firft brown ; but, on ttanding for fome time, 
 depofits a white fediment, and becomes green. On 
 adding frefli copper, it becomes brown again, and now 
 recovers its greennefs more flowly than before. The 
 white fediment, on being barely melted, proves pure 
 and perfeft copper of the fame cclour^as at firft. Cop- 
 per calcined by fire communicates a reddifli colour to 
 this acid. 
 
 VIII. With Iron. ijThe marine acid a£ls upon iron 
 2 lefs 
 
 804 
 Copper, 
 
 865 
 Iron. 
 
8o7 
 Tii (iiui a 
 
 8o3 
 
 Praaice.^ CHE M 
 
 Tvlarhic lefs vehemently than the nitrous, and does nut diffolve 
 fo much ; nevetthelefs, it attacks the metal brifkly, fo 
 as to raife confiderable heat and efFervcfcence, and dif- 
 folve it into a yellow liquor. During the lolution, an 
 inflammable vapour arilVs as in the folution of this me- 
 tal by vitriolic acid. This folution of iron does not 
 cryftallize. If it is evaporated, it leaves a greenifli 
 ?o6 faline mafs, which is foluble in fpiritof wrine, and runs 
 Iron volati- in the air into an aflringent yellow liquor. On di- 
 Jized. ftillation, fome of the acid feparates, and towards the 
 end of the operation the fpiiit becomes yellow. This 
 is followed by a yellowifli, or deep reddiiTi fublimate, 
 which gHftei>s like the fcales of fifhes ; leaving be- 
 hind a fubftance which confitU of thin, glofly plates, 
 like talc. . ' 
 
 The folution of iron in fplrit of fait, with the addi- 
 tion of fome fpirit of wine, is ufcd in medicine as a 
 corroborant, under the name of tinchtra martis.^' The 
 fublimate of iron is alfo ufed for the fame purpofe, 
 and called ens veneris, or Jlores mart'utles. It is com- 
 monly direfted to be prepared by fubliraing iron fi- 
 lings and fal ammoniac together. In the procefs, the 
 fal ammoniac is partly decompofed, and a cauftic al- 
 Flores mar- kallne liquor diilils. Then the undecompofed fal am- 
 tiales. moniac, and the martial fublimate above mentioned, 
 arife together. The fublimate has a deeper or lighter 
 yellow colour, according as it contains more or lefs iron. 
 The namef/zj veneris Is improper. It was given by Mr 
 Boyle, who difcovered this medicine. He imagined it to 
 be a preparation of copper, having made ufe of a colco- 
 thar of vitriol containing both iron and copper. A me- 
 ad 808 <ii<^inc of this kind was lately fold with great reputation 
 Btiliutliet's on the Continent, under the nSme of Bejluchef's nervous 
 ti);<ibirc. finaure. It was introduced by M. Beftuchef Field Mar- 
 fhal in the Ruffian fervlce ; but not long after it came 
 into vogue in Pruffia and other northern kingdoms of 
 Europe ; it made its appearance alfo in France, under 
 the name of General de la Matte's golden drops. This 
 happened through the infidelity of Belluchef's opera- 
 tor, who, for a fum of money, violated the oath ©f 
 fecrecy he had taken to Beftuchef, and difcovered the 
 fecret to de la Motte. To the latter it proved a very 
 valuable acquifition ; for he not only procured a pa- 
 tent for it from the king of France in 1730, with the 
 exclufive privilege of felling it, but had a handfome 
 penfion fettled upon him; felHng his medicine befides 
 a half a Louis d'or per phial. 
 
 The attention of the public was particularly drawn 
 Concerning to thefe drops, by their remarkable property of loling 
 *^ their yellow colour in the fun, and regaining it in 
 
 the (hade, which induced many to believe that they 
 contained gold ; and in which opinion they were en- 
 ucouraged.by de la Motte. Even cheroifts of no little 
 reputation were deceived by this appearance; and M. 
 Beaumc, imagining he had difcovered the fecret, pub- 
 i lifhed a preparation to the world as the true arcanum 
 
 iof !a Motto's drops. It confifted of a ca'x of gold 
 precipitated from aqua-regia by means of fixed al- 
 Jcali, and redilTolved in nitrous acid, to which was ad- 
 ded a large quantity of fpirit of wine. Others, how- 
 ever, who could find nothing but iron by an analyfis 
 of the drops, refufed their affent ; and at length, in 
 1780, M. Beaume's miftake was made evident by the 
 thod of pi e-piji^iJcation of the procefs at the defire of the emprefs 
 paring jt. ^£ Ruffia, who gave 3CC0 rubles for die receipt. The 
 original recipe is perplexed, tedioUvS, and exnenfive ; 
 Vol.. IV. Part II. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 3d 808 
 
 Miftakes 
 
 4»h 808 
 "IV ue nie- 
 
 but when deprived of its fuperiluous parts,' is nearly '^'■'^^ ^ 
 
 as follows. Six pounds of common pyrites and twelve 
 
 of corrofive fublimate are to be triturated together, ..ation-. 
 
 and then fublimed fix or eight times till all the mer- 1— y— J 
 
 cury is expelled. The rcfiduum is to be boiled three 
 
 times with thrice its quantity of water, and as often 
 
 filtered, and laftly, diftilled to drynefs. By increa- 
 
 fing the fire, a martial fait Is at latt fublimed into the 
 
 neck of the retort ; to three drachms of which are to 
 
 be added 12 ounces of highly reftlfied fpirit of wine, 
 
 and the whole expofed to the rays of the fun. This is 
 
 the yellow, tinfture ; but there was alfo a white one, 
 
 which, however, feemsto be but of little value. It is 
 
 made by pouring on the refiduum of the laft fublima- 
 
 tlon twelve pounds of highly reftified fpirit of wine, 
 
 and drawing It off by a gentle diftillation after a few ^^j^ g.^j^ 
 
 days digeilion. — ^iMr Klaproth Imagines, from the fol- SuppofeJ 'a 
 
 lowing experiment, that Beftuchef's tincture abforbsa'^forl^ 
 
 phlogillon from the ravs of the fun. He poured a 1:'''"^'!^'"' 
 r 1 c i- \ • ' r • ,-from the 
 
 tew drops of a lohition of tartar mto two ounces ot^mj-^ (.g-.j^ 
 
 diilliled water, and divided this into two ])arts. Into 
 one giafs having po-ured a few drops of the tincture 
 that had not been expofed to the fun, the Iron was 
 precipitated In the ufual form of a yellow ochre ; but 
 on treating In the fame manner a portion of the tinc- 
 ture that had been expofed to the folar rays, the pre- 
 cipitate fell of a bluilh green colour. g<3^ 
 
 IX. IVit/:) Tin. Though the concentrated marine acid Solution of 
 has a greater attraftion for tin than any other acid, it*'"' 
 does not readily diflblve this metal while the acid is in its 
 liquid ftate ; but may be made to diflblve it perfetlly 
 by the addition of a fmall quantity of fpirit of nitre. 
 Neumann obferves, that an ounce of fpirit of fait, with- 
 on'y a fcruple of fpirit of nitre, dillblved tin perfeftly; 
 but on Inverting the proportions, and taking a fcruple 
 cf marine acid to an ounce of the nitrous, four fcru» 
 pies, or four and an half, of tin, were difTolvcd Into a 
 thick pap; fome more of the marine acid being gra- 
 dually added, the whole was dillblved into a clear li- 
 quor. In making thefe folutions, a fmall quantity of 
 black matter ufually fubfides. 
 
 The folution of tin Is fometlmes coiourlefs ; fome- 
 tlmes of a bluifh, or yellow colour, according to dif- 
 ferent circumftances of the procefs. It is of the 
 greatell confequence In dyeing, by not "only heighten- 
 ing the colours, but making them more durable (See 
 Dyeing). It fiioots Into fmaU cryflals ; and, if in- 
 fpiffated, dellquates In the air. 
 
 Marine acid in Its concenh-ated ftate volatilizes tin. Smoking H- 
 and forms with it a thick liquor, which, from Its in-quor of Li- 
 ventor. Is c^WcS fmokin^ liquor of Libavius. To pre-^^^'^-' 
 pare this fmoking liquor, an amalgam muft be made 
 of four parts of tin and five of mercury. This amal- 
 gam Is to be mixed with an equal weight of corro- 
 five mercury, by triturating the whole together in 
 a glafs mortar. The mixture is then to be put into a 
 glafs retort, and the diftillation performed with a fire 
 gradually increafed. A very fmoking liquor pafles 
 into the receiver ; and towards the end of the diftil- 
 lation, a thick, and even concrete matter. When 
 the operation is finlihed, the liquor is to be poured 
 quickly Into a cryftal glafs-bottlc, With ^. glafs ftopper. 
 When this bottle is opened, a white, copious, thick, 
 and poignant fume Iflues, which rem.alns long In the 
 air without dlfappearlng. 
 
 The acid in this liquor Is far from being faturated, 
 
 and 
 
8iz 
 Plumbum 
 corueum. 
 
 8t3 
 Qulckfil- 
 
 814 
 
 Carrofive 
 fubliaiatc. 
 
 ?x5 
 
 Different 
 methods c 
 making. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 and 18 capable of ftill diffolvmg moch tin in the ordi- 
 nary way. From this impcrfed faturation, together 
 with its concentration, proceeds partly its property of 
 fmoking fo confiderably : neveithelefs, fome other 
 caufe probably concurs to give it this property ; for 
 though it fmot.es infinitely more than the moit con- 
 centrated fpirit of fait, its vapours are, notwithlland- 
 ing, much lefs elaftic. It has all the other properties- 
 of concentrated marine acid when imperfcftly faturated 
 with tin. If it is diluted with much water, moft of 
 the metal feparates in light white flocks. In dyeing,. 
 It produces the fame effefts as folution of tin made in 
 the common way. If the diftiilation is. continued af- 
 ter the fmoking liquor of Libavius has come over, the 
 mercury of the corrofivc fublimate will then arife in its 
 proper form. 
 
 X. With Lead. Marine acid, whether in its concen- 
 trated or diluted ftate, has little effedt upon lead, unlefs 
 afhfted by heat. If fpirit. of fait is poured on fihngsof 
 lead, and the heat is increafed fo as to make the li- 
 quor boil and diftil, a part of the acid will be retained 
 by the metal, which will be corroded into a fahne 
 mafs; and this, by a repetition of the procefs, may be 
 diffolved into a limpid liquor. If lead is diffolved in. 
 aquafortis, and fpirit of fea-falt, or fea-falt itfelf, ad- 
 ded, a precipitation of the metal enfues ; but if fome 
 aqua-regia is added, the precipitate, is red!{rolved. 
 
 The combination of lead with . marine acid, has, 
 when melted, fome degree of tranfparency and flexi- 
 bility like horn ; whence, and from its refemblance to 
 luna cornea, it, is called plumbum corneum. This fub- 
 ftance is ufed in preparing phpfphorus, according to 
 Mr Margraaf's method*. 
 
 XI. With ^Ickjiher. Marine acid in its limpid 
 ftate, whether concentrated or diluted, . has no effeft 
 upon quickfilver, even when alTifted by a boiling heat; 
 but if mercury is diflblved in the vitriolic or nitrous 
 acids,, and fea-falt, or its fpirit, is added to the folu- 
 tion, it immediately precipitates the quickfilver in the 
 fame manner as it does filver or lead. If concentra- 
 ted marine acid, in the form of vapour, and ftrongly 
 heated, meets with mercury in the fame ftite, a very 
 intimate tmion takes place ; and the produce is a moft 
 violent corrofive and poifonous fait, called corrofive 
 fublimate mercury. This fait is foluble, though fpa- 
 ringly, in water ; but is far from being perfe6tly fatu- 
 rated with mercury ; for it will readily unite with al- 
 moft its own weight of fre:h quickfdyer, and fubhme 
 ■with it into, a fohd white mafs (which, when leviga- 
 ted, afliiraes a yellov/ifh colour) called niercur'ms dulcis, 
 aquila alba, or calomel. 
 
 There have been . many different ways of preparing 
 f corrofive mercury, recommended by different chemifts. 
 Neumann mentions no fewer than ten. 1. From mer- 
 cury, common fait, nitre, and vitriol. 2., From mer- 
 cury, common fait, and vltrioL 3. Mercury, common, 
 fait, and fpirit of nitre. 4. Solution of mercury in. 
 aquafortis and fait. 5. Solution of mercury in a- 
 quafortis, and fpirit of fait, or the white precipitate. 
 
 6. Mercury, common fait, nitre, and ail of: vitriol. 
 
 7. Edulcorated turbith mineral, and common fait. 8. 
 Red precipitate, common fait, and oil of vitriol. 9. E- 
 didcorated turbith mineral, and fpirit of fait. 10 Mer- 
 cury, fal ammoniac, and oil of vitriol. 
 
 From a view of thefe different methods, it is evi- 
 dent, that, the intention of, them all is to combine the 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice, 
 
 marine acid with qtilckfilvcr ; and as this combination Marine 
 can be eife£led without making ufe of the nitrous acid, ^J^Qj^^^!^^| 
 the greateft chemifts have imagined that this acid, uj^fj^^s. 
 which is by far the moft expenfive of the three, might be ~^ j 
 thrown out of the procefs altogether, and the fublimate 
 be more conveniently made by diredlly combining ma- 
 rine acid and mercury in a procefs fimilar to the di- 
 ftiilation. of fpirit of fait. This method v/as formerly 
 recommended by Kunckel; then publifhed in the me- 
 moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1730 ; and has 
 been adopted and recommended by Dr Lewis. 
 
 The procefs eonfifts in diffolving mercury in the vi- 
 triolic acid, as direfted for making turbith mineral. 
 The white mafs remaining on the exficcation of this 
 folution is to be triturated with an eqiial weight of 
 dried fait, and the mixture is. then to be fubllmed in 
 a- fand-heat ; gradually increafing the fire till nothing 
 more arifes. 
 
 Neumann obfei-ves, that there is a canfidfirable dif- DiflVrenc«» 
 ference in the quality of fubhmates made by the dif- of luality, 
 ferent methods he mentions ; particularly in thofe 
 made with or without nitre. This we have alfo 
 found to be the cafe ; and that fublimate made with- 
 out the nitrous acid is never fo corrofive, or foluble in 
 water, as that which is made with it : nor will it af- 
 terwards take up fo large a quantity of crude mercury 
 as it otherwife would, when it is to be formed into 
 calomel. The above procefs, therefore, tho' very con- 
 venient and eafy, is to be rejefted; and fome other 
 in which the nitrous acid is ufed, fubflituted in Its 
 ftead. The reafon of thefe differences is, that the fpi- 
 rit of fait muft by fome means or other be dephlogi- 
 fticated before it can unite in fufficient quantity with 
 the metal, into the compound defired, which is accom- 
 plifhed by the addition of nitrous acid. 
 
 From Tachenius, Neumann gives us the following 
 procefs, which, he fays was the method of making 
 fublimate at London, Venice, and Amfterdam. Two 
 hundred and eighty pounds of quickfilver, 400 pounds 
 of calcined vitriol, 200 pounds of nitre, the fame 
 quantity of common fait, and 50 pounds of the caput 
 mortimra remaining after a former fublimation, or, 
 (in want of it) of the caput mortuum of aquafortis, , 
 making, in all, 11 30 pounds, are well ground, and 
 mixed together ; then fet to fublime in proper glaffes . 
 placed, in warm afhes, the fire is increafed by degrees, 
 and continued for five days and nights. . In the making 
 fuch large quantities, he fays, fome precautions are 
 neceffary, and which thofe conftantly employed here- 
 in are beft acquainted with. The principal are, 
 the due mixture of the ingredients, which in fome 
 places is performed In the fame manner as that of 
 the. ingredients for gun-powder:, that a head and 
 receiver be adapted to the fubliming glafs, to fave 
 fome fpirit of nitre whick will come over. (Here 
 a bent tube of . glafs will anfwer the purpofe, as al» 
 ready mentioned). The fire muft not be raifed too > 
 haftily. When the fubhmate begins to form, the. 
 aflies muft be removed a little, from the fides of the 
 glafs, or the glafs caiitioufly raifed up a Httle from 
 the afties.. (Thislaft, we think, is highly imprudent. ) 
 Laftly, the laboratory muft have a good chimney, ca- 
 pable of carrying off the noxious fumes.^ The above- 
 mentioned quantities commonly yield 360 pounds of 
 fubhmate; the 280 pounds of quickfilver gaining 8a 
 from the 200 pounds, of fea-falt. . The makers of fub- 
 limate 
 
CHEMISTR Y. 
 
 Sir 
 
 Obferva- 
 
 limatc in France, he fays, employ, in one 'operation, 
 only 20 pounds of mercury. This they diflblve in 
 aquafortis, evaporate the folution to drynefs, mix the 
 dry matter with 20 pounds of decrepitated fea-falt 
 and 60 of calcined vitriol, and then proceed to fubli- 
 mation. 
 
 The above proceffes, particularly the lad, are un- 
 
 with arfe- 
 cic. 
 
 tions on the exceptionable as to the produftion of a fublimate per- 
 m^h^^d'' ^'^'-^^y corrofive ; but the operation, it is evident, muft 
 be attended with confiderable difficulty, by reafon of 
 the large quantity of matter put into the glafs at once. 
 We muft remember, that always on mixing a volatile 
 fait with a quantity of fixed matter, the fiiblimation 
 of it becomes more difficult than it woiild have been 
 had no fuch matter been mixed with it. It is of 
 confiderable confequence, therefore, in all fublima- 
 tions, tG make the quantity of matter put into the 
 glafs as little as poffible. It would feem more pro- 
 per, inftead of the calcined vitriol ufed in the pro- 
 ceffcs laft mentioned, to diffolve the mercury in 
 the vitriolic acid, as direfted for tuibith mineral, 
 and fublime the dry mafs mixed with nitre and Cea- 
 S.8 fait. 
 
 Siippofeda- It has been faid, that corrofive fublimate mercury 
 dulteration was frequently adulterated with arfenic ; and means 
 have even been pointed out for dctefting this.fuppo- 
 fed adulteration. Thefe means are, to dilTolve a little 
 of the fufpefted fait in water, and add an alkaline 
 lixivium to precipitate the mercury. If the^precipitate 
 was of a black colour, it was faid to be a certain fign 
 of arfenic. This, however, ifhows nothing at all, but 
 that either the alkali contains fome inflammable mat- 
 ter, which, joining with the precipitate, makes it ap- 
 pear black ; or that the fublimate is not perfeflly cor- 
 rofive , for if a volatile alkali is poured on levigated 
 mercurius dulcisy the place it touches is inftantly turned 
 black. 
 
 Mercurius dulcis, or calomel, is prepared by mixing 
 equal parts, or at lead three of quickfilver with four 
 of fublimate ; after being thoroughly ground together 
 in a glafs or ftone mortar, they are to be poured 
 through a long funnel into a bolt-head, and then fub- 
 limed. The medicine has been thought to be im- 
 proved by repeated fubllmations, but this is found to 
 be a miftake. Mr Beaume has found that mercu- 
 rius dulcis cannot be united with corrofive fubh'mate 
 in the way of fublimaiion ; the former, by reafon of 
 its fuperior volatility, always rifes to the top of the 
 veffel. 
 
 XII. With Zinc, This femimetal dllTolves readily in 
 the marine acid into a tranfparent colourlefs liquor. It 
 is volatilized, as well as moft other metallic fubftances, 
 by this combination, as appears from the following 
 procefs delivered by Neumann. 
 
 *' Equal parts of filings of zinc and powdered fal 
 ammoniac being mixed together, and urged with a 
 gradual fire in a retort ; at firft arofe, in a very gentle 
 heat, an exceffively penetrating volatile fpirit, fo ftrong 
 as to ftrike a man down who fhould inadvertently re- 
 ceive its vapour freely into the nofe. This came over 
 in fubtile vapours, and was followed by a fpirit of fait 
 in denfe white fumes. In an open fire, white flowers 
 fucceeded ; and at length a reddrfh and a black butter. 
 Ib the bottom of the retort was found a portion of the 
 
 819 
 
 Mercurius 
 elulcig. 
 
 820 
 Zinc vola 
 tilized. 
 
 zinc in its metalline form, with a little pondcfows and Marine 
 fixed butyraceous matter, which hqiiefied in the air. 
 The lump was far more biittle than zinc ordinarily is; potions 
 of a reddifli colour on the outfide, and blackifli within. 
 The bottom of the retort was variegated with yellow 
 and red colours, and looked extremely beautiful. The 
 remaining zinc was mixed afrcfli with equal its weight 
 of fal ammoniac, and the procefs repeated, A vola- 
 tile alkaline fpirit and marine acid were obtained as at 
 firft ; and in the retort was found only a little black 
 matter. When the zinc was taken at firft in twice the 
 quantity of the fal ammoniac, the part that preferved 
 its metallic form proved lefs brittle than in the forego- 
 ing experiment, and the retort appeared variegated in 
 the fame manner. On endeavouring to reftify the 
 butter, the retort parted in two by the time that one 
 half had diftilled." The nature of this combination is 
 unknown. 
 
 Xm. With Regulus of Antimony . This femimetal can- Butter of 
 not be united with the marine acid unlefs the latter is^ntimonf, 
 in its moft concentrated ftate. The produce is an 
 exctffively cauftlc thick liquid, called butter of antimo- 
 ny. The procefs for obtaining this butter is fimilar 
 to that for diftilllng the fmoking fpirit of Libii- 
 vius. Either crude antimony, or its regulus, may 
 be ufed : for the fpirit of fait will attack the reguhne 
 part of this mineral without touching the fulphureous. 
 Three parts of corrofive fublimate are to be mixed 
 with one of crude antimony ; the mixture to be di- 
 gefted in a retort fet in a fand heat ; the marine acid 
 in the fublimate will unite with the reguhne part of 
 the antimony. Upon increafing the fire, the regulus 
 arifes, diifolved in the concentrated acid, not into a h- 
 quid form, but that of a thick unftuous fubitance like 
 butter, ^ from whence it takes its name. This fub- 
 ftance Hquefies by heat, and requires the cautious ap- 
 plication of a live coal to melt it down from the neck 
 of the retort. By redification, or expofure to the 
 air, it becomes fluid like oil, but ftill retains the name 
 of butter. If water is added to butter of antimony, 
 cither v/hen in a butyraceous form, or when become 
 fluid by re£tification, the antimony is precipitated in a 
 white power called ponuder of algaroth, and improperly 
 jnercurim vita;. This powder is a violent and very un- 
 fafe emetic. The butter itfelf was formerly ufed as a 
 cauftic ; but it was totally negleded in the prefent 
 pradlice, until lately that it has been recommended as 
 the mcil proper material for preparing emetic tartar. 
 (See below.) Mr Doixufs recommends the fcI:owing 
 method as the beft for making butter of antimony ; 
 viz. two ounces and a quarter of the grey calx of aa^ 
 timony, eigiit ounces of common fait, and fix of acid 
 of vitrioL By dliliUing this mixture, ten ounces of 
 the antimonial cauftic were obtained ; and in order to 
 determine the quantity of metal contained in it, he 
 mixed two ounces of the cauftic with four ounces of 
 water j but thus fuch a ftrong coagulum was formed, 
 that he was not able to pour ofl^ any of the water even 
 after ftanding 24 hours. The precipitate, when care., 
 fully dried, weighed, 50 grains. The refult was much 
 the fame when glafs of antimony was ufed, only that 
 the precipitate was much more confiderable ; half aij 
 ou«ice of the cauftic then yielding 60 grains, though at 
 aBotheif time only 50 grains were obtained. In the re- 
 3-^2 fiduum 
 
4S4 
 
 Marine 
 Acid and 
 its C. mbi- 
 i)ati( ns. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradlce. 
 
 82a 
 
 tic ink. 
 
 Oil cf atfe 
 
 ■ 8a4 
 Marine 
 ether. 
 
 fiduum of tlie former experiment he found 30 grains of 
 an earthy fubftance, chiefly a combination of calcare- 
 ous earth with muriatic acid. 
 
 V/hen the mercurius vitse precipitates, the union be- 
 tween the marine acid and regukis is totally difTolved ; 
 fo that the pov/d'^r, by frequent walhings, becomes per- 
 feftly free from every particle of acid, which unites 
 with the water made ufe of, and is then called, very 
 improperly, phUofoph'ic fplr'it of 'yitriol. 
 
 XIV. With Regulus of Cobalt. Pure fpirit of folt dif- 
 folves this femimetal into a reddifh yellow liquor, which 
 immediately becomes green from a very gentle warmth. 
 Gn faturating the folution with urinous fpirits, the 
 precipitate appears at firft white, but aftei-wards be- 
 comes blue, and at length yellow. If the nitrous acid 
 is added to folutions of regulus of cobalt, they affume 
 a deep emerald green when moderately heated, and on 
 cooling become red as at firft. Duly evaporated, they 
 yield rofe-coloured cryftals, which change their colour 
 By heat in the fame manner. This folution makes a 
 curious fympathetic iijk, the invention of which is 
 commonly afcribed to M. Hellot, though he himfelf 
 acknowledges that he received the firft hint of it from 
 a German chemift in 1736. Any thing wrote with 
 this folution is invifible when dry and cold ; but af- 
 fumes a fine green colour when warm, and will again 
 difappear on being cooled ; but if the heat has been 
 too violent, the writing ftill appears. M. Hellot ob- 
 ft rves, that if nitre or borax be added to the nitrous 
 folution, the charadlers wrote with it become rofe- 
 culoured when heated ; and if fea-falt is afterwards 
 pafTed over them, they become blue ; tliat with alkali 
 fufficicnt to faturate the acid, they change purple and 
 red with heat. — A blue fympathetic ink may be made 
 from cobalt in the. fol)x)wing manner. Take of an 
 earthy ore of cobalt, as free from iron as pcfTible, one 
 ounce. Bruife it, but not to too fine a powder. Then 
 put it into a cylindrical glafs, with 16 ounces of diftil- 
 led vinegar, and fet the mixture in hot fand for the 
 fpace of fix days, ttirring it frequently ; or elfe boil it 
 direftly till^there remain but four ounces. Filter and 
 evaporate it to one half. If your folution be of a rofe 
 colour, you may be certain that your cobalt is of the 
 right fort. A red brown colour is a fign of the folu- 
 tion containing iron ; in which cafe the procefs fails. 
 To two ounces of the folution thus reduced, add two 
 drachms of common fait. — Set the whole in a warm 
 place to diffolve, and the ink is made. 
 
 XV. With Regulus of Arfen'jc. This fubftance is 
 foluble in all acids ; but the nature of the compounds 
 form.ed by fuch an union is little known. If half a 
 pound of regulus is diftilled with one pound of corro- 
 five fublimate, a thin fmoking liquor and a butyrace- 
 ©us fubftance will be obtained, as in making the fmo- 
 king liquor of Libavius. By repeated reftifications, 
 this butter may be almoll all converted into fpirit. If 
 equal part-s of the arfenic and fublimate are ufed, a pon- 
 derous black oil comes over along with the fpirit, which 
 cannot be mixed with ,it. By reftificatlon in a clean 
 retort, they will become cl^ar, bnt ftill will not incor- 
 porate. If they are now returned upon the red mafe 
 remaining in the firft retort, and again diftilled, a 
 much more ponderous oil. than tlw; former will be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 XVI. With Infammabh Suhjhnccj. The acid of fea- 
 
 falt is very little difpofed to contraft any union with Marine 
 the phlogifton, while in a liquid ftate ; and much lefs?^^"^J^'J|J.^ 
 fo, even in its moft concentrated ftate, than either thi j,^^;^.,,,^^ 
 vitriolic or nitrous. Mr Beaume, however, has found, — y-— J 
 that a fmall quantity of ether, fimilar to that prepared 
 with tlie vitriohc and nitrous acids, may be obtained 
 by caufing the fumes of the marine acid unite with 
 thofe of fpirit of wine. Others, and particularly fome 
 German chemifts, attempted to make this liquor, by 
 employing a marine acid previouOy combined with me- 
 tallic fubilances, fuch as butter of antimony. The 
 fmuking liquor of Libavius fucceeds beft. If equal 
 parts of this liquor and highly reftlfied fpirit of 
 wine are diftilled together, a confiderable quantity of 
 true ether is produced ; but which, hke the vitrio- 
 lic and nitrous ether, muft be reftified in order to its 
 greater purity. The tin contained in the fmoking li- 
 quor is feparated and precipitated in white powder. In 
 this procefs, the acid is probably more difpofed to 
 unite with the fpirit of wine, by having already be- 
 gun to combine with the inflammable principle of the 
 metal.— For marine ether, Mr DoUfufs recommends to 
 put into a retort four ounces of digeftive fait previouf- 
 ly well dried and powdered, and two ounces of maa- 
 ganefe ; pouring upon this a mixture of five ounces of 
 fpirit of wine and two of oil of vitriol ; the firft five 
 ounces and a half of tht diftilled liquor being poured 
 back on the refiduum, and the whole afterwards drawn 
 ofl" by a gentle beat. The fpirit of fait thus obtained 
 had a very penetrating agreeable odour, fomewhat like 
 that of nitrous ether ; and at firft fwam upon the top 
 of water, but at length mixed with it on being agi- 
 tated for a long time. Towards the end of the diftil- 
 lation a little oil was obtained, which did not mix 
 wjlh the water; and by the addition of four ounces 
 more of . fpirit of wine, more of the dulcified acid was 
 obtained. With regard to tltis klfid of ether, however, 
 Mr Weftrumb denies that it can be made by any me- 
 thod hitherto known ; and infifts, that all the liquids 
 as yet produced under the name of marine ether are in 
 reality dulcified fpirit of fait, and not true ether, which 
 will fwim on the top of water. „ 
 
 Dr Prieftley has obferved, that the pore marine acid, ^^^^^^^;^^ 
 v^hen reduced to an invifible aerial ftate, has a ftrongfor phlogi- 
 affir^Ity with phlogifton-; fo that it decompofes many fton. 
 fubftances that contain it, and forms with them an air 
 permanently inflammable. By giving it more time, it 
 will extradl phlogifton from dry wood, crufts of bread 
 not burnt, dry flefli ; and, what is ftill more extraordi<- 
 nary, from flints. From what has been above related, 
 it appears that the dephloglfticated fpiiit of fait has a 
 very ftrong attraftion for phlogifton. 
 
 Eflenllal oil of mint abforbtd the marine acid air 
 pretty faft, and prefently became of a deep brown co- 
 lour. When taken out of this air, it was of the con- 
 fiilence of treacle, and funk in water, fmelling different- 
 ly from what it did before; but ftill the fmell of the 
 mint was predominant. Oil of turpentine was alfo 
 much thickened ; and became of-a deep brown colour, 
 by being faturated with aeid air. Ether abfotbed the 
 air very faft ; and became firft of a turbid white, and 
 then of a yellow and brown colour. In one night a 
 confiderable quantity- of ftrongly inflammable- air was 
 produced. 
 
 Having once faturated a quantity of ether with acid 
 
 ■air. 
 
Praaice. C H E M I 
 
 Marine air, he admitted bubbles of common air to it, through 
 the quickfilvty by -which it was confined, and ob- 
 ferved tliat white fumes were made in it, at the en- 
 trance of every bubble, for a confiderable time. Ha- 
 ving, at another time, faturated a fmall quantity of 
 ether with this kind of air, and the phial which contain- 
 ed it happening to be overturned, the whole room 
 was iiiiiantly fdlcd with a white cloud, which had 
 very much the fmell of ether, but peculiarly offenfive. 
 Opening the door and window "of the room, this light 
 cloud filled a long paffage and another room. The 
 ether, in the mean time, was leemingly all vanifh- 
 ed : but, fometime after, the fuvface of the quickfil- 
 ver in which the experiment had been made was co- 
 vered with a very acid liquor, arifing probably from 
 the moiliure in the atmofphere, attra^ed by the acid 
 vapour with which the ether had been impregnated. 
 This feems to (how, that, however much difpofcd 
 the marine acid may be to unite with phlogiftic mat- 
 ters wlien in its aerial ftate, the attraftion it has for 
 them is but very flight, and ftill inferior to what it has 
 for water. 
 
 Camphor was prefently reduced into a fluid ftate' by 
 imbibing this acid air ; but there feemed to be fome- 
 thing of a whitifh fediment in it. After continuing 
 two days in this fituation, water was admitted to it, 
 upon which the camphor immediately refumed its for- 
 mer folid ftate ; and to appearance was the fame fub- 
 ftance that it had been before. 
 
 Strong concentrated oil of vitriol, being put to ma- 
 jinc acid air, was not at all affefted by it in a day and 
 anight. In order to try whctlier it would not have 
 more power in a condenfcd ftate, it was comprefl"ed 
 with an additional atmofphere ; but, on taking off this, 
 the air expanded again, and was not in the leaft di- 
 minifhed. A quantity of ftrong fpirit of nitie was alfo 
 put to it without any fenfrble efFeft. From thefe laft 
 experiments it appears, that the marine acid is not able 
 to diflodge the other acids from their union with water. 
 
 Befides the acids already mentioned, Mr Hombcrg 
 defcribes an artificial one generated by mixing two 
 ounces and a half of luna cornea, wift an ounce and 
 a half of tin calcined alone and without addition, by 
 means of fire. The mixture is to be expofed to a- 
 naked fire in a coated retort, of which two thirds ought 
 to be left empty ; when a browniih matter, an ounce 
 and a half in weight, will adhere to the neck of the 
 retort. This matter is tin combined with the marine 
 acid, and the refiduum is filver deprived of the fame 
 acid, which may therefore now be melted together 
 without any lofs. The fublimate^ well powdered and 
 dried, is to be equally divided into two phials, and 
 fublimed ; by. repeating which operation two or three 
 times, a volatile fait, of an acid nature, very white and 
 tranfparent, is obtained. The refiduum of thefe fubli- 
 mations is always calx of tin. 
 
 f 4. 0/" the Fluor Acid. 
 
 Fhft dtfco- '^"'^ ^^^^ difovcred fome time ago by Mr Mar- 
 vered by ' graaf, and more fully inveftigated by Mr Scheele. 
 Mr Mar- The experiments by which it was originally produced, 
 g'aaf its properties afccrtaincd, are as follows : 
 
 How^^re ^ Two ounces of concentrated vitriolic acid were 
 1 arcd.^' poured upon an equal quantity of fluor, which b^d hten 
 
 s T R Y. 
 
 485 
 
 ad8a5 
 
 >>'fw ac d 
 difcovcred 
 by Mr 
 H(jiTibe-g. 
 
 previoufly pounded in a glafs mortar, and then put in- F'-uo'' Acid 
 to a retort, to which a receiver was adapted, and the q^^^^'^jj^j, 
 j infture clofed with grey blotting-paper. On the j^^.'^s, ' 
 
 application of heat, the mafs began to tfF-rrverce and J 
 
 fwell, invifible vapours penetrated every where through 
 the joining of the vtfiels, and towards the end of the 
 procefs white vapours arofe, which covered all the in- 
 ternal parts of the receiver with a white powder. — 
 The mafs remaining in the retort was as hard as a - 
 ftone, and could not be taken out without- break- 
 ing the veflel. The lute was quite corroded and 
 friable. 
 
 IL The procefs was repeated exactly in the fame 
 manner, excepting only that a quantity of diftilled wa- g^g 
 ter was put into the receiver. A white fpot foon be- Forms a 
 gan to form on the futface of the water, juft in the white ear- 
 centre, and immediately under the mouth of the re- ^^^^^j^^^'^g^. , 
 tort. This fpot continually increafed, till at laft it co- ' 
 vered the whole furface of the water, forming a pixtty 
 thick cruft, which prevented the communication of the. 
 water with new vapours that came over. On gently agi- 
 tating the receiver, the cruft broke, and fell to the bot- 
 tom ; foon after whieh a new cruft like the former was 
 produced. At laft the receiver, and foon after the re- 
 tort alfo, became white in the infide. The veflels, 
 when cooled, were found much corroded internally. In 
 the receiver was an acid liquor mixed with much white 
 matter, feparable by filtration. _ 
 
 III. This white matter when edulcorated and dried, which has 
 firowed itfelf to be filiceous earth, by the foUov/ing the proper- 
 properties. 1. It was rare, friable, and white. 2. '^'"^^ 
 
 was not fenfibly foluble in acids. 3. It did not make*^^®"^ 
 a tough pafte witli water, but was loofe and incohe- 
 rent after being dried. 4. It diftblved by boiling in 
 lixivium tavtati, and the folution in cooling afl'umed 
 a gelatinous confiftence. 5. In its pure ftate it fuCFered 
 no change in the ftrongeft heat ; but when mixed 
 with alkali, it boiled, frothed up, and formed a glafs 
 in a melting heat- 6. It diffulvcd in borax without 
 fwelHng. _ g p 
 
 IV. To determine whether this earth was formed Scheelc's 
 during the procefs, he poured vitriolic acid upon pow- experiment 
 d«red fluor contained in a cylinder of brafs which was to deter- 
 clofed exaftly with a cover, after having fufpended "^.-^-^'^^f 
 over the mixture an iron nail and a bit of charcoal, ^^it earth. 
 On opening the veflel two hours afterwards, he found 
 
 the nail and charcoal unchanged ; but on moiftening 
 them, he found both covered with a white powder in a 
 fliort time. This powder had all the pr operties of IIH- 
 ceous earth; and as in the experiment he had made no 
 ufe of glafs vefi"els, he concluded that it did net pro- 
 ceed from the glafs vefTels, as might have been fufpeft- 
 ed from their being fo much corroded, but was gene- - 
 rated in fome other way. , 
 
 V. Having recompofed fluor by faturating the a- Artificial 
 cid with calcareous earth, he treated the compound in fluor yicl(?s 
 the fame manner as the natural fluor, with a fimllar ^ ^•f^^''^'' 
 refult ; and repeating the experiment five times over, ^''* 
 
 he conflantly found the filiceous earth and.acid dimi- 
 nifti confiderably, fo thai at laft fcarce any mark of 
 acidity was left. Thence he concluded, that all the 
 fluor acid united itfelf by degrees with the vapours of 
 the water, and thus formed the filiceous earth. " It may 
 bt objtAed (fays Mr Scheele), that the fluor acidis per- 
 h;ips eadv united by nature with a hut: fiiicroii"- p'.'W- 
 
 d-.T., 
 
486 
 
 G HEM 
 
 I S T R Y. I^iaaice. 
 
 ^'l'','^!' /^^'"^ der, which it volatilizes, and carries over in diftillation, Mr Scheele proved by the following experiment. Up- Fluor Acid 
 
 832 
 
 IVir 
 
 Scheele's 
 condiifion 
 that the 
 earth pro- 
 
 but leaves it as foon as it finds water to unite with, 
 juil as muriatic acid parts with the regulus of antimo- 
 ny, when butter of antimony is dropped into water. 
 But if this was the cafe, the fluor acid would leave 
 the whole quantity of filiceou3 earth thus combined 
 ■with it in the firfl diilillation, and therelore fliow no 
 mark of its prefence in the following proceflcs. When 
 I put fpirit of wine into the receiver inftead of water, 
 no filic* MIS earth was pioduced ; but the alcohol be- 
 cause four. When I put an unftuous oil into the re- 
 ceiver, all the fluor acid penetrated through the crevi- 
 ces of the lute, and neither united with the oil, nor 
 produced a filiceous earth. This happened alfo when 
 acid of vitriol was put into the receiver. If therefore 
 the filiceoua earth was not a prcduiSl of each diftillation, 
 biit, being previoufly contained in the acid,wasonly de- 
 ceeds from pofited from it in confequence of the union of the acid 
 an union of with a third fubftance, I think the filiceous earth ought 
 wilhwa ^q^s^^y to appear when alcohol was put into the recei- 
 '^ver, with which it unites, as well as with water ; but 
 as this does not happen, I conclude that not all the fi- 
 •liceous earth which is depofited upon the furface cf 
 water during the diftillation of the lluor acid, was pre- 
 vioufly diflolved in this acid." 
 
 This opinion of Mr Scheele did not meet with ge- 
 neral approbation. M. BouUanger endeavoured to 
 IJou II anger, fl^O'Jf, that the fluor acid is no other than the muria- 
 Monnec, ^-^^ intimately combined with fome earthy fubftance ; 
 
 and Mr Monnet maintained that it is the fame with 
 that of vitriol volatilized by fome extraordinary con- 
 nexion with the fluor ; which opinion was alfo 
 maintained by Dr Prieftley. Mr Scheele contefted 
 nionsfliowm thefe opinions, but found much greater dilncajlty in 
 to be erro- f^pporting his own opinions than in overthrowing 
 Mr Schede. thofe of his adverfaries. BouUanger infifted that fluor 
 acid precipitates the folutions of filver and quickfilver, 
 g^j producing luna cornea with the former, and mer- 
 riuor acid curius dulcis with the latter. Mr Scheele owns 
 proved to that fluor acid precipitates both thefe metals, but 
 nm^w"'^^^ precipitate obtained is in very fmall quantity, 
 and the little that is produced arifes only from a fmall 
 quantity of fea-fak with which the fluor, as well as 
 all other calcareous fubftances, is generally mixed. The 
 greateft part of the acid, therefore, will not precipitate 
 the folutions of thefe metals, which it ought to do up- 
 on Mr Boullanger's hypothefts. Mr Scheele then 
 proceeds to fliow a method of feparating this fmall 
 q;j* itity of marine acid from that of fluor. A folu- 
 tion of filver made with nitrous acid is to be precipi- 
 tated with alkali of tartar, and as much acid of fluor 
 poured upon the edulcorated powder as is fufficient to 
 give an excefs of acid ; after which the folution is to 
 be filtered. This folution of filver in fluor acid is then 
 to be dropped into that acid we defire to purify, till no 
 more precipitation enfties; after which the acid is filter- 
 ed through grey paper, and diftilled to drynefs in a 
 glafs retort. The aqueous part comes over firft, but is 
 Joon followed by fluor acid, which covers the infide of 
 both the veflcls, together with the furface of the water 
 in the receiver, with a thick filiceous cruit. The acid, 
 thus reftified, does not precipitate folution of filver in 
 the leaft, nor otherwifc {how the fmalleft fign of muri- 
 atic acid. 
 
 That the fluor acid is different from that of vitriol, 
 
 Contefted 
 by Meffrs 
 
 834 
 Their opi- 
 
 from that 
 of fea-falt, 
 
 on one ounce of pure levigated fluor with alcohol, he ^'"^ 
 poured three ounces of concentrated oil of vitriol, and ^'^'^^''"'2- 
 diftilled the mixture in a fand-bath, having previoufly j 
 put 12 ounces of diftilled water into the receiver. He 2^6 
 then took other tlirce ounces of the fame acid diluted And from 
 with 24 ounces of water, to which he afterwards ad- ^''.^^ °^ 
 ded hxivium tartari previoufly weighed, till he at-^"^'"'* 
 tained the exaft point of faturation. After the diftil- 
 lation he weighed the remaining lixivium ; having kept 
 up fuch a degree of heat for eight hours as was not 
 fufficient to raife the vitriolic acid. On breaking the 
 retort, and reducing the mafs to powder, he boiled it 
 in a glafs veflTel with 24 ounces of water for fome mi- 
 nutes ; after which he added jufl; as much lixivium 
 tartari as he had found Ijefore to be requifite for the 
 faturation of three ounces of the vitrioHc acid, and 
 continued the boiling for a few minutes longer. On 
 examining the folution, it was found to contain a vi- 
 triolated tartar perfeftly neutralized, neither acid nor 
 alkali prevailing in any degree ; which fliowed that no 
 vitriolic acid had paffed into the receiver. The faline 
 matter being then extrafted with hot water, the re- 
 maining earth was found to weigh gl- drachms. Two 
 drachms of this diflolved in muriatic acid, excepting 
 only a fmall quantity of matter which feemed to be 
 fluor undecompofed, and which on being dried weigh- 
 ed only nine grains. Into one part of this folution he 
 poured fome acid of fugar, and into another vitriolic 
 acid. The former produced faccharated hme, and the 
 latter gypium. A third part was evaporated to dry-f 
 nefs, and left a deliquefcent fait ; and the remaining 
 part of the earth burned in a crucible, produced a real 
 quicklime. 
 
 Thus it appeared that the real bafis of fluor is quick- Quicklime 
 lime, and Hkewife that the fluor acid is different from the LaOs ©f 
 that of vitriol, as appears further from the following 
 confiderations : i. Pure fluor acid does not precipitate 
 terra ponderofa, nor folution of lead in nitrous acid. 
 2. The fame acid, when faturated with alkah of tar- 
 tar, evaporated to drynefs, and afterwards melted with 
 powdered charcoal, does not produce any hepar ful- 
 Phuris. _ _ 
 
 Mr Monnet, in order to fupport his hypothefis, de- Miftake of 
 nies that fluor contains any calcareous earth. In proof Mr Mon- 
 of which he adduces the following experiment: E- net on this 
 qual quantities of alkali and fluor were melted toge-^^^J^'^* 
 ther, with little or no change on the mineral ; for, af- 
 ter having taken away by lixiviation the alkali em- 
 ployed, he diflolved the fluor remaining on the filter 
 in nitrous acid, adding vitriolic acid to the folution ; 
 and becaufe he obtained no precipitate, concluded at 
 once, that fluor contains no calcareous earth. Mr 
 Scheele, on the contrary, affirms that all folutions of 
 fluor yield a precipitate of gypfum whenever vitriolic 
 acid is added to them. He explains Mr Monnet's 
 failure, by fuppofing that he had diluted his folution 
 with too great a quantity of water. 
 
 Mr Wiegleb, diflatisfied with the hypothefis of wieaieb's 
 Scheele, as well as others, concerning the fluor acid, experi- 
 beean a new fet of experiments on the mineral. Ha- "^^"ts."^ 
 ving firft accurately repeated thofe made by Mr ^ j^g fjjj^ 
 Scheele, he proceeded to inquire into the origin of ceous eart^, 
 the filiceous earth. In the following manner: Having 
 firft weighed the retort deftined for the experiment in 
 
Fraaice. C H E M I 
 
 Floor Acid an accurate manner, and found that its weight v/as 
 two ounces and five drachms, he put into it two oun- 
 ces of calcined fiuor in powder, adding, by means of 
 a glafs tube, 2~ ounces of oil of vitriol. The retort 
 was then placed on the furnace; and a receiver, which 
 when empty weighed two ounces, two drachms, and 
 30 grains, and now contained two ounces of diftilled 
 water, was luted to it. The diftilladon was conduft- 
 ed with all poflible care, and at laft pufhed till the re- 
 tort grew red hot ; but it was found impoffible to pre- 
 vent a few vapours from penetrating through the lute. 
 Next day the retort, feparated from the receiver, was 
 found to weigh, together with its contents, five oun- 
 ces, five drachms, and 30 gtains ; and confequently had 
 loft in weight one ounce, three drachms, and 30 grains. 
 The receiver, which, with the water, had originally 
 weighed four ounces, two drachms, and 30 grains, 
 now weighed five ounces and three drachms, and had 
 therefore gained one ounce and 30 grains. This gain, 
 compared with the lofs of the retort, Ihows that the 
 retort loft more by three drachms than the receiver 
 gained ; fo that thefe muft have undoubtedly paffed 
 through the luting in form of vapour. 
 
 To determ.ine the point in queftion, the' empty vef- 
 fels, with what had been put into them, were accurate- 
 ly weighed; when the weights and lofs upon the whole 
 were found to be as follows ; 
 
 The empty retort 
 Calcined fliior 
 Oil of vitriol 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 4S7 
 
 Total weight before diftillatjon 
 After it 
 
 Lofs of retDrt 
 
 The empty receiver weighed 
 The water put into it 
 
 Total weight before diftillation 
 Total weight after dittillatiou 
 
 
 dr. 
 
 
 2 
 
 5. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Gain of receiver - i o 30 
 
 Deducting this gain of weight in the receiver from 
 the lofs of weight in the retort, we find, that three 
 drachms were wanting on the whole, which muft. un- 
 doubtedly, as already obferved, have been diflipated 
 in vapour. The retort being now broken, and the 
 dry earth both in its neck, and arch feparated as accu- 
 rately as poflible, it was found to weigh three drachms; 
 the refiduum ia the retort weighed three ounces, two 
 drachms, and 40 grains. Now, as the mafs in the re- 
 tort had originally weighed four ounces and four 
 drachms, it appeared, by dedufting the refiduum, to 
 have fuffered, on the whole, a lofs of one ounce, one 
 drachm, and 20 grains. To determine the lofs more 
 accurately, the following calculations were made : • 
 
 ozi dr. gr. 
 
 The white earth feparated from, the neck 
 
 and arch of the retort - 030 
 
 Gain of the receiver - - i o 30 
 
 Loft in vapour - - - - 630 
 
 Total 1 6 30 
 Here. Mr Wiegleb was furprifed to find, that the 
 
 3. 
 
 matter which came from the retort amounted to more Flunr Acid 
 by five drachms ten grains than the mafs in the retort ^■'^ 
 bad loft of its original weight j to illuftrate which it tioas/""" 
 
 was 'necelFary to weigh the retort and receiver by * 
 
 themfelves. The pieces of the retort now weighed on- 
 ly one ounce feven drachms and 50 grains ; v^hereas, 
 before the procefs, the weight of the retort was two 
 ounces five drachms. It appeared, therefore, that it 
 had loft five drachms ten grains, the very quantity 
 which had been gained by the receiver. This laft had 
 loft nothing of its original weight. 
 
 The flujd in the receiver was next diluted with four 
 ouiices of diftilled water, and the whole poured out 
 on a filter, in order to feparate the earthy matter 
 with which it was mixed, and frefh water poured up- 
 on it. to take out all the acid : after which the earth' 
 was dried, and found to weigh 57 grains. The cleaapt- 
 liquor was then diluted with more diftilled water, and 
 afterwards precipitated with fpirit offal ammoniac pre- 
 pared with fiited alkali. A brifk efFervefcence took 
 place before any precipitate began to fall, but ceafed 
 foou after the precipitation took place. The whole mix- 
 ture became gelatinous ; and the precipitate, when dry, 
 weighed two drachms. The whole quantity of earth, 
 therefore, obtained in this procefs amounted to five 
 drachms 47 grains, which is forty-fcven grains more 
 than the retort had loft in weight. This excefs is, by 
 our author, attributed to part of the acid ftill adhering 
 to it, and to the acceffion of fome moifture from the 
 air ; to deter mine which he heated each of the parcels • 
 of earth red hot feparately, and thus reduced them to 
 four drachms 52 grains, which is lefs by 18 grains 
 than the lofs of the retort, and which, he is of opi- 
 nion, muft have efcaped in the three drachma of va- 
 pour. 
 
 From this experiment Mr Wiegleb concludes, that The earthy 
 the earth produced in the diftillation of fiuor proceeds cruft pro- 
 neither from the fpar nor from a combination of the "^"^^ 
 acid with water, but from the folution of the glafs by^f ,£ "^^1* 
 the fparry acid. To his opinion alfo Dr Crell ac- diftilla^ 
 cedes. "In diftilling fluor (fays he) with oil of vi-veffels. 
 trio), I have found the retort as well as the receiver 
 very much corroded. I poured the acid obtained by 
 the piocefs into a phial furnifhed with a glafs ftopper,, 
 and obferved after fome time a confiderable depofition. 
 I then poured the liquor into another phial like the 
 former; and that it might neither on the one hand 
 attack the glafs, nor on the other compofe fiHceous 
 earth with the particles of water, according to Mr 
 Scheele's hypothefis, I added highly re£lified fpirit of 
 wine. I faw, however, after fome time, another confi" 
 derable depofition. This feemed alfo to proceed from 
 the glafs that had been before diffolved, which the acid 
 let fall in confequence of the gradual combination with * 
 the fpirit of wine ; otherwilc^we muft fuppofe, what 
 to me appears incredible, that the acid decompofes the 
 fpirit, attracts the water, and forms the earth." 
 
 This fingular acid has been ftill further examined by p^rMayerV 
 Mr Meyer. He informs us, that, among Mr Scheele's examina- 
 experiments, he was particularly ftruck by one in of the 
 which no earthy cruft was obtained, after putting fpi. fl"or acii- 
 rit of wine into the receiver. Mr Meyer repeated this 
 experiment, hoping, that when but little fpirit was put 
 into the receiver, he might be able to procure a new ^ 
 kindof ether. An ounce of finely powdered fluor, which 
 bad been previoufly heated red hot; was put into a-- 
 
 glafs 
 
488 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 Pradice." 
 
 Fluor Acid g\.^{^ retort, td which was fitted a receiver contain- 
 6ombina- '"^ three ounces of highly rcftified French brandy, 
 tions. The diftillation was continued for three hours with 
 * v "" ^ gentle heat; when the acid, having made its way 
 through the bottom, put an end to the procefs. No 
 crull could be perceived on » the furface of the fpi- 
 rit ; but in the place where it had been in con- 
 taft with the receiver there was a thin ring of tranfpa- 
 rent jelly. The fame mixture of oil of vitriol and fluor 
 was therefore again put into a retort of very ftroRg 
 glafs, and the fame fpirit put into the .receiver. The' 
 diftillation was condufted two hours with a gentle, and 
 afterwards with a (Ironger, heat. When it was half 
 over, the fpirit began to change into a thin jelly ; and 
 at the end of the procefs fome firmer pieces were found 
 at the bottom. Thefe were wafhed with fpirit of 
 limine ; and in order to obtain the fpirit together with 
 the acid in a pure Hate, it was put into a large retort, 
 and again fubjefted to diftillation. As the retort grew 
 warm, the opal-coloured fpirit became clear and fvvell>- 
 ed, what remained becoming again gelatinous ; a good 
 deal of earth remained behind, but did not adhere firmly 
 to the retort, which was fmooth in the infide,- though full 
 of fhallow excoriations. It was alfo evident, that the 
 glafs was a£lually corroded, and that the earthy mat- 
 ter is not a mere cruft adhering to the infide» The 
 jelly being thoroughly edulcorated, as well as the earth 
 that remained in the retort after the rectification, and 
 that which was diiTolved in the water precipitated by 
 fpirit of fal ammoniac, the whole quantity amounted 
 ■to two diachms. That which had fcparattd fpontane- 
 oufly was femitranfparent. " As this earth (fays he) 
 ■ihowed the properties of filiceous earth, and the glafs, 
 ■which was fo mui;h corroded, confifts in great meafure 
 of it, the greateft part of it might couie from the glafs, 
 841 and the reft of it perhapsbe a conftituent part of the fluor 
 iHow to ^ I'tfelf. In order to afcertain this, it was neceffary to ob- 
 Jcid free ^^^^ fluor acid quite free framfiliceousearth. I there- 
 from filice- f^oJ'S expofed the ley, which I had procured by the pre- 
 jpus earth, cipitation of the earth with fal ammoninc, to a gentle 
 evaporation in a fllghtly covered glafs vcftll. The pro- 
 duft was one drachm 56 grains of an ammoiiiacal fait ; 
 the glafs did not appear to have been attacked. Half 
 a drachm of this fait was fublimed in a fmall retort, 
 which, towards the end of the operation, war, laid on 
 the bare fire. No cruft appeared on the furface of the 
 water in the receiver. At the bottom of the retort 
 lay a little flocculcnt earth of a light grey colour, above 
 - ■ which the internal furface was covered with a white 
 pellicle that reftefted various colours ; and in the neck 
 there was a fublimate. The thin pellicle eafily fepa- 
 ' rated in many places from the glafs, which was 
 fmooth beneath, though not without fome fmall fur- 
 i rows. I poured water both upon the ammoniacal fait 
 
 and cruft ; in confequence of which it acquired a very 
 four tafte, and coloured the tinfture of turnfole red. 
 The white cruft that was left behind undiffolved weigh- 
 ed five grains, and melted into a green glafs without 
 addition. This was nothing but the glafs that had 
 been corroded by the fluor acid ; but as this acid can 
 he fet loofe only by ftrong heat, it had done no more 
 than corrode the glafs, without pafting over along with 
 it in the form of vapour, and then depofiting it again 
 on the water. For, upon pouring two drachms of oil 
 p{ vitriol upon half a drachm of .this ammoniacal fait, 
 
 a little moiftened, and placed in a glafs retflrt, a great F'.uo-: Acid 
 foam arofe, and the thick vapours that afcended cover- ^J''^ 
 td the water in the receiver with a white cruft. A fcru- Ij^',",'^'"^' 
 pie of the falc on folution, left behind a grain of earth, > ' j 
 which, as I conjecture, it had taken up during the eva- 
 poration in the glafs veflel." 
 
 Ta prevent this, our author diftilled half an ounce 
 of iluor with an ounce of oil of vitriol for five hours. 
 The crufts were feparated from the water; they weigh- 
 ed, after being well waftied and dried, eleven grains ; 
 they were white and very flocculent ; thirty-two grains 
 of filiceous earth were precipitated from the filtered 
 water: the ley was- then evaporated in a leaden veftel, o 
 and yielded 80 grains of fait. As glafs veflels were no Expctt 
 longer to be trufted, a piece of a gun-barrel furniihed mentsmada 
 with a cover, and terminated by a bent tube, intended to .""'^^ 
 ferve inftead of the neck of a retort, was afterwards vcflcj 
 ufed ; and with this apparatus the following experi- 
 ments were made: 
 
 li Haifa drachm of the newly prepared fal-ammo- 
 tiiac was diftilled for two hours with two drachms of 
 oil of vitriol, into a glafs receiver containing an ounce 
 of water. No veftige of a cruft could be perceived on 
 the\vater,TDUt fome earth was perceived in the receiver-, 
 wiiere the vapours having afcended through the tube, 
 came into conta£l with the wet glafs ; and here the 
 furface was become fenfibly rough. On the addition 
 of volatile alkali, a few flocculi of filiceous earth, a- 
 mounting only to one-fourth of a grain, were thrown 
 •down out of the water. 
 
 2. A drachm of oil of vitriol v added to a drachra 
 and an half of the fait ; but a leaden receiver was now 
 ufed, containing an ounce of water as before. The 
 Vy-ater acquired an unpleafant fmell, but fhowcd no 
 figns of a ci-uft. On tlie addition of fpirit of fal am- 
 Tuoulac, a little-grey -earth weighing half a grain fell to 
 the bottom. 
 
 3. A fcruple of this fait, mixed with an equal quan- j^^^ ^^'^^^q. 
 tity of white fand in fine powder, and diftilled v/lth a formed b/ 
 drachm and an half of oil of vitriol, into an ounce of mixinjr 
 v/ater in the leaden receiver, ftiowed no fign ot a cruft. j^^j^*^^^^''^ ' 
 The water had a putrid fmell, and left on the filter 
 
 two grains and an half of grey earth, which ran under Huor acid, 
 the blow-pipe into a grain of lead. Volatile alkali 
 precipitated five grains of grey earth, which melted on 
 the addition of a little fait of tartar into a black glo- 
 bule, though the blow-pipe alone made no change 
 in it- ^ 
 
 4. To 1 3 grains of the fame ammoniacal fait a drachm Dut a "^reat 
 of oil of vitriol and two fcruples of green glafs, broken ore by 
 into fmall pieces, were added. The iron tube had "''".^ P"^* 
 fcarce become warm, when a great cruft of filiceous '^^'^'^^^ 
 earth was perceived on the furface of the water, and 
 
 the fame appearance on the moift fides of the veftel. 
 It did not, however, feenr to increafe during the re- 
 mainder of the dUHllatlon. A grain and a quarter of 
 earthy matter remained on the filter, confifting partly- 
 of white films, which ran under the blow-pipe into a 
 greenifti glafs. 
 
 J. To afcertain this matter ftlll more clearly, a 
 different fptcies of mineral fluor was ufed, which be- 
 ing diftilled with a double quantity of oil of vitriol, 
 and with a drachm of water In the receiver, yielded 5 
 thin pellicle of the appearance of lead, but no filics.^us 
 cruft. Volatile alkali threw down 2^ grains of grey 
 4 earth. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 riuor Acid earth. — A drachm mixed with the fame quantity of 
 CenSna- P"^^^"2ed fand afforded a peUIcle of lead interfperfed 
 tioiis. ^'^^^ ^ few particles of white cruft, which ran into 
 *i— y— glafs under the blow-pipe. Volatile alkali precipitated 
 eight grains. — A drachm, mixed with an equal quan- 
 tity of green glafs reduced to powder, fwelled a good 
 deal, and yielded a thick fiUceous cruft. 
 
 6. To a drachm of green fluor that had been heat- 
 ed and powdered were added two drachms of oil of 
 vitriol, ftill employing the iron tube. A piece of wet 
 charcoal was alfo fufpended in the infide, a cover fixed 
 on the tube, and the latter was heated for about 15 
 minutes in a fand bath. Obferving now that the 
 charcoal was dry, and had no earth upon it, a fcruple 
 of fand in fine powder was added, the charcoal was 
 wetted arid replaced, but nothing appeared. Some 
 bits of green glafs were then thrown into the mixture, 
 which inftantly foamed up and ran over. The char-- 
 coal was not replaced in the tube, nor was it any 
 longer neceffary, as it gained a covering of white 
 powder by being held a very few moments over the 
 g^g orifice. 
 
 An experi- Mr Scheele, in one of his experiments, obferves, 
 mentof Mr that he obferved the white powder on a piece of char- 
 ex'^lT^ed ^'^^^ ^^^^ moiftened and fufpended over fluor 
 
 ^ ' to which vitriolic acid was added. As this experi- 
 ment was made in metalHc veffels, Mr Meyer conjec- 
 tures, that the mortar ufed for reducing the fluor to 
 powder was of foft glafs, and that the phenomenon 
 was occafioned by the abrafion of fome particles of 
 glad's- 
 
 Of the 7* determine whether the acid can carry up 
 
 quantity of much more of the filiceous earth than is fufficient 
 filiceous to faturate It, an ounce and an half of pure oil of vi- 
 triol was added in a retort of glafs, and three ounces 
 of water put into the receiver. The retort was cor- 
 roded through in an hour's time, and the cruft. on the 
 water weighed ten grains. The liquid being then 
 filtered and divided into two equal parts, one was pre- 
 cipitated with cauftic volatile, and the other with mild 
 fixed vegetable, alkali. The former yielded 25 grains 
 of filiceous earth, and the lattc-r 68 grains of a preci- 
 pitate, which flowed under the blow-pipe, ran into 
 
 489 
 
 earth car- 
 ried along 
 with fluor 
 ac.d. 
 
 glafs retort with a drachm and an half of oil of -vitriol, -A-cid 
 produced no filiceous earth on the water in the ''C'combina 
 ceiver, or that with which the earth was edulcorated, tion . 
 The ley of flu orated volatile alkali was mixed with a 1— y mi J 
 folution of chalk in nitrous acid till no more precipi- 
 tation took place. The raixtuie was pafled through 
 nitrous acid, and the precipitate adulcorated. It weigh- 
 ed, when dry, two drachms and 36 grains. 
 
 I o. Two drachms of oil of vitriol being added to a 
 drachm of this precipitate contained in a glafs retort» 
 the precipitate was attacked in the cold, but no cruft 
 appeared ; the heat, however, was fcarce appUed, when 
 the whole furface of the water was covered, and the 
 fame phenomena exhibited which are produced by the 
 natural fluor. 
 
 11. Mr Scheele having obferved that a mixture of Farther 
 fluor as tranfparent as mountain" cryft.al, and oil of pi'oofs thaC 
 vitriol in a metallic cyhnder, produced no appearance o^^^mj^s^'^'^^ 
 filiceous earth on a wet fponge fufpended in the infide. ceeds^ft-ma 
 at Mr Meyer's requeft he made a new experiment, the glafs 
 by adding oil of vitriol to portions of fluor of this veffels. 
 tranfparent kind placed in two tin cylinders; fome 
 filiceous earth was put into one, and a wet fponge 
 fufpended in both. The next morning the fponge 
 
 that was fufpended over the cylinder which held the 
 filiceous earth, was covered, with the white powder, but 
 no appearance of it was feen on the other The expe- 
 riment vyas repeated by Mr Meyer with the fame re- 
 fult, but the white cruft did not appear till after a 
 night's ttanding. 
 
 12. A drachm of fluor, mixed with two of oil of vi- 
 triol, afforded, after a diftillation of two hours, a thin 
 film of lead on the furface of the water in the receiverj 
 but no filiceous earth. The fame mixture was after- 
 wards diftilled with the ufe only of a glafs receiver in- 
 ftead of a lead one. In the beginning of the diftilla- 
 tion a fmall fpot appeared under the neck of the re- 
 tort, and the neck itfelf was covered with white pow- 
 der, but it foon difappeared ; and though the empty 
 part of the receiver was corroded, yet no more thaa 
 half a grain of earth was procured. 
 
 Thcfe experiments fo cleaily point out the origin 
 of the filiceous cruft on the furface of the fluor acid, 
 
 the pores of charcoal, and gave ont ftrong vapours of . that its exiiknce as a diftindt acid is now univerfally 
 
 848 
 
 Violent ac 
 tion of 
 fluor acid 
 u^ion glafs. 
 
 fluor acid. The reafon of this difference ft) all be ex 
 plained when we come to treat of filiceous earth. 
 
 8. To a mixture of half an ounce of fluor and the 
 fame quantity of glafs, in powder, 12 drachms of oil 
 of vitriol were put in a fmall retort, half filled with the 
 mixture. The ingredients afted upon each other fo 
 violently that they rofe up into the neck of the retort; 
 and the operation being intermitted on account of the 
 noxious vapour they --mittcd, the retort was found next 
 day covered with fafciculated cryftals like hoarfroft. — 
 The experiment being repeated in a more capacious 
 retort, and the mixture thoroughly blended by agita- 
 tion, it became a thick mafs, and fwelled like dough 
 in fermeiuation : the bottom of the retort grew vtry 
 hot, and the filiceous ciuft appeared on three ounces of 
 water in the receiver. The diftillation being continu- 
 ed for three hours, 16 grains of fiUceous earth were 
 found on the furface, and the precipitate by volatile 
 alkali weighed 56 grains ; the retort was much lefscor- 
 loded than ufual. 
 
 5>. Thirty grains of this precipitate, diftilled in a 
 Vol. JV. Part II. 
 
 allowed, even by thofe who formerly contended for its 
 being only the vitriolic or fome other acid difguifed. — g 
 Experiments of a fimilar kind were made by Mr Wen- Mr Wcn- 
 zel, who performed his diftillation in a leaden retort, zcl's expe- 
 furniftied with a glafs receiver. The water was covered "menrs in 
 with a variegated cruft, and yielded a gelatinous preci- ton''^*^" 
 pitate with fixed alkali. On examining the receiver, 
 he found its internal furface corroded, fo that it ap- 
 peared as if it had been rubbed with coarfe fand. By 
 fubftitutinga leaden receiver, however, inftead of a glafs 
 one, he obtained the acid entirely free from filiceous 
 matter, and containing only a fmall quantity of iron 
 and aluminous earth. ^ ^ 
 
 The fluor acid may alfo be procured by the nitrous, pjuor -lud 
 muriatic, and phofphoric acids.— Mr Scheele diftilled procurable 
 one part of the mineral with two of concentrated ni- '^y "itrous, 
 trous acid. One part went over Into the receiver '"^''^' ''''L 
 along with the fluor acid, and a thick cruft was form- pjJoi-ic adds, 
 ed on the water of the receiver. The mafs remaining 
 in the retort was calcareous earth faturatcd with ni-^ 
 trous acid. 
 
 3 0^ With 
 
490 
 
 Fluor Acid 
 arid its 
 Cuthhina- 
 
 tiCBS. 
 
 3d 850 
 Appear- 
 ance and 
 p; oj>erties 
 of fluor a- 
 ci.l. 
 
 4th 850 
 Combined 
 •with fixed 
 alkali. 
 
 851 
 'Whh vola- 
 tile alkali. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 With an equal quantity of marine acid, that of fluor 
 pafTed over into the receiver with 11 lartre quantity of 
 the muriatic ; the internal furface of the receiver, as 
 well as of the water contained in it, being covered 
 with a while cruft. The refiduum was fixed fal am- 
 moniac. 
 
 Phofplioric acid digefted with powdered fluor, dif- 
 folved a fjocd deal of it ; and on didilling this folu- 
 tion, the fluor acid went over together with the watery- 
 particles of the mixture ; the remaining mafs in the re- 
 tort had the properties of the aflies of bones. 
 
 The fluor acid procured in any of thefe ways Is not 
 dlftinguiOiable by the fmell from that of fea-falt : in 
 fome cafes it afta as muriatic acid, in others like that 
 of tartar ; but in moll cafes it fliowd properties pecijiar 
 to itfelf. 
 
 With fixed alkali the fluor acid forms a gelatinous 
 and almoil infiuid matter, which refufes to ciyftallize. 
 By evaporation a faline mafs was obtained, which was 
 in weight only the fixth part of the fixed alkali dii- 
 folved ; did not change the colour of fyrup of violets, 
 but precipitated lime water, and likevvife the folutions 
 of gypfum and Epfom fait. With mineral alkali 
 the fame phenomena were produced as with the ve- 
 getable. 
 
 Volatile alkali with fluor acid formed likewlfe a 
 jelly, which when feparated from the liquor appeared 
 to be filiceous earth. The clear liquid tailed like vi- 
 triolic ammoniac, and fhot into very fmall cryftals, 
 which by fublimation yielded firfl. a volatile alkali, and 
 then a kind of acid fal ammoniac. By diftiillation with 
 chalk and water, all the volatile alkali quickly came 
 Lime water inftantly threw down a regenerated 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 bule of fixed glafs behind. 
 
 Pradice. 
 
 Lead was not diflblved, Flu.^r Acid 
 fweet folution with its 
 
 85 a 
 With 
 earths. 
 
 853 
 With me- 
 tals. 
 
 fluor, which was the cafe alfo with folutions of lime 
 in the nitrous and muriatic aci 
 
 let fall a pov/der, which, before the blow-pipe, re 
 fumed its metallic form, the acid being diffipated, and 
 forming a white fpot on the charcoal round the re- 
 duced filver. Solution of quicklilver in nitrous acid 
 was precipitated, and the powder was entirely volatile 
 in the fire; but a folution of cotrofive fublimate re- 
 mained unchanged. Lead was totally precipitated 
 from nitrous acid ; and a folution of Epfom fait was 
 rendered turbid. Oil of vitriol produced a fluor acid 
 by diftillation, which formed at the fame time a thick 
 crult on the water of the receiver. The regenerated 
 fluor procured either by means of lime water or folu- 
 tions of the earth in acids, was decompofed by fixed, 
 but not by volatile alkali. 
 
 With lime, magnefia, and earth of alum, this acid 
 became gelatinous. Part of the two lafl were dif- 
 folved. 
 
 Gold was not toxiched by the fluor acid either alone 
 or mixed with that of nitre. Silver, in its metallic 
 ftate, imderwent no change. Its calx, precipitated by 
 an alkali, was party diflblved; but the remainder 
 formed an infoluble mafs at the bottom. Vitriolic 
 acid expelled the fluor acid in its ufual form. Quick- 
 filver was not diflblved, but its calx preclpitatedtrom 
 the nitrous folution was partially fo. The remaining 
 infoluble part of the calx united with the aci<d, and 
 formed a white powder, from which the fluor acid was 
 expelled by the vitriolic. The fame powder formed, 
 by means of the blow-pipe, a yellowifli glafs ; which, 
 however, evaporated by degrees, leavings a fmall glo- 
 
 but the acid formed a fweet folution with its calx ; ^"ojnbiiia- 
 from whence the latter could be precipitated by the ^io^s. 
 
 acids of vitriol, and fea-falt, as alfo by fal ammoniac. ^— ^ 
 
 On digefting a quantity of acid with calx of lead, 
 wliich had been previoufly digefled in the fame, a 
 fpontaneous precipitation took place. The precipi- 
 tate melted eafily before the blow-pipe, and ran into 
 metal ; but part of the glafs remained fixed in the fire. 
 Copper was partially diflblved, as appeared by the 
 blue colour aflumed by the liquid on the addition of 
 volatile alkali. The calx of copper was eafily foluble ; 
 and the liquor, though gelatinous, yielded blue cryttals, 
 partly of a cubic and partly of an oblong form, from 
 which the acid could not be feparated but by heat. 
 Iron was violently attacked, and gave out Iniiammable 
 vapours during the folution. The liquor refufed to 
 cryftallize ; but, by evaporation, congealed into ar? 
 hard mafs after the moifture was dilTipated ; and from 
 this mafs the fluor acid might be expelled as ufual by 
 oil of vitiiol. The fame effeft was alfo produced by 
 heat alone ; the acid rifing in vapours, and leaving a 
 red ochre behind. Calx of iron was alfo difl'olvcd, auJ 
 the folution tailed like alum; but it could not be re- 
 duced to cryfl:als. Tin, bifmuth, and regulus of co- 
 balt, were not attacked in their metallic ftate ; but the 
 calces of all of them were foluble. Regulus of anti- 
 mony and powdered antimony were not fenfibly ailed 
 upon. Zinc produced the fame effetls as iron, ex- 
 cepting that the folution feemed more inclined to cry- 
 fl;allize. _ _ gj^ 
 
 The moft remarkable property of this acid, however, Gi^fs cor- 
 is its readily diflblving glafs, and carrying It oft" in theroded by 
 viui luuitiuna iwxiv form of vapour. This Angular property belongs not tj»ij^acid|^a» 
 ids.— Solution of filver only to the pure acid, but alfo to the ammoniacal fait J^J^ formed 
 
 id of^''^ vola- 
 tile alkali. 
 
 formed by combining it with the volatile alkali. Mr by com- 
 Wiegleb informs us, that on evaporating to drynefs, in bination 
 a cup of Mifnia porcelain, a folution of this kind of ^ 
 ammoniac, which by its fmell fnowed an excefs of vo- 
 latile alkali, the glazing of the infide was entliely cor- 
 roded, and the bottom left as rough as a file. During 
 the evaporation the cup was covered with white paper, 
 which when dry appeared full of fmall cryttals of an 
 acid tafte, eafily dittinguifhabk by the naked eye. 
 Thefe, as well as the ammoniacal fait, powerfully at- 
 tradled the moifture of the air. 
 
 This property of the fluor acid renders it extremely jt js^very 
 difficult to be kept.. Mr Meyer Informs us, that difficult to 
 having kept fome upwards of a year in a glafs phial, be kept, 
 it corroded the glafs in many points furrounded with 
 concentric circles, depofiting a powder which adhex-ed » , 
 to the bottom. He Is of opinion that golden veflels Golden vef- 
 would be moft proper for keeping this acid, as alfo forfels mod 
 making experiments on the fluor itfelf. A phial co- proper for 
 vered in the infide with wax and oil has been recom-^^'* 1'"'"' 
 mended for the fame purpofe. 3^7 
 
 This acid, as well as thofe of vitriol, nitre, and fea- Dr Prieft- 
 falt, has been exhibited by Dr Pricftley in an aerial ley's expe- 
 form. Having put fome pounded fpar Into a phial, ^g^^^in" 
 and poured oil of vitriol upon It, adopting at the fame jj^jg ^^id in- 
 time the ufual apparatus for obtaining air, he obferved to a kind of 
 that a permanent cloud was formed by the vapour air. 
 ifluing out from the mouth of the tube, which he at- 
 tributed to the attachment of the acid to the aqueous 
 moilliure of the atmofphere. The moment that water 
 
 came 
 
Praaice. G H E M I 
 
 Sal Sedati- came In cantaA with this air, Its furface became opaque 
 vus and its ^^^^j^g Y)y a ftony film, which retarded the afcent of 
 tloJI t-lie ^vater, till the air infmuating itfelf through the 
 c— Y— pores and cracks of the Cruft, the water neceffarily 
 rofe as the air dlmlnlfhed; and breaking the cruft^ pre- 
 fented a new furface to the air, which was Immediate- 
 ly covered with another cruft. Tims one ftony In- 
 cruftatlon was formed after another till every particle 
 of the air was united to the water ; and the diff'erent 
 films being coUefted and dried, formed a white pow- 
 dery fubftance, generally a little acid to the tafte ; but 
 , when waftied In much pure water, perfeftly Infipid. 
 The property of corroding glafs he found to belong to 
 the fluor acid air only when hot. From fome other 
 experiments he concluded, that the fluor acid air was 
 the fame with what he had formerly obtained from vl- 
 trioh'c acid : but the experiments made fince that time 
 by various chemlfts, have now convinced him that It is 
 an acid of a nature entirely diff'erent from all others. 
 
 By means of the fluor acid, a new art has been dif- 
 covered, viz. that of engraving upon glafs. For this 
 purpofe a looking-glafs plate Is to be covered with 
 melted wax or maftic ; and when the coating becomes 
 hard, It Is to be engraved upon by a very (harp-pointed 
 needle or other inftrument of that kind. A mixture 
 «f oil of vitriol and fluor acid are then to be put upon 
 the plate, and the whole coveied with an inverted 
 China veffel, to prevent the evaporation of the fluor 
 acid. In two days the glafs plate may be cleared of its 
 coating, when all the traces of the needle will be found 
 upon It. 
 
 Method of 
 engraving 
 on glafs. 
 
 § $' Of the Sal SRoATirui, or Add of Boi-ax. 
 
 Found in a This Is a faHne fubftance of a very fingular nature, 
 hiiner-^l in and till lately found no where but in borax itfelf. Its 
 Germany, oi-Jglfi {n different parts of the world is related under 
 the article Borax ; but fince that article was printed, 
 we have accounts of Its being difcovered In a mineral 
 of a peculiar kind found at Lunenburg near Hartz. 
 This Is frequently tranfparent, but fometimes alfo a 
 little opaque, and ftrlkes fire flightly with fteel.^ It 
 has hitherto been found only in fmall cryftals Inve- 
 lo})ed in a gypfeous matter. Thefe generajly affeft 
 the cubical form, though they are fometimes iiregular, 
 tmd from the truncatures frequently appear to be of dif- 
 ferent kinds. One of them had fourteen faces, fix 
 fmall fquare planes, and eight hexahedral ; though all 
 thefe are modifications of cubes. Mr Weftrumb ana- 
 llzed it with fome difficulty ; but at lafl found that 
 loo parts of the mineral contained 60 of fedatlve fait, 
 ten of magfiefia, and ten of calcareous earth ; of clay 
 arid flint five parts, fometimes ten ' of Iron, though fre- 
 quently but five. The fame acid has alfo been dif- 
 covered in Peru, and a little In Hungary from an ana- 
 l-efis of petroleum. This bitumen arifcs from a rock 
 between PecklenicEa and Mofcowlna. It fecms at firft 
 to be white, but foon grows black by expofure to the 
 air. It was analyfcd by profeffor WInterl, who found 
 it to contain a tranfparent oil in a butyraceous form, 
 ;and a true fedative fait, united with the oil by means 
 of an excefs of phlogifton. The fedative fait was firft 
 •difcovered by Bechr, and afterwards more accurately 
 ■dcfcrlbed by Romberg; but Its nature was at firft tery 
 jauch mifundcrftood, bein^ named the narcotic fait of 
 
 S T R Y. 49f 
 
 vitriol, on account of the vitriolic acid ufed in fepara- Sal Sedavi- 
 ting it from the borax. From this it is feparable "* 
 either by fubllmation or cryftalllzatlon. The method tio„\; 
 by fubllmation is tl\at recommended by Homberg. v -- ^ 
 His procefs confifts in mixing green vitriol with borax, • ad 858 
 diflblvlug them in water, filtering the folution, and ^^''^ pr*^* 
 evaporating till a pellicle appears : the liquor Is then 
 to be put into a fmall glafs alembic, and the fubllma- 
 tion promoted till only a dry matter remains in tlie 
 cucurbit. During this operation, the liquor paffes 
 into the receiver ; but the Internal furface of the capi- 
 tal Is covered with a faline matter forming very fmall, 
 thin, laminated cryftals, veiy flilnlng, and very light. 
 This Is the fedative fait. The capital is then to be 
 unluted, and the adhering fait fwept off with a feather; 
 the part of the liquor which pafled laft into the re- 
 ceiver, is to be poured on the dry matter in the cu- 
 curbit ; and a new fubllmation Is to be promoted as 
 before, by diftilling till the matter in the cucurbit is 
 dry. Thefe operations are to be frequently repeated 
 in the fame manner, till no more fedative fait can be 
 obtained. 
 
 To obtain the fedative fait by cryftallizatlon, borax 
 Is to be dlffolved in hot water; and to this folution any 
 one of the three mineral acids is to be gradually added, 
 by a little at a time, till the liquor be faturated, and 
 even have an excefs of acid, according to Mr Beaumc's 
 procefs. The liquor is then to be left in a cold place; 
 and a great number of fmall, fliining, laminated cry- 
 ftals will be formed : thefe muft he waftied with a 
 little vciy cold water, and drained upon brown paper. 
 The fedative fait obtained by this procefs is fomewhat 
 denfer than that obtained by fublimation ; the latter 
 being fo light that 72 grains are fufficient to fill a 
 large phial. ^ 
 
 Sedative fait, though thus capable of being once Fixed in 
 fublimed, is not, however, volatile ; for it arifes only ^^^'^ 
 by means of the water of its crj'ftallization ; and when 
 it has once loft its water by drying, it cannot be rai- 
 fed into vapours by the moft violent fire, but remafns 
 fixed, and melts into a vitreous matter like borax it- 
 felf. This glafs Is foluble in water, and t1ien becomes 
 fedative fait again. A great quantity of water Is re- 
 quired to difl"olve the fedative fait, and much more of 
 cold than of boiling water ; whence It Is cryftallizable 
 by cold, as it alfo Is by evaporation ; a fingular proper- 
 ty, which fcarce belongs to any other known fait. ^(^r, 
 
 This fubftance has not an acid, but a fomewhat T^s propcr- 
 bltterift), tafte, accompanied with a flight impreflion of 
 coolnefs. It neverthelefs unites with alkaline falts as 
 acids do, and forms with them neutral falts. It is fo- 
 luble In fpirit of wine, to which it communicates the 
 property of burning with a green flame. It makes no 
 change on the blue colour of vegetables, as other acids 
 do. It expels the other acids from their bafes, when 
 diftilled with a ftrong heat ; though thefe are all ca- 
 pable of expelhng it m the cold, the acid of vinegar 
 not excepted. g^jj 
 
 The compofitlon of fedative fidt Is very much im- Mr Bour- ] 
 known, as no means fufScIent for its decompofition '^^''."'s 
 have hitherto been fouud out. Mr Bourdelin, who r^n.-ncnts. 
 made many experiments on this fait, found that it was 
 unalterable by treatment with inflammable matters, 
 with fulphur, with mineral acids difengaged, or united 
 with metallic fubftances, and with fpii-it of v/ine. He 
 3 Qj coulj 
 
492 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradicei 
 
 Sal Sedati- could only perceive fome marks of an inflammable mat- 
 ^"^^^"^J'^^ter, and a little marine acid. The former difcovered 
 jjynj itfclf by its communicating a fulphureous fmell to the 
 ^— -y— — - vitriolic ac'd employed ; and the latter by a white 
 precipitate formed in a folution of mercury in the ni- 
 trous acid, by the liquor which came over on diililling 
 gg^ the fait with powdered charcoal. 
 Mr Cadet's Mr Cadet, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy 
 cxperl- of Sciences for 1766, has given an account of fome 
 experiments made by him on borax and its acid: from 
 which he infers (i), That the acid contained in borax 
 itfelf isthe marine, and not fedative, fait. (2.) That 
 it is the marine, he proves by having made a corrofive 
 fublimatc with this acid and mercur'ius precip'itaius per 
 Je. That fedative fait does not enter the compofition 
 of borax itfelf, he proves, by the impoflibility of recom- 
 pofing borax from uniting the fedative fait with folfile 
 alkali. The f<Jt fo produced, he owns, is veiy like bo- 
 rax, but unlit for the purpofes of loldering metals as 
 borax is. He therefore thinks, that, in the decompo- 
 fition of borax, the principles of the fait are fomewhat 
 changed, by the addition of that acid which extricates 
 the feda tive fait ; and that this fait is compofed of the 
 marine acid originally exiiling in the borax, oi the vi- 
 triolic acid employed in the operation, and of a vitref- 
 cible earth. ( If this is true, then fedative fait either 
 cannot be procured by any other acid than the vitrio- 
 lic, or it mull have different properties according to the 
 acid which procures it.) The vitrefcible. earth, he fays, 
 is that which feparates from borax during its folution 
 in \rater, and which abounds more in the unrefined than 
 refined borax, and which bethinks confifts of a calx of 
 copper, having obtained a regulus of copper from it. 
 . As he has never been able,, however, to compofe borax 
 by the union of thefe ingredients, his experiments are 
 by no means decifive.. Mr Beaumc has afferted that 
 it is always produced by rancid oils ; but Dr Black 
 tliinks his proofs by no means fatisfailory. 
 
 Sedative Salt combined, 
 
 I. With Vegetable AlkaTu This fait forms a com- 
 pound very much refembling borax itfelf in quality ; 
 but in what refpefts it differs from, or- how far it is ap- 
 plicable to, the purpofes of borax, hath not yet been 
 determined. 
 
 BbSx ^^'^^^ Mineral Alkali. This fait has generally been 
 
 "'^ ' thought to recompofe borax : and though Mr Cadet 
 has denied this, yet as his experiments are hitherto im- 
 perfeA and unfupported, we Ihall here give the hiftory 
 of that fait, as far as it is yet known. 
 
 This fait is prepared in the Eaft Indies. It is faid, 
 that from certain hills in thefe countries there runs a 
 green faline liquor, which is received in pits hned 
 with clay, and fuffered to evaporate with the fun's 
 heat ; that a bluilh mud which the liquor brings along 
 with it is frequently flirred up, and a bituminous mat- 
 ter, which floats upon the furfacc, taken off ; that 
 when the whole is reduced to a thick confiftence, 
 fome melted fat is mixed, the matter covered with 
 vegetable fubftances and a thin coat of clay ; and that 
 when the fait has cryftalllzed, it is fcparated from the 
 earth by a fieve. In the fame countries is found na- 
 tive the mineral alkali in confiderable quantity ; fome- 
 times tolerably pure, at other times blended with he- 
 
 864 
 Rffined* 
 
 865 
 
 terogeneous matters of various kinds. This alkali ap- Sa! Spdati- 
 pears to exift in borax, -as a Glauber's fait may be forni- 'V'"* ^""^ "^s 
 ed from a combination of borax with vitriolic acid. ^^^^ 
 For a further account See Borax. ; 
 
 Borax, when imported from the Eaft Indies, con- 
 fiils of fmall, y£llow, and glutinous crj'fials. It is r<- 
 fined, fome fay, by diiTolving it in lime-water ; others, 
 in alkaline lixivia, or in a lixivium of cauftic alkali ; 
 and by others, in alum-water. Refined borax confifls 
 of large eight-fided cryftals, each of which is compo- 
 fed of fmall, foft, and bitterifli fcales. It has been 
 faid that cryftals of this fi'/e can by no' means be ob- 
 tained by diffolving unrefined borax in common water; 
 that the cryftals obtained in this way are extremely 
 fmall, and differ conliderably from the refined borax 
 of the fliops ; infomuch that Cramer calls the large 
 cryftals, not a purified, but an adultei-ated borax. 
 When diffolved in lime-water, the borax flioots into 
 larger cryftals ; and largeft of all, when the veflel is 
 covered, and a gentle warmth continued during the 
 cryftallization. All this, however, is denied by Dr 
 Black ; who fays, that in order to accomplirn the pu- 
 rification, we have only to difl'olve the impure borax 
 in hot water ; to feparate the impurities by filtration, 
 after which the fait fhoots into the cryftals we com- 
 monly fee. During the diffolution, borax appears glu- 
 tinous, and adheres in part to the bottom of the vef- 
 fel. From this glutinous quality, peculiar to borax 
 among the falts, it is ufed by dyers for giving a glofs 
 to filks. 
 
 All acids diffolve borax flowIy> and without effer- Its proper, 
 vefcence. It precipitates from them moft, but not all, 
 metallic fubftances ; along with which a confiderable 
 part of the borax is generally depofited. It does not 
 abforb the marine acid of luna cornea, or of mercury 
 fublimate. It melts upon the furface of the former 
 without uniting, and fuffers the latter to rife unchanged : 
 the borax in both cafes becomes coloured; in the firft,. 
 milky with red ftreaks ; in the latter, amethyft or 
 purple. Mixed with fal ammoniac, it extricates the 
 volatile alkali, and retains the acid ; but mixed with 
 a combination of the marine acid with calcareous earths, 
 it unites with the earth, and extricates the acid. It 
 extricates the acid of nitre v/ithout feeming to unite 
 with the alkaline bafis of that fait ; nor does it mingle 
 in fufion with the common fixed alkalir.e falts, the 
 borax flowing diftinft upon their furface. A mixture 
 of borax with twice its weight of tartar, diffolves in 
 one fixth of the quantity of water that would be ne- 
 ceffary to diffolve them feparately ; the liquor yields, 
 on infpiffation, a vifcous, tenacious mafs like glue ; 
 which refufes to cryftallize, and which deliquates in 
 the air. Borax affords likewife a glutinous compound 
 with the other acids, except the vitriolic ; whence 
 this laft is generally preferred for making the feda- 
 tive fait. It proves moft glutinous with the vegetable, 
 and leaft with the marine. With oils, both expref- 
 fed and diftilled, it forms a milky, femi-faponaceous 
 compound. It partially diffolves in fpirit of wine. 
 In conjun£lIon with any acid, it tinges the flame of 
 burning matters green ; the precipitate thrown down 
 by it from metallic folutions has this effect. It does., 
 not deflagrate with nitre. Fufed with inflammable 
 matters, it yields nothing fulphureous, as tiiofe falts do 
 
 which 
 
Pradice. C H E M 
 
 i^cetous A- which contain vitriolic acid. By repeatedly moiften- 
 01 1 and lis -j^g jj. ^y^en confiderably heated, it may be entirely 
 c_,orp !iin&- /•■II* 1 
 iubhmed. 
 
 — Y— Borax retains a good quantity of water in its cryftals ; 
 
 by which it melts and fwells up in a heat infufficient 
 to vitrify it. It is then fpongy and light, like calci- 
 ned alum; but, on increafnig the fire, it flows like wa- 
 ter. 
 
 § 6. Of the Acetous Acid and its Combinations. 
 
 How^pro- This acid Is plentifully obtained from all vinous li- 
 cured. quors, by a fermentation of a particular kind, (fee 
 Fermentation, and Vinegar.) It appears firit in 
 the form of an acid liquor, more or lefs deeply co- 
 loured, as the vinegar is more or lefs pure. By di- 
 flillation in a common copper-ftlU, with a pewter head 
 and worm, this acid may be feparated from many of 
 its oily and impure parts. Diftiiled vinegar is a purer 
 but not a Itronger acid than the vinegar itfelf ; for 
 the acid is originally lefs volatile than water, thougl^, 
 by certain operations. It becomes more fo. After vi- 
 negar has been diftiiled to about ~ of Its original bulk, 
 it Is ftlll very acid, but thick and black. This matter 
 continues to yield, by diftlilatlon, a ftrong acid fplrit, 
 but tainted with an empyreumatic oil. If the dillli- 
 . lation is continued, a thick black oil continues to come 
 
 over ; and at laft fome volatile alkali, as in the diltil- 
 lation of animal fubftances. The caput mortuum left 
 in the diftllling veffel, being calcined In an open fire, 
 ' and afterwards lixiviated, yields fome fixed alkaline 
 
 fait. 
 
 Acetous Acid combines, 
 
 868 
 
 Sal diureti- ^* ^^'^"''^ Vegetable Alkali. The produce of this combi- 
 cus. nation is the terra foliata tartaric or fal diuretlcus of 
 
 the (hops ; but to prepare this fait of a line white flaky 
 appearance, which is neceffary for fale, Is a matter of 
 fome dItHculty. The belt method of performing this 
 operation is, after having faturated the alkali witli the 
 vinegar, which requires about 1 5 parts of common di- 
 ftiiled vinegar to one of alkali, to evaporate the liquor to 
 drynefs; then melt the fallne mafs which remalHS with 
 a gentle heat ; after which it Is to be diflblved in wa- 
 ter, then filtered, and again evaporated to drynefs. If 
 it is now diflblved in fplrit of wine, and the liquid ab- 
 ftrafted by dlftlllatlon, the remaining mafs being melted 
 a fecond time, will, on cooling, have the flaky appear- 
 ance defired. 
 
 A good deal of caution is neceflaiy in the firft melt- 
 ing V tor the acetous acid Is eafily diflipable, even when 
 combined with fixed alkali, by fire. It is proper, 
 therefore, that, when tlic fait is melted, a little ihould 
 be occafionally taken out, and put into water ; and, 
 when It readily parts with its blacknefs to the water, 
 mi^ft then be removed from the fire. The fait, when 
 made, has a very ftrong attraction for water, infomuch 
 that it Is not eafily prefervcd, even when put into glafs 
 bottles. To keep It from deliquating, Dr Black, 
 therefore, recommends the corks to be covered with 
 fome bituminous matter ; otherwlle they would tranf- 
 _ , mit moifture enough to make the fait deliqirate. 
 />ifetousK-" l^'^h Fojjlle Alkali. This alkafi, combined with 
 
 ckI wltli the acetous acid, forms a fait whofe properties ai-e not 
 ff!Iik uika- well known. Dr Lewis affirms, that it is nearly fimllar 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 493 
 
 to the terra foliata tartari. The author of the Chemical Acet us A . 
 
 DIftionary, again, maintains it to be quite different : 
 
 partlculc^ily that it cryftaUizes well, and is not deii<|ue- jjj,,-,^ 
 
 fcent in the air; whereas the former cannot be cry- — 
 
 ftalUzed; and even when obtained In a dry form, un- 
 
 kfs great care Is taken to exclude the air, will prefeiit- 
 
 ly dcliquate. 870 
 
 III. With Volatile Alkali. This combination produces Veijt tahle 
 a fait fo exceedingly dehquefcent, that it cannot be pro- amnv iuac. 
 cured in a dry form without the greateft difficulty. In 
 
 a liquid ftate, it is well known in medicine, as a fudo- 
 rlfic, by the name of fpiritiis mindereri. It may, how- 
 ever, be procured in a diy form, by mixing equal parts 
 of vitriolic fal ammoniac and terra foliata tartari, and 
 fubllming the mixture with a very gentle heat. When 
 the fait is once procured, the utmoft care Is requifite tQ 
 preferve it from the air. 871 
 
 IV. J^dh Earths. Combinations of this kind are but f^j"^"'''^'"^^ 
 little known. With the calcareous and ai"gillaceous 
 
 earths compounds of an aftrlngent nature aie formed. 
 According to the author of the Chemical Dictionary, 
 the fait refulting from a combination of vinegar with 
 calcareous earth eafily cryftalllzes, and. does not deli- 
 quate. With magnefia the acetous. acid does not cry- 
 ftaUizc ; but, when Infplfl'ated, forms a tough mafs, of 
 which two drachms, or two and a half, are a brilli pur- 
 gative. _ _ _ ^^^^ 
 
 V. With Copper. Upon this metal the acid of viner Diftiiled . 
 gar does not adl brifldy, until It is partly at leaft calcl- \'erde- 
 ned. If the copper is previoufly diflblved in a mineral si"^^** 
 acid, and then precipitated, the calx will be readily dif- 
 folved by the acetous acid. The folution Is of ^ green 
 colour, and beautiful green ci*yftals may be obtained 
 
 from it. The folution, however, is much more eafily 
 eftedtcd, by employing verdegris, which is copper al- 
 ready united w-ith a kind of acetous or tartareous acid, 
 and very readily diflblves in-viue^ar. The cryftals ob- 
 tained by this procefs are ufed in painting, under the 
 name of dijulled verdegris. 
 
 The moft ready, and in all probability the cheapeft, 
 method of preparing the cryftals of verdegris Is that 
 propofed by Mr Wenzel, by mixing together the fo- 
 lutions of fugar of lead and blue vitriol, when an ex- 
 change of bafes takes place ; the lead being inftantly 
 precipitated by the vitriolic acid, and the acetous acid 
 uniting with the copper. From 15 ounces and two 
 drachms of fugar of lead with twelve ounces of blue 
 vitriol, five ounces of the cryftals were obtained. The ■ 
 precipitate of lead, though waflied feveral times with . 
 water, never loft its green colour. It may either be 
 ufed, he fays, in this ftate, as a green pigment, or it 
 may be made perfectly white by digeftlon in dilute ni- 
 trous acid. 
 
 VI. With Iron. VIncgar,a£ts very readily upon iron,j,.„^ liquor- 
 and diflblves it into a very brown and almoft black 11- for printing 
 quor, which does not eafily cryftallize, but, if infplf- cloth, 
 fated, runs per dellqulum. This liquor is employed 
 
 in the printing of linens, callicoes, &c. being found 
 to ftrike a finer black with madder, and to. injure 
 the cloth lefs, than folutions of Iron in the other acids. 
 
 VII. With Lead. The acetous acid diflblves lead in 
 its metallic ftate very fparingly ; but If the metal is. 
 calcined. It adis upon It very ftrongly. Even after lead 
 Is melted into glafs, the acetous acid will receive a 
 ftrong impregnation from it ; and hence it Is dangerous 
 
 to..i 
 
 874. 
 Lead. 
 
494- 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradlce, 
 
 AceKvis A- to put vlnegfiv into fiiA earthen vefFt'l'! as are glazed 
 cii\ and ICS ^cjjj Yead. In the metallic ilatc, only a drachm of 
 lead can be diffolvcd in cidit ounces of diiliHed viue- 
 
 ^75 
 C'cnifs, 
 
 If lead is expofed to tlie vapours of warm vinegar, 
 it is corroded into a kind of calx, which is ufed in 
 great quantities in painting, and is known by the innne 
 of crruJSf or ivhiie lead. 'I'Jie preparation of this pig- 
 ment has become a diftinft trade, and is pradtifed in 
 fome places of tliis kingdon^ where lead is procurable 
 at the loweft price. The procefs for making cerufs 
 is thus given by the author of the Chemical Didio- 
 nary. 
 
 " To make cerufs, leaden plates rolled fpirally, fo 
 that the fpace of an inch ihaU be left between each 
 circumvolution, inull be placed vertically in earthen 
 pots of a pi-oper fize, containing fome good vinegar. 
 Thefe leaden rolls ought to be fo fupported in the pots 
 that they do not touch the vinegar, but that the acid 
 vapour may circulate freely betwixt the circumvolu- 
 tions. The pots are to be covered, and placed in a 
 bed of dung, or in a fand-bath, by which a gentle heat 
 may be applied. The acid of vinegar being thus redu- 
 ced into vapour, eafily attaches itfelf to the furface of 
 thefe plates, penetrates them, and Is impregnated with 
 the metal, which it reduces to a beautiful white pow- 
 der, called cerufs. When a fufficient quantity of it 
 is collefted on the plates, the rolls are taken out of the 
 pots, and unfolded ; ,the cerufs is then taken off, and 
 they are again rolled up, that the operation may be 
 repeated. 
 
 " In this operation, the acid being overcharged with 
 lead, this metal is not properly in a faline ftate ; 
 hence cerufs is not in cryftals, nor is foluble In water : 
 but a faline property would render it unfit for painting, 
 in which it is chiefly employed." 
 
 Though this procefs may in general be juft, yet 
 tion* on the there are certainly fome particulars necefl'ary to make 
 procefs for cerufs of a proper colour, which this author has omit- 
 '"'"'^ ' ted ; for though we have carefully treated thin plates 
 of lead in the manner he diredts, yet the calx always 
 turned out of a dirty grey colour. It is probable, 
 therefore, that after the lead has been corroded by 
 the fteam of vinegar, it may be wafhed with water 
 flightly impregnated with the vitriolic and nitrous 
 acids. 
 
 This preparation Is the only white hitherto found fit 
 for painting in oil : but the difcovery of anether would 
 be very defirable, not only from the faults of cerufs as 
 a paint, but alfo from itsinjnring the health of perfons 
 employed in its manufafture, by aflefting them with a 
 fevere colic ; which lead, and all its preparations, fre- 
 quently occafion. 
 
 If diflilled vinegar is poured on white lead, it will 
 diffolve it in much greater quantity than either the lead 
 in its metallic form, or any of its calces. This folution 
 filtered and evaporated, fhoots into fmall cryllals of an 
 xiuttere fweetifli talle, called fugar of lead. Thefe are 
 ufed in dyeing, and externally in medicines. They 
 have been even given internally for fpltting of blood. 
 This they will very certainly cure ; but at the fame 
 time they as certainly kill the patient by bringing on 
 other difeafes. If thefe cryftals are repeatedly dilTolved 
 in freih acids, and the folutions evapora1;ed, an oily 
 
 876 
 Obferva' 
 
 877 
 Sugar of 
 
 cernin^ the 
 ■'ubility (it' 
 
 kind of fubftance will at lad be obtained, which can Acetous A- 
 fcarcely be dried. "^'^ ''''^^ 
 
 From all the metallic combinations of the acetous 
 
 acid, it may be recovered In an exceedingly concen- , 
 
 trated form, by fimple dilliilation, fugar of lead only 878 
 excepted. If this fubftance is diftillcd in a retort with |-if!a"in'a- 
 a fti'ong heat, it hath been faid that an inflammabk f"^^'^''|"g3j. 
 fpirit, and not an acid, comes o\ cv; but this is denied of lead, 
 by Dr Llack. gj^ 
 
 VIII. JVifhTiiu The combination of acetous acid Tin. 
 vi'ith tin is fo little known, that many have doubted whe- 
 ther diftilled vinegar is capable of dilTolving tin or not. 
 Dr Lewis obfervcs, " That plates of pure tin put into pp j^jj^is' ' 
 common vinegar begun In a few hours to be corroded, experi- 
 without the application of heat. By degrees a por- I'lei'ts con- 
 tion of the metal was taken up by the acid, but did 
 not feem to be perfectly diffolved, the liquor appear- 
 ing quite opaque and turbid, and depofiting great part 
 of the corroded tin to the bottom, in a whitifti powder. 
 A part of the tin, if not truly diffolved, is exqulfitely 
 divided in the hquor : for, after Handing many days, 
 and after palling through a fdter, fo much remained 
 fulpended as to give a whitifnnefs' and opacity to the 
 fluid. Acid juices of fruits, fubftituted to the vinegar, 
 exhibited the fame phenomena. Thefe experiments 
 are not fully conchifive for the real folubility of tin in 
 thefe acids, with regard to the pnrpofes for which 
 chemifts have wanted fuch a folution : but they prove 
 what is more important ; tha: tin, or tinned veffels, 
 however pure the tin be, will give a metallic impreg- 
 nation to light vegetable acids fuffered to ftand In them 
 for a few hours." 
 
 With regard to other metallic fubftances, neither the 
 degree of attraftlon which the acetous acid has for 
 them, nor the nature of the compoui>ds formed by the 
 union of It with fnch fubftances, are known ; only, that 
 as much of the reguline part of antimony Is diffolved 
 In this acid as to give it a violent emetic quahty. See 
 Regulus of Antimony. 
 
 Concentration of the Acetous Acid, 
 
 8f?r 
 
 Common vinegar, as any other weak acid, may be Concentrac 
 advantageoufly concentrated by froft ; as alfo may itstfl vme- 
 fpirit or the diftilled vinegar of the ftiops : but as the S^""- 
 cold, in this country, is I'eldom or never fo Intenie as 
 to freeze vinegar, this method of concentration cannot 
 be made ufe of here. If diftilled vinegar be fet in a 
 water-bath, the moft aqueous part will arife, and leave 
 the more concentrated acid behind. This method, 
 however, is tedious, and no great degree of concentra- 
 tion can be produced, even when the operation is car- 
 ried to its utmoft length. A much more concentra- 
 ted acid may be obtained by diftilling In a retort the 
 cryftals of copper, mentioned (n° 872.) under the 
 name of d'ifltUed verdegris, A very ftrong acid may 
 thus be obtained, which has a very pungent finell, 
 almoft as fuft'ocating as volatile fulphureous acid. 
 The Count de Lauraguais dlfcovered that this fpi- 
 rit, if heated in a wide-mouthed pan, would take 
 fire on the contaft of flaming fubftances, and burn en- 
 tirely away, like fpirit of wine, without any refiduum. 
 The fame nobleman alfo obfervcd, that this fpirit, JRj 
 when well concentrated, eafily cryftallizes without ad- Salt of vi- 
 dition. "^Sar. 
 5 This 
 
Pfaaice. C H E M 
 
 Acetous A- This may feem to be the mod proper method of ob- 
 cidanl it- ■ • • • ■ ■ " ' 
 
 Comblua- 
 
 I s T R y. 
 
 495 
 
 an 1 its taining the acetous acid in its grcHteft degree of (trength 
 
 883 
 
 and purity : but as the procefs requires a very ilrong 
 heat to be ufed towards the end of the operation, It is 
 probable that part of the acetous acid may be by that 
 means entirely dccompofed. It would feem preferable, 
 therefore, to decompofe pure terra foliata tartari by 
 means of the vitriolic acid, in the fame manner as nitre 
 or fea-falt are decompofcd for obtaining their acids. 
 In this cafe, indeed, the acetous acid might be a little 
 mixed with the vitriolic ; but that could eafily be fe- 
 parated by a fecond dliVillation. A Itill better iTie- 
 thod of preparing this acid feems to be by diftllling 
 fugar of Jead with oil of vitriol. The proportion ufed^ 
 by M. Lorenzen of Copenhagen, is three ounces of 
 vitriolic acid to eight of the fugar of lead. Mr Doll- 
 fufs recom.mends two parts of fugar of lead to one of 
 vitriolic acid 
 
 pyreumatic acid muft firfl. be dlftlUed from beech- vfood, Acid of 
 and then reaified by a fecond dilliUalion. Three .[^^JJ^^Jf'J* 
 pounds of this require for their faturacion five ounces nations, 
 of purified alkali, which by evaporation and fufion af- u— «4 
 fc^rds three ounces and a quarter of terra foliata tartari. 
 From this, one ounce fix drachms of concentrated a- 
 cld are obtained ; and this, on being mixed v/ith an 
 equal quantity of alcohol, yields two ounces one 
 drachm and a half of genuine ether. 
 
 Priefl Prieftley, who gives us feveral experiments on 
 
 ky'&expe- the vegetable acid when reduced to the form of air, 
 riments. mentions his being eafily able to expel it from fome 
 exceedingly ftrong concentrated vinegar, by means of 
 heat alone. This feems fomewhat contrary to the 
 count de Lauragnais's obfervation of the difpofition of 
 the fpirit of vcrdegris, as it is commonly called, to 
 cryflaUize ; but a IHU greater difference is, that the 
 vegetable acid air extinguiflied a candle, when, accord- 
 ing to the Count's obfervation, it ought to have been 
 inflammable. The moll curious property obferved by 
 Dr Prieftley is, that the vegetable acid air being Im- 
 bibed by oil olive, the oil was rendered U fs vifcid, and 
 clearer, almojl Uh an ejfcntu.1l oil This is an ufeful 
 hint ; and, if purfued, might lead to important. difco- 
 veries. 
 
 Acetous acid combined with Jnflammahh Matter. 
 884 rp^^ ^^jy yet known, of combining acetous 
 
 ethS! ^ acid with the principle of inflammability, is by mix- 
 ing togtther equal parts of the ftrongly concentra- 
 ted acid called j'pirit of verdegrisy and Ipirit of wine. 
 The refult is, a new kind of ether, fraailar to the vitii- 
 clic, nitrous, and marine. This ether, however, re- 
 tains fome of the acidity and peculiar fmeil of the 
 vinegar. By rectification with fixed alkali, it may 
 be freed from this acidity, and then fmcUs more like 
 true ether, but dill t-etaining fomething of the fniell, 
 liot of the acid, but the inflammable part of the vine- 
 g;ar. 
 
 In this prccefs a greater quantity of ether is obtain- 
 f d than by employing the vitriolic acid ; which (hows 
 that the vegetable acid is effentially fitter to produce 
 e*her than the vitriolic. For making the acetous ether 
 rtadily, Mr Dollfufs recommends eight ounces of fugar 
 ©f lead dried by a very gentle heat, until it lofes the 
 water of cryftalllzation, when it will weigh five ounce* 
 and fix drachms. It is then to be put into a glafs re- 
 tort, and a mixture of five ounces of vitriolic acid> 
 with eight of fpirit of wine, poured upon it, and the 
 whole diftilled with a very gentle fire. The firft ounce 
 that paffes over will be dulcified acetous acid, the next 
 almoft all ether, and the third ether in its pureil 
 ftate. 
 
 An ether may alfo be obtained from vinegar of 
 wood. To make it, the moll concentrated acid of thid 
 kind is to be made ufe of. For this purpofe an em- 
 
 ^7. Of the Jcid of Tartar. 
 
 88^ 
 
 Tartar \& a fubftance thrown off from wine, after Tartan 
 it is put into cat1<s to depurate. The more tartar, that 
 is feparated, the more fmooth and palatable the wine 
 is. This fubilance forms a thick hard cruft on the 
 fides of the cailcs : and, as part of the fine dregs of 
 the wine adhere to it, the tartar of the white wines 
 is of a greyifli white colour, called luh'ite tartar ; and 
 that of red wine has a red colour, and is called m/ 
 tartar. 886 
 
 When feparated from the caflcs on which it is form- Cream of 
 ed, tartar is mixed with much heterogeneous matter ; 
 from which, for the purpofes of medicine and che- 
 miilry, it requires to be purified. This purification 
 is performed at Montpelier ; and confifts firll in boiling 
 the tartar in water, filtrating the folution, and allow- 
 ing the fait to cryftallize, which it very foon does ; as 
 tartar requires nearly twenty times its weight of water 
 to dilTolve it. 
 
 The cryftals of tartar obtained by this operation 
 are far from being perfedly pure ; and therefore they 
 are again boiled in water, with an addition of clay, 
 which abforbs the colouring matter and thus, on a 
 fecond cryftallization, a very pure and white fait is ob- 
 tained. Thefe cryilals are called cream^ or cryfialst, 
 of tartar; and are commonly fold under thcftr 
 names. 
 
 Dr Black obferves, that in the purification of tartar^ 
 it is neceffiiry to add fome earthy fubitances, in order to 
 abfoi b or carry down the colour, Macquer thinks that 
 thefe fubftances unite in part with the tartar, and render 
 it more foluble, but they have little difpofition to unite- 
 with acids ; they are the purer kinds of clay, and pro- 
 mote the complete depofition of its impurities : f<> 
 that in the management of wines it is necefiary to add 
 certain powdery fubltances which have fome weighty 
 and fall to the bottom readily 'y and which, in falHng, 
 carry down a number of particles that would other- 
 wife float in the liquor for a long time, being fo light 
 that they could hardly be made to fubfide ; but the 
 particles of clay adhering to them increafe their gravi- 
 ty ; and probably it anfwers the fame purpofe in the 
 refinement of tartar. 
 
 To obtain the pure Acid of Tartar. 
 For a long time the cream or cryftals of tartar Sclieek '3 
 were confidered as the pureft acid which could be^n^'y^^^t 
 obtained from this fuWlance ; but, in the year 1 770, "^^"^ 
 an analyfis of tartar was publifted in the S-wedifti 
 tranfaAions, by Mr Scheele. His method of de- 
 compofing the fait was, to dlffolve it in a fufficlent 
 quantity of boiling water, then to add chalk in fine 
 powder till the effervefcence ceafed. A copious pre- 
 cipitation enfucd ; and the remaining liquor being eva- 
 
 poratedj 
 
 tartar. 
 
49^ C H E M I 
 
 Acid of porated, afforded a foliible tartar. This proved, that 
 Tartar and-^^„„ ^i- ^ ■ ^ , r r , 
 
 Its Combi- ^^^^^ °' tartar IS not, as wag commonly fuppofed, an 
 nations. »cid of ^ a peculiar kind, joined with a great deal of 
 
 ^— ry earthy impurities ; but really a compound fait, con- 
 
 taining an alkali joined with an acid ; and that the 
 alkali produced from burnt tartar is not generated ia 
 the fire, but pre-exiftent in the fait. 
 
 The whole fediment obtained in thii experiment, is 
 the calcareous earth combined with the acid of tartar, 
 which may juftly be calkd felm'ites tartareus. If feme 
 diluted vitriolic acid Is poured upon this felenites tar- 
 ' tareus, the vitriolic acid expels the acid of tartar, form- 
 ing a true felenite with the earth, while the liquor 
 contains the pure acid of tartar. By infpIiTatlon this 
 acid may be made ftronger, and even formed into fmail 
 white cryftals, which do not dellquate in the air. A 
 particular fpecles of tartar extraded from forrel hath 
 been fold for taking fpots out of cloths, under the name 
 of ejfetiilal fait of lemons, and which is now difcovered 
 to be the fame with the acid of fugar. 
 
 This experiment was foon after confirmed by Dr 
 Black ; who farther obferved, that if quickhme was ufed 
 
 S T R 
 
 Y. 
 
 Pra^ice, 
 
 recompofed from the pure acid and alkali in the fol- ^eid of 
 lowing manner : " Upon fixed vegetable alkali pour Ja^tar afi4 
 a folution of the acid of tartar. Continue this till the nat^^lig^^^" 
 effervefcence Is over ; the fluid will then be tranfpa- • ^' -f 
 rent ; but if more of the acid Is added. It will become 890 
 turbid and white, and fmall cryftals like white fand Regenera- 
 wlll be formed in It. Thefe cryftals are a perfeft cream "^''^^"^ 
 of tartar. of tartar. 
 
 • Effential 
 'fait of le- 
 'tnonst 
 
 Upon thefe principles, another method of decompo- 
 fing cream of tartar might be tried ; namely, adding 
 to it as much oil of vitriol as would faturate the alkali, 
 then diffolving and cryftalllzing the fait: but, by this 
 method, there would be danger of the acid being adul- 
 terated with vitriolated tartar. . ^ ^ 
 
 II. With FoJJile Alkali. The fait produced from an Selgnette's 
 union of cream of tartar with foflile alkali, has been Rocheile 
 long known under the names of Selgnette's fait, falRu-^^'^' 
 pelleriftsy or Rocheile fait ; but as the cream of tartar is 
 now difcovered to be not a pure acid, but adulterated * 
 with a portion of foluble tartar, poflibly fome differen- 
 ces might be obferved if the pure acid was uted. 
 
 This fait was firft invented and brought Into vogue 
 
 inftead of chalk, the whole acid would be abforbed by by one Seignette, an apothecary' at Rocheile, who kept 
 
 the lime, and the remaining liquor, inftead of being a the compofitlon a fecret as long as he could. Meffrs 
 
 folution of foluble tartar, would be a cauftic lixivium. Boylduc and Geoffroy afterwards difcovered and pab- 
 
 The moft ready method, however, of procuring the pure lifhed its cotnpofitloh. 
 
 acid of tartar feems_ to be that recommended by Mr To prepare this fait, cryftals of mineral alkali are 
 
 Schiller in the Chemical Annals for 1787. One pound to be diffolved in hot water, and powdered cream of 
 
 of cream of tartar Is to be boiled in five or fix pounds 
 of water, and a quarter of a pound of oil of vitriol 
 added by little and little, by which means a perfeft 
 folution will be obtained. By continuing the boihng, 
 all the vitriolated tartar is precipitated. When the li- 
 quor is evaporated to one half, it muftbe filtered ; and 
 
 tartar thrown in as long as any effervefcence arifes. 
 For the better cryftaUIzation of the fait, the alkali 
 ought to prevail. The hquor muft then be filtered 
 and evaporated, and very fine large ciyftals may be 
 obtained by cold, each of which is the half of a poly- 
 gonous prifm cut in tlie direftion of its axis. This 
 
 if, on the renewal of the boiling, any thing farther is feftlon, which forms a face much laro-er than the reft. 
 
 Soluble tar 
 tar. 
 
 precipitated, the filtration is to be repeated. The 
 clear liquor is then to be reduced to the confiftence 
 of a fyrup, and fet in a temperate, or rather a warm 
 place, when very fine cryftals will be formed, and as 
 much acid obtained as is equal in weight to half the 
 cream of tartar employed. • If too fmall a quantity of 
 vitriolic acid has been employed, the undecompofed 
 cream of tartar falls along with the vitriolated tartar. 
 
 Acid of Tartar combined, 
 
 I. With Vegetable Alkali. If the pure acid of tartar 
 be combined with this alkali to the point of faturation, 
 a neutral fait is produced, which dellquates In thf air, 
 and Is not eafily cryftalllzed, unlefs the liquor be kept 
 warm, and hkewife be fomewhat alkaline. This fait, 
 called foluble tartar'^ Is ufed In medicine as a purgative; 
 but as its dellquefcence does not admit of Its being 
 kept in a cryftalline form, it is always fold In powder. 
 Hence thofe who prepare foluble tartar, take no fur- 
 ther trouble than merely to rub one part of fixed all-a- 
 llne fait with thiee of cream of tartar, which renders 
 the compound fufficiently neutral, and anfwers all the 
 purpofes of medicine. Dr Black informs us, that in 
 medical prefcrlptlons, where foluble tartar is ordered 
 as a purgative along with a decoftlon of tamarinds, 
 the acid of the latter will decompofe the foluble tartar, 
 and thus the prefcrlption may perhaps be rendered in- 
 effeftual. The fallne mixture ilfdd in fpvers Is nothing 
 but a tartartts lolubillfi in folution. 
 
 According to Mr Scheele,- cream of tartar may be 
 
 IS, hke them, a regular reftangle, diftinguifhable from 
 the others, not only by its breadth, but alfo by two 
 diftlndt diagonal lines which interfeft each other in the 
 middle. The following method of preparing Selg- 
 nette's fait, recommended by Mr Scheele, feems pre- 
 ferable to any other on account of Its eafe and cheap- 
 nefs. Thirty fix ounces of cryftals of tartar are to ba 
 fatm-ated with potafh, and eleven ounces of common 
 fait diffolved in the ley. When it Is grown cold, and 
 the vitriolated tartar has fubfided to the bottom, it is 
 filtered and evaporated till a pellicle appears ; the two 
 firft cryftalllzations yield a fine Seignctte's fait ; the 
 third contains fome digeftive fait ; and the fourth is 
 entirely compofed of it. The reafon of this formation 
 of Selgnette's fait Is, that the vegetable alkah has a 
 greater attraftlon for acids than the mineral, and there- 
 fore decompofes the fea-falt, vvhofe bafis is then at li- 
 berty to combine with the acid of tartar ; while the 
 ftronger marine acid takes the vegetable alkali. — A 
 fait of the fame kind will be produced by adding Glau- 
 ber's fait inftead of common fea-falt. 
 
 III. With V olatile Akali. With regard to this com* Cream of 
 bination, all we know as yet is, that if the alkali is tartar, 
 over-fiiturated with acid, a cream of tartar, aimoft as 
 difficult of folution as that of fixed alkali, will be ob- 
 tained. When the faturation has been pretty exa£l, a 
 beautiful fait, compofed of four fided pyramids, and 
 which does not dellquate In the air, is produced. It 
 is inllantiy decompounded, and emits a pungeut vola- 
 tile fmel on being mixed with fixed alkah. 
 
 6 IV. 
 
Practice. 
 
 CHEMIS TRY. 
 
 Afine green 
 
 colour. 
 
 Chalybcat- 
 t'd tartar. 
 
 986 
 
 Sacchtiri: 
 acid. 
 
 897 
 
 faccha.-in 
 ■<'.i,id. 
 
 IV. IVilh Earths. All that Is as yet known con- 
 cerning thefe combinations, is, that with the calcareous 
 earth a compound not eafily foluble in water is form- 
 ed. The other properties of this fubltance, and the 
 nature of combinations of tartareous acid with other 
 earths, are entirely unknown. 
 
 V. With Copper. In its metallic Rate, cream of tar- 
 tar afts but weakly on this metal, but diflblves ver- 
 degris much more perfeftly than diftilled vinegar can. 
 The folution with cream of tartar, being evaporated, 
 does not cryftallize, but runs into a gummy kind of 
 matter; which, however, does not attradi the moifture 
 of the air. It readily diffolves in water, and makes 
 a beautiful bluilh green on paper, which has the pro- 
 perty of always fhining, as if covered with varnifh. 
 The elFefts of the pure acid on this metal have not yet 
 been tried. 
 
 VI. Wilh Iron. The efFefts of a combination of 
 iron with the pure acid have not hitherto been tried. 
 Cream of tartar diiTolves tkis metal into a green liquor, 
 which being evaporated runs per cUiquiuni. It has been 
 attempted to fubilitute a folution of this kind to the 
 liquor ufed in printing calicoes formed of iron ai:d four 
 beer; but this gave a very dull brownilh colour with 
 madder. Poffibly, if the pure acid was ufed, the co- 
 lour might be improved. In micdiclne, a combination 
 of cream of tartar with iron is ufed, and probably may 
 be an ufeful chalybeate. 
 
 VII. With Regulus ofAnt'movy. See Sed. III. 
 
 ^ 8. Of the Add of Sugar, 
 
 '^^ That fugar contains an acid, which on diftlUation 
 by a ftrong fire arifes in a liquid form, in common with 
 that of moil other vegetable fubftances, has been ge- 
 nerally known ; but how to obtain this acid in a con- 
 crete form, and to appearance as pure and cryftal- 
 lizable as the acid of tartar, we were entirely ignorant, 
 till the appearance of a treatife intitled, D'ffertatto Che- 
 mka, de acido Sacchari, auBore Johanne Afzelio Arvidf- 
 fon, 4to, Upfalide. 
 
 Of the method of procuring, and the properties of, 
 this new acid, we have the following account in the 
 Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, vol. iv. 
 
 " I. To an ounce of the fmeft white fugar In pow- 
 der. In a tubulated retort, add three ounces of ftrong 
 fplrit of nitre. 
 
 " 2. The folution being finlfhed, and the phloglfton 
 of the fplrit of nitre moftly exhaled, let a receiver be 
 properly fitted to the retort atid luted, and the liquor 
 then made to boil gently. 
 
 " 3- When the folution bas obtained a brownl/h co- 
 lour, add three ounces more of fplrit of nitre, and let 
 the ebullition be continued till the fumes of the acid 
 are almoft gone. 
 
 " .4. The liquor .being at length emptied Into a lar- 
 ger veffel, and expofed to a proper degree of cold, qua- 
 drangular prifmatic ciyftals are obferved to form ; 
 which being collefted, and dried on foft paper, are 
 ifound to weigh about 109 grains. 
 
 5. The remaining liquor being again boiled In the 
 fame retort, with two ounces of frelh fplrit of nitre, 
 till the red vapours begin to difappear, and being then 
 In the fame manner expofed to cryftallize, about 43 
 grains of fallne fpiculce are obtained. 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 497 
 
 " 6. To the liquid that ftlU remains, about tw^ Acid of S.-.- 
 ounces more of fpirit of nitre being added, and ^^ter-SfJ^'^^.'^ J*^* 
 wards the whole being, loth by boiling and evaporation, 
 
 reduced to a dry mafs, a brown, faline, gelatinous ^ — ^ 
 
 kind of fubftance Is produced, which, when thorough- 
 ly dry, is found to weigh about half a drachm. 
 
 " In the fame manner, a fimllar acid, we are told, 
 may be obtained from different faccharine fubftances, 
 a'A gum-arabic, honey, iffc; but from none in fuch quan- 
 tities, or fo pure, as from line fugar." g^g 
 
 This fait poffelfcs fome very fmgular properties, of Prefump^ 
 which what appears to us the moft remarkable, and 'i'"'" ' f its 
 which we cannot help reading with fome-degree of '^f'P^'.^"'^,. 
 doubt. Is, that it produces an eftervefcence on being ^^^1!'''^''^ 
 added to fucli alkaline, earthy, or metallie fubflances, as 
 contain the 'vitriolic acid. From this we fhould be apt 
 to think, that this acid was capable of diflodging even 
 the vitriolic acid from its bafis. 
 
 Acid of fugar, being diftilled In a retort, gives over 
 about t'q of its weight of water. By an interife heat 
 it melts, and is partly fublimed ; leaving In the retort 
 a dark grey mafs, of about the fifth part of the weio-ht 
 of the cryttals made ufe of. The fubhmed fait eafily 
 recovers its cryftalHne form, and feems to have under- 
 gone no further change by fubhraatlon than belnp- ren- 
 dered more pure. During the diftillatlon a great quan- 
 tity of elaftic vapour rufhes out (about 100 cubic in- 
 ches from half an ounce of the cryftals), which, from 
 the diftilled liquor's precipitating lime-water, we may 
 judge to be fixed air. In a fecond fublimatlon, white 
 fumes are fent over, which, when cold, appear to be 
 an acid, glaffy-coloured hquor, but cannot be again 
 cryftalllzed. " Such parts of the falts as adhei^ to 
 the fides and necks of the veffels do not appear to be 
 in the leaft changed In the proccfs." On a third fub- 
 limation, thefe parts produced fuch elaftic vapours as 
 burft the receiver. 
 
 This fingular fait has a confiderable acid power ; Great acid 
 twenty grains of It giving a very confiderable degree P'^^^^''" 
 of acidity to a large tankard of water. It dlffolves in 
 an equal weight of diftilled water, but concretes on 
 the liquor's growing cool. It is alfo foluble In fplrit 
 of wine ; 100 parts of boiling fpirit of wine diftblving 
 56 of the faccharine ciyftals, but no more than 40 
 when cold. The folution In fplrit of wine foon be- 
 comes turbid; and depofites a mucous fediment, in 
 quantity about of the acid made ufe of. When cold, 
 Irregular fcaly ci-yftals are formed, which when dry 
 are perfeftly white. 
 
 With vegetable alkali, the acid of fugar can fcarcely 
 be formed into cryftals, unlefs either the alkali or acid 
 predominate. With mineral alkali, a fait very diffi- 
 cult of folution Is formed. The quantity of volatile 
 alkali faturated by this acid Is Incredible. ' " Six parts Tncr^edi!)Ie 
 of a pure volatile alkali may be faturated with one of quantity of 
 the acid of fugar. The produce Is a quadrangular X'^'^''''^^^* 
 prifmaric fait. With lime this acid unites fo ftrongly, ted'b^'iT* 
 as to be feparable by no other means than a ftrong * 
 heat. What kind of a fait refults from this combina- 
 tion we are not told; but the author is of opinion, that 
 this ftiows the ufe of lime In the purification o^ iu'i-ar, 
 in order to abforb the fuperfluous acid. Being fatu- 
 rated with fome of the terra pnnderofa, the acid of fu- 
 gar immediately depofits a quantity of pellucid angu- 
 lar cryftals, fcarcely foluble in water. With map-ne- 
 3 fa 
 
498 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pracf\ice# 
 
 Acid of Su- 
 paT and its 
 
 901 
 
 Its effeds 
 fu nietals. 
 
 <)0% 
 
 Saccharine 
 ether. 
 
 903 
 Whether 
 this acid is 
 produced 
 IVom the 
 nitrous. 
 
 ad Q03 
 The iame 
 with the 
 acid of for- 
 
 fir. the fatt appears in form of a white powder, fokible 
 neither in water nor fpirit of wine, unlefs the acid 
 prevails. It has a ftronger affinity with magnefia than 
 any of the alkahne faks. With earth of alum, no 
 cryilals are obtained ; but a yellow pellucid mafs, of 
 a fwcetifli and fomewhat aftringent tafte ; which, in 
 a moill air, liquefies, and increafes two-thirds in 
 weight. 
 
 This acid afts upon all metals, gold, filver, platina, 
 and;quickfilver, not excepted, if they have been pre- 
 vioufly diffolved in an acid, and then precipitated. 
 Iron in its metaUic ftate is diffolved in very large 
 quantity by the faccharine acid ; 45 parts of iron be- 
 ing foluble in 55 of acid. By evaporation, the liquor 
 Ihoots into yellow prifmatic cryftals, which are eafily 
 foluble in water. With cobalt, a quantity of yellow- 
 coloured cryftals are obtained, which being diffolved 
 in water, and fea-falt added to the folution, fornr a 
 fympathetic ink. The eleAive attraftions of this 
 fingular acid are, firft, lime, then the terra ponde- 
 rofa, magnefia, vegetable alkali, mineral alkali, and 
 laftly clays. With fpirit of wine an ether was ob- 
 tained, which cannot eafily be fet on fire unlefs pre- 
 vioufly heated, and burns with a blue inftead of a white 
 flame. 
 
 Towards the conclufion of his differtation the au- 
 thor obferves, that fome may imagine that the acid of 
 nitre, made ufe of in thefe experiments, may have a 
 confidcrable fliare in the produdion of what he has 
 termed acid of fugar. But though he acknowledges 
 that this acid cannot in any way be obtained but by 
 the affiilance of fpirit of nitre, he is thoroughly convin- 
 ced that it does not, in any degree, enter into ks com- 
 pofition. 
 
 Wliat occurs to us on this fubj eft is, that if the acid 
 really pre-exifts in the fugar, it muft give fome tokens 
 of its exiftence by mixing the fugar with other fubftan- 
 ces befides fpirit of nitre. The author himfelf thinks 
 thatUme ads upon the acid part of the fiigar : from 
 whence we are apt to conclude, that by mixing lime, 
 in a certain proportion, with fugar, a compound fliould 
 be obtained fomewhat fimilar to what was formed by 
 a direa combination of hme with the pure acid. In 
 this cafe, we might conclude that the nkrous acid pro- 
 duces this fak, by combining wkh the inflammable part 
 of the fugar, becoming thereby volatile, and flying en- 
 tirely off, fo as to leave the acid of the fugar pure. In 
 the difl;Illatioo of dulcified fpirit of nkre, however, we 
 have an Inftance of the nitrous acid itfelf being very 
 much akered. This muft therefore fuggeft a doubt, 
 that the acid fak obtained in the prefent cafe is only 
 the nitrous acid deprived of ks plilogifton, and united 
 with fome earthy particles. , „ . , , 
 
 In a treatife lately pubhflied by Mr Rigby, how- 
 ever, we are informed that fugar itfelf may be recom- 
 pofed by unk'.ng the acid of fugar with phlogifton ; 
 which affcrtion, if well founded, undoubtedly decides 
 the difoute in favoiu- of the faccharine acid being ori- 
 ginally" contained in the fugar. Late experiments 
 have determined it to be the fame with that of forrel ; 
 for which, as well as many other valuable acquifitions, 
 the fciehce of chemiftry is indebted to Mr Scheele. 
 Having diffolved as much acid of fugar in cold water 
 a§. the^liquor could take up, he added to this folution 
 
 fome Hxivium of tartar drop by drop, waiting a little ^Vdd of 
 after each drop and found the mixture, during the ^„/P/^''"'"* 
 effervefcence, full of fmall cryftals, which were geiuiine Con,l,h,a- 
 falt of wood-forrcl. M. Klaproth having precipitated tion-. 
 
 a nitrous folution of quickfilver with fait of wood- ' v^— J 
 
 forrel, perfeftly neutralized by vegetable alkali, obtain- 3d 903 
 ed a whke precipitate ; vvhich, when edulcorated andFulmii^a- 
 dried, and gently heated in a tea-fpoon, fulminated ^'j^-^l"^^^ 
 with a noife not inferior to that of ftilminating gold. 
 Acid of fugar perfeftly neutralized with vegetable al- 
 kali, afforded the fame precipitate, and fulminated in 
 the fame manner. 
 
 ^9. Of the Acid of Phosphorus. 
 
 904 
 
 This acid was firft difcovered by Romberg mphlogiftic 
 urine ; afterwards by Margraaf in muftard and cruci-acid. 
 ferous plants : M. Bochante difcovered it in wheat ; 
 and laftly, M. Haflenfratz has traced it in the mineral 
 kingdom wkh great attention. — He has found that 
 phofphorated iron is contained in all the PruiTian blues, 
 when not purified ; but that this acid is produced by 
 the coals employed in the procefs, and is no conftitii- 
 ent part of the tinging matter. According to hini it 
 occurs almoft univerfally in the minerals of iron which 
 are found in the flimy ftrata of the earth, as well as 
 thofe which are undoubtedly modern, whether primary 
 or fecondary ; unlefs the iron be fo far of a metallic 
 nature as to be attracted by the magnet, or very near 
 that ftate. It is afforded by the ochry ftrata, and 
 thofe which contain haematites as well as the flimy 
 kind. Into thefe it is fuppofed to have come by the 
 deccmpofition of vegetables; and to inveftigate this 
 matter he examined the hibifcus paluftris, folidago, 
 virga aurea, antirrhinum, lunaria, folanum nigrum, 
 vulgatum, ftachys paluftris, artemifia Zeylandica, 
 ruta graveolens, lycopus Europeus, carex acuta; vinca 
 major, nepeta Pannonica, and noa Abyffma, All 
 thefe plants afforded the acid of wood-forrel and the 
 phofphoric acid. The quantity of the former varied 
 from two ounces two drachms 1 8 grains of acid fait 
 containing fome calcareous earth, to two drachms 24 
 grains in a pound of each plant ; the quantity of cal- 
 careous phofphoric fait being from one ounce fix 
 drachms 48 grains, to one drachm 12 grains.---M. 
 Haffenfratz alfo obferves, that the phofphoric acid is 
 procurable from all kinds of iron ; though in fome it 
 feems to proceed from that contained in the earth, and , 
 in others from the coals employed in the reduflion. 
 
 The phofphoric acid is alfo found by Dr Marquart 
 to be contained in the gaftric juice of animals. One 
 pound four ounces of the gaftric juice of oxen gave 10 
 grains of a lymphatic matter, exaftly like the blood 
 in its qualities ; 1 6 grains and fix-fevenths of phofpho- 
 ric acid, which with a blow-pipe was changed into a 
 very pure and deliquefcent glafs. of phofphorus ; five 
 grains of phofphorated lime, two grains of refin, 14 
 grains of fal ammoniac, 29 grains of common fait, a 
 very fmall quantity of an extraft whofe nature was 
 difficult to afcertain ; one pound three ounces fix 
 drachms and 67^ grains of water; fo that the folid 
 contents were only 166th part of the bulk. 
 
 In ftieep, the quantity of gaftric juice was about . 
 eight ounces in. quantity, of a deeper and brighter 
 
 greea. 
 
Praaice, C H E M 
 
 Acid of green than that of oxen or calves ; but afFording the 
 Phofphorus£gj^g ingredients, though in a different proportion ; 
 
 though no other acid than that of phofphorus could 
 be difcovered. It was alfo more difpofed to putrefac- 
 tion. Calves furnished from four to fix ounces of 
 gaftric juice, which contained very little lymph, but 
 afforded fome quantity of dry jelly, though the whole 
 was not equal to the proper proportion of lymph. 
 The phofphorated lime was in the ufual quantity, but 
 the difengaged phofphoric acid in a very fmall propor- 
 tion. The laAeal acid was found in great quantity ; 
 to which, along with that of phofphorus, our author 
 fuppofes the property of curdling the milk in the ani- 
 mal's ffomach to be owing. 
 
 The phofphoric acid has alfo been found in very 
 large quantity in the calcareous ftones of Andalufia ; 
 and Mr Klaproth has found the fame combined with 
 calcareous earth in a kind of beryl, cryftallized in hexa- 
 hedral prifms, called by M. Verner apatit. — Formerly 
 the beft method of obtaining it was from urine, where 
 it is contained in very confiderable quantity in combi- 
 nation with the volatile alkah, and forming a fait call- 
 ed the mtcrocofmk, or ejferit'ial fait of urine. 
 
 To procure this, a large quantity of urine is to be 
 evaporated to the confiftence of a thin fyrup ; which, 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 Microcof- 
 mic fait, 
 
 howprocu- being fet in a cold place, will yield, in three or four 
 red. weeks, foul brown-coloured cryftals, which are the 
 
 microcofmic fait, mixed with the marine, and other 
 falts of urine. Thefe cryftals are to be diffolved in 
 hot water ; the folution filtered whilft it continues hot, 
 and fet to crj'^llaUize again ; and the folution, filtra*- 
 tion, and cryftallization, repeated till the fait becomes 
 pure and white. In all the cryftallizations the micro- 
 cofmic fait fhoots firft, and is eafily diftinguifhed and 
 feparated from the others. If the urine which re- 
 mains after the firft cryftallization be further evapo- 
 rated, and again fet in the cold, it will yield more 
 cryftals ; but browner and more impure than the form- 
 er ; and therefore requiring to be purified by themfelves. 
 From 20 gallons of urine may be obtained four ounces 
 of pure fait ; a confiderable part being ftill left in the 
 refiduum. 
 
 In thefe operations the heat ought to be gentle, 
 and the veffels cither of glafs or compaA ftone-ware. 
 Urine being evaporated in a copper veffel, afforded on- 
 ly a green folution of that metal. 
 
 Concerning the nature of the microcofmic fait ob- 
 , tained by the above procefs, Mr Margraaf gives the 
 following account in the Berlin memoirs for 1 746. 
 
 " Sixteen ounces of the fait, diftillcd in a glafs re- 
 tort, in a heat gradually raifed, gave over eight oun- 
 ces of a volatile urinous fpirit, refembling that made 
 from fal ammoniac by quicklime. The refiduum was 
 a porous brittle mafs, weighing eight ounces. This, 
 urged with a ftronger fire in a crucible, bubbled and 
 frothed much, and at length funk down into the ap- 
 pearance of glafs, without fe^ming to fuffer any fur- 
 ther diminution of its weight in the moft vehement 
 heat. 
 
 The vitreous matter diffolved in twice or thrice its 
 quantity of water, into a clear, tranfpai-ent, acid li- 
 •quor, fomewhat thick, not ill refembling in confiftence 
 concentrated oil of vitriol. This liquor totally cor- 
 roded ziiK into a white powder, which, being diluted 
 
 906 
 Mr Mar- 
 
 graafF's eX' 
 pcriments. 
 
 with water, appeared in great part to dlffolve, fixed Acid of 
 alkalies occafioning a plentiful precipitation. It afted Pl^o^'l'liorw* 
 po\*erfulIy upon iron, with fome effervefcence ; andjjf^jjfua- 
 changed the metal into a kind of muddy fubftance in- tions. 
 dining to blulfh, in part foluble in water hke the pre- 
 ceding. It diffolved hkewife a portion of regulus of 
 antimony, and extradied a red tindure from cobalt. On 
 lead and tin it had very little aftion. Copper it cor- 
 roded but flighty. On bifmutb, filver, and gold, it 
 had no efieft at all, either by ftrong digeftlon, or a 
 boihng heat. Nor did the adding of a confiderable 
 portion of nitrous acid enable It to ad upon gold. 
 
 " The vitreous fait In Its diy form, melted with me> 
 talllc bodies with a ftrong fire, ads upon them more 
 powerfully. In each of the following experiments, 
 two drachms of the fait were taken to two fcruples of 
 the metal reduced to fmall parts, (i.) Gold com- 
 municated a purple colour to the vitreous fait; oft 
 weighing the metal, however, its diminution was not 
 confiderable. (2.) Silver loft four grains, or -rV ; and 
 rendered the fait yellowlfti, and moderately opaque. 
 (3.) Copper loft only two grains, or ^V. though the 
 fait was tinged of a deep green colour. It feemed as if 
 a portion of the fait had been retained by the metal^ 
 which, after the fufion, was found to be whiter and 
 more brittle than before. (4.) During the fufion with 
 iron, flafties Uke Hghtning were continually thrown out ; 
 » a phofjphorus being generated from the combination of 
 the acid with the inflammable principle of the irojj. 
 Great part of the mixture rifes up in froth ; which, 
 when cold, appears a vitreous fcoria, covered on the 
 furface with a kind of metallic flcin, which, on being 
 rubbed, changes Its green colour to a yellowllh. Th^, 
 i-eft of the iron remains at the bottom of the crucible, 
 half melted, half vitrified, and fpongy. (5.) Tin loth 
 18 grains, or nearly one-half its weight, and rendered 
 the fait whitlfti ; the remaining metal being at the fam« 
 time remarkably changed. It was all over leafy and 
 brilliant, very brittle, internally like zinc. Laid on 
 burning coals, it firft began to melt, then burnt like 
 zinc, or phofphorus. (6.) Lead loft 16 grains, and 
 gave the fame whitlfh colour to the fcoriae that tin 
 does. The remaining lead was In Hke manner inflame 
 mable, but burnt lefs vehemently than the tin ; from 
 which it differed alfo in retaining its malleability, 
 (7.) Mercury precipitated from aquafortis, and well 
 edulcorated, being treated with the fait in a glafs re- 
 tort, with a fire raifed to the utmoft, only 1 2 grains of 
 mercury fubllmed ; 28 remaining united with the acid, 
 in a whltifti, femi-opaque mafs. A folution of this 
 mixed In diftllled water, depofited a quantity of a yel- 
 lowlfti powder ; which, by diftillation in a glafs retort, 
 was in great part revived into running mercury. A 
 part alfo remained diffolved in the clear liquor ; for a 
 drop let fall on poHfhed copper inftantly whitened it. 
 (8.) Regulus of antimony melted with the vitreous 
 fait, loft eight or nine grains, (about f ) ; the regulus 
 affumed a fine, brilliant, ftriated appearance ; the fco- 
 riee were fomewhat opaque. (9.) Bifmuth loft eight 
 grains ; the fcoriae were like the preceding, but the 
 bifmuth itfelf fuffercd little change. {10.) Zinc, mix- 
 ed with the fait, and diftllled in a glafs retort, yielded 
 a true phofphorus, which arofe in a very moderate heat. 
 The refiduum was of a grey colour, a little melted at 
 3 R 2 th€ 
 
500 
 
 Acid of 
 
 Phofiihorus 
 and its 
 Combina- 
 tions, 
 
 907 
 Expels the 
 acids of vi- 
 triolated 
 tartar, 
 t}itre,and 
 iea-falt. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 the bottom, in weight not exceedingtwo drachms; fo that 
 two fcruples had fublimed. This refiduum, urged further 
 in a fmall Heffian crucible to perfeft fufion, emitted 
 an infinity of phofphorine flaflies, with a kind of deto- 
 nation. The matter, grown cold, looked Hke the fco- 
 rice of n:ielted glais. (n.) White arfenic, mixed 
 with this fait, feparated in the fire, greatell part of it 
 fubliming, and only as much remaining behind as in- 
 creafed the weight of the fait eight or nine grains. 
 This compound appeared at firil tranfparent ; but, on 
 being expofed to the air, became moiil, and of an o- 
 paque whitenefs, much rcfembling cryftalline arfenic. 
 (12.) Cinnabar totally fubhmed ; fuffering no change 
 itfelf, and occafioning none in the fait. Sulphur did 
 the fame. (iS-) One part of the fait, mixed with ten 
 of manganefe, and melted in a clofe veffel, gaveafemi- 
 tranfparent mafs, feme parts of Avhicli were bluifh. 
 The crucible was lined with a fine purple glazing, and 
 the edges of the mafs itfelf appeared of the fame co- 
 lour. 
 
 " The vitreous fait diffolved alfo, in fufion, metal- 
 h'c calces and earths. Chalk, with one third its weight 
 of the fait, formed a femitranfparent vitreous mafs : 
 calcined marble, with the fame proportion, flowed fo 
 thin as to run all through the crucible; gypfum, like- 
 wife, ran moftly through the crucible ; what remain- 
 ed was femitranfparent. Lapis fpecularis ran entire- 
 ly througii the veffel. Spanifli chalk gave a femitran- 
 fparent mafs, which fparkled on breaking; and fine 
 white clay, a fimilar one. Saxon topaz and flint were 
 changed into beautiful opal-coloured maffes; the earth 
 of alum into a femitranfparent mafs, and quicklime 
 into an opaque white one. The mafs with flints im- 
 bibed moifture from the air; the others not. 
 
 " Oil of vitriol, poured upon one-fourth its weight 
 of this fait in a retort, raifed an effervefcence, acquired 
 a brownifh colour, and afterwards became turbid and 
 white. On raifing the fire, the oil of vitriol diililled, 
 and the matter in the bottom of the retort melted. 
 In the neck was found a little fubhmate, which grew 
 moifl: in the air ; as did likewife the remaining fait, 
 which was opaque and whitirti. Concentrated fpirit 
 of nitre, diftilled with this fait in the above proportion, 
 came over unchanged; no fublimate appeared; the re- 
 fiduum looked like glafs of borax. The diililled fpirit 
 did not ail in the leaft upon gold, even by coftion. 
 Strong fpirit of fea-falt being diililled in the fame man- 
 Rer, no fenfible change was made either in the fpirit 
 or the fait. 
 
 " Equal parts of the vitrified microcfomic fait and 
 fait of tartar being urged with the ftrongeft fire that 
 a glafs retort could bear, nothing fenfible came over, 
 nor did the mixture appear in thin fufion. Diflblved 
 in water, filtered, and duly evaporated, it afforded, very 
 difficultly, oblong cryftals, fomewhat alkaline ; the 
 quantity of alkali having been more than enough to fa- 
 turate the acid. A whitifh matter remained on the 
 filter, amounting to feven or eight grains, from two 
 drachms of the mixture ; this, after being wafhed and 
 dried, melted before a blow-pipe, as did likewife the 
 cryftals. 
 
 " This fait feems to extricate, in pai't, the acids of 
 vltriolated tartar, nitre, and fea-falt. (i.) On diftil- 
 ling a mixture of it with an equal quantity of vitrio- 
 lated tartar, there came over feme ponderous^acid drops, 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 which, faturated with fixed alkali, formed a neutral fait '^cid of 
 greatly refembling the vitriolated tartar. The refidu- ^n^'/jg^^'^"* 
 um readily dilTolved in water, and difficultly cryllalli- Cotnbina- 
 zed. (2.) Nitre, treated with the fame proportion oft;ons. 
 the fait,' began to emit red vapours. The reliduura ■ — v 
 was of a peach-blofTom coloin-, appeared to have melted 
 lefs perfectly than the preceding, and diflblved more d f- 
 ficultly in water. The folution depofited a little earthy 
 matter ; and, on being flowly evaporated, fhot into 
 cryftals, which did not deflagrate in the fire. (3.) Sea- 
 falt, diftiUed in the fame manner, manifeftly parted witli 
 its acid ; the refiduum was whitiih, readily diiTolved in 
 water, and afforded fome cubical cryftals. (4.) Sal am- 
 moniac fuft'cred no change. (5.) Borax, with an equal 
 quantity of vitreous fait, run all througii the crucibles. 
 
 " Solutions of this fait precipitated the earthy part 
 of lime-water, of folution of alum, of flint dilTolved in 
 fixed alkali, and the combination of marine acid with 
 chalk or quicklime. The precipitate from this laft 
 liquor is tenacious like glue, and does not diflolve 
 even in boihng water; expofed to a ftrong lire, it froths 
 prodigioufly, and at lall melts into a thick fcoria. 
 
 " Solutions of this fait precipitate alfo fundry me- 
 tallic folutions ; as butter of antimony, folutions of 
 filver, copper, lead, iron, mercury, and bifmuth, in 
 the nitrous acid; and of tin in aqua regis. The pre- 
 cipitate of iron from fpirit of fait is a tenacious mafs ; 
 that of filver from aquafortis, fometimes a white pow- 
 der, fometimes tenacious. Copper from aquafortis is 
 fometimes thrown down in form of a white powder, 
 and fometimes in that of a green oil, according to the 
 proportions and dilutenefs of the liquor. Silver is not 
 precipitated at all by this acid from its folution in vine- 
 gar, nor gold from aqua regis. 
 
 " An ounce of the vitreous fait, well mixed with 
 half an ounce of foot, and committed to dillillation, 
 yielded a drachm of fine phofphorus. The black refi- 
 duum, beitig elixated with boiling water, and the li- 
 quor paffed through a filter, there remained upon tlie 
 filter eight fcruples of a black matter j and, on eva- 
 porating and cryftallizing the liquor, about feven 
 drachms were obtainedof oblong cryllals, which did not 
 deliquate in a moift air, but became powdery in a 
 warm one. Thefe cryftals, treated afreih with inflam- 
 mable matter, yielded no phofphorus. Before a blow- 
 pipe ^they melted into a tranfparent globular mafs, 
 which, on coohng, became turbid and opaque. Dif- 
 folved in water, they piecipitated folutions of filver, 
 mercury, copper, and of chalk ; though they did not 
 a&. upon the latter fo powerfully, nor produce with it 
 a gluey mafs, as before they ^had been deprived of 
 their phofphorine acid." 
 
 Mr Wiegleb informs us, that the phofphoric acid 
 exhibits lefs affinity with calcareous earth, in the moift 
 way, than the vitriohc ; though it cannot be fepara- 
 ted from the idtimate refiduum of the calcareous eartli 
 by that acid. It expels, however, all the liquid acids 
 from their bafis in the dry way. It precipitates iron 
 from a folution in vitriolic acid, of a perfedly whit.c 
 colour. For the ufes of this acid as a flux, fee the 
 ai'ticle BLow-pipe. 
 
 § \0. Of the yield of J[>rTS. 
 
 id 907 
 
 The acid may be obtained from thefe infeds either How {iro- 
 
 by 
 
raaice. C HEM 
 
 cid of by diltillation,, or fimplc infufion in water. From 
 (ifphoru? twenty-four ounces of ants, Neumann obtained eleven 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 ounces and an half of acid as fti-ong as good vinegar, 
 
 ^11. Of t/je Acid of Amber. 
 
 by dillillation: in balnea marlac. Of this acid, Mr Mar- 
 graalf gives the following account in the Berlin Me- 
 moirs for I 749. 
 
 " The acid of ants efiervefces with alkaline falts, 
 both fixed and volatile. AVith volatile alkalies it forms 
 a neutral liquor, which, like that compofed of the fame 
 alkalies and vinegar, yields no concrete fait on ddlilla- 
 tion. With fixed alkalies it concretes, upon proper 
 exhalation, into oblong cryflals, which deliquate in 
 the air. The cryftals, or the faturated neutral li- 
 quor uncryftallized, on being dillilled with a fire 
 increafed till the retort began to melt, yielded a 
 liquor fcarce fenfibly acid, and afterv/ards a fmall 
 quantity of an urinous and partly ammoniacal liquor. 
 The remaining black matter, diffolved in diiliiled 
 water, filtered and evaporated, fiiot into large cryftals 
 vvhicli did not deliquate in the air, though they were 
 in talte llrongly alkaline, effervefced with acids, and 
 had all the other properties by which fixed alkalies are 
 diftinguiihed. 
 
 " This acid diflblves, with great effervefcence, coral, 
 chalk, and quicklime; and concretes with them all into 
 cryftals which do not deliquate in the air. 
 
 " It does not precipitate filver, lead, or mercury, 
 from the nitrous acid ; nor quicklime from the ma- 
 rine. Hence it appears to have no analogy to the ma- 
 rine or vitriolic acids ; the firlt of which conftantly 
 precipitates the metaUic folutions, and the other the 
 earthy. 
 
 " It does not <i£t upon filings of filver ; but (like 
 vegetable acids), it totally diflblves, by the affiftance of 
 heat, the calx of filver precipitated from aquafortis by 
 fait of tartar. 
 
 " It does not difiblve calces of mercury (as vege- 
 table acids do) ; but revives them into running quick- 
 filver. 
 
 " It adts very weakly upon filings of copper ; but 
 perfectly difTolves copper that has been calcined. The 
 folution yields beautiful compaft green cryftals. 
 
 *' It diiTolves iron-filings with violence ; the folu- 
 tion, duly^ evaporated, llioots into cryftals more readily 
 than that made in diftilled vinegar. It fcai-cely ads at 
 all upon filings of tin. 
 
 " It does not, according to Mr MargraafF, corrode 
 filings of lead; but diflblves, by the afliftance of heat, 
 the red calx of lead. The folution cryftalllzes into a 
 faccharura faturni. In Mr Ray's philofophical letters, 
 it is faid, that lead put into the acid fpirit, or fair wa- 
 ter, together with the animals themfelves, makes a good 
 faccharum faturni} and that this faccharum, on be- 
 ing diftilled, will afl'ord the fame acid fpirit again, 
 which the faccharum faturni made with vinegar will 
 not do, but returns an inflammable oil with water, 
 but nothing that is acid :, and faccharum faturni made 
 with fpirit of verdegris dotli the fame in this refpeft 
 with fpirit of pifmires. 
 
 " It diflTolves zinc with vehemence, and flioots, up- 
 on due evaporation, into inelegant cryftals, not at all 
 like thofe produced with diftilled vinegar. On bif- 
 muth, or regulus of antimony, it has little effieft, ex 
 thcr when calcined or in their metalline ftate." 
 
 Acid of 
 Amber and 
 Its Combi- 
 
 nations- 
 
 The nature of this acid is as y^et but little known, >— 
 and Mr Pott is the only chemift who feems to have 
 examined it with accuracy. We fnall therefore give 
 an abftrafi of the principal obfervations and experi- 
 ments he has made on this fait. 
 
 " Salt of amber requii-es a large quantity of water Mr Pott's 
 for its folution. In the firft cryftalUzation (being experi- 
 much impregnated with the oil, v\'hlch rifes from the 
 amber along with it), it ftioots into fpongy flakes, in 
 colour reiembling brown fugar-candy; the cryftals 
 which fucceed prove darker and darker coloured. On 
 repeating the depuration, the cryftals appear at top 
 of a clear yellow or whitifti colour, in form of long 
 needles or feathers ; at bottom, darker, and more ir- 
 regular, as are likewlfe the cryftals which flroot after- 
 wards. The cryftals neither liquefy nor beconie pow- 
 dery in the air: rubbed, they emit a pungent fmelllike 
 that of radiflies, efpecially if warmed a little ; their 
 tafte is acid, not In the leaft corrofive, but with 3 kind 
 of oily pungency. 
 
 " This fait, kept in the heat of boiling water, lofes 
 nothing of its weightj and fufl"ers no alteration. In a 
 great heat it melts like oil ; after v/hlch a little oily 
 acid arifes, then oily ftrire appear in the lower part of 
 the retort, and the fait fublimes into the neck, partly 
 in the form of a dark yellow butter, and partly in 
 that of feathers, a black coaly matter remaining at 
 bottom ; fo that, by this procefs, a part of the fait is 
 deftroyed. 
 
 *' Oil of turpentine has no aftion on this fait. 
 Highly reftified fpirit of wine gains from it a yellow 
 colour in the cold; and, on the application of heat, 
 dllfolves cl confiderable quantity, but depofites great 
 pai-t of it on cooling. The fait thus depofited is fome- 
 what whiter than before, but ftlll continues fenfibly 
 yellow. The dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac diflblves- 
 it readily, without eff^ervefcencc, into a yellow liquor ; 
 if the fait was foul, the folution proves of a red co- 
 lour ; on burning of the vinous fpirit, a neutral liquor 
 remains. 
 
 ** A folution of fait of amber in water, faturated 
 with a pure alkaline lixivium, yielded, on infpiflation, 
 a faline matter, which would not cryftallize, and 
 which, when exficcated by heat, dellquated In the air, 
 leaving a confiderable proportion of an earthy, unc- 
 tuous matter. Being again gently infplfleited, it left 
 a brownifli fait, very foluble, weighing one half more 
 than the fait of amber employed. This fait cffervef- 
 ced with the vitriolic and nitrous acids : the vapour, 
 which exhaled, was not acid, but oily and fulphureous. 
 On repeating the experiment, and fully faturating the 
 alkali with the fait of amber, the neutral faltlraade no 
 effervefcence with thefe acids. This fait did not per- 
 feftly melt before a blow-pipe ; continued in the fire 
 for fome time, it cfl^crvefced with aquafortis. In dif- 
 tiilatlon it yielded a bitter, oily, alkalefcent fpirit, 
 much refembling the fpirit of tartar ; and towards the 
 end, an empyreuiuatic oil. The refiduum elixated, 
 yielded the alkaline fait again of a brown colour. 
 
 " Salt of amber eff^ervefces ftrongly with volatile 
 alkalies ; and, on faturatlon, forms with them an oily 
 
 am- - 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradlce, 
 
 acid. 
 
 ainmoniacal liquor, which, in diftillatlon, totally arifes 
 in a fluid form, except that a fmall portion of a pe- 
 netrating, oily, faline matter, concretes towards the 
 end. 
 
 " On diflllling fait of amher with an equal quanti- 
 ty of commmon fal ammoniac, a marine acid fplrit 
 fal ammo- '^^^^^ over, of a ftrong fmell, and a brown colour : 
 riac and ni- afterwards, a little white fal ammoniac fublimed ; at 
 trc. length arofe fuddenly a large quantity of a fuliginous 
 
 or bituminous matter, leaving behind a fmall portion 
 of a like fhining black fubttance. The coaly matter 
 was confiderably more in quantity than the fait of am- 
 ber employed. On treating it with nitre, red va- 
 pours arofe, and the mixture detonated with vio- 
 lence. -A. mixture of it with borax, frothed and fwell- 
 ed up much more than borax by itfelf ; and, on rai- 
 ling the fire, yielded only fome oily drops ; the acid 
 being deftroyed by this fait, as by fixed alkalies and 
 pji quicklime. 
 Purified by " Spirit of fea fait, poured upon one-fourth its 
 the marine weight of fait of amber, made fcarce any folution in 
 the cold : on the application of heat, nearly the whole 
 coagulated into the confiftence of a jelly. In diftilla- 
 tlon, the fpirit of fait arofe firft ; then almofl the whole 
 of the fait of amber, partly like firm butter, partly like 
 long ftriated plumous alum, very pure, and of a fine 
 white colour, its oily matter being changed into a 
 coal at the bottom. The fait, thus purified, makes 
 no precipitation in the folution of filver, and confe- 
 quently retains nothing of the marine acid ; nor does 
 it precipit-ate folution of quicklime made in fpirit of 
 fait, and confequently contains nothing vitriolic. , If 
 any of the mineral acids was contained in this fait, it 
 Gould not here efcape difcovery ; the oil, which in the 
 rjough fait is fuppofed to conceal the acid, being in this 
 procefs feparated. 
 
 " Aquafortis being poured upon one-fourth its 
 weight of fait of amber, extradled a yellowifh colour 
 from it in the cold, but diffolved little : on the appli- 
 nitre on it. cation of heat, the whole dlffolves into a clear liquor, 
 without any coagulation : if the fait is very oily, the 
 folution proves red. In dillillation, the greateft part a- 
 rifes in a liquid form, with only a very fmall quantity 
 of concrete fait. The fpirit does not aft upon gold, 
 but dlffolves filver, and quickfilver, as at firft ; a proof 
 that it has received no marine acid from the fait of 
 amber. 
 
 " Oil of vitriol being added to twice its weight of 
 fait of amber diluted with a little water, a moderate 
 fire elevated an acidulous liquor, which appeared to 
 proceed from the fait of amber ; for its making no 
 change in folution of fixed fal ammoniac, fhowed it 
 not to be vitriolic. On continuing the diftillation by 
 a ftronger fire, greateft part of the fait arifes unde- 
 llroyed, and the oil of vitriol along with it ; a black, 
 light, porous earth remaining. 
 
 " Equal parts of quicklime and fait of amber gave 
 over in diftillation only an acidulous phlegm ; the refi- 
 duum, ehxatv"d with water, yielded a folution of the 
 lime in the acid of amber, , refembling a folution of the 
 fame earth in vegetable acids^ precipitable by alkaline 
 falts, and by the vitriolic acid. Lime, addedto a wa- 
 tery folution of fait of amber, dlffolves with fome ef- 
 fervefceuce j after which, the whole coagulates into 
 
 9Ta 
 
 Efieds of 
 fpirit of 
 
 Of oil of 
 vitriol. 
 
 914 
 Of quick 
 liivcr. 
 
 the confiftence of a jelly: this, diluted whh water,AcM of Af 
 proves fimllar to the foregoing folution. Comb na"^' 
 
 " Solution of fait of amber makes no precipitation ^j^^jj^ 
 in folutlons of filver or quickfilver. It dlffolves zinc, . — ^— — i 
 as all acids do ; fixed alkalies precipitate the zinc: the 915 
 volatile do not ; and when a fufficlent quantity of the Effe»5ls of 
 volatile has been added, the fixed make no precipita- "^^^^^J 
 tion. It adls exceedingly flowly and difficultly "pon j^^^^^^^^j^ 
 copper; but corrodes calcined copper in afirorter time. 
 It foon corrodes iron, by co£lIon, into a crocus, and 
 dlffolves a part into a liquid form : the folution has 
 little colour ; but alkaline falts readily difcover that 
 It holds iron, by rendering it turbid and whitifh, and 
 throwing down a confiderable quantity of a greenifli 
 calx." - 
 
 ^^2. Of the Acid of Arsenic. 
 
 916 
 
 Mr Scheele firft perceived, from fome experiments How firfi. 
 on manganefe, that arfenic contained phlogifton : from '^^^'^'-'vered. 
 whence he was led to an analyfis of this fubftance, 
 which produced an acid of a very fingular kind ; by 
 uniting of which with phlogifton in certain propor- 
 tions, either white arfenic or its regulus may be com- 
 pofed at pleafure. 
 
 White arfenic maybe decompounded In two ways. Two ways 
 I. Put two ounces of it reduced to fine powder in aofdeo-m- 
 glafs mortar into a retort of the fame material ; pour 
 upon it feven ounces of pure muriatic acid, whofe fpe- ^ 
 clfic gravity is to that of water as 10 to 8 ; and lute on 
 a receiver. The arfenic is quickly diffolved in a boil- 
 ing heat, which muft be brought on as quickly as pof- 
 fible. After the folution is accompliffied, while the By means 
 liquor is ftill warm, three ounces and a half of nitrous "f nitrous 
 acid, of the fame fpecific gravity with the muriatic '^'^^'^* 
 above-mentioned, is to be added, and the liquid which 
 had already gone over into the receiver poured back. 
 The receiver is then to be put on again, but not luted; 
 the mixture foon begins to effervefce, and red vapours 
 go over into the receiver. The diftillation is to be con- 
 tinued till thefe vapours ceafe ; when an ounce of 
 finely powdered arfenic is again to be added, the re- 
 ceiver applied as before, and a gentle ebuUition con- 
 tinued until the fecond quantity of arfenic be diffolved. 
 An ounce and an half of nitrous acid is then to be 
 added, and the mixture diftiiled to drynefs, increafing 
 the fire towards the end, fo as to make the retort red 
 hot. The acid which comes over Into the receiver may 
 ferve again feveral times. The white mafs which re- 
 mains in the retort is the dry acid of arfenic. It may 
 be reduced to a liquid form by pouring upon it, in 
 coarfe powder, twice its weight of diftiiled water, and 
 boiling for a few minutes, pouring back the liquor 
 which comes over, and afterwards filtering the folu- 
 tion through blotting paper, which has been previouily 
 vvaftred in hot water. 
 
 In this procefs the nitrous acid attacks the phlo- 
 gifton of the arfenic, is volatilized in confequence of 
 its union with it, and leaves the more fixed but lefs 
 powerful acid of arfenic behind. The nitrous acid 
 would alone be fufficient for this purpofe, could it ac- 
 curately come into contaft with the particles of arfe- , 
 nic ; but this cannot be done without folution, and 
 .the nitrous acid is capable of diffolving arfenic only in 
 
 pro- 
 
>ra£llce. 
 
 CHEMISTRY, 
 
 919 
 
 ici ' of Ar- proportion to thf v.'nter it contains. Too great a cjuan- 
 Euican 1. it-jjty would therefore be required were this acid to be 
 :ombiiia- ^^r^^ itfelf ; but by the ufe of muriatic acid for tlie 
 ' folution, a fmallcr quantity of fpirit of nitre is admit- 
 ted to intimate contaCl with all the arfenical particles, 
 and has an opportunity of depriving them of their phlo- 
 glfton. Aqua regia might be poured upon the arfenic 
 at once ; but the great effervefcence it excites would 
 throw the mineral up to the top in fuch a manner that 
 the menftruum could not a£t upon it. By the opera- 
 tion of dephlogifticatlon, arfenic lofes a fifth part, 
 which is fuppofed to be pure phlogifton. 
 Sy dephlo- The other method of decompofnig arfenic is, by 
 •illicated means of the dephlogifticated fpirit of fait. For this 
 P!"^ purpofe, take one part of powdered manganefe, and 
 mix it with three of the muriatic acid above-mention- 
 ed. Put it into a retort, of which it may fill one- 
 fourth ; a receiver containing one-fouith of powdered 
 arfenic, with one-eighth of diilllled water, is to be luted 
 on, and the retort put into a fand-bath. The dephlo- 
 gllilcated muriatic acid, going over into the receiver, 
 is inftantly abforbed by the arfenic ; which fome hours 
 afterwards will be diiTolved, and two different liquid 
 ftrata, which cannot be mixed together, will be per- 
 ceived in the receiver. This folution is now to be put 
 into a clean glafs retort, and diftllled to drynefs ; in- 
 creafing the fire at laft to fuch a degree as' to make 
 the whole red hot : and in this procefs alfo two dif- 
 ferent liquids pafs over into the receiver which do not 
 unite togethei'. 
 
 Here the manganefe attrafts the phlogifton of the 
 muriatic acid ; and as this dephlogifticated acid has a 
 very ftrong attraftion for phlogifton, it deprives the 
 arfenic of its phlogifton, and thus recompofes the or- 
 dinary phlogiflicated muriatic acid. This portion of 
 recompofed acid diftblves part of the arfenic, forming 
 •with it what is called kiiter of arfenic. The other part 
 of the arfenic which has been decompofed, diftblves in 
 the water, and forrrw a liquid fpecifieally lighter than 
 the butter, and therefore iwims above it. On recti- 
 fying the two liquids, the undecompofed portion of 
 the arfenic arifes along with the muriatic acid, and 
 goes over into the receiver in form of an heavy oil, 
 while the acid of arfenic remains behind in the retort. 
 The acid obtained in this way is preclfely the fame 
 with the former, and one would hardly believe that it 
 is an acid, becaufe it has no acid tafte ; but after fome 
 days it grows moift in the air, and at laft deliquates, 
 affuming the appearance of oil of vitriol. As the de- 
 liquefcence, however, is very flow, it is proper to dif- 
 folve it in a certain quantity of water, when a fmall 
 quantity of white powder remains undlfTolved, after 
 preparing it by the firft procefs, which is filiceous earth 
 derived from the retort. This ought to be carefully 
 feparated from the acid by filtration ; and in order to 
 prevent the glue of the blotting-paper from mixing 
 with the acid, it was direfted to wafti the filter with 
 hot water previous to the operation. 
 Acid of ar- The firft experiment M. Scheele tried on this acid 
 sc: ic equal- after he had obtained it, was to difcover if it was as 
 ly j 01(011- noxious to animals as when combined with phlogifton. 
 tbe wh^^e having mixed a little with honey, the flies that eat of 
 ,<dt.nicit- it died in an hour ; and eight grains reduced a cat to 
 it!f. the point of death in two hours. Some milk, how- 
 
 ever, being then given to the auimal, it vomited' vio- Aciri of Ar- 
 
 1 .1 ? fenicandits 
 lently, and ran away. Combina- 
 
 2. An ounce of dry acid of arfenic, heated in a fmall tions. 
 phial to near the point of ignition, melts into a clear 
 liquid, which congeals when cold ; but if the heat be 921 
 increafed till the veflei begins to melt, the acid begins EaGiy re- 
 to boil, refumes its phlogifton, and arfenic fublimes in 
 greater quantity as the iieat is longer continued, sxi- 
 
 ter fubjetting the acid to this violent heat in a retort 
 for an hour, the veffel melted, and the acid had rifen 
 up as high as the neck» 
 
 3. In a crucible the arfenic attracts phlogifton in 
 greater quantity, and is entirely diflipated in arfemcal 
 vapours ; a little clear and difficultly fufible glafs, con- 
 fifting of clay and the acid of arfenic, remaining in the 
 crucible. ' 922 
 
 3. With powder of charcoal the arfenical acid un- '^^'^^^ ^^""^ 
 dergoes no change ; but if the mixture be put into ^ 
 i-etort, the moifture all driven oft^, a receiver then kited coal. 
 
 on, and the heat increafed till the bottom of the retort 
 becomes red hot, the whole mafs takes fire with vio- 
 lence ; all the acid is reduced, and fublimed into the 
 neck of the retort; a fliinlng regulus is obtained mixed 
 with a little arfenic and charcoal duft. A few drops 
 of water are found in the receiver, but they do not 
 contain a particle of acid. 923 
 
 4. The ai-fenical acid, after fome days digeftion ^PP'^^''." 
 with oil of turpentine, un£luous oil, and fugar, becomes oji^^gf ^^j!^ 
 black and thick. If fome muriatic acid be diftllled pentine, 
 from this, a little nitrous acid added, and the diftlUa- &.c. 
 tlon repeated, fome acid of arfenic is left behind. Spi- 
 rit of wine undergoes no change either by digeftlon or 
 diftillation with arfenical acid. 524 
 
 5. Six parts of acid digefted with one of fulphur With ful- 
 fuffer no change ; but when the mixture is evaporated P^^""^' 
 
 to drynefs, and then fabjefted to diftillation in a glaf* 
 retort, the two unite with great violence at that de- 
 gree of heat in which fulphur melts ; and the whole 
 mafs rifes almoft in the fame inftant, in form of a red 
 fubllmate ; a little fulphureous acid in the mean time 
 going over Into the receiver. ^ 
 
 6. Acid of arfenic, faturated with vegetable fixed Combined 
 alkali, forms a dehquefcent fait which does not cry- '^'^''^ ^^S^" ' 
 ftallize, but turns fyrup of violets green, though it ^^^^^^^^"^ " 
 produces no change on the tin£lure of lacmus. On 
 
 the addition of a little more acid, however, when it 
 reddens lacmus, but makes no alteration on the fyrup 
 of violets, the liquor will aftord fine cryftals like Mr 
 Macquer's neutral fait of arfenic. On keeping this fait 
 for an hour in fufion in a crucible covered with another 
 luted upon it, the infide of the veffel was found co- 
 vered with a white glazing, and a fait remained, which 
 was ftill the fame arfenicated fait with exccfs of acid. r)i6 
 
 7. On diftilling this fait in a retort with an eighth- This fait 
 part of charcoal-duit, it began to boil very violently ^'"'^^"^'^^'j.^ 
 as foon as the retort became red-hot, , and a. very fine^y'^j*^ 
 regulus of arfenic fublimed. The black refiduum 
 contained the alkah entirely feparated from the arfeni- 
 cal acid, 927 
 
 8. With mineral alkali the acid of arfenic forms Continued 
 cryftals when perfedly neutrahzed, but not if added J^^j'^^"^"-' 
 to excefs. In that cafe, the mafs becomes deliqiief- 
 
 cent like the former when neutral. gjg 
 
 9. .With volatile alkali a fait much refembling the With vola- ■ 
 
 l^^Q tile all-wali- 
 
C H E M I 
 
 Acid of Ar- two Former Is produced. Tt docs not change lacmiis, 
 Combina''^^^"'^ turns the fyrup of violets green. A gentle heat 
 tions. drives off part of its volatile alkali, and leaves the re- 
 
 ..'maindei funerfaturated with acid; in wliich cale it 
 
 Ihoots into long radiated and deliquefccnt Cryilals. 
 Thefe, urged by a ftronger heat, part with the whole 
 of their alkali, which is partly decompofed ; fonie 
 arfenic is formed by the union of 'die phlogiHon of 
 the alkali with part of the arfenical acid ; the remain- 
 der of which affumes a milky colour, and lies in the 
 bottom of the retort. 
 
 10. Acid of arfenic diftillcd with vitriolatcd tartar 
 expels the vitriolic acid in a violent heat, which comes 
 over in a concentrated but fnlphureous ftate, leaving 
 
 929 
 
 F.xpcis the 
 acid ol vi- 
 triolatcd 
 tartar by 
 
 tion, 
 
 930 
 Acid of 
 nitre ; 
 
 93 » 
 Of con^mon 
 ialt. 
 
 niry diftilla-the arfenical fait formed of the acid and alkali united. 
 
 With Glauber's fait the vitriolic acid alfo rifes, and with 
 Icfs heat than when vitrio'ated tartar is made ufe of. 
 
 11. One part of nitre diftilled with three of acid cf 
 arfenic, yielded a fpirit of nitre, together with the neu- 
 tral arfenical fait already mentioned. 
 
 12. One part of common fait with three of arfeni- 
 cal acid, yielded fome fmqking fpirit of fait. The re- 
 fiduum diflblved in water gave ciyilals of common 
 fait, and a thick magnum, which would not cryftal- 
 •lize till the fuperfluous arfenical acid was taken away 
 by adding powdered chalk, when it yielded cryftals 
 fimilav to thofe produced by the acid and pure alkali. 
 
 Phenome- 13. With fal ammoniac the producl was firil: fuming 
 na with fal muriatic acid, then volatile alkali in a Hquid ftate, af- 
 ammoniac. ^^^^ arfenic, and laftly part of the arfenical add 
 
 93- remained In the retort. 
 Decompo- 14. Spathum ponderofum, and gypfum, both part- 
 ies fpathum with, their acids, which were become fulphureous. 
 ln?Ryp-"' former did not yield its acid till the retort be- 
 fum. gan to melt. 
 
 934 15. One part of fluor mineral was mlKcd with four 
 
 Cannot ex- j^^-j^j arfenic, and diftilled into a receiver having 
 
 iluor^acid ^ ^^"^^ "^'^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ retort grew red-hot, 
 
 firft a yellow and then a red fubftance fublimed. Some 
 fulphureous acid, but none of the acid of fluor, went 
 over. A grey-coloured refiduum was left In the retort ; 
 which being divided into two parts, one was mixed 
 with charcol-powder and diftilled with a ftrong fire, 
 without the produftlon of either arfenic or regulus ; 
 the other was mixed with four parts of acid of arfe- 
 nic, and fubjefted to a fecond diftillation. When the 
 mafs grew dry, a little yellow fal-ammoniac was fub- 
 limed, and the water was covered with a criift of fill- 
 ccous earth, as in the ufual diftillations of that mineral. 
 Precipitates ] 6. Arfenical acid precipitates lime-water, by uni- 
 li:r.e water jJiig -^yith the calcareous earth diftblved In It. By the 
 addition of more acid, the precipitate Is diftblved,- and 
 the liquor yields fm.all cryftals, which let fall a fele- 
 nite on the addition of vitrollic acid. 
 Phenomena 1 7. On the addition of powdered chalk to arfenical 
 with chaik.acid diluted with water, the earth Is at firft diflblved, 
 but by adding more chalk the whole is coagulated In- 
 to fmall cryftals. 
 
 ^ir V^ 18. Mae-nefia dlffolves in the arfenical acid, and the 
 
 nefu. folutlon coagulates when it comes to the point ot latu- 
 ratlon. On difiblving the coagulum In a larger quan- 
 tity of water. It becomes gelatinous by evaporation ; 
 and If the jelly be lixiviated with water, filtered, and 
 evaporated, a vifcid mafs remains, which refufes to 
 cryftalllze. 
 73- 
 
 Its lolution Platina. 
 
 943 
 
 S T R Y, Pradicej 
 
 19. Earth of alum precipitated jjy alkali of tartar Acid of Ar- 
 is fufily foluble in arfenical acid, and coagulates as^nicandics 
 foon as it arrives at the point of faturatlon. Evapo- j. j "^.'^ 
 
 rated to drynefs, mixed with fom.e charcoal powder, ^ 
 
 and then fubjefted to ftrong diftillation, a little yellow 
 fubliinate rifes Into the neck of the retort, as likevvlfe With ear th 
 fome ftiining regulus, while a volatile fulphureous acid"*^ 
 pafles over into the receiver. The refiduiitn dlffolves 
 with dlftrcuky In the vitriolic acid, though fome cry- 
 ftals of alum will form in the fpace of two months. 
 
 20. Four parts of arfenical acid mixed with one With whita 
 of powdered white clay, did not dlffolve any part by Cay. 
 digeftion for a fortnight. By diftillation In a retort < 
 till the vefTel began to melt, It was converted Into a ; 
 thick flux, and a little arfenic fublimed. By mixing 
 
 the refiduum with a little powdered charcoal, a fhining 
 regulus was fublimed. 
 
 21. Terra ponderofa difltilves readily in the acid ofwi'h terraJ 
 arfenic, but precipitates again as foon as It has attained ponderofa. 
 the point of faturatlon. The folutlon is precipi- 
 tated by acid of vitriol, and forms regenerated pon- 
 derous fpar. 
 
 22. Gold Is. not afted upon by acid of arfenic, either Wichgold. 
 by digeftion or othervyife ; nor is Its folutlon precipi- 
 tated, though the retorts ufed In the operation were 
 ftained with red and yellow fpots, which could not be 
 
 taken off" ; nor Is Its aftlon Increafed by mixture with 
 muriatic or with nitrous acid. 
 
 23. Pura platina is not afted upon. 
 Is not precipitated by the pure arfenical acid, but rea- 
 dily by the arfenical falts. The precipitate is yellow, 
 and diflblves in a large quantity of water, but contains 
 no mark of arfenical acid. Addition of muriatic or of 
 nitrous acid makes no change In Its eff'cfts. 
 
 24. Pure filver Is not afted upon by the arfenical Silver." 
 acid In digeftion. On augmenting the fire till the 
 acid melted, and keeping up this degree of heat for 
 half an hour, the metal diflblved, and on breaking the 
 retort, a colourlefs glaffy mafs, nearly tranfparent, was 
 found In It ; the retort being covered with a flame- 
 coloured glazing, which could not be feparated from 
 It. By a great degree of heat the filver was reduced 
 without addition. Solution of filver Is precipitated ty 
 poire acid of arfenic, but more eftetlually by the 
 neutral arfenical falts : the precipitate is of a brown 
 colour, and by digeftion In muriatic acid is changed 
 into luna cornea ; it is alfo foluble in fpirit of fal am- 
 moniac prepared with quicklime. The aclion of the 
 arfenical acid upon filver is confiderably Increafed by 
 mixing it with fpirit of fea-falt ; the former attacking 
 the phlogifton of the metal, while the latter attacks 
 Its earthy bafis. 
 
 25. Q^uickfilver is not afted upon by digeftion wltliQuick- 
 arfenical acid. On putting the mixture into a retort, 
 diftilling to drynefs, and then increafing the fire, the 
 mafs becomes yellow, quickfilver rifes Into the neck of 
 the retort, with a little arfenic, and fome yellow fubll- 
 mate ; but though the fire was augmented till the re- 
 tort began to melt, the mafs could not be fufed. Three 
 drachms and an half of (juickfilver were obtained out 
 of fix employed in the experiment ; the arfenical acid, 
 therefore, contained two and an half. The mafs was 
 foraewhat yellow : it difl'olved very readily In muriatic 
 acid, but fcaix'ely at all in the nitrous or vltrlohc ; on 
 evaporation to drynefs and diftillation, fome corrofive 
 
 fublimate 
 
Pracll 
 
 946 
 
 Bu'ter of 
 arfenic is 
 nor obtain 
 ed by this 
 procel's 
 
 ce. C H E M 
 
 - fubilmate rofe into tlie neck of the retort ; tho refidu- 
 urn, melted in a very ftrong fire, proved to be acid of 
 arfenic. Another portion of the mafs, diiUIled with 
 two, parts of common fait, yielded corrufive fubli- 
 mate. 
 
 26. Acid of arfenic diftilled with corrofive fubli- 
 mate undergoes no change : but by fublimation with 
 mercurius dulcis, a con-ofive fublimate is obtained. 
 Some have afferted, that by fubliming arfenic with cor- 
 rcfive fublimate, abutter of arfenic is obtained; but 
 Mr Scheele informs us that this is a mlftake ; and 
 that, by diftilling this mixture, he conitantly obtained 
 corrofive fublimate at firft, and arfenic afterwards. 
 With regulus of arfenic, however, a fmoking butter 
 of arfenic, mercurius dulcis, and fome quickfilver, are 
 obtained. The fame thing happens with a mixture 
 of orpiment and corrofive fublimate. 
 
 27. Arfcnical acid difTolves copper by a digelling 
 heat. The folution is of a green colour ; a quantity 
 of light blue powder Is depofited, and attaches itfelf to 
 the copper. I'his powder confifts of the acid of arfe- 
 nic and calcined copper. On mixing two parts of 
 dry acid of arfenic, in fine powder, with one of filings 
 of copper, and dlllilling the mixture, fome arfenic 
 rok into the neck, and the mafs melted and turned 
 blue. On boiUng ir with water, the folution was fi- 
 milar to one made diredly from acid of arfenic and 
 copper. A little copper remained in the bottom of 
 the retort, which was tinged with brown, red, and 
 yellow fpots, infoluble in any menftruum. The folu- 
 tion s of this r 'ct^l are not pi-ecipitated by arfenical 
 acid, but the acetous folution is. Neutral arfenical 
 falts throw down a blue precipitate, wlilch by expo- 
 furc to a flrong fire, turns brown and covers the infide 
 of the containing veflel with a yellow enamel. On 
 mixing the fcoria in fine powder with a little lamp- 
 black, fome fine regulus of arfenic fubhmed, and the 
 copper in the refiduum was reduced. 
 
 28. With iron the acid of arfenic forms a gelati- 
 nous folution, which by expofure to the air grows fo 
 thick that in two hours time it will not flow out at 
 the mouth of a phial. With alkali of tartar a whitifli 
 green powder is thrown down ; which being edulco- 
 rated and diftilled in a glafs retort, yields fome arfenic, 
 and leaves a red ochre behind. On diflilhng four 
 parts of arfenical acid with one of iron filings, the mafs 
 effervefced ftrongly towards the end ; and when it be- 
 came dry, took fire in the retort upon increafing the 
 heat, when both arfenic and regulus of arfenic were 
 fubllmed. The refiduum was black, friable, and con- 
 tained but little acid of arfenic ; the retort was co- 
 vered with yellowifli brown fpots. Solutions of iron 
 m mineral acids are not precipitated by acid of arfe- 
 nic, but the acetous folution lets fall a dark brown 
 powder. All the folutions are precipitated by the 
 arfenical neutral falts, tlie precipitates by a ftrong 
 fire, converted into black fcorins ; which mixed with 
 powdered charcoal, and calcined, yield copious va- 
 pours of arfenic, and are afterwards attrafted by the 
 magnet. 
 
 29. Lead digefted with arfenical acid turns black 
 at firft, but in a few days is furrounded with a light 
 greyilh powder, containing fome arfem'c which may 
 be feparated by fublimation. On diflilhng one part 
 of fnavings of lead with two of dry acid of arfenic. 
 
 Vol,. IV. Part 11. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 505 
 
 the lead was diifolved, the mafs flowed clear, a;id a Acid.f Ar 
 little arfenic rofe into the neck of the retort. ^fenicand 
 milky ghifs was found in the bottom, which by boil- 
 ing in diftilled water, let full a quantity of white pow- 
 der, the fuperfluous acid being diffolved in the water • 
 the edulcorated powder yielded regulus of arfenic by 
 diftillatlon with charcoal. Solutions of lead in ni- 
 trous and muriatic acids are precipitated by arfenical 
 acid. ^ 
 
 30. Tin digefted with acid of arfenic becomes firft With tin. 
 black, then is covered with a white powder, and af- 
 terwards becomes gelatinous. One part of tin filings 
 diftilled with two of acid of arfenic, took fire as foon 
 
 as the retort became red-hot, and immediately after 
 both arfenic and a Httle regulus were fubllmed. The 
 tin was diffolved into a hmpid hquor, which became 
 milky when cold. — By wafliing in water, a quantity 
 of white powder was feparated, infoluble in any acid, 
 and containing very little of that of arfenic. 
 
 31. Arfenical acid diffolves zinc with effervefccnce. With^zinc. 
 The metal grows black, and the tranfparency of the 
 
 acid is deftroyed by a quantity of black powder. This 
 powder edulcorated, dried, and put on an iron plate 
 heated nearly red hot, emits a blue flame and white 
 arfenical fmoke in the dark, leaving behind a white 
 powder ; thus manifefting itfelf to be moftly regulus 
 of arfenic. One part of fihngs of zinc diftilled with 
 two of acid of arfenic, took fire in the retort with a 
 very bright flame, and burft the veffel with an explo- 
 fion. Some regulus of arfenic and flowers of zinc 
 were found in the neck. 
 
 32. Bifmuth digefted with acid of arfenic is cover- With W 
 ed with a white powder ; water precipitates the folu-"^"'^^- 
 tion, and the precipitate confifts of calcined bifmuth 
 
 and acid of arfenic. On dlftHling one part of bifmuth 
 with three of arfenical acid, the mafs melted, the me- 
 tal was calcined, but remained undiftblved in the bot- 
 tom of the veffel ; a little arfenic rofe into the neck ; 
 and after the retort became cool, water was poured 
 on the refiduum, which diflblved the acid, but the 
 calx of bifmuth remained unchanged. Solution of this 
 femimetal in the acid of nitre was precipitated by ar- 
 fenlcal acid. This precipitate, as wtll as the calx, 
 are very difficult of fufion, but on adding a little pow- 
 dered charcoal, the mixture inftantly melts, the arfe- 
 nic goes off in vapours, and the bifmuth is reduced. 
 
 33. With regulus of antimony a quantity of white Re?ui?« of 
 powder IS produced by digeftion, and the clear folu- antimony, 
 tion ,ii hkewife precipitated by dropping it into pure 
 
 water. This powder is foluble only by muriatic acid, 
 and may be precipitated again by the addition of wa- 
 ter. One part of regulus of antimony diftilled with 
 three parts of arfenical acid, took fire as foon as the 
 m;ifs melted, and regulus of arfenic witli a red matter 
 were fubllmed ; a little volatile fulphureous acid came 
 over into the receiver. On boihng the refiduum in 
 water, the acid was diffolved, a white fliining pow- 
 der remained behind, which on being mixed v.'ith char- 
 coal powder and diftilled, an ebulfition took place, 
 fome regulus of arfenic rofe into the neck of the re- 
 tort, and the antimony was reduced. Butter of an- 
 timony was , not precipitated by the pure acid, but 
 v«ry readily by the arfenical fahs. Acetous apd tar- 
 tareous folutions of glafs of antimony are preilpitated 
 by arfenical acid. - 
 
 3S 3„, 
 
5^^ 
 
 Acid fi Ar 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 955 
 With nic- 
 kel. 
 
 956 
 With man- 
 ganefe. 
 
 ^ . 957 
 With regU' 
 lus of arfe- 
 
 2c! 937 
 Strange 
 jjhenome- 
 l on of ar- 
 fenic with 
 terra folja- 
 i& tartari. 
 
 958 
 How to 
 reduce 
 niolybda- 
 na to pow- 
 der.. 
 
 ;?4. Cobalt is partially difiblved, and the folution 
 afTumes a rofc-colour ; on putting the whole mafs in- 
 to a retort, diftilling off the liquid, and then aug- 
 menting the fire, the mafs melted, and a little arfenic ' 
 was fubllmed. The refiduum when cold had a femi- 
 tranfparent violet colour. On pouring water upon it, 
 and putting it on hot fand, the acid was diiTolved,. 
 the violet colour difappeaied, and the folution af- 
 fumed a dark-red colour. The bottom of the retort 
 had a blue tin^e>. which could not be taken ojf. Solu- 
 tions of cobalt m mineral acids are readily precipitated 
 by the arfenical neutral falts. The precipitate is of a 
 rofe-colour, but melts with di£5.culty into a. dark blue 
 fcoria. 
 
 35. Nickel, with acid of arfenic, afTumes a dark 
 green colour, and lets fall a green powder containing 
 arfenic in fubilance, which may be feparated from it 
 by a gentle heat. One part of nickel diftilled with 
 two of dry arfenical acid, melted with fome appear- 
 ance of inflammation, yielding fome arfenic at the 
 fame time. The mafs was yellow, with a number of 
 grey elevated ftreaks upon it,, which appeared like ve- 
 getation, and were formed during the diftfflation. On 
 boiling the yellow mafs in water, the acid was diffolved, 
 leaving a yellow powder behind; which, when treated 
 with charcoal-powder, yielded regulus of arfenic, but 
 was not reduced itfelf. The folutions of nickel in 
 acids are not precipitated by arfenical acid, not even 
 that in vinegar, but the neutral arfenical falts throw 
 down a whitifli green powder.. 
 
 36. Manganefe in its natural ftate is diffolved only 
 jn fmall part ; but when phlogifticated it diffolves rea- 
 dily and totally ; though, whenever the acid arrives at 
 the point of faturation, the folution coagulates into 
 fmall cryftals. 
 
 37. Regulus of arfenic digefted with its own acid 
 foon becomes covered with a white powder, which is 
 arfenic in fubftance. On diftilling one part of the re- 
 gulus with two of the acid, the former fublimed, and 
 the latter melted. If fmall pieces of regulus of arfenic 
 be gradually added to the acid of arfenic in fufion, 
 an inflammation takes place, and arfenic is fublimed. 
 
 On diftilling a mixture of equal parts of terra folia- 
 ta tartari and arfenic, a limpid liquor like water firft 
 came over, fmelling ftrongly of garlic ; on changing 
 the receiver, n liquor of a brownifti red coJour was col- 
 lefted, which filled the receiver with a thick cloud, . 
 emitting an intolerable fmell of arfenic. On pouring 
 this upon a filter, hardly a few drops had pafied when, 
 a very thick ftinking fmoke fuddenly arofe as high as 
 the ceiling of the room ; an ebullition enfued towards 
 the edge of the filtering-paper, and a fine rofe-colour- 
 ed flame broke out, that lafted for fome momeiits.. 
 
 $ 13. Of t^e jicld of MOLYSDXN^, 
 
 We owe this, as well as the fucceeding acids, to 
 the induftry of the late jVTr Scheele. The fubftance 
 from which he extracted it is named by Cronftedt mo- 
 lyhdcena memlranacea miens. — As this fubftance is of 
 a flaky nature, and incapable of pulverization by it- 
 felf, our author mixed feme pieces of vitriolated tar- • 
 tar along with it in a glafs mortar ; by the attrition 
 of whicTi- it was at laft reduced to a fine powdtr, and 
 which was afterwards freed froni.thc. vitriolated tar- 
 
 Pra{5llce, 
 
 tar by wafliing with hot. water. He then treated this Acid of 
 
 powder with all the known acids, but found none of '^^^'i 
 1 , „ . ' . ^ . ^ . tia and its 
 
 them to have anyelfect upon it excepting thole ot arienic Combina- 
 
 and nitre. No fenfible effedl was perceived from the tions. 
 acid of arfenic until the water was evaporated ; after ^— v— > 
 which, by increafing the fire, a Httle yellow orpiment 959 
 was fublimed in the neck of the retort, and fome ^"1- ^c'^a^]^^^ 
 phureous acid pafled over into the receiver. On pour- arfenic 
 ing two parts of concentrated nitrous acid upon one upon it. 
 part of powdered molybdaena, the mixture was fcarce . ^560 
 warm in the retort, when it pafled all together into y'"'^"*^ 
 the recipient with great heat, and in the lorm 01 aark j-eufrated 
 red vapours. Had the quantity been larger, he had nitrous 
 no doubt that it would have taken fire j for which rea- ^cid uj^oa 
 fon the experiment was repeated with diluted nitrous j^^'^^^^"^' 
 acid. Six ounces of diluted nitrous acid being poured 
 on an ounce and a half of powdered molybdaena, no 
 efieft was perceptible till the liquor began to boil ; after 
 which a great number of red elaftic vapours began to 
 appear, and the mixture fwelled confiderably. The 
 diftillation being continued to drynefs, the refiduum 
 appeared of a grey colour ; the fame quantity of ni- 
 trous acid was poured on, and the procefs repeated, 
 when the refiduum was whiter ; and on ftill repeating 
 the operation a fourth and fifth time, the remaining^ 
 powder became at laft as white as chalk. This re- 
 fiduum, after being edulcorated witli hot water, was 
 quite taftelefs and infipid when dry. The Hmpid li- 
 quor which ran from it, being evaporated to half an 
 ounce, firft afliimed a fine blue colour, and then 
 grew thick. On being examined, it was found to 
 contain fome iron, and was otherwife chiefly acid of 
 vitrioL The colour difappeared on diluting the acid 
 with water. 961 
 The white powder juft mentioned is the true acid Acid of 
 of molybdaena, and maybe obtained by the help of molybdse- 
 fire alone. A fmall piece of molybdasna expofcd on a"^ "^^.'^^'.^'^'^ 
 frlver plate to the blow-pipe, makes a beautiful appear- ^J^^"^ 
 ance, when the white vapours attach themfelves to the 
 plate in the form of fmall fliining fcales,. in the direc- 
 tion of the flame. This white fubhmate becomes blue 
 whenever it is in contaft with the blue flame ; but 
 changes to white whenever the point of the flame is 
 direfled againft it. An ounce of powdered molyb- 
 daena was mixed with four ounces of puiificd nitre,, 
 and detonated in a crucible heated thoroughly red hot. 
 The mafs thus obtained was of a reddifli colour. On 
 diflblving it in water, the folution was clear and co- 
 lourlefs. A fmall quantity of red powder fell to the- 
 bottom of the veflel ; which, when dry, weighed i l;^ 
 grains, and fliowed iffelf to be an iron ochre. By- 
 evaporation vitriolated tartar and nitre were obtained ; , 
 but a good deal of lixivium remained, -which rcfufed to 
 cryftallize, though no mark of fuperftuous alkali re- 
 mained. It was then mixed with lome water, to which 
 diluted acid of vitriol was added, until no more pre- 
 cipitate fell. The white powder which precipitated 
 weighed three drachms ; but if too much acid be 
 added, the precipitate will be rediflolved, and the wa- 
 ter itfelf retains a part of it in folution. A precipi- 
 tate is likevvife. obtained by means of nitrous or muri- 
 atic acid. 
 
 The precipitate thus obtained, like thofe which rcr chcmi- 
 fult from the two former procefies, is the true acid of cal prop'et»'j 
 molybdaena, and has the following chemical properties, ties. 
 
 I . The 
 
raaice. C H E M 
 
 cid of I. The folutJon reddens lacmus, coagulates a folutioa 
 olybdae- foap, and precipitates hepar fulphuris. 2. If this 
 la aiKi its boiled with the hUngs of any of the im- 
 
 iol^""" perfeft metals, it affumes a hluifti colour. 3. By the 
 
 ^ ' addition of a little alkali of tartar, the earth becomes 
 
 foluble in greater quantity in wafer ; and aftei evapo- 
 ration (hoots into fmall confuftd cryftals. 4. Under 
 the blow-pipe this earth is foon abforbed by charcoal ; 
 but when placed on a filver plate it melts, and evapo- 
 rates with the fame phenomena as molybda^na itfelf. 
 5. By the addition of alkali, the earth is deprived of 
 its property of being volatilized in the fire. 6. The lo- 
 lution, whilft hot, fliows its acid power more evidently 
 than when cold, and tinges lacmus of a deeper colour. 
 It effervefces with chalk, with magnefia, and with 
 earth of alum ; with all of which it forms lalts very 
 difficult of folution in water. 7. It precipitates, from 
 the nitrous acid, filver, quickfilver, and lead, as alfo 
 lead difiblved in marine acid. Thtfe precipitates are 
 reduced on burning charcoal, and the melted metal 
 runs into the pores. Corrofive fublimate is not pre- 
 cipitated ; neither are the folutions of the other me- 
 tals. 8. Terra ponderofa is alfo precipitated from the 
 nitrous and marine acids ; and the precipitate is foluble 
 in a large quantity of cold water. None of the lolu- 
 tlons of the other earths are precipitated. 9. Fixed 
 air is alfo expelled by this acid from the fixed and vo- 
 latile alkalies, and forms with them neutral fahs which 
 precipitate all other metallic folutions. Gold, corro- 
 five fublimate, zinc, and manganefe, are precipitated 
 in form of a whhe powder ; iron and tin, from their 
 folution in marine acid, of a brown colour ; cobalt of 
 a rofe colour ; copper of a blue ; the folutions of alum 
 and quicklime, white ; and if the ammoniacal fait form- 
 cd by the earth of molybdsena and volatile alkali be 
 diililled, the earth parts with its alkali in a gentle heat, 
 and remains in the retort in form of a grey powder. 
 10. Concentrated vitriohc acid diflblves a great quan- 
 tity of this earth by means of heat. The folution ac- 
 quires a fine blue colour; which, however, difappears 
 on being heated, or by diluting the acid with water. 
 In a ftronger heat the acid flies off, leaving the earth 
 unaltered behind. This folution becomes thick on 
 coolinfT. 1 1. The nitrous acid has no efFeft upon the 
 earth *of molybdcena. 12. Boiled with the muriatic 
 acid it diflblves in confiderable quantity ; and, on di- 
 ftilHng the mixture to drynefs, a daik-blue. refiduum 
 remains. On increafing the heat, white flowers arife, 
 with a little blue fublimate, and a fmoking muriatic 
 acid is found in the receiver. The refiduutn is of a 
 grey colour. Thefe flowers are only the earth of mo- 
 lybda;na volatilized by means of the muriatic acid, 
 and lher..;Fore manifefts the fame properties. 13. If 
 one part of this earth be diftilled with tvfo parts of 
 vitriolated tartar, a little vitrioHc acid pafles over,_ at 
 leaft when the heat is very ftrong ; and the remaining 
 earth is more foluble in water than before. 1 4. With 
 two paits of nitre it expels, by means of diftillation, 
 a ftrong nitrous acid ; the refiduum diflolved in w^ater 
 is a neutral fait which precipitates all metallic folutions, 
 and is fimilar to that formed by a direft union of the 
 acid and fixed alkali. 15. Diftilled with two parts of 
 pure common fait, the acid is expelled in a fmoking 
 ftate, and white, yellow, and violet- coloured flowers 
 arife, which become moift in the air, and when fprinklcd 
 metals give them a blue colour. Thefe flowers, 
 
 I S T R Y. 507 
 
 as has been already remarked, are only the acid ofAcId of 
 
 molybdaena volatilized by that of fea-falt. ?^°'l'j1f; 
 , . , -111' \^ ' .-L na ana it* 
 
 The blue colour acquu-ed by this earth on the con- ^^^j^^^^.^jj^. 
 
 tad of flame, alfo in the moift way in fome cafes, tions 
 fliows that it is capable of contrafting an union with — --v— 
 the phlogifton. To reduce this to certainty, Mr 963 
 Scheele diflblved fome of the earth of molybdaei* inJ'f^^PjJJ* 
 boiling water, with the addition of a little alkali. In- ^^ilh" phi*, 
 to this folution he poured fome drops of muriatic acid, ^ifton. 
 and divided it into feveral parts, into each of which 
 he put filings of feveral metals. The folutions foon 
 acquired a bluIOi colour, which grew deeper and deep- 
 er ; and in an hour's time, during which the bottle 
 was now and then fliaken, the hquor afl'umed a fine 
 dark blue. That this colour depends on phlogifton,- 
 he infers from the following circumftances : i. If, in- 
 ftead of the metals themfelves, you take their calces,' 
 no blue colour is produced. 2. If there be dropped 
 into the blue folution a few drops of acid of nitre, and 
 the folution be then put into a warm place, the colour 
 difappears. It is therefore no matter of furprife, that 
 both filver and quickfilver fliould be attacked, fince a 
 double eledive attraftion takes place ; the muriatic 
 acid uniting with the metallic calx, and the earth of 
 molybdcena with the phlogifton of the metals. Gold, 
 however, is not attacked in this way. 3. Too great 
 a quantity of muriatic acid produces not a blue but a 
 yellowHh colour, which at laft turns brown if the mix- 
 ture be digefted ; but on adding this folution to a fo- 
 lution of the earth of molybdjena, a blue colour as u- 
 fual is produced. 4. Lixivium fanguinis, in which 
 the acid prevails, throw;> down the earth of a brown 
 colour, and the infufion of galls of a dark brown. 
 
 The acid of molybdxna, treated with various fluxes, shows no 
 and with charcoal, fliows no figns of containing any fjjjn of con- 
 metalhc mutter. Moiftened with oil-olive, and com- ^'^Jf 
 mitted to diftillation in a ftrong fire, it did not fub- * 
 lime, but remained in the retort in form of a black 
 powder ; which, on being calcined in a crucible, fub- 
 limed in white flowers as ufual. On inverting another 
 crucible into the former, and luting the jundure, the 
 earth remained unchanged and of a black colour, with- 
 out any fign of fufion. This black powder did not 
 diftblve in boiling water, nor even with alkali, which 
 on other occafions fo readily diflblves it ; but vv-hen 
 mixed with a triple quantity of fait of tartar, a great 
 efi^ervefcence enfued ; tbe produce was a neutral fait 
 refembling that formed by the diredt union of the acid 
 and alkali. 965 
 
 Tlie earth of molybdaena, procured by nitre, re- Properties 
 quires much lefs water for its folution ; it does not"^^'^'^^^"^ 
 expel the acid from vitriolated tartar ; is more eafily^j^'^^^'"^ ^ 
 fufed, and does not fublime in an open crucible. When 
 fufed with charcoal-powder, it affords a folution with 
 water, containing a neutral fait, which precipitates all 
 others. The reafon of thefe diff"erences is, that it 
 contains a portion of alkali, though it be ever fo fre- 
 quently purified by folution and cryftallization. That 
 this is the cafe we know from the following experi- 
 ments : 1. If to a folution of the nitrous earth ofmo- 
 lybdsena we add fome nitrous acid, the latter attacks 
 the alkali, and the greateft part of the diflblved earth 
 is precipitated. This, however, does not happen, ex- 
 cept by long boihng. 2. The neutral fait obtained 
 by fufion proves the fame. This neutral fait is pro- 
 duced in the following manner. The earth which con- 
 3 S 2 tJU*5 
 
5o8 
 
 Acid of 
 Molybdse- 
 na and its 
 Combina- 
 tion'^. 
 
 966 
 Molybd»- 
 na recom- 
 pofed by 
 uniting its 
 acid With 
 
 967 
 This lub- 
 ftavce conr 
 fidei ed as a 
 metallic 
 earth by 
 Mr Berg- 
 man. 
 
 968 
 Schcele's 
 method of 
 analyfing 
 it.. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 tains only a fmall quantity of alkali operates as an acid, 
 as appears from its changing the colour of lacmus to 
 red ; but the alkali prevents as np.uch earth from enter- 
 ing into it as is neceflary to its faturation with plilo- 
 'gifton; for the acid of 'molybdcsna has a greater at- 
 traftion for alkali than for plilogiflon. The charcoal 
 whitih remains after lixiviating the compound of acid 
 of molybdasna and charcoal, yields vapours in an open 
 crucible, and gives a fublimate containing the phlo- 
 gifticated earth of manganefe. This alkali fixes the 
 earth in the ©pen air ; and hence we fee alfo the rea- 
 fon why this earth does not expel the acid from vitri- 
 olated tantar ; for its attradioH for the alkali mult di- 
 minilh in proportion as it comes nearer the point of 
 faturation ; and as the pure earth contains no alkali, 
 it attrafts a little from the vitriolated tartar ; and con- 
 fequently there can appear bnt a flight veilige of vi- 
 triolic acid. This fmall quantity of acid likewife oc- 
 cafions its more eafy fohibility in water. 
 
 The pure acid of molybdosna recompofes that fub- 
 ftance by being combined with fulphur. Mr Scheele 
 having mixed fome very fine powder of this earth with 
 three parts of fulphur, and committed the mixture to 
 dilliliation in a glafs retort, the receiver was filled with 
 the fnperfl'jous fulphureous vapours, which had alfo 
 the fetid fmell of volatile fpirit of fulphur. In the 
 retort a black powder remained, which on every che- 
 mical trial was found to be a true molybdsena ; fo that 
 there is now no doubt of this fubftance being compo^ 
 fed of a particular kind of acid united to fulphur. 
 
 § 14- 0/ the Acid of Ly.fis PoNDEkosus., Tungsten,- 
 
 or IVoLFRAM.. 
 
 This fubftance has been analyfed both by Mr Scheele 
 and Mr Bergman, though the former has the merit of 
 difcovering the acid contained in it ; which the latter 
 confiders, as well as the earth of molybdsena, not as 
 truly acid, but as metallic earths. Mr Scheele's ex- 
 periments for analyfing this fubftance were as follow ; 
 I.. On one part cf finely powdertd tungftcn were pour- 
 ed two parts of concentrated acid of vitriol. By di- 
 ftiilation the acid pafled over unchanged ; the refidu- 
 um, which was of a- bluifii colour, after being boiled 
 for a (hort time, and the liquor filtered dtpofited 
 fome vitriolated lime or gypfum by ftanding. 2. 
 Twelve fcruples, of common nitrous acid, or pure 
 aquafortis, being poured on two of finely powdered 
 tungften, no eifervefcence enfued ; but on expo- 
 fing the mixture to a ftrong digefting heat, it af- 
 fumed a citron yellow colour. The acid was then 
 poured off into another phial, and the yellow powder 
 edulcorated with water. 3-. On this yellow powder 
 eight fcruples of cauftic volatile alkali were poured, 
 and the phial expofed to heat ;. on which the yel- 
 low colour inftantly vanifticd, and the powder be- 
 came white. This folution was in like manner 
 put into a feparate phial, and the powder edulco- 
 rated ; and as the matter was fenfibly dimijiiftied by 
 thefe operations, they were alternately repeated, till 
 at length the whole was diffolved, exjcepting three 
 grains, which feemed to be filicenus earth. The fame 
 cffefts enfued on treating this fubftance with muriatic 
 acid, only the folution was of a deeper yellow colour. 
 4. The folutions made in the foregoing manner with 
 aitrous acid being all mixed together, fome drops of 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 phloglfticated alkali were added; by which about --^cid of 
 three grains of Pruftian blue were precipitated. 5. The ^'^P*^ ^"""^ 
 mixture was then faturated with cauftic volatile ^fp^'u"*^ 
 alKali ; but as no precipitate appeared, a lolutioa of nations. 
 
 fixed alkali vas added, wliich threw down two ' \r^--' 
 
 fcruples and five grains of white earth of a mild 
 calcareous kind. On adding feme nitrous acid to the 
 extraAs made by volatile alkali, a white powder was 
 ptecipitated, which, on edulcoraiion, proved to be the 
 true acid of tungften. 7 
 
 On treating tungften with a ftrong heat in the dry Effects of 
 way, the following appearances took place: i. One !^^^' "r°" 
 part of tungften mixed with four of alkali of tartar''" 
 was melted in an iron crucible, and then poured out 
 on an iron plate. Twelve times its weight of boiiing 
 water being then poured upon it, a white powder fub- 
 fided to the bottom, which diffolved in a great meafure 
 in nitrous acid. 2. The undiftblved part of the pow- 
 der was tried ; and being again mixed with four parts 
 of alkali, was melted as before r and the mafo being 
 alfo diffolved in water, and nitrous acid poured on 
 the refiduum, only a very fmall portion of grey pow- 
 der was left undiftblved. 3. The ley being faturated 
 w ith nitrous acid, grew thick by the precipitation of a 
 white powder; which was afterwards waflied with cold 
 water and dried, and then proved to be the fame acid 
 of tungften wath that already defcribed. The folu- 
 tion in nitrous acid precipitated with fixed alkali gave 
 a white precipitate,, which was found to be calcareous 
 earth.. 
 
 The properties, of the acid of tungften are, i. Un-itschemi- 
 der the blow-pipe it became firft of a reddifli yellow cal proper- ■ 
 colour, then brown, and at laft black. It neither'^"- 
 fmoked nor gave any figns of fufion. 2. With borax 
 it produced a blue, and with microcofmic fait, a fea- 
 green gTafs. 3. Boik-d wirh-a^ fmall portion of the 
 nitrous or marine 6cids, the powdl?r becomes yello^v, 
 and with the acid of vitriol bluifti. 4, On faturating 
 a folution of the acid with fixed alkali^ a neutral fait in 
 very fmall cryft;Us is obtained. 5. With volatile alkali 
 this acid forms an ammoniacal fait fliaped like the, 
 points of fmall pins. On diftillation the alkali fepa- 
 rates in a cauftic ftate, the acid remaining behind in 
 the retort in form of a dry yellow powder. On mix - 
 ture with a folution of lime in fpirit of nitre, a double, 
 elective attradtion takes place, the acid of tungften.; 
 uniting itfelf with the lime, and that of nitre witli the. 
 volatile alkah. 6. With magnelia the acid of tung- 
 ften forms a fait very difficult of folution. 7. It pro- 
 duces no change on folutions of alum or lime, but de- 
 coxnpofes a folution of terra ponderofa in acetous acid,, 
 and the compound is totally infoluble in water.. 8. It' 
 precipitates of a white colour folutions of iron, xinc,. 
 and copper, in the vitriolic acid ; filver, quickiilver,. 
 and lead, in that oi nitre ; and lead in the acid of fea- 
 falt. Tin combined with the fame acid is thrown 
 down of a blue colour ; but corrofive fublimate and 
 folutions of gold undergo no change. 9. On cal- 
 cining the acid of tungften in a crucible, it lofes itS; 
 folubility in water, i o. It turns black by calcinatioa 
 with inflammable matters and with fulpiiur, but ia 
 other refpeds continues unaltered. Ji. Solution of 
 liepar fulphuris is predpitated of a green colour by this- 
 acid, and the phlogifticated alkali white ; the latter 
 precipitate being foluble in water. On the additioa. 
 of a few drops of muriatic a.id to a folution of tlia 
 
 acid 
 
Praclice. 
 
 Acid of 
 I .apls Poii- 
 der( fiis an^ 
 ICS Cornbi- 
 rations. 
 
 f 971 
 
 Differences 
 lietwixt the 
 acids of 
 tunei'len 
 and mo- 
 lybdana. 
 
 97a 
 
 Berp man's 
 epinion 
 Cunceriiing 
 the nc'uU 
 of tung- 
 ften fipd 
 molybdse- 
 
 973 
 Why he 
 lapp(j(ed 
 tl'.c acids 
 to be me- 
 tallic 
 earths. 
 
 acid of tungflen In water, and fpreading the liquor on 
 polifhed iron, zinc, or even tin, it acquires a beauti- 
 fid blue colour; and the kave tiling happens when 
 thefe metals are put into the acid. 12. It diftcrs from 
 the acid of molybd'cEna in not being volatile in tliC fire; 
 in having little attraction for phlogiilon or fulphur ; in 
 tvirning lime yellow, and forming an infoluble com- 
 pound with it, as well as with ponderous earth. It has 
 alfo a ftronger attradion for lime than the acid of mo- 
 lybd^na; for if a combination of lime and acid ^f mo- 
 lybdjena be digelled in a folution of the ammoniacal 
 fait formed by uniimg the acid of tungften with vola- 
 tile alkali, the latter expels the former, and produces 
 regenerated tungften. 13. By uniting the acid of 
 tungften to a calcareous earth, a regenerated tungften 
 is conftantly procured. 
 
 Mr Bergman obferves, that the acid earth of tung- 
 ften is nearly allied to- that of molybdjEna; and both are 
 in a ftate much refembling that of white arfenic. " It 
 is well known (fays he) that arfenic, in its femimetal- 
 lic ftate, is nothing but a peculiar acid faturated with 
 phlogiilon"; and that the white calx is an intermediate 
 ftate between acid and metal, containing juft phlogiilon 
 enough to coagulate the acid, but remaining ftill folu- 
 ble in water, and {howang figns of acidity. If a con- 
 clufion from analogy be admiflible, all the other metals 
 ftiould confift in a combination of the fame nature of 
 the diflFerent radical acids, which with a certain quan- 
 tity of phlogifton are coagvdated to a dry earthy fub- 
 ftance ; and on full faturation are reduced to the ftate 
 of complete metals." 
 
 The reafons which induced Mr Bergman to fuppofe 
 that the acids tn queftlon are metallic earths, are as 
 follow : 1. They both fliow a ftriking refemblance to 
 white arfenic in form, in producing effefts like acids, 
 and in their difficult folubility in water. 2. Their fpe- 
 cific gravity ; that of arfenic being 3750, the earth of 
 molybdsena 3460, and the acid of tungften 3000. 
 
 3. Their precipitation with phlogifticated alkali ; a 
 property hitherto deemed peculiar to metallic calces. 
 Arfenic alfo, properly diflolved in muriatic acid, gives, 
 with the phlogifticated alkali, a precipitate foluble in 
 water, in the fame manner as the acid of tungften. 
 
 4. From their property of tinging vitreous matters ; 
 which, aswell as that of precipitating witli the phlogifti- 
 cated alkali, is reckoned to be a peculiar property of 
 metals. The acid of tungften produces by itfelf fome 
 effervefcence with mineral alkali.. With microcofmic 
 fait it produces. a globule atlirft of a light blue ; more 
 of the acid makes it a dark blue; but ftill it remains 
 free from rednefs by refraflion- A further addition 
 makes it brown. Borax acquires a flight tinge of 
 blue, and with more of the acid becomes of a yellowifli 
 brown colour ; but remains tranfparent, provided no 
 fmther addition be made. This idtimate brown co- 
 lour cannot be driven off" either by nitre or the point 
 of the flame urged by a blow-pipe.. Acid of molyb*- 
 dfEna is no lefs powerful; for with mia-ocofnuc falt.it 
 produces a beautifiJ green colour : borax well fatura- 
 ted with it app^sars grey when viewed by the.reflecled 
 rays, but of a dark violet by the rcfracSted. 
 
 § 15. Of the Acid of Milk. 
 It' is. univerfally known, that In the fummer-time 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 509 
 
 milk grovvTs four and thick in a fev; days, and that thisAcxd of ^ 
 fournefs continues for ft)vne time to increale. It ''^ •(.^'(j 
 ftrongeft after a fortnight has elapfcd ; after which, [j^^^Q.^g, 
 
 if the wlioy be liltcrcd and evaporated to one half the ^r- — J 
 
 qiiuitity, a few curds will ftill fettle to the bottom. 974 
 By faturating the whey with volatile alkali, a fiuaU Milk r.icft 
 quantity of animal earth precipitates ; and the ^'^"^^^cid'at'tei 
 
 ter 
 
 tan '.in^ a 
 
 thing takes place on the addition of lime-water. On 
 the addition of a fmall quantity of acid of tartar, the fortnight, 
 latter foon becomes partially faturated with vegetable 
 alkali, and is converted into tartar. Thus the acid of Component- 
 milk, befides its proper acid part, contains animal earth pr;nciples 
 and vejretable alkali in a loofc ftate, and which is at- of f<'"r 
 trailed by the acid of tartar ; bcfides all thefe, it has ^ 
 alfo a fmall quantity of the fame vvlkali faturated with 
 muriatic acid. It is no eafy matter to feparate thefe 
 fubttances from one another ; becaufe the acid is not 
 fufficiently volatile to rife in diftillation by a gentle 
 heat, nor are its principles fufticiently fixed to bear the 
 aclion of a ftrong fire. With "the one therefore it 
 remains almoft entirely in the retort, and virith the other 
 it is deftroyed. Mr Scheele therefore uied the fol- 
 lowing procefs,. 
 
 He evaporated four, whey till only one-eighth part Scheele '3 
 remained; when the cheefy part being totally fepa- "''^^^"^ 
 rated, he ftrained the acid; and in order to obtain the '"^ 
 animal earth, faturated the hquor with lime, dilutmg ^cid »f 
 the fohition with a tripld quantity of water. In or- milk, 
 der to feparate the lime, he employed the acid of fu- 
 gar, w^hich has a ftronger attraAion than any other for 
 lime. This earth therefore being feparated, the mat- 
 ter was evaporated to the coniiftence of honey, and 
 highly re£lified fpirit of wine poured upon it to diflblve 
 the acid part; wiiich being accompalhed, the other 
 faline fubftances were, left by themielves : and, laftly, 
 the acid folution being diluted with pure water, and 
 the fpirit feparated by diftillatioriy the pui-e acid re- 
 mained in the retort. 
 
 The properties of the acid of milk are, i . Evapo- Prope'rt;ei^ 
 rated to the confiftence of a fyrup, it ^aelds no cryftals ;of this acidJ- 
 and when evaporated to drynefs, it deliquefces. 2. By 
 diftillation it yitlds frrft water, then a weak acid like 
 fpirit of tartar; afterwards fome empyreumatic oil, 
 with more of the fame acid. Irxed air, and inflammable 
 air ; in tlie retort was left a fixed coaL 3. By fatu- 
 ration with fixed vegetable alkali it yields a deliquef- 
 cent fait, foluble in ipirit of wine. 4.. A fait of a fi- 
 milar kind is obtained by combining it with mineral 
 alkali. 5. With volatile alkali a deliquefcent fait is . 
 produced, which by diftillation yields a great deal of 
 its alkali before the acid is deftroyed by heat. 6. It 
 forms deliquefcent falts with terra pOnderofa, lime, and 
 clay ; but with magnelia it forms fmall cryftals, which, 
 however, are again deliquefcent. 7. It has no effeft 
 either by digeilion or boiling on bifmuth, cobalt, re- 
 gulus of antim.ony, tin, quickfilver, or gold. How- 
 ever, after digeilion with tiri, it. precipitated gold from 
 its folution in aqua-regia, in the form of a black pow- 
 der. 8. It diffolves iron and zinc, ..producing inflam- 
 mable air during the folution. The liquor produced 
 by the dilfolution. of. iron was brown, and yielded no 
 cryftals ; but the folution of zinc cr}'ftallizes. 9. Cop- 
 per diffolved in this acid communicates to the liquor, 
 firft a blue, then a green, and then a dark blue colour, , 
 without cr^'•ftaUizing. ic. Lead wa& diffcilved after 
 
 fcm.e.. 
 
510 
 
 /Vcid oi 
 M:lk and 
 it- Combi- 
 Jiations. 
 
 978 
 It feeais to 
 l)e of the 
 acelous 
 'kind. 
 
 G H E M 
 
 979 
 
 ■Milk ca- 
 pable of 
 romplere 
 fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 aa9?9 
 
 Ci>n-ve:ted 
 into vine- 
 gar. 
 
 9 So 
 Acid of 
 fugar of 
 milk how 
 procured. 
 
 I'orne dixyr, tlii^AVnn ? the folutlon had a fvveet aftriu- 
 gent tafte, and would not cryftallize. A fmall quan- 
 tity of Avhite matter fell to the bottom, which on exa- 
 mination wks found to be .vitriol of lead. 
 
 " From thefe experiments (fays Mi- Soheelc) it ap- 
 pears, that the acid of milk is of a peculiar kind ; and 
 though it expels the vinegar from the acetated vegeta- 
 ble allvnli, yet it feeras deiHnedjj, if I may fo fpeak, to 
 vbe vinegar ; but from the want of fuch fubftances as, 
 ••during fermentation, produce fomc fpirituous matter, it 
 ■feems not to be volatilized, though a portion of it in- 
 deed arrives at tbis point, and really becomes vinegar: 
 for without a previous fpiritous fermentation, or with- 
 out brandy, there never arifes any vinegar. But that 
 the milk enters intw a complete fermentation though 
 there be no hgn of brandy prefeirt, appears from the 
 following experiment : If a bottle full of frefa milk be 
 inverted into a veffel containing fo much of the fame 
 iiquor that the mouth of the bottle"^ reaches below the 
 furface of the latter, and if you expofe this bottle to 
 a degree of heat a little greater than our fummer, you 
 ■will find, ill the fpace of 24 hours, that the milk is not 
 ■only coagulated, but in part expelled out of the bottle; 
 and that in a couple of days afterwards, the aerial acid 
 extricated from the milk will have expelled the greater 
 part of it. It was faid above, that the acid of milk 
 cannot be converted into vinegar, from the want of fuch 
 fubftances as during fermentation produce brandy ; 
 which appears to be evident from this : If to a kanne 
 of milk you add five fpoonfuls of good brandy, and ex- 
 pofe the velTel, well corked, in fuch a manner, however, 
 that you now and then give vent to the air developed 
 •dui-ing fermentation, you will find in a month, focaer 
 or latter, that the whey will be changed into good vi- 
 negar, which, ftrained through a cloth, may be kept in 
 bottles." 
 
 The acid of fugar of milk is confiderably different 
 from that juft now defcribed. To procure it, Mr 
 Scheele poured 1 2 ounces of dduted nitrous acid on 
 four ounces of finely powdered fugar of milk con- 
 tained in a glafs retort, to which a receiver was 
 adapted. The retort was placed in a fand-bath, and 
 as foon as the mixture acquired a certain degree of 
 heat, it began to effervefcc violently ; for which rea- 
 fon, the retort and receiver were taken away from 
 the fire. The mixture, however, continued to grow 
 hotter and hotter, with a great emilfion of dark red 
 ■vapours continually increafing, for half an hour. A 
 confiderable quantity of nitrous air and aerial acid 
 were extricated during that time. Care mull be ta- 
 ken, therefore, to have the retort and receiver both of 
 a fufficient fize, and not to make the luting too tight. 
 When the eftervefcence had fubfided, the retort was 
 again placed in the fand bath, and the nitrous acid thus 
 diftilled off till the mafs acquired a yellowifli colour ; 
 on which the retort was immediately taken away from 
 the fire. In two days time the folutlon fcemed to 
 have undergone no remarkable change, nor was there 
 any appearance of cryftals. Eight ounces more of 
 the fame nitrous acid were therefore added, and the 
 whole expofcd to the fame degree of heat as before. 
 "When the mafs grew warm, another effervefcence, 
 though weaker than the former, enfued ; the yellow 
 colour difappeared, and the nitrous acid was again ab- 
 flrafted, till the folution, which had beea rendered 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaic<?. 
 
 opaque by the appearance of a white po^vder in it, Acid of 
 alfumed a yeliowiih colour, on which the retort was a- [J^'q,,^^' 
 gain removed from the fand. After it was grown „at:iong. 
 cool, the mafs in the retort was found to be iufpiffated; — — y— .ii 
 it was redifiblved in eight ounces of water, and filtered. 
 Seven and a half drachms of white powder remained 
 on the filter ; the folution which paiTed through the 
 filter was very acid. It was evaporated to the con- 
 iiilence of a fyrup, four ounces more nitrous acid 
 poured upon it, and the evaporation repeated in a fand 
 heat. After the whole was cool, fome fmall long a- 
 cid cryftals were found, together with a fmall quanti- 
 ty of white powder which was feparated from it, and 
 fome more nitrous acid poured on the remaining mafs, 
 and oa evaporation, more fuch cryftals made their ap- 
 pearance. The fame procefs was repeated fevenil 
 times ; by which means the whole mafs was at laft 
 changed into fuch cryftals, and weighed about five 
 drachms, ftiowing in every refpeft the fame phenome- 
 na produced by acid of fugar. The white powder, 
 weighing feven and a half drachrns, was the true acid 
 of fugar of milk ; and its properties are, ^gj 
 
 I. It burns in a red hot-crucible like oil, without Prope ties 
 leaving behind it any mark or afties. 2. It diffolves of this aciJ. 
 in boiling water in the proportion of one of fait to 
 60 of the liquid. 3. One fourth part of the dilTol- 
 ved powder feparates from the liquid on. cooHng, in 
 form of very fmall cryftals. 4. Half an ounce of the 
 fait was diffolved in a glafs veffel in 30 ounces of boil- 
 ing water, and the folution filtered when cold. It had 
 a fourifh tafte, reddened the tinfture of lacmus, and 
 effervefced with chalk. 5. Two drachms of the fait 
 expofed to an open fire in a glafs retort, melted, grew 
 black, and frothed very much ; a brown fait was found 
 fublimed into the neck of the retort, which fmelled 
 like a mixture of fait of benzoin and fait of amber, 
 eleven grains of coal remaining in the retort. The 
 receiver contained a brown liquid without any mark 
 of oil, fmeUing like the fublimed fait. It contained 
 alfo fome of the fait diffolved, which was feparated 
 'from it by a gentle evaporation. The fublimed fait 
 weighed 35 grains, had a four tafte, and was eafily 
 foluble in Ipirit of wine, but with more difficulty in 
 water, and burned in the fire with a flame. 6. Con- 
 centrated vitriolic acid, diftilled with this fait, became 
 very black, frothed much, and decompofed the fait 
 entirely. 7. Acid of fugar of milk, gradually added 
 to a hot folutlon of alkali, occafioned an effervefcence 
 and coagulation in confequence of the formation of a 
 vaft number of cryftals, which require eight times their 
 weight of water to diffolve them, and feparate again 
 in a great meafure from the liquid on cooling. The 
 fame phenomena took place with the mineral alkali, 
 only the fait was fomewhat more foluble, requiring 
 only five times its weight of water for folution. If 
 to a folution of it a folutlon of alkali of tartar be 
 added, a number of fmall cryftals will foon be formed 
 at the bottom of the veffel, on account of the greater 
 attraction of this acid with the vegetable alkali. 
 8. With volatile alkali it forms a kind of fal ammo- 
 niac, which, after being gently dried, has afourifti tafte. 
 By dlftiUation, the volatile alkali is firft feparated, the - 
 lime-water precipitates, and the refiduum yields the 
 fame produjfts by diftlUation as the pure acid. 9. With 
 all the earths, acid of, fugar of milk forms infoluble 
 
 falts. 
 
Pradice, 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 5i« 
 
 Calculi all 
 of the fame 
 nature^ 
 
 9^3 
 Properties 
 •f the aeid 
 »f calculus. 
 
 falts. If a folution of ponderous earth in muriatic or 
 nitrous acid be dropped into a folution of acid of fu- 
 gar of milk, the former is inftantly decompofed, and 
 the earth falls to the bottom in combination with the 
 acid of faccharum ladls. The fame phenomena take 
 place with folations of lime ta the nitrous and marine 
 acids ; but folution of gypfum is not decompofed. 
 The fame alfo takes place with folutions of magne- 
 fia in vegetable or mineral acids, and with earth of a- 
 lum ; all of which are decompofed by the neutral falts 
 above mentioned. lo. The folution of this acid^ by 
 reafon of the fmall quantity dilTolvable in water* has 
 no fenfible elfects on metals in their perfedl flate ; but 
 when they are reduced to calces, it then a£ts upon 
 them, and forms falts, very little or not at all foluble 
 iji water. Silver, mercury, and lead are precipitated 
 in form of a white powder ; bhie, green, and v/hite 
 vitriol, as well as manganefe combined with aeid of 
 vitriol, are not precipitated ; but all metallic folutiona 
 are precipitated by the neutral falts. 
 
 § 16. Of the LiTHiiiAC Acid, or Acid of the human 
 Calculus. 
 
 The calculi examined by Mr Scheele, with a \acw 
 to difcovcr their conftitjient parts, were, as he informs 
 lis, all of the fame nature, whether flat and polifaed, 
 or rough and angular. A fmall quantity of calculus 
 in powder was put into a retort, and fome diluted vi- 
 triolic acid poured upon it. The powder was not 
 affefted by a digefting heat ; however, it was dilTolved 
 when the humidity was abftrafted by diftillation. Af- 
 ter the dilEpation of the acid, a black coal was left in 
 the retort, and the vitriolic acid which had palfed in- 
 to the receiver was become fulphureoiis. The marine 
 acid, whether diluted or concentrated, had no effedl 
 upon the calculus, not even when boiled with it. The 
 nitrous acid diluted, or aquafortis, had fome effeft on 
 the calculus, even In the cold. On the application of 
 heat, an effervefcence enfued with red vapours, and the 
 calculus was diflblved. Repeating the experiment in 
 a retort with lime-water, the latter was precipitated. 
 The folution of calculus is acid, though the men- 
 ftruum be boiled with a fuperabundant quantity of 
 powder, fo that there may remain a portion of It im- 
 dllTolved. It produces deep- red fpots on the fltln in 
 half an hour after it Is applied ; and if the faturated 
 folution be a little more evaporated. It affumes of it- 
 felf a blood-red colour, which, however, dlfappears on 
 dropping In a fingle drop of nitrous acid. Terra pon- 
 derofa is not precipitated by It from the muriatic acid; 
 nor are metallic folutions fenhbly changed. With al- 
 kalies It becomes fomewhat more yellow when the al- 
 kali is fuperabundant. The mixture, in a ftrong di- 
 gefting heat, afiumes a rofe colour, and ftains the ll<In 
 in the fame manner, without, any fenfation of burning. 
 The mixture likewlfe precipitates metals of different 
 colours ; vitriol of Iron, black ; of copper, green ; fo- 
 Intion of filver, grey ; con-ofive fubllmate, zinc, and 
 lead, of a white colour. Lime water precipitates a 
 white powder foluble in muriatic and nitrous acids 
 without effervefcence ; and though there be an excefs 
 of precipitated powder, the folution will be acid. 
 This white powder, therefore, is the acid of the cal- 
 culus itfelf,, the exillence of which is alfo confirmed 
 
 by Mr Bcrg.njan's experiments. The further analyfis Flowers of 
 of this is related under the article Calculus, below. 
 
 ^17. Of the FiorrRRS of Benzoin^ Acid of Lemons^ 
 iv'ith other cncunolous 'vegetable acids, and the refem- 
 blanoe ivhlch the Degetabk acids in general bear to one 
 another. 
 
 924 
 
 It has long been known, that the refmous fubilance, Flowers or 
 Improperly called gum benzoin, yields by fublimation benzoin ob- 
 with a gentle heat a qua'ntity of fine faline matter off^bijma- 
 a moft agreeable odom , and flightly acid tafte, called [jq^, 
 jloiu:rs of ben%oitt. Another method of obtaining- 985^ 
 this fubftance Is by lixiviating the gum. with water, lixivia- 
 aud crydalliziHg the fait. Mr Scheele, determined to " '^g^ 
 try what quantity of the flowers could be obtained Quantities 
 from the refin, found that, by fublimation, he was able obtained by 
 to obtain from one pound of benzoin between nine 
 and twelve drachms of flowers. By lixiviation the 
 quantity obtained was coniidcrably lefs than the for- 
 mer, owing to the fah'ne particles being fo much cover- 
 ed by the refin, that the water could net have fufii- 
 cient accefs to dilTolve them all. It was next attempt- ^.ttemptst* 
 ed to procure all the flowers which the benzoin was procure all 
 capable of yielding. This was firft done by bolhng the flow- 
 pounded chalk and benzoin In water, and then filter- ^^^^ 
 ing the decoction; but no cryftals appeared. On po^r- 
 ing fome drops of vitriolic acid Into the liquor, the fait iug. 
 of benzoin foon afterv/ards precipitated (for this fait, _ 988 
 which is an acid, was united to the chalk) ; but the ■'^"'j^'^.^j^i^ 
 quantity of fait was no greater than that obtained hy jj^^^^jj^^jg^. . . 
 lixiviation. Alkaline ley was next tried, and the fo- 985) 
 lution faturated with an acid. Thus the fait of ben- And with- 
 zoin v/as obtained by precipitation ; but here this in- alkaline 
 convenience was niet with, that the powder of benzoin 
 ran together daring the boiling, and floated on the 
 furface like a tenacious refin. One only method, there- Boilinfij 
 fore, remained to be tried, and that was to boil the with lime, 
 benzoin v/ith quick-hme ; and as the particles of lime, '^^^j^^^' 
 by interfperfing themfelves betwixt thofe of the ben- * 
 zoin, would prevent their running together, and lime 
 has likewife the property of adllng upon the refinous 
 particles, this feems to be the beft method of pro- 
 curing the flowers of benzoin In the greateil quantity, 
 and alfo of the bell quality ; and thus v. e may obtain 
 from 12 to 14 drachms of flowers from a pound of j^^. ^''^ 
 benzoin. Mr Scheele's receipt for preparing them after Scheele's 
 this new method, is as follows: " Pour 12 ounces of receipt for 
 water upon four of unflaked hme, and after the ebul- preparyig 
 lition is over, add eight pounds (of 12 ounces each) ei.^of°ben 
 of water ; put then a pound of finely powdered refin ^oin 
 of benzoin Into a tinned pan, pour upon it firft about this ma- 
 fix ounces of the hme -water above mentioned; mix i^^io'l* 
 them well together, and thus add aU the reft of the 
 lime-water In fucceflioA. The reafon of adding the 
 lime-water thus by portions, Is, that if it be poured in 
 all at once, it vvIlLnot mix with the benzoin, which 
 will likewife coagulate and run . together into a mafs. . 
 This mixture muft be boiled over a gentle fii-e for half 
 an hour, agitating It conftantly ; then taking It from' 
 the fire, let It ftand quiet for fome time to fettle, after 
 which the clear liquor is to be poured ofiF into a glafs 
 veflel. Pour then eight pounds of v,'ater more upon 
 the lime In the veffel, and ufe this lime-water as before,, 
 rejieating this procefs twice more, making four times- 
 3 
 
in all ; and laftly, putting all the refiduums together 
 on a filter, pour hot water upon them. During this 
 procefs, 
 
 99* , 
 Flavour of 
 the flowers 
 may be ta- 
 ken away 
 and pro.'u- 
 ced at plea 
 fure,, 
 
 993 
 Anomalous 
 vegetable 
 acids how 
 divided. 
 
 994 
 Of the ef- 
 •fential 
 gcids. 
 
 995 
 F.mpyreu- 
 tnatic 
 .acids. 
 
 the calcareous earth of the lime-water com- 
 bines with the acid of benzoin, and feparates it from 
 the refinous particles of this fubHance ; but a fniall 
 quantity of rcfin is diffolved by the lime-water, and 
 gives it a yellow colour. 
 
 *' All thefe liquors being mixed together and boiled 
 down to two pounds, are then to be llrained into ano- 
 ther glafs veflel. They are infpiffat-ed f6 far, becaufe 
 the fuptrfluous water would hold a great quantity of the 
 fait in folution ; and a little of the refm being feluhle 
 in a large quantity of limerwator, but not in a fmall, 
 falls to the bottom on the liquor being infpifFattd. 
 When the liquor has become cold, after being llrained 
 the laft time, add muriatic acid till the flowers be to- 
 tally precipitated, which happens by reafon cf the 
 ftronger attrattion of the marine acid for the calcare- 
 ous earth. The precipitated coagulum is then to be 
 put upon a filter ; and, after being Vvcll dried, to be 
 fdulcorated fufficiently, by repeatedly pouring cold 
 water upon it, when it nmft be dried with a gentle 
 heat. As the water made ufe of for this purpofe, how- 
 ever, is capable of diffolving a little of the fait of ben- 
 zoin, it ought to be evaporated, and afterwards fet to 
 cryftallize. In order, to give this fait a, fliining appear- 
 ance, let it be difiblvcd in a fufficient quantity, fix 
 ounces, for inftance, of water by gentle boiling; then 
 ftrain it iitimediately, while yet warm, through a cloth, 
 into a glafs vefiel which has been heated before ; and 
 thus a number of fine cryftals will fi^oot as foon as the 
 folution is grown cold. Tlie water is then to be 
 ftraincd from the cryftals, and the reft of the fait ftif- 
 pcnded in the water may be obtained by repeated eva- 
 poration and cryftallizatioR. In this method, however, 
 a great quantity of the flowers are loft by reafon of 
 their volatility ; it will therefore be more convenient 
 to keep them in the form of their original precipitate, 
 which is always in fine powder. Cloth anfvvers bcft 
 for the filtration of the hot folution : when blotting 
 paper is ufed, the fait fometimes cryftallizes in the fil- 
 ter, and obftru£ls it. Tlie filtration itfelf might be 
 omitted, were it not that about two grains of rcfin of 
 benzoin remain united to the liquor, from whence it 
 cannot be feparated but by the operation j aft mention- 
 ed," The properties of this fait as an acid are but 
 
 little known. It has a moft agreeable flavour; which, 
 however, ceafes as foon as it unites with calcareous 
 earth, but is recovered again on being feparated by 
 any other acid. 
 
 With regard to the other vegetable acids, they may 
 be divided into the effential, the fermented, and em- 
 pyreumatic. T"he eflential acids are pure, as exem- 
 plified in thofe of lemons, forrel, and forrel-dock ; or 
 but little altered by the admixture of other matters, 
 as thofe of cherries, barberries, tamarinds, &c. In 
 fweet fruits, they are generally fo much covered when 
 ripe as fcarce to be diftinguiftied : however, thefe la- 
 tent acids become more evident, partly in fermentation, 
 and partly by dry diftillation. By the formerniethod, all 
 flowers, excepting a few which bear cruciform flowers, 
 arc made to yield vinegar ; and by dry diftillation only 
 a very few yield a volatile alkali. 
 
 The acid which paftes over in dry diftillation is 
 fcarce perceptible while the fubjedl retains its natural 
 N°73. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. Pr^ak,, 
 
 form ;^ but when once produced, has the fame eiTential Flowers of 
 qualities with the other; whence it was naturally fup- ■'''tn^oin, 
 
 pofed, that all vegetable acids are at bottom the Tame. ^ , 
 
 Chemifts, however, have 'been divided in their opinions ' ^ 
 on tills fubjcct ; fome fnppofing that the acid of fugar or Whether 
 
 of tartar. is the bafis, and others that vinegar is the ba- t!ie acid of 
 fis of them all. In proof of this latter hypothefis, it 
 has been urged, that the acid of lemons may be cry-^^^}^\\'i^^ 
 ftallized ; of which we have the following account in get^bie 
 Scheele's Eflays. " The juice will not ftioot into acids, 
 cryftals by mere evaporation, even when thickened 99' 
 .to the coniiftence of a fyrup. This our author fuppo- 
 fed to proceed from the great quantity of mucilaginous ci-Jlblli-'' 
 matter with which the juice abounds ; for which rea-zing the a= 
 fon he mixed the infpift'/.ted jiiice with ft;rong fpirit of ^''^ 
 wine, which coagiJated the whole : but even thus he 
 could obtain no cryftals by evaporation. He there- 
 fore employed the method ufed for procuring the pure 
 acid of tartar, and v^^hich is formerly defcribcd. The 
 lemon juice, while boihng, was faturated with pulve- 
 rifed chalk, and the compound immediately fell to the 
 bottom in a form nearly rcfcmbling tartarifed lime.. 
 To feparate the acid, a quantity of o l of vitriol, equal 
 in weight to the chalk employed, but diluted with ten 
 times its weight of water vvas necelFary. Tlu's mixture 
 muft be boiled in a glafs veflel for a fev%r minutes ; and 
 when grown cold, the acid is to be feparated from the 
 gypfum by filtration. In order to cndtallize it, we muft 
 evaporate the whole to the confiftence of a thin fynip; 
 but great care is to be taken left any of the calcareous 
 earth remain in the evaporated liquor : to detern-iine 
 which, a little of it is to be tried with frelh oil of vi- 
 triol, which will throw down the remainder : and in 
 this cafe iome more muft be added to the whole quan- 
 tity ; for the leaft particle of lime remaining prevents The2?'yftaP 
 the cryftallizatjon, while the fuperfiuous quantity of lizationi.rej 
 oil of vitriol, if too much happens to be added, re- vcnttd hy 
 mains in the liquor. The cryftals ftioot equally well'''"" 
 in a hot as in a cold temperature, which is very un-!'!!!"'"'^ 
 ufual." ^ 
 
 It is very remarkable that this cryftalllzed fait of ^J^^. 
 lemons cannot be converted into acid of Aigar by mons' can- 
 means of that of nitre, thougli the extraft of the iuicenot ^-^ on- 
 itfelf may. Sour cherries afford acid of fugar," and ''"''^.'P''* 
 another fait fuppofcd to be tartar ; and a kind of fu- ""'^r' 
 gar may be obtained not only from roots of various^ 
 kinds, but from fine raifins, and, as Dr Crell thinks, 
 from expi effed muft ; but whether the faccharine acid 
 can be p.ocured from this kind of fugar in equal quan- 
 tity as from the common, or even whether it yields 
 the fame products with common fugar by dry diftilla- 
 tion, is Itill a matter of doubt. 
 
 Pure acid of tartar yields on diftillation per Jl- an P,o!.ud of 
 empyreumatic acid, and a coal confifting of oi'y oar- acid of tar- 
 ticles and calcareous earth. Dr Crell thcrefoi c ali s '^''y 
 May not the acetous acid be mere acid of tartar, which 
 did not meet with alkaline fait and earth enou"-h with 
 which it might combine and become more fixed ; but 
 on the contrary, attra6ted more fubtile oily particles, iq 
 and thus became more volatile > In diftilling terra fo- Acetous 
 liata tartari in the dry way, the acid of vinegar which Hmo^ 
 enters its compofition is almoft entirely deftroyed,'^''"'^'^ 
 only ^f^-th of pure acid being obtained, the rcfiduumt fi"/^*^ 
 in the retort, an well as the reft of that which comes * 
 over into the receiver, being entirely alkaline; and the 
 ^ fame 
 
Pradice. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Identity of fame thing happens to the acid of tartar, the empy- 
 ^^^^^^j^*-^' reumatic acid above mentioned being exti-emely weak. 
 ' Mr Beaume likewife informs us, that if any calcareous 
 earth, egg-fliells, for inftance, be diflblved in vinegar, 
 and the cryftaUized fait be diftilled, we obtain of a 
 red and veiy fieiy inflammable fluid, fmelling like em- 
 pyreumatic acetous ether, which reddens tindture of 
 turnfole, Muft, diftilled before fermentation, yields 
 only an empyreumatic acid refembling fpirit of tartar. 
 The conjefture therefore feems reafonable, that vine- 
 gar and tartar have for their bafis the fame fpecies of 
 acid, which in the cafe of vinegar is combined with a 
 greater proportion of oil, and in tartar with more 
 earth. To bring vinegar therefore nearer the ftate of 
 tartar, we muft deprive it of its fine volatilizing phlo- 
 iiig vinegar gifton, combine it with more fixed matter, and re- 
 ftate^of tar ^^'"^ grofler oil. All this, however, is extremely 
 " difficult to be effefted. Mr Weftrumb, who attempt- 
 ed it, added nitrous acid in various proportions, but 
 could only produce a phlogiftication of the latter, and 
 dephlogiftication of the vinegar ; but as he could not 
 fu"atte*nipt. t'li"^ of any method of feparating the two acids from 
 one another,- he was unable to inveftigate the pro- 
 perties of vinegar thus dephlogifticated. Dr Crell 
 is of opinion, that this might have been done by ve- 
 the poffibi- getable alkali, lime, and terra pcnderofa. The ni- 
 ^trlsni^^ trous acid, with vegetable alkali, would have ftiot in- 
 jjgjj^ ' " to the ordinary hexangular cryftals of nitre : the ace- 
 tous acid would have formed a compound not eafily 
 cryftallized, provided it had remained unchanged ; and, 
 though it had approached the nature of faccharine 
 acid, would ttill have formed a compound difficultly 
 cryftallizable. The effefts of thefe acids, indeed, on 
 lime, are direftly oppofite to what they are on terra 
 ponderofa. With the former, nitrous acid forms a 
 liquor which can fcarce be cryftallized ; with the lat- 
 ter, it produces falts difficult to be diffolved : while 
 the acetous acid, with terra ponderofa, forms deliquef- 
 cent falts ; with lime, fuch as efflorefce in the air. But 
 if the vinegar, by means of the operation already men- 
 tioned, had been made to approach towards the na- 
 ture of acid of fugar, tranfparent cryftals would im- 
 mediately have fallen, by reafon of the ftrong attrac- 
 Method re- of this acid for lime. Dr Crell therefore recom- 
 commendcd mends the following method. Let nitrous acid be fe- 
 by him for veral times diftilled off from vinegar ; and when the 
 fj^p^^''""^ former, upon being newly added, produces no more 
 red vapours, faturate the liquor with lime or terra 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 fipate fome phloglftic particles. 
 
 5^3 
 
 Let it then be diffol- Identity of 
 
 looa 
 Requifites 
 foi brine:- 
 
 tar, 
 
 Mr Wef- 
 
 ti umli's 
 lanfuccefs- 
 
 1004 
 Dr Crell's 
 opinic n of 
 
 the experi' 
 tnent 
 
 ponderofa, feparating the ley, which will not fhoot, 
 from the cryftals. The nature of the fait which 
 does not contain nitrous acid, may be determined 
 from the figure of its cryftals, or from the effefts of 
 other falts in confequence of a double eleftive at- 
 traflion. We might likewife add freOi nitrous acid 
 to the feparated fait, or to the whole mixture, with- 
 out any feparation of the nitrous fait, till the earthy 
 fait, which does not contain any nitrous acid, be fatu- 
 rated. The vinegar, if unaltered by the operation, 
 would rife on diftilling the liquor ; and if converted 
 into faccharine acid, would not be diflodged from lime 
 by fpirit of nitre. In like manner, diftilled vinegar 
 fhould be faturated with chalk, the compound redu- 
 ced to cryftals, and then expofed to as ftrong a fire as 
 it can bear without expelling the acid, in order to dif- 
 Vou IV. PartIL 
 
 ved, filtered, and ciyftallized again; after which it 
 may be treated with nitrous acid as above direfted. ' 
 " Perhaps (fays Dr Crell), the acetous acid may by — — ^ J 
 this combination acquire more fixity ; fo that the ni- 
 trous acid fhall be able to produce a greater change. 
 Should it pafs over again in the form of acetous acid 
 unchanged, let it be combined once more with calca- 
 reous earth ; and let the foregoing experiment be re- 
 peated, in order to try whether fome fenfible change 
 will not enfue. Should this method fail, try the op- 
 pofite ; that is, endeavour to add more grofs phlogi- 
 ftic matter to the vinegar. Try to combine ftrong 
 vinegar, and that which has been diftilled, with unftu- 
 ous oils. Thus we might perhaps bring it nearer to 
 tartar; and, again, by means of nitrous acid, convert it 
 into acid of fugar. 1006 
 In another diflertation on this fubjeft, Dr Crell His at- 
 
 undertakes to fliow, that all the vegetable acids may '^•^"^'""^^f® 
 , , . ■ , 1 • . , pT(,\'e that 
 
 be converted mto one, and that this is contamed in ^j^g 
 
 the pureft fpirit of wine. The following are adduced getable a- 
 
 as proofs. cids may 
 
 1. If the refiduum of dulcified fpirit of nitre be ['^^ Jj^^""** 
 boiled with a large quantity of nitrous acid, care be- ,gQ^ 
 ing taken at the fame time to condenfe the vapours by From the 
 
 a proper apparatus ; and if the liquid which has paf- refiduuin of 
 fed over be faturated with vegetable alkah, nitre and j!"/"^'^^"^^ 
 terra foliata tartari will be obtained; and on feparating j,itre. 
 the latter by means of fpirit of wine, the vinegar may 
 be had in the ordinary way of decompofing the fait. 
 
 2. On boiling the refiduum over again with nitrous 
 acid, the fame produfts are obtained ; and the more 
 frequently this procefs is repeated, the lefs acid of fu- 
 gar is procured, until at length no veftige of it is to 
 
 be met with. ,oog 
 
 3. Pure acid of fugar, boiled with 12 or 14 times its From the 
 quantity of nitrous acid, is entirely decompofed, and ^^^^ '^'^^^ " 
 the receiver is found to contain phlogifticated nitrous ^^.l^^ '^f^j^^ 
 acid, vinegar, fixed air, and;phlogifticated air, while gar. 
 
 a little calcareous earth remains in the retort. 
 
 4. Acid of fugar is likewife decompofed by boiling 
 with fix times its quantity of vitriolic acid. In the 
 receiver we find vinegar, phlogifticated vitriolic acid, 1009 
 aerial acid ; while pure vitriolic acid remains in the ^'"'"^ ^ ''^^ 
 retort. Sac-fof" 
 
 5. By faturating the refiduum of dulcified fpirit of tartar from 
 nitre with chalk, there is formed an infoluble fait, the rcfi- ' 
 which by treatment with vitriolic acid yields a real ''""'^ °| 
 acid of tartar, conftituting a cream of tartar with ve- f ^j.^^ 
 getable alkali. nitre. 
 
 6. On evaporating the liquor from which the tar- 1010 
 tareous felenite vras obtained, a dark- coloured matter 
 remains, yielding on diftillation an empyreumatic acid of empy- * 
 of tartar, and a fpongy coal. Hence it would feem, reumatic 
 that fpirit of wine confifts of acid of tartar, of water, acid of tsr- 
 and phlogifton ; fo that it is a native dulcified acid : ^^'^ 
 
 and nitrous acid, on being mixed with it in moderate jnVhich^ 
 quantity, diflodges the acid of tartar. On the addi- tartarous 
 tion of more nitrous acid, the acid of tartar is refol- feleisite is 
 ved into acid of fugar and phlogifton ; and by a ftill ^o'^^d. 
 greater addition, the faccharine acid is changed into prom'the 
 vinegar. _ _ _ folution of 
 
 7. On boiling one part of acid of fugar with one manganefe 
 and an half of manganefe and a fufficient quantity of ^7 "'trous 
 
 3 J- aitrous^idoffu- 
 
 gai-. 
 
514 
 
 Acicl of Fat, 
 
 loia 
 
 From the 
 fcvlution of 
 the fame 
 ■with vitri- 
 olic acid 
 and that of 
 tartar. 
 
 From the 
 dig-eflion of 
 acid of tar- 
 tar with 
 fpint of 
 wine. 
 
 1014 
 From the 
 folution I f 
 inano^nere 
 with vitri- 
 olic acid 
 and fi irit 
 of wine. 
 
 1015 
 From the 
 diftillation 
 cf fpirit of 
 wine w.th 
 cauflic al- 
 kali. 
 
 ad 1 015 
 How pro- 
 cured. 
 
 3d 1015 
 Its eff-as 
 en alkalies 
 &c. 
 
 4th I0T5 
 On nsetals 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 nitrous acid, the manganefe wilt be almoft entirely dif- 
 folved, and phlogifticated nitrous acid along with vine- 
 gar W'ill pafs over into the receiver. 
 
 8. On boiling together acid of tartar, manganefe, 
 and nitrous acid, we obtain a folution of the manga- 
 nefe, with phlogifticated nitrous acid and vinegar as be- 
 fore 
 
 9. If acid of tartar be boiled along with vitriolic 
 acid and manganefe, the latter will be difiolvcd, and vine- 
 gar with vitriolic acid will pafs over into the re- 
 ceiver. 
 
 10. On digefting acid of tartar and fpirit of wine 
 for feveral months, the whole is converted into vine- 
 gar ; the air in the vefiel being partly converted into 
 cretaceous 2cid, and partly into phlogifticated air. 
 
 1 1. On boiling fpirit of wine with vitriolic acid and 
 manganefe, it will be converted into vinegar and phlo- 
 gifticated air. 
 
 12. By diftilling fpirit of wine upwards of 20 times 
 from cauftic alkali. It was changed Into vinegar, and 
 a confiderable quantity of water was obtained. 
 
 Hence it appears, fays Dr Crell, that the acids of 
 tartar, fugar, and vinegar, are modifications of the 
 fame acid, as It contains more or lefs phloglfton. The 
 acid of tartar has the greateft quantity, the acid of 
 fugar fomewhat lefs, and vinegar the leaft of all. In 
 thefe experiments, however, care muft be taken that 
 neither the nitrous acid nor fixed alkali employed con- 
 tain any marine acid, otherwife the refults will be un- 
 certain. 
 
 § iS. Of the Add of Fat. 
 
 This may be obtained from fuet by means of 
 many repeated diftillations. A fmall quantity is fepa- 
 rated at each diftillation ; but by diftilling the empy- 
 reumatlc oil into which the fuet is thus converted over 
 and over, a frcfh quantity is always obtained. The 
 acid of fat in fome relpefts has a refemblance to that 
 of fea-falt ; but in others is much more like the vege- 
 table kind, as being deftruftible in a ftrong fire, form- 
 ing compounds which do not dellquefce with calcare- 
 ous earth, and uniting intimately with oily fubftances. 
 With alkalies it forms falts entirely different from thofe 
 yielded by the other acids ; with the volatile alkali, 
 particularly, it produces a concrete volatile fait. When 
 iaturated with calcareous earth, it yields brown cry- 
 ftals ; and a fait of the fame kind was obtained by Dr 
 Crell from a mixture of quicklime and fuet diftilled to 
 drynefs, and boiling up the refiduum with water. The 
 cryftals were hexagonal, and terminated by a plane 
 furface ; their tafte was acrid and faltllh ; they did 
 not dellquefce in the air, and were eafily and copioufly 
 diffolved in water. With magnefia and earth of alum 
 a gummy mafs is obtained, vrhich refufes to cryftal- 
 lize. 
 
 With regard to the metals, Dr Crell informs us, 
 that the acid of fat copioufly dilfolves manganefe into 
 a clear and limpid liquor. It diffolves the precipitate 
 of cobalt, but not the regulus. White arfenic is ail- 
 ed upon but fparingly, and nickel not at all, though 
 it forms a green folution with the precipitate from ni- 
 trous acid. Regulus of antimony, by the affiftance 
 ©f heat, is dllfolved Into a clear liquor, which be- 
 came milky in the cold : it cryftalllzed on evaporation, 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 and did not dellquate in the air. Zinc readily dif- Pixed Alka- 
 folved, and imparted a peculiar metalHc tafte, falling ^^^^^^ 
 to the bottom in the form of a white powder on the Combma- 
 addition of an alkali. BIfmuth in the metalHc ftate tions. 
 was not dlifolved ; but the precipitate was. It adled - — v ' 
 upon mercury after being twice diftilled from it, and 
 poured afrefh upon the metal. The mercury could 
 not be entirely precipitated by common fait. It atied 
 more vigoroufly upon a precipitate from corrofive fub- 
 limate ; from the folution of which a white fublimate 
 was obtained after the liquor had been drav/n off by 
 diftillation. A gold-coloured folution was obtained 
 from platina by diftilling the acid from it to drynefs, 
 and then pouring It back again ; the prccipiaite of 
 this metal from aqua-regia by fpirit of wine was dif- 
 folved In great abundance. Iron was very eafily dif- 
 folved in it, and exhibited a liquor of an aftringent 
 tafte, which ftiot into needle-like cryftals that did not 
 dellquefce In the air. Lead was corroded, and ren- 
 dered the acid turbid. Minium was converted into a 
 white powder, and then diffolved with greater eafc. 
 The folution has a fweet tafte, and cannot be precipi- 
 tated by fea-falt. Tin was corroded Into a yellow calxj 
 and difiblved but in very fmall quantity. Copper was 
 diifolved, even in the cold, into a green liquor ; but 
 the folution was greatly promoted by heat. On eva- 
 poration it fiiowed fome difpofition to cryftallize, but 
 again attrafted moifture from the air. S.lver-leaf was 
 attacked only In a very fmall degree ; however, fome 
 was precipitated by means of copper, and tlie mar'ne 
 acid rendered the liquor turbid. The calx precipitated 
 from aquafortis w^as diffolved inore copioufly. Silver 
 was precipitated of a white colour from aquafortis by 
 the pure acid itfelf, as well as by Its aramoniacal falt> 
 Half an ounce of the acid diftilled four times almoft 
 to drynefs from fome gold leaves, and at length pour- 
 ed back upon them, the precipitate of a dilute folu- 
 tion of tin obtained by it, gained only a faint colour, 
 rather Inclining to red ; but a mixture of two parts of 
 acid with one of aquafortis, diffolved gold very rea- 
 dily. 
 
 § iQ' Of Fixed Alkaline Salts. 
 
 1016 
 
 Of thefe there are two kinds; the vegetable and How pro- 
 mineral. The former Is never found by itfelf, and but cured, 
 rarely in combination with any acid ; but is always 
 prepared from the afhes of burnt vegetables. It is 
 got in the greateft quantity from crude tartar ; from 
 which, if burned with proper care and attention, we 
 may obtain one pound of alkali out of 2^ of the tar- 
 tar. The latter is found native in fome parts of the 
 earth. It is likewifc found in very large quantities 
 combined with the marine acid, in the waters of the 
 ocean, and in the bowels of the earth ; thus forming 
 the common ahmentary fait. It is alfo produced from 
 the afhes of certain fea-plants, and of the plant called 
 kail ; from whence both the mineral and vegetable al- 
 kalies have taken their name. 
 
 The vegetable alkali difficultly affumes a cryftalline Vegetable 
 form ; neverthelefs. It may be partially united with alkali cry- 
 fome acids in fuch a manner as to cryflallize, and lofc ilallized. 
 its property of deliquating in the air, without, at the 
 fame time, ceafing to be an alkali. Of this we have 
 an example in the acid of ants above mentioned. Some- 
 thing 
 
Practice. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 T018 
 
 Change on 
 the vege- 
 table alkali 
 
 1019 
 
 Difference 
 between 
 vegetable 
 and mine- 
 ral alkalies 
 
 1020 
 Comi>"fed 
 of a cauftic 
 fa!t and fix- 
 ed air. 
 
 1021 
 Kepar ful- 
 i'hui is. 
 
 thing of the fame kind we have obferved in treating 
 vegetable fixed alkali with fpirit of wine. A gallon 
 of pretty ftrong fpirit of wine being drawn over from 
 a pound of fait of tartar, a black untluous liquor was 
 left, which fliot into cryilals very much refembli ng vi- 
 triolated tartar, and which did not deliquate in the 
 air, but were neverthelefs ftrongly alkaline. Dr Black, 
 however, informs us, that the vegetable alkali may be 
 fhot into fine cryftals; but which cannot be preferved, 
 on account of their great attraftion for moillure, un- 
 lefs clofely fhut up from the air. They have not fuch 
 a quantity of water as to undergo the aqueous fulion. 
 
 The mineral alkali in its natural ftate always aflimies 
 a cryftalline form, fomewhat rcfembling that of fal 
 mirabile. It does not deliquate in the air, nor does it 
 feem to have fo ftrong an attraftion for water, even 
 when in its moft cauftic ttate, as the vegetable alkah : 
 hence mineral alkali is preferable to it in making foap, 
 which is always of a firmer confiftence with mineral 
 than with vegetable alkali. If vegetable alkali is com- 
 bined with fpirit of fait, fome change feems to be 
 ' thereby induced upon it ; as the fait produced by ex- 
 pelling the marine acid by means of the vitriohc, and 
 then ciyftalKzing the mafs, cryftallizes differently from 
 vitriolated tartar. Whether the vegetable alkali might 
 by this means be entirely converted into the mineral, 
 deferves a further inquiry. 
 
 Both mineral and vegetable alkalies, when apphed 
 to the tongue, have a very (harp, pungent, and uri- 
 nous tafte ; but the vegetable confiderably ijrore fo than 
 the mineral. They both unite with acids, and form 
 different neutral falts with them: but the vegetable al- 
 kali feems to have rather a greater attraction for acids 
 than the other; alchoughthis difference is not fo great 
 as that a neutral fait, formed by the union of mineral 
 alkali with any acid, can be perfeftly decompofed by 
 an addition of the vegetable alkali, unlefs in confider 
 able excefs. 
 
 Both vegetable and mineral alkali appear to be 
 compofed of an exceedingly cauftic fait united with a 
 certain quantity of fixed air This may be increafed To 
 far, as to make the vegetable alkali affume a cryftalline 
 form, and lofe great part cf its alkaHne properties : but 
 as the adhefion of great part of this air is very flight, it 
 eafily feparates by a gentle heat. Some part, however, 
 is obflinately retained ; and the alkali cannot be de- 
 prived of it by the moft violent calcination per fe. The 
 only method of depriving 'it entirely of its fixed air is, 
 by mixing an alkahne folution with quickhme. 
 
 Fixed Alkalies -COMBINED, 
 
 1. IV'ith Sulphur. The produce o^ this is the red 
 fetid compound called hpar fulphurh, or liver of ful- 
 phur. It may be made by melting fulphur with a 
 gentle heat, and ftirring into it, while melted, four 
 times its weight of dry alkaline fait. The whole 
 readily melts and forms a red mais of a veiy fetid 
 fmcU, and which deliquates in the air. If fulphur is 
 boiled in a folution of fixed alkaline fait, a like cora- 
 ,'bination will take place. 
 
 In this procefs, when the hepar is made either in 
 the dry or the moift way, the fixed air of the alkali is 
 difchargcd, according to Dr Prieftley's obfervation. 
 Neither does a fixed alkali, when combined^ with fixed 
 air, feem capable of uniting with fulphur ; nor will 
 
 I S T R Y. 5^5 
 
 the union be accompliihed without heat, unlefs the al- P'xed Allta- 
 kali is already in a cauftic ftate. Hence a cold folution ''"j f/''*"' 
 of hepar fulphuris may be decompounded, partly at onn^i,;na- 
 Icaft, by fixed air. On adding an acid, however, thetioas. 
 
 dccompofition takes place much more rapidly; and the /— ^ 
 
 fulphur is precipitated to the bottom, in form of a j^^^^^^^,^,, 
 white powder. ' fed_ 
 
 During the precipitation of the fulphur from an al- 
 kali, by means of acids, a thick white fmoke arifes, of 
 a moft fetid fmcll and fufFocating nature. It burns 
 quietly, without explofion, on a candle's being held in 
 it. Calces of filver, lead, iron, or bifmuth, ai-e ren- j^j, 
 dered black by it. Hence, if any thing is wrote with Inflanima- 
 a folution of lead, and a folutu^n of hepar fulphuris ishle vapnur 
 pafTed over it when dry, the writing, formerly inviiible, 
 will immediately appear of a blackilh brown colour, ^j^jj ^fj^^ 
 Silver, in its metallic ftate, is prodigioufly blackened 
 either by the contaft of this vapour, or by being im- 
 merfed in a folution of the hepar fulphuris itfelf. Li- 
 tharge is inftantly reftored to its metallic ftate, on 
 being immerfed even in a cold folution of hepar ful- 
 phuris. _ . . . , 10^4 
 
 By being united with an alkali, the acid of fulphur Phi iiT;fton 
 feems very much dlfpofedto quit the phlogifton. If a '^"^P'^'"'" 
 folution of hepar fulphuris is expofed to the air f"^!* '^iflt'^tj^^ 
 fome time, it is fpontaneoufly decompofed ; the phlo- gj-id. 
 gifton of the fulphur flying off, and the acid remaining • 
 united with the alkali into a vitriolated tartar. This 
 dccompofition takes j^lace fo remarkably, when liver 
 of fulplmr is diffolved in water, that, by a fingle eva- 
 poration to drynefs, it will be almofl totally changed 
 into vitriolated tartar. If this fubftance, in a dry ftate, 
 be expofed to a moderate degree of heat, and the mafs 
 kept conftantly ftirring, a like decompofition will fol- 
 low ; the phlogifton of the fulphur will fly off, and the 
 acid unite with the alkali. _ jqj^ 
 
 Liver of fulphur is a great folvent of metallic mat- Metals and 
 ters ; all of which, except zinc, it attacks, particular- cli^.''c<'aJ 
 iy in fufion. It feems to diffolve gold more effeftu- 
 ally tlian other metals This compound alfo diffolves ^ * ' 
 vegetable coals, even by the humid way ; and thefe 
 folutions, if fuffered to ftand in the open air, always 
 precipitate a black powder, no other than the coal 
 they had diffolved, in proportion to the quantity of 
 hepar fulphuris decompofed. When vegetable coal is 
 thus diffolved by liver of fulphur in fufion, it is of a 
 much deeper red than in its natural ftate. Thcfolu- 
 tion in water is of a green colour. 
 
 II. With Exprejj'ed Oils. The refult of this combi- 
 nation is foap ; for the preparation of which in large 
 quantities in the way of trade, fee Soap. The foap 
 which is ufed in medicine is prepared without heat, 
 in the following manner, according to the author of 
 the Chemical Ditlionary. 
 
 *' One part of quicklime, and two parts of good 
 Spanifh foda (the fait prepared from the afhes of the 
 herb kali), are boiled together during a fhort time in 
 an iron caldron. This lixivium is to be filtered, and 
 evaporated by heat, till a phial, capable of containing 
 an ounce of water, fhall contain an ounce and 216 
 grains of this lixivium. One part of this lixivium is 
 to be mixed with two parts of oil of olives, or of fweet 
 almonds, in a glafs or ftone-ware veffel. The mixture 
 foon becomes thick and white ; and muft be ftirred 
 from time to time with an iron fpatula. The combi- 
 3 T 2 nation 
 
 T026 
 Soap. 
 
5-6 
 
 Fixed Alka 
 line Salts 
 and their 
 Corabina- 
 ti( ns. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Toa; 
 
 Starke) ' 
 foap. 
 
 30a8 
 ?h!ogiftica- 
 ted alkalies 
 
 • nation is gradually completed, and in feven or eight 
 days a very white and firm foap is obtained." 
 
 In attempting combinations of this kind, it is abfo- 
 lutely neceffary that the alkali be deprived of its fixed 
 air as much as poffible ; otherwife the foap will be 
 quite unftiious and foft: for fixed alkalies have a great- 
 er attraftion for fixed air than for oil, and hence foap 
 is decompounded by blowing fixed air into a folution 
 of it in water. Tt may be made either with tallow, 
 wax, fpermaceti, butter of cocoa, the coarfer refinous 
 fubflances, or animal oils. 
 
 III. fHth E/jhtt'ial Oils. The volatility of thefe oils 
 m a great meafure hinders them from being afted upon 
 by alkalies : neverthelefs, combinations of this kind 
 have been attempted ; and the compounds fo produced 
 have been called Starkey^s foap, from one Starkey a 
 chemift, who endeavoured to volatilize fait of tartar by 
 combining it with oil of turpentine. His method was 
 to put dry fait of tartar into a matrafs, and pour upon 
 it effential oil of turpentine to the height of two or 
 three fingers breadth. In five or fix months, a part 
 of the alkali and oil were combined into a white fa- 
 ponaceous compound. This muft be feparated from 
 the mixture, and more of it will afterwards be formed 
 by the fame method. 
 
 Chemifts, imagining this foap to be pofiefled of con- 
 fiderable medical virtues, have endeavoured by various 
 methods to fhorten this tedious procefs. Of thefe one 
 of the mott expeditious is that recommended by Mr 
 Beaume; which confifts in triturating, for a long time, 
 alkaline fait upon a porphyry, and adding oil of tur- 
 pentine during the trituration. According to him, the 
 thick refinovis part of the oil only can cambine with 
 the fait ; and, during the time this combination is ef- 
 fefted, the more fubtile and attenuated parts will fly 
 off. Hence he finds that the operation is confide- 
 rably abridged by the addition of a little turpentine or 
 common foap. The moil expeditious of all, how- 
 ever, is that mentioned by Dr Lewis ; which confifts 
 in heating the alkali red hot, and then throwing it 
 into oil of turpentine, ftirring them well together ; 
 on which they immediately unite into a faponaceous 
 mafs. 
 
 This kind of foap is fubje6l to great alterations from 
 keeping ; particularly the lofs of its colour, and a kind 
 of decompofition occafioned by the extra&ion of an 
 acid from the oil of turpentine, which unites with the 
 alkali, and cryftallizes not only all over the furface, 
 but in the very fubftance of the foap. The nature of 
 this fait is unknown, but certainly deferves confidera- 
 tion. 
 
 IV. With Phlogijton^ This combination is effefted; 
 by calcining them with the charcoal either of vege- 
 table or animal matters. The confequence is, that, 
 they are greatly altered in their properties; fometimes 
 fo much as to be enabled to precipitate calcareous earths 
 from their folutions in acids. Metallic folution s pre- 
 cipitated by them in this llat«,afrume different colours. 
 
 Differences obferved between Fixed Alkalies, obtain-r 
 ed from different Vegetables. 
 
 Thefe differences we muft conceive to arife from 
 iome proportion of the oily and phlogiitic matter of 
 the vegetable remaining in the alhes from whence the 
 falls are extracted; for when reduced to tlieir utmoft. 
 
 Pradlice. 
 
 purity, by repeated calcinations in a ftrong fire, and Fixed Alka, 
 deliquations in the air, all of them, the marine alkali 
 excepted, appear to be the very fame. liomll^na- 
 On this fubjeft Mr Gmelin has given a great num- tions. 
 
 ber of experiments in the fifth volume of the Com- ^— J* 
 
 mentaria Petropol'itana ; and found very confiderable «029 
 differences, not only between the alkaline falts, but ^\ 
 likewife the pure vegetable earths obtained from dif- rime^ts"^* 
 ferent vegetables by burning. The falts of the feveral 
 plants examined were prepared with great care, and all 
 of them exaftly in the fame manner; each vegetable be- 
 ing burnt in a feparate crucible, with the fame degree 
 of fire, till no remains of coaly matter could any longer 
 be perceived ; and the afhes elixated in glafs veffels 
 with cold diftilled water. The falts, thus obtained, 
 were found to pi-oduce different colours on mixture 
 with certain liquors, and to effervefce in very diffe- 
 rent degrees with acids : certain metalhc folutions 
 were by fome precipitated, by others only rendered 
 thicker, by others both precipitated and rendered 
 thick ; whilft fome occafioned neither the one nor the 
 other of thefe changes, but left the fluid clear and 
 tranfparent. Thus, with the vitriolic acid, the falts 
 of fouthernwood and fage ftruck a pale brown colour ; 
 thofe of pine-tops and rue, a yellow ; that of fern, a 
 reddifh yellow; and that of fanicle, a dark leek-green : 
 that of dill yielded a leek-green precipitate, with ele- 
 gant green flakes floating in the liquor. This laft 
 fait alfo gave a greenifh precipitate with the marine 
 acid, and a red one with the nitrous. Solution of 
 corrofive fublimate was changed yellow by fait of 
 fouthernwood ; of a brownifli colour, by that of colt's- 
 foot ; of a deep red, by that of wormwood ; and of a 
 pitch-colour, by that of dill. That of fern threw down 
 an opal-colour; of fage,^ a fulphur-yellow ; of elder 
 flowers, a cit^-o)i yellow ; of fanicle, a faffron colour ; 
 and of milfoil, a deep-red precipitate. From folution 
 of lilver, fait of carduus benedidus threw down a white ; 
 of camomile, a grey ; of hyfop, a brownifh ; of dill, a 
 blackifh brown ; of fcabious, a yellowifli ; and that of 
 pine-tree tops, a fulphur yellow precipitate. Solution, 
 of vitriol of copper was changed by fait of fouthern- 
 wood to a bright fea-green; by that of dill, to an un- 
 fightly green; of agrimony, to a greenifh blue; and by 
 that of milfoil, to a bright Iky-blue : the fait of pen- 
 ny-royal made the liquor thick as well as blue, arid, 
 that of feverfew made it thick and green : the fait of 
 hyffop threw down a green precipitate, that of fcurvy- 
 grafs a blue one, and that of fumitory a greenlfli blue 
 whilft the fait of fern made fcarcely any change either 
 in the colour or confiftency of the liquor. 
 
 ^19. Of Volatile Alkali. 
 
 This is a kind of fait obtained from all animal, 
 fome vegetable, fubftances, from foot by diftillar obtained, 
 tion with a ftrong heat, and from all vegetable fub- 
 ftances by putrefaftion. Though a volatile alkali is 
 procurable from all putrid animal fubftances by di- 
 ftillation, yet the putrefaftive procefs does , not feem 
 to prepare volatile alkali in all of thefe. Putrid urine, . 
 indeed, contains a great quantity of alkali ready form-r^ 
 ed, whence its ufe in fcouring, l^c. but the cafe is. 
 not fo with putrid blood or flelh. Thefe afford no al- 
 kali till after the phlegm has arifen 3.. and this they. 
 
 would; 
 
Pradlce. C H E M 
 
 Volatile would do, tliougli they had not been putrefied. Ac- 
 ^liLil; n4id cording to Mr Vv iegleb, volatile alkali is found in 
 C,)ml)i- lapis fuillus, chalk, marble, coals, turf, 
 
 jan<nis^ loam, clay, and many other kinds of earth. Its exifl- 
 ence in thefe fubftauces may be difcovered merely by 
 diiiilling them uith a briflc lire, but Rill better by die 
 addition of fome quar.tity of fixed alkali or quicklime 
 before the diftiUanon. — It has even been found in all 
 mineral falts and their acids, a$ vitriol, nitre, com- 
 mon fait, and the acid liquors drawn from thefe fub- 
 llances, alfo in gypfum and fulphur ; from all which 
 it may be feparated by means of quickhme.— In the 
 vegetable kingdom it is produced by dry diftillation 
 from muftard-feed, elder flowers and leaves ; the leaves 
 of the wild cherry tree, white water-lilies, tobacco, 
 and fage ; as well as from many other plants. Ac- 
 cording to our author, the plaineft proof of its exift- 
 ing almoft umverfally in the vegetable kingdom, is, 
 that the foot of our chimneys affords a volatile alkali 
 by diilillation," either with or without quicklime. 
 
 ' \'olatile alkali, when pure, appears of a fnow-y 
 whitenefs; has a very pungent fmell, without any dif- 
 agreeable empyreuma ; is very eafily evaporable, with- 
 out leaving any refiduum; effcrvefces with acids much 
 more ftrongly than iixed alkali; and forms with them 
 neutral compounds called ammoniacal falts, ^ which we 
 have already defcribed, and which are different ac- 
 cording to the nature of the acid made ufe of ; for all 
 volatile alkahes, when perfectly purified, appear to be 
 the very fame, without the fmalleft difference. 
 
 Like fixed alkalies, thefe falts contain a great quan- 
 tity of fixed air, on which their foHdity depends; 
 and which may be fo increafed as perfeftly to neu- 
 traUze, and deprive them of their pecuHar tafte and 
 fmell. When neutrahzed by fixed air, they have a 
 very agreeable pungent tafte, fomewhat refembling 
 that of weak fermenting hquors. When totally de- 
 prived of fixed air, by means of hme, they cannot be re- 
 duced to a fohd form; but are diffipated in aninyihble 
 and exceedingly pungent vapour, calledJbyDr Prieftley 
 alMine air. When volatile alkaline fait is diffolved 
 in water, the folution is called a volatile alkaline fpirit. 
 
 Diftillacion and Purification of Volatile Alkalies. 
 
 I loai"^ The materials moft commonly ufed for preparing vo- 
 I^'J'Jl^^g latile alkalies are the folid parts of animals, as bones, 
 iSod of horns, ^c. Thefe are to be put into an iron pot of the 
 performing fhape recommended for folution ; to this muft be fitted a 
 the opcia- flat head, having a hole in the middle about two inches 
 diameter. From this a tube of plate-iron muft iffue, which 
 is to be bent in fuch a manner that the extremity of it 
 may enter an oil jar, through an hole made in its up- 
 per part, and dip about half an inch under fome water 
 placed in the lower part. The mouth of the jar is to be 
 fitted with a cover, luted on very exaftly; and having 
 a fmall hole, which may be cccafionally ftopped with 
 a wooden peg. The junftures are to be all luted as 
 clofe as poffible, with a mixture of clay, fiind, and 
 fome oil ; and thofe which are not expofed to a burn- 
 ing heat, may be further fecured by quickhme and 
 the white of an egg, or by means cf glue. A fire be- 
 ing now kindled, the air contained in the diftilling 
 vcffel is firft expelled, which is known by the bubbhng 
 of the water; and to this vent muft be given by pull- 
 ing out the wooden peg. A confiderable quantity of 
 phlegm will then come over, along with fome volatile 
 
 I S T R Y. 517 
 
 alkali, a great Kjuantlty of fixable air, and fome oU. , 
 
 The alkali will unite with the water, and likewife 
 
 fome part of the fixed air, the oil fwimming above, nations. 
 
 A great many incoerciblc vapours, however, will ' 
 
 come over, to which vent muft be given from_ time to 
 time, by pulling out the peg. The diftillation is to 
 be continued till all is come over ; which may be 
 known by the ceffation, or very flow bubbhng of the 
 water. The iron-pipe muft then be feparated from 
 the cover of the diftilling veffel, left the liquid in the 
 jar fiiould return into it, on the air being condenfed 
 by its cooling. In the jar will be a volatile fpirit* 
 more or lefs ftrong according as there was lefs or more 
 water put in, with an exceedingly fetid black oil float- 
 ing upon it. '9^^ 
 
 The reftification of the volatile alkali is moft com- JJ-^etilica- 
 modioufly performed at once by combining it with an '° * 
 acid ; and, as fpirit of fait has the leaft afiinity with , 
 inflammable matter, it is to be chofen for this pur- 
 pofe, in preference to the vitriolic or nitrous. As 
 the fpirit is exceffively oily, though already much 
 weakened by the admixture of the water in the jar, 
 if a very large quantity was not originally put in, an. 
 equal- quantity of water may ftill be added, on draw- 
 ing off the fpirit. That as little may be loft as pof- 
 fible, the fpirit fliould be received in a ftone bottle ; 
 and the marine acid, likewife in a diftilled ftate, add- 
 ed by little and httle, till the effervefcence ceafes. The 
 Hquor, which is now an impure folution of fal ammo- 
 niac, is to be left for fome time, that the oil may fe- 
 parate itfelf ; it is then to be filtered, evaporated, and 
 cryftallized in a leaden veffel. If the cryftals are not 
 fufficiently pure at the firft, they will eafily become 
 fo on a fecond diffolution. ^ 1033 
 
 From fal ammoniac thus obtained pure, the volatile Volatile fal 
 alkali may be extricated by diftillation with chalk, ^. ^VLxm-owi^z. 
 kaline falts, or quicklime. Alkaline falts ^Ql more 
 briflcly than chalk, and give a much ftronger volatile 
 alkah. The ftrength of this, however, we know 
 may be altered at pleafure, by adding to, or depriving 
 it of, its natural quanrity of fixed air. Hence, per- 
 haps, the beft method would be, to prepare volatile 
 alkalies altogether in a fluid ftate, by means of quick- 
 hme ; and then add fixed air to them, by means of 
 an apparatus fimilar to that direfted by Dr Prieftley 
 for impregnating water with fixed air. To prevent 
 lime from adhering to the diftilling velfels in which it 
 is put, the tranflator of Wiegleb's chemiftry recom- 
 mends the putting in three or four ounces of common . 
 fait along with the other ingredients. 
 
 Volatile alkalies combinedj- 
 
 1034- 
 
 I. With Metals. There are only three metals, Wz. Cuprum 
 copper, iron, and lead, upon which, while i-n their 
 metallic form, volatile alkafies are capable of ading. 
 Copper-filings are diffolved by volatile. alkali, efpecial- 
 ly in its cauftic ftate, into a liquor of a moft admi- 
 rable blue colour. It is remarkable, that this colour 
 depends entirely upon the air having accefs to the fo- 
 lution : for if the bottle containing it is clofe ftopt, 
 the liquor becomes colouriefs ; but, however, refumes 
 its blue colour on being expofed to the air. ^ On eva- 
 poration, a blue faline mafs is obtained, which, mix- 
 ed with fats, or other inflammable matters, tinges 
 their flame green, leaving a red calx of copper, fo- 
 luble again in volatile fpiritsasat firft. This fuhne fub- 
 
 ttance. 
 
»035 
 COj)per, 
 -fulmina- 
 ting. 
 
 1036 
 Sal volatil 
 -olcofum. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 fiance lias been received into the laft edition of the E- 
 dinburgh Difpenfatory, under the name oi cuprum am- 
 moniacale, as an antiepileptic. 
 
 The Hue mixture of folution of copper in aquafortis 
 with volatile fpirits, yields fapphire-coloured cryftals, 
 which diffolve in fpirit of wine, and impart their co- 
 lour to it. If, inftead of cryftallization, the liquor 
 be totally evaporated, the remaining dry matter ex- 
 plodes, in a moderate heat, like aurum fulminans. 
 This is given as a faft by Dr Lewis; but hath not fuc- 
 ceeded upon trial by Dr 131ack. Various pJienomena, 
 fays Mr Wiegleb, occur in the dilFolution of copper 
 by the volatile aikali. — On faturating dilute fpirit of 
 fal ammoniac with copper-filings, cryftals are formed 
 of a dark-blue colour, but which, by expofure to the 
 air, fall to pieces and become green. Vinous fpirit 
 of fal ammoniac impregnated with copper, lofes in an 
 inftant its blue colour, on the alfufion of an equal 
 quantity of faturated folution of lixed alkaline fait. 
 The copper is then taken up by the fixed alkaline 
 folution, which of confequence acquires a blue colour, 
 while the fpirit of wine, deprived of the metal, floats 
 clear on the top. V^hcn filings of copper are put into 
 a bottle, and that bottle quite filled with cauftic vola- 
 tile alkali, and is imm.ediately flopped up, no folution 
 takes place : but when' the bottle is left open, only 
 •for a fhort time, or an empty fpace is left in it, a 
 colourlefs folution ia obtained, which in the air ob- 
 tains a blue colour ; but which may be deprived of 
 this colour as often as we plcafe, by ihutting it up ex- 
 aftly from the air, and letting it Hand, in this fitua- 
 tion, on frefli fihngs of copper. — From thefe pheno- 
 mena Mr Wiegleb concludes, that copper does not 
 diffolve in volatile alkali until it has loll part of its 
 phlogiflon, to which the air, by the attraftion it ex- 
 erts upon it, contributes its fhare. If this has taken 
 place only in a fmall proportion, and the farther ac- 
 cefs of air be prevented, the remainder will be dif- 
 folved without any colour; which, however, appears 
 in the inftant that, by a frefli accefTion of air, the 
 phlogiflon flill remainiiag finds means to efcape. The 
 diflblved copper is always precipitated when the fo- 
 lution meets with phlogiflicated copper. The colour- 
 lefs folution is precipitated by zinc and vitriolic .acid, 
 but not by iron. It tafles rather fweet, and does not 
 fmell very flrong of volatile alkali ; while, on the con- 
 trary, the blue folution has a pungent fmell, and is 
 precipitated by diflilled water. 
 
 On the other two metals the aftion of volatile alkali 
 is by no means fo evident ; it diffolves iron very flowly 
 into a liquor, the nature of which is not known; and 
 lead is corroded by it into a mucilaginous fubflance. 
 
 II. V/ith Injlammalle Subjiances, With expreffed 
 oils, the cauflic volatile alkali unites into a foft unc- 
 tuous mafs, of a very white colour, imperfeflly fo- 
 luble in water, and which is foon decompofed fpon- 
 taneoufly. Compofitions of this kind are frequently 
 ufed for removing pains, and fometimes with fuccefs. 
 With effential oils, volatile alkalies may be united, 
 either in their dry or liquid form, by means of diflilla- 
 tion. The produce is called fal 'volatile oleofum ; it is 
 much more frequently ufed in a liquid than in a dry 
 form. The general method of preparation is by di- 
 llilling volatile alkali along with effential oils and fpi- 
 fit of wine, or the aromatic fubllances from whence 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 Pradlce 
 
 the effential oils are drawn. Thefe compofitions are Volatile 
 variable at pleafure ; but certain forms are laid down ^i''^'^ 
 in the difpenfatories, with which it is expected that all ^^fjgii"^ 
 the chemifts fhould comply in the preparation of thefe ^ ' 
 medicines. 
 
 III. £au fie huce. This is the name given to an 
 exceedingly volatile fpirit, which forae years ago was ja-iiis fucci. 
 pretty much in vogue; and indeed feems very well natus. 
 calculated to anfwer all the purpofes for which volatile 
 alkalies can be ufed. It was of a tiiick white colour, 
 and fmelled fomewhat of oil of amber. A receipt ap- 
 peared in Levi'ij's Difpenfatory for the preparation of 
 this fluid, under the name of fpinhis Dolatilis fucc'matus. 
 The method there directed, however, did not fucceed ; 
 beeaufe, though the alkaline fpirit_^is capable of keeping 
 a fmall quantity of oil of amber fufpended, the colour 
 is greatly more dilute than that of genuine eaudeluce. 
 In the Chemical Didlionary we have the following re- 
 ceipt: " Take four ounces of reftified fpirit of wine, 
 and in it diffolve 10 or 12 grains of white foap ; filter 
 this iolution; then diffolve in it a drachm of reftified oil 
 of amber, and filter again. Mix as much of this folu- 
 tion with the flrongefl volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac, 
 as will be fufficient, when thoroughly fliaken, to give it 
 a beautiful milky appearance. If upon its furface be 
 formed a cream, fome more of the oily fpirit mud be 
 added." 
 
 This receipt likewife fteras infyfficient. For the oil 
 of amber does not diffolve in fpirit of wine : neither 
 is it probable that the fmall quantity of foap made ufe 
 of could be of any fervice ; for the foap would diffoh's 
 perfedlly in the alkaline fpirit, without fuffering any 
 decompofition. The only method which we have 
 found to anfwer is the following. Take an ounce, or 
 any quantity at pleafure, of balfamum Canadenfe ; place 
 it in a fmall china bafon, in a pan of boiling water, and 
 keep it there till a drop of it taken out appeais of a 
 refinous confiflence when cold. Extraft a tinilure 
 from this refin with good fpirit of wine ; and having 
 impregnated your volatile fpirit with oil of amber, la- 
 vender, or any other effential oil, drop in as much of 
 the fpiritous tinfture as will give it the defired colour. 
 If the volatile fpirit is very flrong, the eau de luce will 
 be thick and white, like the cream of new milk ; nor is 
 it fubjefl; to turn brown with keeping. ^ 
 
 IV. With Volatile Tindure of Suiphur. This is a VolatUe al 
 combination of the caullic volatile alkali, or fpirit kali c<.m- 
 of fal ammoniac, with fulphur. It is ufually di- bined with 
 retled to be made by grinding lime with the ful-'^'i^"^* 
 phur, and afterwards with the fal ammoniac, and di- 
 flilling the whole in a retort; but the produce is by 
 this method very fmall, and even the fuccefs uncer- 
 tain. A prefeiable method feems to be, to impreg- 
 nate the flrongefl cauflic volatile fpirit with the va- 
 pour which arifes in the decompofition of hepar ful- 
 phuris by means of an acid, in the fame manner as 
 diredled for impregnating water with fixed air. 1039 
 
 This preparation has a moil naufeous fetid fmell, ^yP^T^the- 
 whlch Ipreads to a confiderable diilance ; and the ef- ''^ 
 fluvia will blacken filver or copper, if barely placed in 
 the neighbourhood of the unilopped bottle. This 
 property renders it capable of forming a curious kind 
 of fympathetic Ink ; for if paper is wrote upon with 
 a folution of faccharum faturni, the writing, which 
 difappears when dry, will appear legible, and of a 
 
 brovvmlh 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ce. 
 
 enabrowTiKK black, by barely holding it near the mmitb 
 ^~ of the bottle containing volatile tiii6lnre of fiilphur. 
 The vapours of this tinaure are fo exceedingly pe- 
 netrating, that it is faid they will even penetrate 
 through a wall, fo as to make a wridng with faccha- 
 rum faturni appear legible on the other fide but this 
 is much to be doubted. It is even faid thai it cannot 
 penetrate through the fubftance of paper, but only in- 
 finuates itfelf betwixt the leaves ; and hence if the 
 edo es of the leaves are glued together no black colour 
 will appear. 
 
 § 20. Of the Phv.no^1¥-na rcfultmg from cJ'ifenjit mix- 
 tures of the Acid, Neutral, and Alkaline Salts, al- 
 ready treated of. 
 
 Of niivnir T. Tf concentrated oil of vitriol is mixed with ftrong 
 the acid fpi- fpirit of nitre, or fpirit of fait, the weaker acid will 
 r;tswithoi:c|jgj,Qj^g exceedingly volatile, and emit very elaftic 
 another. ^^^^^ . f<j that if'a mixture of this kind is put into a 
 clofe ftopt bottle, it will alinofl certainly biirft it. The 
 fame effeft follows upon mixing fpirit of fait and fpi- 
 rit -f nitre together. In this cnfe, both acids becoir.e 
 furprifingly volatile ; and mueh of the liquor will be 
 diffipated in fumes, if the mixture is fuffered to Hand 
 for any confiderable time. Such mixtures ought 
 therefore to be made only at the time they are to 
 T04T ufed. 
 
 D^ffolvinfT 2. If vitriolated tartar is diffolved in an equal quan- 
 vitriolic tity of ftrong fpirit of nitre, by heating them tof/ether 
 fairs in ni- j„ ^ matrafs, the ftronger vitriolic acid will be difpla- 
 troMo „r weaker nitrous one, and the liquor, on 
 
 marine a- ^^^^^^^g^ will (hoot into cryftals ^ of nitre. The fame 
 thing happens alfo upon diffolving vitriolated tartar, 
 or Glauber's fall, in fpirit of fait. This obferyation 
 we owe to Monf. Beaume, and the reafon of It has 
 1042 been already explained Set' n° 285. 
 Decomi on- 3. If vitriolated tartar, or Glauber's fait, is dilTulved 
 tionofvitri- tbis falution m.ixed with another con- 
 fdlutn-nsof c-dlcareons earth, filver, mercury, lead, or 
 
 ear"th! &c? tin, diffolved In the nitrous or marine acids, the yitrio- 
 in nitrous h'c acid will leave the fixed alkali with which it was 
 or marine combined, and, uniting with the calcareous earth or 
 metal, fall with it to the bottom of the veffel. _ This 
 decompofition takes place only when the vitriolic acid 
 meets with fuch bodies as it cannot eafily diffolve in- 
 to a liquid, fuch as thofe we have juft now men- 
 tioned ; for though vitriolated tartar is mixed with a 
 folution of iron, copper, &c. in the nkrous or nriarlne 
 acids, no decompofition takes place. The cafe is iiot 
 altered, whatever acid is made ufe of; for the marine 
 acid will effedually ftparate filver, mercury, or lead, 
 jg.^ from the vitriolic or nitrous acids. 
 By linic- 4. According to Dr Lewis, if a fc-lutlon of yitrioja^ 
 water. ted tartar is dropt into lime-water, the acid will unite 
 with the lime, and precipitate with it in an indiffoluble 
 fehnite, the alkali remaining in the water in a pure 
 and cauftic ftate. 
 Of' reen 5" green vitriol is mixed with any folution con- 
 vitrfoUy taining fubftances which cannot be diffolved into a li- 
 faccharum quid by the vitiiolic acid, the vitriol will be immedi- 
 faturni. ^,^1^ aecompofed, and the liquor will becorne a folu- 
 tion of iron only. Thus, if green vitriol is mixed with 
 a folution of faccharum faturni, the vitriolic acid im- 
 mediately quits the iron for the lead, and falls to the 
 
 bottom with the latter, leaving the vegetable acid o^^^^f^^'^^J"^ 
 the faccharum faturni to combine vyiih the iron._ ^^"'"^ J^, 
 6. If folution of tin in aqua regia is mixed with fo- 
 
 cid, &c. 
 
 lution of faccharum faturni, th,e marine acid quits the Salts- 
 
 tin for the lead contained in the faccharum ; at the -—r—J 
 fame time, the acetous acid, which was cornblned with 
 the lead, is unable to diffolve the tin which was be- by 
 fore kept fufpended by the marine acid. Hence, both faccharum 
 the faccharum faturni, and folution of tin, are very ef- faturni. 
 fcAually decomriofed, and the mixture becomes en- 
 tirely ufelefs. Dyers and callico-printers ought to at- 
 tend to this, who are very apt to mix thefe two folu- 
 tions together ; and no doubt many of the faults of 
 colours dyed or printed in particular places, arife from 
 injudicious mixtures of a fimilar kind. See Dyeing. 1046 
 
 7. If mild volatile alkali, that is, fuch as remains in Of calcare* 
 a concrete form, by being united with_ a large q^an- oj^'J^^''^"- 
 tity of fixed air, is poured into a folutiori of chalk m 
 
 the nitrous or marine acids, the earth will be preci- latile alkali, 
 pitated, and a true fal ammoniac formed. If the 
 whole is evaporated to drynefs, and a confiderable 
 heat applied, the acid will again part v/ith the alkali, 
 and combine with the chalk. Thus, in the purifica- 
 tion of volatile alkalies by means of fpirit of fait, the 
 fame quantity of acid may be made to fcrve a number 
 of times. This will not hold in volatile fpirits prepa- 
 red with quicklime. 1047- 
 
 8. If equal parts of fal ammoniac and corrofive fub- Sal akm- 
 llmate mercury are mixed together and fublimed, they broth, 
 unite in fuch a manner as never to be feparable from 
 
 one another without decompofition. The compound is 
 called fal alemhroth ; which is faid to be a very power- 
 ful folvent of metallic fubftances, gold itfelf not ex- 
 cepted. Its powers in this, or any other refped,^ are 
 at prefent but little known. By repeated fubllma- 
 tions. It is faid this fait becomes entirely fluid, and 
 refufes to aiife in the (trongeft heat. ^ 1042 
 
 9. If vitriolic acid Is poured upon any fait difficult Solu! ion f £ 
 of folution in water, it becomes then very eafily fo-falts pro- 
 luble. By this means, vitriolated tartar, or creanx of j.^ 
 tartar, may be diffolved in a very fmall quantity oi ^^^^ 
 water. 
 
 Sect. II. Earths. 
 
 The general divifions and charaiSlers of thefe fub- 
 ftances we have already given ; and moft of their 
 combinations with faline fubftances have been men- 
 tioned, excepting only thofe of the terra ponderofa j 
 a fubftance whole properties have been but lately in- 
 quired into, and are not yet fufBcIently Inveftigated. 
 In this feftlon, therefore, we have to take notice only 
 of their various combinations with one another, with 
 inflammable, or metallic fubftances, &c. As they do 
 not, however, atl upon one another till fubjefted to a 
 vitrifying heat, the changes then induced upon them 
 come more properly . to be treated of under the article 
 Glass. Upon metallic and inflammable fubftances 
 (lulphur alone excepted), they have very little effeft ; 
 and therefore what relates to thefe combinations ftiall 
 be taken notice of in the following feftlons. We 
 ftiall here confine ouifelves to fome remarkable altera- 
 tions in the nature of particular earths by combination 
 with certain fubftances, and to the phoffhoric quality, 
 of others. 
 
 St, 
 
520 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 T049 
 
 ■Ufually 
 found uni- 
 ted with 
 
 § I. The Terra Pqnderosa. 
 
 This earth is of the true calcareous kind, and capable 
 of being converted into a very acrid lime; but in other 
 rcfpefts is very different. It is moft commonly met with 
 in the veins of rocks, united with the vitriolic acid in a 
 mafs fomewhatrefcmbling gypfum, but muchheavierand 
 the vitriolic "^o^e opaque; and from the greatweight of this fubftance 
 acid. the earth icfelf has its name, though when freed from 
 
 the acid it is by no means remarkable for this proper- 
 ty. Its properties were firft taken notice of by the 
 foreign chemifts ; but they have been more accurately 
 inveftigated by Dr Withering, who has publiflied his 
 obfervatioiis in the 74th volume of the Philofophical 
 Tranfaftions. His experiments were not made on the 
 gypfeous fubftance above mentioned ; but on a com- 
 bination of the earth with fixed air, which is much more 
 uncommon, and like the other poiTefTes a very confider- 
 ablc degree of fpecific gravity. Both thefe combinations 
 have the general name of fpathum ponderofum, or ponderous 
 /par ; the former being alfo called harofelenite, 6cc. 
 The fpar ufed by Dr Withering wa-^. got out of a 
 tioiToTterra ^^^d mine at Alfton moor in Cumberland. Its appear- 
 ponderofa ance was not unlike that of a lump of alum ; but on 
 ^' 'd^d^^"^' clofer infpeftion it appeared to be compofed of {lender 
 ^' fpiculas in clofe contaft, more or lefs diverging, and 
 fo foft that it might be cut by a knife ; its fpecific 
 gravity from 4.300 to 4.338. It effervefced with acids, 
 and melted, though not very readily, under the blow- 
 pipe. In a common fire it loft its tranfparency j and 
 fire upon it, on being urged with a ftronger heat in a melting fur- 
 nace, it adhered to the crucible, and fhowcd figns of 
 fufion ; but did not appear to have loft any of its fix- 
 ed air, either by diminution in weight, becoming cau- 
 ftic, or lofing its power of effervefcing with acids. 
 
 Five hundred grains of this fpar, by folution in mu- 
 riatic acid, loft 104 grains in weight, and left an in- 
 foluble refiduum of three grains. In another experi- 
 ment, 100 grains of fpar loft 21 ; and there remained 
 only 0.6 of a grain of infoluble matter. 
 
 On diflblving another hundred grains in dilute mu- 
 riatic acid, 25 ounce-meafures of air were obtained, 
 which by proper trials appeared to be pure aerial acid ; 
 and, on precipitating the folution with mineral alkali, 
 100 grains of earth were again obtained ; but on dif- 
 folving the precipitate in frefti muriatic acid, only 20 
 ounce-meafures of air were produced. 
 
 Mild vegetable alkali precipitated a faturated folu- 
 ted by mild tion of this fpar in marine acid, with the efcape of a 
 nd cauftic quantity of fixed air ; and the fame effeft took place 
 on the addition of foflil alkali ; but with cauftic alka- 
 lies there was no appearance Gf effervefcence, though 
 a precipitate likewife fell. 
 
 Fifty parts of fpar, diffolved in marine acid, loft 
 I04- j and with cauftic vegetable alkali, a precipitate 
 weighing 45-'- was obtained. Phlogifticatcd alkali 
 precipitated the whole of the earth, as appeared by 
 the addition of mild fixed alkali afterwards, which oc- 
 cafioned no farther precipitation. 
 Coi^vertible ^^^^ precipitate thrown down by the mild 
 
 into lime alkali was expofed to a ftrong heat in a crucible, and 
 capable of then put into water. The liquid was inftantly con- 
 decompo- vetted into a very acrid lime-water, which had the fol- 
 lowing remarkable properties : 1 . The fmalleft portion 
 of vitriolic acid, added to this water, occaiioned an 
 
 1050 
 
 Dr Withe 
 ring's ex- 
 periment. 
 
 105 1 
 
 Combina' 
 
 aci 
 fcribed. 
 
 1052 
 
 EfFefts of 
 
 1053 
 Treated 
 with ma- 
 rine acid. 
 
 1054 
 
 Precipita 
 
 fixed alica' 
 lies. 
 
 fins; vitri 
 olic falts. 
 
 Pradlice. 
 
 immediate and copious precipitation, which appeared Terra Pon- 
 even after the liquid was diluted with 200 times its .''"^p^^ ^"^ 
 bulk_ of pure water. 2. A fingle drop let fall into an^fjo"™ ^' 
 
 folution of Glauber's fait, vitriolated tartar, alum, vi- * 
 
 triolic ammoniac, Epfom fait, or felenite, occafioned 
 an immediate and copious precipitate in all of them : 
 the reafon of whicli was the fuperior attraftion of the 
 ponderous earth for the acid of thefe falts, which 
 forming with it an indiffoluble concrete, inftantly fell 
 to the bottom. ^^^g 
 The precipitate thrown down by the cauftic vege- Infoluble 
 table alkali was put into water, but exhibited no fuch pi'ccipitate 
 appearances as the other : even the mixture was boiled ; ^'^"^"^^u 
 nor had it any acrimonious tafte. On adding the cauluc al- 
 three mineral acids to feparate portions of the preci- kali, 
 pitate itfelf, neither eft'crvefcence, nor any fign of fo- 
 lution, appeared. After ftanding an hour, water was 
 added, and the acids were fuffered to remain another 
 hour on the powder ; but on decanting them after- 
 wards, and adding foffile alkali to the point of fatura- 
 tion, no precipitate appeared. * 
 
 The precipitate thrown down by the phlogifticatcd 
 alkali, mixed with nitre and borax, and melted with a 
 blow-pipe on charcoal, formed a black glafs ; on flint- 
 glafs, a white one ; and on a tobacco-pipe, a yellow- 
 ilh white one. Another portion, melted with foap and 
 borax in a crucible, formed a black glafs. 
 
 The fmall quantity of infoluble refiduum formerly 
 mentioned, appeared to be the combination of ponde- 
 rous earth with vitriolic acid, called /jeavj gypfum, 
 marmor metallicum, barofdenite, is'c. ^^^^ 
 From thefe experiments the Do6lor concludes, that Analyfis 
 1 00 parts of this fpar contain 78.6 of pure ponderous f"- 
 earth, of a grain of manner metallicum, and 20.8 P^"'<=» 
 grains of fixed air. 2. The quantity of mild alkali ponderous 
 necelTary to faturate any given portion of acid, con- fpar. 
 tains a greater quantity of fixed air than can be ab- 
 forbed by that quantity of terra ponderofa which the 
 acid is able to diffolve. 3. The terra ponderofa, when 
 precipitated by means of a mild alkali, readily burns 
 to lime ; and this lime-water proves a very nice teft of 
 the prefence of vitriolic acid. 4. In its native ftate 
 the terra ponderofa will not burn to lime ; when ur- 
 ged with a ftrong fire, it melts and unites with the 
 crucible, without becoming cauftic ; nor can it be 
 made ^ to part with its fixed air by any addition of 
 phlogifton. He conjedlures, therefore-, that as cauftic 
 lime cannot unite to fixed air without moifture, and 
 as this fpar feems to contain no water in its compo- 
 fition, it is the want of v^^ater which prevents the 
 fixed air afTuming its elaftic aerial ftate. *' This fup- 
 pofition (fays he) becomes ftill more probable, if we 
 obferve, that when the folution of the fpar in an acid 
 is precipitated by a mild alkali, fome water enters in- 
 to the compofition of the precipitate ; for it has the 
 fame weight as before it was diffolved, and yet pro- 
 duces only 20 ounce-meafures of fixed air, while the 
 native fpar contains 25 of the fame meafures ; fo that 
 there is an addition of weight equal to five ounce- 
 meafures of air, or three one-half grains, to be account- 
 ed for ; and this can only arife from the water. 
 5. The precipitate formed by the cauftic alkali, taking 
 fome of the latter down with it, forms a fubftance 
 ijeither foluble in acids nor water. This infoluble 
 compound is alfo formed by adding the lime-water al- 
 ^ ready 
 
G H E M 
 
 Terra Pon- ready mentioned, to a folutioii of cauilic vegetable, or 
 ftrconibf ^"^^'^^ ^^^'^^ alkali, but not with volatile alkali. 6. Fix- 
 nations. ^'^ vegetable as well as mineral alkali, and even vola- 
 — Y— — tile a!kalie», whether mild or cauftic, are capable of 
 feparating terra pondcrofa from any other acid ex- 
 cepting the vitriolic ; but from it neither mild nor 
 cauftic alkalies are capable of feparating tiiis earth, 
 jQ^g excepting the vegetable lixed alkali, whicli will partly 
 Terra' pon- do it by an intenfe heat in the dry way. 7. This 
 derofa a teft eai-th affords an excellent method of j)urifying the ni- 
 «f the pre- tj-Qus and marine acids froni any portion of the vitri- 
 
 fJ^'^v^ V' olic ; for the attraction between terra ponderofa and 
 tnolic aci \. . . . , 1 n ^ r ^ 1 
 
 this acid IS 10 itrong, that tlie Icait portion or the lat- 
 
 1059 ^^^^^ inftantly detec-tcd by the lime-water above 
 
 White mat- mentioned. The vitriohc acid, Dr Withering ob- 
 ^^"".^"^^f^^^'! "ferves, is commonly adulterated with a white powder, 
 o'iic acid '^^''^''^li difcovers itfelf by turning the hquor milky when 
 found to be the acid is diluted with water; and tlus powder he 
 gypfum. finds to be gypfum, from the foUowlrig properties : 
 
 I. By repeated boihng in water, hx grains and a 
 half were reduced to two. 2. By gentle evaporation 
 this folation afforded five grains of cryftals as hard and 
 tailelefs as felenite. 3. A precipitate was formed by 
 mild foflile alkali on adding it to a folution of thefe 
 ciyftals in water. 4. On expofing this powder to a 
 pretty ftrong heat, and then putting it into water, the 
 latter became acrid, and acquired the talte of lime- 
 water. 5. The infoluble part fuffered no change by 
 boihng in nitrous acid : one half of it mixed with bo- 
 rax, and expofed to the blow-pipe upon charcoal, 
 melted into glafs ; the other half, mixed with borax, 
 and expofed to the blow-pipe upon charcoal, did the 
 fame ; whence it appears, fays our author, that the 
 greater part of this fubflance was calx vitriolate or 
 felenite ; the remainder a vitriliable earth. He had 
 before found, that the heavy gypfum, or marmor me- 
 tallicum, would diiTolve in concentrated vitriolic acid, 
 but always ftparated upon the addition of water ; and 
 from his experiments it now appears that felenite does 
 the fame. 
 
 Dr Withering next proceeds to give a fet of expe- 
 riments on the heavy gypfum, marmor metallicum of 
 ^^^^^^^"■"^Cronftadt, or tlie Barofelenite of others, already men- 
 cum. tioned. The fpecimens he obtained were from Kil- 
 patrick hills near Glafgow, and a fort with fmaller 
 cryftals found among the iron ore about Ketley in 
 Shropfliire, and in the lead-mines at Alfton-Moor. 
 He defcribes it as white, nearly tranfparent, but with- 
 out the property of double refracLion ; compofed of 
 laminae of rhomboidal cryftals, and decrepitating in 
 jQgj the fire ; the fpecific gravity from 4.402 to 4.440. 
 Defcriptim The fpecimens we have feen difi"er confiderably fium 
 nf a kipid this defcription, being compofed, to appearance, of 
 ■EdinlurTh laminae ; which all together form a very opaque 
 white mafs, which has not the leaft tranlparcncy un- 
 lefs fplit exceflively thin. They are found about three 
 miles to the fouthweft of Edinburgh, near Ptrntland 
 hills, and likewife betwixt Edinburgh and Lelth. In 
 the forrtier place they lie in fniall veins of a rock con- 
 filling of a kind of iron ftone, and fo clofely adhering 
 to it, that it would feem either that the fl:one is con- 
 verted into the fpathum ponderofum, or the latter in- 
 to the ttone. It is therefore often intermixed with 
 the rock fo intimately, that it is impoflible to feparate 
 them perfectly from each other. 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 ic6o 
 Experi- 
 ments DI 
 
 I S T R Y. 521 
 
 Dr Withering having expofed lOD grains of the T'erra Pon- 
 marmor metallicum to a red heat for an hour, in a^^''"'^^!^'^ 
 black crucible, foiuid that it had loft five grains of its HIt?:' 
 weight ; but as a fulphureotis fmell was perceptible, he u— y— ^ 
 fufpefted that a decompofition had taken place, aiid rc6j 
 therefore expofed another portion to a fimilar heat in Effect' 
 a tobacco-pipe, which had no. fmell of fulphur, nor!'''^'^'^ "P'^'^ 
 was it diminiftied in weight. It melted with borax 
 into a white opaque glafs, but was barely fufible by ^^(^ 
 itfelf under the blow pipe. It did not feem to diffolve Miy l>e 
 in water, nor in any of the acids, except the vitriolic, d ffolved in 
 when by long boiling it had become very conceHtrated 
 and almoft red hot. It then appeared perfectly dif- vi"rioh? 
 folved ; but feparated again unchanged on the addi- acid, 
 tion of water. On expofing the vitriolic folution to 
 the atmofphere for fome days, beautiful radiated cry- 
 ftals were formed in it. 
 
 On adding a folution of m.ild vegetable alkali to this Precipi- 
 vitriolic folution, a precipitate appeared ; but it con- '-''^'^^ 
 filled of marmor metallicum unchanged. An ounce 
 of it in fine powder was then fufed with two of fait of .retable fix- 
 tartar until it ran thin, whfen fix drachms of a refidu- ed alkali, 
 um infoluble in water were left. On the addition of '°^3 
 nitrous acid, only 52 grains were left, which appeared 
 to be marmor metallicum unchanged. On faturatinginThe'd'ry 
 the alkahne folution with diftilled vinegar, and waftiing way by fait 
 the precipitate, the liquor was found to contain ter- tartar, 
 ra fohata tartar, formed by the union of the acetous 
 acid with part of the alkali ; and of vitriolated tar- 
 tar, formed by that of the alkali with the native acid 
 of the marmor metallicum. ^^g^ 
 
 The fait formed by the nitrous acid fliot readily in- Nitrous fo- 
 to beautiful permanent cryftals of a rough bitteriih tafte. ^ution 
 Some of the fait deflagrated with nitre and charcoal, J|'°"'^|. 
 left by^^afiiing the terra ponderofa very white, capa- ftals.^""^" 
 ble of being burnt into lime, and again forming art in- 
 foluble compound with vitriolic acid. An hundred 
 grains of aerated terra ponderofii, diflblved in marine 
 acid, and precipitated by the vitriolic, were augment- 
 ed 1 7 grains in weight. Hence it appears, jq^^ 
 I. That the marmor metallicum is compofed of vi- Analyfis 
 trioUc acid and terra ponderofa. 2. That this com- "'^ P''oP^''- 
 pound has very little folubility in water. 3. That it ' '^'^ '^'^'^ 
 can only be dilioived in highly concentrated od of vi- metalli- 
 triol, from which it feparates unchanged on the addi- cum. 
 tion of water. 4. That it cannot be decompofed in 
 the moiil way, by mild fixed alkali, though it may be 
 fo in the dry. 5. That it may be decompofed by the 
 union of inflammable matter to its acid, by which ful- 
 phur is formed, though the aoid cannot be diffipated 
 by mere heat. 6. An hundred parts of this fubftance 
 contain 32.8 of pure vitriohc acid, and 67.2 of terra 
 ponderofa. The marmor metallicum, our author re- 
 marks, may poffibly be ufeful in fome cafes where a 
 pov\^erful flux is wanted ; for having mixed fome of it 
 with the black flux, and given the mixture a ftrong 
 heat in a crucible, it ran entirely through the pores 
 of the veflel. 
 
 Dr Withering defcribes two other jkinds of thiscauk a 
 fubftance, known by the name of mid, and found in fubftance o£ 
 the mines of Derbyfliire, and otlter places. Thefe '^"s '^'"''x 
 diff"er from the other only in containing a fmallpropor- i/'. 
 tion of iron. On the whole, he concludes, that " the ' ^^"^ 
 teira ponderofa feems to lay claim to a middle place 
 betwixt the earths and metallic calces. Like the for- 
 
 3 U 
 
 m«r 
 
522 
 
 Tranfmu- 
 
 tat'on of 
 Flints into 
 an E:irth 
 fol. ble in 
 Acids. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 mer it cannot be reduced to a metjilUc fi)rm> though 
 like the latter it miiy be precipitated by phlogiftica- 
 ted alkali. In many of its properties it much refcm- 
 bles the calx of lead, and in others the common cal- 
 careous earth. Its moft remarkable properties are its 
 ' decompofing the vitriolic neutral falls, and forming, 
 with the nitrous and marine acids, cryltals which do 
 not deli que fee. 
 
 § 2. Tranf mutation of Flints Into an Earth foluhle in 
 Acids. 
 
 T069 
 Solution of 
 
 1070 
 Solubility 
 
 This is effected by mixing powdered flints A^ith 
 alkahne fait, and melting the mixture by a firong 
 fire. The melted m.afs deliquates in the air, hke 
 alkaline falt^ ; and if the flint is then precipitated, 
 it becomes, foluble in acids, which it entirely refilled 
 before. 
 
 In- this procefs the alkali, by its union with the flint, 
 is deprived of its fixed air, and becomes cauftici To 
 this caufticity its folvent power is owing ; and there- 
 fore the flint m.ay be precipitated /rom the alkah, not 
 only by acids, but by any fubftance capable of furnifh- 
 iiig fixed air.; fuch as rnagncfia alba or volatile alkah. 
 The precipitate in both cafes proves the fame ; but the 
 nature of it hath not hitherto been determined. Some 
 have conjettured that the vitriolic acid exifted in- the 
 flint ; in which cafe, the alkah made ufe of in this 
 procefs ought to be partly converted into vitriolated 
 tartar. 
 
 The above procefs is delivered' on the authority of 
 of this earth former chemift.s ; but Mr Bergman, who has publifhed 
 denied by a dilTertation on this fubjeft, aflerts that it cannot be 
 Mr Berg- dJffolved except by the fluor acid. The vitriohc, ni- 
 trous, or marine acids, have no effe£l upon it, even 
 when newly precipitated from, the liquor of flints 
 waflied and fl;ill wet, and though a thoufand parts of 
 acid be added to one of the earth, and boiled upon it for 
 an hour: but when three parts of alkaline fait are 
 di?m"ftakc^^'t^^ in a crucible with one of quartz, the fait dif- 
 Df'former folyes at the fame time about feven hundredth parts of 
 chemifts. its'own weight of the clay which compofes the crucible ; 
 
 and the folubihty of this has given occafion to the mif- 
 take above mentioned. If the fufion be performed in 
 an iron veffel, no foluble part will be obtained, except- 
 ing the very fmall portion of clay which the quartz 
 contains ; and when this is once exhauflcd by an acid, 
 Ro more can be procured by any number of funans 
 with alkali. 
 
 107a ^ The fluor acid, he obferves, is never obtained en- 
 Gryftalf ^-^^i ^^.^^ ^^^^ filiceous earth, and confequently its 
 daily form- power as a menfliruum mult be weakened m propor- 
 ed by Mr tion to the quantity it contains. In order to obferve 
 Bergmcn. -^^ folvent pov/er, however, our author, in the year 
 1772, put fome quartz, very finely powdered, into a 
 bottle containing \ of- a kanne of fluor acid. "The 
 bottle v/as then {lightly corked, and fet by in the cor- 
 ner of a room. Two years afterwards it was exa- 
 mined ; and on pouring out the liquor there were found 
 concreted at the bottom of the veflel, befides innume- 
 rable fmall pvifmatic fpiculce, 1.3 cryftals of the fize of 
 fmall peas, but nfoitly of an irregular form. Some of 
 thefe refembled cubes, whofe angles were all truncated, 
 fuch as are often found in the cavities of flints. Thefe 
 were perfeft filiceous cryftals, and very hard, but not 
 comparable, with quartz, though they agreed with it 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 in cfTential properties. " Poffibly (fays he) the length Tranfmu- 
 
 of a century may be neccffary for them to acquire, by j"^^^^ 
 exficcation, a fulhcient degree of hardnefs. . The £arth 
 bottom itfelf, as far as the Hqv,or had i-eaclied, was foluble m 
 found covered v/ith a very thin filiceous pellicle, which ^^-^ 
 was fcarcely vifible, but feparated on breaking the 
 bottle. It was extremely pellucid, flexible, and fliow- ^^^^ 
 ed prifmatic colours. Thefe phenomena fliow, that why the 
 much filiceous matter is diffolved and fufpended" (in fluor acid 
 the fluor acid). "Whether any of the quartz was^i|.'not. 
 taken up m this experiment is uncertain ; but it ap- ji^pjc^iy^ 
 pears probable that little or none was diflblved ; finee, 
 by the help of heat during the diilillaiion, the acid 
 had previoufiy taken up fo much filiceous earth, that 
 upon flow evaporation, it was unable to retain it. 
 Hence appears the origin of the cryflials and the pel- 
 hcle ; and hence appears the caufe which impedes the 
 aftion of fluor acid upon flint ; namely, that the acid 
 obtained in the ordinary way is already faturated with 
 
 it. . . . • '■°74. 
 
 The volatile alkah precipitates filiceous earth mofc Siliceous 
 completely from fluor acid : and thus wc find, that one^^''^''^"'''-'^ 
 part of it is contained in 600 of the acid, diluted to^,|.^^V^|^'''^'J^^ 
 fuch a degree, that its fpecific gravity is only 1.064. by volatile/ 
 This precipitate has all the properties of pure flint ; alkali 
 but that precipitated either by vegetable, or mineral ^J.^ 75^^^ 
 fixed alkah does not afford a pure filiceous earth, but £^j,'j"^^'[^^*^ 
 a peculiar kind of triple fait, formed of the earth, precipita- 
 fliior acid, and fixed alkali, which diflblves, though cum with _ 
 with difiiculty, in warm water, efpecially the earth ^''^'^ 
 procured by vegetable alkali, but is eafily decompofed 
 by lime-water, and lets fall the mineral fluor regene- 
 rated. _ 1076 
 Fixed alkaline falts attack this earth by boiling, but Siliceous 
 not unlefs it be reduced to very fine powder, and "^^"^Y'^ed'b^' 
 ly precipitated from the hquor. Oil of tartar per de-j^'^^j^^g 
 liquium takes up about one-fixth of its weight, and thefoiution o£ 
 hquor becomes gelatinous on cooling, though at firft all-.ali. 
 diluted with 1 6 times its weight of w^ater. This fo- 
 lutiou is efl'efted only by the cauftic part ; for when 
 fully faturated with fixed air, it cannot enter into any 
 union with it. Volatile alkali, even though cauftic,. 
 has no effeft. ^^^^ 
 
 The attraftlun betwixt filiceous earth and fixed al- Has a re- 
 kali is ^ much m.ore remarkable in the dry way ; for markable 
 thus it melts with one half its weight of alkali into an 
 hard, firm, and tranfparent glafs, the aerial acid and ^""^ ®* 
 water going ofl' in a violent effervefcence. In pro- 
 portion. as the alkali is increafed, the glafs becomes 
 more foft and lax, until at lafl; it diflblves totally in j^^g 
 water, as has been already mentioned. The filiceous is vei y rare 
 matter thus precipitated is of, a very rare and fpongy an 1 fponjry 
 texture, and fo m.uch fwelled by water, that its bulk 
 when wet is at leail twelve times greater than when 
 dry nor does it contra £1 more though fufFered to re- 
 main a long time in the water.. Hence it is eafy to 
 reduce the hquor of flints to . a jelly, by diluting it 
 with four or eight times it weight of w~ater, and ad- 
 ding a fufiicient quantity of precipitate; but if an over- 
 proportion, of water be ufed, for infliance, 24 times. 
 the weight, the hquor will then remain limpid, though why it can 
 we add as much acid as is fufiicient for faturating the not fume- 
 alkali. The reafon of this Mr Bergman fuppofes to '""f^^s | 
 be, that the filiceous particles are removed to fuch aP^"^''"^^^^ 
 diftance from pne another, that tiiey cannot overcome acid with- 
 
 the out heat. 
 
 Iry way. 
 
C H E M I 
 
 phofphoric the fridion they muft necefTanly meet with in their 
 " ' pafiage downv.-ards through the fluid ; but if the li- 
 quor be boiled, which at once diminifhes its quantity 
 and tenacity, the filiceous matter is inllantly fepara- 
 ted. 
 
 Liquor of flints is alfo decompofed by too great a 
 Hints ui;- quantity of water ; for by this the efficacy of the men- 
 b rT^'i'^Teatftru""^ is weakened, and it is alfo partly faturated by 
 a quanfky ' the aerial acid contained in the water. A precipitate 
 of water, alfo falls when the fluor acid is made ufe of ; the rea- 
 andbyfluor f^^^ ^^Jeh is the fame as the precipitation by other 
 acids : in this cafe, however, the alkali makes part of 
 the precipitate, as has hhen already obferved ; and there- 
 fore the matter which falls is fuflble before the blow- 
 pipe, and foluble in a fufRcient quantity of water. 
 
 § $• Of Phosphoric Earth. 
 
 BoWnL These are fo called from their property of fhining 
 ftone. ' in the dark. The m.oft celebrated and anciently known 
 of this kind is that called the Bolognlan Jione, from 
 Bologna, a city in Italy, .near which it is found. The 
 difcovery, according to Lemery, was accidentally made 
 by a flioe-makcr called Fincenzo Cafcinrolo, who ufed 
 to make chemical experiments. This man, having 
 been induced to think, from the great weight and luftre 
 ofthefe Hones, that they contained filver, gathered 
 fome, and calcined them ; when carrying them into a 
 dark place, probably by accident, he obferved them 
 ftiining like hot coals. 
 
 Mr Margraalf defcribes the Bolog-nian fl:one to be 
 an heavy, fofc, friable, and cryftallizcd fubdance, in- 
 capable of efl"ervefcence with acids before calcination 
 in contaa with burning fuel. Thefe properties feem 
 to indicate this Hone to be of a felenitic or gypfeous 
 nature. 
 
 When thefe ftones are to be rendered phofphoric, 
 fuch of them ought to be chofen as are the cleaneft, 
 befl; cryftaliized, molt friable and heavy ; which ex- 
 foliate when broken, and which contam no heteroge- 
 neous parts. They are to be made red hot in a cru- 
 cible ; and reduced to a very fine powder in a glafs- 
 mortar, or upon a porphyry. Being thus reduced co 
 powder, they are to be formed into a pafte with mu- 
 cilage of gum tragacanth, and divided into thin cakes. 
 Thefe are to be dried with a heat, which at laft is to 
 be made pretty confiderable. An ordinary reverbe- 
 rating furnace is to be filled to three quarters of its 
 height with charcoal, and the fire is to be kindled. 
 Upon this charcoal the flat furfaces of the cakes are 
 to rtfl, and more' charcoal to be placed above them, 
 fo as to fill the furnace. The furnace is_ then to be 
 covered with its dome, the tube of which is tL remain 
 open ; all the coal is to be confumed, and the furnace 
 is to be left to cool ; the cakes are then to be cleanfed 
 from- the aflies by blowing with bellows upon them. 
 When they have been expqfed during fome minutes 
 to light, and afterwards carried to a dark place, they 
 willleeni to fnine like hot coals; particularly if the 
 ^erfon obferving thsm has been fome time in the dark, 
 or have fhnt his eyes, that the pupils may be fufficient- 
 ly expanded. After this calcination through the coals, 
 if the fi:ones be expol'ed to a fl:ronger calcination, du- 
 ring a full half hour, under a rauflle, their phofphoric 
 ^ality wiH be rendered ftronger. 
 
 How ren- 
 tJcred lu- 
 minous. 
 
 S T R Y. 523 
 
 From attending to the qualities of this ftone, and 
 the requifites for making this phofphorus, we are na- . ^' . 
 turally led to think, that the Bolognlan phofphorus is ^^g^ 
 no other than a compofition of fulphur and quickllnne. Analyfis of 
 The ftone itfelf, in its natural ftate, evidently contains the phof- 
 vitriolic acid, from ics not effervefcing with acids ofphorus. 
 any kind. This acid cannot be expelled from earthy 
 fubllances by almofl. any degree of fire, unlcfs inflam- 
 mable matter is admitted to it. lu this cafe, part of 
 the acid becomes fulphureous, and flies off; while part 
 is converted into fulphur, and combines with the earth. 
 In the above mentioned procefs, the inflammable mat- 
 ter is furnilhed by the coals in contaA with which the 
 cakes are calcined, and by the mucilage of gum tra- 
 gacanth with which the cakes are made up. A true 
 fulphur mufl. therefore be formed by the union of this 
 inflammable matter with' the vitriolic acid contained 
 in the ftone; and part of this fulphur muft remain 
 united to the earth left in a calcareous fl;ate, by 
 the diffipation, or convcrfion into fulphur, of its 
 acid. . 
 
 In the year 1730, a memoir was pubhflied by Mr All cakare- 
 du Fay ; wherein he affcrts, that all calcareous ftones, ^^^"^1^^ 
 whether they contain vitriohc acid or not, are capa- according ' 
 ble of becoming luminous by calcination; with this to Mr du 
 difference only, that the pure calcareous ftones require Fay^ 
 a ftronger, or more frequently repeated, calcination to 
 convert them into phofphorus ; whereas thofe which 
 contain an acid, as felenites, gypfum, fpars, iifc. be- 
 come phofphoric by a flighter calcination. On the 
 contrary, Mr Margraaff alferts, that no other ftones 
 can be rendered phofphoi ic but thofe which are fatu- 
 rated with an acid ; that purely calcareous ftones, fuch 
 as marble, chalk, llmeftone, ftalaftites, i^c. cannot be 
 rendered luminous, till faturated with an acid previ- 
 oufly to their calcination. 
 
 We have already taken notice, that the compounds 
 formed by uniting calcareous earths with the nitrous 
 and marine acids become a kind of phofphori ; the 
 former of which emits hght in the dark, after ha- 
 ving been expofed to the fun through the day; and io?j 
 the latter becomes luminous by being itruck. Signior Slgnior 
 Beccaria found, that this phofphoric quality was ca- 
 pable of being given to almoft all fubllances in na- ' 
 ture, meials perhaps excepted. He found that it 
 was widely diffufed among animals, and that even his 
 own hand and arm polfeffed it in a very confiderable 1086 
 degree. In the year 3775, a treatife on this kind "^^"".^^j"*^ 
 phofphori was publiftied by B. Wilfon, F. R. S. and j.inieau!'*' 
 member of the Royal Academy at Upfal. In this trea- 
 tife he fliows, that oyfter-fhells, by calcination, ac- 
 quire the phofphoric quality in a very great degree, 
 either when combined with the nitrous acid or with- 
 out it. 
 
 The firft experiment made by our author was the 
 pouring fome aquafortis, previoufly impregnated with 
 copper, on a quantity of calcined oyfter-fhells, fo as 
 to form them into a kind of pafte; he put this pafle 
 into a crucible, which was kept in a pretty hot fire for 
 about 40 minutes. Having taken out the mafs, and 
 waited till it waij cool, he prefented it to the external 
 light. On bringing it back fuddenly into the dark, he 
 was furprifed with the appearance of a variety of co- 
 lours like thofe of the rainbow, but much more vivid. 
 In confequence of this appearance of the prifmatic 
 3 U 2 colours, 
 
5^4- 
 
 Vegetable 
 Earth. 
 
 1087 
 Surprifinp 
 phofphoric 
 quality of 
 jLiyfter- 
 fliello. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 colours, he repeated the experiment in various ways, 
 conabining the calcined oyfter-fhells with different me- 
 tals and metallic (olutions, with the different acids, al- 
 kaline and neutral falts, as well as with fulphur, char- 
 coal, and other inflammable fubftances ; and by all of 
 thefe he produced phcfphori, which emitted varioufly 
 coloured light. 
 
 What is more remarkable, he found that oyfler- 
 fhells pofTefTed the phofphoric quality in a furpriling de- 
 gree ; and for this purpofe nothing more was requifite 
 than putting them into a good fea-coal fire, and keep- 
 ing them there for forae time. On fcaling ofi'the in- 
 ternal yellowiih furface of each (liell, they become ex- 
 cellent phofphori, and exhibit the mofl vivid and beau- 
 tiful colours. As we know that neither the vitriolic 
 nor any other acid is contained in oyfler-fhells, we can- 
 not as yet fay any thing fatisfaftory concerning the na- 
 ture of this phofphorus. 
 
 ^4. Of the Vf.GETABLE Earth. 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice 
 
 or 19,290, to one. For its fufion it requires a lowde Gold. 
 
 1088 
 
 Dr Lewis's This is produced from vegetables by burning, and, 
 -opinion. when perfeftly pure, by hxiviating the afhes witli wa- 
 ter, to extract the fait ; and then repeatedly calcining 
 them, to burn out all the inflammable matter ; and is 
 perhaps the fame from whatever Tubftance it is ob- 
 tained : in this flate, according to Dr Lewis, it is of 
 the fame nature with magnefia. In the flate, how- 
 ever, in which this earth is procurable by limply burn- 
 ing the plant, and lixiviating' the allies, it is confide- 
 1089 J"ably different, according to the different plants from 
 Mr Gmc- which it is obtained. The afhes of mugwort, fmall 
 lin's expe- centaury, chervil, and dill, are of a brownifh grey ; 
 nments. goat's beard and lungwort afford white allies ; thofe of 
 fanicle are whitifh ; thofe of Roman wormwood of a 
 greenifh grey ; thofe of rue, agrimony, faxifrage, 
 brown ; thofe of tanfey, of a duflcy green ; thofe of 
 dodder, of a fine green ; eyebright, fouthern-wood, 
 common wormwood, and fcabious, afford them grey ; 
 fcurvy-grafs, of a whitifh grey ; hyffop, yarrow, and 
 fowbane, of a duflcy grey ; melilot, and oak-leaves, 
 as alfo plantain, colts-foot, pine- tops, and fumitory, 
 of a dufl<y brown ; penny-royal, of a pale brown, 
 with fome fpots of white ; elder-flowers, fage, and 
 mother of thyme, afford yellow afhes ; thofe of ftraw- 
 berry-leaves are of a pale brimftone colour ; thofe of 
 eat-mint, of a duflcy red ; of prunella, brick-coloured; 
 of honey-fucke, blue ; of fern, blackifh ; and thofe of 
 St John's- wort, feverfew, origanum, and pimpernel, 
 all of a deep black. The only ufe to which this 
 kind of earth has yet been put, is that of glafs-makitig 
 and manure. 
 
 Sect. III. Of Metallic Suhjlances. 
 
 § I. G 0 ID. 
 
 This metal is reckoned of all others the molt 
 perfeft and indeflruftible. When in its greatefl puri- 
 ty, it has very little elafticity, is not fonorous, its co- 
 lour is yellow, it is exceedingly foft and flexible, and 
 is more duftile than any other metal whatever. (See 
 Gold Leaf and Wire-Drawing.) Of all bodies it 
 is the mofl ponderous, except platina ; its gravity be- 
 ing to that of water, according to Dr Lewis, as 19,280, 
 
 gree of white heat, fomewhat greater than that in — -y*^ 
 v/hich filver melts. Whilfl fluid, it appears of a bluifli 
 green colour ; when cold, its furface looks fmooth, 
 blight, and confiderably concave ; it feeins to expand 
 more in the aft of lufion, ai;d to flirink more in its re- 
 turn to folldity, than any of the other metals ; whence 
 the greater concavity of its furface. Before fufion it 
 expands the leaft of all m.etals, except iron., By fud- 
 den cooling it becom.es, as well as other metals, brittle; 
 which effedl has been erroneouOy attributed to the con- 
 taft of fuel d uring' fufion. 1090 
 
 Gold amalgamates very readily with mercury, '^"'1 j;Jy^*jt^}^'* 
 mingles in fufion with all the metals. It is remark- ai['fj,£ j^.^. 
 ably dilpofed to unite with iron ; of which it diffolvestah. 
 many times its own weight, in a heat not much greater 
 than that in which gold itf:lf melts ; the mixture is of 
 a filver colour, very brittle and hard. All the metals, 
 except copper, debale the colcur of gold ; and, if their 
 quantity is nearly equal to that of the gold, almofl en- 
 tirely conceal it. ^ 
 
 The malleability of gold is im.paired by all the me- Said^fo'lofe 
 tals, but lefs by copper and filver than any others, its mailea- 
 Tin has had a remarkably bad character in this re-'^il'ty 
 fpeft ; and it has been a received opinion among "^^'^yftjl'^jl^^ 
 tallurgifts, that the fmallefl quantity of this metal en- 
 tirely deflroys the, duftiiity (<f gold ; and Dr Lewis 
 tells us, that " the moil minute portion of tin or lead, 
 and even the vapours which rife from them in the fire, 
 though not fufhcient to add to the gold any weight 
 fenfible on the tenderefl balance, make it fo brittle, 
 that it flies to pieces under the hammer." On fo re-jv[,. ^1. 
 fpeftable an authority, this continued to be believed clmrne's 
 as an undoubted faft, until, in the year 1784, a pa-^^^P^i- 
 pcr appeared in the Philofophical Tranfaftions by Mr'"^^"^' 
 Alchorne of the mint ; in which it was clearly difpro-^^ 
 ved by the following experiments : 
 
 1. Sixty Troy grains of pure tin were put into 12 
 ounces of pure gold in fufion ; after which the mix- 
 ture was call into a mould of fand, producing a flat 
 bar an inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick. 
 The bar appeared found and good, fuffered flatting 
 under the hammer, drawing fevcral times between a 
 pair of fteel-rollers, and cutting into circular pieces of 
 near an inch diameter, which bore ftamping in the 
 money-prefs by the ufual (Iroke, without fhowing the 
 leafl brittlenefs, or rather with much the fame du6li- 
 lity as pure gold. 
 
 2. With 90 grains of tin the bar was fcarce diftin- 
 guifhable from the former. 
 
 3. With I 20 grains it was rather paler and harder; 
 and on drawing between the rollers the edges were a 
 little difpofed to crack. 
 
 4. With 140 grains, the palenefs, hardnefs, and dif- 
 pofitfon to crack, were evidently increafed ; neverthe- 
 lefs it bore every other operation, even llamping under 
 the prefs, without any apparent injury. 
 
 5. With an ounce of tin the bar was lead-coloured 
 and brittle, fplitting into feveral pieces on the fiifl 
 pafling between the rollers. 
 
 6. A fmall crucible filled with llandard gold 44 fine, q^j^ ^^^.^ 
 was placed in a larger one, having in it an ounce of rendered 
 melted tin. The whole was covered with a large cru- brittle by 
 cible inverted, in order to direft the fumes of the tin ^^'^J^"^'* 
 downward upon the gold. The metals were kept in 
 
 lufioix- 
 
 ments in 
 ion. 
 
1094 
 
 Nor by the 
 addition ( f 
 
 PraAice. C H E M I 
 
 Goltl. fufion for half an hour, during which time a full quar- 
 '^~~v~~' ter of the tin was calcined ; yet the gold remained al- 
 tog-ethcr unchanged. 
 
 7. The mixtuie of gold and tin produced in exp. r. 
 was melted a lecond time in a ftronger fire than at firft, 
 and kept in fuficn for half an hour ; daring which 
 time fix grains of weight were loft, but the gold re- 
 mained equally perfedl as before. 
 
 8. and 9. The mixtures of exp. 2. and 4. viz. 90 
 and 140 grains to 12 ounces of gold, were re-mtlted 
 feparately, and an ounce of copper added to each. 
 On being call as ufual, they bore all the operations of 
 manufatluring as before, though fenfibly harder. The 
 laft cracked at the edges as it had done without the 
 copper, but bore cutting rather better than in its for- 
 mer Rate. 
 
 10. and II. A quarter of an ounce of the laft mix- 
 ture, being tin 140 grains, and copper an ounce, and 
 gold 12 ouncej, with as much of the bar from expe- 
 riment 3. confiRing of 140 grains of tin to 12 ounces 
 of gold, were each melted by a jeweller in a common 
 fea-coal fire, into fmall buttonri, without any lofs of 
 weight. Tliefe buttons were afterwards forged into 
 fmall bars, nealing them often with the flame of a 
 lamp, and afterwards drawn each about twenty times 
 through the apertures of a Reel plate, into fine wire, 
 with as much eafe as coarfe gold commonly pafies the 
 like operation. 
 
 12. Sixty grains of tin were added to 12 ounces of 
 ftandard gold 4-4- hn<i > and the compound pafTed every 
 one of the operations already defcribed, without fhow- 
 ing the leaR alteration from the tin. 
 
 Several other trials were made with different mix- 
 tures of copper, tin, and filver, with gold, even as 
 low as two ounces and a half of copper, with half an 
 ounce of tin, to twelve ounces of gold ; all of which 
 bore hammering and flatting by rollers to the thinnefs 
 
 1095 of ftiff paps'"} 3nd aftervvaids working into watch- 
 Malleahili- cafes, cane- heads, &c. with great eafe. They grew 
 ty of gold more hard and harftr indeed in proportion to the quaa- 
 by regu^lus '''^ alloy ; but not one of them had the appear- 
 ofarfenic. ance of what workmen call brittle gold. Mr Alchorne 
 
 therefore is of opinion, that when brittlenefs has been 
 occafioned by the addition of tin to gold, the former 
 has been adulterated with arfenic ; as he has found, 
 that by adding 12 grains of regulus of arfenic to as 
 many ounces of fine gold, the compound has; been ren- 
 dered altogether unmalleable. 
 
 When gold is ftruck during a certain time by a 
 hammer, or when violently comprefled, as by the wire- 
 drawers, it becomes more hard, elaftic, and lefs duc- 
 tile ; fo that it is apt to be cracked and torn. Its duc- 
 tility is, however, reftored by the fame means ufed 
 with other metals, namely, heating it red hot, and let- 
 ting it cool ilowI)^ This is called annsalin^ metals ; 
 
 1096 S'^^^ feems to be more affefted by this operation 
 Surpiifiiip than any other metal. The tenacity of the parts of 
 tenacity of gold is alfo very furprifing ; for a wire of of 2" 
 Its f arts. jfj dJatneter will fupport a weight of 500 pounds. 
 
 Gold is unalterable by air or water. It never con- 
 trails ruR like other metals. The aftion of the fier- 
 ceft furnace-fires occafions no alteration in it. Kunc- 
 kel kept gold in a glafs-houfe furnace for a month, 
 and Boyle kept fome expofed to a great heat for a 
 ftiil longer time, without the lofs of a fingle grain. 
 
 S T 11 Y. 
 
 It is faid, however, to be diflipable in the focus of a 
 large burning minor. 
 
 Mr Boyle 1 elates a very curious and extraordinary ^^^^^^ j^,^ 
 experiment, which he thought was fufhcient to prove gj-perl- 
 the total deftruftibility.of gold. About an eighth partments for 
 of a grain of powder, communicated by a ftranger, deftruc- 
 was proje<rted upon two drachms of fine gold in fu- ^'^ 
 fion, and the matter kept melted for a quarter of^*' 
 an hour. During the fufion, it looked like ordi- 
 nary gold ; except only once, that his affiftant ob- 
 ferved it to look exaftiy of the colour of opal. When 
 cold, it was of a dirty colour, and, as it were, over- 
 caft with a thin coat, almoft like half-vitrified liihat;ge : 
 the bottom of the crucible was overlaid with a vitri- 
 fied fubRance, partly yellow, and partly reddiRi brown ; 
 with a few fmall globules, more like impure filver than 
 gold. The metfii was brittle, internally like brafs or 
 bell-metal ; on the touchftone more like filver than 
 gold : its fpecific gravity was to that of water only 
 as 15^ to I. There was no abfolute lofs of weight. 
 By cupellation, 60 grains of this mafs yielded 53 grains 
 of pure gold, with feven grains of a ponderous, fixed, 
 dark- coloured fubRance, 1099 
 
 We have already mentioned, that in certain cir- Solution in 
 cumftances gold is foluble in the nitrous and marine ^'1'^'^ ^^S'^» 
 acids feparately. It is, however, always foluble by 
 the two united, but difiblves flowly even then. The 
 moft commodious method of obtaining this folution 
 is, by putting the gold, either in leaves, or granulated, 
 or cut into fmall thin pieces, into a proper quantity 
 of aquafortis ; then adding, by degrees, fome powder- 
 ed fal ammoniac, till the whole of the gold is dilToI- 
 ved. By this means a much fmaller quantity of the 
 menftruum proves fufRcient, than if the fal ammoniac 
 was previoufly diflTolved in. the aquafortis ; the conflift, 
 which each addition of the fait raifes with the acid, 
 greatly promoting the diffolution. Aquafortis of mo- 
 derate Rrength will, in this way, take up about one- 
 third of its weight of gold ; whereas an aqua regis, 
 ready prepared from the fame aquafortis, will not take 
 up above one-fifth its weight. Common fait anfwers 
 better for the preparation of the aqua regis than fal 
 ammoniac. j^^^ 
 
 This folution, like all other metallic ones, is corro- Properties 
 five. It gives a violet colour to the fingers, or to any of thefoiu- 
 animal matters. If the folution is evaporated and"^"' 
 cooled, yellow tranfparent cryRals will be formed : 
 but,, if the evaporation is carried too far, the acids 
 with which the gold is con-.bined may be driven from 
 it by heat alone and the gold will be left in the 
 Rate of a yellow powder, called ca/x of gold. 
 
 Gold may be precipitated from its folution by thofe p^g^ 
 fubftances which commonly precipitate metals, fuch cipitatcd 
 as alkaline falts and calcareous earths. It may alfo from it. 
 be precipitated in a fine purple powder, by tin or its 
 folution. 
 
 When fixed alkalies are made ufe of, the precipi- 
 tate weighs about one-fourth more than the gold em- 
 ployed. With volatile alkalies alfo, if they are added 
 in no greater propprtlon than is fufficient to faturate 
 the acid, the quantity of precipitate proves nearly the 
 fame : but if volatile fpirit is added in an over-pto- 
 portion, it redlRblves part of the gold which it had 
 before precipitated, and the liquor becomes again con- 
 fiderably yellow. The whole of the. precijjiiate, how- 
 ever. 
 
5i6 C H E M 
 
 Gill, ever, could tiot hs redlRblvcd, eitlier by the mild or 
 caullic alkali ; nor did cither of thefe ipirits fenfibly 
 diffolve or CKtraft any tinge from preci])itHtes of gold 
 which had been thoroughly edulcorated with boiling 
 water. 
 
 All the metallic bodies which difToIve in aqua regia, 
 precipitate gold from it. Mercury and copper throw 
 down the gold in its bright metalline form ; the 
 others, in that of a calx or powder, which has no me- 
 i tallic afpc-61:. Viuiol of iion, though it precipitates 
 
 1 loa 
 
 Scparaie 
 
 from other gold, yet has no effecl upon any other metal ; hence 
 metals by jj, affords an eafy method of feparating gold ftom all 
 hm^^ '^^ o^''^'"' metals. The precipitation with tin facceeds 
 certainly only when the metal in fubftance is ufed, 
 atid the folutlon of gold largely diluted with water. 
 It is obfervable, that though the gold is precipitated 
 from the diluted folution by tin, yet, if the whole is 
 fufPered to ftand till the water has in a great meafure 
 exhaled, the gold is taken up afrefli, and only a white 
 IJ03 calx of tin remains, 
 Aurum ful- Gold precipitated from its folution in aqua regia 
 minans. explodes by heat with much greater violence than any 
 otiitr fubilance in nature. This property was known 
 in the 15th century ; buc whether the ancient alche- 
 mifts knew any thing of it or not, is a matter of un- 
 certainty. Balil Valentine firft gave any diftindt ac- 
 BafilValen- f -^^ j^^ y diffolved in 
 
 tine s direc- . , • 1 r 1 • j 1 
 
 tions for itsaq^a regia made with fal ammoniac, and then preci- 
 
 prepara- pitated by vegetable fixed alkali, to be twelve times 
 waflied with water, and lallly dried in the open air, 
 where the fun's rays cannot reach it. He forbids it 
 to be dried over a fire, as it explodes with a gentle 
 heat, and flies off with inconceivable violence. 
 
 Succeeding chemifts have performed this operation 
 with feme little differences ; but the neceffity of em- 
 ploying volatile alkali was but little regarded till the 
 beginning of the prefent century. 
 
 The calx of gold is always fomewhat increafed in 
 weight by being converted into aurum fnlminans ; but 
 authors are not agreed about the quantity of augmen- 
 tation. Becher makes it heavier by one-fifth part ; 
 
 1 104 
 Known in 
 the 15th 
 century, 
 iroj 
 
 tion. 
 
 I S T R Y, Praaice, 
 
 an obfcure red. With friftion, however, it feems ftill Gold, 
 more dangerous ; for in this cafe it explodes with what v""""** 
 we Ihould think fcarce fufiicient to communicate any , 
 degree of heat whatever. Orfchal relates, that ^-''^ Jg^jj'j'y 'j^y 
 powder ground in a jafper mortar, exploded with fuch f,.i(ition. 
 violence as to buril the veflel in a thoufand pieces ; ma 
 Dr Lewis gives an inftance of a fimilar kind in England ; f^^^^'-."^/^ 
 and Dr Birch tells us of doors and windows torn ^o 
 pieces by the violence of this explofive matter. Mr [^^^^ 
 Macquer relates the following accident to which he 
 was witnefs. " A young man, who worked in a la- 
 boratory, -had put a drachm of fulminating gold into 
 a bottle, and had negle&ed to wipe the inner furface 
 of the neck of the bottle, to which fome of the pow- 
 der adhered. When he endeavoured to clafe the bot- 
 tle, by turning round the glafs Hopper, the fridlion 
 occafioned an explofion of part of the powder. By 
 this the young man was thrown fome fleps backward, 
 his face and hands wounded by the fragments of the 
 bottle, and his eyes put out ; yet, notwithilanding 
 this violent explofion, the whole drachm of fulmina- 
 ting gold certainly did not take fire, as much of it 
 was afterwards found fcattered about the labora- 
 
 ^"•■y-" . . . 
 
 It has already been mentioned, that fome imagine the porce of the 
 
 force of this explofion to be dire61;ed downwards ; but explofinn is 
 
 Dr Lewis is of opinion that it is equally direftcd every ^"'^ direft- 
 
 1106 
 Vl't of vola- 
 tile alkali 
 but lately 
 tn®wn. 
 
 Increafe of Lemery by one fourth ; and Juncker by one-fourth, 
 the weight All agree, however, that it explodes with a violence 
 of gold by almoft inconceivable. Crollius relates, that 20 grains 
 t""Scl'an-Q£ j^l^jg p^^,j(,^ explodes with more force than half a 
 rum fu!nii-'po""^ gunpowder, and exerts its force downwards, 
 nans. though M. Teykmeyer frequently fiiowed in his lec- 
 1108 tures that it would throw a florin upwards above fix 
 ^'^"'^'w'tlf ^ S''^^^ number of experiments were made be- 
 
 whkirit fore the Royal Society at London, in order to deter- 
 mine the comparative forces of thefe two powders. 
 Equal parts of gunpowder and aurum fulminans were 
 included in iron globes placed among burning coals ; 
 thofe which C'.jntained the former burll with great vio- 
 lence, but the globes containing the aurum fulminans 
 remained perfectly filent. But though no explofion 
 takes place in dole velTels, the utraoll caution is ne- 
 ceffai7 in managing this fubilance in the open air, e- 
 fpecially when it is fubjefted to friftion, or to a flight 
 degree of heat ; for fuch is the nature of the calx we 
 fpeak of, that it is not neceflary, in order to caufe it 
 explode, to touch it with an ignited fubilance, or to 
 ■ make it red-hot. The heat requifite for this purpofe 
 Cte for the according to Dr Lewis, intermediate between that 
 «xi^lofion. ^£ ^Qjijjjg water and the heat which makes metals of 
 
 explodes. 
 
 II09 
 Does not 
 explode in 
 clofe vef- 
 Ibls. 
 
 IIIO 
 
 Heat requi- 
 
 way. Certain it is, that the quantity of from 10 to 
 1 2 grains of aurum fulminans, exploded on a metalline 
 plate, lacerates it ; a fmaller quantity forms a cavity, 
 and a Hill fm.aller only fcratches the furface ; elfetls 
 which are never produced by gunpowder in ever fo 
 large a quantity. A weight laid upon the powder is 
 thrown upwards in the moment of explofion. If it 
 be of filver or copper, this weight is marked with a 
 yellowifli fpot, as the fupports will alfo be, if made 
 of either of thefe metals. A large grain, fays Mr 
 Bergman, brought near to the fide of the flame of a 
 candle, blows it out with great noife ; and a few oun- 
 ces exploding together by incautious drying, has been 
 known to fliatter the doors and windows of the apart- 
 ment : hence it is evident, that aurum fulminans ex- 
 erts its force in all direftions ; yet it cannot be de- 
 nied, that it llrikes bodies with which it is in contaft 
 more violently than thofe which are at a fmall dif- 
 tance, though in its vicinity : thus, if a fmall portion 
 of it explodes in a paper box, it lacerates only the bot- 
 tom, unlefs the top be preifed down clofe ; in which 
 cafe it perforates both the top and bottom. When 
 carefully and gradually exploded in a glafs phial or a 
 paper box, it leaves a purple foot, in which are found 
 many particles of fliining gold ; and if the quantity 
 exploded be large, feveral grains remain totally un- 
 changed, as it is only the lowermoil fl:ratum that is 
 inflamed. 
 
 Aurum fulminans, when moift, does not explode at Explofion 
 all ; but as it dries, the grains go off in fuccellion like of moift au» 
 the decrepitation of common fait.— In glafs veflels ''""^ 
 clofed, or with their mouths immerfed in water, it 
 explodes, but with a very weak report. An elafl:ic 
 vapour, in the quantity of fcven inches, from half a 
 drachm of the powder, broke forth in the moment of - 
 explofion, which, by our author's account, feems to 
 be phlogifbicated air. In metaUic veflels fufficiently 
 ftrong, the gold is filently reduced when they are per- 
 3 
 
Caul'e of 
 
 I^aaice. G H E M 
 
 Gold, feftly found; but if they have any very f;naU chinks in 
 ' them, the vapour makes it3 way through them with 
 a hifiing noifc. 
 
 Tlie caufe of tliis extraordinary explofive force of 
 tiiircxj^ lo- gold has been attributed chiefly to a fahne principle, 
 fioii ?.tt!i- the combination of nitrdus acid \iuth volatile al- 
 
 n'ne 'r'n ^'^^^ ' ^'"^ ^'"'^ opinion has been fupported by an af- 
 dple! fertion, that t!te fulminating property is deftroyed by 
 treating the calx with vitriolic - acid or with fixed al- 
 jjj^ kali ; the* former expeUing the nitrous acid, and the 
 Thisopi- latter difcngaging the volatile alicali.— Mr Bergman 
 rion Ihown allows, that fixed alkali deftj-oys the fulminating pro- 
 to bt erro- p^j-j-y . byj- afiirms, that it a£ts only by feparating the 
 M'r"Berg- particles when the two are triturated together ; and 
 man. this might be done by many other fubftances as well 
 as fixed alkah: but when the alkali, inftead of being 
 triturated in the diy way with the ealx, was boiled in 
 water along with it, the explofion not only took 
 place, but was much more violent than ufual. It 
 muft be obferved,. however, that heat alone deftroys 
 the fulminating property of this calx ; and therefore, 
 if the alkaUne folution be made too llrong, the addi- 
 tional heat which it then becom.es capable of fuilain- 
 ing, is fufficlent to deprive the calx of its fulminating 
 property. The cafe is the fame wlfeli the vitriolic 
 acid ; for this has no efieit upon the calx, either by 
 digeliion in its concentrated rtate, or by boding in its 
 diluted ttate. If it be boiled in its concentraled Hate 
 indeed with the fulminating calx, the heat conceived 
 by the acid is. fuflicient to deftroy the fulminating 
 property of tha former'; and ia like manner, unlefs 
 the calx be in fome meafure deftroyed, or reduced to 
 its metallic ftate, it can never be deprived of its ful- 
 ^ minating property. 
 Aurutn ful- It was further proved, that the fulminating proper- 
 minanscan ty did not depend on the prefence either of nitrous or 
 be made ^ marine acids, for it can be made Vvithout them. A 
 vvithout I j; ^^^^ fuhninating,. dllTolved in vitriolic 
 
 nitrous or ., 9 ' . . , , S,. , ^-i n i- -l 1 
 marine ^^id, and precipitated by caultic volatile aikaJi, had 
 
 acids. acquired this property. A folution of the fame calx 
 in nitrous acid, let fall a precipitate by the addition 
 of pure water ; and this precipitate edulcorated, and 
 digefted with volatile alkali, fulminated as if it had 
 been originally precipitated with that alkali. The ex- 
 periment was repeated on other non-fulminating pre- 
 cipitates with the fame fuccefs. Left any fnfpicion, 
 however, ftould remain, that a fmiall quantity of aqua- 
 regia might ftill be left, whidi, by combining with 
 the volatile alkali, would make a proportionable quan- 
 tity of nitrum flammans, the precipitate was digefted 
 24 hours in vitriolic acid, then wafhed in pure v/ater, 
 and immerfed in aqueous and fplrituous folutions of al- 
 kali, both mild and cauftic ; but the event was the 
 fame. Laftly, an inert calx of gold may always be 
 made to fulminate by digefting it with volatile alka- 
 li ; nor can this property be communicated to it by 
 g aHy means without the ufe of this alkali. 
 Rixcd air htexi fuppofed by fome very eminent chemifts, 
 
 not the among whom we may number Dr Black, that fixed 
 caufe of the air is the caufe of the fulmlnation of gold : but it is 
 fccpl fion. gyjfient that this cannot be the cafe; becaufe, i. Gold 
 fulminates as well when precipitated by the cauftic 
 volatile alkali, as by that which contains fixed air. 
 2. This metal does not combine, during precipitation, 
 witli fixed air. 3. Gold, when precipitated by mild 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 fixed alkali, dees not fubwnate, unlefa the menftraum 
 
 contain volatile alkali, 
 
 The fulmliiailng calx of gold may be prepared ci- 
 ther with a compound aqua-regia of pure nitrous and 
 marine acids ; oi pure nitrous acid and fal ammoniac ; 
 or of a compound of alum, nitre, and fea-falt. "W^hen Menftru- 
 this kind of liquor is ir.ade ufe of, the acid of the ""^ 
 alum expels the other two, and thus torms an aqua- ^ 
 regia. This was formerly called metijirujwi Jine Jircpi- 
 tii. By whatever method the gold is diiTolved, it al-- 
 ways affords a yellow calx with alkalies, but the vo- 
 latile alkali molt readily throws down the metal. De- 
 phlogiftlcated fplrit of fait very readily diffolves gold, 
 aud produces a fuhiiinating precipitate as well as aqua- 
 regia. ^ _ 1,20- 
 
 We (liall conclude this account of aurum fulminans Mr Berg- . 
 
 with ail abftract of Mr Berg^man's theory of the ex- 
 
 • • • orv Oi tns 
 
 plofion. — He obferves, that volatde alkali contains ^^^fg ^j^g 
 
 phlogifton ; an undoubted proof of which is given by explofion. 
 Dr Prielllev, by converting alkaline into phloglfti- 
 cated air. This phlogifton, fays he, may -be fepara- 
 ted by means of a fuperlor attryilion ; fo that the vo- 
 latile alkali is decompofed, and the refiduum difiipa- 
 ted in form of an elaftic fluid, altogether fimllar to: 
 that wliich is extricated during the fulmlnation : the 
 fv)urce then from whence the elaftic fluid is derived 
 muft be obvious ; and it only remains to examine the 
 medium by which the volatile alkali is dephlogiilica- 
 ted. 
 
 " In thofe metals which are called perpB, fo great 
 is the firmnefs of texture, and fo clofe the connec- 
 tion of the earthy principle with the phlogifton, tiiat 
 by means of fire alone thefe principles cannot be dii- 
 iinited : but when diifolved by acid menltrua, they 
 muft neceflarily lofe a portion of their phlogifton; and 
 therefore, when afterwards precipitated by alkalies 
 which cannot fupply the lofs, they fall down in a cal- 
 cined ftate, though they attraft phlogifton fo ftrong- 
 ly, that they caa be reduced to a metallic ftate, 
 merely by an intenfe heat penetrating the veffels. It 
 may therefore be laid. down as a fundamental pofition, 
 that gold is calcined by folution. ^^^^ 
 
 " Let US now confider the confequence of expo- Volatile ai» 
 fing the powder confiiting of calx of gold and volatile I-ali the 
 alkali intimately united, to aa heat gradually increa- """j^jl^''^*' 
 ■ fed. The calx which is united with the volatile al- " 
 kali, by the aluftance of a gentle heat, feizes its phlo- 
 gifton ; and when this is taken away, the refiduum 
 of the fait is Inftantaneoufly expanded into the form 
 of an elaftic fluid, which is performed with fo much, 
 violence, that the air muft yield a very acute found." jxiz 
 
 Our author proceeds to explain this phenomenon volatile a!» 
 upon the principles affumed by him and ' Mr Scheele, kali exhibits 
 of heat being a compofition of light, and the phlo-^^^^^w^^n- 
 gifton or principle of inflammabihty ; but as this hy- 
 pothefis is by no means fatisfaftor)^, we fhall omitcible* 
 his reafoning founded upon it : That the volatile alkali, 
 however, is really capable of producing a flafh is eafily 
 proved, becaufe it exhibits one when thj-own into a 
 hot crucible. A fingle cubic inch of gun-powder ge- Great quan- 
 nerates about 244 of elaftic fluid; but the fame quan- tity of eia- 
 tity of aurum fulminans yields at leaft four tiaies as fluid 
 much; and hence we may eafily underitand the dif-i'^'^'^"''^'^ 
 ference in their explofive force. fulminaus, 
 
 ** That careful calcination fhould deftroy the ful» 
 
veflsls. 
 
 528 C H E M I 
 
 muiating property, J.s not to be wotultred at, as tlie 
 " volatile alkali is the indifpenfable material caufe ; but, the 
 Why'flight P^^'^^^'.^'' abcrity wliich it acquires before the explofive 
 calc.n on f'Oi'ce is totally extingiiillied, depends upon the nature of 
 dcUroys !lie the materials, and of the operation. Tlius the heat, 
 fulmin .tingv^hen inferior to that neceffary for fulmination, ads 
 l^roptrty. ^p^^ ^^^^^ ^j^^ principles of the aurum fuhniuans, it 
 prepares the metallic calx for a more violent attrac- 
 tion for phlogifton ; it alfo adls upon the phlogillon 
 of the volatile alkali, and loofens its connexion ; which 
 two circumftances mull tend to the union producing 
 the explofion. But this efFeft has a maximum ; and at 
 this period the flighted fridlion fupplies the defeft of 
 ■neceffary heat, and produces the fulmination. The 
 calcined gold alfo feems to coUeft and fix the matter 
 of heat, though IHII infuflicient by means of its phlo- 
 gifton, in a ccitain degree : fo that by means of fric- 
 tion, though but very flight, it becomes capable of 
 everting its force; but when the heating is often repea- 
 ted without producing its effeft, the volatile alkali is 
 by degrees diflipated, and at length fo muclrdiminifli- 
 ed that the calx becomes inert. 
 Why h'wiil *' '^^ aurum fulminans is capable of producing 
 nnt eyploi'.e fuch a prodigious quantity of elaftic fluid, how does 
 in dofe it happen that it remains mute and inert when reduced 
 in clofe vefl'els ? Of this the reafon may be, that every 
 elailic fluid, in the aft of breaking forth, requires a 
 fpace to expand in ; and if this be wanting, it remains 
 fixed. Taking this for granted, a calx of gold can- 
 not be reduced in clofe veflels either by heat or by 
 the phlogillon of volatile alkali ; for in either cafe it 
 mull evolve its elaftic fluid, which by fuppofition it 
 cannot do. Nothing remains to folve this difficulty 
 but the ignition of the furrounding metal ; by means 
 of which the calx, in virtue of its fuperior attraftion, 
 feizes the phlogifton of the metal, which that fub- 
 Ilance here, as well as in other infliances, is capable 
 of lofing without the eruption or abforption of any 
 fluid whatever." 
 
 Several chemifts have aflerted, that the calces of 
 copper or filver may be made to fulminate like that of 
 iiion of ihegold. But Mr Bergman informs us, that thefe experi- 
 fulmination men ts never fucceeded with him; " fo (fays he) they 
 alces^^^* ^''^^^ either been filent upon fome circumftances ne- 
 ceffary in the operation, or perhaps have been deceived 
 by the detonation of nitritm flammans, or fome other 
 accidental occurrence. It is not lufficicnt for the vo- 
 latile alksl! to adhere to the precipitate ; for platina 
 thrown down by this alkali retains a portion of it very 
 obttinately, but yet does not fulminate on the ex- 
 pofure tf) fiiH;. — Befides the prefence of volatile alkali, 
 it fecms to be necf ffary that the metallic calx fhould 
 be reducible by a gentle heat, in order to decompofe 
 it ; but every explofion is not to be derived from the 
 fame caufes ; nay, in this i-efpeft, aurum fulminans, 
 gun-powder, and pulvis fulminaiis, diflcr very miich, 
 though they agree in feveral particulars." Of late, 
 however, it has been found that the calx of filver may 
 be made to fulminate in a manner ftill m,ore extraordi- 
 j^j^ nary than that of gold. See the next article. 
 Solution of If gold is melted with an hepar fulphuris, compnfed 
 gold by he- of equal parts of fulphur and fixed alkaline fait, the 
 par fi'^phii- metal readily unites with it into an unifoi-m mafs, ca- 
 pable of dlilolution in water without any feparation of 
 N° 74. 
 
 1126 
 
 Mr Berg, 
 man's ayi 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice 
 
 its parts. The folution, befides a naufeous tafte from Gold, 
 the fulphur, has a peculiar penetrating bitternefs, not -v— ^ 
 difcoverable in any other metalline fijlution made by 
 the fame means. 
 
 Though the corapofitions of fulphur and alkali feem 
 to unite more intimately with g-old than any other me- 
 tal, their affinity with it is but flight ; copper, or iron, 
 added to the matter in fufion, diiunitc, and precipitate 
 the gold. The metal thus recovered, and purified by 
 the common proceffes, prove- remarkably paler-colour- 
 ed than at firft. In an experiment related by Dr 
 Brandt, in the Swedifli Memoirs, the purified gold 
 turned out nearly as pale as filver, without any diminu- 
 tion of weight. iijg 
 
 Gold has been thought to be poiTefred of many ex- Medicinal 
 traordinary virtues as a medicine ; which, however, '''"f?^* 
 are long ago determined to be only imaginary. It is 
 not indeed very eafy to prepare this metal in fuch a 
 manner that it can be faftly takeji into the human bo- 
 dy. The folution In aqua regia is poifonous ; but if 
 any effential oil 13 poured on this folution, _the gold 
 will be leparated from the acid, and united to the ef- 
 fential oil ; with which, however, it contrails no lail- 
 ing union, but in a few hours feparates in bright 
 yellow film to the fides of the glafs. Vitriolic ether Etheriai Co 
 diflolves the gold more readily and perfedtly than the'"'^""' 
 common efi"ential oils ; and keeps It permanently fuf- 
 pended, the acid liquor underneath appearing colour- 
 lefs. The yellow ethereal folution poured off, and 
 kept for fome time in a glafs ftopt with a cork, fo that 
 the fpirit may flowly exhale, yields long, tranfparent, 
 prifmatic cryftals, in fliape like thofe of nitre, and yel- 
 low like topaz. What the nature of thefe cryltals is, 
 either as to medicinal effedb, or other purpofcs, is as 
 yet unknown. 
 
 Redified fplrit of wine mingles uniformly with the 
 folution of gold made in acids : if the mixture is fuffer- 
 ed to ftand for fome days In a glafs flightly covered, 
 the gold is by degrees revived, and arifts in bright 
 pellicles to the furface. Groffer Inflammable matters, 
 wine, vinegar, folutlons of tartar, throw down the 
 pold , in its metalline form, to the bottom. Gold is 
 the only metal which is thus fcparable from its fo- 
 lution in acids by thefe fubilances ; and hence gold 
 may be purified by thefe means from all admixtures, 
 and fmall proportions of It in liquors readily difco- 
 vcred. _ tJ^o 
 
 When the colour of gold is by any means rendered Colour of 
 pale, it may be recovered again by melting It with 'cfto" 
 copper, and afterwards feparating the copper ; or by ' 
 a mixture of verdigris and fal ammoniac with vi- 
 triol or nitre. The colour Is alfo improved by fu- 
 fion with nitre, injedting fal ammoniac upon it In the 
 fufion, quenching It In urine, or boiling it In a folu- 
 tion of alum. When borax is ufed as a flux, it Is 
 cuftomary to add a little nitre or fal ammoniac, to 
 prevent its being made pale by the borax. Juncker 
 reports, that by melting gold with four times its 
 weight of copper, feparating the copper by aquafortis 
 unpurified, then melting the gold with the fame quan- 
 tity of frefh copper, and repeating this procefs eight 
 or nine times, the gold becomes at length of a deep 
 red colour, which fuftalns the adlion of lead, antimo- 
 ny, and aquafortis. 
 
 2 §2. 
 
Pra<511cc. 
 
 Silver 
 
 of liiver. 
 
 C II E M I S T R Y. 
 
 529 
 
 § t. S I /. r E a. 
 
 lilt 
 
 EffcAs of 
 fulj'hur on 
 it. 
 
 PiirUicati 
 on. 
 
 ".U 
 l>vna cr 
 nea redu- 
 ced. 
 
 Ml- Mar- 
 praaff'b me 
 
 This, next to gold, is the mofl petft.a:, fixed, and 
 duftile of all the metals. Its ipecific gravity is to 
 that of water nearly as 11 to r. A fingle grain has 
 been drawn into a wire three yards long, and flat- 
 ted into a plate an inch broad. In common fire it fuf- 
 fers no diminution of its weight ; and, kept in the vehe- 
 ment heat of a glafs-houfe for a month, it lofes no 
 more than one fixty-fourih. In the focis of a large 
 burning-glafs, it fmokes for a long while, then con- 
 tracts a greyifh alh on the furface, and at length is to- 
 tally diffipated. 
 
 Silver is foraewhat harder and more fonorous than 
 gold, and is fufible with a lefs degree of heat. The 
 tenacity of its parts alfo is nearly one half lefs than 
 that of gold ; a filver wire of tV of an incfi diameter 
 being unable to bear more than 270 pounds. 
 
 Mercuty unites very readily with filver-leaf, or 
 with the calx of filver precipitated by copper ; but 
 does not touch the calces precipitated by alkaline 
 falts. The vapours of fulphiireous fohitions Hain fil- 
 ver yellow or black. Sulphur, melted with filver, 
 debafes its colour to a leaden hue, renders it more 
 eafily fufible than before, and makes it flo At fo thin as 
 to be apt in a little time to penetrate the crucible : 
 in a heat juft bslow fufion, a part of the filv-r fhocts 
 up, all over the furface, into capillary rfHorefcence. 
 Aquafortis does not a<^l upon filver in this com- 
 pound ; but fixed alkaline falls will abfoib the ful- 
 phur, and form a hepar fulphuris, which, however, is 
 capable of again diffulving the metal. If the ful- 
 phurated filver is mixed with mercury fublimate, and 
 expofed to the fire, the mercury of the fublimate will 
 tjnite with the fulphur, and carry it up in ilie form of 
 cirmabar, whilft the marine acid of the fublimate u- 
 nites with the filver into a luna cornea, which re- 
 mains at the bottom of the glafs. Fire ah.ne is fuf- 
 ficient, if continued for fome time, to expel the fulphur 
 from filver. 
 
 From the bafer metals, filver is purified by cupel- 
 lation with lead. (See Refining ) It always re- 
 tains, however, after that operation, fome fmall por- 
 tion of copper, fiifficient to give a blue colour to vo- 
 latile fpirits, which has been erroneoufly thought to 
 proceed from the filver itftlf. It is purified from this 
 admixture by melting it twice or thrice with nitre 
 ?.nd borax. The fcoria, on the firft fufion, is com.- 
 monly blue ; on the fecond, green ; and on tlie third, 
 white, which is a mark of the purification being com- 
 pleted 
 
 The moft effcdlual means, however, of purify- 
 ing filver, Is by reviving it from luna cornea ; be- 
 caufe fpirit of fait will not precipitate copper as it 
 does filver. The filver may be recovered from lu- 
 na ccrnca, by fufion with alkaline and inflair m-;ble 
 fluxes ; but, in thefc operations, fome lofs is alwavs 
 occafioned by the difilpation of part of the volatile 
 calx, before the alkali or metal can abforb its acid. 
 Mr Margraaff has difcovered a method of recovering 
 -the filver with little or no lofs; mercury affifttd by 
 volatile falts, imbibing it by trituration without heat. 
 One part of luna cornea, and two of volatile fait, are 
 to be ground together in a glafs- mortar, with fo much 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 1136 
 
 water as will rcdr.cc them to the ccnfificnce of a thin 
 palle, for a quarter of a hour, or more; five parts of 
 pure quickfilver are then to be added, with a litth 
 more water, an3 the triture to be continued for fome 
 hours. A fine amalgam will thus be obtained; which 
 13 to be wafhed with frefli parcels of water, as long as 
 any white powder feparates. Nearly the whole of the 
 filver is contained in the amalgam, and may be obtain- 
 ed pcrfcdliy pure by difliliing off the mercury. The 
 white pov/der holds a f :iall proportion fcparable by 
 • gentle fiblimation ; the matter which fubliraes is near- 
 ly Itmilar to mcrcurius dulcis. 
 
 The colour of filver is debafed by all the metal?, 
 and its malleability greatly injured by all but gold and 
 copper. The Englifh ftandard filver contains one part 
 of copper to twelve and one-third of pure filver. 
 This metal difcovers in fome circumftances a great at- Atrra i.n 
 tradtion for lead ; though it does not retain any of ttiat^'-'" •^■^'J- 
 metal in cupellation. If a mixture of filver and cop- 
 per be mclttd with lead in certain proportions, and 
 the compound afterwards expofad to a moderate fire, 
 the lead and filver will melt out together, bringing ve- 
 ry little of the copper with them ; by this means fil- 
 ver is often feparated from copper in large works. 
 The effeil does not wholly depend upon the different 
 fuljbility of the metals ; for if tin, which is ftill more 
 fufible than lead, be created in the fame manner with a 
 mixture of filver and copper, the three ingredients are 
 found to attrad one another fo flrongly as to come; all 
 into fufion together. Again, if filver be melted with 
 iron, and lead added to the mixture, the filver will for- 
 fake the iron to unite wich the lead, and the iron will 
 float by itfelf on the furface. ^j,^ 
 
 Silver is purified and whitened externally by boiling V.^iitenrd 
 in a folntion of tartar and common fait. This is no^'^*""'-'''? • 
 other than an extradion of the cupreous pat tides from 
 the furface of the filver, by the acid of the tartar acu- 
 ated by the common fait. ^^,g 
 M. Berthollet has lately difcovered a method of rulrrina- 
 Imparting to the calx of filver a fulminating property, ^^''g filver, 
 and that much more terrible than fulminating gold it- 
 fdf. His receipt for making it is, « Take cupelled j^^'J^'' 
 filver, and difiblve it in the nitrous acid ; precipitate par ^i.^*^** ' 
 the filver from the folution by lime-vvater, decant the 
 clear liquor, and expofe the precipitate three days to 
 the open air. Mix this dried precipitate with the 
 cauftic volatile alkali, it will turn black ; and when 
 dried in the air, after decanting the clear liquor, is the 
 fulminating powder required." 
 
 The properties of this powder are faid to he fo ex- 
 traordinary^, that it is impoffible to imagine how any 
 part of it can ever be feparated from the reft after it 
 is once prepared. To make this fulminate, it Teems /i4o 
 no fenfible degree of heat is necefTary, the contaft of J'"'"''"^''^* 
 a cold body anfwering that purpofe as wdl as any other. t(J,ch of a- 
 After It is once made, therefore, it mufl not be touch- ny fub- 
 ed, but remain in the veflJel in which it is dried ; and^*'-<^s " he- 
 fo violent is the explofion, that it is dangerous to at- '^^'''^ 
 tempt it in larger quantities than a grain at a time. °' 
 For the fame reafon it undoubtedly follows, that no 1141 
 more than a grain ought to be made at a time, or at^^ngeTous 
 leaft in one vefTd, becaufe no part of it could ever af-^^'^" """^^ 
 ter^vards be feparated from the reit. We are told,Irra"n isful- 
 that, " the wind having turned over a paper-contain- ""nated ac 
 ing fome atoms of this powder," ,(we ought to have^'*'^^* 
 .3 been 
 
5P 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 Silve" 
 
 1141 
 
 Fulraina- 
 tine cry- 
 
 it. 
 
 been Informed how the atoms came there, confidering 
 what we have juft now related,) " the portion touch- 
 ed by the hand ndminated, and of coiirfe that which fell 
 upon the ground. A drop of water which fell upon this 
 powder caufed It to fulminate. A fmgle grain of ful- 
 minating filver, which was in a glafs cup, reduced the 
 glafs to powder, and pierced feveral doubles of paper. 
 
 " If the volatile alkali, which has been employed 
 with the above powder, be put into a thin glafs ma- 
 trafs and boiled,. then, on (landing in the cold, fmall 
 cryftals will be found fublimed on the interior Mes of 
 the vefTel, and covering the liquor. On touching one 
 of thefe cryftals the matrafs will be burft with confi- 
 derable explofion. 
 1143^ "The dangerous properties of this powder fuggefl 
 
 be ufcTi'n " the neceffity of not preparing it but when the face is 
 covered witli a malk with glafs eyes ; and to avoid the 
 rupture of the glafs cups, it is prudent to dry the ful- 
 minating filver in fmall metalline vefTcls." To this 
 we may add, that as the powder does not fulminate 
 when wet, it may In that ftate be put up in very fmall 
 quantities on paper, to be fulminated afterwards as 
 occafion offers. This will perhaps account for the ap- 
 pearance of the few atoms above mentioned on the 
 paper which the wind overturned. 
 
 With regard to the caufe of this extraordinary ful- 
 mlnatioa we can fay nothing fatlsfaftory ; the follow- 
 ing curious reafon is aflfigned by the antlphloglftons ; 
 which at once fliows the futUIty of their theory, and 
 fcts in a very ridiculous light the hard words with 
 which they would obfcure the fclence of chemlftry. 
 " The oxygenous principle* (fay they) unites wath 
 the hydrogenous priiiclple f of the volatile alkali, and 
 form water in a vaporous ftate. Tills water (in a va- 
 porous ftate) being inftantaneoufly thrown into a Jlate 
 <-c;a/^)^^r, poft'effing elaftlcity and expanfive force, is 
 the principal caufe of this phenomenon, in which the 
 \ Ph'.oglfti- a%otic % air which is difengaged from the volatile al- 
 cated air, kali, with its whole expanfile power, has a great ftiare." 
 
 On this, as well as other theories, in which elaftic 
 onThi'''and A'^^^^ alleged to be the caufe of explofions, it Is 
 o!ber' theo- obvious to remark, that ftiould we allow this to be the 
 Ties. cafe, we are utterly at a lofs to find a fource of heat 
 
 fufficient to rarefy the vapour to fuch a degree as is 
 neceflary for producing the effeA afcribed to it. _ In 
 the prefent cafe, we can fcarcc fuppofe a grain weight 
 of metalline calx, already dry, to contain as much ei- 
 ' ther of fire or water as Is neceflary to produce the ef- 
 feft ; nor can we explain why the touch of any cold 
 body, and which may be fuppofed to contain lefs fire 
 than the calx Itfelf, fhould produce fuch an effeft. As to 
 the oxygenous and hydrogenous principles, they were 
 there before the touch, and ought to have produced 
 their effetts, not to mention that the water produced 
 1146 by them could not have amounted to the thoufandth 
 The pheno- part of a grain. It Is much more probable, therefore, 
 menon pro- that the whole Is to be confidered as an ettedt ot elec- 
 liably ow- tricity, though we cannot tell how the fluid comes 
 irog to elec-, ' ^ e^-dted In fuch a violent manner, 
 tricity., ii*-i>- ^ 
 
 ^ 3. Copper, 
 
 This Is one of thofe metals which, from their de- 
 ftruftlbility by fire, and contraaing ruft In the air, 
 are called hnpcrJeB. Of thefe, howev&r. It Is the moft 
 perfea and indeftruaible. It Is of a reddifli colour 
 when pure j eafily tarnirnes in a moift air, and con- 
 
 1144 
 
 Abfurd 
 theory of 
 the anti- 
 1 hlogif- 
 tons. 
 
 • Dephlo- 
 gifticated 
 air 
 
 f Inflam- 
 mable air. 
 
 ^ ^ _ II48 
 
 clftern of cold ^uuled'^' 
 In the m:ddle of 
 
 Pradllce. 
 
 trafts a green vufc. It Is the moil fonorous of all the Copper, 
 metals, and the hardcic and moft elaftic of all but Iron. ' ^r—^ 
 In fome of Its ftates, copper is as difiicuUly extended f 
 under the hammer as iron, but always proves foftcr to t^r^' ti^j,,^" 
 the file ; ?nd is never found hard enough to ftiike a ,ron. 
 fpark with flint or other ftones ; whence Its ufe for 
 chlfl"els, hammers, hoops, Idc. in the gunpovvdcr works. 
 When broke by oiFten bending backwards and forwards, 
 It appears internally of a dull red colour without any 
 brightntfs, and of a fine granulated texture refenv- 
 bling fome kinds of earthenware. It is confidcral-ly 
 duftile, though lefs fo than either gold or filver ; and 
 may be drawn into wire as fine as ha'r, or beaten into 
 leaves almoft as thin as thofe of filver. The tenacity 
 of its parts is very confiderable ; for a copper wn t of 
 -j'p of an inch diameter v/ill fupport a weight of 299I: 
 pounds witiiout breaking. Tiie fpecific gravity ot tiiis 
 metal, according to Dr Lewis, Is to that of water as 
 8.830 to I. 
 
 Copper continues malleable when heated red ; in 
 which refpecl It agrees with ii-on ; but Is not, like iron,, 
 capable of being welded, or having two pieces joined 
 into one. It requires for Its fufion a flronger heat 
 than either gold or filver, though lefs than that requi- 
 fite to melt iron. Wlien in fufion, it is remarkably 
 Impatient of moifture ; the contaft of a little water 
 cecafioning the melted copper to be thrown about 
 with violence, to the great danger of the by-ftanders. 
 It Is, neverthelefs, faid to be granulated in the brafs- 
 works at Briftol, without explofion or danger, by let- 
 ting It fall in little drops, Into a large 
 water covered with a brafs-plate. 
 the j)late is an aperture, in which Is fecured with Stur- 
 bridge clay a fmall veflel, whofe capacity Is not above 
 a fpoonful, perforated with a number of minute holes, 
 through which the melted copper paffes. A ftream 
 of cold water pafles through the clftern. If fuff'ered 
 to grow hot, the copper falls liquid to the bottom, 
 and runs Into plates. 
 
 Copper, in fufion, appears of a bluifli green colour, 
 nearly like that of melted gold. Kept in fufion for a ' ' 
 long time. It becomes gradually more and more brittle ; 
 but does not fcorify confiJerably, nor lofe much of its 
 weight. It Is much lefs deftruftlble than any of the 
 imperfeft metals, being very difficukly fubdued even 
 by lead or bifmuth. If kept in a heat below fufion, 
 it contrafts on the furface thin powdery fcales ; \vliich, 
 being rubbed off", are fucceeded by others, till the 
 whole quantity of the metal Is thus changed Into a 
 fcoria or calx, of a dark reddi fir colour. This calx ' 
 does not melt In the ftrongeft furnace -fires ; but, in the 
 focus of a large burning mirror, runs eafily into a deep 
 red, and almoft opaque, glafs. A flaming fire, and 
 ftrong draught of air over the furface of the metal, 
 greatly promote its calcination. Tbe flarne being 
 tinged of a green, bluifli, or rainbow colour, Is a mark 
 that the copper burns. ^^^^ 
 
 This metal is very readily foluble by^ almoft all fa- 3 jiubihtf. 
 line fubftances ; even common water, fuftered to ftand 
 long In copper-veflels, extracts fo much as to gain a 
 coppery tarte. It Is obfervable, that water is much 
 more impregnated with this tafte, on being fufi^ered 
 to ftand In the cold, than if boiled for a longer time in 
 the vefl"el. The fame thing happens in regard to the 
 mild vegetable acids. The confeftioners prepare the 
 moft acid fyrups, even thofe of • lemons and oranges, 
 
 by 
 
Al-ered by 
 combira- 
 tion with 
 vegetable 
 acids. 
 
 Amalga- 
 mation 
 with mer 
 cwy. 
 
 1153. , 
 
 Tir Lewis's 
 method. 
 
 Praaice. " G H E M 
 
 Copper, by boiling in clean coppcr-vefTels, without the prepa- 
 rations receiving any ill taile from the metal ; whereas, 
 either the juices thcmfelves, or the fyrups made from 
 them, if kept cold in copper velTels, foon become im- 
 pregnated with a difagreeable tafte, and with the per- 
 nicious qualities of the copper. 
 
 By combination v/ith vegetable acids, copper be- 
 comes in fome refpeils remarkably altered. Verdi- 
 gris, which is a combination of copper with a kind 
 of acetous or tartareous acid, is partially foluble in 
 diitilled vinegar ; the rtiiduum, on being melted with 
 borax and liufeet' oil, yields a brittle metallic fub- 
 ftance, of a whitifh colour, not unlike bell-metal. The 
 copper alfo, when revived from the diftilled verdigris, 
 was found by Dr Lewis to be different from the metal 
 before dilTohition ; but neither of thefe changes have 
 yet been fufficiently examined. 
 
 Copper, in its metallic ftate, is very difficultly amal- 
 gamated with mercury ; but unites with it more eafily 
 if divided by certain admixtures. If mercury and 
 verdigris be triturated together with common fait, 
 vinegar, and water, the copper in the vendigris will 
 be imbibed by the mercury, and form with it, as Boyle 
 obfei-ves, a curious amalgam, at liril fo foft as to re- 
 ceive any impreffion, and which, on Handing, becomes 
 hard like brittle metals. Brafs leaf hkewife gives out 
 its copper to mercury, the other ingredient of the 
 brafs Separating in the form of powder. 
 
 Eafier methods of amalgamating copper are pubHlli- 
 ed by Dr l^ewis in his notes on Wilfon's Chemiftry, 
 p. 432. His receipts are, — " DifTolve fome fine cop- 
 per in aquafortis : when the menftruum will take up 
 no more of the metal, pour it into an iron mortar, 
 and add fix times the weight of the copper, of mer- 
 cury, and a little common fait : grind the whole well 
 together with an iron peftle ; and, in a little time, 
 the copper will be imbibed by the mercury, and an 
 amalgam formed, which may be rendered bright by 
 wafliing it well with repeated affufions of water. 
 
 " yinother method. Take the muddy fubftance which 
 is procured in the polifhing of copper plates with a pu- 
 mice Hone, and grind it well with a fuitable portion 
 of mercury, a little common fait, and fome vinegar, 
 in an iron mortar, (a marble one will do, if you make 
 ufe of an iron peRle), till you perceive the mercury 
 has taken up the copper." The copper recovered 
 from thefe amalgams retains its original colour, with- 
 out any tendency to yellow. Even v/hen brafs is 
 luade ufe of for making the amalgam, the recovered 
 metal is pcrfeft red copper ; the ingredient from 
 which the brafs received its yellownefs being, as a- 
 bove obferved, feparated in the amalgamation. 
 
 Copper is the bafis of feveral metals for mechanic 
 ufes ; as brafs, prince's metal, bell-metal, bath-metal, 
 white copper, cifi:. Brafs is prepared from copper 
 and calamine, with the addition of powdered char- 
 coal, cemented together, and at lafl: brought into fu- 
 fion. The calamine is to be previoufiy prepared by 
 cleanfing it from adhering earth, ftone, or other mat- 
 ters ; by roafting, or calcining it ; and by grinding it 
 ■ into a fine powder. The length of time, and degree of 
 'heat, requifite for the calcination of the calamine, 
 ■are different according to the qualities of that mineral. 
 The calamine, thus calcined, cleanfed, and ground, is 
 to be mixed vs'ith about a third or fourth. part of char- 
 
 i'54 
 
 Biaft, how 
 pr pared. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 coal dufl:, or powdered pit-coal, as i$ don^ in fom3 
 parts of England. The malleability of the balls is di- 
 minifiied by the ufe of pit-coal, which is therefor;; 
 only employed for the preparation of the coarfer 
 kinds. To this compofition of calamine and coal, 
 fome manufaftiirers add common fait, by which the 
 procefs of making brafs is faid to be haftened. In 
 Collar, where the cadmia adhering to the infides of 
 the furnaces is ufed inilead of the native calamine, a 
 fmall quantity of alum is added, by which they pre- 
 tend the. colour of the brafs is heightened. With this 
 compofition, and with thin plates or grains of copper, 
 the crucibles are to be nearly filled. The pr-oportion 
 of the calamine to the copper varies according to the 
 richnefs of the former, but is generally as thi-ee to two. 
 The copper mull be difperfed throughthecompofitionof 
 calamine and coal ; and the whole mufl be covered with 
 more coal, till the crucibles are full. The crucibles, 
 thus filled, are to be placed in a furnace funk in the 
 gi'oimd, the form of which is that of the frulhun of hi 
 hollow cone. At the bottom of the furnace, or great- 
 er bails of the fruftum, "is a circular grate, or iron- 
 plate. This plate is covered with a coat of clay and 
 hoi-fe-dung, to defend it from the action of the fire ; 
 and pierced with holes, through which the air main- 
 taining the fire pafles. The crucibles Hand upon the 
 clrcidar plate, forming a circular row, with one in 
 the middle. The fuel is placed betwixt the crucibles, 
 and is thrown into the furnace at the upper part of it, 
 or the leffer bafis of the fruftum. To this upper part 
 or mouth of the furnace is fitted a cover made of 
 bricks or clay, kept together with bars of iron, and 
 pierced v/ith holes. This cover ferves as a regiller. 
 When the heat is to be increafed, the cover mull hz 
 partly or entirely taken off, and a free draught is 
 permitted to the external aii-, which pafles along a 
 vault under-ground to the aflr-hole, through the holes 
 in the cii-cular grate or plate, betwixt the crucibles, 
 and through the upper mouth, along with the fmoke 
 and flame, into an area where the workmen Hand, 
 which is covered with a large dome or chimney, 
 through which the fmoke and air afcend. When the 
 heat is to be diminifhed, the mouth of the furnace 
 is clofeJ with the lid ; through the holes of which the 
 air, fmoke, and flame pafs. The crucibles are to be 
 kept red-hot during eight or ten hours ; and in fome 
 places much longer, even feveral days, according to 
 the natui-e of the calamine. During this time, the 
 zinc rifes m vapour fi-om the calamine, unites with 
 the copper, and renders that metal confiderably more 
 fufible than it is by itfclf. To render the metal very 
 fluid, that it may flow into one uniform mafs at the 
 bottom, the fire is to be increafed a little before the 
 crucibles are taken out, for poiu-ing off" the fluid me- 
 tal into molds. From 60 pounds of good calamine, 
 and 40 of copper, 60 pounds of brafs may be obtain- 
 ed, notwithilanding a confiderable quantity of the zinc 
 is diflipated in the operation. The quantity of br-afs 
 obtained has been confidei-ably augmented fiflce the 
 introduftion of the method now commonly praflifed, 
 of granulating the copper ; by which means a larger 
 furface of this metal is expofed to the vapour of zinc, 
 and confequently lefs of that vapour cfcapes. To 
 make the finer and more malleable kinds of brafs, be- 
 fides the choice of pure calamine and pui-e copper, 
 3-^2 fome 
 
532 
 
 Cqpcr. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradlce. 
 
 fbrae manuiaSturers cement the brafs ti fecond time 
 ■ with calamine and charcoal ; and lometimes add to it 
 eld brafs, by which the new is faid to be meliorated. 
 
 Brafs is brittle when hot j but fo duililc when cold, 
 that it may be drawn into very fine wire, and beat 
 into very thin leaves. Its beautiful colour, malleabi- 
 lity, and its fufibility, by which it may be eafily call 
 into moulds, together with its being lefs liable to ruil 
 than copper, render it fit for the fabrication of many 
 utenfils. 
 
 Although zinc be fixed to a certain degree in brafs, 
 by the adhefion which it contrails with the copper ; 
 yet when brafs is m.elted, and expofed to a violent fire,, 
 dating a certain time, the zinc diffipates in vapours, 
 and even flames away, if the heat be llrong enough ; 
 and if the fire is long enough continued, all the zinc 
 will be evaporatf4 and deilroyed, fo that what remains 
 Id IT 54 is copper. 
 
 ^nncesme- Prince's metal is made by melting zinc in fubftance 
 ai- with copper ; and all tlie yellow compound metals 
 
 prepared in imitation of gold are no other than mix- 
 tures of copper with different proportions of that fe- 
 mimetalj taken either in its pure iiate, or in it:i na- 
 tural ore calamine, with an addition fometimes of 
 iron-filings, ^c. Ziric itfelf unites molt eafily with 
 the copper; but calatnine makes the moll dudlile com- 
 pound, and gives the moft yellow colour. I}r Lewis oh- 
 fcrves, that a little of the calamine renders tlie cop- 
 per pale ; that when it has imbibed about -r\- its own 
 weight, the colour inclines to yellow ; tliat the yel- 
 i6wnefs inereafes more and more, till the proportion 
 comes to alinoi! one half; that on further augmenting 
 the calamine, the compound becomes paler and paler, 
 and at lalt white. The crucibles, in which the fufion 
 is performed in large works, are commonly tinged by 
 iji;^ the matter of a deep blue colour. 
 Bell- metal. Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tia-; and tho' 
 both thefe metals fi.igly are m.aileable, the compound 
 proves extremely brittle. Copper is diflolved by 
 melted tin eafily and intimately, far more fo than by 
 lead. A fmair portion of tin renders this metal dull- 
 coloured, hard, and brittle-. Bell-metal is compofed of 
 about ten parts of copper to one of tin, with the ad^ 
 dition commonly of a little brafs or zinc. A fmall pro- 
 px)rtion of- copper, on the other hand, inxj^roves the 
 colour and confiilency of tin, without, much injuring 
 its du.Q;ility. Pewter is fometimes made from one 
 p-art of copper and tv/enty or more of tin. 
 
 It has long been obfervcd, that though tin Is fpeci- 
 fically much lighter than copper, yet the gravity of 
 the compound, hell-metal, is greater than that of the 
 *v!ty ">f ^h£ copper itfelf. The fame augmentation of gravity, al- 
 nse:al. fo takes place where the lighter metal is in the greatefl' 
 proportion ; a mix.ture even of one part of tin with 
 two of copper, turning out fpecifically heavier than 
 pure copper. Moft metallic mixtures anfwer to the 
 mean gravity of the ingredients, or fuoh as wouKl rci- 
 fult from a bare appofitioii of partSi Of thofe tried by 
 IDr Lewis, fom.e exceeded the mean, but the greater 
 number fell fhort of it ; tin and copper were the only 
 ones that formed a compound heavier than the heavieil 
 J 157 of the m.etals feparately. 
 A^'nlic cop- White copper is prepared by mixing togethei equal 
 r"- parts of arfenic and nitre, injefting the mixture into 
 
 a red-hot crucible, which is to ,be kept in a moderate 
 
 oliJervati- 
 Oiis '"D tht; 
 (pecific gra 
 
 fire, till they fubfide, and flow like wax. One part •''■■n, 
 of this mixture is injefted upon lour parts of melted " ' '' 
 copper, and the metal, as foon as they appear tho- 
 roughly united together, immediately poured out. The 
 copper, thus whitened, is commonly melted with a 
 confiderable proportion of filver, by which its colour 
 is both im.proved and rendered more permanent. The 
 white copper of China and Japan appears to be no 
 other than a mixture of copper and arfenic. Geoffroy 
 relates, that, on repeated fulions, it exhaled arfenical 
 fumes, and beceim.e red copper, lofing, with its white- 
 nefs,, one feventh of its v\-eight. , 
 
 ^4. Iron. 
 
 Iron is a metal of a greyifli colour ; foon tarnifirng 
 in the air into a dulky blackifh hue ; and in a ihort 
 time contracting a yellowiih, or reddilh rail. It is 
 the hardell of all metals; the moftelailic; a;id, except- 
 ing platina,. the moft difficult to be fufed. Next to o£ 
 gold, iron has the greateft tenacity of parts; an iron in parts! ' 
 wire,, the diameter of which is the tenth part of an 
 inch, being capable of fuftaining 450 pounds. Next 
 to tin, it is the lightell of all the metals, lofing between 
 a feventh and eighth part of its weight when Immerfed 
 in water. When very pure, it may be drawn into wire 
 as fine as horfe-hair; biU: is much lefs capable of being 
 beaten into thin leaves than, tlie other metals, except- • 
 iug only lead. 
 
 Iron grows red-hot much fooner than any other ^ 
 metal; and this,, not only from the apnlication of ac- 
 tual fire, but likewife from ftrong hammering, fric- 
 tion, or other m.echanic violence. It uevertheltl's melts 
 the mtoH difficultly of all metals except manganefe and - 
 platina ; requiring, in its mall fuiible ftate, an in- 
 tenfc, bright, white heat. Wh^w perfedly malleable, 
 it is not fuiible at all by Use heat of furnaces, without 
 tliC addition or the immediate ccntaCl of burning fuel; 
 and, when melted, lofes its malleability : ' all the com- 
 mon operations which communicate one of thefe qua- 
 lities deprive it at the fame tinte of the other ; as if 
 fufibility a!id malleai)ility were in tliis metal incompa- 
 tible. When expolt'd to tlic focus of a large burning 
 mirror, however, it quickly fulied, boiled, and emit- 
 ted an ardent fiune, tiie lower part of which was a ' 
 true flame. At length it was changed into a blackilli, 
 vitrified fcoria. IT59 
 
 From, the- great wade occafioned by expofing iron iron a conii 
 to. a red but efpecially to a vvliitc heat, this metal ap-h ''i:We 
 pears to be a combulHble fubilance. This combullion ^'^'-^^•^"cei 
 is maintained, like that of all i other combulliblc fub- 
 ilauces, by conta<!vl of air. Ii)r Hook, having heated 
 a. bar of iron to that degree called iLttVite heat, . he pla- 
 ced it upon an anvil, and b'ovved air upon it by means 
 of bellows, by which it burnt, brighter and hotter. 
 Expofed to a white heat, it contrails a femi vitreous 
 coat, which bu;fts at times, and flies off in fparkles. 
 No other metaUic body exhibits any fuch appear- 
 ance. On continuing the fire, it changes by de- 
 grees into a. dark red calx, v.-hich does not melt ia 
 the moll vehement heat procurable by furnaces, and, 
 if brought inti;) fufion by additions, yields an opacue 
 black glafs. When ftrongly heated, it appears co- 
 vered on the furface with a foft vitreous matter like 
 vamiih. In. this ftatc, pieces of it cohere"; and, on 
 
 f 
 
raaice. C H E M I 
 
 Iron. being hammered logcther, weld or unite, without dttcc- 
 "~~v ' veriiig a jantture. As irou is the only metal which tx- 
 "'^j^ hibits th s appearance in the fire, fo it is the only one 
 j^,^,jrj"^/p,j. capable of being wcidtd. Thofe operations which 
 bleff bemgprevent the fuperficial Icovification, deprive it likewife 
 welded. • of this vahiable property: which may be reftoi-ed again, 
 by fuiTering the iron to refume its vitreous afpeft ; 
 and, in forae meafure, by the interpofition of foreign 
 vitr.jfcible matters; whiliiucne of the other metals will 
 unit;: in the fmalleil degree, even with Its own fcoria. 
 
 Iron cy.:.-A\-h the leall of all metals by heat. In the 
 aft of fuf: ii. id of continuing to expand, like the 
 other metals, it furinks ; and thus becomes fo much 
 more denfe, as to tiirow up fuch part as is unmelted to 
 the furface; whiift pieces of gold, fdver, copper, lead, 
 or tin, put into the refpeftive metals in fuilon, fmk 
 freely to the bottom. In its return to a confiftent 
 ftate, inllead of {hrinking like the other metals, it 
 expands ; fenfibly rifing in the veiTei, and affuming a 
 convex furface, while the others become concave. This 
 property, firft obferved by Reamur, excellently fits it 
 for receivin g imprefiions from moulds. By the in- 
 creafe of bulk which the metal receives in congelation, 
 it is forced into the minuteil cavities, fo as to take 
 the impreffion far more exactly than the other metals 
 which Ihrink. 
 
 Iron is dilTolved by all the metals made fluid, ex- 
 cept lead ; though Hone of them a6l fo powerfuUy up- 
 on it as gold: but, as Cramer obferves, if the iron 
 contains any portion of fulphur, it can fcarcely be made 
 to unite at all with gold. 
 
 Among the femimetaUic bodies, it is averfe to an 
 union with mercury; no method of amalgamating thtie 
 two having yet been difcovered ; though quicklilver, 
 in certain circumitances, feems in fome fmall degree 
 to aft upon it. A plate of tough iron, kept immerfed 
 in mercury for fonte days, becomes brittle ; and mer- 
 cury will often adhere to and coat the ends of iron 
 peftles ufed in triturating certain amalgams with faliue 
 liquors. Mr Jones has alfo difcovered, that by plun- 
 ging iron, .while heated to an inteufe white heat, into 
 mercury, the latter will adhere to the furface of the 
 iron, and completely filver it over- 
 Next to mercury, zinc is the moft difficultly com- 
 bined with ii-ou; not from any natural indifpofition to 
 xmlte, but from, the zinc being dilhoultly made to fa- 
 llain the heat requifite. The mixture is hard, fome- 
 what malleable, of a white colour approaching to that 
 uf filver. Regulus of antimoiiy, as foon as it melts, 
 begins to a£l on iron, and dilfolves a c-onfiderable quan- 
 tity. If the regulus be flirred with an iron rod, it 
 will melt off a part of it. Arfenic likewife eafily 
 mingles with ir6h, and has a ftrong attraftion for it ; 
 forfaking all the otlier metals to unite with this. It 
 renders the iron white, very hard, and brittle. 
 
 This metal is the bafis of the fine blue pigment, cal- 
 led, from the place where it was firil difcoveied, Ber- 
 lin or Pry/Jian blue. This colour was accider te^lly dd- 
 covered about the beginning of the pieient centv'ny, by 
 a chemiil of Berlin, who, having fuccedivcly tlircnvn 
 upon the ground feveral liquors from his laboratory, 
 was much furprifed to fee it fuddenly ilained with a 
 
 uiue. 
 
 beautiful blue colour. Recoiled. ng what iiq.Hors he 
 bad thrown out, and obfeiviug. the fame effects from 
 H firailar mixture,. he prepared thu blae for the ulc g: 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 painters; who found that it might be fubflituted to ul- 
 tramarine, and accordingly have ufed it ever fiuce. 
 
 Several cheniiils immediately endeavoured to dif- 
 cover the compofition of this pigment ; and in the year ^.'^..(^-g 
 1724 Dr Woodward publiflied the following proccfs, ccipt for, 
 in the Philofophicai Tranfatlionr-, for making it. " Al- 
 kalize together four ounces of nitre, and as much tar- 
 tar as is direfted for charcoal (n"* 779). Mix this alkali- 
 well with four ounces of dried bullocks blood; and put 
 the whole in a crucible covered with a lid, in - which 
 there is a fmall hole. Calcine with a moderate heat, till 
 the blood be reduced to a perfect coal ; that is, till it e- 
 mits no more fmoke or flame capable of blackening any 
 white bodies that are expofed to it. Increafe the 
 fire towards the end, fo that the whole matter con- 
 tained in the crucible fliall be moderately, but fen-- 
 fibly, red. 
 
 " Throw into two pints of water the matter con- 
 tained in the crucible, while yet red, and give it half 
 an hour's boihng : decant this firft water ; and pour 
 more upon the black charry coal, till it becomes ahnoft 
 infipid. Mix together all thefe watei's ; and reduce 
 them, by boiling, to about two pints. 
 
 *' Diffolve alfo two ounces of martial vitriol, and 
 eight ounces of alum, in two pints of boilir.g water. 
 Mix thisfolution when hot with the preceding lixivium 
 alfo hot. A great effervefcence will then be made : 
 the liquors will be rendered turbid ; and will become 
 of a green colour, more or lefs blue ; and a precipi- 
 tate will be formed of the fam^ colour. .Filtrate, in 
 order to feparate this precip't;tte ; upon which ]K)ui' 
 fpirit of fait, and mix them well together ; by which 
 means the precipitaie wiil become of a hue blue colour.. 
 It is neceifary to add rather too much of the dak than 
 too little, and till it no longer increafes the beauty of 
 the precipitate. The next day wafh this blue, till the 
 water comes off from it infipid ; and then gently dry it." ^ 
 
 Mr Geoffroy was the firit who gave any plaufible j^j,. q^, f. 
 theory of this proccis, or any rational means of im- iroy'9tli««- 
 proving it. He obferves, tkat tlir" Pniirian blue is nory. 
 other than the iron of the vitriol revived by the in- 
 fiammable matter of the alkaline hxlvium, and per- 
 haps a httle brightened by the earth of alum; that the 
 green colour proceeds from a part of tlie ycilow fer- 
 ruginous calx, or ochre, unrevived, mixing with the 
 blue; and that tiie fpirit of fait diffolves this ochre 
 more readily than the blue part ; though it will dif- 
 folve that alfo by long. Handing, or if ufed in too large 
 quantity. From thefe principles, he was led to in- 
 creafe the quantity of inflammable. matter; tlxat there 
 might be enough to revive the whole of the ferrugi- 
 nous ochre, and produce a blue colour at once, witfi- 
 otit the ufe of the acid fpirit. In this he perfecUy fuc^ 
 ceeded ; and found, at the fame time, tkit the colour 
 might be rendered of any degree of deepnefs, or light- 
 nefs, at pleafure. If the alkali is calcined with twice 
 its weight of dried blood, . and the lixivium obtained 
 from it poured into a folution of one part of vitriol to 
 fix of alum, the liquor acquires a very pale blue co- 
 lour, and depofits as pale a precipitate. On adding , 
 more and more of a freih fokitiou of vitriol, the co- 
 lour becomes deeper aiid deeper, almoil to blacknefs. 
 Ke imagines with great probability, that the blue pig- 
 ment, thus prepared, will prove more durable in thc^ 
 aii", niiiig! ' mwr-: pc ie vtly w.th other coioui's, and he 
 
il66 
 Amufing 
 J heiKinie- 
 no)! in the 
 prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 1167 
 Mr Mac- 
 qucr's theo- 
 rbo 
 
 1168 
 
 Phl.gifti- 
 cared alka^ 
 li lofes its 
 alkaline 
 properties. 
 
 1169 
 
 ■Eartlis do 
 not artraA 
 the colour- 
 ing matter 
 
 G H E M 
 
 lefa apt to injure the luftre of fuch as are mixed with 
 or applied in its neighbourhood, than that made in the 
 common manner ; the tarnifh to which common Pruf- 
 fian blue is fubjeft, feeming to proceed from the acid, 
 which cannot be feparated by any ablution. 
 
 He takes notice cf an amuling phenomenon Avaich 
 happens upon mixture. When the liquors are well 
 ftirred together; and the circular motion, as foon as 
 poUible, {topped ; fome drops of folution of vitriol, 
 (depurated by long fettling), let fall on different parts 
 of the furface, divide, fpread, and form curious repre- 
 fentations of flowers, trees, (hrubs, flying infefts, &c. 
 in great regularity and perfection. Thefe continue 
 10 or 12 minutes: and on ftirrlng the liquor again, 
 and dropping in fome more of the folution of vitriol, 
 are fucceeded by a new pidure. 
 
 This theory is confirmed by Mr Macquer, in a Me- 
 moir printed in the year 1752. He obferves, that 
 the quantity of phlogifton communicated to the iron 
 in this procefs is fo great, as not only to caufe the me- 
 tal refift in a great meafure the action of acids, and 
 become totally unafiefted by the magnet ; but by a 
 flight calcination it becomes entirely fimilar to other 
 iron, and is at once deprived of its blue colour. He 
 further obferves, that fire is not the only means by 
 which Pruflian blue may be deprived of all the proper- 
 ties which diftinguifh it from ordinary iron. A very 
 pure alkali produces the fame efFeft. He has alfo dif- 
 covered, that the alkali which has thus deprived the 
 Pruffian blue of all the properties which diflinguifli 
 it from prdinaiy iron, becomes, by that operation, 
 entirely fimilar to the phlogiftlcated alkali ufed for 
 the preparation of PrulTian blue. 
 
 By a more particular examination, he found, that 
 the alkali might become perfectly faturated with the 
 colouring matter ; fo that, wlicn boiled on Pruflian 
 ■ blue, it extraded none of its colour. When the fait 
 was thus perfectly faturated, it feemed no longer to 
 polTefsany alkaline quahties. If poured into a folution 
 of iron in any acid, a fingle, homogeneous, and perfect 
 precipitate, was formed ; not green, as in Dr Wood- 
 ward's procefs, but a perfeft Pruflian blue ; which 
 needed no acid to brigliten its colour. A pure acid 
 added to the alkali was not in the leall neutralized, 
 nor in the leaft precipitated the colouring matter. 
 'From hence Mr Macquer concludes, that, in the making 
 of Pruflian blue, vitriol is decompofed; becaufe the Iron 
 has a Itrong attraction for the colouring matter, as 
 well as the acid for the alkali ; and the fum of the at- 
 tra£lion of the acid to the alkali, joined to that of the 
 iron for the colouring matter. Is greater than the fingle 
 attraftlon of the acid to the metal. 
 
 Another very important phenomenon is, that earths 
 have not the fame attradtion for this colouring matter 
 that metallic fubilances have. Hence, if an alkali fa- 
 turated with this colouring matter be poured Into a fo- 
 lution of alum, no decompofition is effected, nor any 
 precipitate formed. The alum continues alum, and 
 tl;e alkali remains unchanged. From this experiment 
 Mr Macquer concludes that alum does not directly con- 
 tribute to the formation of the Pruflian blue. The 
 purpofe he thinks it anfwers is as follows. Fixed al- 
 kaline falts can never be perfectly faturated with phlo- 
 ■gifl:ic matter by calcination ; alkalies, therefore, though 
 calcined with iiiflammable fubflancer., fo as to make a 
 
 I S T R Y. Pra(5\lce, 
 
 proper lixivium for Pruflian blue, remain flill alka- lr<n. 
 line. Hence, when mixed with a folution of green — -v*~*' 
 vitriol, they form, by their purely alkaline part, a yel- 
 low precipitate, fo much more copious, as the alkali 
 is lefs faturated with phlogilon. But nothing Is more 
 capable of fpoiling the fine colour of the Pruffian blue, 
 than an admixture of this yellow precipitate : it is 
 therefore neceflary to add a quantity of alum, which 
 will fake up the greateil part of the purely alkalino 
 fait ; and of confequence the quantity of yellow fer- 
 ruginous precipitate is much dimlnifhed. But the 
 earth of alum, being of a fine fhining white, does not 
 in the leaft alter the purity of the blue colour, but Is 
 rather neceflary to dilute it. From all this it follows, 
 that it is a matter of indifference whether the green 
 precipitate is to be again diflolved by an acid, or the 
 alkahne part of the lixivium faturated with alum 
 or with an acid, before the precipitate is formed. 
 The latter indeed feems to be the moil eligible me- 
 thod. 
 
 Moft alkalies obtained from the allies of veeretables, „, '^7° 
 being combined, by their combultion, with a portion (.jijijjf-, 
 of inflammable matter, are capable of furnifiiing a other alka* 
 quantity of Pruffian blue, proportionable to the quan- lies, 
 tity of colouring matter they contain, even without 
 the neceffiity of mixing them with a folution of iron ; 
 becaufe they always contain a Httle of this metal dlf- 
 folved, fome of which may be found in ahnofl a;l ve- 
 getables ; therefore it is fufficient to faturate them 
 with an acid. Henckel obferved the production of 
 this blue in the faturation of the follile alkali, and re- 
 commended to chemifts to Inquire into its nature. 
 
 The theories of Geoffroy, Macquer, &c. however, j^^^^^^^^^i^ 
 with refpeCt to Pruffian bliie, have now given place to diftovers' " 
 that of Mr Scheele; who has examined the fubftancethe col uf- 
 with the utmoft care, and found the colouring matter matter 
 to confiftof an extremely volatile fubftance, capable of 
 uniting with and neutralizing alkalies, but ealily ex- 
 pelled from them by any other acid, even by that of 
 fixed air. He begins his diflc::rtation on this fubjeil 
 by obferving, that the folution of alkah calcined with fa,.guinls 
 dried blood, which he calls //a-/w«;« fangimis, by ex* lofes its co- 
 pofurc to the air, lofes its property of precipitating '^"""gF"* 
 
 the iron of a blue colour: and that the precipitate thus ^^r*^^ 
 
 1 • 1 • • 1 r 1 I 1 • 1 • , T ^ , polure to 
 
 obtained is entirely loluble in the acid. In order to the air. 
 
 determine whether the air had thus undergone any 
 change, he put fome newly prepaied lixivium into a 
 glafs velfel well fealed with rofin ; but after fome time 
 finding no change on the lixivium or on the air con- 
 tained In the velfel, he began to think that this might 
 be occafioned by the abfence of fixed air, which always 1173 
 abounds in the open atrnofphcre, though not in any '''"PP' feJ 
 confined portion of it, at leail in an equal proportion. ^''^"^ 
 Having therefore filled a glafs velfel with fixed air, he fixe^air al>- 
 poured into it a little lixivium fanguinis ; and next day fi rbed front 
 found, that it threw down from green vitriol a preci-'^'^'^ atnio- 
 pitate entirely foluble in acids. With, other acids he '^P^'^'^' 
 obtain •«* no precipitate. 
 
 On inverting the expei-iment, and mixing fome ^'74 
 green vitriol with lixivium fanguinis, the mixture grew HxcdT^'th'' 
 yellow ; and he found this addition capable of fixing a-ldition 0/ 
 the colouring matter fo, that neither the acid of fixed ^"'"e green 
 air nor any other could expel it from the alkali. For ^j^'"',''.*'? 
 having poured the mixture above mentioned Into a fo-^j^*] 
 lution of green vitriol, and afterwards fuperfaturatcd 
 
 the 
 
Cah'oV'iron terwards obtained 
 foluble in 
 lixivit.m 
 fanguinis; 
 
 1176 
 But not 
 
 Praaice. CHE M I 
 
 , lion. the lixivium with acid, he obtained a confiderable quan- 
 ~v--— ' tity of blue. To the fame lixivium fanguinis, in which 
 c. fmall quantity of green vitriol was diffolved, he after- 
 wards added of the other acids fomewhat more than 
 was neceffary for its faturation ; and though this was 
 done, a confiderable quantity of Piuliian blue was af- 
 Again, having precipitated a fo- 
 lution of green vitriol with alkali, and boiled the pre- 
 cipitate for fome minutes in lixivium fanguinis, part 
 of it was dilTolved : the filtered lixivium, uaderv.'ent no 
 change when expofed to the open air or to the aerial 
 acid, and precipitated the folution of vitriol of a blue; 
 and tlioiigh the lixivium was fuperfaturated with acid, 
 and fome green vitriol added, a very beautiful PrufTian 
 blue was obtained. This, however, will not hold when 
 ivhenhigl--a perfectly dephlogi (Heated calx of iron is employed, 
 ly dephb- vvhich none can be diffolved by the lixivium fangui- 
 giiiicue ^ ^ ^^^^ ^ .jj ^^^^ Pruflian blue be obtained by precl- 
 j)itating with Hxivlum fanguinis a perfedlly dephiogi- 
 jj,., Itirated folution of iron in nitrous acid. 
 The colour- To determine what had become of the colouring 
 iiii^ matter matter in thofe experiments where it feemed to have 
 taken up j^^en diffipated, fome lixivium fanguinis was poured in- 
 ^'/^'-tllL to a veffel filled with aerial acid. It was kept well 
 
 airer it nap _ i • 1 j • r 
 
 lieen expel- corked during the night, and next day a piece or pa- 
 led by a- per dipped in a folution of green vitriol was fixed to 
 ck'.s. {^[jg cork, pencilling it over with two drops of a folu- 
 
 tion of alkali in water. The paper was thus foon co- 
 vered with precipitated iron ; and on being taken out 
 two hours afterwards, and dipped in muriatic acid, be- 
 came covered with moll beautiful Pruffian blue. The 
 fame thing happened when lixivium fanguinis fuperfa- 
 turated with vitriolic acid was employed ; for in this 
 cafe alfo the air was filled with the colounng matter, 
 capable of being in like manner abforbed by the calx 
 of iron. But though from thefe experiments it is 
 plain tliat acids expel this colouring fubftance from the 
 lixivium, a given quantity of air is only capable of 
 receiving a certain quantity of it ; for the fame mix- 
 ture removed into another veff'el imparts the coloui-ing 
 property to the air it contains according to its quan- 
 tity. On putting perfedlly dephloglilicated calx of 
 Iron upon the papers, no Pruffian blue was formed ; 
 1 1 78 but the muriatic acid diffolved the calx entirely. 
 Theoilour- Qm- author having now affured himfelf that acids 
 my niattcr j-g^Uy ^ttradl the alkali more than the colouring- mat- 
 expcllea by , , ~. ^ r i-n-ii • tt 
 
 dit'tillation ter, proceeded to try the eriects 01 diltillation. r±a- 
 
 with vitrio vlng therefore fuperfaturated forpe lixivium fanguinis 
 lit acid. with viti-Iolic acid, he dittilled the mixture In a glafs 
 retort with a gentle fire. When about one-third had 
 paffed over, he changed the receiver, and continued 
 the operation till one-half was difl.llled. The firft pro- 
 duct had a peculiar tafte and fmell ; the air in the re- 
 ceiver was filled with colouring matter, and the aque- 
 ous ffuid was alfo ftrongly impregnated with it, as ap- 
 })eared by its forming a fine Pruflian blue with phlogi- 
 llicated calx of iron. Pai t of It being expofed to the 
 open air for fome hours, entirely loft its power, and the 
 product of the fecond operation was no other than wa-. 
 J J ter nuxed with a little vitriolic acid. 
 Attem'^its 'i'he next ffep was to procure, if pofiible, the co- 
 to procure louring matter by itfelf ; and this he attempted to 
 the tolnir-^^t fj.;,^ fvQi-n the Pruflian blue, rather than the lixi- 
 inir matt ir 
 
 1180 
 
 fcy itfclf. 
 
 vium fanguinis, as he v.'oidd thus not only avoid the 
 troubkfome calcination of . the alkjilj and bljod. but 
 
 S T R y. 
 
 obtain the colouring matter In much larger quantity 
 than could be done from the lixivium. On examining 
 ff veral kinds of this pigment, he found in them evi- 
 dent marks of fulpiiur, volatile alkali, vitriolic acid, and 
 volatile fulphureous acid ; all of which fubftances are to 
 be fonnd in the lixivium fanguinis, as well as in that of 
 foot, and adhere to the precipitate in the preparation 
 of Pruffian blue. I'lnding, however, that he could not 
 obtain his purpofe by any kind of analyfis of thefe by 
 fire alone, he had recourfe to a neutral fait ufed by 
 chemifts for difcovering iron in mineral waters. This Neutral 
 is formed by digefting cauffic fixed alkali on Pruflian fah for diC- 
 blue, u'hich effedlually extradls the colour from it ewen':°'^'^'}"S . 
 in the cold, in a very fhort time, and being neutralized, ^^^.^j ^g^ ' 
 may eafily be reduced into a dry form. But it is notters, . 
 entirely to be depended upon for this purpofe ; for it 
 always contains fome iron, which Indeed is the medium 
 of its connexion with the alkali. The lixivium fan- 
 guinis is preferable, though even this contains fome 
 iron, as well as the lixivium of foot ; our atithor's ex- 
 periments, however, were made with the neutral fait, 
 for the reafons already mentioned. 1181 
 
 I . An ounce of the fait was diffolved in a glafs re- EffeCls of 
 tort in four ounces of water, afterwards adding three 
 drachms of concentrated vitriolic acid ; and the mix- ^yjj.]^ (,£. 
 ture was dlftlUed with a gentle fire. The mafs grew vitriol, 
 thick as foon as It began to boil; from a great quan- 
 tity of Pruffian blue, a quantity of the colouring mat- 
 ter appeared by the fmell to penetrate the lute ; and 
 part of it was abforbed by the air in the receiver, as in 
 former experiments. The diltillation was continued 
 till about an ounce had paffed into the receiver. The 
 blue mafs remaining In the retort was put into a ftrain- 
 er, and a piece of green vitriol put into the liquid 
 which paffed through ; but by this laft no Pruflian 
 blue was produced. The blue which remained in the 
 filter was again treated with lixivium tartari ; the fo- 
 lution freed from its ochre by filtration, and the clear 
 liquor committed a fecond time to diftillation Vv'ith vi- 
 triolic acid. Pruflian blue was again feparat^ed, though in . 
 hnaller quantity than before, and the colounng matter 
 came over into the receiver. After one third of the 
 matter had paffed over, that which had been obtained 
 by the firft diitillatlon was added to it, the Pruflian 
 blue was feparated from the hxivium in the retort, . 
 and extracted a third time. Some Pruflian blue was 
 formed again, though In much fmaller quantity; whence 
 it is apparent that Pruffian blue may at laft be totally 
 decompofed by means of alkali. Lime, or terra pon- 
 derofa, hkewife extradt the blue colour, and ffiow the 
 fame phenomena as alkali. ji^i 
 
 With volatile alkali a compound, confifting of the Colouring, 
 alkah, iron, and colouring matter, is formed, which 
 fliows the fame phenomena with that formed with 
 fixed alkali. ' By diftillation per Je after it has been kali. ' 
 diffolved in water, , the liquor grows thick in confe- 
 quence of a feparation of Pruffian blue, and . volatile 
 alkali paffes over into the receiver. This volatile fpi- 
 rit is impregnated with the colouring matter ; it is 
 not precipitated by lime-water ; but green vitriol is 
 precipitated by It ; and on adding an acid, Pruflian 
 bhie is formed. If a piece of paper, dipped in a fo- 
 lution of green vitriol, be expofed to the vapour of 
 this alkah, it is foon decompofed ; and if the fame be 
 pencilled over with muriatic acid, it inftuntly becomes 
 2- blue,. 
 
53^ 
 
 ii83 
 How to 
 free the 
 
 lute. 
 
 1185 
 
 n< r alka. 
 line. 
 
 CHE M 
 
 Line. On cxpofing tlie liqaor to the open -air, it all 
 evaporates, leaving pure water behind. 
 
 As in all the operations with vitriolic acid hitherto 
 related, fome fmall quar.tity of it paiies into the re- 
 colouring ceivcr, our author ihovvs how to deprive the colouring 
 matter fer- matter of that vitriolic taint. For this purpofe no- 
 f^^'^^IXj^j^.'" thing more is neceffary than to put a little chalk into 
 taint. matter, and rediftil it with a very gentle heat ; the 
 
 1184 acid unites with the chalk,, and the coloviring matter 
 How to goes over in its greateft purity. In oider to hinder, 
 prevent the gg much as pofTible, the efcape of the volatile colour- 
 the colour- '"S matter through the lute, he makes ufe of a fmail 
 ing matter receiver, putting into it a little diftilltd water, and 
 thro* the placing it fo that the greater part (liall be immerfed 
 in cold water during the operation. The water im- 
 pregnated with this colouring matter has a peculiar 
 but not difagreeable fmell, a tafte fomewhat approach- 
 ing to fweet, and warm in the mouth, at the fame 
 time exciting cough. When rectified as above diredl:- 
 Thismat-ered, it appears to be neither acid nor alkaline; for it 
 "'^'J^^^''"'^ neither reddens paper dyed with lactriUS, nor does it re- 
 llore the colour of fuch paper after it has been niade 
 red ; but it renders turbid the folutions of ioap and 
 hepar fulphuris. The fame liquor mixed with fixed 
 alkali, though it contains a fuperabundance of colour- 
 ing m.atter, rcftores thr blue colour of paper reddened 
 by an acid. By diilillation to drynefs, there goes 
 over a part of the colouring matter which difengages 
 itfelf fiom the alkali; the rtfidnum is fohible in water, 
 and has all the properties of the bsil lixivium fa'iu,ui- 
 nis; but, like the true lixivium, it is dccompofed by 
 all the acids, even by that of fixrd air. With cauftic 
 volatile alkali it forms a kind of ammoniacal fait ; 
 kind of am- however, always fmells volatile, though the co- 
 (Ulr"w!th' loi^'iing matter be in ever fo great proportion. By 
 vdlafile al- diflillation the whole inflantly rifes, and nothing but 
 kali. pure water is left in the retort. 
 
 I1187 Magnelia precipitated from Epfom fait by cauftic 
 volatile alkali, was diflblved in the colouring matter by 
 allowing them to Hand together for feveral days in a 
 warm clofe bottle. On expofure to the open air, the 
 magnefia feparated from it by its fuperior atttaclion 
 for aerial acid, and formed on the furface of the 
 water a pellicle like that of cream of tartar. This 
 folution was likewife dtcompofed by alkalies and lime- 
 n88 water. ^ 
 ?Very little The colouring matter diffolves but a very fmall 
 terra pon- quantity of terra ponderofa, which may be after- 
 wards precipitated by vitriolic and even by aerial 
 acid. 
 
 Pure clay, or the balis of alum, is not attacked by 
 it. Lime is diffolved in a certain quantity. The fu- 
 perabundant portion (hoiild be feparated by hkration ; 
 and as the liquor contains, befidcs the combined llmt-, 
 the portion which water itfelf is able to take up, in 
 order to free it from this, precifelv the fame quantity 
 of water impregnated with aerial acid is to be added 
 as is requifite for precipitating an equal quantity of 
 lime-water. The coloining m.atter, thus f^-.turated 
 with lime, is to be filtered again, and then to be pre- 
 ferved in a well clofed bottle to prevent the accefs of 
 fixed air. This folution is decompofed by all the 
 acids, and by the pure or cauftic alkalies. By diflilla- 
 ,tion the colouring matter rifes, and nothing but pure 
 lime is left in the retort. — This folution of lime ap- 
 7.4- A 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 Pradice. 
 
 1.86 
 
 Form' a 
 
 Diffolves 
 niajmefia 
 
 derofa. 
 
 T189 
 Diffolves 
 lime, birt 
 not clay. 
 
 pe?.rs to our author to be fo perfedtly faturnted, th^t he 
 employed it in preference to any other in the exoer - 
 ments he made on metals, a^ld which we are now about , 
 to rclvJte. 
 
 !■ on. 
 
 1 190 
 The f<.luri- 
 
 ... t r lln^e 
 
 I'rom the tiials made by Mr Scheele, it appears tlic moib 
 that the colouring matter has no effeft upon any me- pi^'Tcr for 
 tal or metallic folution, excepting thofe of filver and 
 quickfilver in nitrous acid, and that of iron in fixed 
 air. The firft is precipitated in a white powder; the ngt 
 fecond in a black one; and the third affumes a fea- S Iver, 
 green colour, which afterwai-ds turns to blue. With 'luitkfilver, 
 metallic calces it produces the following phenomena, precipit-ted 
 
 1. Gold precipitated by aerated alkali becomes white, by ihe co- 
 
 2. The fixed air is difengaged from a precipitate oflonnng 
 filver with a (lio-ht efFcrvefcence. 3. Calx of mercury '^^'^'^'** 
 is diffolved, and yields cryftals by gentle evaporation, (js/ffj^fts 
 
 4. The calx of copper precipitated by aerated alkali on metal- 
 tffervefces, and affumes a faint citron colour. 5. Calx of I c calces; 
 iron precipitated from its folution in the vitriolic acid 
 
 by the fame alkali, cffervefccs, and affumes a dark blue 
 colour. 6. Pi-ecipitated cobalt fhows fome figns of 
 effervefcence, and changes into a yellowifh brown co- 
 lour. The other calces are not adled upon. 
 
 The precipitating liquor above mentioned, poured ^^^m 
 into metallic folutions, produces the following appear- jj^. ^^J^. " 
 anres by means of double cledtive attraftion. i. Goldtioas. 
 is pi-ecipitated of a white colour, but by adding a fu- 
 perabundant quantity of the precipitating liquor the 
 calx is rediffolved. The fecond folution is colourlefs 
 as water. 2. Silver is precipitated in form of a white 
 firbftance of the coniiitence of cheefe ; by adding more 
 of the liquor the precipitate is rediffolvcd, and the fo- 
 lution is not decompofed either by fal-ammoniac or 
 marine acid. 3. Corroiive fublimate appai-entlv un- 
 dergoes no change, though it is in reality decom- 
 potinded ; the calx being diffolved in the colouring 
 matter. Meixury diffolved in the nitrous acid without 
 heat, is precipitated in form of a black powder. 4. 
 The folutions of tin and bifmuth are precipitated, but 
 the calx is not afted upon by the colouring matter. 
 
 5. The fame eftecls are produced on the folution of 
 butter of antimony, as well as on that of well de- 
 ph.Iogiflicated calx of iron. 6. Blue vitr-iol is preci- 
 pitated of a yellow citron colour : if more of the pre- 
 cipitating liquor be added, the precipitate is redif- 
 folvcd into a colour-lefs liquor ; and a colourk-fs folu- 
 tion of the fame calx is likewife obtained by volatile 
 alkali. On adding mor-e of the folution of blue vi- 
 triol, the folution likewife difappcars, and the liquor 
 alftunes a green colour. Acids diffolve a portion of 
 this precipitate, and the remainder is white. The 
 muriatic acid diffolves the precipitate completely, but 
 lets it fail again on the addition of water. 7. The fo- 
 lution of white vitriol yields a white precipitate, which 
 is not rediffoh'ed by addition of the precipitating li- 
 quor, but is foluble in acids. Thefe folutions fmell 
 like the colouring matter, which may be feparated 
 from them by ddtillation. 8. Gi'een vitriol is preci- 
 pitated, fij-lLof a yellowifn brown colour, which foon 
 changes to green, and then becomes blue on the fur- 
 face. Some hours afterwards the precipitate fublldes 
 to the bottom of the veffels, and then the whole mix- 
 ture turns blue ; but on adding any acid the pi'eci- 
 pitate becomes inflantly blue. \f a very fmall qi:anti- 
 ty of green vitriol be put into the precipitating liquor-, 
 
 the 
 
1 194 
 
 Inveftiga- 
 tion of the 
 conftituent 
 jiart of the 
 col' uring 
 matter. 
 
 "95 
 
 louring 
 matter. 
 
 Praaice. G H E M I 
 
 Iron, the precipitate Is entirely dlflblved, and the whole af- 
 * * fumes a yellow colour. 7. vSolution of cobalt lets 
 fall a browniih yellow precipitate, which is not dif- 
 folved by adding more of the precipitating liquor, 
 neither is it foluble in acids. By diftillation the co- 
 louring matter goes over into the receiver. 
 
 JLallly, our author undertook an inveftigation of the 
 conftituent parts of the colouring matter itfelf ; and 
 in this he fucceeded in fuch a manner as muft do ho- 
 nour to his memory, at the fame time that it promifes to 
 be a real and lafting improvement to fcience, by ftiow- 
 ing a method of preparing this valuable pigment with- 
 out that naufeous and horrid ingredient, blood, which 
 Inflamma- now ufed in great quantities for that purpofe. — His 
 bility of the ^^.^ j^j^^^. concerning this matter feems to have been 
 taken from an obfervation of the air in his receiver 
 accidentally taking fire from the neighbourhood of a 
 candle. It burned without any explofion, and he 
 was able to inflame it feveral times fucceffively. Wifti- 
 ing to know whether any fixed air was contained in 
 the colouring matter, he filled a retort half full of 
 the liquor containing ithe colouring matter, and ap- 
 plying a receiver immediately after, gave the retort 
 a briflc heat. As foon as the receiver was filled with 
 thick vapours of the colouring matter, he disjoined it, 
 and, inflaming the vapour by a little burning fulphur 
 introduced into the cavity, found that the air which 
 remained threw down a precipitate from lime-water. 
 
 Hence (fays he) it maybe concluded, that the aerial 
 acid (a) and phlogifton exift in this colouring matter." 
 
 It has been aflerted by feveral chemifts, that Pruf- 
 fian blue by diftillation always yields volatile alkali. — 
 To determine this, Mr Scheele prepared fome exceed- 
 ingly pure from the precipitating liquor above men- 
 volatilcTal- t'on^^ 'I'l^ green vitriol; diftilung it afterwards in a 
 iali by di- glafs retort, to which he adapted a receiver contain- 
 ing a little diitilled water. The operation was con- 
 tinued till the retort became red-hot. In the re- 
 ceiver was found the colouring matter and volatile 
 alkali, but no oil ; the air in the receiver was im- 
 pregnated with aerial acid, and the fame colouring 
 matter ; the refiduum was very black, and obeyed the 
 magnet. On /ubftituting, itiftead of the PrulTian blue, 
 the precipitates of other metallic fubftances preci- 
 pitated by the Prufiian alkali, the refults were : 
 I. The yellowifli brown precipitate of cobalt yield- 
 ed the very fame produdls with Pruflian blue it- 
 felf ; the refiduum in the retort was black. 2. The 
 yellow precipitate of copper took fire, and emitted, 
 from time to time, fparks during the diftillation. It 
 produced little colouring matter, but a greater quan- 
 tity of aerial acid and volatile alkali than had been ob- 
 tained by the former precipitates. A fublimate arofe 
 in the neck of the retort, but in too fmall a quantity 
 to make any experiment ; the refiduum was reduced 
 copper. 3. The precipitate of zinc yielded the fame 
 with Prufliaii blue. 4. That of filver yielded like- 
 wife volatile alkali and fixed air , but chiefly colour- 
 ing matter ; a fublimate containing fome filver arofe 
 into the neck of the retort ; the refiduum was reduced 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 IT96 
 Aerial a- 
 cid and 
 
 j)hlogifti>n 
 i'uppofed to 
 exift in it. 
 
 I (97 
 pruflian 
 tlue vields 
 
 ■ftiiiation. 
 
 1198 
 
 Appearan 
 ices o'^ {!i- 
 {Ulling o- 
 ther preci' 
 pitates 
 tkrowii 
 dow n by 
 Pnjflian 
 alkali. 
 
 S T R y. 
 
 filver. 5. Calx of mercury cryftallized by means of 
 the colouring matter, yielded fome of that matter, 
 but fcarce any mark of volatile alka'i. Some mercury, 
 with a portion of the original compound, arofe in the 
 neck of the retort. ^ 
 
 From thefe experiments Mr Scheele concluded, that ingredient! 
 the colouring matter of Pruflian blue was compoledc Jitained 
 of volatile alkali and an oily matter. He was con- j" 
 firmed in this conjedlure, by obtaining Pruflian blue 
 from green vitriol and fpirit of hartfliorn recently di- 
 ftilled on the addition of muriatic acid. The fame 
 produdl was obtained by means of the volatile fpirit 
 drawn from ox's blood ; fo that nothing now remain- 
 ed, but to imitate thefe natural procefles by artificial- 
 ly combining the two ingredients together. For ,25^ 
 this purpofe he diftilled a mixture of volatile fait U)!fucc*fs- 
 and unduous oil; a mixture of the fame alkali with ^"'^"^"^P" 
 animal fat, and with oil of turpentine ; a mixture of ["anifidS 
 quick-lime, fal-ammoniac, and auxunge, with others L^'^ ' 
 of a fimilar kind; but in vain. He began therefore to 
 conclude, that as long as the volatile alkali contained 
 any water, it could not enter into an union fufficiently 
 intimate with the other principles to form the colour- 
 ing matter ; and finding alfo that the coal of blood, 
 mixed with fait of tartar, yielded very good lixivium 
 fanguinis, he concluded that no oily matter was ne- 
 ceflary for the fuccefs of the experiment. 
 
 Thus was our author led to make the follow- True me- 
 ing decifive trials, which at once accompliflied his thod of 
 pui-pofe, and fliowed the truth of the principles he had f°'*"^"^S 
 afliimed. Three table-fpoonfuls of charcoal powder 
 were mixed with an equal quantity of alkali of tar- 
 tar, and the mixture put into a crucible. A fimilar 
 mixture was put into another crucible, and both put 
 into a fire, and kept red-hot for about a quarter of a« 
 hour. One of them was then taken out, and the 
 contents thrown, while perfeAly red-hot, into eight 
 ounces of water. At the fame time he put into the 
 other quantity an ounce of fal-ammoniac in fmall 
 pieces, agitating the whole brifltly together, and 
 taking care at the fame time to pufli the fal-ammo- 
 niac down towards the bottom of the crucible, which 
 he replaced in the fire. Obferving in two minutes af- 
 ter, that no ammoniacal vapours arofe, the whole 
 mafs was thrown, when red-hot, into eight ounces 
 of water.' The former lixivium, into which no fal- 
 ammoniac had been put, yielded no PruflTian blue; but 
 the latter fliowtd the fame phenomena with the befl; 
 lixivium fanguinis, and produced a great quantity of 
 blue. By mixing plumbago with the alkali inftead 
 of charcoal, a tolerable lixivium was obtained. ^^^^ 
 " From thefe experiments (fays Mr Scheele), it Volatile 
 appears, that the volatile alkali is capable of uniting ^'kali ca- 
 with the carbonaceous matter, after it has been fub- ^^^^^ °^ 
 tihzed by a ftrong heat ; that it thus acquires the re-wkh'phlo- 
 markable property of combining fo firmly with fait ofglCcon and 
 tartar as to be able to fuftain the moft violent degree ^*td alka- 
 of heat; and whea this lixivium is diflblved in water,''' 
 there is obtained lixivium fanguinis, as it is called. — ■^"eat'de* 
 It is now eafy to explain what happens in the diftil-gree of " 
 3 Y lationhcat. 
 
 '{a) This reafoning feems not to be fufficiently conclufive ; for late experiments have fliowH that inflamma- 
 tion is generally attended with the produdlion of fixed air, which could -not be proved to have an exifteuce et- 
 in the materials or common atmefphere before^ 
 
538, G H E M I 
 
 lation of Pruffian blue, as v/ell as in that of the other 
 above mentioned metallic precipitates. — In the dilUl- 
 lation of Prullian blue, for inftance, the calx of iron 
 attracts a portion of phlogifton from the colouring 
 matter. Tlie aerial acid being thus difengaged, muil 
 go over into the receiver with tlie volatile alkali, which 
 is fet free at the fame-inftant ; but as the calx of iron 
 in the heat of this diftillation cannot unite with more 
 phlogiilon, a portion of the colouring matter, not 
 decompofed, inuft likewife arife. If the calx of iron 
 could combine with the whole of the phlogiilon, there 
 would come nothinj.; over into the receiver but aerial 
 acid and volatile alkali. In order to prove this, I 
 dillilled a mixture of fix parts of manganefe finely 
 powdered, and one part of pulverized Pruffian blue, 
 manganefe. and obtained nothing but aerated volatile alkali, with- 
 
 1205 out the leaiL mark of colouring matter." 
 kiari*^"" ' Scheele further remarks, that this colouring 
 niattef can ""tatter may probably be obtained in an aerial form, 
 
 It is alfo 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Pradice, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Appe: ran- 
 ee? on di- 
 
 Prufliati 
 blue ac- 
 counted 
 for. 
 
 1 104 
 Colourii g 
 matter 
 kept from 
 I'AiniX by 
 
 feparate 
 only mer- 
 cury and 
 filver I'l om 
 their fuln- 
 tion in ni- 
 
 though he had not been able to do fo. 
 
 1206 
 Nitie alka' 
 lized by 
 iron. 
 
 worth notice, that, excepting the folutions of filver 
 and mercury in nitrous acid, the colouring matter of 
 Pruffian blue is not able to dccompofe any other by a 
 fingle eleftive attraftion. Now, as we know that 
 tiousacid. Pruffian blue is not foluble in acids, it naturally fol- 
 lows, that the colouring matter has a greater affinity 
 with iron than acids have, notwithftanding there is 
 no precipitation perceived when this matter is mixed 
 with the folution of vitriol of iron. " It may not be 
 eafy (fays Mr Scheele) to give a fatisfaftory expla- 
 nation of this phenomenon." 
 
 Iron deflagrates with nitre, and renders the fait al- 
 kaline and cauftic. A part of the iron is thus render- 
 ed foluble, along with the alkalized fait. A mixture 
 of equal parts of iron filings and nitre, injefted into a 
 ftrongly heated crucible, and, after the detonation, 
 thrown into water, tinges the liquor of a violet or 
 purplifh blue colour. This folution, however, is not 
 permanent. Though the liquor at firft paffiss through 
 a filter, without any feparation of the iron ; yet, on 
 ftanding for a few hours, the metal falls to the bot- 
 tom, in form of a brick-coloured powder. Volatile 
 alkalies inftantly precipitate the iron from this fixed 
 alkahne folution. 
 
 Iron readily unites with fulphur; and when com- 
 and lull. hurbined with it, proves much eafier of fufion than by 
 take fire itfelf. A mixture of iron filings and fulphur, moiften- 
 ed with water, and preffed down clofe, in a few hours 
 fwells and grows hot j and, if the quantity is large, 
 burits into flame. 
 
 By cementation with inflammable matters, iron im- 
 bibes a larger quantity of phlogifl:on ; and becomes 
 much harder, lefs malleable, and more fufible. It is 
 then called ^eel. See Metallurgy, and Steel. 
 
 ^5. Lead, 
 
 Lead is a pale or livid-white metal, foon lofing its 
 brightnefs in the air, and contrafting a blackifh or 
 greyifh afli-colour. It is the fofteft and mofl; flexible 
 of all metallic bodies ; but not dudile to any great de- 
 ■ 1108 gree., either in the form of wire or leaf ; coming far 
 Has very ^ -^^ ^j^j^ refped, of all other metals. It has alfo 
 
 little tCIlfcl" • • ^ • 
 
 city. the leaft tenacity of all metallic bodies ; a leaden wire 
 
 1*07 
 
 Irnn fiiinc 
 
 fpo tane- 
 
 of TTj- of an inch diameter being capable of fupporting Iv'ad. 
 only 29I pounds. Lead has, however, a confiderable 
 fpecific gravity ; lofing, wlien immeiitd in water, be- 
 tween -rV and XT of its weight. It is of all metals the j j^^p 
 moft fufible, excepting on'y tin and bifmuth. Tiie i>hcet-lead. 
 plumbers caftthin fheets of lead upon a table or mould, 
 covered with a v/oollen, and above this with a linen, 
 cloth, without burning or fcorching the cloths. The 
 melted lead is received in a w^ooden cafe without a 
 bottom ; v/hich being drawn down the fiuping table 
 by a man on each fide, leaves a ilieet of its own width, 
 and more or lefs thin according to the greater or lefs 
 celerity of its defcent. For thick plates, the table is 
 covered over with moiftened fand, and the liquid me- 
 tal condutled evenly over it, by a wooden llrlke, 
 which bears on a ledge at each fide. ^^^^ 
 
 Some have preferred, for mechanic ufes, the milled Advmta- 
 lead, or flatted flieets, to the call:; as being more equal, '^es of iml- 
 fnicjoth, and folid. But whatever advantage of this^*-^ 
 kind the milled fort may appear to have at firft, they P''^*-^' 
 are not found to be very durable. When the lead 
 is ftretched between the rollers, its cavities mull nc- 
 ceflarily be enlarged. The particles of metal that 
 may be fqueezed into them can have no union or ad- 
 hefion witii the contiguous particles ; and, of confe- 
 quence, muft be liable, from bending, blows, jarrs, 
 &c. to ilart out again, and leave the mafs fpongy and 
 perous. 'der^d 
 Lead yields the duUeft and weakeft found of all me- (onorous. 
 tallic bodies. Reaumur obferves, that it is rendered fo- 
 norous by calling a fmall quantity into a fpherical or 
 elliptical fegment, as in the bottom of an iron-laddle ; 
 from hence he conjeftures, that the found of the fo- 
 norous metals might be improved for the bells of 
 clocks, &c. by giving them a fimilar form. 
 
 Though this metal very foon lofes its luftre, and tar- 
 nifhes in the air, it refills much longer than iron or 
 copper the combined adlion of air and water, before 
 it is decompofed or deftroyed ; and hence it is exceed- 
 ingly ufefui for many purpofes to which thefe metals ^^^^ 
 can by no means be applied. When juft become fluid. Calcined, 
 lead looks bright like quickfilver ; but immediately 
 contrails a varioufly coloured pellicle on the furface. 
 If this is taken off, and the fire continued, a frefh pel- 
 licle will always be formed, tiU the metal is by degrees 
 changed into a dufl<y powder or calx. The injedion 
 of a little fat, charcoal-powder, or other inflammable 
 matter, prevents this change, and readily revives the 
 calx into lead again. It is faid, that lead, recovered 
 from its calces, proves fomewhat harder and whiter 
 than at firfl;, as well as lefs fubjeA to tarnifh in the 
 
 The blacklfli calx or aflies of lead become of a very Minium. 
 difFerent appearance if the calcination is continued 
 with a fire fo moderate as not to melt them, and par- 
 ticularly if expofed to flame. By this treatment it is 
 faid that they become firfl: yellow ; then they are call- 
 ed maficot or yellow lead. This colour becomes gra- 
 dually more and more intenfe, till at laft the calx is of 
 a deep red ; and then is called minium or red lead ; 
 but it is certain, that by proper ma*nagement this calx 
 never becomes yellow, affiiming a reddiih colour from 
 the beginning. Too great a heat makes it irrecover- 
 ably yeUow.. It can be more eafily prepared wiihout 
 
 €xpofurc 
 
Pradllce. 
 
 Lead, expofure to the flame. The degree of heat neceflary 
 
 ' ^ for converting it into minium is between 600 and 700 
 
 1214 of Fahrenheit. 
 Litharge. jf^ inftead of keeping this calx in a continued mo- 
 derate heat, it be fuddenly fufed, the matter then puts 
 on a foliated appearance, changing to a dull kind 
 of brick-colour when powdered, and is then called li- 
 tharge. Moft of this fubftance is produced by refining 
 filver with lead (fee Refining); and is of two kinds, 
 ■white and red. Thcfe two are dillinguiflied by the 
 names of litharge of gold, and litharge of filver. The 
 moft perfeft is that called litharge of gold: the pale 
 fort contains a confiderable proportion of lead in its 
 metallic ftate ; and even the higheft coloured litharge 
 is feldom free from a little metallic lead, difcoverable 
 and feparable by melting the mafs in a crucible; when 
 lai 5 the lead fubfides to the bottom. 
 Phencme- Lead mingles in fufion with all the metals except 
 ra Willi o- Jron, with which it refufes any degree of union as 
 talT '^^ \td>.^ preferves its metallic form. On con- 
 
 tinuing the fire, the lead, fcorifying or calcining, ab- 
 forbs the phlogiftic principle of the iron, and confe- 
 quently promotes the calcination of that metal ; both 
 being at length reduced to calces. The fufible calx of 
 lead eafily unites with the calx of iron, and both melt 
 together into an opaque brown or blackiih glafs. Cop- 
 per does not unite with melted lead till the fire is rai- 
 fed fo high as to make the lead fmoke and boil, and 
 of a bright red heat. Pieces of copper, now thrown 
 in, foon dilTolve and difappear in the lead : the mix- 
 ture, when cold, is brittle, and of a granulated tex- 
 ture. The union of thefe two metals is remarkably 
 flight. If a mixture of copper and lead is expofed 
 to a fire no greater than that in which lead melts, 
 the lead almoft entirely runs off by itfelf ; a fepa- 
 ration of which no other exaihple is known. What 
 little lead is retained in the pores of the copper, may 
 be fcorified, and melted out, by a fire confiderably lefs 
 than is fufficient to fufe copper. If any of the copper 
 is carried off by the lead, it fwiras unmelted on the 
 furface. 
 
 Gold and filver are both dilTolved by lead in a flight 
 red heat. They are both rendered extremely brittle 
 by the minuteft quantity of this metal; though lead is 
 rendered more duftile by a fmall quantity of either of 
 them. In cupellation, a portion of lead is retained by 
 gold, but filver parts with it all. On the other hand, 
 in its eliquation from copper, if the copper contains 
 any of the precious metals, the filver will totally melt 
 out with the lead, but the gold will not. The attrac- 
 tion of lead to copper, however flight, is greater than 
 that of copper to iron : a mixture of copper and iron 
 being boiled in melted lead, the copper is imbibed by 
 the lead, and the iron thrown up to the top. Silver 
 is in like manner imbibed from iron by lead ; whilft 
 tin, on the contrary, is imbibed from lead by iron. 
 If two mixtures, one of lead and tin, and another of 
 iron and filver, be melted together, the refult will be 
 two new combinations, one of the tin with the iron at 
 the top, the other with the lead and filver at the bot- 
 tom : how carefully foever the matter be ftirred and 
 mixed in fufion, the two compounds, when grown 
 cold, are found diftinft, fo as to be parted with a blow. 
 
 This metal is foluble in alkaline lixivia and expref- 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 539 
 
 fed oils. Plates of lead boiled in alkalifie lixivia, have Tin. 
 a fmall part diffolved, and a confiderable quantity cor- v™"^ 
 roded : the folution ftains hair black. Lead, fufed ^ 1 bV^' 
 with fixed alkaline falts, is in part corroded into a ^1]^^^);^^^^ ^j^^ 
 dark-coloured fcoria, which partially diffolves in wa- ia oils, 
 ter. Expreffed oils diffolve the calces of lead, by boil- 
 ing, in fuch large quantities as to become thick and 
 confiftent : hence plallers, cements for water-works, 
 paint for preferving nets, &c. Acids have a greater 
 affinity with leads than oils have. If the common pla- 
 fler, compofed of oil and litharge, be boiled in dillil- 
 led vinegar, the litharge will be diffolved, and the oil 
 thrown up to the top. The oil thus recovered, proves 
 foluble like effential oils in fpirit of wine ; a pheno- 
 menon firlt taken notice of by Mr GeofFroy. 
 
 ^ 6. r IN. 
 
 The colour of this metal refembles filver, but is 
 foraewhat darker. It is fofter, lefs elaftic, and fo- 
 norous, than any other metal except lead. When 
 bent backwards and forwards, it occalions a crackling- 
 found, as if torn afunder. It is the Hghteft of all the 
 malleable metals, being little more than feven times 
 fpecifically heavier than water. The tenacity of its 
 parts alfo is not very confiderable ; a tin wire of ~ 
 of an inch diameter being able to fupport only 494- 
 pounds. 
 
 Tin is commonly reckoned the leafl duftile of all Capable of 
 metals except lead ; and certainly is fo, in regard to h^>"g 
 duttility into wire, but not in regard to extenfibiHty ["^^^g^'" 
 into leaves. Thefe two properties feem not to be fo ^ ' 
 much connefted with one another as is generally ima- 
 gined. Iron and fteel may be drawn into very fine 
 wire, but cannot be beat into leaves. Tin, on the 
 other hand, may be beat into very thin leaves, but 
 cannot be drawn into wire : gold and filver poffefs 
 both properties in a very eminent degree ; whilft 
 lead, notwithftanding its flexibility and foftnefs, can- 
 not be drawn into fine wire, or beat into thin leaves. It 
 melts the moft eafily of all the metals ; about the 
 430th degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Heated 
 till almoft ready to melt, it becomes fo brittle that 
 large blocks may be eafily beat to pieces by a blow. 
 The purer fort, from its facility of breaking into long 
 fhining pieces, is called grain-tin. Melted, and nim- 
 bly agitated at the inftant of its beginning to congeal, 
 it is reduced into fmall grains or powder. ^^^^ 
 
 With, the heat neceffary for fufion, it may alfo be Calcined, 
 calcined ; or at leaft fo far deprived of its phlogifton 
 as to appear in the form of a grey calx, which may 
 be entirely reduced to tin by the addition of inflam- 
 mable matter. The calcjjiation of tin, like that of 
 lead, begins by the melted metal lofing its brightnefs, 
 and contradting a pellicle on its furface. If the fire is 
 railed to a cherry-red, the pellicle fwells and burfts, 
 difcharging a fmall bright flame of an arfenical fmell. 
 By longer continuance in the fire, the metal is con- 
 verted firft into a greyifn, and then into a perfectly 
 white calx, called putty, which is ufed for polifhing 
 glafs and other hard bodies. 
 
 The calx of tin is the moft refraftory of all others. 
 Even in the focus of a large burning mirror, it only 
 foftens a little, aud forms ciyftalline filaments. With 
 .3 Y 2 glafs 
 
540 
 
 Tin. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 1x19 
 
 Affinity of 
 tin with 
 arfenic. 
 
 Arfcnic k 
 parable 
 from tin. 
 
 mi 
 
 9r Lewis' 
 
 vbferva- 
 
 tion. 
 
 glafs of bifmutTi, and the fimple and arfenicated gkfles 
 of lead, it forms opaque milky compounds. By thfs 
 property it is fitted for making the bafis of the im- 
 perfeft glafl'es called enamels; (fee Glass and Ena- 
 mel). The author of the Chemical Diftionary re- 
 lates, •* that having expofed very pure tin, fingly, to a 
 fire as ftrong as that of a glafs-houfe furnace, during 
 two hours, under a muffle, in an uncovered teft, and 
 having then examined it, the metal was found covered 
 with an exceedingly white calx, which appeared to 
 have formed a vegetation ; under this matter was a 
 reddifli calx, and an hyacinthine glafs ; and laJUy, at 
 the bottom was a piece of tin unaltered. The expe- 
 riment was feveral times repeated with the fame fuc- 
 cefs." 
 
 Nitre deflagrates with tin, and hafliens the calcina- 
 tion of this as well as of other imperfect metals. The 
 vapours which rife from tin, by whatever method it 
 is calcined, have generally an arfenical fmell. Tin 
 melted with arfenic falls in great part into a whitifh 
 calx : the part which remains uncalcined proves very 
 brittle, appears of a white colour, and a fparkling pla- 
 ted texture, greatly rcfembhng zinc. The arfenic is 
 ftrongly retained by the tin, fo as fcarcely to be fepa- 
 rable by any degree of fire ; the tin always difcover- 
 ing, by its augmentation in weight, that it holds a por- 
 tion of arfenic, though a very intenfe fire ;has been 
 ufed. Hence, as the tin ores abound in arfenic, the 
 common tin is found alfo to participate of that mi- 
 neral. 
 
 Heoekel difcovered a method of feparating aftual 
 arfenic from tin ; namely, by flowly diffolving the tin 
 in eight times its quantity of an aqua regia made with 
 fal ammoniac, and fetting the folution to evaporate in 
 a gentle warmth : the arfenic begins to cone ete whilll 
 the hquor continues hot, and more plentifully on its 
 growing cold, into white cryftals. M. Margraaf, in 
 the Berhn Memoirs for 1747, has given a more par- 
 ticular account of this procefs. He obferves, that the 
 white fediment which at firft feparates during the dif- 
 folution, is chiefly arfenical ; that Malacca tin, which 
 is accounted one of the purefl forts, yielded no lefs 
 than ^th its weight of arfenical cryftals; that fome forts 
 yielded more; but that tin extracted from a particular 
 kind of ore, which contained no arfenic, afforded none. 
 That the cryfl:als were truly arfenical, appeared from 
 their being totally volatile ; from their fubliming (a. 
 little fixed alkaline fait being added to abforb the 
 acid) into a colourlefs pellucid concrete ; from the 
 fublimate, laid on a heated copper-plate, exhahng in 
 fumes of a garhc fraell ; from its ftaining the copper 
 white ; and from its forming, with fulphur^ a com- 
 pound fimilar to the yellow or fulphurated arfenic. 
 He found that the arfenic was feparable alfo by means 
 of mercury ; an amalgam of tin being long triturated 
 with water, and the powder which was wafhed off 
 committed to diftillation, a little mercury came over, 
 and bright arfenical fiowers arofe in the neck of the 
 s retort. Dr Lewis obferves, that the crackling noife 
 of tin in bending may poffibly arife from its arfenic } 
 as thofe operations which are faid to feparate arfenic 
 £rom the metal, likewifc deprives it of this property. 
 
 Tin may be allayed, in any proportion, with all me- 
 tals by fufion: but it abfolutely deltroys their dudility, 
 
 and renders them brittle, as in bell-metal ; whence this 'Vlercury 
 metal has obtained the name of dtabolus metallorum. fUve^""^''' 
 Iron is dilfolved by tin in a heat far lefs than that in , ^ 
 
 which iron itfelf melts ; the compound is white and j^,.^ 
 brintle. Iron added to a mixture of lead and tin, takes Ii jurious t» 
 up the tin, leaving the lead at the bottom ; and, in like o-her ms- 
 manner, if lead, tin, and filver, are melted together, 
 the addition of iron will abforb all the tin, and the tin 
 only. Hence an eafy method of purifying filver from 
 tin. 
 
 Tin, notwithftanding it is, like lead, foon deprived '**^| 
 of its lufl;re by expofure to the air, is neverthelefs j^^'J^^ * 
 much lefs liable to ruft than either iron, copper, or 
 lead ; and hence is advantageoufly ufed for covering 
 over the inlides of other metalline veffels. The amal- 
 gam of mercury and tin is employed to cover one of 
 the furfacts of looking-glafi'es ; by which they are ren- 
 dered capable of reflcfting the rays of light. The ^^^4 
 amalgam alfo, mixed with fulphur and fal ammoniac, Aurum 
 and let to fublime, yielos a fparkling gold-coloui-ed mofaicun**. 
 fubfl;ance called aurum mofaicum ; which is fometimes 
 ufed as a pigment. This pi-eparation is commonly 
 made from quickfilver and tin, of each two parts, 
 amalgamated together ; and then thoroughly mixed 
 with fulphur and fal ammoniac, of each one part and 
 a half. The mercury and fulphur unite into a cinna- 
 bar, which fubhmes along with the fal ammoniac ; 
 and, after fublimation, the aurum mofaicum remains 
 at the bottom. 
 
 Sulphur maybe united with tin by fufion; and forms 
 with it a brittle mafs, more difficultly fufible than pure 
 tin. Sulphur has, in this refpe£l, the fame efleft up- 
 on tin as upon lead. The allay of tin leflens the fufi- 
 bihty of thefe very fufible metals ; while it increafes- 
 the iufibility of other difficultly fufible metals, as iro» 
 and copper. 
 
 § 7. Mercury or ^ucksilfer. 
 
 Mercury is a fluid metaUic fubfl;ance, of a bright 
 filver colour, refembhng lead or tin. when melted ; en- 
 tirely void of tafte and fmell; extremely divifible ; and 
 congealable only in a degree of cold very difficultly 
 produced, in this country, by art (fee Cold and Con- j 
 gelation). It is the moft ponderous of all fluids,. HeavicT m 
 and of all known bodies, gold and platina excepted ; winter than 
 its ipecific gravity being to that of water nearly as 14'° fummeE* 
 to I . It is found to be fpecificaUy heavier in winter 
 than in fummer by 25 grains in 1 1 ounces. 
 
 Neither air nor water, nor the united aftion of thefe 
 two, feem to make any impreffion upon mercury : nor 
 is it more fufceptible of rult than the perfed metals. 
 Its furface, neverthelefs, is more quickly tarnifhcd' 
 than gold or fdver ; becaufe the duft which floats in 
 the air, quickly feizes on its furface. The watery va- 
 pours alfo, which float in the air, feem to be attract 
 ted by mercury. 
 
 From thefe extraneous matters, which only fliehtlv n 'i** 
 adhere to it, mercury may be eafily cleanfed by paf- tion. 
 fing it through a clean new cloth,, and afterwards 
 heating it : but if mixed with any other metal, no fe- 
 paration can be effefted •Ovithout diftillation.. In this 
 procefs, a fmall portion of fome of the metals gene- 
 rally arifee along with the mercury. Thus, t^uickfil- 
 5 ver 
 
Pradice. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 54« 
 
 CJurious 
 
 mercurius 
 
 ver diflilled from lead, bifmuth, or tin, appears lefs 
 Mercury bright than before ; ftains paper black ; fometimes ex- 
 or Quick- hJbits a lliin upon the furface ; and does not run freely, 
 or into round globules. Mr Boyle relates, that he lias 
 obferved the weight of mercury fenfibly inert afed 
 by diftillation from lead, and this when even a very 
 moderate fire was made ufe of. By amalgamation 
 with ilellated regulus of antimony, and then being 
 diftiUed after a few hours digeilion, mercury is faid to 
 become, by a few Repetitions of the procefs, more 
 ponderous, and more aftive. The animated, or phi- 
 lofoohic mercuries of fome of the alchemifts, are fup- 
 ly ]3oyle. pofJd to have been mercury thus prepared. By the 
 fame, or fimilar procelTes, feem to have been obtained 
 the curious mercuries which Boyle declared he was 
 pofleffed of, and made himfelf ; which were " confi- 
 derably heavier in fpecie than common quickfilver, — 
 diiTolved gold more readily,— grew hot with gold, fo 
 as to be offenfive to the hand, and elevated gold in 
 diftillation." When quickfilver is to be diftilled, it is 
 proper to mingle it with a quantity of iron-filings ; 
 which have the property of making it much brighter 
 than it can be otherwife obtained, probably by furnifh- 
 ing phlogifton. 
 
 By digeftion in a ftrong heat for feveral months, 
 mercury undergoes a confiderable alteration, changing 
 into a 'powder, at firft alh-coloured, afterwards yel- 
 low, at length of a bright red colour, and an acrid 
 tafte ; and is then called wercurius precipitatns per fe. 
 precii ita- In this laft ftate it proves fimilar to the red precipi- 
 tus per fe. tate, prepared from a folution of mercury in nitroua 
 acid. This calx proves lefs volatile in the fire than 
 the mercury in its fluid ftate. It fupports for fome 
 time even a degree of red heat. In the focus of 
 a burning mirror, it is faid to melt into glafs when 
 laid upon a piece of charcoal, and to revive into 
 running mercury before it exhales. Evaporated by 
 common fire, it leaves a fmall portion of a light brown 
 powder; which, Boerhaave relates, bore a blaft-heat 
 fwelled into a fpongy mafs ; formed with borax a vi- 
 treous friable fubftance ; but vanifhed in cupellation. 
 14*9 By a long continued digeftion in a gentle heat, mercury 
 *^T''"abIe fuffers little change. Boerhaave digefted it in low 
 byVgemie degrees of heat, both in open and clofe veffels, for 
 
 Mercurius 
 preci[ ita- 
 
 15 years together, without obtaining any other re- 
 ward for his labour than a fmall quantity of black pow- 
 der ; which, by trituration, was quickly revived into 
 running mercury. Conftant triture, or agitation, pro- 
 duce a change fimilar to this in a fiiort time. Both 
 the black and red powders, hj bare expofure to a hre 
 fufficient to elevate them, return into fluid mercury. 
 The red powder has been revived by fimplj grinding 
 it in a glafs mortar. 
 
 In like manner, quickfilver remains unchanged by 
 diftillation. Boerhaave had the patience to diftil 18 
 ounces of mercury upwards of 500 times over, with- 
 out obferving any other change than that its fluidity 
 and fpecific gravity were a little increafed, and that 
 ExSo' fome grains of a fixed matter remained. The vapours 
 by the VH- of mercury, like thofe of all other voktile- bodies, 
 pours of caufe vrolent explofions if confined. Mr HcHot gives 
 mercury. account of his being prefent at an experiment of 
 this kind : a perfon pretending to fix mercury, had 
 inclofed it in an iron box clofcly welded. When the 
 
 1430 
 
 ©r by di 
 Aiilation. 
 
 mercury was heated, it burft the box, and diffipated M- r . v 
 . . .L , at Quick- 
 
 in uivilible vapours. ^ ^ _ _ filver" 
 
 Mercury diffolves or unites with all metallic bodies, > ., ^ « 
 
 except three, -viz. iron, arfenic, and nickel : in fome ^^^^ 
 cafes It will abforb metals, particularly gold and filver, Amaiga- 
 fr ;m their folutions In acids or alkahes ; but does not mate-: with 
 adl upon any metal when combined with fulphur, nor fjtj^^^'^j.'g^ 
 on precipitates made by alkalies, nor on calces by 
 fire. Whatever metal it is united with, it conltantly 
 preferves its own white colour. It unites with any 
 proportion of thofe metallic fabftances with which it 
 is capable of being combined ; forming, with diff"erenfe 
 quantities, amalgams of different degrees of confift-- 
 ence. From the fluid ones, greateft part of the quick- 
 filver may be feparated by colature. Bifmuth is fo 
 far attenuated by mercury, as to pafs through leather 
 with it in confiderable quantity. It alfo promotes the 
 aftion of quickfilver upon lead to a great degree; fo- 
 that mercury united with^, or t't its weight of 
 bifmuth, diffolves mafles of lead in a gentle warmth,, 
 without the agitation, triture, comminution, or melt-- 
 ing heat necelfary to unite pure mercury with lead. 
 From thefe propertleSr this folution of bifmuth In mer- 
 cury becomes a pro-per folvent for pieces of lead lod- 
 ged In the human body. 1*1? 
 
 On triturating or digefting amalgams for a l^ngth^^P^^^^^^^"^ 
 of time, a blackifh or dufl<y- coloured powder arifes °^ J^.^^'J^**^ 
 to the furface, and may be readily walhed off by wa- ted metal^ 
 ter. Some of the chemifts have imagined, that the 
 amalgamated metal was herfe reduced te its conftituent 
 parts : but pure mercury is by itfelf reducible to a 
 powder of the fame kind ; and the metallic particles 
 in this procefs, united with the mercury, ar« found to- 
 be no other than the metal in its entire fubftance.- 
 Some metals feparate more difGcukly than others }- 
 gold and filver the moft fo. Boerhaave relates, that 
 if the powder which feparates from, an amalgam of 
 lead be committed to diftillation with vinegar in a 
 call vefTtl, the mercury will rife before the vinegar 
 boils } that, by a like artifice, quickfilver may be made 
 to diftil in a lefs degree of heat than that of the hu- 
 man body : but Dr Lewis, though he made many 
 trials, was never able to fucceed. i^J-ij*^ 
 
 By amalgamation with gold, mercury may become ^^^o^j^*^^ ^ 
 exceedingly fixed ; fo as not to be diffipable by the g"^^^^- m^y^^^.^'^ 
 eft heat. Coneerning this, Dr Brandt relates the fol- tioM°wiclb 
 lowing curious experiment : " Having amalgamated gold, 
 fine gold with a large proportion of quickfilver, and 
 ftrained off the fuperfluous mercury, he digefted the 
 amalgam in a clofe ftopped veffel for two months with 
 fuch a degree of heat, that a part of the quickfilver 
 fublimed into the neck of the glafs. The matter be- 
 ing then ground with twice its weight of fulphur, and 
 urged with a gradual fire in a crucible, a fpongy calx 
 reii aincd ? which being melted witb borax, and after-*- 
 wards kept in fufion by itfelf for half an hour, in a 
 very violent fire, ftill retained fo much of the quick- 
 filver as to become brittle under the hammer, and. 
 aopear internally of a leaden colour. The metal be- 
 ing again amalgamated with frefh mercury,, the amal- 
 gam again ground with fulphur, and ex-pofed to an in- 
 tenfe fire, a fpongy calx remained as before. This- 
 calx being digefted in two or three frefh parcels oi" 
 aqua regia, a fmall portion of whitifh matter remain- 
 ed 
 
-542 
 
 Mercury 
 or Quick- 
 filver. 
 
 1^35 
 
 Suppofed to 
 be convert- 
 ible into 
 water. 
 
 IS36 
 
 'Dr Lewis's 
 dete<5lion 
 of the falfe- 
 hood of this 
 procefs. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 cd at laid undifTolved. The paper which covered the 
 cylindrical glafs wherein the digeftion was performed, 
 contrafted, from the vapours, a deep-green circular 
 fpot in the middle, with a fmaller one at the fide ; 
 whereas the aqua regia digetted in the fame manner 
 by itfelf, or with gold, or with mercury, gave no {lain. 
 The firil folution, on the addition of oil of tartar per 
 deliqiiiumf grew red as blood ; on ftanding, it depoli- 
 ted, lirft, a little yellow calx, like aurum fiilminans ; af- 
 terwards, a bright matter hice fine gold ; and at lait, a 
 paler precipitate, inclining to green ; its own deep red 
 colour and trantparency remaining unchanged. Be- 
 ing now committed to diftillation, a colourlefs liquor 
 arofe ; and the refiduum, perfeAly exficcated, yield- 
 ed, on ediilcoration, a yellow calx of gold ; which the 
 ■alkaline lixivium had been unable to precipitate. The 
 fecond folution turned green on the admixture of the 
 alkaline liquor, and let fall a white precipitate, which 
 turned black and brown. The feveral precipitates 
 were calcined with twice their weight of fulphur, and 
 then melted with four times their quantity of flint, and 
 IW'Jve of pot-afh, in a fire vehemently excited by bel- 
 lows. The fcoria appeared of a golden colour, which, 
 on pulverization and edulcoration, vaniflied. At the 
 bottom was a regulus, which looked bright like the 
 pureft gold ; but was not pcrfeftly malleable. Broken, 
 it appeared internally white ; and the white part a- 
 mounted to at lead one-third its bulk. Befides this 
 lump of metal, there were feveral others, white like 
 filver, and foft as lead." 
 
 In Wilfon's chemillry, we have a procefs for con- 
 verting quickfilver into water, by dropping it by little 
 and little into a tall iron veiTel, heated almoftto a white 
 heat in the bottom. Over the mouth of this veffel 
 were luted feven aludcls ; and on the top, a glafs alem- 
 bic head, with a beak, to which was fitted a receiver. 
 The mercury was put in fo flowly, that it required 
 ,i6 hours for one pound. Every time that a little 
 quantity of mercury was put in, it made a great noife, 
 filling the aludel's head and receiver with white 
 fumes. When the veffels were cooled, a little water 
 was found in each of the receivers, and in the firft. 
 and fecond fome grains of crude mercury. The 
 whole quantity amounted to 13 ounces and 6 drachms; 
 which was expedled to prove a powerful folvent of 
 gold and filver : but, on trial, was found to be in no 
 refpeft different from common water. On this ex- 
 periment Dr Lewis has the following note. 
 
 " The poffibihty of converting mercury Into wa- 
 ter, or at leaft of obtaining a great quantity of water 
 from mercury, has not only been believed by feveral 
 great men in the chemical art, but fome have even 
 ventured to affert that they have adlually made this 
 change. Yet, neverthelefs, they have delivered the 
 hiftory of this affair with fuch marks, as feem to make 
 the reality of the change extremely doubtful. Mr 
 Boyle (in his trail of the producibknefs of Chemical 
 Principles^ annexed to Scept. Chemlji. p. 235.) fays, 
 '* that he once obtained water from mercury without 
 additament, without being able to make the like ex- 
 periment fucceed afterwar<ls." M. Le Febure, who 
 is generally looked upon as an honelt praAitioner, 
 diredls a procefs limilar to that above (Wilfon's), for 
 obtaining of this mercurial water. But it is to be fu- 
 fpefted, as Mr Hales very well obferves (in his Sta- 
 
 I 
 
 I S T R Y. Pradice. 
 
 ileal Experiments, p. 200.), that Mr Bo)-le and others Mercury 
 were deceived by fome unheeded circumtlance, when °'' Ql''-'<'- 
 they thought they obtained a water from mercury, ^ 
 which (hould feem rather to have arifen from the lute ^ 
 and earthen veflels made ufe 0/ in the diftillation : 
 for Mr Hales could not find the leaft fign of any moi- 
 fture upon diftilling mercury in a retort made of an ' 
 iron gun-barrel, with an intenfe degree of heat ; al- 
 though he frequently cohobated the mercury which 
 caaie over into the recipient. " In a courfe of chemi- 
 cal experiments, I repeated Mr Hales's procefs, and 
 urged the mercury, which was let fall by little and 
 little, through an aperture made in the gun -barrel, with 
 a moft intenfe degree of heat, without obtaining any 
 water ; but it being fufpefted by a byftander, that the 
 mercury in this experiment came ever before it had 
 been fuflficiently aded upon by the fire, by rtafon of 
 the lownefs of the neck of the diftilling inftrument, 
 the experiment was varied in the following manner. 
 Sixteen ounces of mercury were heated in a crucible, 
 in- order to evaporate any moifture that might have 
 been accidentally mixed with it ; and an iron gun- 
 barrel of four feet in length, being placed perpendi- 
 ciilarly in a good furnace, and a glals-head and reci- 
 pient fitted to its upper part, the mercury was let fall 
 by little and little into the barrel, and the fire urged 
 with bellows. After each injedion, the mercury 
 made a confiderable noife and ebullition, and arofe 
 into the head ; where it foon condenfed and trickled 
 down, in the common form of running mercury, into 
 the recipient, without the leaft perceptible appear- 
 ance of any aqueous humidity." 
 
 Mercury is difficultly amalgamated with rcgulus of 
 antimony and copper ; for which fome particular ma- an°^ei°e 
 nceuvres are required. Two of Dr Lewis's receipts for v/ith regu- 
 uniting quickfilver with copper, we have already given '"'"^ 
 ("^ 'l53-)= «''th regulus of antimony, mercury, he fays, 
 may be perfeftly united, by pouring a fmall ftream of 
 melted regulus intb a confiderable portion of mercury, 
 made almoft boiling hot. Another method directed 
 by Henckel, is to put mercury into an iron mortar 
 along with fome water, and fet the whole over the 
 fire. When the water boils, a third or fourth part of 
 melted regulus is to be poured in, and the mafs 
 ground with a peftle, till the amalgam is completed. 
 The ufe of the water, as Dr Lewis obferves, is to 
 hinder the mercury from flying off by the heat of the 
 regulus : but as the two are by this means not put 
 together in fo hot a ftate, the union is more difficult, 
 and lefs perfeft. The lofs of the mercury, in the firft 
 procefs, may be prevented by uling a large veffel, and 
 covering it with a perforated iron-plate, through the 
 hole in which the regulus is to be poun d. This me- 
 thod is likewife applicable to the amalgamation of 
 copper. 
 
 With fulphur, mercury unites very readily, form- 
 ing by trituration, or limple fufion, a black powder 
 or mafs, called Ethlops mineral ; which, by careful fub- 
 limation, becomes the beautiful red pigment called 
 vermiUlon. (See Sulphur, fed. iv.). 123S 
 
 The extenfive ufe of mercurius dulcis in medicine Pfepara- 
 has rendered it an objeft to chemifts to find out fome ''""^ 
 method of preparing it with lefs expence and trouble, dukis"ir 
 and with more certainty of its efFeds, jthan it can be by the moift 
 the methods hitherto naentioned. This is now accom-^''^/- 
 
 plifhcd 
 
How to 
 obtain rv 
 perfeiSly 
 fatur;itt-d 
 
 rraatce. G H E ,M 
 
 plillvi'd t)iro'i;j!i !;])e indnflry of Mr Scheele, to whom 
 chcmidry in gctjtral has been fo much obliged. His 
 method is as follows ; 
 
 " Take lialf a pound of qr.ickfilver, and as much 
 pure common aqnafortis. Pour it into a fmall cucnr- 
 lit with a pretty long neck, flop the mouth with a 
 little paper, and put it Into warm fanj. Some hours 
 afterwards, wiien the acid appears no longer to aft 
 upon the qulcklilver, the fire is to be augmented fo as 
 to make the folution nearly boil. This heat is to be 
 continued for three or four hours, and the vefTcl now 
 and then to be flaaken. Towards the end, regulate 
 the heat in-fuch a manner that the folution fhall gently 
 boil for a quarter of an hour. In the mean time,dif- 
 folve 44- ounces of pure common fait In fix or eight 
 pounds of water ; pour this folution, Hill boiling, in- 
 to a glafs veffel, and immediately afterwards mix with 
 it th# above-mtntinned folution of quickfilver, which 
 alfo in\ift be boiling, in fmali quantities at a time, with 
 cf nilant agitation. When the precipitate has fettled, 
 decant off the clear liquor, and pour hot water again 
 on the precipitate, with which it is to be edulcorated, 
 till the water ftanding upon it fhall be entirely tafle- 
 lefs. Put the whole obtained by thefe means toge- 
 ther, filter and dty it in a mild heat." 
 
 On this procefs it is remarked, that when the quick- 
 filver no longer tflFervefces with the acid, one M^ould 
 imagine that a faturation had taken place. But this is 
 folurian of far from being the cafe. By increafing the heat the 
 quickfilver, folution is ftill able to diltolve a great quantity ; with 
 this difference, however, that, whereas the quickfilver 
 in the beginning is calcined, a great deal of it after- 
 wards, in a metallic form, is diffolved, as appears 
 from this, that not only no more elaftic vapours a- 
 fcend ; but alfo, that with fixed and volatile cauftic al- 
 kalies a black precipitate is obtained ; otherwife, when 
 the folution contains only calcined quickfilver, the 
 precipitate is yellow. If the black precipitate be 
 gently diftilled, quickfilver arifes, and there remains a 
 yellow powder, which is that part of the metal that 
 was calcined by the nitrous acid. The fire mull at 
 any rate be augmented, in order to keep the mercu- 
 rial calx diffolved, the compound of this metal and 
 nitrous acid being extremely apt to cryftallize even in 
 the heat. Thei*e commonly remains fome undiffolved 
 quickfilver ; but it is always better to take too much 
 than too little ; for the more metal the mercurial folu- 
 tion contains, the more mercurius dulcis is obtained at 
 lafl. The quantity here mentioned ufually produces 
 8^ ounces of mercurius dulcis. The mercurial folu- 
 tion muft be cautioufly poured into that of fea-falt, 
 that no mercury may follow. Two ounces of fait 
 would be fufficient for the precipitation of all the 
 quickfilver ; but when fo fmall a quantity is ufed, it 
 may eaiily happen, that fomc fuperabundant corrofive 
 fublimate may adhere to the precipitate, which water 
 alone is incapable of entirely feparating. Among other 
 advantages this method of making mercurius dulcis 
 poffelfes, it is none of the leafl, that the powder is 
 much finer than any to which it can be reduced in the 
 common way by trituration, however long continued. 
 
 § 8. Zinc. 
 
 This is a femimetal of a..blulfli white colottr. It is. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 the leafl: brittle of any of the femlmetals ; and when ^^' x^- 
 amply fupplied. with phlogiilon, which may be dona " 
 by treating it in clofe veflels with inflammable mat- 
 ters, it polfelfes a femiduftility, by which it may be flat- 
 tened into thin plates. When broken, it appears formed 
 of ma:ny flat fliining plates or facets, which are larger 
 when flowly than when haftily' cooled. When heat- 
 ed, it is very brittle ; and cracldes like tin, only loud- 
 er, wdien bent. Expofed to the air, it contrafts in 1240 
 length of time a yellowifli ruft. Its fpccific gravity, Deflaj^ri- 
 according to Dr Lewis, is to that of water as 7-/0 to i. 
 It begins to melt as foon as red-hot ; but does not 
 flow thin till the fire is raifed to a white heat. Then 
 the zinc immediately begins to burn with an exceed- 
 ingly bright and beautiful flame. Kept jull in fufion, 
 it calcines flowly ; not only on the upper furface, 
 but likewife round the fides, and at the bottom of 
 the crucible. If fevered pieces are jufl melted to- 
 gether, the mafs, when grown cold, may be broken 
 into the fame number ; their union being prevented 
 by a yellowifh calx, with which each piece is covered 
 over. M. Malouin relates, in the French Memoirs 
 for 1742, that a quantity of zinc being melted fix 
 times, and the fufion continued fifteen hours each 
 time, it proved, on every repetition, harder, more 
 brittle, lefs fufible, and lefs calcinable : that after the 
 two firfl fufions, its colour was grey ; after the third, 
 brown ; and after the fourth, bla^k : that the fifth 
 rendered it of a flate-blue ; and the fixth of a clear 
 violet. ^ ^ ^ ^ T241 
 
 So violent is the deflagration of zinc, that the whole Flowers of 
 of its calx is fublimed by it, in the form of light flocks, 
 or wool ; which, however, are eafily reduced to a 
 fine powder. Thefe are ufed in medicine, and reck- 
 oned an excellent remedy in epileptic cafes. When 
 once fublimed, they are by no means capable of be- 
 ing elevated again by the moft violent heat. In a 
 heat far greater than that in which they firft arofe, 
 they fuffer no alteration ; in a very vehement one, 
 they melt, according to Henckel, into a femiopaque 
 green glafs. Vitrified with borax, they give a grey, 
 or brownifh, glafs. From the brightnefs of the flame 
 of burning zinc, and the garhc fraell which it is faid 
 to emit, fome have concluded that zinc contained the 
 jliofphorine acid ; which, from fome other circum- 
 llances, is not altogether improbable. 
 
 The flowers of zinc have been thought very diffi- method of 
 cultly, or not at all, reducible to their metallic form - Hucbg 
 by an addition of phlogifton. But Dr Lewis obferves, them. . 
 that this difficulty proceeds not from their unfitnefs to be 
 refl:ored into the form of zinc, but from the volatihty of 
 the femirnetal, which occafions its being diflipated in 
 fumes, if the common methods are made ufe of. All 
 calces, thofe of iron excepted, require a greater heat 
 for their fufion than that in . which the metal itfelf 
 melts ; . and as a full melting heat is the greatefl: that 
 zinc can fuftain, it burns and calcines the infi:ant of 
 . Its revival, if the air is admitted ; and in clofe veflels 
 efcapes, in part at leafl;, through their pores. On 
 mixing flowers of zinc with powdered charcoal, and : 
 urging them with a ftrong fire in a crucible, a defla- 
 gration and frefh fublimation enfue : fufficient marks 
 that the zinc has been reduced to its metallic form ; 
 for as long as it remains in the flate of calx, neither. 
 , of thefe. effeds can happen. If the veflel Is fo con- 
 trived' 
 
 1242 
 Dr Lewis'; 
 
Oi! from 
 f lovers of 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 tvived as t« exclude tKe air, and at the fame time to 
 allow the reviving femimetal to run off from the vehe- 
 mence of the heat, into a receiver kept cool, the zinc 
 will there concrete, and be preferved in its metallic ftate. 
 It is ftill more effeftually detained by certain metallic 
 bodies, as copper, or iron j with which the zinc, when 
 thus applied, unites more readily and perfeilly than 
 it can be made to do by any other means. 
 
 Romberg pretended to obtain an oil from the 
 flo-.vers of zinc, by diffolving them in diftilled vine- 
 einc by Mr gar, and then diftilling the folution in a glafs retort. 
 Homberg. At firft a quantity of phlegm arofe ; then the fuper- 
 fluous acid ; and at laft an empyreumatic oil. This 
 laft, which Homberg imagined to proceed from the 
 flowers of zinc, Newmann very juftly attributes to the 
 1144 diftilled vinegar. 
 UtuV'"^ An oil .of another kind was obtained by Mr Hcl- 
 °^ lot from the above folution, by digefting the afii-co- 
 loured refiduum, which remained after the diftilla- 
 tion, with the acidulous phlegm which came over, for 
 eight or ten days ; diftilling the tindure to drynefs ; 
 •and repeating the extvaclion with the diftilled liquor, 
 till the quantity of diy extra<rt thus obtained was 
 very confiderable. This refin-like matter, diftilled 
 in a retort with a ftronger fire, yielded a yellowifh 
 liquor, and a white fublimate. The liquor difcovered 
 no mark of oil ; but, upon being paffed upon the fub- 
 limate, immediately dilTolved it, and then exhibited 
 on the furface feveral drops of a reddifti oil. Some of 
 this oil was taken up on the point of a pencil, and ap- 
 plied to gold and filver-leaf. In twenty-four hours, 
 the parts touched appeared, in both, equally diffolved. 
 
 Zinc does not unite in fufion with bifmuth, or the 
 femimetal called niciel. It unites difficultly with 
 iron ; lefs fo with copper ; eafier with th.e other me- 
 tals. It renders, iron or copper more eafily fufible ; 
 and, like itfelf, brittle whilft hot, though confiderably 
 malleable when cold. It brightens the colour of iron 
 almoft into a filver hue, and changes that of copper 
 into a yellow or gold colour. It greatly debafes the 
 'Materials colour of gold ; and renders near an hundredth part of 
 for fpecula. that moft duftile metal brittle and untraaable. A 
 mixture of equal parts of each is very hard, white, 
 and bears a fine polifti ; hence it is propofed by Mr 
 Hellot for making fpecula. It is not fubjedt to ruft| 
 or tarnifh in the air, like thofe metals whofe bafis is 
 copper. It improves the colour anxi luftre of lead and 
 tin, renders them finner, and confequently fitter for 
 feveral mechanic ufes. Tin, with a fmall proportion 
 of zinc, forms a kind of pewter. Lead will bear an 
 equal weight, without lofmg too much of its malk- 
 ability. Maoluin obferves, that arfenic, which whi- 
 tens all other metals, renders zinc black and friable ; 
 that w'hen the mixture is performed in clofe vefTels, 
 an agreeable aromatic odour is perceived or opening 
 them ; that zinc amalgamated witli mercury, and af- 
 terwards recovered, proves whiter, harder, and more 
 ■brittle than before, and no longer crackles on being 
 * bent. 
 
 Mixtures of zinc with other metals, expofed to a 
 tion of zinc fti'O^g ^^^y ^^^^ deflagrate more violently than 
 ■whh other zinc by itfelf. Some globules of the mixture are ufu- 
 «ietals. ally thrown off during the ebullition, and fome part of 
 the metal calcined and volatilized by the burning zioc i 
 
 ''US 
 Zinc with 
 •ther me- 
 (IbIi. 
 
 1246 
 
 S T R y. Pra<aice, 
 
 hence this fubftance has been called me/aJ/ic nitre. Bifmnth. 
 Gold itfelf does not entirely refift its action. It very — v— ^ 
 difiicukly volatilizes copper ; and hence the fublimates 
 obtained in the furnaces where brafs is made, or mix- 
 tures of copper and zinc melted, are rarely found to 
 participate of that metal. On melting copper and 
 zinc feparately, and then pouring them together, a p 
 violent detonation immediately enfues, and above SSwitk 
 half the mixture is thrown about in globules. fulphur. 
 
 Zinc does not unite in the leaft with fulphur, or 
 with crude antimony, which fcorify all other fub- 
 ftances except gold and platina ; nor with compofi- 
 tions of fulphur and fixed alkaline falts, which diflblve 
 gold itfelf. With nitre it deflagrates violently. Its 
 flow'ers do not fenfibly deflagrate ; yet alkalize double 
 their weight of the fait more readily than the zinc 
 itfelf. The alkaline mafs appears externally greenifh, N^tl-e^JkaW 
 internally of a purple colour. It communicates a 'fine lizcd by 
 purple to water, and a red to vinegar. The acetous ^l"^^'*^'"*"^ 
 tindure infpiffated, leaves a tenacious fiibftance whi«h ^'"'^* 
 foon runs in the air into a dark red cauftic liquor, the 
 alkaheft of fome of the pretended adepts. 
 
 § 9. BisMura. 
 
 This femimetal, called alfo i'tn-glafs, and by fome 
 naturalifts marcajtta qfficinarum, is fomewhat fimilar 
 to the regulus of antimony. It appears to be com* 
 pofed of cubes formed by the application of plates 
 upon each other. Its colour is lefs white than that of 
 regulus of antimony ; and has a reddifti tinge, parti- 
 cularly when it is expofed to the air. In fpecific gra- 
 vity it approaches to filver ; being nearly ten times 
 heavier than water. It has no degree of malleability ; 
 breaking under the hammer, and being reducible by 
 trituration to fine powder. It melts a little later than 
 tin, and feems to flow the thinneft of all metallic 
 fubftances. Bifmuth is femivolatile, like all other 
 femimetals. _ When expofed to the fire, flowers rife 
 from it ; it is calcined ; and converted into a litharge 
 and glafs nearly as lead is: (See Glass). It may 
 even be employed, like that metal, in the purification 
 of gold and filver by cupellation. (See Rekining). 
 When in fufion, it occupies lefs volume than in its fo- 
 lid ftate : a property peculiar to iron among the me- 
 tals, and bifmuth among the femimetals. It emits 
 fumes in the fire as long as it preferves its metallic 
 form ; when calcined or vitrified, it proves perfeAly 
 fixed. 
 
 Bifmuth mingles in fufion with all the metalline fub- 
 ftances, except regulus of cobalt and zinc. The ad- 
 dition of nickel, or regulus of antimony, renders it 
 mifcible with the former, though not with the latter. 
 It greatly promotes the tenuity as well as facility of 
 the fufion of all thofe metals with which it unites. It 
 vi'hitens copper and gold, and improves the colour of 
 fome of the white metals: mixed in confiderable quan- 
 tity, it renders them all brittle, and of a flaky ftruc- 
 ture like its own. If mixed with gold or filver, a 
 heat that is but juft fuflicient to melt the mixture, will 
 prefently vitrify a part of the bifmuth ; which, ha- 
 ving then no aftion on thofe perfed metals, feparates, 
 and glazes the crucible all round. 
 
 § 10* 
 
 I3J» 
 
 Coiivert- 
 i' le into 
 litharge 
 and glafik 
 
 1351 
 
 Promote* 
 the fufion 
 of all the 
 n^etals. 
 
C H E M 
 
 Rf jjulus <»f 
 Antinio-;)'. 
 
 ^10. RsGi'lOS of j^NTlMONY. 
 
 1252 
 Appear- 
 ance of a 
 fttir on its 
 fluface. 
 
 "Sublimable 
 
 1234 
 
 Separatii'll 
 of the 
 f)hur from 
 antimony. 
 
 Re>;u!us ea- 
 filymifcible 
 with mer- 
 cury. 
 
 This femimetal, when pure, and well fufed, is of 
 a white fliining colour, and confills of laniiiias applied 
 to each other. When it has been well melted, and 
 not too haftily cooled, and its furface is not touched 
 by any hard body during the cooling, it exhibits the 
 perie6t figure of a ftar, confiiling of many radii ilfuiug 
 from a centre. This proceeds from the difpofitioa that 
 the parts, of this femimetal have to arrange themfelves 
 in a regular manner, and is fimilar to the cryftallization 
 of falts. 
 
 Regulus of antimony is moderately hard ; but, like 
 other femimetals, it has no duftility, and breaks in 
 fmall pieces under a hammer. It lofes 4 of its weight 
 in water. The aftion of air and water dellroys its 
 luftre, but does not rull it fo effeftually as iron or cop- 
 per. It is fufible with a heat fufticient to make it red 
 hot ; but when heated to a certain degree, it fumes 
 .continually, and is diffipated In vapours. Thefe fumea 
 form what are called the argentine Jloivcrs of regulus 
 of antimony, and are nothing but the earth of this fe- 
 mimetal deprived of part of its inflammable principle, 
 and capable of being reduced to its reguline ftate by 
 an union with this principle. 
 
 There are different methods of preparing the regu- 
 lus of antimony ; but all of them confiil merely in fe- 
 parating the fulphar which this mineral contains, and 
 which is united with the regulus. It is plain, there- 
 fure, that regulus of antimony may be made by an ad- 
 dition of any fubllance to crude antimony in fuhon, 
 which has a greater attraftion for fulphur than the re- 
 gulus itfelf has. For this purpofe, alkaline falts have 
 been employed, either previoufly prepared, or extem- 
 poraneoufly produced in the proccfs, by a deflagration 
 of tartar and nitre. By this means, the fulphur was 
 indeed abforbed ; but the hepar fulphuris, formed by 
 the union of tlie fulphur and alkali, immediately dif- 
 folved the regulus, fo that very little, fometimes none 
 at all, was to be obtained diftinft fi-om the fcoria. Me- 
 tals are found to anfwcr better than alkaline falts, but 
 the regulus is feldom or never free from a mixture of 
 the metal employed. The way of obtaining a very 
 pure regulus, and in great quantity, is to calcine the 
 antimony, in order to diffipate its fulphur ; then to 
 mix the calx with inflammable matters, fuch as oil, 
 foft foap, &c. which are capable of refl^oring the 
 principle of inflammability to it. This method was 
 invented by Kunckel. Another, but more expen- 
 five way of procuring a large yield of very pure regu- 
 lus, is, by digefting antimony in aqua regis, which dif- 
 folves the reguline part, leaving the fulphur untouched, 
 precipitating the folution, arid afterwards reviving the 
 precipitate by melting it with Inflammable matters. 
 
 There are -confiderable differences obfervcd in the 
 regulus. of antimony, according to the different fub- 
 fl^ances made ufe of to abforb the fulphur. When 
 prepared by the common methods, it is found to be 
 very diflicultlyaznalgamated with mercuiy; but Mr Pott 
 has difcovered, that a regulus prepared with two or five 
 parts of iron, four of antimony, and one of chalk, rea- 
 dily unites with mercury into an hard amalgam, by 
 bare trituration with water. Marble and.g^ulcklimc fuc- 
 VaL. IV. PAK.T U.- 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 ceed equally well with chalk ; but clay, gypfum, or^esrulus of 
 other earths, have no effecl. ' Andm .ny. 
 
 One earthy fubflance, found in lead-mines, and com- 
 monly called ca-wk, has a very remarkable eflfedf upon Extern 
 antimony. This is found in whitifh, moderately com- rp.ne ius rc- 
 pact, and ponderous mafles; it is commonly fuppofed g"'"'' with 
 a fpar ; but differs from bodies of this kind, in not be- 
 ing adtedupon by acids, (fee n'^ 1068). If a lump of 
 cawk, of an ounce or two, be thrown red hot into 16 
 ounces af melted antimony, the fufion continued about 
 two minutes, and the fluid matter poured off, " you 
 will have 15 ounces Hke poliflied fteel, and as the mofl 
 refined quickfilver." Phil. Trmif. n°iio. Dr Lev/ia 
 mentions his having repeated this experiment feverai 
 times with fuccefs : but having once varied it by mix- 
 ing the cawk and antimony together at the firfl,apart 
 of the antimony was converted into a very, dark black 
 vitreous matter, and part ftemed to have fuffered little 
 change; on the furface of the mafs fome yellow flowers 
 appeared. 
 
 Regulus of antimony enters into the compofitions 
 for metallic fpeculums for ttlefcopes, and for printing- 
 types. It is alfo the bafis of number of medicinal prepa- 
 rations; but many of thefe, which were formerly much 
 eiteemed, are found to be either inert, uncertain, or 
 dangerous In their operation. When taken in fub- 
 llance, It is emetic and purgative, but uncertain in itg 
 opei-atlon ; becaufe it only afts in proportion to the 
 quantity of folvent matter it meets with in the ito- 
 mach ; and if it meets with nothing capable of aching 
 upon it there, the regulus will be quite inadflve. For 
 tliefe reafons, the only two preparations of antimony 
 now retained, at leail by flcilful pradtitioners, are the 
 infufion of glafs of antimony in wine and emetic tar- 
 tar. For making the glafs of antimony we have the jj^, 
 following procefs. " I'ake a pound of antimony ; re- Glafs .ir- 
 duce it to tine powder, and fet it over a gentle fire ; tini^ny. 
 calcine it in an unglazed earthen pan, till It comes to be 
 of an afh colour, and ceafes to fume : you muilkeep it 
 continually ilirring; and if it fliould run into hirapa, 
 you muft powder them again, and then proceed to fi- 
 niflithe calcination. When that is done, put the cal- 
 cined antimony into a crucible ; fet it upon a tile in a 
 wind-furnace; put a thin tile on the top; and covtr 
 it all over with coals. When it is brought into fufion, 
 keep it fo in a flirong fire for an hour : then put into 
 it an iron rod; and when the melted antimony, -which 
 adheres to it, is .tranfparent, pour it upon a fmooth, 
 hot, marble ; and when it is cold, piit it ud for ufe. 
 This is nfitrum antimonii, ovJUliuni.''* 
 
 This preparation is more violent ia its efFecls thaR 
 the pure regulus itfelf ; becaufe it contains lefs phlo- 
 gifton, confequently is fimilar to a regulus partially 
 calcined, and fo more foluble. Hence it is the moft 
 proper for infufion in wine, or for making the tartar 
 emetic. It is obvloufly, liowever, liable to great un- 
 certainties in poiiit of llrength ; for as the antimony is 
 more or lefs ftrongly calcined, the glafs will turn out 
 llronger or weaker in its operation, and confequently 
 all the preparations of it muft be liable to much uncer- 1158 
 tainty. This uncertainty is very apparent in the Difference 
 ftrength of different parcels of emetic tartar: accord- °^ 
 ingly Mr Geoffroy found by examination of different ["rtars 
 emetic tartars, that an ounce of the weakeil contain- * - 
 
54^ 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pradice. 
 
 Pulvis al- 
 gari.th the 
 nioft; pro- 
 
 RepuUis of ed from 30 to 90 grains of regulus ; an ounce of mo- 
 Antim ony. (jj;j.jjte ftrength contained about 108 grains ; and an 
 "^"^^ ounce of the llrongell kind contained 154 grains. 
 For thcfe reafons, the author of the Chemical Dic- 
 tionary recomnaends the pulvis algaroth as the moll 
 proper material for making emetic tartar ; being per- 
 feftly foluble, and always of an eqnal degree of 
 ftrength. Emetic tartar, as he juftly obferves, ought 
 to be a metallic fait compofed of cream of tartar fatu- 
 ] er niateri- rated with the regulus of antimony ; and M. Beaume 
 for emc- has Hiown fuch a faturation to be poffible, and that the 
 tiq tartar, neutral fait ci^ftalllzes in the form of pyramids. They 
 are tranfparent while moift ; but by expofure to a dry 
 air, they lofe the water of their cryftallization, and be- 
 come opaque. The preparation of this fait, according 
 ... to M. Baume, confifts in mixing together equal parts 
 of cream of tartar, and levigated glafs of antimony : 
 thefe are to be thrown gradually into boiling water ; 
 and the boiling continued till there is no longer any 
 efFervefcence, and the acid is entirely faturated. The 
 liquor is to be filtered ; and upon the filter is obferved 
 a certain quantity of fulphureous matter, along with 
 fome undiffolved parts of the glafs of antimony. When 
 the filtered liquor is cooled, fine cryftals will be form- 
 ed in it, which are a foluble tartar perfeftly faturated 
 with glafs of antimony. He obferves, that the diffolu- 
 tion is foon over if the glafs is well levigated, but re- 
 quires a long time if It is only groftly pounded. 
 
 The trouble of levigating glafs of antimony, as well 
 as the uncertainty of difiblving it, would render pul- 
 vis algaroth much preferable, were it not on account 
 of Its price ; which would be a temptation to thofe 
 in ufe to prepare medicines, to fubltitnte a cheaper 
 antlmonial preparation in Its place. This objection, 
 however, Is now In a great meafure removed by Mr 
 of pulvis al- Scheele who demonlirated' that the pulvis algaroth 
 garoth. is no other than regulus of antimony half calcined by 
 the dephlogittlcated marine acid In the corrofive fubli- 
 mate made ufe of for preparing the antimonlal can- 
 flic. If therefore we can fall upon any other method 
 of dephloglfticating the regulus, we lhall then be able 
 to combine the marine add with it; and by feparating 
 them afterwards, may have the powder of algaroth as 
 good as from the butter of antimony itfelf. One of 
 the methods of dephlogifticatlng the regulus Is by 
 nitre. Our author therefore gives the following re- 
 ceipt for the powder in queftion. 
 
 " Take of powdered crude antimony one pound; 
 for making powdered nitre, one pound and an half ; which, after be- 
 it cheap. j,,g dried and mixed, -are to be detonated in an iron 
 mortar. The hepar obtained In this manner is to be 
 powdered, and a pound of it to be put into a glafs 
 velTel, on which firft a mixture of three pounds of wa- 
 ter and I 5 ounces of vitriolic acid is to be poured, and 
 afterwards 15 ounces of powdered common fait are to 
 be added ; the glafs vefftl is then to be put in a fand 
 bath, and kept in digcftion for 12 hours, during 
 which period the mafs is to be conllantly ftirred. The 
 folution, v/hen cool, Is to be llralned' through linen. 
 On the refiduum one third of the above menftruum 
 Is to be poured, and the mixture digefted and ftrained. 
 From this folatlon, when It is diluted with boiling wa- 
 ter, the pulvis algarothi precipitates, which Is to be well 
 edulcorated and dried." 
 
 As regulus of antimony, like other raetallic fub- 
 
 Objedtion 
 S-o its ufe. 
 
 J46l 
 
 Scheele's 
 theory of 
 the nature 
 
 His receipt 
 
 Arfenic. 
 
 I z6s 
 Golden ful- 
 phur of avi- 
 timony aii.l 
 kermes xax". 
 iieral. 
 
 T264 
 Diaphore- 
 tic antimc*- 
 ny. 
 
 1365 
 Crocus me!» 
 tallorum. 
 
 ftances. Is foluble in liver of fulphur, It happens, that, 
 on boiling antimony in an alkahne ley, the fait, uniting 
 with the fulphur contained in that mineral, forms an 
 hepar fulphurls, which dilfolves fome of the reguline 
 part. If the liquor is filtered, and faturated with an acid, 
 the regulus and fulphur will fall together in form of a yel- 
 lowllh or reddilli powder, called golden fulphur of antimony > 
 If the ley is fufFered to cool, alike precipitation of a red 
 powder happens. This laft Is called hermes mitieral. 
 
 Nitre deflagrates violently with antimony, confum- 
 ing not onlylts fulphureous part, but alfo the phlogifton 
 of the regulus :. and thus reduces the whole to an inert 
 calx, called antlmonium d'taphoretkum. If equal parts 
 of nitre and antimony are deflagrated together, the 
 fulphureous part Ifr confumed, as well as part of the 
 inflammable principle of the regulus. The metalline 
 part melts, and forms a femivltreous mafs, of a red- 
 dlfli colour, called crocus metalloruniy or liver of anti- 
 mony. It is a violent emetic, and was formerly ufed 
 for making Infufions in wine fimilar to thofe of glafs 
 of antimony ; but Is now difufed on account of Its un 
 certainty in ftrength. It is ftill ufed by the farriers : 
 but the fubftance fold for it Is prepared with a far lefs 
 proportion of nitre ; and fometimes even without any 
 alkaline fait being added to abforb part of the antimo- 
 nlal fidphur. This crocus is of a dull red colour; and,, 
 when powdered, alTimies a dark purple. 
 
 ^11. A R s EN 1 r... 
 
 Tuisfubftance, In Its natural ilate, has no appearance, 
 of a metal, but much more refembles a fait, which, 
 as has been already obferved, it really is when deprived 1266 
 of its phlogifton. When united to a certain quantity Aifenic 
 of phlogilton, it alTumes a metallic appearance; ^""^ 
 in this ftate it is found, as Mr Bergman informs us* a^^etallic 
 In Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, Hercynia, and other form, 
 parts ; particularly at Alfatia in the mines called 
 St Marieux. The mafles in which. It is found are 
 frequently ftiapelefs, friable, and powdery ; but fome- 
 times compact, and divided into thick convex lamellas, 
 with a needle-formed OF micaceous furface; It takes a 
 poliflij.but foon lofes It again in the air. When frefh 
 broken, it appears compofed of fmall needle-like grains 
 of a leaden colour, foon becoming yellow, and by de- 
 grees blackifh ; exceeding copper In hardnefs, though 
 as brittle as antimony. - 1267 
 
 Reguline arfenic, whether foiuid naturally or pre- Regulus cfjl 
 pared by art, very readily parts with as much of its ^'"'^"^'^ 
 phlogifton as is fufficlent to make it fly off in a white ifj^o'tj^g'^ ^ \ 
 frnoke ; but this ftill retains a very confiderable quan- common 
 licy of phlogiftic matter, as is evident from its producing white klndj 
 nitrous air by the affufion of nitrous acid, and. from 
 the experiments already related of the preparation of the 
 acid of aifenic. This calx indeed Is the form In which 
 arfenic is moft commonly met with. It is lefs volatile 
 than the reguks ; and by fublimation In a glafs veffel : 
 alFumes an opaque cryftalline appearance from be- 
 coming white on the furface ; but that which cryftal- 
 lizes in the bowels of the earth does not apppar to be 
 fubjed to any fuch change. 1268 
 
 White arfenic, though a true metalline calx, may be White ar- 
 mixed In fufion with the fame metals which will unite ^'^•'"^ 
 with the regulus. This feems contrary to the general ^it^ other; 
 rule of otbtr calces, which cannot be united with any metals. 
 
 metal . 
 
acid. 
 
 Ipraaice. C H E M I 
 
 Arfenic. metal iti its metalline Rate; but it mud be remembered, 
 
 ^■~"~v~~ that by this operation the arfenical calx is reduced to a 
 
 regulus by the phlogifton of the metal : whence, in all fu- 
 
 fions of this kind, fome fcorias rife to the top, confilling 
 
 of the calcined metal and part of the white arfenic. 
 
 7**^^ e Eieht parts of diftilled water diffolve, by means of 
 Solution 01 . *' ' , r 1' • J r • - J u,. 
 
 arfenic in moderate heat, one part of calcined arienic, and by 
 
 water, boiling may be made to take,, up 15. The folution 
 changes fyrup of vIolet> green, but the tinfture of 
 turnfole red. It is not changed by neutral falts, but 
 flowly precipitates the folutions of metals, the arfenic 
 united to the metalline calx falling to the bottom. — 
 "It may be aflced (fays Mr Bergman), whether the 
 whole of the arfenic, or only the arfenical acid, unites 
 with the metallic calx, yielding the phlogiUon to the 
 menftruum of the other metal Certainly fuch a 
 mutual commutation of principles does not appear imi- 
 probable, if we confider only thofe cafes in which the 
 menftruum is vitrioHc or nitrous acid : but as iron, 
 for example, united with marine acid (which does not , 
 aitraft the phlof;ifton of white arfenic), as well as 
 when it is joined to the nitrous acid, is precipitated, it 
 would appear that the whole of the arfenic is united, 
 ,J70 at leaft in certain cafes, to the metallic calces. 
 And ;n fpi- One part of arfenic is diffolved by 70 or 80 of boil- 
 rit of wine. J,^g fphit of wine. 
 
 ^V}.. Arfenic diffolves partially in concentrated vitriolic 
 In vitiiohc ^^jj^ j^y^ concretes in the form of cryftalhne grains on 
 cooling. Thefe diffolve in water with much greater 
 difficuky than the arfenic itfdf. On the blow-pipe 
 they emit a white fmoke, but form into a globule by 
 fufion, which at firft bubbles, bat foon giows quiet, 
 and is but flowly confumed even in a white heat. 
 This fixity is occafioned by the acid carrying off the 
 phlogifton of the arfenic, and thus leaving a greater 
 proportion of its peculiar acid than what it naturally 
 contains; and therefore the more fi-eqnently the ope- 
 ration is 1-epeated, the more fixed the arfenic becomes, 
 though it is fcarce poflible to diffipate the arfenical 
 phlogifton as pcrfeftly wnth this acid as with the ni- 
 trous ; the efFefts of which have been already particu- 
 larly mentioned. 
 
 The marine acid, which naturally contains phlo- 
 gifton, diffolves about one-third of its Aveight of arfe- 
 nic, a great part of which feparates fpontaneoufly on 
 cooling in a ftate of faturation with the acid. This fait, 
 which may be had in a cryftalhne form, is much more 
 volatile than the former, readily fubliming in a clofe 
 veflel with a moderate heat ; but is foluble with difii- 
 culty in boiling water. It is of a fine yellow colour, 
 and fcarcely differs from butter of arfenic, except in 
 Its degree of concentration. The nature of marine 
 acid prevents it from difengaging the arfenical acid 
 from the plilogifton of the femimetal, as will eafily ap- 
 pear from what has been faid concerning that acid. 
 The arfenical acid, however, is eafily made to appear 
 by the addition of that of nitre, as will be underltood 
 from the direftions given by Mr Scheele for the pre- 
 ^ paratlon of the acid of arfenic. 
 
 d^Llkali Arfenic is not precipitated from its folution in vi- 
 cannot%re- triolic and nitrous acids by the phlogifticated alkali, 
 cipitate ar- which yet very readily precipitates all other metals, 
 fenic excel t -p^.^^ marine acid, however, it is precipitated by its 
 jiJTaSd." «iea«s of a white colour i but unlefs the folution be vcrj 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 547 
 
 1172 
 
 En marine 
 acid. 
 
 arfenica 
 
 147? 
 
 acid, the addition of mere watef will throw dowii a Arf enic.^ 
 precipitate of the fame colour. ^ ^ 
 
 Dephlos>-ifticated marine acid deprives arfenic of its _ '^"^ 
 mflammable principle; fo that m the diftiliing vellel f4(.. 
 we find water, acid of arfenic, and marine acid, rege- phlogifti- 
 nerated. ^i- 
 
 Arfenic is diffolved by its own acid, and forms cry- ""'"^^ ^^'^ 
 ftalline grains with it as well as with that of fiuor and phenomer* 
 borax. Saccharine acid diffolves it hkcwife, and with othsr 
 forms prifmatic cryftals ; and a fimilar fait is alfo acids, 
 formed by the acid of tartar. Vinegar, and the acids 
 of vinegar and phofphorus, form with it cryftalline 
 grains, which are fcarcely foluble in water. ia7<5. 
 
 Solutions of fixed alkaU diffolve arfenic ; and, 
 when loaded with it, form a brown tenacious mafs, ' 
 called liver of arfenic. The arfenic is partly precipi- 
 tated by mineral acids, though part of it gradually 
 lofes its phlogifton, and adheres more tenacioufly. So- 
 latiun made with volatile alkali feems to eiTect this 
 decompofition more readily, as no precipitation is 
 made by acids. Limpid folution of faline hcpar, drop- 
 ped into a folution of white arfenic, floats upon the 
 furface in form of a grey ttratum, which at length di- 
 fturbu the whole liquor. 
 
 By the affiftance of heat folutions of arfenic attack Effedts o« 
 fome of the metals, particularly copper, iron, and zinc; nutaU. 
 the folutions of tlie two laft yielding cryftals by eva- 
 poration. No alteration is made on thefe compounds 
 by alkaline falts or by acids : volatile alkali does not 
 difcover the copper by changing the colour of the fo* 
 lution blue ; nor does the phlogifticated alkali throw 
 down any blue precipitate from the folution of iron. 
 The reafon of this is the fuperabundance of phlogifton 
 in the folutions; for the arfenical acid takes up all 
 metals : w hen united with copper, it fliows a blue co- 
 lour with volatile alkali ; and when united with iron, 
 it lets fail a Prufiian blue in the ufual way ; but the 
 quantity of phlogifton which converts the acid into 
 .while arfenic, prevents the ^ippearance of thefe pheno- 
 mena v^'hen the latter is made ufc of. 1178 
 
 Arfenic, either in its calcined or reguline ftate, may Unites eafi» 
 be united with fulphur ; in which cafe it appears ^y ^^'i'^^^^^' 
 either of a red or y^ellow colour, according to the ^ 
 quantity of fulphur with which it is united. Thefe 
 compounds are fpontaneoufly produced by nature ; 
 both of them fometimes pellucid and cryftalhne ; with 
 this difference, however, that the yellow feems to af- 
 fect a lamellated, and the red a cryftalhne, form. 1479 
 Thefe are called red and yellow orpiment, or realgar and Realgarani 
 orpiment; the fpecific gravity of realgar being about 
 3.225 ; of orpiment, 5.315. Both of thefe fubhme 
 totally with a moderate heat, unlefs when they hap- 
 pen to be mixed with other fubftances. They readily 
 unite with thofe metals which form an union with the 
 arfenic and fulphur of which they are compofed. Sil- 
 ver mineralized by fufibn with orpiment, forms a fub» 
 ftance fimilar to what is called the red ore of that me- 
 tal. Iron, in conjunftion with orpiment, affumes a 
 white, poliflaed, and metahic appearance, fimilar to that 
 of the white or arfenical pyrites ; and by various 
 combinations of thefe fubftances with metals of diffe- 
 rent kinds, many of the natural metalline ores may be 
 
 produced. . , . 1- . f • , Phenomew* 
 
 Nitre, when treated with mmeralized arlenic, de- j^;, 
 
 3 Z 2 tpnat^s trous aeiAi- 
 
 <!»■ 
 
548 
 
 Arfenic. 
 
 1281 
 
 Butter of 
 arfenic. 
 
 X22^ 
 
 Gail fcarce 
 be made 
 to unite 
 with ma- 
 rine acid. 
 
 Oil of ar- 
 fenic. 
 
 CHE M I 
 
 tonates partly with the fulphur, and partly with the 
 phlogifton of the arfenic ; the alkaline bafis of the fait 
 either forming fal polychrcft with the acid of the 
 fulphur, or uniting with the alkali, and foiming the 
 neutral arfcnical fall. By the addition of fixed al-- 
 kali in proper q\iantity, either to orpiment or realgar, 
 and then- expofing the mixture to a fubliming heat, 
 nitre retains the fulphur, but lets go the greateft part 
 of the arfenic; the hepatic mafs, however, retains a 
 fmall quantity of the latter ; and if there is much al- 
 kali, fcarce any of the arfenic arifes. 
 
 Oh diftilling orpiment with twice or thrice its quan- 
 tity of corrofive fublimate, two liquids arife which re- 
 fufe to unite ; and at length, on augmenting the heat, 
 a cinnabar arifes. A butter of arfenic is found at the 
 bottom of the rsceiver, of a ferruginous brown colour, 
 but pellucid : in the open air it firft fends forth a co- 
 pious fume of a white colour, and then gradually at- 
 trafts the moifture of the atmofphere, by which it is 
 precipitated. It is remarkable that it unites fo flowly 
 with marine acid, that they feem to repel one another; 
 nor can they be made to unite beyond a certain de- 
 gree. By the afFufion of dillilled water, a white pow- 
 der will be precipitated, which, though ever fo well 
 wafhcd, retains feme acidity ; for a portion of butter 
 of antimony is produced by diftillation, as is likewife 
 true of the pulvis algaroth. The fmoke has a pecu- 
 liar penetrating fmell, fomewhat fimikr to that of 
 phlogiRicated vitriolic acid, and lets fall white flow- 
 ers.. The liqaior which fwims above,, and which, by 
 chemical authors, has been compared to oil, isycllowifh 
 and pellucid, feparating a white arfcnical powder by 
 the addition of water and fpirit of wine. It is not 
 affetlcd by the llronger acids; but effervefces, and lets 
 fall a precipitate, with alkalies. On keeping it with a 
 cucurbit with a long neck unftopped, white flowers 
 gradually concrete round tlie orifice, wliich are las, 
 and fometimes approaching to a cryflaUine form. And 
 laftly, by fpontaneous evaporation, pellucid cryftals ap- 
 pear at the bottom of the liquor, which are foluhle in 
 water with great difficulty ; but when diffolvcd, pre- 
 cipitate filver from nitrous acid, and let fall fome ar- 
 fenic on the addition of an alkali. When put into 
 lime water, a cloud fiowly furrounds them : on being 
 expofed to the fire, they totally fublime without any ar- 
 fenical, fmell, without decrepitation, or loiing their 
 tranfparency ; but if ignited phlogiitic matter comes 
 in contact with them, the arfcnical fmell inltantly ap- 
 pears. No traces of mercury are to be found in this 
 liquor by treating it either with alkali or copper-; 
 not the flighteft precipitation is made by it on be- 
 ing dropped into a folution of terra penderofa in the 
 marine acid : from all which it appears, that this liquor 
 is only a very dilute butter of arfenic, containing lefs of 
 the mercury on account of the quantity of water it 
 has. The butter contains the acid in its moft con- 
 centrated ftate, and is therefore loaded with a larger 
 quantity of arfenic : the former liquor will therefore be 
 obtained in much larger quantity, by fetting the mix- 
 ture of corrofive fublimate and arfenic to fianda night 
 in a cellar, or moillened with water, before it be fub- 
 Jtfted to diftillation. As the common marine acid 
 can diflblve only a determined quantity of the butter, 
 it naturally follows, that what remains after complete 
 faturation fiiould totally refufe to mix. The acid, 
 
 4 
 
 1285 
 
 S T R Y. Practice 
 
 however, when too much diluted, precipitates the but- Arfenic. 
 
 ter ; but in proportion to its ftrength it diflblves a v— — ^ 
 
 greater quantity. _ ^ ^^g^ 
 
 Arfenic mineralized by fulphur is not diflblved by A: feiiic mi* 
 v/ater, but is afFefted by the diftt rent acids, according "'^'' '^'■'^'^'^ 
 to the particular circumftances of each. Nitrous acid '"^^"'P-^^^' 
 and aqua-regia a£l moll powerRdly, ; the. former foon 
 deftroys the red colour of the realgar, and. converts it 
 into yellow orpiment ; its primary aftion being to cal- 
 cine the arfenic, without affeftiirg the yellovvnefs of 
 the fulphur. It makes no change on the colour of 
 orpiment. Aqua-regia, by long digellioii, takes up. 
 the arfenic, and leaves the fidphur at the bottom; a;id 
 hence we naay find out the proportions of the tvv'o in- 
 gredients. Some dexterity, however, is neceflary in 
 performing this operation witli accuracy; for if, oh 
 the one hand, the menftruum be too weak, part of th€ 
 arfenic will remain undifiblved ; and if, on the other, 
 it be too ftrong, part of the fulphur will be decompo- 
 fed ; for itrong nitrous acid is capable of decompofing 
 fulphur by long digeftioii, having a greater attracliort 
 for phlogifton than the vitriolic cicid itfelf. The colour 
 of tlie refiduuna ought to be grey ; for as long as any 
 yellow particles remain, it is a fign that fome of the 
 arfenic alfo remains. If any iron be prefent in ths 
 compound, it is all diffolved, by reafon of the fupe- 
 rior attraftion of the acid for it, before any of the ar- 
 fenic is taken up, unltfs it fiiall have been calcined ei- 
 ther by the accefs of air and heat employed in the 
 operation, or by the too great power of the menftruum. 
 
 _ The pure regulus of arfenic may be obtained artifi.- p„re regH* 
 cially from white arfenic, either by fubfimatiou with 'us of ai fe* 
 oil, black flux, or other phlogiftic materials; or bv "^c, how. 
 melting it with double its weight of foap and potaihes'; prepared, 
 or laftly, by precipitation by means of fome other me.- 
 tal, from orpiment or fandarack melted with fulphur 
 and fixed alkali. By the firft of thefe methods it is 
 obtained in^a cryftaliine form, oilohedral, pyramidal, 
 or even- prifmatic. Mr Bergman mentions a natund 
 regulus of arfenic, named 7r?'fpicle/,, which along with Mifpickel 
 fume fvdphur contains a large quantity of iron united anat'ual ' 
 with the regulus into a metalhc compound ; but tho' regulus of 
 the iron fometimes amounts to 4- or even -f of the ^r-^''^. 
 whole, it neverthelefs remains untouched by the mag- 
 net. When ignited, it fends forth an arfcnical fmell,. 
 and foon becomes obedient to the magnet, even though 
 the operation be performed on a tile without any ad- 
 ditional phlogifton ; it melts eafily in an open fire, and 
 in clofe v^effels the greater part of the regulus fublimes,, 
 leaving the iron, at the bottom. 
 
 The pure regulus of arfenic is vaftly more volatile Great -3o!a- 
 than any other metal, and therefore cannot be melted. tUity of this 
 It begins to fead forth a vifible fmoke in 180° of the fsmimecal. 
 Swedifti thermometer, and is capable of inflammation; 
 but in order to inflame it, it muft be thrown into a 
 vefiel previoufly heated to a fufficient degree, other- 
 wife it will be iublimed. The flame is of an obfcure 
 whitifli blue, difFufing a white fmoke and garlic fmell. 
 In clofe veflels it retains its metalhc form, and may be 
 fubHmed of any figure we jjleafe. ^^gg 
 
 Regulus of arfenic unites with rrumy of the metals, EfFedls of 
 but deftroys the malleability of thofe with which it "eiiuius of 
 enters into fufion. It renders thofe more eafy of fu- ^' j^'^"',^ 
 fion which are melted with difficidty by themfelves ; f^ls?'^*"'' 
 but tin, the moft eafily fufible of all the metals, be- 
 comes 
 
 1186 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 54^ 
 
 Arfenic. 
 
 1189 
 %/[a.y be ex- 
 celled by 
 ic-dt from 
 ill tlie me- 
 la's with 
 i\-hich h is 
 miied. 
 
 1490 
 
 Iffe&s of 
 upon al- 
 kaline falts 
 Biid nitre. 
 
 H9I 
 
 Decom- 
 jofes cor- 
 rofive ftib- 
 limate. 
 
 Converted 
 iito white 
 Si fenic by 
 the vitriolic 
 
 comes more refraftory by being uniced with arfenic. 
 This metal acquires a permanent and fhining white- 
 nefs by its union with reguhis of arfenic, and is able to 
 retain half its own weight of the arfenical metal. The 
 other white metals, become grey by fuiion with this 
 femimetal, platina only excepted. Gold fixfed in a 
 clofe veflel with regulns of arfenic, fcarcely takes up 
 of its weight ; fdver ^ ; lead ^ ; copper and iron more 
 than its own weight. The magnetic property of this 
 laft metal is deftroyed by a large quantity of regulus, 
 though the exaft pn.-portion which deilroys it can 
 fcarcely be determined, as fome of the iron is always 
 taken up by the fcoria ; but according to Mr Berg- 
 man, lefs than an equal quantity is certainly fufficient. 
 Bifmuth retains tt its weight ; zinc f; regulus of 
 antimony ^ ; and manganefe an equal ^quantity. Nic- 
 kel and reguhis of cobalt take up a large quantity ; but 
 how much cannot be determined, as it is next to im- 
 poflible to procure any of thofe metals in a ftate of per- 
 feft purity. In a fufficient degree of heat, and b"y a 
 triture of fevcral hours, regulus of arfenic takes up a- 
 bout i of its own weight of mercury, forming an a- 
 malgam of a grey colour. 
 
 Regulys of arfenic, by reafon of Its volatility, may 
 be expelled* from all the metals with which it is unit- 
 ed ; but, in flying off, it generally carries along with 
 it fome of the metal with which it is united, goid and 
 filver not excepted, if the degree of heat be great and 
 very fuddenly\pplied. Platina, however, perfectly 
 refifts the volatilization ; and, by reafon of its refrac- 
 tory nature, even retains a portion of the arfenic. 
 
 This feniimetar cannot be united by fufion with al-. 
 kaline falts until the phlogitton is c-onfiderably dimi- 
 niOied, and the regulus approaches to the nature of 
 pure arfenical acid. By adding regulus therefore to 
 nitre in fufion, a detopation eufues, the phlog-.fton of 
 the former is totally dellroyed, and the acid uniting 
 with the alkali of: the nitre forms a neutral arfenical 
 fait, fimilar to that made with white arfenic and nitre. 
 By dittillation with dry acid of arfenic, the reguhis 
 fublimes before it can be a6led upon by the acid ; but 
 when thrown into the acid in fufion, foon takes fire, 
 and fends forth a white fmoke : for the acid, being in 
 this inftance deprived of its phlogifton, feparates that 
 principle from the regulus, and unites with it in fuch 
 quantity as to regenerate white arfenic ; while, on the 
 other hand, the regulus, by this operation, is fo far 
 deprived of ita phlogillon as to appear in the form of 
 a calx. By dilHllation with corrofive fublimate, a 
 fmoking butter, and fmall quantity of mercurius dul- 
 eis and running mercury, are procured ; which happens 
 in oonfequence of a double eleftive attraftion ; the re- 
 gulus of arfenic yielding its pblogiilon to the bafe of 
 the corrofive fublimate, which being thus really cal- 
 cined, reduces the former to perfeft mercury, whik 
 the marine acid takes up the calx of arfenic. The re- 
 gulus of arfenic readily unites with fulphur, and forms 
 the fame red and' yellow compounds that have already 
 been mentioned when fpeaking of white arfenic ;^ it is 
 foluble in hepar fulphuris, but may be precipitated 
 by every other metal which can unite with the hepar. 
 
 Regulus of arfenic is not affeflted by the vitriolic a- 
 eid,. unlefs when concentrated and alfilted by heat. 
 The inflammable part of the regulus which phlogilli- 
 cates the acid files off, . fa that the remainder alfumes 
 
 Cobalr. 
 
 129.1 
 
 the nature of white arfenic, and exhibits the fame pro- 
 perties with menftrua as any other metallic calx : the 
 fame holds good with nitrous acid, except that it at- 
 trafts the phlogifton more vehemently. Marine acid 
 has little or no efFeft except when boiling. 
 
 Regulus ef arfenic precipitates certain mstals diffol- Effeils of 
 ved in acids, fuch as gold and platina diffolved in aqua- J^^^^ 
 regia, as well as filver and mercury in vitriolis and nl- ^'^j^^ 
 trous acids. Silver generally appears In beautrfal po-^ 
 lifhed fpiculas, like the arbor Dian« ; but if the. arfe-- 
 nic be fuffered to ftandlongin the nitrous folution but 
 httle diluted, the filver fpiculx are again diffolved, the 
 arfenic in the mean time being dephlogifticated. So- 
 lutions of bifmuth and antimony are fcarcely rendered 
 turbid. Iron may be feparated from regulus of arfenic 
 by digeftion with marine acid, or with aqua regia;. nei- 
 ther of which will touch the arfenic, as long as any 
 iron remains ; but in order to fucceed in this opera- 
 tion, fubtile piilverifation is neceffary as well a« a juft- 
 quantity and ftrength of the menilruum. Heat muft. 
 alfo be carefully avoided. The regulus is alfo difiblved 
 by hepar fulphuris and by fat oils, the latter forming 
 with it a black mafs like plafter. 
 
 ^12. Co B A L T. 
 
 Regulus of cobalt, or- more praperly pure cobalt' 
 itfelf (what we have under the name of cohali hn'ing 
 only a calx of the regulus), is a femimetal of areddiiii 
 white colour, clofe-grained, fo as U) be eafily reducible 
 to powder, about 7.7 of fpecific gravity, and forming 
 itfelf into maiTes of a needle-like texture, placed upon 
 one another. It is leldom or. never found native, but 
 almoii always cakined and united with arfenic, the ar- ^ 
 fenical acid, fulphur, iron, &c. The zaffre ufed in ZafFre, a 
 commerce is an impure and grey calx of cobalt. Whtn calx of co- 
 mixed with three times its weight of pulverized flints, bait, 
 and expoffd to a fl;rong fire, it melts into glafs of a 
 dark blue colour,. calkd/w«//, ufed in tinging other , 
 glaffes, and in painting. With thrte times its weight 5^^^,^^ ^cw- 
 of black flux, a fmall quantity of tallow and marine produced, 
 fait, it afi'ords the femimetal known by tlie improper 
 name of regulus of cobalt ; but the reducliou is very dif- ,^(^5 
 ficult. For this purpofe a large quantity of fl ux mull p^egu us of ' 
 be made ufe of, and the crucible kept a confiderable cobalt dif- 
 time in a white-red heat, that tlie matter may become 
 very fluid, and that the fcoria may be completely fufed 
 into a blue glafs; at which period the cobalt finks in 
 the form of a button to the bottom. 1297 
 
 Cobalt melts in a ftrong red heat, is very fixed in pj-operties 
 the file, and it is uncertain whether it can be vola- of cobalt 
 tilized in clofe velfcls. When fuffeied ta cool ilowly, when ex- 
 it cryftalliz.es in needle-fliaped prifms, placed one upon '° ' 
 the other, and united in bundles, having a confider- 
 able refemblance to malfes of bafaltes feparated from 
 each other : in order to fucceed in this oryftallization, 
 however, the cobalt mutf be melted in a crucible till it 
 begins to boil, and, when the fur face of the metal be- 
 comes fixed on being withdrawn from the fiie, the vef- 
 fel is. then to be inclined ;. that which ftiU remains fluid - 
 runs out, and the portion adhering to the lumps form- 
 ed by the cooling of the fuiface is found covered .with 
 cryftals. 1298 
 
 This femimetal, expofed to the atmofphere, be- Calc=.ner 
 comes covered with a dull peUicle, and undergoes a jV^jj^'^^^'^'j^^ 
 fpontaneous calcination ; but it may eafily be calcined ' 
 
 ia. 
 
T299 
 Ics calx 
 forms a 
 beautiful 
 blue glafe. 
 
 olic 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 in any quantity by cxpofing it In powder in a Hiallow 
 veffel, under the muffle of a cupelling furnace, and 
 ftirring it now and then to expofe freih furfacea to the 
 air. After being kept red hot for fome time, this 
 powder lofes its fplendor, increafes in weight, and be- 
 comes black, the calx being convertible, by a mod 
 violent heat, into a blue glafs. By fufion it combines 
 with vitrifiable earths, forming with them a beautiful 
 blue gVafs extremely fixed in the fire ; whence it is of 
 the greateft ufe in enamel-painting, poroelain-painung, 
 &c. The aftion of terra ponderofa, magnefia, and 
 lime, on cobalt, is not known. Alkalies manifeftly 
 j^Q^ alter it ; but in what refpefl is not known. 
 Phenomena Cobalt difTolves in concentrated vicriolic acid, when 
 with vitri- affifted by a boiling heat ; the acid evaporating alraoft 
 '"' ' entirely in the form of fulplmreous gas. The refi- 
 duum Is then to be wafhed ; a portion of it diffolves in 
 the water, and communicates a greenllh colour to it 
 when warm, which changes to a rofe colour when 
 cold. M. Beaume affirms, that by fiifiicicntly eva- 
 porating the vitriolic folution of coBalt, two forts of 
 cryftals are obtained ; one white, fmdl, and cabical ; 
 the other green ifh, quadrangular, fix lines In length, 
 and four in breadth. Thefe laft he only confiders as 
 the true vitriol of cobalt ; the former being produced 
 by certain foreign matters united to it. The cryftals 
 moft commonly obtained have the form of fmall nef dies, 
 and may be decompofed by fire, leaving a calx of co- 
 balt not reducible by itfelf. They may like wife be de- 
 compofed by all the alkalies, by terra ponderofa, mag- 
 nefia, and lime. According to Fourcroy, loo grains 
 of cobalt, dilTolved In the vitriolic acid, afford, by pre- 
 cipitation with pure mineral alkali, 140 grains of pre- 
 cipitate ; by the fame alkali aerated, 160 grains. Di- 
 luted vitriolic acid a£ls on zaffre, and diffolves a part, 
 with which it forms the fait already defcribcd. 
 
 Nitrous acid a£l:s upon the femimetal with that vio- 
 lence which is Its general charafteriftic ; and the folu- 
 tion, when nearly faturated, appears either of a rofy 
 brown or bright green colour. By ftrong evaporation it 
 yields a fait in fmall needles joined together; which Is 
 very deliquefcent, boils upon hot coals without deto- 
 nation, and leaves a calx of a deep red colour. It Is 
 decompofed by the fame fnbftances as the former, and 
 by excefs of alkali the precipitate difappeais. 
 
 Muriatic acid, afllfled by heat, diflblves cobalt In 
 part, but has no effeft upon It In the cold. It afts 
 more ftrongly on zaffre, forming a folution of a red- 
 difh brown, which becomes green by being heated. 
 By evaporation it yields a very deliquefcent fait in 
 fmall needles, which becomes green when heated, and 
 is foon after decompofed. Aqua-regia diffolves the 
 metal rather more eafsly than the marine acid, but lefs 
 fo than the niti'ous. The folution has been long known 
 as a fympathettc Ink. 
 With'the Cobalt Is not diffolved direftly by the acid of borax; 
 add of bo- but when a folution of this fait is mixed with a folu- 
 rax, t^on of cobalt In any of the mineral acids, a double 
 
 dccompofitlon takes place ; the alkaline bafis of the 
 borax uniting with the acid which held the cobalt In 
 folution ; and the calx, combining with the fedatlve 
 fait, falls to the bottom in form of an infoluble pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 This femimetal is calcined by being heated to Ignl- 
 ifon with nitre. One part of cobalt, and two or three 
 
 1301 
 With ni- 
 ^eus acid. 
 
 1302 
 With ma> 
 riiie acid> 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 of dry nitre, well powdered and mixed, when thrown NiclceL 
 into a red-hot crucible, produce fmall fclntillations ; a — "-nt"" 
 portion of the cobalt being converted Into a calx of a 
 red colour, more or lefs deep, and fometimes of a 
 green. Sal ammoniac is not decompofed, by reafon •^y-'J^°^^j 
 of the little attraftion there is between the metal and ammonia 
 muriatic acid. M. Bucquet, who made the experi 1305 
 ment with great care, could not obtain a particle of W.th ful- 
 volatile alkali. Sulphur does not unite with it but^'"^^" 
 very difficultly, and the combination is promoted by 
 liver of fulphur. Thus a kind of artificial ore may 
 be produced, the grain of which will be finer or clofer, 
 and its colour whiter or yellower, in proportion to the 
 quantity of fulphur in the mixture. M. Beaume ob- 
 ferves, that this compound cannot be decompofed by- 
 acids, and that fire cannot deftroy all the fulphur. 
 
 ^13. Nickel. 
 
 This was firfl difcovered to be a femimetal of a pe- Dif'overei 
 culiar kind by Cronftedt, In the years 1 75 1 and 1 754, by Mr 
 who procured It In the form of regulus from its ore, but Cronftedt.. 
 without being able to reduce it to a fufficient degree of 
 purity; which Indeed has not yet been done by any che- 
 mift. M. Bergman has laboured mofl in this way, 
 though even he has not reduced it to the purity of other 
 metallic fubftances. His experiments were made with 
 fome regulus made by M. Ci-onfledt, and whofc fpe- 
 cific gravity was to that of water exaftlyas 7.421 to I. 
 His attempts to purify it were made, 
 
 I. By Calcination and Scorlfication. 
 
 Nine ounces of powdered nickel were expofed for rrr'^i*'' e 
 
 - , . . . „ • 1 ■, i'-iieCts or 
 
 lix hours, rn icvei-al portions, to a molt violent heat, calcination 
 under the dome of an affay furnace. Thus the arfe- vvith a vjo-, 
 nic was firft diffipated with a fetid fmtll, after which ^^^^^ 
 the odour of fulphur became perceptible ; after this a 
 white fmoke arofe without any fmell of garlic, and 
 which, according to our author, arofe probably from 
 the more dephloglfllcated part of the arfenic which 
 now began to fublime. The heaps (we fuppofe after 
 the matter had been poured out of the difhes, and yet 
 retaining a greatdeal of heat), whenhot, began to fwell, 
 and green vegetations arofe from ail the fui-face, re- 
 fembling fome kinds of mofs, or the filiform lichen; 
 a ferruginous afii-coloured pov.'der remained at bot- 
 tom ; and o.i 3 of the whole were diffipated during the 
 operation. Half an ounce of this calx, fufed in a 
 forge for four minutes, along with three times its 
 weight of black flux, yielded a regulus reticulated oh 
 the furface ; the areola of a hexangular figure, with 
 very fiend er flrlae, diverging fi-om a centre, full of little 
 tubercles; it weighed 0.73 of half an ounce; was obe- 
 dient to the magnet ; and, when fcorlfied with boi-ax, 
 left a blacklfh glafs. 
 
 By a fecond roafting the regulus again emitted a 
 garlic fmell ; afterwards a vlfible fume without any 
 fmell, with vegetations as before. The I'oafled pow- 
 der, reduced with black flux as before, ftlU emitted a 
 fmell of arfenic ; but, on repeating the fufion with the 
 calx and borax, nothing but fome obfcure figns of co- 
 balt appeared. A third calcination feemed to have 
 much diflipated the arfenic, as It now emitted but 
 little of that kind of fmell ; the vegetations were alfo 
 gone ; and the matter had rather a ferruginous than a 
 
 grcei 
 
►raaice. C H E M I 
 
 NickeL green co!«ur. Nearly the fame phenomencxn appeared 
 
 -'v after reduAion in a fourth operation. 
 
 On perforniing the reduftion with lime and borax, 
 the regulus, when firft melted, loft much of its ferru- 
 ginous matter, which adhered to the black fcoiia; ; it 
 foon acquired an hyaciBthine colour, without any re- 
 markable mixture of cobalt, was httle obedient to the 
 magnet, and its fpccific gravity was fomewhat diininilh- 
 ed, being now only 7.0828. 
 
 By a fifth calcination, gradually adding a quantity 
 of powdered charcoal while the matter continued red 
 hot, a prodigious quantity of arfenic, imperceptible be 
 fore, flew off in the form of vapour ; thearfenical acid 
 being thus furnifhed with as much phlogiilon as was 
 necefTary to make it rife in fume. The regulus was 
 ta-eated in this manner until no more arfenical fmoke 
 could be perceived ; it was now of a lamellated and 
 tenacious texture when reduced, but ftill difFufed the 
 arfenical odour on being removed from the fire. The 
 reading was therefore repeated a fixth time, and con- 
 tinued for ten hours ; the addition of powdered char- 
 coal continued to diiTipate the arfenic in invifible va- 
 pours, which yet were perceptible by the fmell ; the 
 colour of the metallic calx was obfcurely ferrugi- 
 nous, with a mixture of green fcarcely vifible. On 
 reducing the regdus with equal parts of white flux, 
 lime, and borax, a femiduAile regulus was obtained, 
 highly magnetic, and foluble in nitrous acid, to which 
 it communicates a deep green colour j a blackifli mafs 
 remained, which afterwards became white, and when 
 laid on a burning coal, flies off without any remarkable 
 arfenical fmell. The regulus being then fix times fu- 
 fed with lime and borax, the fcorise refembled the hya- 
 cinth in colour, and the metallic part was fuiTOunded 
 with a green calx. The regulus, as before, was mag- 
 netic and femi-malleable. Laftly, it was expofed for 
 14 hours to a very ftrong heat ; when the powdered 
 charcoal was added by degrees without any dlfTipation 
 of arfenic or lofs of weight ; the colour of the roafted 
 - powder was ferruginous, with a very flight tinge of 
 green. On reduAion, a very fmall globule, itill 
 magnetic, was found among the fcorias. 
 
 II. By Sulphur. 
 
 i;iicccs or Eight hundred parts of Cronftedt's regulus of nic- 
 folphur and kel, fufed with fulphur and a fmall quantity of borax, 
 iorax, yielded a mineralized mafs of a reddifli yellow, whofe 
 weight amounted to 1 700. On expofmg one half of 
 this to the fire, it began to grow black ; on which the.' 
 heat was augmented until vegetations appeared ; the 
 remaining calx weighed 652. Melting tliis part with 
 borax, and the other which had not been expofed to 
 the fire, a fulphurated regulus of a whitifh yellow co- 
 lour was obtained, weighing 1 102. The fame regulus, 
 calcined for four hours, was firft covered with egeta- 
 tions, and then, on the addition of powdered char- 
 coal, diffufed an arfenical odour ; the metallic calx was 
 green, and weighed 1038. A whitifh yellow regulus 
 was obtained, femiduftile, highly magnetic, and ex- 
 tremely refraftory, weighing 594. By fufion with 
 fulphur a fecond time, it weighed 816; one half of 
 which roafted to greennefs, united by means of fire to 
 the other half ftill fulphurated, weighed 509, and was 
 almoft deprived of its magnetic quahty. A calcina- 
 tion of. four hours, during which phlogiftou was ad- 
 
 S5^ 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 T308 
 
 Effeds of 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 ded, difTipated a confidcrable quantity of arfenic ; the 
 powder put on an afh-colour, fomewhat greenifli, was in " 
 weight 569 ; and by redudlion yielded a regulus whofe 
 furface was red, and which, on breaking, appeared of 
 a white afli-eolour, veiy friable, ,and weighing 432 ; 
 the fpecific gravity 7.173. 
 
 On mineralizing the regulus a third time with ful- 
 phur, adding charcoal as loqg as any veftige of arfenic 
 remained, which required a violent calcination of 1 2 
 hours, the remaining powder was of an aih-green co- 
 lour, and weighed 364; but the regulus obtained by 
 means of areduftion effededby the moll violent heat in 
 a forge for three quarters of an hour, was fo refrac- 
 tory, that it only adhered imperfectly to the fcoria, 
 which were of a diftinft hyacinthlne colour ; nor could 
 it be reduced to a globule by means of borax, though 
 urged by the fame vehemence of fire. The abfohite 
 gravity of this regulus was 180; its fpecific gravity 
 8.666. Its magnetic virtue was very remarkable ; for.- 
 it not only adhered ftrongly to the magnet, but to any 
 other piece of iron ; and the fmall pieces of it attrac- 
 ted one another. It had a confiderable duftility, was 
 of a whitifh colour, mixed with a kind of glittering 
 red ; diffolved in volatile alkali, yielding a blue fofu- 
 tion, and a green one in nitrous acid. 
 
 An hundred parts of the fame regulus, beaten out 
 into thin plates, were covered, by a calcination of 
 four hours, with a cruft apparently martial, having un- 
 der it a green powder, and within it a nucleus con- 
 fifting of reguline particles ftill unchanged ; the weight 
 being increafed by 5. The friable matter, reduced ta 
 powder, put on a brownifh-green colour ; and after a^ 
 calcination of four hours more, concreted at the bot- 
 tom in form of a friable black cruft, ftrongly magne- 
 tic, and weighing 100 : No veftigea of arfenic were 
 difcovered by a fucceeding operation, in which char- 
 coal was added 5 nor was the magnetic power deftroy- 
 ed, but the weight was inereafed to 105, and the co-', 
 lour fomewhat changed. By fufion for an hour with 
 lime and borax, this powder yielded a regulas of an 
 angular itrufture, red, femidudlile, and altogether mag- 
 netic ; the fpecific gravity being 8.875. '^^^ ^^^^ 
 globule, diffolved in aqua-regia, was precipitated by 
 green vitriol, as if it had been loaded with gold ; but 
 the precipitate was readily foluble in nitrous acid. 
 Moft of the reguli fhowed no figns of precipitation 
 with green vitriol. 
 
 III. With He par Sulpuris. 
 
 Fifty-eight parts of regulus of nickel, which had EfTeifts of 
 been fulphurated before, being fufed with 1800 parts ''^I'^f 
 of fahne hepai fulphuris, then diffolved in warm v/ater, ^ * 
 filtered through paper, and precipitated by an acid, 
 yielded a powder, which, by calcination till the ful- 
 phur was driven off, appeared of an afh-colour, and 
 weighed 35. The infoluble refiduum, depnved of its, 
 fulphur by means of fire, was likewife of an afh-colour, 
 and weighed 334. On reducing this regulus by meana 
 of the black flux, a friable regulus was obtaiiied, which 
 had a very weak magnetic property ; but, on fufion 
 with borax, this quality was augmented. On mixing , 
 and melting together equal parts of caLx of nickel, . 
 gypfum, colophony, and white flux, a powdery, fqua- 
 mous, and reguline mafs was produced ; which, by^ 
 fufion with borax, afforded a regulus poffeffing the pro- - 
 
 perties ■ 
 
552- 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 ■T3IS 
 
 i©f nitre. 
 
 T311 
 Kitre ca- 
 pable of 
 
 fepaiating 
 all tlu' CO 
 balr from 
 .Iiickd. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 perties of nickel, but not entirely deftitute of cobalt, 
 which obeyed the magnet, and did not part with its 
 iron even after two folutions in the nitrous acid, 
 and various reductions by fufion with borax ; the ful- 
 phur was alfo retained with great obftinacy. 
 
 On dilTolving reguKis of nickel by fufion, in hepar 
 fxilphuris made with fixed alkali, adding a quantity of 
 nitre fufiicient only to deftroy a fmall part of the he* 
 par, the regulus which had becii fufpended by it was 
 feparatcd, and fell to the bottom. On examinincf this 
 regulus, it appeared more pure, and generally deprived 
 of cobalt, but Hill containing iron* In like manner 
 nickel is always very diftinftly precipitated by regulus 
 of cobalt, as this latter is attrafted more powerfully by 
 the hepar fulphuris. When dilTolved by fufion with he- 
 par fulphuris, this femimetal may be precipitated by 
 adding iron, copper, tin, or lead, and even by cobjllt : 
 the regulus obtained is indeed fcarcely ever attracted 
 by the magnet ; but we are not from thence to con- 
 clude that it does not contain any iron ; for when the 
 heterogenous m.atters, which impede its aftion, are pro- 
 perly removed, it then acknowledges the power of. the 
 magnet very plainly. 
 
 .IV. By Nitre. 
 
 'One part of Croniledt's regulus was added to twelve 
 of nitre ignited in a crucible, and kept red-hot for 
 about an hour. Some weak fiailies appeared firil,; 
 then a large quantity of arfenic was emitted; and, 
 laftly , the fides were covered with a blue cruft occafioncd 
 by the cobalt, a green mattet rca:aina7g at .bottom. 
 This, fufed again for an hour, with tv/elve parts of 
 nitre, tinged the internal -fides of the veirtsl of a green 
 colour ; and, laftly, a brownilh green mafs, -inuch lefs 
 in quantity than in the former ojx ration, w;i.') left at 
 the bottom. This green matter, treated in .the fame 
 way for two hours a third time, left a grey fcoria at the 
 -bottom,. which yielded no regulus with black -flux. 
 
 Another portion of the fame regulus, treated in the 
 fame way with nitre, was dilfolved, and became green; 
 yet on being freed by ablution from the alkaline fait, 
 it yielded no regulus with black flux, but only fcoria 
 of an hyacinthine colour mixed with blue, tinging ni- 
 trous acid, of a green colour, com-reting into a jelly, and 
 ,on evaporation leaving a grtsenifli calx behind. 
 
 Another portion of Croniledt's regulus was kept 
 fome hours in tlie crucible with 16 parts of nitre ; by 
 which means. all the arfenic was firil feparatcd ; then 
 the phlogifticated nitrous acid ; and, lallly, the fides 
 of the veffei were -penetrated by a kind of green effio- 
 refcences. The mafs, after being wafhed with water, 
 was of a dilute green colour, and tinged bofax of a 
 greenilh brown. A green powder was ftill yielded, 
 after treating this in the fame manner with 1 2 parts of 
 .nitre ; and on reducing it with one-half black flux, 
 .one-eighth borax, and as much lime, a yellowhh 
 white regulus, both magnetic and malleable, was ob- 
 tained, poflelTmg all the properties of nickel. Its 
 fpecific gravity was 9.000 ; the phlogiftic ingredient 
 was ufed in fmall quantity, that the iron might, if 
 polhble, enter the fcoria. 
 
 It having appeared from this and fome other expe- 
 riments, that nitre was capable of difcovering the 
 fmalleft quantity of cobalt contained in nickel, the 
 produfts of the forper operaticne were now fubjcdcd 
 
 N° .74. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice^ 
 
 to Its aftion. The regulus produced by repeated fco- N.-dieL 
 rification thus became a little blue ; that diffolved in v— — » 
 volatile alkali (to be afterwards particularly mentioned) 
 difcovered a con'iderable quantity of cobalt ; nor was 
 there any one which did not thus.dlfcover more or Icfs 
 of that ingredient by this trial. 
 
 v. By Sal Ammoniac. 
 
 A calx of nickel, fo mucli freed from cob-alt that it Hfledl of 
 did not tinge borax in the leaft, mixed with twice ammo- 
 its weight of fal ammoniac, yielded, by fublimation 
 with a llrong red heat, .two kinda ;of flowers ; one, 
 which rofe higher>than the other:, was of an afli colour; 
 the other white. The bottom of the glafs was ftained 
 of a deep hyacinthine colour : the refiduum was divided 
 into two ft rata ; the upper one yellow, fcaly, and 
 fiiining like mofaic gold. With borax it afforded an 
 hyacinthine glafs, but not regulus ; and in a few days 
 liquefied in the air, acquiring a green colour and the 
 eonfiftence-.of butter. The refiduum flrowed the fame 
 properties with calx of nickel ; and the green folntlon 
 fiiowed no veftiges of Iron with galls, but became blue 
 .with volatile alkali ; which was alfo the cafe with the 
 iflowers. The lower ftiatum contained a calx, blackifh 
 .on the tipper part, but of a ferruginous brown in the 
 under, with a friable and fcarctly magnetic regulus, of 
 a reddifh white. The blackifli calx yielded an hya- 
 cintliine glafs with borax. Part of this ftratum fub- 
 hmed Vv'ith twice its quantity of fal amnioniac ; and 
 ■w ith the fame degree of heat as before, yielded flowers 
 of a very fine white, with a refiduum of ferruginous 
 brown, greenifh on the upper part towards the fides of 
 tlie vefl'^il, the bottom being ftained of an hyacinthine 
 colour as btfore. Twenty parts of fal ammoniac being 
 added to a part of the inferior ft ratum -reduced, the 
 whole was fublimed in a retort ; a blackifli powder re- 
 mained, which became green by calcination, and of 
 an hyacinthine colour by fcorification, as did alfo the 
 bottom of the containing vefiel. The fabllmation be- 
 ing twice repeated, ufing a double quantity of fal am- 
 moniac each time, the calx became at length very green, 
 dlffolving with the fame colour in the nitrous acid, and 
 yielding by reduction a white, brittle, and very, little 
 magnetic regulus. In all thefe fubllmations. It Vas 
 obferved, that the volatile alkali rofe firft ; then fal 
 ammoniac ; and, laftly, a part of the marine acid was 
 forced over by the violeiice of the heat. 
 
 VI. With Nitrous Acid. 
 
 Having obtained a fait by cryftallizatlon from nickel Eff^Jh^of 
 dllTolved in nitrous acid, part of this was calcined with antimony, 
 charcoal duft in a proper veflel, and during the opera- 
 tion a large quantity of arfenic was dllfipated ; a grey, 
 femlduftile, and magnetic regulus being obtained after 
 reduftion. A brittle regidus was obtained after a fe- 
 cond fulutlon, precipitation, and rtduftion ; but by a 
 third operation It became again femjdudtile and mag- 
 netic. By repeating this procefs a fourth and fifth 
 time, the quantity became fo much dimlnlfhed that it 
 could no longer be tried. In all thefe folution.s, a 
 blacklfti refiduum appeared ; which, when fufi-ered to 
 ren^ain in the acid, grew white by degrees ; but when 
 edulcorated and laid on a burning coal, exhaled a f.il- 
 })hureous fmoke, ^ and left a black powder foluble ia 
 the nitrous acid. 
 
 VII. B^ 
 
Nickel. 
 
 Volatile 
 alkali. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 VIL By Volatile Alkali. 
 
 Four hundred and eighty-feven parts of a calx of 
 nickel, produced by diffolving Cronftedt's regulus in 
 nitrous acid, and precipitating the folution by a fixed 
 alkali, being immerfed for 24 hours in a quantity of 
 volatile alkali, yielded a refiduum of fifty, having a 
 blackifh green colour. The folution, which was blue, 
 by filtration and infpilTation yielded a powder of a light 
 blue colour, weighing 282 ; which, reduced with 
 black flux, produced a white, femiduftile, and highly 
 magnetic regulus, weighing 35, whofe fpecific gravity 
 was 7.000. The fcori^ were of a light red ; but 
 when mixed with borax, put on an hyacinthine colour, 
 and yielded a regulus weighing 30. The two re- 
 guli united together proved very refraftory ; fo that 
 the mafs could not be melted by the blow-pipe, even 
 with the addition of borax. It fent forth neither an 
 arfenical nor fulphureous fmell on the addition of char- 
 coal-duil ; but, on a fucceeding reduftion, yielded hy- 
 acinthine fcorise ; and the remaining flocculi, diiTolved 
 in nitrous acid, affording a very green folution, which, 
 on the addition of volatile alkali, yielded -a powder of 
 the fame colour. 
 
 From 50 parts of the blackidi green refiduum, 13 
 of a clear white, brittle, fquamous, and litt'e magne- 
 tic regulus, were obtained, the fpecific gravity of which 
 was 9.333. At the bottom of the veffcl was found a 
 fcoria of an obfcurely blue colour, with the upper part 
 hyacinthine. It was eafil}'- fufed ; and tinged boiax, 
 firft blue, then of a hyacinth colour, upon which it 
 became more llrongly magnetic. By the afiiilance of 
 heat it dilTolved in nitrous acid, forming a folution of 
 a beautiful blue colour. A black powder at firll float- 
 ed in the liquor, but became white, and fe^l to the bot- 
 tom. After cdulcoration it was for the moil part dif- 
 fipated, with a fulphureous fmell, on being expofed to 
 the fire ; a little brown-coloured mafs, fo uble in vola- 
 tile alkali, remaining at bottom. This folution was 
 precipit?ted by phlogiilicated alkali, and a powder 
 thrown dov.'n of the colour of calx of nickel, which 
 foon grew blue with volatile alka^i. 
 
 From all thefe experiments it appears, that nickel 
 
 Nickel cai; 
 
 no' Uc oh- cannot be obtained in a ftate of purity by any means 
 hitherto known. From every othei- fubllance, indeed, 
 
 nty. 
 
 it may be fcparated, except iron ; but this refifls all 
 the operations hitherto defcribed, and cannot be di- 
 min'Thed beyond certain limits. 'J"he magnet not only 
 readily difn-rjrs its prefence, but fome portions of the 
 regulus it fell becomes m-dgnetic. ; but the ttiiacity 
 and diil^ciilty of fufion, which increafe the more in 
 proportion to the number of operations, plainly (how 
 that there is no hope of feparating the wliulc quantity, 
 unk fs we fuppofe the regulus of nickel itfelf to be at- 
 tradled by the magnet ; and there is certainly a pof- 
 fibility that one other fubftance befides iron may be 
 attracted by the mapnet. The great -difiiculty, or ra- 
 ther iriipoiiibility, of obtaining it in a ftate of purity, 
 rKiturally raifes a fufpicion of its not being a diilindl 
 femimetal, but a mixture of otliers blended together ; 
 and on this fubjeft our author agrees in opinion with 
 thofe who fuppofe it to be a compound of other me- 
 tiit; com;-o- tals. Indeed, Mr Bergman is of opinion, that " nic- 
 fi'ion .'f kel, cobalt, and manganefe, are perhaps no other than 
 nickel. Y^^^ ly^ Paj-t IL 
 
 n,)iiiio!i ('f 
 
 S T R Y. . . .SS3 
 
 modificat'ons of iron." And in order to afccrtam this, N^ kii. 
 he made the following experiments. ^ ' 
 
 I. Equal parts of copper, of the gravity of 9.3243, ^ .^J.^^ 
 and iron of 8.3678, united by fufion with black flux, ^^^^'j^j.^ 
 yielded a red mafs, whofe fpecific gravity was 8.5441 ; mn, >ie 
 and which tinged nitrous acid firft blue, then green, nic'* el arti- 
 afterwards yellow, and at laft of an opaque brown, ficialiy. 
 2. Two parts of copper and one of iron had a fpecific 
 gravity of 8.4634 ; the mixture yielding firft a blue, 
 and then- a green folution. 3. Equal parts of copper 
 and iron, of the fpecific gravities already mentioned, 
 with another part of cobalt whofe gravity was 8.1500, 
 yielded a metal of the gravity of 8.0300, imparting a 
 iirown colour to the folution. 4. Two parts of arfe- 
 nic of 4.000, added to one of copper and another of 
 iron, gave a brittle metal of 8.0468, which formed a 
 blue folution. 5. One part of copper, one of iron, 
 two of cobalt, and two of white arfenic, gave a brittle 
 regulus of 8.4186 ; the folution of which was brownilh, 
 and feparated in part fpontaneoufly. 6. One part of 
 copper, one of iron, four of cobalt, and two of white 
 arfenic, formed a mafs of 8.5714. The folution was 
 fomewhat more red than the former ; and a fimilar 
 effedl took place on repeating the experiment, on- 
 ly that the fpecific gravity of the metal was now 
 8.2941. 8. One part of iron and four of white arfe- 
 pic formed a metal which diflblved with a yellow co- 
 lour ; and, on the addition of Pruffian alkali, imme- 
 diately let fall a blu,e fediment. 9. One part of cop- 
 per, eight of iron, iixteen of white arfenic, and four 
 of fulphur, united by fire, on the addition of black 
 flux, yielded a mafs which, though frequently calci- 
 ned and reduced, produced nothing but brown or 
 ferruginous calces. It acquired a greennefs with ni- 
 trous acid, but on the addition of phlogifticated al- 
 kali depofited a Pruffian blue. 10. One part of iron 
 was dlffolved in fix of the nitrous acid, and likewifc 
 feparated by one part of copperand one of the calcined 
 ore of cobalt, in the fame quantity of the fame acid. 
 The whole of the folution of iron was then mixed with 
 five parts of the folution of copper, whence a green 
 and faturated nickel colour was produced ; which, 
 however, on the addition of three parts of the folution 
 of cobalt, became evidently obfcured. The alkaline 
 lixivium dropped into this threw down at firft a ferru- 
 ginous brown fediment, the folution ftill lemaining 
 green : afterwards all the blue was precipitated ; by 
 which at firft all colour was deftroyed, but afterwards 
 a red appeared, occafioned by the cobalt diffolved in 
 the alkaline fait. The fediment, when i-educed, yielded 
 a regulus fimilar to copper, and at the fame time duc- 
 tile, which tinged both glafs and nitrous acid of a blue 
 colour. If a faturated iolution of nickel be mixed 
 with half its quantity of folution of cobalt, the green 
 colour is much obfcured; but four parts of the former, 
 on the addition of three of the latter, put off all ap- 
 pearances of nickel. See the article Nickel. 
 
 § i^. Of Platina. 
 
 1318 
 
 The properties of this metal have not as yet been -pjjg ^ea- 
 thor-oughly inveftigated by chemlfts, 'and there is there- vieft of all 
 fore fome difagreeraent concerning them. Formerly nictal*. 
 it was fuppofed to be inferior in fpecific gravity to 
 4 A gold; 
 
554 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 P'atina. 
 
 ^3^9 
 
 InP:)lubIe 
 except by 
 
 fticated ma' 
 
 gold ; but now is generally allowed to be fuperior in 
 tliat refped by little lefs than a fourth part ; being to 
 Wd,ter in the proportion of 23 to i when perfe£lly 
 freed from all heterogeneous matters. Mr Berg- 
 man fays that its colour is that of the pureft fil- 
 ver. The very fmall globules of it are extremely mal- 
 leable; but when many of thefe are coUefted together, 
 they can fcarcely be fo perfectly fufed as to preferv^e 
 the fame degree of malleability. They are not affec- 
 ted by the magnet in the leaft, nor can they be dif- 
 folved in any fimple menftruvmi excepting dephlogi- 
 riiie acid, ^icated marine acid. As it is commonly met with, 
 1320 however, platina has the form of fmall grains, its 
 Found in_ plates of a bluifh black, whofe colour is intermediate 
 intSmlxed' '^^^^^^^ thofe of filver and iron. Thefc grains arc 
 wlthforeign ™ixed .with many foreign fubftances, as particles of 
 fubftances, gold, mercury, and blackiih ferruginous, fandy grains, 
 which by the magnifier appear fcorified. The grains 
 themfelves, when examined by a magnifying glafs, ap- 
 pear fometimes regular, fometimes round and flat, 
 like a kind of button. When beat on the anvil, moft 
 of them are flattened arjd appear duftile ; fome break 
 in pieces, and on being narrowly examined appear to 
 be hollow, and particles of iron and a white powder 
 have been found within them : and to thefe we mull 
 attribute tlie attraftion of platina by the magnet ; 
 fince, as we have already obferved, pure platina is not 
 attrafted by it. 
 
 Mr Bergman, who carefully exammed this metal, 
 dliTolved it firll in aqua-regia compofed of the nitrous 
 and marine acid. The folution at firlt exhibits a 
 yellow colour, but on approaching to faturation be- 
 came red, and the rednefs increafes as the liquor be- 
 comes more loaded with metal. Cryftals are produced 
 by evaporation of a deep red colour, generally in 
 fmall angular and irregular grains, whofe true fhape 
 cannot be difcovered. Their appearance is fometimes 
 opaque and fometimes pellucid. After thefe are once 
 formed, they are extremely difficult of folution, re- 
 quiring much more water than even gypfum itfelf for 
 this purpofe. — The folution is not precipitated by ve- 
 getable fixed alkali, nordoes the latter affeft the cryfl:als, 
 except very faintly by digeftion with them in a cauilic 
 ftate. Aerated mineral alkali takes them up and grows 
 yellow, but without depofiting any thing, though it 
 decompofes tfiem at lallby evaporating to drynefs. 
 Gn the addition of a fmall quantity of vegetable 
 fTe'decom-"' fixed alkali, either mild or cauftic, fmall red cryftals 
 pcfed by foluble in water, and fometimes of an oAohedral fi- 
 
 Platina. 
 
 Mr Berg- 
 man's expe 
 rimencs on 
 tliis metal. 
 
 1312 
 
 Cryllals of 
 nJatina may 
 
 but 
 
 gure, are depofited. They are decompofed with 
 ble* fixed^l-' 'iiffi'^ulty by the mineral alkali, but not at all by the 
 
 kali. 
 
 vegetable. If a larger quantity of fait is added at 
 firft, an infoluble fpongy matter of a yellow colour is 
 precipitated. Cryttalline particles of the fame kind 
 are thrown down by an alkali faturated either with 
 the vitriolic, nitrous, marine, or acetous acids, though 
 all the platina cannot thus be feparated from the men? 
 flruum. 
 
 Aqua-regia, compofed of nitrous acid and common 
 aq'4a-re,^:a (^\^^ dilTolved the metal with equal faciHty as the for- 
 made \Mi ^^j, onlv the folution was more dilute, and a vel- 
 lutrcus acid / n , 1 r r , ^■ 
 
 and that of 'ow powder floated on the iurtace, a larger quantity 
 lea-ialt. being found at the bottom. On adding vegetable fix- 
 ed alkali to the clear folution, a copious yellow pow- 
 der./olubk- in.a large quantity of water, was depolitcd. 
 
 Solution in 
 
 A powder, of a fimilar kind, was precipitated, tho' 
 more flowly, and more of a cryftalline nature ; but ^~~V— ^ 
 mineral alkali, though ufed in much larger quantity, 
 did not make any alteration. The colletled powder 
 was yellow, and agreed in property with that fepara- 
 ted fpontaneoufly in a former experiment. 1^24 
 
 On repeating the experiment with nitre and depu- In a Hquor 
 rated fpirit of fait, inllead of nitrous acid and fea-falt, ^'j'^^P'^^^^^' 
 the platina was diffolved into gold-coloured liquor, afpii-j^Qf 
 greeni/h coloured granulated matter falling to theiuit. 
 bottom, and the finer part of the fame rifing to the 
 top. After faturating the fuperfluous acid, a metal- 
 lic calx, infoluble in water, was thrown dov/n by the 
 vegetable alkali. The green powder is foluble in wa- 
 ter, and is of the fame nature with the precipitate 
 thrown down by tlie vegetable alkali. 
 
 Platina precipitated from aqua-regia by a fufficient 
 quantity of mineral alkali, the precipitate wafhed and p,^^jgj. 
 diflblved in marine acid, on. the addition of vegetable al- precipitated 
 ka;li immediately lets fall a cryflialline powder, as it d6es|'y ^e^eta- 
 alfo with nitre and other falts, having the vegetable j'^^^^^'^^'^^j* 
 alkali for their bafis. The cafe is the fame with calx ofiution of the 
 platina dilTolved in vitriolic acid. Nitrous ^cid alfocalx in ma- 
 difiblvf^s the calx of platina, but does not yield any rine acid ; 
 diftind faline precipitate without the aifiilance of ^ri^-ijut ji^t 
 rine acid. — The above phenomena are likewife pi'odu- ivon^ ^ j,^; 
 ced by the precipitate thrown down, by the vegetable lution in ni- 
 alkali after the faline powder has been depofited. ^•''^"s acid. 
 
 From thefe exiieriments our author concludes, .''■'^■^ . 
 i hat the precipitate which is firlt thrown down, on pirate a 
 the addition of vegetable alkali to folutions of platina, kind of trl- 
 is a faline fubfl;ance, and difiicrent from the calx of P^^c f.ilt. 
 the metal. 2, That tliis faiine precipitate is compo- 
 fed of calcined platina, marine acid, and vegetable al- 
 kali. 3. By means of vitriolic acid, a precipitate ana- 
 logous to this may be obtained, compofed of calcined 
 platina, vegetable alkali, and vitriolic acid. 4. The 
 vt'hole folution of platina cannot be precipitated by 
 vegetable alkali in form of a triple fait; but after pafs- 
 ing a certain Hmit, a metallic calx in, the ufual way 
 is produced. 
 
 As it has been denied by Margraaf and Lewis ihat^^^^'^^ 
 mineral alkali is capable of feparating platina from i^Sj^^j^^^^^^ 
 acid, our author was induced to attend particularly tojc^iican fe- 
 tliis circumftance.. Having therefore tried the com-parate 
 mon folution with mineral alkah, he found that each drop P^^-"\^ ^ ^ 
 excited a violent efi'ervefcence, and at lafl: that a y<^l" veut"'^ ^'^ 
 low fpongy matter, affording a genuine calx of pla- 
 tina, was precipitated: this was more fpeedily efFected 
 by ufing the dry mineral alkali, which had fallen to 
 powder of itfelf. To determine, however, the dif- 
 ference betwixt the two alkalies in a more accurate 
 manner, he divided a very acid folution of platina in- 
 to two equal parts. To one of thefe he added fmall 
 portions of the vegetable, and to the other an equal 
 weight of pieces of mineral alkali, waiting five mi- 
 nutes after eveiy addition, till the effervefcence Tnould 
 fully ceafe. After the firft addition, fmall cryftals ap- 
 peared; in the former partly on the furface, and partly pj|-j^j''_^j^' 
 in the bottom ; but in the latter no precipitate could rmies as 
 be obferved until 56 times the quantity of vegetable ri^uch mi- 
 alkali had been added. The difference, however, was"""! ^'j^'' 
 even greater than what appears from this experiment ; prec.pi-ate* 
 for the vegetable alkali was cryftallized, and therefore platina as of. 
 charged with, the water neceffary to its cryftalHne vegetable 
 
 form i 
 
Platina. form 
 
 Iffeas of 
 tlic volatile 
 allcali. 
 
 1331 
 
 latina 
 
 C H E M 
 
 whereas tKc mineral alkali was fpontaneoufly 
 calcined : and though, in equal quantities of thefe two 
 alkalies, the purely alkaline parts are as 3 to 2, yet 
 three parts of vegetable alkali faturated only 1.7 1 of 
 this aqua-regia, while two of the mineral alkali took 
 up about 2.6. 
 
 The volatile alkali firft throws down this metal in 
 a faliue form ; the grains fometimes diftinftly oSto- 
 hedral. Their colour is red when that of the folution 
 is fo, hut yellow when the folution is more dilute. 
 After faturating. the fuperabundant acid, the fame al- 
 kali precipitates the platina truly calcined. This pre- 
 cipitate is dilTolved in water, though with difficulty, 
 and may be reduced to more regular cryftals by eva- 
 poration. Thefe are dilTolved by the mineral alkali; 
 but hardly any figns of decompofition are to be ob- 
 ferved, unlefs the yellow folution, evaporated to dry- 
 nefs, be again diffolved in water ; for then the metal- 
 lic calx rells at the bottom, and the folution is de- 
 prived of its yellow colour. The vegetable alkali has 
 fcarce any e&€t in this way ; for, after repeated ex- 
 ficcation, the folution remains clear and yellow: but 
 here probably the fixed alkali takes the place of the 
 volatile ; for in larger quantities, and efpecially when 
 the cauftic vegetable alkali is made ufe of, the mixture 
 fmells of volatile alkali. 
 
 The volatile alkali, faturated with any acid, pre- 
 partly pre- cipitates the platina in the fame manner as the vege- 
 cipirared by j.,^^^ alkali in combination with acids: but thefe neu- 
 neutral ■• 1 1 -i • r 1 
 
 falts. tral falts precipitate only a determnied quantity 01 pla- 
 tina; for after their effedl has ceafcd, the liquor lets 
 fall a pure calx of platina on the addition of vegetable 
 j^^^ or volatile alkali. 
 Triple falts The calx of platina precipitated by mineral alkali, 
 formed by and then duTolved in any fimple acid, Ihows nearly the 
 tins metal, {^^^ phenomena with volatile alkali as with the vege- 
 table alkali. " Whence (fays Mr Bergman) we may 
 conclude, that platina dllTolved in acids forms at firft, 
 both with the volatile and fixed vegetable alkah, a 
 triple fait,' difficult of folution, and which therefore al- 
 moft always falls to the bottom unlefs the quantity of 
 %vater be very large." Calcareous earth, whether ae- 
 rated or caultic, produces the fame phenomena as the 
 1333 "liberal alkali, without any cryftalllne appearance. 
 Datnia the Platina has been remarkable ever fince its firft dlf- 
 -tioft iiifu- covery for being the moft ' infufible fubftance in the 
 j.ibie fub- world. MelTrs Macquer and Beaume kept it in the 
 moft violent heat of a glafs-houfe furnace for feveral 
 days without perceiving any other alteration than that 
 its grains adhered flightly to each other ; but the ad- 
 hefion was fo flight that they feparated even by touch- 
 ing. In thefe experiments the colour of the platina 
 became brilHant by a white heat, but acquired a dull 
 grey colour after it had been heated for a long time. 
 They obferved alfo, that its weight was conftantly in- 
 creafed; which undoubtedly arofe from the calcination 
 of the iron it contained. Dr Lewis, after various at- 
 tempts to fufe platina, found himfelf unable to fuc- 
 ceed even in a fire which vitrified bits of glafs-houfe 
 pcto and Heffian crucibles. MelTrs Macquer and 
 Beaume firft melted this refraftory metal with a large 
 burning-glafs, 22 inches diameter and 28 Inches fo- 
 cus. The power of this fpeculum was almoft incre- 
 dible, and far exceeded what is related of the lens of 
 Tfchirnhaufen or the mirror of Villette. Its general 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 5SS 
 
 ■ancein the 
 
 1334 
 Firft melt 
 ed by a 
 burning 
 mlrrsir. 
 
 e^^eSts are related under the article BuRh'iKG-Glafs. Platina. 
 And as platina refifted this intenfe heat more than fix 
 times as long as the moft unfufible fubftances formerly 
 known, it appears to require a fire as many times ^ 
 ilronger to melt It. It has been found, however, ca- May^ be vl- 
 pable not only of fufion but of vitrification by the e- t: ified by 
 leAric fire ; and that it may alfo be melted by fire ex- electric fire, 
 cited by dephlogiftlcated air : but M. de LIfle was the 
 firft who was able to melt it with the heat of a com- 
 mon forge when expofed to the blaft of a double bel- ppecipl- 
 lows in a double crucible. Thus Its real fpeclfic gra- tate fufible 
 vlty began firft to be known. It muft be obferved, i" a com - 
 however, that this fufion was not performed on com- furgc. 
 mon platina, but on fuch as had been diftblved in aqua- 
 regia and precipitated by means of fal ammoniac. 
 M. Morveau repeated the experiment, and from 72 
 grains of platina obtained a regulus weighing 504- ; 
 which feemed to have undergone a very imperfect fu- 
 fion ; for it did not adhere to the crucible or take its 
 form, but feemed to be merely platina revived. Its fpe- 
 clfic gravity was alfo found to be no more than 10.045 ; 
 but It was nearly as malleable as filver ; and when it 
 had been fufficlently hammered, its fpeclfic gravity 
 was augmented to no lefs than 20.170, which is more .^337 ^ 
 than that of gold itfelf. M. Morveau found that he '^^'J^ J" 
 could melt the precipitate with different fluxes, fuch gye^ crude 
 as a mixture of white glafs, borax, and charcoal, and platina, fu- 
 a mixture of white glafs and neutral arfenlcal fait : iii^'e by tha 
 and that the recculus thus obtained was more complete- ^^^^^ance of 
 ly fufed, but was not malleable, and obeyed the mag- 
 net ; but the regulus obtained without addition did 
 not fiiow this mark of containing Iron. He alfo found, 
 that by means of the above mentioned flux of white 
 glafs, borax, and charcoal, he could melt crude pla- 
 tina. Since that time the fufion of platina hjis been 
 accompliflied by various chemlfts, and with different 
 fluxes ; and in proportion to the degree of purity to 
 which the metal has been reduced, its fpeclfic gravity 
 has alfo increafed ; fo that it is now fettled at 25, 
 that of fine gold being 1 9. 
 
 Though Dr_Lewis could not accompllfti the fufion ^^j^-''-^^ 
 of platina by the methods he attempted, he was ne- l^^-^iJ 
 verthelefs able to alloy it with other metals. Equal with other 
 parts of gold and platina may be melted together by metals, 
 a violent fire, and the mixed metal formed into an 
 ingot by pouring it into a mould. It Is whitifli, hard, 
 and may be broken by a violent blow ; but when 
 carefully annealed, is capable of confiderable extenfion 
 under the hammer. Four parts of gold with one of 
 platina form a compound much more fufible than the ^359 
 former, and llkewife more malleable ; fo that it may ^^^'^^ 
 be extended into very thin plates without being bro- 
 ken or even fpllt at the edges. Dr Lewis remarks 
 alfo, that though In this cafe It be alloyed with fuch a 
 quantity of white metal, It neverthelefs appears no 
 paler than guineas ufually are, which contain only 
 one-twelfth of filver. 
 
 Equal parts of filver and platina melted together -witiffiiver, 
 with a violent fire, form a much harder and darker- 
 coloured mafs than filver, which has alfo a large grain, 
 though it preferves fome du6tlllty. Seven parts of 
 filver with one of platina form a compound much more 
 refembling filver than the other ; but ftlU coarfer- 
 grained and lefs white. From the experiments made 
 on filver, however, it appears that no perfect union is 
 4 A 2 formed 
 
556 C H E M 
 
 Platina formed betwixt the two ; for after the mixture has 
 ^ been kept in fu;..,n for a confiderable time, moll of the 
 platina ftparates and Falls 1o th bottom. Lewis ob- 
 ferved, that filver melted witli platina was thrown up 
 with an explofion agafnfl the fides of the crucible. 
 
 Silver did not appear to be in any degree meliorated 
 by its union with this metal, excepting by the fuperior 
 hardnefs communicated to it ; but copper fecmed to 
 be confiderably improved. A large proportion of pla- 
 tina. Indeed, as two-thirds or equal parts, produced an 
 hard, brittle, and coa i fe-grained compound; but when 
 a fmaller quantity of platina is added, as from -g-to 
 union with Or even lels, a goklen-colouted copper is produced, 
 platina. very malleable, harder, fufceptible of a finer polilh, 
 fmoother- grained, and much lefs ftibjeft to calcina- 
 1342. tion and ri'llthan pure copper. 
 
 Of all metallic matters, ho.'; ever, zinc mod readily 
 unites with pliitira, and is iv.j{\ t-ftvciuafy dilTolved by 
 fufton. When the pioporticn of platina is confider- 
 able, the metal is of a biuifn colour, the grain clolcr, 
 without tarnilliing or changing colour in the air, and 
 they have not even the malleability of the femi- 
 metal. 
 
 Platina unites readily with the compound metals, 
 brafs formed of copper and zinc, and bronze made of 
 copper and tin. In the latter it was remarkable, that 
 the compound metal took up more platina than both 
 its ingredients feparattly can do. This compound 
 was hard and capable of receiving a fine polilh, but is 
 fubjeft to tarnilh. 
 
 Equal parts of brafs and platina formed a compound 
 very hard, brittle, capable of receiving a fine polilli, 
 and not fubjedt to tarnifh. It is poffible therefore that 
 proper ma- it might be ufed to advantage as a material for fpecu- 
 terial^for Jums ; all materials for which, hitheito difcovered, 
 ' ' have the great inconvenience of tarniiliing in the air, 
 1345 and that very quickly. 
 
 Platina amjalgamates with mercury, but with much 
 greater difficulty than gold, v,liich will alfo ft;par:'te 
 the quickfilver after it has been united with the pla- 
 tina. The amalgamation of platina does not fucceed 
 but by" very long trituration of the metals with water, 
 as for inttance a week ; but if the trituration be per- 
 formed with a mixed metal compofed of gold and 
 platina, the merciuy ftizes the gold, and leaves the 
 platina untouched. Dr Lewis propofes this as a me- 
 thod of feparating gold from platina ; and it is that 
 ufed in Peru, where gold and platina are fometimes 
 naturally mixed in the ore ; but we do not know whe- 
 ther this feparation be quite complete. 
 
 Mr Morveau fucceeded in uniting iron with platina^ 
 united with though Dr Lewis could not accomplifh this. The 
 «aif iron"*^ latter fucceeded, however, in uniting it with caft iron. 
 ' The compound was much harder and lefs fubjeCl to 
 ruft than pure iron. It was alfo fufceptible of a 
 T348 much finer polifli. 
 And with Platina may be alloyed with tin, lead, or bif- 
 ^^^1^' ""^ muth, but without sny advantage. To lead and tin 
 it gives the property of affuming blue, violet, or pur- 
 ple colours, by being expofed to the atmofphere. 
 Dr Lewis could not fucceed in uniting platiiia with 
 
 i34t 
 
 coni^c-er- 
 abh 
 
 id : V 
 
 Uiiirc-s nio!l 
 reaciily with 
 zinc : 
 
 1343 
 
 ^nd ith 
 the com- 
 pound me 
 
 1344 
 
 The com- 
 pound of 
 brafs and 
 platiii: 
 
 Can fcarce 
 be united 
 wiih nier- 
 tury. 
 
 1346 
 Mei'-ury 
 leavesplari- 
 na to unite 
 with gold. 
 
 1347 
 May be 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 arfenic ; but M. SchefFer affirms, that if only one- Platina, 
 twentieth of arfenic be added to platina when red hot 
 in a crucible, the two fubftances will be perfectly i^i^i^.^be 
 fufed and united into a brittle grey mats. This cxpe- mcited by 
 riment did not fucceed with Mr Margraaf ; for he, mean, of 
 having expokd to a violent fire during aar hour a mix- -irFenic. 
 ture of an ounce of platin i with a lufible glafs, com- 
 pofed of eight ounces of minium, two ounces of Hints, 
 and one ounce of white arfenic, obtaiiied a regulus 
 of platina well united and fufed, weighing an ounce 
 and 32 grains; the furface of which was fmooth, 
 white, and fliining, and the internaJ parts grey ; but 
 which neverthelefs appeared luiucitully wuite wiiea 
 filed. The experiment lucceeded impcnettly alio in the 
 hands of Dr Lewis; but 1.1. iouicioy Uii^.ims us, 
 that " it has fincc been repeated, and that platina is 
 in facl very fufible with arfenic, but that it rtinains 
 brittle. In proportion as the arfenic .is driven oh' by 
 the continuance of the hc<.t, the metal becomes more 
 ductile ; and by this procels it is that M. .-ichard and 
 M. de Morvtau fucceeded in making crucibles of pla- 
 tina by melting it a fccond time in moulds." (a) ^^^^ 
 M. Fourcroy feems to deny that platina can be p^urcroy 
 united with mercury, contrary to what is mentioned denies that 
 above. — " Platina (fays he) does not unite with rner- p'"*'"* can 
 cury, though triturated for fcveral hours with that ^'l^^''^^^^'^^ 
 mttallic fluid. It is likewife known, that platina re- ^ury. 
 fills the mercury ufed in America to ieparate the gold. 
 Many intermediums, fuch as water, ufed by Lewis and 
 Beaumc, and aqua-regia by Scheffer, have not been 
 found to facihtate the union of thefe two metals. In 
 this refpeft platina feems to refemble iron, to whofe 
 colour and hardnefs it likewife in fome meafure ap- 
 "*proaches." This laft fentence, however, feems very 
 litile to agree with what he himfelf had before told us 
 of M. Macquer's experiment of melting platina. "The 135 1 
 melted portions (fays he) were of a white brilliant Inco fiftent 
 colour, in the form of a button ; they could be cut to ^" ^^^^ ut'it, 
 pieces with a knife." This furely was a very fmall ap- hardnef». 
 proach to the hardnefs of iron ; and gives us an idea 
 rather of the confiftence of t-.n or lead. " One of 
 thefe malTes was flattened on the anvil, and converted 
 into a thin plate without cracking or breaking, but it 
 became hard under the hammer." In another expe- 
 riment indeed the button of platina was brittle, and 
 fuificiently hard to make deep traces in gold, copper, 
 and even iron ; but this was obtained from precipita- 
 ted platina urged for 35 minutes by a llrong blaft fur- 
 nace. In an experiment of this kind M. Beaume even precipita- 
 fucceeded in melting the precipitate, along with cer- ted platina 
 tain fluxes, into a vitriform iiibilance by two different '^"^'"'fis'^ 
 procelfes. The precipitate of platina, mixed with 
 calcined borax, and a very fufible white glafs, was ex- 
 pofed, for 36 hours, in the hotteft part of a potter's 
 furnace ; and afibrded a greenilh glafs, inclining to 
 yellow, without globules of reduced metal. This glafs, 
 treated a fecond time with cream of tartar, gypfum, 
 and vegetable alkali, was completely melted, and ex- 
 hibited globules of platina diiperfed through its fub- 
 ftance. M. Beaume feparated them by wafhing, and 
 found them dudile. The fame chemiil afterwards, to- 
 gether 
 
 M Beaume, 
 
 (a) For a particular account of this procefs fee before no 587. 
 
Pra(^ice. 
 
 Platina. 
 
 1353 
 
 Pi-ccipitP.ic 
 
 by fal ani- 
 irionlac fu- 
 
 Jicat. 
 
 Macquer 
 ridt to be 
 perfeft. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 ^ether witli M. Macquer, expofed precipitate of pla- 
 tina to the fame burning mirrcrr with which they had 
 fufed the metal : the precipitate exhaled a ver>' thick 
 and l iminous fume, with a ftrong l'^. :!! of aqua-re;rta : 
 it \oil its red colour, refumed that of pl.itlna, and rn It- 
 ed into a perfect brill ant button, which was foiind to 
 be an opaque vitreous fubftancc, of an hyacuitluue co- 
 lour at its furface, and bhickifh within ; and may be 
 confinered as ^ true glafs of platina. It may however ^ 
 be obferved, that the faline matters with which it was * 
 impregnated contributed doubtlefs to its vitrifica- 
 
 " The orange coloured precipitate obtained by pour- 
 intr a folution of fal ammoniac into a h lution of pla- 
 tina, appears to bt a faline fubftance entirely foluble 
 in water. This ptecipitati; has a valuable pioptrty, 
 d.fcovcred by M. de i'lne, viz. tliat it isiufible without 
 addition iu a i{ood furnace or common f'oi-ge-heat. The 
 platina meUcd by this proccfs is a brilliant, denfe, and 
 - - cU.fe-graiiicd button ; but it is not ma]l. able imlels it 
 'b^'^^'S^has been expofed to a very llrong heat. Macquer 
 thinks that this fnHon, like that of the grains of 
 1354 platina alone, expofrd to the adion of a violent fire, 
 This'fufum conf.fts only in the agglutination of the foftened par- 
 fuvpofcd by^j^i^.g . vvhich being exceedingly more divided and mi- 
 nute than the grains of platina, adhere to and touch 
 each other in a greater number of points than the 
 grains ; and in that manner render the texture of the 
 metal much more denfe, though no true fufion may 
 have taken place. It feems, however, that if platina 
 in grains be capable of fufion by the burning-glals, and 
 of becoming': confiderably dudile, the precipitate of 
 this metal formed by fal ammoniac may likewife be 
 fufcd on account of its extreme divifion ; and that its 
 not being as dnftile as the button of platina ftifed by 
 the- folar heat, may perhaps depend on Its retaining a 
 part of the matter it carried down with it in precipi- 
 tation, of which it may be poffible to deprive it by 
 
 fire." . , . -rir 
 
 It being fo extremely difficult to bring platina iticlt 
 one of the firft attempts to purify it was 
 by cupellation with lead. Thus the bafer metals would 
 be fcorified ; and, running through the crucible along 
 with the lead, leave the platina in as great puiity as 
 though it had been melted by itfelf. This operation, 
 hov" ever, was fonnd almoft equally difficult with tlje 
 fufion of the metal by .itfelf. Lewis tailed in the ex- 
 periment, though he applied the moR violent heat of 
 the ordinary cupelhng furnacen. The vitrification and 
 abforption of the lead indeed took place as" ufual ; 
 but in a fliott time the platina became fixc-d, and could 
 not by any means be rendered fluid. MclTrs Macquer 
 and Beaume fucceedcd by expofing an ounce of pla- 
 tina with two ounces of lead in the hottell part of a 
 porcelain furnace, where the fire is continued for 50 
 hours without intermiffion. At the end of the opera- 
 tion the platina was flattened in the cupel ; its upper 
 fill-face was dull and rough, and eafily feparaied ; but 
 its under furface was brilliant, and it was found eahly 
 to extend under the liammer ; and on every chemical 
 trial was found to be perftftly pure, without any mix- 
 ture of lead. M. de Morveau hkewife fucceeded in 
 cupelling a mixture of one drachm of pluina and two 
 drachms of lead in M. Macquer's wind furnace. The 
 operation lafted eleven or twelve hoursj and a button 
 
 1355 
 
 Attempt^^o.^^^ f^^, 
 
 y unty 1 w- 
 tinaby cu- 
 j.tllation. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 of platina wis obtained which did not adhere to the 
 cupel, was unifo-m, though rather rough, and of a 
 colour refciiii'ling tin. Ii weighed exactly one drachm, 
 and was not at ' all naed upon by the magnet. Thus 
 It appears that platina may be obtained in plated or la- 
 niiiiiE, wiiich may be foiged, and confc^^uently may 
 be employed in making very vaiuable utenfils ; and this 
 the more efpecially as Mr Beaume has obferved that 
 different pieces of it may be welded and forged like 
 iron. After having heated two pieces of pure cupel- 
 led platina to whicenefs, he phc.ed them one upon 
 the other, and llriking them bnlkly u.th a hammer, 
 found that they united together a^ quickly and fiimly 
 as two pieces of iron would have done. _ ^^^^ 
 
 The p-reat fpecific gravity of platina has rendered it of fhe pof- 
 a very defiiable matter tor fuch ao wifli to a.iulterate frnlity of 
 the precious metal, and can procure the platina eafi!} . 
 This, however, can only be done in South Ain< rica, ^^ j^^^y^'^, 
 where platina is met with in plenty. In Europe the na. 
 fcarcity of platina renders it a more valuable objeil 
 'than even It.e gold itfelf. Fears of this fraud, hmv- 
 ever, have undoubtedly given occafion to the prohibi- 
 tion of exporting^it. There are g-eat differences a- 
 mong chemiils concerning the quantity of platina that 
 can be mixed with gold without dcilroying the colour 
 of the latter. Dr Lewis, as has already been obfer- 
 ved, ififorms us, that four parts of platina may be 
 mixed with one of gold, and yet the mixture be no 
 paler than that for guineas ; while Fourcroy afferts, 
 that it greatly alters the colour of the metal, unlefs 
 its quantity be very fmall i thus, for example, a 47th 
 part of platina, and all the proportions below that, do 
 not greatly affeft the colour of the gold." But whe- 
 ther this be the cafe or not, chemiitry has aftbrded va- 
 rious wa^s of fepaiatin;^- even the fraalleft propor- 
 tion of platina fro :) gold ; fo that there is now no 
 reafon to prohibit the importation of it to Europe, 
 more than that of any other metal with which gold 
 can be alloyed The following are the methods by T35T 
 which the platina may be molt readily discovered : J^^'^J^^^^^^ 
 I. By amalgamating the fufpefted metal with mercury, f^aud 
 and grinding the mixture for a confiderable time with if it (hould 
 water ; by which the platina will be left, and the goldbcpradi- 
 remain united with the quickfilver. 2. By dilTolving i^d. 
 a little of it in aqua regia, and precipitating with al- 
 kaline fidt ; the remaining liquor, in cafe the metal 
 has been adulterated with platina, will be fo yellow, 
 that it is I'uppofed a mixture of one thoufandth pare 
 would thus be found out. 3. By precipitation with 
 fal ammoniac, which throws down the platina but not 
 the gold. If mineral alkali be ufed, the gold will be 
 precipitated, but not the platina, unlets tfie precipitant 
 is in very large quantity. 4. By precipitation with 
 green vitriol, which throws down the gold, and leaves 
 the platina united with the menflruum. j^..,^ 
 
 All thefe method?, however, are not only attended pktina 
 with a confiderable deal of trouble, but in fome cates, moll eafiljr- 
 for inllance in fufpet^ed coin, it might not be '^I'gi'^le a^'^'f^' by';^ 
 to ufe them. The hydroftatic balance alone affords a^^^.^^^ j-^^^j^ 
 certain method of difcovering mixtures of metals with- fie giavitT, 
 out hurting the texture of their parts. The great 
 fpecific gravity of platina would very readily difcover 
 it if mixed with gold in any niodcrate quantity ; and 
 even in the fmallett, the gravity of the mats could ne- 
 ver be Itfs than that of the pureil gold ; which cir» 
 
 cumilancc: 
 
55^ 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Manganefccumftance atone, as gold is never worked without al- 
 ^ loy, would be fufficient to create a jufl fufpiclon ; af- 
 ter which feme of the methods already mentioned 
 might be tried. It is pofPible, however, that the hard- 
 nefs and duftility of platina might render it more pro- 
 per for alloying gold than even copper or fdver, ufually 
 made ufs of for this purpofe. 
 
 >359 . 
 New fenii- 
 metal af- 
 forded by 
 niangaiiei'e 
 
 1560 
 Properties 
 of the com- 
 mon man- 
 ganefe trea 
 ted with 
 vitriolic 
 acid. 
 
 1361 
 
 Entirely 
 diffolved. by 
 phlogiftica- 
 ted vitrio- 
 lic acid. 
 
 ^15. 0/ Manganese. 
 
 This fubflance is now difcovered to afford a femi- 
 metal different from all others, and llkewife to pofTefs 
 fome other properties of a very fingular kind. Mr 
 Scheele has invefliigated its nature with the utmoft 
 care; and the refult of his inquiries are as follows : 
 
 1. Two drachms of levigated manganefe, digefted 
 for feveral days in a diluted vitriolic acid, did not ap- 
 pear to be diffolved or diminifhed in quantity ; never- 
 thelefs a yellowifli white precipitate was procured by 
 faturating the acid with fixed alkali. The remaining 
 manganefe was not aftcd upon by more of the fame 
 acid, but the addition of another half ounce nearly 
 dellroyed the acidity of the menftruura when boiled 
 upon it. 
 
 2. With concentrated vitriolic acid an ounce of 
 manganefe was reduced to a mafs like honey, and then 
 expofed to the fire in a retort till it became red-hot. 
 Some vitriolic acid came over into the receiver ; and 
 after breaking the retort, a mafs was found in it 
 weighing iz^ drachms, hard and white in the in- 
 fide, but red on the outfide. A great part of it dif- 
 ffjlved in diRilled water, on the affufion of which at 
 firft it became very hot. The refiduum after edulco- 
 r^tion weighed a drachm and an half, and was ©f a 
 grey colour. Being calcined in a crucible with con- 
 centrated vitriolic acid till no more vapours arofe, it 
 was all diffolved by water excepting one drachm ; 
 which being again calcined with the fame acid, an in- 
 foluble refiduum of a white colour, and weighing on- 
 ly half a drachm, remained. This white refiduum 
 effervefced with borax, and melted into a tranfparent 
 brown glafs ; it likewife effervefced with fixed alkali, 
 changing into a brown mafs, which yielded an hepatic 
 fmell with acids, and became at the fame time gela- 
 tinous. The folution obtained by calcination was eva- 
 porated and fet to cryflallize. A few fmall cryftals 
 of felenite were firft depofited, and afterwards lome 
 very fine large cryftals of an oblique parallelopiped 
 form, whofe number increafed as long as there was 
 any liquid left. They tailed like Epfom fait, and Mr 
 Weflfeld fuppofes them to be alum ; but according to 
 Mr Scheele, they have no other refemblance to alum 
 than that they contain the yitriolic acid. 
 
 3. By phlogifticated vitriolic acid the manganefe 
 was entirely diffolved. To procure this acid in puri- 
 ty, Mr Scheele dipped fome rags in a folution of al- 
 kali of tartar, and after faturating them with the 
 fumes of burning brim/lone, put them into a retort, 
 pouring on them fome diffolved acid of tartar, luting 
 on a receiver which contained levigated manganefe and 
 water. After a warm digeftion of only one day, the 
 liquid of the receiver had become as clear as water, 
 and a little fine powder, confifting principally of lili- 
 ceouG earth, fell to the bottom. 
 
 4. Two drachms of levigated manganefe, digefted 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaicei 
 
 for feveral days with an ounce of pure colourlcfs acid Manganeft 
 
 of nitre, did not appear to have deprived the men- v"*— 
 
 ftruum of its acidity, or to have been affeded by it 
 in any degree. The liquor being diftilled off, and the 
 produd of the diflillation ;poured back on the refi- 
 duum, a fmall quantity of it was diffolved. By a 
 third difi illation, and pouring back the liquor on the 
 refiduum, a complete folution was effefted ; and this 
 quantity of acid appeared capable of diffolving nine 
 "drachms of the pov/der, 
 
 5. The folution of manganefe thus faturated, was p,. ^^^-^ 
 filte. ed and divided into two equal portions. Into one and'^cfyftak 
 of thefe fome drops of vitriolic acid were poured, by obtained 
 which a fine white powder was thrown down, which, '^^°"\'^« 
 however, did not fettle to the bottom for fome hours. 
 It was foluble neither in boiling water nor in acids. 
 
 The limpid folution, b)-^ evaporation, yielded fome 
 fmall cryftals of felenite or gypfum. 
 
 6. From the other half of this folution, after eva- 
 poration by a gentle heat, about ten grains of fmall 
 fhining cryftals of a bitter tafte were obtained. On 
 pouring fome drops of vitriolic acid into the folution 
 infpiffated^ by a gentle heat, no precipitation, except- 
 ing of a little felenite, enfued ; but as foon as it was 
 infpiffated to the confiftence of honey, fome fine aci- 
 cular cryftals, verging towards tlie fame centre, began 
 to form, but grew foft, and deliquefced in a few days 
 after. 
 
 7. Phlogifticated nitrous acid diffolves manganefe jyia'nl^. r 
 as readily as the phlogifticated vitrioHc. A little le- diffi"ved by 
 vigated manganefe mixed with fome water was put in- I'hlogiftica- 
 to a large receiver, to which a tubulated retort was "itrous 
 luted. Some ounces of common nitrous acid were^"*^* 
 
 put into the retort, to which fome iron-filings were 
 added, taking care always to clofe the orifice with a 
 glafs ftopple.^ The phlogifticated nitrous acid thus 
 paffed over into the receiver, and diffolved the man- 
 ganefe in a few hours : the folution was as limpid as 
 water, excepting only a little fine filiceous earth. An- 
 other white precipitate, fimilar to that produced by 
 adding vitriolic acid to the folution in pure nitrous 
 acid, now began to fall ; but in other refpefts this fo- 
 lution agreed with the former. 
 
 8. An ounce of purified muriatic acid was poured p,„ ^^^^ 
 upon half an ounce of levigated manganefe; which, jtonfj^it 
 after ftanding about an hour, affumed a dark brown of fait, 
 colour. A portion of it was digefted with heat in 
 an open glafs veffel, and fmelled like warm aqua regia. 
 In a quarter of an hour the fmell was gone, and the 
 folution became clear and colourlefs. The reft' of the 
 brown folution being digefted, to fee whether the mu- ' 
 riatic acid would be faturated with manganefe, an ef- 
 fervefcence enfued, with a ftrong fmell of aqua regia, 
 which lafted till next day, when the folution was found 
 to be faturated. Another ounce of acid was poured '3^5 
 upon the refiduum, which was followed by the fame ^ 
 phenomenon, and the manganefe was entirely diflblved, fjis alid 
 a fmall quantity of filiceous earth only remaining. 
 The folution, which was yellow, being now divided 
 into two portions, fome drops of vitriohc acid were 
 poured into the one, by which it inftantly became 
 white, and a fine powder, infoluble in water, was pre- 
 cipitated. Some fmall cryftals of felenite were form- 
 ed by evaporation, and the refiduum exhibited the 
 fame phenomenon with thofe above mentioned with ni- 
 
 3 troH8 
 
radice. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 559 
 
 [anganefe. trous acid. By evaporating the other half, fome fmall 
 
 flilning angular cryllals were obtained, fimilar to thofe 
 
 procured by means of the nitrous acid. 
 
 1 o. Very little manganefe was diffolved by fluor acid, 
 arce folu- y ; i , t n- a ^ 4.-^ 
 
 e in fluor even after feveral days digeftion. A great quantity 
 
 :id. 
 
 was required to form a foturated foliition. It liad very 
 little tafte, and gave a fmall quantity of precipitate 
 with fixed alkali. But if a neutral fait, corapofed of 
 fluor acid and fal ammoniac, be added, a double de- 
 compofition takes place, and the manganefe is preci- 
 pitated along with the fluor acid. 
 
 10. A drachm of phofphoric acid digefled with as 
 iVr in pliof- much powdered manganefe, diflblved but little of it ; 
 ihoric acid, and, though evaporated to drynefs, the refiduum tailed 
 
 very acid ; but by adding more manganefe the acid 
 was at laft faturated. On adding microcofmic fait to 
 a folution of manganefe, a decompofition takes place 
 fimilar to that effefted by the combination of fluor 
 acid and volatile alkali. 
 
 1 1 . Pure acid of tartar difiblved manganefe partly 
 . , , : . , in the cold, and more cfFeftually by means of heat. 
 If taru^." The whole, however, could not be diffolved, though 
 
 the acid was at lafl; faturated by adding a great quan- 
 tity of the mineral. On adding a folution of foluble 
 tartar, a double decompofition took place. 
 ,.'^'^9 _ 12. Little was difiblved by diftilled vinegar, though 
 Sy in the^o'^ed on manganefe ; bat a'fter diltilling fpirit of ver- 
 icetous. digris feveral times upon it, the acid at. lafl; became 
 fjiturated. The folution, evaporated to drynefs, left a 
 deliquefcent mafs. Little or none of the remaining 
 manganefe was difiblved by concentrated vinegar, 
 though repeatedly diiliiled upon it. 
 
 13. With acid of lemons the whole was difiblved 
 
 ^ 1368 
 Partly fo 
 
 \^7° _^ 
 
 iffolvedby with effervefcence, excepting only fome white earth. 
 
 14. Water impregnated with fixed air like wife dif- 
 folved manganefe, but parted with it on the addi- 
 tion of alkali, or fpontaneoufly by expofure to the 
 air. 
 
 From thefe experiments Mr Scheele concludes, that 
 manganefe has a ftrong eleftive attradlion for all phlo- 
 giftic fubftances; and that this attraftion becomes 
 a ftrong Stronger, if there be prefentamenfl:ruum which can unite 
 ittradion with the phlogiflicated manganefe. Thus it attrafts 
 phlogifton more powerfully than even the nitrous acid 
 itfelf in the moift way. By faturation with phlogi- 
 fi:on, manganefe has the property of lofing its black 
 colour, and afi'uming a white one, which is unufual, 
 the phlogifton generally ^ communicating a black or 
 dark colour to the fubftances with which it was 
 united. 
 
 KniL«i:.» That manganefe naturally contains fome phbgifton, 
 ome i hlo- though but in fmall quantity, appears from evapora- 
 jil'Uin 11a- ^ folution of it in vitriolic acid to drynefs, and 
 
 then diftilling the rnafs in a glafs retort in an open fire. 
 When the retort begins to melt, the acid parts fly off^ 
 from the manganefe in a fulphuieous ftate, leaving the 
 former of its natural black colour. By diftilling the 
 mafs remaining after evaporation of the nitrous folu- 
 tion, a green volatile nitrous acid remains, and the 
 black calx of manganefe remains as before. A folu- 
 tion of this mineral in vitriolic or nitrous acid, preci- 
 iecomesin- P'^^t^'i by fixed alkali, retains its colour ; but when 
 )lub]e in calcined in the open fire, again becomes black, 
 lire acids By lofing its phlogifton, manganefe becomes info- 
 y ^°^!J||^g'^^luble in pure acids j and therefore the refiduum of the 
 
 ;id of le- 
 10ns ; 
 
 1371 
 Lnd by- 
 rater im- 
 pregnated 
 pvitii fixed 
 
 137* 
 
 [or p!ilogi- 
 ;on. 
 
 >373 
 'ecomes 
 ■hite by 
 itiiration 
 :t}i 
 
 (hlogiflon. 
 
 1374 
 
 lontains 
 
 above mentioned diftillatlons cannot be difiblved by Manga^iefe. 
 adding more of the vitriolic or nirous acids : but if that " ^ 
 which has come over into the receiver be poured back 
 into the retort, a folution will again take place by rea- 
 fon of the manganefe refuming the phlogifton it had 
 parted with to the acid. 
 
 On t]iis principle our author explains the reafon of p^^j-jf^'ic^ji^j. 
 the partial folutions of this mineral above mentioned. tio;;s of 
 Part of it is difi'olved, for inftance in the vitriolic acid, manganefe 
 while the remainder is found infoluble. This happens "^'i^igp^ij^. 
 (fays he), " becaufethe undifi"olved portion has parted, j,,;^^ 
 with the little phlogifton it naturally poflefled to that 
 portion of manganefe which is taken up by the vitri- 
 olic acid during the firft digeftion ; for without that 
 principle it is infoluble. " 
 
 Manganefe attrafts phlogifton more ftrongly when 
 combined with fome acid than by itfelf, as appears from 
 the following experiments. 1377 
 
 1. Levigated manganefe, digefted or boiled with a SLronj^at- 
 folution of fugar, honey, gum Arabic,_hdrtlhorn, jelly, J^'^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 &c. remains unchanged ; but on mixing the pounded 
 mineral with diluted vitriolic, or pure nitrous acid, and bi'ieJ with 
 then adding fome of thefe fubftances, the whole is dif- acids for 
 folved, the black colour vaniflies by degrees, and the phlo^aton. 
 folution becomes as limpid as water. So ftrong is the 
 attra£lion of manganefe for phlogifton in thefe circum- 
 ftances, that metals, the noble ones not excepted, ren- ,^^,3 
 der it foluble in thefe acids in a Hmpid form. Con- WJiy the 
 ccntrated vitriolic acid, indeed, difiblves manganefe to^.ccnira- 
 entirely without any phlogifton. " It would be v^tj.io*i\iif, 
 cult (fays Mr Scheele) to comprehend whence the foi^.g ^^^n*- 
 phlogifton in this cafe fiiould come, if we were notganefe 
 certain that feveral fubftances, which have a great without 
 attraftion for phlogifton, can attraft it in a red heat. 
 Quickfilver andjilver, when diflblved in the pureil ni- 
 trous acid, really lofc their phlogifton, which is a con- 
 ftituent part of thefe metals. This appears from the 
 red vapours in which the acid arifes ; and the dif- 
 folved metallic earth cannot be again reduced to its . 
 metallic form, till it has acquired the loft phlogifton, 
 which is effe£led either by precipitation with complete 
 metals or by heat alone. Thus manganefe can attradl- 
 the quantity of phlogifton neceflary for its folution by 
 means of concentrated vitriolic acid from heat. II; i^i 
 not probable that the ccncentrated acid undergoes a 
 decompofition in this degree of fire ; for if you fatu- 
 rate half an ounce of this acid with alkali of tartar, 
 and afterwards calcine in a retort, with a receiver ap- 
 plied, an ounce and a half of powdered manganefe, 
 with an equal quantity of the fame vitriolic acid, then 
 dilTolve the calcined mafs in diftilled water, and like- 
 wife wafti well the receiver, which contains fome drops 
 of vitriolic acid, which are alfo to be added to the lo- 
 lution, and lallly add the fame quantity of alkali, 
 there will be no mark of fuperabundant acid or alkali. 
 Thence it may be concluded, that the phlogiilon in 
 the vitriolic acid, if there really exifts any in it, con- 
 tributes nothing to the folution. But the manganeie 
 precipitated by alkali contains a confiderable quantity 
 of it; in confequence of which it is afterwards entirely 
 foluble in acids without any addition. 
 
 " The cfFefts of volatile fulphureous acid on manga- -^j^^^^j^g 
 nefe, clearly prove what has been afTerted. The man- volatile ful= 
 ganefe attracts the phlogifton contained in this acid, 1 hureous 
 which is the caufe of its great volatility, and which ^"^."^ "^i^" 
 
 renders. 
 
56o 
 
 C H E M 
 
 1380 
 
 EfFeds of 
 i;itrpus acid 
 on manga- 
 iiefe ex- 
 |)laincd. 
 
 Manganefe. j-enders tlie former foluhle in the new pure vitriolic 
 acid. If this fohition be mixed with concentrated vi- 
 triolic acid and diililled, no volatile fulphureous acid 
 is obtained ; and if it be precipitated by means of fix- 
 ed vegetable alkali, vitrioiated tartar is obtained ; 
 which proves that manganefe has a ftronger attraction 
 than vitriolic acid /or phlogifton in the moift way. 
 
 " The efFefts of nitrous acid on this fubftance are 
 fimilar to thofe of vitriolic acid. Could fpirit of nitre 
 fuftain as great a degree of heat as the concentrated 
 vitriolic acid, it would alfo entirely diflblye the man- 
 ganefe by means of the phlogifton attracted by heat ; 
 but as this is not the cafe, it is necelfary to add phlo- 
 gifton in the manner above mentioned. The manga- 
 nefe decompofes phlogifticated nitrous acid, for the 
 fame reafon that it does the volatile fulphureous acid ; 
 and that the phlogifton of this acid really combines 
 with the manganefe, is manifeft from this, that the af- 
 fufion of vegetable acid produces no fmell of aquafortis 
 by difplacing the phlogifticated acid of nitre. By di- 
 flillation with pure vitriolic acid alfo, the nitrous acid 
 is expelled, not in a fmoking ftate, and of a yellow 
 colour, but pure and colourlefs. 
 
 *' In the folutlon of manganefe by means of gum ara- 
 bic or fugar, a very confiderable effervefcence takes 
 place, owing to the extrication, or probably rather the 
 production, of fixed air from the mixture ; but with 
 phlogifticated acid of nitre no fuch phenomenon takes 
 place, becaufe the manganefe is combined with pure 
 phlogifton ; and if this (hould be again feparated, there 
 is no caufe for the production of fixed air. This mi- 
 neral is alfo diflblved without effei-vefcence, by uniting 
 it with nitrous aci^ and metals, arfenic or oil of tur- 
 pentine." 
 
 Ix-Oenceof As muriatic acid dilTolves manganefe without addi- 
 j»hlogifton tion, Mr Scheele is of opinion that this proves the 
 inihcniu- ^xiftence of phlogifton in that acid, as has already 
 natic acid , • r n^-i r i- n ■, ■ 
 
 been taken notice or. ihe manganele digcited m 
 
 the cold with fpirit of fait alTumes a dark brown 
 colour ; for it is a property of this fubilance that it 
 cannot be diffolved into a colourlefs liquor without 
 phlogifton, but has always a red or blue colour; but 
 with fpirit of fait the folution is more brown than red, 
 cn account of the fine particles of the manganefe float- 
 ing in the liquid. Here the mineral adheres but loofely 
 to the acid, fo that it may be precipitated by water. 
 
 The eff"e£ts of acid of tartar and acid of lemons up- 
 on manganefe are likewife explained on the principle 
 already laid down, viz. the extreme attraction this 
 fubftance has for phlogifton. Thus it attraCts part of 
 acid of le- that naturally contained in thefe acids, decompofing 
 snons. pjjj.^. q£ j-j^gffj^ and being diffolved by the other. 
 
 This deftruCtion of the acid is fimilar to that of the 
 fugar, gum arable, &c. which render it foluble in 
 nitrous acid ; for if a proper quantity of thefe are 
 added, the manganefe will be diffolved, without a pof- 
 fibility of recovering the fmalleft particle of the vege- 
 table fubftances employed ; and if the folution be flow- 
 ly evaporated and cakintd, there will not remain .the 
 fmalleft mark of burned fugar or gum. During this 
 decompcfition, a pungent vapour arifes, which, being 
 collected, appears to be true vinegar. It is obtained 
 in its purcft ftate from diluted vitriolic acid, fugar, and 
 ,38^ manganefe.^ 
 Of fluor Fhioj acid diffolves but very little manganefe, owing 
 to its preelrltating a fait vi^hich envelopes the particles 
 N 
 
 Joved. 
 
 138a 
 Explana- 
 tiou of the 
 adtion >'{ 
 aeid of t?.r 
 tar and 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice, 
 
 of miiigniii fe, and prevents the further acllon of the Manga^iefc. 
 
 menftruum. In all precipitations of m.inganefe, how- v— — 
 
 ever, by means of mild fixed alkalies, the full quantity 
 is not procured ; becaufe the fixed air, detached from 
 the mineral, diffolves part of it. ^^g^ 
 
 Though manganefe decompound? nitre, yet this EfTecls of 
 does not happen till the mixture becomes red-hot. If mantrancfs 
 phlogifticated manganefe be mixed with an equal quan- 
 tity of nitre, and dift lied in a glafs retort, the mix- 
 ture begins to grow black before the retort becomes 
 red-hot, but no nitrous acid goes over. By lixivia- 
 tion, no mark of uncombined alkali is met with ; but 
 phlogifticated nitrous acid is extricated by the appli- 
 cation of tamarinds, or any vegetable acid. Three 
 parts of phlogifticated m.anganefe, mixed with one part 
 of finely pounded nitre, yields no nitrous acid, though 
 the nitre is alkalized as foon as the mixture becomes 
 black in the retort. 
 
 Mr Scheele proceeds now to another fet of experi- ^^l^f^^ 
 ments upon manganefe united with phlogifton. In niev.t' on 
 order to procure it in this ftate, the bcit method is to n-iantnmcle 
 diffolve in diftilled water, and cryftallize the fait ob- "i'''^'' 
 tained by folution of manganefe in vitriolic acid, and 
 then precipitate it with vegetable fixed alkali. In this 
 ftate it is white like chalk ; but by calcination in an open 
 fire, the fuperfluous phlogifton flies off, and the calx 
 regains its ufual black colour. This change of colour 
 likewife happens when the precipitation is made with 
 cauftic alkalies, whether fixed or volatile. The pre- 
 cipitate, indeed, in this cafe, is white when kept ciofe 
 from the air, but affumes a brown colour when e.xpo- 
 led to it for any time : But when the precipitation is 
 made by mild alkali, the white colour is preferved by 
 the fixed air, which in this cafe it alfo contains. By 
 diluting the folution with a confiderable quantity of 
 water, and precipitating with cauftic alkali, the pre- 
 cipitate is brown fiom the very beginning, owing to 
 the air in the liquid attracting the phlogiilon from the 
 manganefe. I'he precipitate formed by lime-water is 
 alfo brown ; but on adding more of a ftronp- folutioa 
 ot manganefe, and afterwards precipitating \vith cau- 
 ftic alkali, the powder falls' of a white colour ; becaufe 
 the air, being ajeady faturated with phlogifton, ean- 
 not take up any more. The refults of Mr Scheele's 
 experiments on this phlogifticated mdnganefe are, j,g^ 
 
 1. An ounce of this fubftance dift died by itfelf By d'-ftilla^ 
 in a glafs retort, with a ftrong fire, yielded a great t»on /f y'' 
 quantity of fixed air with fome drops of water. The 
 refiduuni poured warm out of the retort grew red-hot, 
 
 and let the paper on fire. 
 
 2. On repeating the experiment with only a drachm 
 of phlogifticated manganefe, and tying a bladder to 
 the neck of the retort, three ounce-meafures of air 
 came over : the refiduuni was of a light grey colour ; 
 diffolved in acids without addition of any n>ore phlo- 
 gifton ; and took fire in that degree of heat in which 
 fulphur fmokcs, but does not burn. From thefe expe- 
 riments, fays Mr Scheele, it is evident, that phlogifton 
 does Hot feparate from manganefe if the accefs of air be 
 prevented. 
 
 3. One part of finely powdered manganefe boiled i" Boj^'^d with 
 four of oIl-o"ive, effervefced violently, and diffolved oil olive, 
 into a kind of falve. 
 
 4. On diftilling a mixture of finely powdered man- B .'^jj^j-iUj. 
 ganefe and charcoal, with an empty bladder tied ta the ; ion with 
 mou'ih of the relort, a quantity of fixed air was extri- '^''arcoal. 
 
 cated 
 
Pradice. 
 
 C H E M I S T II Y. 
 
 1390 
 
 By calcina- 
 tion with 
 
 catcd when tlic retort began to melt and diftended the 
 bladder. The refiduum was moftly foluble in diluted 
 vitriolic acid. 
 
 5. On diftilliiig half an ounce of powdered manga- 
 nefe with two drachms of fu'phur, the latter partly 
 rofe into the neck of the retort, and fome volatile 
 acid vapours penetrated tlu-ough tlie hite. The diib'l- 
 lation was continued till the retort began to melt; and, 
 on cooling, the reliduum was found to weigh 54-drachms. 
 It wasof a yellowiih-grey colour; anddiflblved in fpirit 
 of vitriol with cffervefcence, yielded an hepatic fmcll, 
 fome fulphur being alfo precipitated at the (imie time. 
 By calcination in the open air, the fulphur was difii- 
 pated ; but great part of tlie mafs was rendered foluble 
 on account of its having been penetrated by the acid 
 vapour, and fliot into cryftals as though it had been 
 formaliy diffolved in volatile fulphurcous acid; and by 
 repeating the calcination with more fulphur, the whole 
 became at laft entirely foluble, and was reduced to 
 cryftals. 
 
 Finely powdered manganefe, triturated with nitre, and 
 ftrongly calcined in a rrucible, unites with the alkali 
 of the nitre, while the acid is diffipated in the air. 
 The mafs formed by the union of the manganefe and 
 alkali is of a dark green colour, and foluble in water, 
 communicating alfo a green colour to the liquid ; but 
 in a fhort time a fine yellow powder (an ochre of iron) 
 falls to the bottom, leaving the liquor of a blue colour. 
 By the addition of water, this fohition firft afTumes a 
 violet colour, grows afterwards red, and a precipita- 
 tion of tlve manganefe takes place, which rcfumes its 
 natural colour as foon as it has fallen. The fame pre- 
 cipitation takes place on the addition of a few drops 
 of acid, or by expofure for fome days to the open air. 
 A* for the dark red colour alTumed by the folution 
 when the precipitate is about to fall, Mr Scheele con- 
 jeftures that the particles of manganefe may naturally 
 have a red colour, which becomes vifible when the fub- 
 ftance is difperfed through a menftruum without being 
 perfcftly diffolved. 
 
 7. By the addition of finely powdered white arfe* 
 nic to the alkaline mafs^of nitre and manganefe, the 
 green colour difappeais, and the whole becomes white; 
 phlogifticated manganefe being alfo precipitated on the 
 addition of water. This arifes from the more power- 
 ful attradlion of manganefe for the phlogifton of the 
 arfenic than that of the arfenical acid itfelf ; and for 
 the fame reafon, if the mafs be calcined with charcoal, 
 or any otlier phlogillic fubftance, a colourlefs folution 
 will be obtained. 
 
 8. Half an ounce of phlogifticated manganefe, di- 
 ftilled in a retort with an equal quantity of powdered 
 fal ammoniac, yielded firft a concrete volatile fait, after 
 which fome fal ammoniac undecompofed arofe in the 
 neck of the retort. Half an ounce of pure dephlogi- 
 fticated manganefe, mixed with two drachms of pow- 
 dered fal ammoniac, yielded a!kali in its cauftic ftate. 
 Both refiduums were foluble in water ; which Ihows 
 that manganefe attracts phlogifton from the volatile 
 alkah. 
 
 9. On digefting finely powdered manganefe for fome 
 weeks with pure nitrous acid and fume volatile alkali, 
 a great number of air-bubbles rife to the t(;p, and the 
 volatile alkali is entirely decompofed ; for though the 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 561 
 
 mixture be afterwards diftlUed in a retort with the ad- Minga- 
 dition of quicklime, not the leaft urinous fmell can be ^ , 
 perceived. This decompofition is effefted by the man- y^'^j^ 
 ganefe attrading the phlogifton of the volatile alkali ; ^''oliitile 
 for that the nitrous ac'd has no fiure in this, is proved al':;'!' de- 
 by the following? experiment. ftroyed bv 
 
 10. An ounce of well triiurated manganefe was di- ajfj-aclino- 
 ftilled with half an ounce of fal ammoniac ; and a li- its ph.lo- 
 quid alkali, fuch as that obtained from fa^ ammoniac gif^o"' 
 and quicklime, was procured. On repeating this ex- 
 periment, with the variation only of a bladder inftead 
 
 of a receiver, the fame kind of air was obtained as that 
 which rifes to the top of the nitrous mixture. Though 
 th? emifilou of this air indicated a deftrudion of the 
 volatile alka'i, our author explains the reafon of its 
 being ftill obtained in a cauftic ftate by the phlogi- 
 fton taken from the alkaU being more than fufficient 
 to render the alkali foluble in muriatic acid ; in confe- 
 quence of whicji, the fuperfluous quant'ty combines 
 with the manpanefe, and enables it to decompofe the 
 fal ammoniac in the ordinary way. It muft be owned, 
 however, that his reafoning on thl^ fubjeci is not en- 
 tirely fatisfaftory, nor does the account he gives of his 
 experiments feem entire'y confiftent with itfelf. See 
 Schseles Chew. Efuys, Effay V. § xxxix. 139? 
 
 11. Powdered manganefe, diftilled with an equal clirWIa- 
 quantity of white arfenic, underwent no change, the J^'^^*^ 
 arfenic flying off in its proper form ; but with a^ equal*" 
 quantity of yellow orpiment, fome volatile fulphureoas 
 
 acid came over firft, then a yellow fublimate, and at 
 laft a little red fublimate arofe. On augmenting the 
 fire by degrees, the orpiment remained obftinately at- 
 tached to it. Similar effefts enfued on treating m^ n- 
 ganefe wich an equal quantity of antimony; which 
 hkewife yielded- a pungent fu^phureous acid, but no 
 fublimate. By calcination in the open air thtfe com- 
 pounds are decompofed ; and the manganefe, united 
 with vitriolic acid, becomes foluble in water. 
 
 12. On diftilling manganefe with an equal quantity vvth cin* 
 of finely pounded cinnabar, a volatile fulphureous acidnabar. 
 came over firft ; then a 'ittle cinnabar was fublimed in- 
 to the neck of the retort ; and at laft the quick filver, 
 which had been the bafis of the cinnabar, began to 
 
 diftil : the refiduum, being a combination of manga- 
 nefe and fulphur, was fimilar to the compounds al- 
 ready defcribed. 
 
 . 1^07 
 
 13. With an equal quantity of corrofive fublimate, With cor- 
 manganefe underwent no change; but when fublimed """^'ve fub- 
 with an equal quantity of mercurius dulcis, a corrofive 
 fublimate, and then mercurius dulcis, arofe into the 
 
 neck of the retort. The reafon of this is, that the 
 mercurius dulcis contains a portion of phlogifton ; by 
 being deprived of which it ceafes to be mercurius dul- 
 cis, and becomes corrofive fublimate : but by reafon 
 of the ftroiig attraction of manganefe for phlogifton, 
 the mercurius dulcis parts with that portion Vv^hich is 
 neceffary to keep it in its mild ftate, and thus is con» 
 verted into conofive mercury. 
 
 Sect. IV. Inflammable Sub/lances. 
 
 These may he divided into the following claffes : QgJJffj 
 I. Sulphurs. 2. Ardent fpirits. 3. Oils and fats. vifion.^ 
 4. Refins. 5. Bitumens ; and, 6. Charcoal. 
 
 § I. SUL' 
 
3ul]>liur, 
 
 1400 
 Cryftaliiza' 
 tson. 
 
 1401 
 
 Decumpo- 
 fed by a 
 fuperabun- 
 dance of 
 phlogilton. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 § I, Svi.FHURS. 
 
 I. Cotnmon fulphur. For the extra»^lion of this 
 fuljjlance from its ores, fee Sulphur. The artificial 
 compofition of it we have already related, n"^ 715 ; 
 and have now only to take notice of a very few of its 
 properties, which come more properly under this fec- 
 tion. 
 
 Sulphur, as commonly vifed in commerce and the 
 arts, is of a pale yellow colour, of a difagreeable and 
 peculiar fmell, which is rendered more fenfible when 
 it is heated or rubbed. By rubbing, it receives very 
 curious eleftricai qualities : (See Electricity.) Its 
 fpecific gravity is confiderably greater than that of 
 water, though lefs than earths or ftones. In clofe 
 vefTcls, fulphur is incapable of receiving any alteration. 
 It melts with a very gentle heat ; and then is fublimed, 
 adhering to the capital in fmall, veiy fine, needle-like 
 cryftals, called Jloivers of fulphur. It may thus be fub- 
 limed many times without alteration. If fulphur is 
 expofed to a heat barely fufiicient to melt it, and very 
 flowly cooled, it cryftallizes in form of many needles 
 crofling one another. Some of thefe pointed cryftals 
 may alfo be obferved in the interior parts of the luir'^is 
 of fulphur which have been meUed, and caft into cy- 
 lindrical moulds, as they are commonly fold; becaufe 
 the centre of thefe cylindrical rolls is more flowly 
 cooled than the furface. Sulphur alfo gives thisneedle- 
 I'kc form to cinnabar, antimony, and many other mi- 
 nerals containing it. Sulphur may be decompofcd in 
 feveral ways. The moft firaple is by burning ; which 
 we have already taken notice of, n° 623. It may 
 alfo be very effeftually decompofed by mixing it with 
 iron filings and water. In this cafe the phlogifton is 
 diffipated, and the acid uniting with the iron forms a 
 green vittipl. 
 
 It is veVy remarkable, that though fulphur is com- 
 pofed of vitriolic acid and phlogifton, yet the addition 
 of more inflammable matter, fo far from making the 
 union ftronger, weakens it to a great degree : and 
 hence we have another method of decompoflng this 
 fubftance ; namely, by combining it with a large quan- 
 tity of oil, and diftilling the compound. 
 
 Sulphur is capable of being eafily diflblved in ex- 
 prefled oils, but very difficultly in eflential ones. Thefe 
 compofitions are called balfams of fulphur; and are 
 fometimes employed in medicine, but are found to be 
 of a very heating nature. They are much ufed by 
 farriers. According to Mr Beaume, fulphur cannot 
 be diflblved in oil, without a heat fufiicient to melt it. 
 A larger quantity is kept diflblved when tlie mixture 
 is hot, than when cold ; and confequently the fulphur, 
 efpecially If it has been diflblved in a thin eflential oil, 
 cryftallizes on cooling the mixture. The fulphur, thus 
 fcparated from the oil, is found not to be altered in 
 any refpeft from what it formerly was ; but if the 
 mixture is expofed to a degree of heat capable of en- 
 tirely decompoflng the oil, the fulphur is decompofed 
 along with it, and the fame produfts are obtained by 
 diftiUing thi^ mixture to drynefs, as if a mixture of 
 pure oil of vitriol and oil were diftilled. Thefe pro- 
 idufts are, firft a portion of oil, when an eflential oil 
 was made ufe of in the compofition of the balfam ; ' 
 then fome volatile fulphureous acid, which is at firft 
 
 l)it: v\ i.-.iVi> 
 
 140,-! 
 
 S T R Praaice. 
 
 watery, and afterwards becomes ftronger ; along with S^ip hur. ^ 
 this acid more oil arifes, which becomes more and v— 
 more thick towards the end of the diftillation ; and 
 laftly, when the retort has been made red hot, noihiug 
 remains but a fixed coal. 
 
 In this procefs we find, that both the fulphur and 
 oil are decompofed. The acid of the fulphur feems 
 to attack the watery principle of the oil, while its 
 phlogifton remains confounded with that ol the oil, or 
 is diflipated in vapours. Hence, though the vitriohc 
 acid in fulphur is concentrated to the utmoft degree, 
 and perfe6lly free from water, what rifes in this diftil- 
 lation is very aqueous, byrealbn of the water which 
 it attrafts from the oiL ^ 
 
 Spirit of wine does not fenfibly a6l upon fulphur la TLr.v 
 its liquid ftate ; but if both the fpirit of wine and ful- 
 phur meet in the ftate of vapour, they will then u- 
 nite, and a perfeft folution will take place. By me- 
 thods of this kind, many combinations might be ef- 
 fected, which have been hitherto thought impoflible. 
 
 Pure fulphur unites eafily with all metals; gold, Its u-nna 
 platina, and zinc, excepted. The compounds, except ^^'^^ 
 that with mercury, poifefs a metaUic luftre without 
 any ducliHty. The fulphur may be feparated by ex- 
 pofing the mixture to a ftrong fire, (fee Metal- 
 lurgy,) or by diffolving the metalHne part in acids. 
 The fulphur, however, defends feveral of the metals 
 from the aftion of acids ; fo that this diflblution fuc- 
 ceeds but imperfe£lly. The reguline part of antimo- 
 ny is more eafily feparated from fulphur by means of 
 acids than any other metalline fubftance. Alkaline 
 falts will feparate the fulphur from all metals in fufion, 
 but they unite with it themfelves, and form a com- 
 pound equally capable of diflblving the metal. 
 
 Sulphur united with quickfilver forms the beauti- 1404 
 ful pigment called cinnabar, or vermilion ; which is fo Vermilion > 
 much ufed in painting, that the making of it is be- 
 come a diftinft trade. Neuman relates, that in the ma- 
 king of cinnabar by the Dutch method, fix or eight 
 parts of quickfilver are made ufe of to one of fulphur. 
 The fulphur is firft melted, and then the quickfilver 
 is ftirred into it ; upon which they unite into a black 
 mafs. In this part of the procefs the mixture is very 
 apt to take fire ; of which it gives notice by fweUing 
 up to a great degree. The veflel muft then be imme- 
 diately covered. The mafs being beaten to powder, 
 is afterwards to be fublimed in large earthen jars al- 
 moft of an equal widenefs from end to end ; thefe are 
 hung in a furnace by a ftrong rim of iron. When 
 the matter is put in, the mouth of the veflel is cover- 
 ed, the fire increafed by degrees, and continued for 
 feveral hours, till aU the cinnabar has fublimed ; care 
 being taken to introduce at times an iron rod to keep 
 the middle clear \ otherwife the cinnabar concreting 
 there, and flopping up the paflage, would infallibly 
 burft the vefl'els. 
 
 The quantity of fulphur direfted in the common 
 receipts for making cinnabar is greatly larger than .the 
 above ; being no lefs than one-third of the quantity 
 of quickfilver employed : accordingly it has been found, 
 that the fubHmate, wath fuch a large quantity of ful- 
 phur, turned out of a blackifli colour, and required to 
 ' be feveral times fublimed before it became perfeftly 
 red ; but we cannot help thinking, that by one gentle 
 
 fublimatioa 
 
1405 
 Pulvis ful- 
 xninans. 
 
 Praaice. C H E M 
 
 Sulj^hur. fublirpation the fuperfluous'fulphur might be feparated, 
 
 ^"^"^ 'and the cinnabar become perfeftly pure the fecond 
 
 time. Hoffman gives a curious method of making 
 cinnabar without fubhmation : by fliaking or digeft- 
 ing a httk mercury with volatile tinAure of fulphur, 
 the mer,cury readily imbibes the fulphur from the vo- 
 latile fpirit, and forms with it a deep red powder, not 
 inferior in colour to the cinnabar prepared in the com- 
 mon manner. Dr Lewis has found the common folu- 
 tions of fulphur jby alkalies, or quicklime, to have a 
 fimilar effect. This 'cinnab;«f will likevvife be of a 
 darker or lighter colour, according as the folution 
 contains more or lefs fulphur. 
 
 Sulphur is a principal ingredient in gun-powder, 
 (fee Gun-powder.) It alfo enters the compofition 
 of the pulvis fiilminans. This confifts of three parts 
 cf nitre, two of the dry alkah of tartar, and one part 
 of fulphur, well ground together. If a little quantity 
 of this powder is laid on an iron-fpoon or (hovel, and 
 flowly heated, it will explode, when it arrives at a cer- 
 tain degree of heat, with aftonifliing violence and noife. 
 The mod probable opinion concerning this is, that the 
 fixed air contained in the alkali is, by the acid vapours 
 afting upon and endeavouring to expel it all at once, 
 driven off with fuch force, that a loud explofion is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 2. Phofphorus of Urine. This is a very inflammable 
 fubftance, compofed of phlogifton united with a cer- 
 tain acid, the properties of which we have already ta- 
 ken notice of, n"" 904 el fcq. The preparation of it 
 was long a fecret, and only perfedlly difcovered by 
 Mr Margraaff, who publifhed it in the Berlin Me- 
 moirs in 1743. This procefs being by far the beft 
 and moft prafticable, we lhall content ourfelves with 
 infertlng it alone. 
 
 Two pounds of fal ammoniac are to be accurately 
 mixed with four pounds of minium, and the mixture 
 procefs for dlftilled in a glafs rfetort ; by which means a very pe- 
 making. i^etrating, caullic alkaline fpirit will be obtained. The 
 refiduum, after the diftillation, is a kind of plumbum cor- 
 neum ; n°8T2. This is to be mixed with nine or 
 ten pounds- of extra £1 of urine, evaporated to the con- 
 fiftence of honey. (Seventy or eighty gallons of urine 
 are required to produce this quantity of extraft.) The 
 mixture is to be made flowly in an iron pot fet over 
 the fire, and the matter frequently ftirred. Half a 
 pound of powdered charcoal is then to be added, and 
 the evaporation continued till the whole is reduced 
 to a black powder. This powder is to be put into a 
 retort, and urged with a graduated heat, till it be- 
 comes red hot, in order to expel all the volatile alkali, 
 fetid oil, and ammoniacal fait, that may be contained 
 in the mixture. After the difllllation, a black friable 
 refiduum remains, from which the phofphorus is to be 
 extrafted by a fecond diftillation and a ftronger heat. 
 Before it is fubjedkd to another diftillation, it may be 
 tried by throwing forne of it upon hot coals. If the 
 matter has been well prepared, a fmell of garlic exhales 
 from it, and a blue phcfphorical flame is feen undu- 
 lating along the furface of the coals. 
 
 The matter is to be put into a good earthen retort, 
 capable of fuftaining a violent fire. Three quarters 
 of the retort are to be filled with the matter which is 
 to yield the phofphorus, and it is to be placed in a fur- 
 nace capable cf giving a itrong heat. Mr I'/IargraafF 
 
 f 407 
 ir Mar 
 grasff'i 
 
 140?? 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 divides the matter among fix retorts, fo that if any 
 accident happens to one, the whole matter is not loft. 
 The retorts ought to be well luted to a receiver of a 
 moderate fize, pierced with a fmall hole, and half full 
 of water ; and a fmall wall of bricks muft be raifed 
 between the furnace and receiver, in oi'der to guard 
 this veffel againft heat as much as pofiible. The re- 
 torts are to be heated by flow degrees for an hour and 
 an half ; then the heat is to be increafed. till the veffels 
 are red hot, when the phofphorus afcends in luminous 
 vapours. When the retoi't is heated till between a 
 red and white, the phofphorus paffes in drops, which 
 fall and congeal in the water at the bottom of the re- 
 ceiver-. This degi-ee of heat is to be continued till 
 no more comes over. When a retort contains eight 
 pints or more, this operation continues about five 
 hour's. 
 
 In the firfl diftillation, phofphorus never pafTes pure, licdfifica- 
 but is always of a blackifh colour, by reafon of its car-t^o'i of 
 rying along with it fome part of the coal. From this,^'^"^^''^''* 
 however, it may be purified by re6lification in a fmall'"** 
 glafs-retort, to Avhich is luted a receiver half full of 
 water. A very gentle heat is fufficient ; becaufe phof- 
 phorus, once formed, is very volatile ; and as the fuli- 
 ginous matter was raifed probably by the fixed air 
 emitted by the chai-coal in the inftant of its union 
 with the phofphorine acid, none of it can arife in a 
 fecond diftillation. 
 
 The phofphorus is then to be divided into fmall cy- 
 lindrical rolls, which is done by putting it in glafs- 
 tubes immerfed in warm water ; for the phofphorus 
 is almoft as fufible as fuet. It takes the form of the 
 glafs-tubes ; from which it may be taken out, when it 
 is cold and hardened. This muft be done under wa- 
 ter, leaft the phofphorus fhould take- fire. 
 
 This concrete continually appears luminous in a dark -proctk 
 place ; and by a very flight heat takes fire, and burns fometimes 
 far more vehemently than any other known fubftance. "Jangerous. 
 Hence it is necefTary to be very cautious in the diftil- 
 lation of it ; for if the receiver fiiould happen to break 
 while the phofphorus is diftilling, and a little flaming 
 phofphorus fall upon the operator's legs or hands, it 
 would burn its way to the bone in lefs than three mi- 
 nutes. In this cafe, according to Mr HeUot, riothing 
 but urine will ftop its progrefs. 
 
 Though phofphorus takes fire very readily by itfelf, 
 it does not inflame at all by grinding it with other in- 
 flammable bodies, as camphor, gun-powder, or efTen- 
 tial oils. In grinding it with nitre, fome luminous 
 flaflies are obferved ; but the mixture never burns, un- 
 lefs the quantity of phofphorus be large in proportion . 
 to the nitre : rubbed pretty hard on a piece of paper or 
 linen, it fets them on fire if they are rough, b'tt not if 
 they are fmooth. It fires written paper more readily 
 than fuch as is white, probably from the former ha- 
 ving more afpei-ities. On grinding with iron-filings, it 
 prefently takes fire. 
 
 Oils ground wltli phofphorus appear-, like itfelf, j ; ^^^^^ 
 luminous in a temperately warm place ; and thus be- phufpho- 
 come a liquid phofphorus, which may be rubbed on rus. 
 the hands, &c. without dan|jer. Liquid phofphorus 
 is commonly prepared by grmding a little of the folid 
 phofphorus with oil of cloves, or rubbing it firft with 
 camphor, and this mixture with the oil. A luminous 
 amalgam, as it is called, may be obtained, by digcfting 
 4 B 3 a 
 
564 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 1411 
 Experi- 
 
 menrs on 
 p!iofpho- 
 ruR w fh 
 fi'iiit of 
 wine. 
 
 1412, 
 With effe!> 
 tial oils and 
 acids. 
 
 H13 
 Mr Mar- 
 graaff's ex- 
 periments 
 •with me- 
 tals. 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 a fcruple of folid phofphorus with half an ounce of oil 
 of lavender, and, when the phofphorus begins to dif- 
 folve and the liquor to boil, adding a drachm of pure 
 quickfilver; then brillcly ftiaking the glafs for five or fix 
 minutes till they unite. 
 
 Retlilied fpirit of wine, digefted on phofphorus, ex- 
 tracts a part of it, fo as to emit luminous ilafhes on be- 
 ing dVopt into water. It is, computed that one part 
 of phofphorus will communicate this property to 
 6oo,coo parts of fpirit. The liquor is never obferved 
 to become luminous of itfelf, nor in any other circum- 
 ftance except that above mentioned. By digeilion for 
 feme months, the undilfolved phofphorus is reduced to 
 a tranfparent oil, which neither emits light nor con- 
 cretes in the cold. By wafliing with water, it is in iome 
 meafure revived ; acquiring a thicker confillence, and 
 becoming again luminous, tlvough in a lefs degree than 
 at firft. Daring this digeftion, the glafs is very apt to 
 buril. 
 
 Phofphorus is partially diffolved by expreffcd oils ; 
 and totally, or alrnoft fo, in effcntial oils and ether. 
 When effential oils are faturated with it by heat, a 
 part of the phofphorus fcparates, on ftanding in the 
 cold, in a cryftalline form. Concentrated fpirit of fait 
 has no aftion on it. In diftillation, the fpirit rifes 
 firft, and the phofijhorus after it unchanged. Spirit 
 of nitre dilfolves it, and the diflblution is attended 
 with great heat and copious red fumes ; fo that great 
 part of the fpirit diftils without the application of any 
 external heat, and the phofphorus at laft takes fire, 
 explodes, and burfts the velfels. Oil of vitriol like- 
 wife dilTolves phofphorus, but not without a heat 
 fufficient to make the acid diftll. The dillilled liquor 
 is white, thick, and turbid ; the refiduum is a whitilh 
 tenacious mafs, which dehquates, but not totally, in 
 the gir. Phofphorus itfelf is refolved into an acid li- 
 quor on being expofed two or three weeks to the air, 
 its inflammable principle feeming by degrees to be dil- 
 fipated. 
 
 Phofphorus has been reported to produce extraordi- 
 nary effefts in the refolution of metallic bodies : but 
 from the experiments that have been made with this 
 •view, it does not appear to have any remarkable ac- 
 tion on them; at leaft on the precious ones, gold and 
 fdver, for the refolution or fubtflization of which it has 
 been chiefly recommended. The following experi- 
 ments were made by Mr Margraaff^. 
 
 I. A fcruple of filings of gold were digefted with 
 a drachm of phofphorus for a month, and then com- 
 mitted to diftillation. Part of the phofphorus arofe, 
 and part remained above the gold, in appearance re- 
 fembling glafs : this grew moift on the admiffion of 
 air, and diffolved in water, leaving the gold unaltered. 
 Half a drachm of fine Clver, precipitated by copper, 
 being digefted with a drachm of phofphorus for three 
 hours, and the fire then increafed to diftillation, 
 greateft part of the phofphorus arofe pure, and the fil- 
 ver remained unchanged. Copper filings being treat- 
 ed in the fame manner, and with the fame quantity of 
 phofphorus, the phofphorus fublimed as before ; but 
 the remaining copper was found to have loft its metal- 
 lic brightnefs, and to take fire on the contad of flame. 
 Iron filings fuffered no change. Tin fiHngs run into 
 granules, which appeared to be perfeft tin. Filings 
 of lead did the fame. The red calx of mercury, called 
 
 S TRY. Praaice 
 
 precipitate per fe, treated In the fame manner, was to- Sulphur. 
 
 tally converted into i-unning quickfilver. 2. Regu- — — y— 
 
 lus of antimony fuffered no change itfelf, but occaiioa- 
 
 cd a change in the coniiftence of the phofphorus j 
 
 which, after being diftilled from this femimetai, refu- 
 
 fed to congeal, and continued, under water, fluid like 
 
 oil-olive. With bilmuth there was no alteration. A 
 
 drachm of phofphorus bemg diftilled and cohobated 
 
 wlih an equal quantity of zinc, greateft part of tlie 
 
 zinc fublim-..d in form of very light pointed flowers of 
 
 a rcddifli-ycUow colour.;; th..fe flowers, injcicd into 
 
 a red hot crucible, took iire, and run into a glafs re- 
 
 fcmbling that of borax. White arfenic, fublimed with 
 
 phofphorus, arofe along with it in form of a mixed red 
 
 fublimate. Sulphur readily unites with phofphorus 
 
 into a mafs v/hich fmells like hepar fulphuris. This 
 
 does not eafily take fire on being rubbed ; but expofed 
 
 to a moderate dry heat, it flames violently, and emits a 
 
 ftrong fulpliureous fume. If phofphorus is burnt in an 
 
 open vcffel, a quantity of acid remains behind ; and if 
 
 a glafs bell is held over it, an acid likewife fublimes ia 
 
 the form of white flowers. 
 
 3. Mr Canton's phofphorus. This is a compofition ■^i^^'q^ 
 of quicklime and common fulphur. The receipt for ton's phof- 
 making it is as follows. " Calcine fome common oy- chorus, 
 fter-ihells, by keeping them in a good coal-fire for half 
 
 an hour; let the pureft part of the calx be pulverized 
 and lifted. Mix with three parts of this powder one 
 part of flowers of fulphur. L.et this mixture be i^am- 
 med into a crucible of about an inch and a half in 
 depth till it be ahnoft full ; and let it be placed in 
 the middle of the fire, where it mult be kept red hot 
 for an hour at leaft, and then fet by to cool : when 
 cold, turn it out of the crucible ; and cutting or 
 breaking it to pieces, fcrape off, upon trial, the 
 brighteft parts ; which, if good plKjfphcjrus, will be a 
 white powder. This kind of phofphorus iliines on be- 
 ing expofed to the light of the fun, or on receiving an 
 eledlrical ftroke. 
 
 4. Phofphorus ff Homlerg. This fubftance, which ^ ^4' •'^ ,^ 
 has the lingular property of kindling fpontaneoufly ^j^^^^p j^''^'^^^ 
 when expofed to the air, was accidentally difcovered or pyr pho 
 by Mr Homberg, as he was endeavouring to diftil a ''us. 
 clear flavourlefs oil from human excrements. Having 
 
 mixed the excrement with alum, and diftilled over as 
 much as he could with a red heat, he was much fur- 
 prifed at feeing the matters left in the retort take fire 
 upon being expofed to the air, fome days after the di- 
 ftillation was over. This induced him to repeat the 
 operation, in which he met with the fame fuccefs ; and 
 he then publifhed a p;ocefs, wherein he recommended 
 alum and human excrement for the preparation of the 
 phofphorus. Since his time, however, the procefs has 
 been much improved ; and it is difcovered, that almofl: 
 every vitriolic fait may be fubftituted for the alum, and 
 moft other inflammable fubftances for the excrement ; " 
 but though alum is not abfolutely necefiary for the 
 fuccefs, it is one of the vitriohc falts that fuccced bell. 
 The following procefs is recommended in the Chemi- 
 cal Diftionary. 
 
 Let three parts of alum and one of fugar be mixed ^ {in\ 
 together. This mixture muft be dried in an iron flio- t^od of prc- 
 vel, over a moderate fire, till it be almofl reduced to pari!)g. 
 a blacklfli powder or coal ; during which time it muit 
 be ftirred with an iron fpatula. Any large maffcs mufl 
 
 be 
 
Pracll 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 T417 
 
 ts not in- 
 jureil by 
 mere ex- 
 pofure to 
 
 1418 
 
 Caufe of 
 the accen- 
 fion. 
 
 ce. C H E M 
 
 be bruifed into powder ; and then it muft be put into 
 a glafs matrafs, tlic mouth of which is rather ftrait 
 than wide, and feven or eight inches long. This ma- 
 trafs is to be placed in a crucible, or other_ earthen vef- 
 fcl, large enough to contain the belly of the matrafs, 
 witli about a fpace equal to that of a finger all round 
 it. This fpace is to be iilkd with fand, fo that the 
 matrafs fliall not touch the earthen vefTel. The appa- 
 ratus is then to be put into a furnace, and the whole 
 to be made red hot. The fire mull be applied gra- 
 dually, that any oily or fuliginous matter may be ex- 
 pelled ; after which, when the matrafs is made red 
 hot, fulphureous vajiours exhale : this degree of heat 
 is to be continued till a truly lulphureoiis flame, which 
 appears at the end of the operation, has been feen near- 
 ly a quarter of an hour : the fire is then to be extin- 
 guifned, and the matrafs left to cool, without taking 
 it out of the crucible ; when it ceafcs to be red hot, it 
 muft be Hopped with a cork. Before the matrafs is 
 perfeftly cold, it muft be taken out of the crucible, 
 and the powder it contains pouted as quickly as pof- 
 fihle into a very dry glafs phial, with a glafs ftopper. 
 If we would preferve this phofphorus a long time, the 
 bottle containing it muft be opened as feldom as pof- 
 fible. Sometimes it kindles while it is pouring into 
 the glafs phial ; but it may be then extinguiftied by 
 clofing the phial expeditioufly. A fmall quantity of 
 this pyrophorus laid on paper, and expofed to the 
 air, immediately takes fire, becomes red like burning 
 coals, and emits a ftrong fulphureous vapour greatly 
 refenibling that which arifes on decompofing liver of 
 fulphur. 
 
 It has been generally alleged, that the common 
 black phofphorus is impaired by being expofed to the 
 light; but MrCavallo has difcovered the fallacy of this 
 fuppofition by the following experiment. Some por- 
 tions of the fame pyrophorus were inclofed in three 
 glafs tubes, and immediately fealed up hermetically. 
 On the 20th of May 1779, two of them were fu- 
 fpended from a nail out cf a window, and the third 
 was wrapped up in paper and inclofed in a box, where 
 not the leaft glimmering of light could enter. In this 
 fituation they were left for more thnn a year ; after 
 which one of thofe that had been kept out of the 
 window was broke, along with that which had been 
 kept in the dark, in the prefence of Mr Kirwan ; when 
 the pyrophorus feemed to be equally good in each 
 tube, taking fire in about half a minute after it was 
 taken out of the tubes, and expofed to the air on a 
 piece of paper. 
 
 There are many different kinds of-pyrophori ; fome 
 of the moft remarkable of which are defcribed under 
 the article Pyrophorus. Many theories have been 
 invented to folve the phenomenon of their accenfion on 
 the contaft of air. This has been thought owing to 
 the converfion of the earth of alum into lime, or to a 
 remainder of the vitriolic acid attracting moifture from 
 the atmofphere ; but the formation of pyrophorus 
 without either alum or vitriolic acid, fliows that nei- 
 ther of thefe opinions can be juft. It is moft probable, 
 therefore, that the heat is occafioned by the total dif- 
 fipation of that aqueous part which is eflcntial to the 
 conftitution of terrcftrial fubftances. In confequence 
 of this, the water contained in the atmofphere is not 
 only attracted with avidity, but decompounded by the 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 matter reduced to fuch a ttatc of extreme drynefs. By 
 thefe operations it gives out the latent heat contained 
 in it, and this produces the accenfion in queftion. 
 
 § 2. Ardent Spirits. 
 See Fermentation and Distix-lation. 
 
 ^ 3. Oils. 
 
 Oils. 
 
 I . EJfential Oils. Thofe oils are called ejfenttal which Effential 
 have evidently the fmell of the vegetable from which oils, 
 they are drawn. For the method of procuring them, 
 fee Distillation. Tluy are diftinguiftied from all 
 others by their fuperior volatility, which is fo great as 
 to caufe them rife with the heat of boiling water. All 
 thele have a ftrong aromatic fraell, and an acrid, cau- 
 ftie tafte ; in which refpeft alfo they differ from other 
 oils. This tafte is thought to proceed from a copious Sup']x)*ftd 
 and difeiigaged acid, with which they are all pene- caufe of 
 trated. The prefence of this difengaged acid in effen- '^heir tafte 
 tial oils, appears from the impreflion they make upon" 
 the corks of bottles in which they are kept. Thefe 
 corks are always ftained of a yellow colour, and a little 
 corroded, nearly as they are by nitrous acid. The var 
 pour of thefe oils alfo reddens blue paper, and converts 
 alkalies into neutral falts. 
 
 This acid is hkewife fuppofed to be the caufe of their 1^^]^^^ 
 folubility in fpirit of wine. They are not all equally iubility'in°' 
 foluble in this menftruum, becaufe they do not all con- fpirit of 
 tain an equal quantity of acid. As this acid is much wine, 
 difengaged, they lofe a great deal of it by repeated di- 
 ftillations, and therefore they become lefs and lefs fo- 
 luble on being frequently diftilled. By evaporation 
 they lofe their moft volatile and thin part, in which 
 the fpecific fmell of the vegetable from which they 
 are txtrafted refides ; by which lofs they become 
 thick, and acquire the finell and confiftence of turpen^ 
 tine, and even of refins. In this ftate they are no 
 longer volatile with the heat of boiling water ; and, if 
 diftilled with a ftronger fire, they give over an oil 
 which has neither fmell nor tafte of the- vegetable 
 whence they were extracted, but is entirely empyreu^- 
 matic, and fimilar to thofe oils procured by diftilling 
 vegetable or animal fubftances with a ftrong fire. See 
 Distillation. 
 
 To the clafs of effential oils, the volatile concrete ^A''-'^ 
 called camphor feems moft properly to belong. With ^^"''P^-^*'* 
 them it agrees in its properties of inflammability, fo- 
 lubility in fpirit of wine, and a ftrong aromatic fla- 
 vour. The only differences between them are, that 
 camphor is always in a folld ftate, and is incapable of 
 decompofition by any number of fublimations. 
 
 It has, however, been found poffible to decompofe Decom^io- 
 it by diftillation with certain additions.. By diftiUingfcd'^by^di^. 
 it feveral times along with bole, we obtain a fluid ha- filiation 
 ving the properties of an effential oil, foluble in water, '^''^'^ 
 and feparating again on the addition of i'pirit of wine. ,^2^ 
 On diitilhng it eight times with deplilogifticated ni- With Pe- 
 trous acid, we obtain a fait having the form of a pa- phlogiitica-- 
 rallclopiped, of an acid and bitter tafte, and changing '^'^':'""''^'^*~ 
 the juice of violets and turnfole red. This has the^*^ 
 properties of a true acid ; combines with fixed and vo- 
 latile alkalies into neutral falts capable of being cry- 
 ftalKzcd J diffolves copper, iron, bifmuth, arfeoic, and:. 
 
 cobalt, ^ 
 
 V 
 
566 
 
 Oils 
 
 Soluble ill 
 ardent fpl- 
 tits and oil. 
 
 14^6 
 Empyreu- 
 maiic oils. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 dobalt. With manganefe it forms regular cryftals, in 
 ' fome meafure refembling bafaltes. It is diftinguifhed 
 from the acid of fugar by not precipitating lime from 
 its folution in marine acid, and by forming with mag- 
 nefia a white powder foluble in water. 
 
 According to Neumann, all the camphor made ufe 
 of is the produce of two fpccies of trees ; the one 
 growing in Sumatra and Borneo, the other in Japan. 
 Of thefe, the Japan kind is the only one brought into 
 Europe. The tree is about the fize of a large lime, 
 the flowers white, and the fruit a fmall red berry. -All 
 parts of the tree are impregnated with camphor ; but 
 the roots contain moft, and therefore are chiefly made 
 ufe of for the preparation of this commodity ; though, 
 in want of them, the wood and leaves are fometimes 
 mixed. 
 
 The camphor is extraAed by diftillation with water 
 in large iron pots filled with earthen heads ftufFed with 
 ftraw ; greateil part of the camphor conci-etes among 
 the llraw, but part palTes down into the receiver among 
 the water. • In this Hate it is found in fm.all bits like 
 gray falt-petre, or common bay-falt ; and requires to 
 be purified either by a fecond fubhmation, or by diffo- 
 lution in fpirit of wine, filtration, and exficcation. If 
 the firft method is followed, there will be fome diffi- 
 culty in giving it the form of a perfedl tranfparent 
 cake. A difficulty of this kind indeed always occurs 
 in fublimations; and the only way is to keep the upper 
 part of the glafs of fuch a degree of heat as may keep 
 the fublimate in a half-melted ilate. Dr Lewis re- 
 commends the depuration of camphor by fpirit of 
 wine, and then melting it into a cake in the bottom of 
 a glafs. 
 
 Camphor poffefTes confiderable antifeptic virtues ; 
 and is a good diaphoretic, without heating the confti- 
 tution ; with which intention it is often ufed in medi- 
 cine. It is' likewife employed in fire-works and feve- 
 ral other arts, particularly in making varniflies. See 
 Varnish. 
 
 This fubftance dilTolves eafily and plentifully in vi- 
 nous fpirits and in oils ; four ounces of fpirit of wine 
 will diffolve three of camphor. On diftilling the mix- 
 ture, the fpirit rifes firil, very little camphor coming 
 over with it. This fliows that camphor, however 
 volatile it may feem by its fmell, is very far from ha- 
 ving the volatility of ether, and confequently is impro- 
 perly clalTed Avith fubftances of that kind. 
 
 2. Empyreumatic Oils. Under this name are com- 
 prehended all thofe oils, from whatever fubllance ob- 
 tained, which require a greater heat for their diftil- 
 lation than that of boiling water. Thefe are partial- 
 ly foluble in fpirit of wine, and become more and more 
 fo by repeated diftillations. The empyreumatic oils 
 obtained from animal fubftances are at firft more fetid 
 than thofe procured from vegetables ; but by repeated 
 diftillations, they become exceedingly attenuated and 
 volatile, becoming almoft as white, thin, and vola- 
 tile, as ether- They then acquire a property of afting 
 upon the brain and nervous fyftem, and of allaying its 
 irregular movements, which is common to them with 
 all other inflammable matters v/hen highly attenuated 
 and very volatile ; but this kind of oil is particularly 
 recommended in epileptic and convulfive affeftions. 
 It is given from 4 to 10 or 12 drops: but, though 
 prepared with the utmoft care, it is very fufceptible of 
 
 S T R y. Praaice. 
 
 lofing its whitenefs, and even its thinnefs, by a fhort <^i^«- 
 expofure to air ; which proceeds from the almoft in- 
 ftantaneous evaporation of its more thin and volatile 
 parts, and from the property which the lefs volatile • 
 remainder has of acquiring colour. To avoid this in- 
 convenience, it muft be put, as foon as it is made, into 
 very clean glafs bottles wi-th glafs ftoppers, and ex- 
 posed to the air as little as poflible. 14^7 
 
 The moft important obfervations concerning the How redi- 
 method of making the pure animal oil are, firft to fieJ, 
 change the veflels at each diftillation, or at Icaft to 
 make them perfeftly clean; for a very fmall quantity 
 of the thicker and lefs volatile part is fufficient to fpoil 
 a large quantity of that which is more rectified. In 
 the fecond place, Mr Beaume has obferved, that this 
 operation may be greatly abridged, by taking care to 
 receive none but the moft volatile part in each diftil- 
 lation, and to leave a large refiduum, which is to be 
 neglefted, and only the more volatile part to be fur- 
 ther reftified. By this method a confiderable quan- 
 tity of fine oil may be obtained at three or four diftil- 
 lations, which could not otherwife be obtained at fifty 
 or fixty. _ ^ - 
 
 3. Animal Fats. Though thefe dilFer confiderably ^^J^^^j 
 from one another in their external appearance, andf^tg. 
 probably in their medicinal qualities, they afford, on a 
 chemical analyfis, produ£ls firailar in quahty, and dif- 
 fering but inconfiderably in quantity. They all yield 
 a large proportion of oil, and no volatile fait ; in which 
 refpeft they differ from all other animal fubftances. 
 Two ounces of hog's lard yielded, according to Neu- 
 mann, two drachms of an empyreumatic liquor, and 
 one ounce five drachms and 50 grains of a clear brown- 
 coloured oil of a volatile fmell, fomevvhat like horfe- 
 radifh. The caput mortuum was of a fliining black co- 
 lour, and weighed 10 grains. j^^^ 
 
 Tallow being diftilled in the fame manner, two Tallow, 
 drachms of empyreumatic liquor were obtained from 
 two ounces of it ; of a clear brown oil, fmelling like 
 horfe-radifli, one ounce fix drachms and 12 grains. 
 The remaining coal was of a fliining black colour, and 
 weighed I % grains. A particular kind of acid is now 
 found to be contained in it. 1430 
 
 The marrow of bones differs a little from fats, Marrow, 
 when chemically examined. Four ounces of frefli 
 marrow, diftilled in the ufual manner, gave over three 
 drachms and a fcruple of a liquor which fmelled like 
 tallow ; two fcruples and an half of a hquor which had 
 more of an empyreumatic and a fourifli fmell ; two 
 oimces and an half of a yellowifli-brown, butyraceous 
 oil, which fmelled like horfe-radifli ; and fix drachms 
 and an half of a blackifli-brown oil of the fame fmell. 
 The caput mortuum weighed four fcruples. 
 
 All animal fats, when perfeftly pure, burn totally 
 away without leaving any feces, and have no particu- 
 lar fmell. In the ftate in which we commonly find 
 them, however, they are exceedingly apt to turn ran- , 
 cid, and emit a moft difagreeable and noxious fmell ; ' 
 and to this they are peculiarly liable, when long kept in 
 a gentle degree of heat. In this ftate, too, an inflam- 
 mable vapour ariies from them, which when on fire is 
 capable of producing explofions. Hence, in thofe 
 works where large bellows are ufed, they have been 
 often fuddenly burft by the inflammable vapours ari- 
 fing from the rancid oil employed for foftening the 
 
 leather. 
 
 1431 _ 
 
 Uancid oils 
 
P*\iaice. C H E M 
 
 Rpfm-a!id leather. The expreHed unftuoits oils of vegetables 
 Balfiims. f.jVjjj;(3. fU.^. f^^j^j^. changes : but from this ranci- 
 
 dity thfv may all be freed rno/l efFcftiially, by the fim- 
 p)e procciS of a;;i'::>Liiig thera well with water; which 
 is to be dra^v^ ctF, and freili quantities added, till it 
 co;r.csofF at hJi clear and infipid, without any illfmell. 
 The proper inilrument for performing this operation 
 in large ir, a barrel-churn, having in it four rows of 
 narrow fplit deal;:, from the centre to the circumfe- 
 rence, each piece fet at obtufe angles to the other, in 
 order to give different directions to the oil and water 
 as the churn turns round, thereby to mix them more 
 intimately. The churn is to be fwiftly turned round 
 for a few minutes ; and mufk then be left at reft, till 
 the oil and water have fully feparated ; wdiich will be 
 in 15 or 20 iraiiulies, more or lefs, according to the 
 fize of the chu'-n. V/hen this water is drawn off, frefh 
 water is to be put in, and the churn again turned 
 round, and this continued till the oil is perfeftly 
 f weet. If the oil and water are allowed to ftand to- 
 gether for fome days, a gelatinous fubilance is found 
 between them, which is not very eafily mifcible either 
 with oil or water. Chalk, quickhme, and alkahne 
 falts, are found alfo capable of taking off the rancidity 
 from oils and fats ; but have the inconvenience of de- 
 ftroying a part of their fubllance. 
 
 § 4. R£siNs and Balsams, 
 
 These are commonly reckoned to be compofed of 
 an elTential oil thickened by an acid ; as the effential 
 oils themfelves are found to be convertible i-nto a fi- 
 milar fubftance, by the exhalation of their more vola- 
 tile parts. True refms are generally tranfparent in a 
 confiderable degree, foluble in fpirit of wine, and pof- 
 1431 feffed of a confiderable degree of flavour. 
 Whence Refins are originally produced By infpiffating the 
 procured, natural juices which flow from incifions made in the 
 Items of growing vegetables, and are in that flate 
 called balfams. The balfams may be confidered as ef- 
 fential oils thickened by lofmg fome of their odorife- 
 rous principle, and of their finefl and mofb volatile 
 part. There are feveral kinds of balfams, which, how- 
 ever, differ from each other only in the frnell and de- 
 gree of confiftence ; and therefore all yield fimilar 
 produfts on diftillation. An analyfis of turpentine 
 therefore will be fufficient as an example of the analy- 
 j^,^ fis and natural properties of all the reft. 
 Turpentine The true turpentine-tree is found in Spain and the 
 Chio. fouthetn parts of France, as well as in the ifland of 
 Chio and in the Indies. It is a middling-fized ever- 
 green tree, with lea.ves like thofe of the bay, bearing 
 purplifh, imperfeft flowers; and on feparate pedicles 
 hard unCluous berries, like thofe; of juniper. It is ex- 
 tremely refinous ; and unlefs the refui is difcharged, 
 decays, produces fungous excrefcences, fwells, burfbs, 
 and dies ; the prevention of which confifts wholly in 
 plentiful bleeding, both in the trunk and branches. 
 The juice is the Chio or Cyprus turpentine of the fho^. 
 This fort is quite of a thick confiftence, of a greenifh 
 white colour, clear and tranfparent, and of fcarcely 
 14-^4 ''"y fmell. 
 
 .nice* The kind now called Venice turpentine, is no other 
 than a mixture of eight parts of common yellow or 
 black rofin with five- parts of oil of turpentine. What 
 
 5^7 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 was originally Venice turpentine is now unknown. Refins and 
 Neumann relates, that the Venice turpentine fold in Balfa ma. ^ 
 his country was no other than that prepared, from the 
 larix tree, which grows plentifully in fome parts of 
 France, as alfo In Auftria, Tyrol, Italy, Spain, &c. 
 Of this there are two kinds; the young trees yielding 
 a thin limpid juice, refembling balfam of copaiba; the 
 older, a yellower and thicker one. j^-;. 
 
 The Strajburg turpentine is extrafted from the filvei*- StruiLtur,f , 
 fir. Dr Lewis takes notice that fome of the exotic 
 firs afford balfams, or refins, fuperior to thofe obtained 
 from the native European ones ; as particularly that 
 called halm of Gilead Jir, which is now naturalized to 
 our own climate. A large quantity of an elegant re 
 finous juice may be collected from the cones of this 
 tree : the leaves alfo, when rubbed, emit a fragrant 
 fmell ; and yaeld, with reCtified fpirit, an agreeable re- 
 finous extraft. 14-; 6 
 
 The common turpentine is prepared from different Common, 
 forts of the pine ; and is quite thick, white, and opaque. ' 
 Even this is often counterfeited by mixtures of rofin 
 and common expreffed oils. ^^^^ 
 
 All the turpentines yield a confiderable proportion Phenomena 
 of effential oil. From iixteen ounces of Venice tur- on diftilkv- 
 pentine, N'eumann obtained, by diftillation with wa- 
 ter, four ounces and three drachms of oil. The fame 
 quantity diftilled, without addition, in the heat of a 
 water-bath, gave but two ounces and an half ; and 
 from the reiiduum treated w-ith water, only an ounce 
 could be obtained. The water remaining in the ftill 
 is found to have imbibed nothing from the turpentine; 
 on the contraiy, the turpentine is found to imbibe 
 part of the water ; the reiiduum and the oil amount- 
 ing to a full ounce on the pound more than the tur- 
 pentine employed. When turpentine is diftilled or 
 boiled with water till it becomes folid, it appears yel- 
 lowifh ; when the procefs is further continued, of a 
 reddifh brown colour : in the iirft ftate, it is called 
 boiled turpentine ; and in the latter, colophony, or rofin. 
 
 On diftilling fixteen ounces of turpentine in a re- 
 tort with an open fire, increafed by degrees, we ob- 
 tain firft four ounces of a limpid colourlefs oil ; then 
 two ounces and two drachms of a yellowifh one ; 
 four ounces and three drachms of a thicker yellow 
 oil; and two ounces and one drachm of a dark brown- 
 ifh red empyreumatic oil, of the confiftence of balfam, 
 and (fommonly called balfam of turpentine. 143^? 
 
 The limpid effential oil called fpirit of turpentine, is Effential 
 exceedingly difficult of folution in fpirit of wine; tho'oil difficult 
 turpentine itfelf diffolves with great eafe. One part °f solution, 
 of the oil may indeed be diffolved in feven parts of 
 rectified fpirit ; but on ftanding for fome time, the 
 greateft part of the oil fubfides to the bottom, a much 
 greater proportion of fpirit being requifite to keep it 
 diffolved. 
 
 2. Benzoin. This is a very brittle brownlfh refin, Benzoin;- 
 of an exceedingly fragrant fmell. The tree which 
 produces benzoin is a native of the Eaft Indies ; par- 
 ticularly of Siam and the ifland of Sumatra. It is ne- 
 ver permitted to exceed the fixth year ; being, after 
 this time, unfit for producing the benzoin., It is then 
 cut down, and its place fupphed by a young tree rai- 
 fed commonly from the fruit. One tree does not 
 yield above three pounds of benzoin. 
 
 A tree fuppofed to be the fame with that which af^ 
 
 fords 
 
568 
 
 Bitumen 
 
 CHEMI STRY. 
 
 Pradicc 
 
 1440 
 
 Soluble 
 fpirit of 
 wine. 
 
 1441 
 Origin of 
 bitumens. 
 
 1441 
 Kaphtha. 
 
 1443 
 Petroleum 
 
 *• fords benzoin in the Eafl Indies, is plentiful alfo in 
 Virginia and Carolina ; from whence it has been 
 brought into England, where it grows with vigour in 
 the open ground. TJie bark and the leaves have the 
 fmell of benzoin ; and yield with re£lifled fpirit a re- 
 fin of the fame fmell ; but no refin has been obferved 
 to ifliie from it naturally in this climate ; nor has any 
 benzoin been collcilcd from It in America. 
 
 Benzoin diffolves totally in fpirit of wine Into a 
 blood-red liquor, leaving only the impurities, which 
 commonly amount t« no more than a fcruple on an 
 ounce. To water, It gives out a portion of faline mat- 
 ter of a peculiar kind, volatile and fublimable In the 
 lire. See (j^^ et feq. 
 
 The principal ufe of refins Is In the making of lac- 
 vquers, vaniifiies, &c. See Varnish. 
 
 ^ 5. B I 7 u M F. N s. 
 
 - The-se are Inflammable mineral bodies,, not fulphu- 
 reous, or only cafaally Impregnated with fvdphur. 
 They are of various degrees of conhftency; and £eem, 
 in the mineral kingdom, to correfpond with the oils 
 and refins In the vegetable. 
 
 Concerning the origin of bitumens, chemifts are not 
 at all agreed. Some chemical writers, particularly 
 Mr Macquer, imagine bitumens to be no other than 
 vegetable refins altered In a particular manner by the 
 admixture of fome of the mineral acids. In the earth; 
 but Dr Lewis Is of a contrary opinion, for the follow- 
 ing reafons. 
 
 " Mineral bitumens are very different in their qua- 
 lities from vegetable refins : and, in the minei-al king- 
 dom, we find a fluid oil very different from vegetable 
 oils. The mineral oil Is changed by mineral acids in- 
 to a fubllance greatly refembling bitumens ; and the 
 vegetable oils are changed by the fame acids into fub- 
 ftances greatly refeml-ling the natural refins. 
 
 *' From bitumens we obtain, by dlililktlon, the mi- 
 neral oil, and from refins the vegetable oil, dillinft in 
 their quahties as at firft. Vegetable oils and refins 
 have been treated with all the knov^n mineral acids ; 
 but have never yielded any thing fim.Ilar to the mine- 
 'ral bitumens. It feems, therefore, as If the oily pro- 
 dufts of the two kingdoms were effentlally and fpe- 
 cifically different. The laws of chemical inquiries at 
 leaft demand, that we do not look upon them any 
 otherwife, till we are able to produce from one a fub- 
 ftance fimllar to the other. When this fiiall be done, 
 and not before, the prefumption that nature effects the 
 fame change In the bowels of the earth, will be of 
 fome weight." 
 
 There is a perfectly fluid, thin bitumen, or mine- 
 ral oil, called naphtha, clear and colourlefs as cryftal ; 
 of a ftrong fmell ; extremely fubtlle ; fo light as to fwim 
 on all known liquoi-s, ether perhaps exceptt\l ; fpread- 
 ing to a vafl; furfacc on water, and exhibiting rain- 
 bow colours ; highly Inflansmable : formerly made ufe 
 of In the compofitlon of the fuppofed Incxtingulftiable 
 greek fire. 
 
 Next to this In confiflence Is the olam petra, or pe- 
 troleum ; which is groffer and thicker than naphtha, 
 «f a ytllowifti, rcddifh, or brownlfli colour ; but very 
 light, fo as to fwim even on fpirit of wine. By di- 
 ftillation, the petroleum becomes thinnei- and more 
 NO 75. 
 
 fubtlle, a grofs matter being left behind ; It does not, 
 however, eafily arlfe, nor does It totally lofe its colour 
 by this procefs, without particular managements or 
 additions. 
 
 Both naphtha and petroleum are found plentifully 
 in fome parts of Perfia, trickling through rocks or 
 fvvlmming on the furface of waters. Kempfer gives 
 an account of two fpvings near Baku ; one affording 
 naphtha, which It receives In di'ops from fubtei-rane- 
 ous veins ; the other, a blackifli and more fetid pe- 
 troleum, uhich comes from Mount Caucafus. The 
 naphtha is colle£led' for making varnlihes ; the petro- 
 leum Is colletled In pits, and fent to different places for 
 lamps and torches. 
 
 Native petrolea are likewife found In many diffe- 
 rent places, but are not to be had In the ffibps ; what 
 Is fold there for petroleum, being generally oil of tur- 
 pentine coloured with alkanet root. The true naph- 
 tha is recommended againft diforders of the nerves, 
 pains, cramps, and contradlions of the limbs, &c. but 
 genuine naphtha Is rarely or never brought to this 
 country. 
 
 There are fome bitumens, fach as amber, amber- 
 greafe, pit-coal, and jet, perfectly folid; others, fuch as 
 Barbadoes tar, of a middle confiitence between fluid 
 and folld. Turf and peat are likewife thought to be- 
 long to this clafs. 
 
 1. Amber. This fubftance melts, and burns in the 
 fire, emitting a ftrong peculiar fmell. Dill died in a 
 ftrong heat, it yields a pldegm, an oil, and a particu- 
 lar fpecles of acid fait. The diftillation Is performed 
 In earthen or glafs retorts, frequently with the addi- 
 tion of fand, fea-falt, coals, &c. which may break the 
 tenacity of the melted mafs, fo as to keep It from 
 fwelling up, which It Is apt to do by itfelf. Thefe 
 additions, however, make a perceptible difference In 
 the produce of the diftillation : with fome the fait 
 proves yellowifii and dry ; with others, brownlfli or 
 blackifli, and undtuous or foft like an extrafl : with 
 fgme, the oil Is throughout of a dark brown colour ; 
 with others, it proves externally green or greeaiili ; 
 with elixated ^iflies, in particular, It is of a fine green. 
 The quantity of oil and phlegm is greateft when coals 
 are ufed, and that of fait when fea-falt Is ufed. 
 
 The moft advantageous method of diftilling amber, 
 however, is without any addition ; and this is the me- 
 thod ufed in Pruflla, where the greateft quantities of 
 fait and oil of amber are made. At firft a phlegma- 
 tic liquor difllls; then a fluid oil; afterwards one that 
 is thicker and more ponderous ; ar^d laft of all, an oil 
 ftill more ponderous along with the fait. In order to 
 coUeCl the fait more perfeAly, the receiver Is fre- 
 quently changed; and the phlegm, and light oil, which 
 arife at firft, are kept by themlelves. The fait is pu- 
 rified, by being kept fome time on bibulous paper, 
 which abforbs a part of the o\\( and changing the pa- 
 per as long as it receives any oily ftain. For the fur- 
 ther depuration as well as the nature of this fait, fee 
 
 SuCCINUM. 
 
 2. Ambcrgreafe. This concrete, which Is ordy ufed 
 as a perfume, yields, on diftillation, produfts of a 
 fimllar nature to that of amber, excepting that the 
 v(jlatile fait Is In much Itfs quantity. See Amber-* 
 
 GRKASE. 
 
 3. Pit-coal. See the articles Coal and Lithan- 
 
 THRAX. 
 
 Bitumens 
 
 1444 
 Amber. 
 
 144.? 
 M- (1: ad- 
 v;in! ajre» 
 oufl)' di- 
 ftiliedwiti 
 out addi- 
 tion. 
 
 144O 
 Amber- 
 greafe. 
 
 '44 7 
 Pit-coul. 
 
Peat. 
 
 Pnenome- 
 ra on diftil 
 lation. 
 
 Praaice., ^ G H E M 
 
 Bitumens. thRAx. This fubftance yields by diftillati'on, ac- 
 cording to the tranflator of the Chemical Dictio- 
 nary, t phlegrh, or v/ater ; 2. a very acid liquor; 3. 
 a thin oil, like naphtha ; 4. a thicker oilj relembling 
 petroleum, which falls to the bottonn of the former, 
 and which ri{es with a violent fire ; 5". an acid, con- 
 crete (alt ; 6. (tn unhrflammable earth (we fuppofe he 
 means a piece of charred coal, or cinder) remains in 
 the retort. The fluid oil obtained from coals is faid to 
 be exceedingly inflammable, i"o as to burn upon the fur- 
 face of water like naphtha itfelf. 
 
 4. Peat. There are very confiderable differen- 
 ces in this fubftance, proceeding'- probably from the 
 admixture of different minerals : for the fubflance 
 of peat is plainly of vegetable origin ; whence it is 
 found to anfwer for the fmelting of ores, and the re- 
 duAion of metallic calces, nearly in the fame manner 
 as coals of wood. Some forts yield, in bnrnins;-, a very 
 difagreeable fmell, which extends to a great diilance ; 
 whillt others are inclfenfive. Some burn into grey 
 or white, and others into red, ferruginous afhes. The 
 aflies yield, on elixation, a fraall quantity of alkaline, 
 and fome neutral fait. 
 
 The fmoke of peat does not preferve or harden 
 flefli like that of wood | and the foot into which it 
 condenfes is more apt to liquefy in moift weather. On 
 'diflilling peat in clofe vcfTcls, there ariles a clear in- 
 fipid phlegm; an acid liqu()r, which is fucceeded by an 
 alkaline one; and a dark-coloiued oil. The oil has a 
 very pungent tafle, and an empyreutratic fmell ; lefs 
 fetid than that of animal fubftances, but more fo than 
 that of mineral bitumens. It congeals, in the cold, 
 into a pitchy mafs, ^which liquefies in a fmall heat i it 
 readily catches fire from a candle; but burns lefs vehe- 
 mently than other oils, and immiediately goes out up^ 
 on removing the external flame. It difTolves almofl 
 totally in rttlified fpirit of wine, into a dark, brownifh- 
 rcd, liquor* 
 
 § 6. C H AkCOAL, 
 
 toiffe-cHces This is the form to which all inflammable matters 
 ietweeii ^""^ reducible, by being fubjefted to the mofl vehe- 
 t!ie coai> <?f ment aftion of fire in clofe vefTcls ; but though all the 
 <iiiFerent Coals are nearly fimilar to one another in appearance, 
 fubftances. ^^^^^ neverthele-fs a very Confiderable difference 
 am.ong them as to their qualities. Thus the charcoal 
 of vegetables parts with its phioglfton very readily, 
 and is eafily reducible to white afhes ; charred pit- 
 coal, or, as it is commonly called, ccak, much more 
 difficultly ; and the coals of burnt animal fubflances, 
 far more difficultly than either of the two. Mr Mac- 
 quer acquaints us, that the coal of bullock's blood 
 parts with its phlogiiton with the utmoft difBcnlty, 
 He kept it very red, in a fliallow crucible, ftirrnunded 
 with charcoal, for fix hours and more, Hirring it cOn- 
 ftantly that it might be all expofed to the air, without 
 being able to reduce it to white, or even grey afhes. 
 It flill remained very black, and full of phlogiflon. 
 The coals of pure oils, or concrete oily fubftances, 
 and foot, which is a kind of coal raifed during the in- 
 'iBainmation of oils, are as difficultly burnt as animal 
 coals. Thefe coals contain very little faline matter, 
 and their afhes fiirnifh no alkali. Thefe coals, which 
 are fo difficultly burnt, are alfo lefs capable of inflaming 
 ,With nitre than others more combuflible ; an4 fome of 
 Vol. IV. Part il. 
 
 I S T R Y, 
 
 5^9 
 
 them, in a great meafure, refifl even the a£tfon of ni- Vcgcta:)ie- 
 tre itfelf. a id Ammal 
 
 Charcoal is the moft refraftory fubftance in nature ; f"'"^^"'""'^ 
 no inltance having been known of its ever; being j^^^ 
 melted, or fhowing the leaft difpofition to fufion, ei- Charcoal 
 ther by itfelf, or with additions: hence, charcoal is I'crfecaiy 
 foimd to be the mofl proper fu'pport for fuch bodies ^^'^^^f'^^^^* 
 are to be expofed to the focus of a large burning gkfs. 
 The only true folvent of charcoal is hepar fiihburis. 
 By the violent heat of a buming-glafs, however, it is 
 found to be entirely diffipable into inflamimable airi 
 without having any refiduum. See Aerolooy, 11° 129. 
 and Charcoal. 
 
 The different fubftances mixed with diflPerent coals, 
 render fome kiiids of charcoal much lefs fit to be ufed 
 in reviving metals from their calces, or in fmelting 
 them originally from their ores. The coals of vege- 
 table fubftances are found to anfwer beft for this pur- 
 pofe. See Metallurgy. 
 
 S E c T . V. Vegeta hie a nd AniDial Subftanee s. 
 
 The only fubftances afforded by vegetables or ani- 
 mals, which we have not yet examined, are the muci- 
 laginous, or gummy; and the colouring parts obtained 
 by infufion, orbo^Hng in water; and the Calculous con- 
 cretions found in the bodies of animals, chiefly in the 
 human bladder. The colouring matter is treated of under 
 the article CotovR'-Mahlng, to which we refer ; and in 
 this fedion fhall only conhder the nature of the others. 
 
 ^ I. MuciLAGK or Gum. 
 
 The mucilage of vegetables is a clear tranfpareut Mucfkg^' 
 fubftance, which has little or no tafle or fmell, the 
 confidence of which is thick, ropy, and tenacious, 
 when united with a certain quantity of fupera- 
 bundant water. It is entirely and intimately foluble in 
 water, and contains no difengaged acid or alkali. 
 
 When mucilage is dlfTolved in a large quantity of 
 water, it does not fenfibly alter the confiftence of the 
 liquor : but,^ by evaporation, the water grows mor« 
 and more thick; and, at laft, the matter acquires the 
 confifl;ence of gnm-arabic, or glue ; and this without 
 lofing its tranfparency, provided a heat not exceed- 
 ing that of boiling water has been ufed. 
 
 Gu:ns, and folid mucilages, when well dried and Plienomc- 
 very hard, are not liquefied in the fire like refins, but on Av- 
 fwell, and emit many fumes; which are, at firll, wa-^'*^"°"' 
 tery ; then oilyj fuliginous, and acrid. Diftillcd 
 in clofe veflels, an aqueous acid liquor comes over, 
 along witl/ an empyreUmatic oil, as from other vege- 
 table fubfl ances ; a confiderable quantity of coal re- 
 mains, which burns to afhes wixh. difficulty. 
 
 Mucilages and gums are not foluble either by oil^ 
 fpirit of wine, alkalies, or acids, except in fo far as 
 they diffolve in thefe liquors by means of the water ' 
 in which the alkali or acid are diflTolved. They are, 
 however, the mofl effeftual means of uniting oil with 
 water. Three parts of mucilage, poured upon one 
 part of oil, will incorporate with it by trituration or 
 agitation ; and the compound will be foluble in water. 
 Vegetable gums are ufed in medicine, as well as the 
 mechanic arts : but the particular ufes to which each 
 of them is applicable, will be mentioned under the 
 name of each particular gum. 
 
 4 G The 
 
57^ 
 
 Cal ulus. 
 
 1454 
 Jelly and 
 glue. 
 
 US5 
 &cheele's 
 exper'- 
 jnents nn 
 she hu- 
 man calcu- 
 lus. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 The mucilage obtained from animal fiibftances, when 
 not too thick, is calh i] jelly, or gelatinous matter ; when 
 further infpiflated, the matter becomes quite folid in 
 the cold, and is czWtd glue. If the evaporation is ftill 
 further continued, the matter acquires the confiftence 
 of horn. 
 
 This gelatinous fubftance feems to be the only true 
 animal one ; for all parts of the body, by long conti- 
 nued boiling, are reducible to a jelly, the hardeft 
 bones not excepted. Animal jelly, as well as vege- 
 table mucilage, is almoft isifipid and inodorous ; but, 
 though it is difiFicult to delcribe the difference betwixt 
 them when apart, it is very eafily perceived when 
 they are both together. Acids and alkalies, particu- 
 larly the latter, diflblve anim.al jellies with great eafe ; 
 but the nature of thefe combinations is not yet under- 
 ftood. The other properties of this fubftance are com- 
 mon to it with the vegetable gums, except only that 
 the animal mucilage, forms a much ftronger cement than 
 any vegetable gum ; and is therefore mucri employed 
 for mechanical purpofes, under the name glue. See 
 Glue, and Isinglass. 
 
 § 2. Of the HvMAN Calculus^ 
 
 This fubftance has been repeatedly examined by the 
 moll eminent chemifts. Mr Scheele, as has been re- 
 lated n^ 982, et feq. has been able to extrad an acid from 
 it. His account of it in other refpeds is to the fol- 
 lowing purpofe. 
 
 1 . All the calculi examined, whether fiat and po- 
 ii0ied, or rough and angular, were of the fame nature, 
 and confifted of the fame conftituent parts. 
 
 2. The diluted vitriolic acid has no eftefl upon the 
 calculus, but the concentrated acid diffolves it, and by 
 abftrailion from it is converted ipto the fulphureous 
 kind, leaving a black coal behinjf. 
 
 .3. Neither diluted nor concentrated fpirit of fait had 
 any effeft upon it. 
 
 4. By means of nitrous acid, a new one was produ- 
 ced, and which is pofTefTed of finguiar qualities, as al- 
 ready mentioned. 
 
 5. The folution of calculus in nitrous acid is not 
 precipitated by ponderous earth, har are metallic folu- 
 tions fenfibly altered by it. 
 
 6. It is not precipitated by alkalies, but grows 
 fomevi'hat yellower by a fuperabundance of the latter. 
 In a llron.g digefting heat the liquor becomes red, and 
 tinges the fliin of the fame colour. It precipitates 
 green vitriol of a black colour; vitriol of copper, green j 
 filver, grey ; corrofive fublirnate, zinc, and lead, white. 
 
 7. The folution is decompofed by lime-water, and 
 lets fall a white precipitate, foluble in the muriatic acid 
 without any effervefcence : but thougH there be an 
 excefs of precipitate, the liquor ftill remains acid; which 
 happens alfo vnth animal earth, and that of fluor dif- 
 folved in the fame acids. On evaporation to drynefs, 
 the matter will at lail take fire ; but when heated on- 
 ly to a dull red heat in a clofe crucible, it grows black, 
 fmells like burnt alum, and effervefces with acids ; be- 
 ing convertible before the blow-pipe into quicklime. 
 
 8. Neither this folution, nor the alkaline mixture^ 
 is changed by the acid of fugar. 
 
 9. The calculus is not changed by acid of tartar,, 
 though it is dilfolved even in the cold by alkali, when 
 reduced to fuch a ftate of caufticity as not to difcover 
 the kaa mark of aerial agid». The folution is yellow,. 
 
 S T R Y. Practice. 
 
 and taftes fweetlfh ; and is precipitated by all the C'i\Lx^U9. 
 acids, even by the aerial. It dccompofes metallic fo- ' 
 lutions, but does not precipitate lime-water; and a 
 fmell of volatile alkali is produced by a little fuperbun- 
 dance of alkali in the folution. Dry volatile alkali has 
 no effetl upon the calculus ; but cauftic volatile alkali 
 diffolves it, though a pretty large quantity is required 
 for this purpofe. 
 
 10. Calculus is likewife dlffolvcd by digefting in 
 lime-water ; and for this purpofe four ounces of lime- 
 water are required to twelve grains of the calculus ; 
 but the latter is partly precipitated by adding acids to 
 the folution. By this union the lime-water lofes it* 
 cauftic tafte. 
 
 11. Calculus is alfo diflblved entirely by pure wa- 
 ter ; but for this purpofe a large quantity of fluid is 
 required. Eight grains of calculus in fine powder 
 will diffolve by b iling for a fliort time in five ounces 
 ef water. The folution reddens tindlure of lacmus, 
 but does not precipitate lime-water; and when it 
 grows cold, tlie gi eateil part of the calculus feparates 
 in fine cryftals. 
 
 12. On diftilling a drachm of calculus in a glafs 
 retort, a volatile liquor was obtained refembling hartf- 
 horn, but without any oil ; and in the neck of the vef- 
 fel was a brown fubhmate. On heating the tetort 
 thoroughly red hot, and then leaving it to cool, a black 
 coal was left, weighing 12 grains, which retained its 
 black colour on a red hot iron in the open air. ^ The 
 fublimate, which had fome marks of fufion, weighed 
 28 grains, and became white by a new fublimation. 
 Its tafte was fomewhat fourifti, but it' had no fmell ; it 
 was foluble both in water and in fpirit of wine ; but a 
 larger quantity of fpirit than of water was requifite for 
 this purpofe. It did not precipitate lime-water, and 
 feemed in fome refpeds to agree with the fal fuccini. ^^^^ 
 
 From thefe experiments our author concludes, that ^Js condu- 
 the human calculus is neither calcareous nor gj-p- fums con- 
 feous ; but confifts of an oily, dry, volatile acid, uni- ceming ite 
 ted with fome gelatinous matter. The calculus is an ^jg^J* * 
 oily fait, in which tlie acid prevails a little, fince it is 
 foluble in pure water ; and this folution reddens the 
 tinfture of lacmus. That it contains phloglflon, ap- 
 pears from its folution in cauftic alkahes and lime-wa- 
 ter, but efpecially from the effeds of the nitrous acid* 
 by which it acquires quite different properties than, 
 from folution in alkahes ; nor can it be precipitated 
 from this folution. The animal gelatinous fubftance ap- 
 pears on diftiUation, by which a liquor is obtained refem- 
 bling fpirit of hartfhorn, and a fine coal is left behind. j^^^ 
 
 13. Calculus is found diffolved in all urine, even in is found 
 that of children. On evaporating four kannes of frefii-univerfaily 
 urine to two ounces, a fine powder is depofited as it «"ne. 
 cools, and a part firmly adheres to the glafs. The 
 precipitated powder readily diffolves in a few. drops o£ 
 caufl:ic fixed alkah ; and has in other refpefts all the 
 properties of calculus. Of the fame nature is the late- 
 ritlous fediment depofited by the urine of thofe who 
 labour under an ague. Mr Scheele fufpefted at firft,, 
 
 that there was in this urine fome unknown menflruum- 
 which kept fuch a quantity of powder diffolved, and 
 v;hlch might afterwards- evaporate by expofure to the 
 air ; but altered bis opinion on perceiving that the fe- 
 diment was equaUy depofited in clofe veflels.. 
 
 14. AH urine contains fome animal earth combined 
 with phofphoric acid j by the fuperabundance of which 
 
 acid^ 
 
Why frefh 
 vrine red- 
 dens lac- 
 
 1459 
 ■Salts, Sec. 
 contained 
 in urine. 
 
 1460 
 
 Seri>nian's 
 
 ius. 
 
 Praaice. C H E M 
 
 Calo lus acid, the earth is kept dlflblvcd; and by reafon of 
 this fuperabundant acidfrefli urine communicates a red 
 colour to Iacmu3. By faturation with cauftic volatile 
 alkali a white powder is preciptate^ ; of which three 
 drachms and an half are obtained from four kannes of 
 ■vrine. It is foluble in nitrous acid ; and on adding 
 the vitriolic, fome gypfum is precipitated. On evapo- 
 rating the nitrous acid,' another remained, which pre- 
 cipitated hme- water ; and when mixed with lamp-black, 
 afforded phofphorus by diftillation ; whence it is evi- 
 dent, that the white powder juft mentioned contained 
 lime and phofphoric acid. 
 
 15. From thefe experiments Mr Scheele concludes, 
 that all urine contains, befides the fubilances already 
 known (viz. fal ammoniac, common fait, digeftive fait, 
 'Glauber's fait, microcofmic fait, fal perlatum, and an 
 -oily extraftive matter), a concrete acid, or that of cal- 
 culus, and animal earth. It is alfo remarkable, that the 
 urine of the fick is more acid, and contains more ani- 
 mal earth than that of healthy perfons. With regard 
 to the fal perlatum, it was afterwards difcovered by Mr 
 Scheele not to be a peculiar acid, but only a phofpho- 
 ric acid difguifed by a fmall quantity of folTil alkali 
 united with it. The analyfis is confirmed by fynthe- 
 fis ; for, by combining foffd alkali with phofphoric 
 acid, our author obtained a true perlate acid. 
 
 5, , In a fupplement to Mr Scheele's differtation on the 
 
 account of calculus, Mr Bergman obferves, that he could not fuc- 
 the calcu- ceed in diffolving it entirely either in pure water or in 
 the nitrous acid, though the undiffolved part was the 
 lefs in proportion to the finenefs of the powder to 
 which the calculus was reduced. The undilfolved part 
 appeai-s mod confpicuous, when fmall pieces, or fmall 
 calculi of a few grains weight only, are put into a fu- 
 perabundant quantity of menftruum, and kept in a de- 
 gree of heat very near to that which makes water boil. 
 Here it will be obferved, that the greateft part of the 
 piece is diflTolved ; but that at the fame time fome 
 fmall white fpongy particles remain, which are not af- 
 fefted either by water, fpirit of wine, acids, or cauftic 
 volatile alkali. If the liquor be made fully to boil, 
 thefe particles divide into white rare flocculi, and be- 
 come almoft imperceptible, but without any entire dif- 
 folution. Mr Bergman could not colled a fuflicient 
 quantity of them to determine their nature with accu- 
 racy ; only he obferved, that when expofed to a ftrong 
 heat, they were reduced to a coal which burns flowly 
 to afhes, and is not foluble in diluted nitrous acid. 
 
 ^ " When calculus veficas (fays he) is diffolved in 
 nitrous acid, no precipitation enfues «n adding the acid 
 ©f fugar ; whence one is readily induced to conclude, 
 that there is no calcareous earth prefent, becaufe this 
 experiment is the fureft way to difcover it. But I 
 have found, in a variety of experiments concerhing 
 eleftive attractions, that the addition of a third fub- 
 ftance, inftead of difuniting two already united, often 
 unites both very clofely. That the fame thing hap- 
 pens here I had the more reafon to believe, becaufe the 
 acid of fugar contains fome ^hlogiftic matter, though 
 of fuch a fubtk nature, that, on being burned, it does not 
 produce any fenfible coal-; and the event of my expe- 
 riment has fhown, thaf I was not miftaken in my con- 
 jefture. In order to afcertain this point, I burned 
 coals of the calculus to afhes, which were quite white, 
 ■and (howed in every refpedl the fame phenomena as 
 lime^ caufed fome effervefcence during their folution 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 in acids, united with vitriolic acid into gypfum, were Calculus, 
 precipitated by the acid of fugar, and were partly fo- ' ' 
 luble in pure water, &c. Notwithllanding this, there 
 remains about one-hundredth part of the afhes info- 
 luble , in aquafortis ; being the remainder of the fub- 
 ftance ?bove mentioned, which; together with the 
 concrete acid, conftitutes the calculus. If the calculus 
 be diffolved in nitrous acid, the folution filtered and'eva- 
 porated to drynefs, and the dry mafs calcined to white- 
 nefs, a calcareous powder is thus hkewife obtained." 1461 
 
 As pure vitriolic acid contains no phlogiflon, our Calcareous 
 author fuppofed, that by dropping it, in its concentra- l^^"" 
 ted ftate, mto a folution of calculus in nitrous acid, the Itlw vitrit 
 calcareous earth, if any exiftedin it, would be difcover- He acid, 
 ed. _ In this he was not difappointed ; for when the 
 folution was faturated, fome fmall cryftals were thus 
 immediately feparated. Thefe, on examination, were 
 lound to be gypfum ; and, after being diffolved in di- 
 ftiUed water, were precipitated by acid of fugar. When 
 the folution of calculus was very much diluted, no 
 change appeared at firll on the addition of oil of vi- 
 triol ; but after a little evaporation, the above men- 
 tioned ciyftals began to appear. Some calculi of the 
 bladder or kidneys at leaft certainly contain hme, but 
 feldom more than one half in an hundred parts, or one 
 in 200 parts. 
 
 By the affiftance of heat, concentrated vitriolic acid 
 diffolves the calculus with effcrvefcence, and the folu- 
 tion is of a dark brown colour. On adding a little wa- 
 ter, a kind of coagulation takes place ; but by adding 
 m.ore, the liquor again becomes clear, and afl'umes a 
 yellowifh colour. Mr Bergman agrees with Mr 
 Scheele in fuppofing that the muriatic acid has no ef- 
 feft upon the calculus ; but he is in doubt whether it 
 may not extrad fome part of the calcareous earth. j g 
 
 _ The red colour affumed by the folution of calculus Red toiour 
 in aquafortis is remarkable. A faturated folution dif- of the nir 
 covers no fmell of nitrous acid, and if evaporated by 
 itfclfina large open vefTel, the hquor afTumes at laft '''I^J'] 
 a deep red colour, and fcarcely contains any nitrous for. 
 acid ; for, on the one hand, paper tinged with lac- 
 mus fcarce fhows any rednefs ; and, on the other, the 
 colour is deftroyed irrecoverably by the addition of 
 any acid. By quick evaporation the folution at laft 
 fwells into innumerable bubbles^ the foam growa 
 redder and redder, and at laft becomes dark red after 
 it is quite dry. This dry mafs communicates its co- 
 lour to a much larger quantity of water than before, 
 and diffolves very readily in all acids, even fuch as 
 have no aftion on the calculus ; but they entirely de- 
 ft roy the colour, and that the more quickly in pro- 
 portion to their degree of ftrength; even alum has this 
 effeft on account of the fmall quantity of loofe acid it 
 contains. Cauftic alkalies aho difiblve the colouring 
 matter, and deftroy it, but more flowly. 
 
 Our author endeavours to account for this red co- 
 lour produced by the nitrous acid, from the pecuKar 
 nature of that acid, and the effeft it has upon phlo- 
 gifton. In order to obtain it, a proportionable quan- 
 tity of acid muft be made ufe of, and it ought to be 
 diluted, that there may be no danger of going be- 
 yond the neccffary Hmit. If too much be ufed, it will 
 not produce the proper effeft ; but, by reafon of its 
 fuperabundance, more or lefs, or even the whole, will 
 be deftroyed in proportion to the quantity. By poar- 
 ing it in an undiluted ftate on powdered calculut, it i« 
 
 4 C 2 <;ojg 
 
572 
 
 Calculus. 
 
 1463 
 Experi- 
 ments of 
 Mr Hig- 
 gins on this 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 converted In a few moments into mere foam. The 
 acid of calculus is the more eafily feparated from the 
 aquafortis by evaporation, as the latter is rendered 
 more volatile by the inflammable' particles of the for- 
 mer : alkali added to them both united does not pro- 
 duce any precipitation ; a circumftance generally ob- 
 ferved where two acids are united. In this cafe both 
 the acids unite with the alkali, according to the dif- 
 ferent laws of their attraftion. The red niafs oblam- 
 ed after deficcation is, however, very different from 
 the concentrated acid, fuch as is contained in the cal- 
 culus ; for it is of a darker eolour, and very deliqiief- 
 cent : the leaft particle gives a rofe colour to a very 
 confulerable quantity of water; but the muriatic and 
 other ftrong acids always certainly deftroy it ; and, in 
 a longer or fliorter time, produce a colourlefs folu- 
 tion. This remarkable change depends, according 
 to our author, more on the aftion of the nitrons acid 
 upon the inflammable part, than upon any thing re- 
 maining behind. — Such red fpots as are produced up- 
 on the flcin by the folution, are likewife produced up- 
 on bones, glafs, paper, and other fubilances ; but 
 more time is required for their becoming vifible, 
 though this too may be a little accelerated by means 
 of heat. 
 
 The following is an abftrad of Mr Higgins's expe- 
 riments upon this fubjeft. 
 
 I. Eight hundred and forty grains of dry and well 
 powdered calculus were introduced into a glafs retort. 
 It was taken from a laminated ftone with a fmall nu- 
 cleus, which was likewife laminated. The outward crull: 
 appeared very porous, but increafed In dculity towards 
 the centre. By the application of heat, an elalHc fluid 
 was firfl llowjy extricatetl; and which, on exarnination, 
 appeared to be compofed of equal parts of fixed and 
 phlogifl-icated air. The lail portions came over very 
 faft, and were attended with an urinous fmell ; and, 
 .by continuing tlie diflillation, it became evident that 
 fixed and alkaline air came over together without form- 
 ing any union,, as they ought, on the common prin- 
 ciples of chemillry, to have dune ; though our author 
 is at a lofs to know wliy they did not unite, unlefs 
 they were prevented by the fmall quantity of inflam- 
 mable air which came over along with them. 
 
 From the beginning of the iQlh meafiirc, a black, 
 eharry, and greafy matter began to line the conical 
 tube and air-veffel adapted to the retort ; and as the 
 procefs went on,, the proportion of alkaline air de- 
 creafed, while that of the inflammable air was aug- 
 mented, until towards the end, when the lafl nine 
 meafures were all inflammable ; after which no more 
 would come over, though the retort was urged with 
 a- white heat. On breaking the dift.illing veflcl, a 
 black powder weighing 9,5 grains was found in it. On 
 digefting this for an hour in ten ounces of diftilltd wa- 
 ter, and then filtering and evaporating it to two oun- 
 ces, a yellowifn powder was precipitated, bnt no cry- 
 ftals were formed after Handing a whole night. This 
 powder was then feparated by filtration, and the liquor 
 evaporated to one ounce; during which time m.ore 
 powder was precipitated^ Jt was then filtered a fe- 
 eond time, and the liquor evaporated to half an ounce; 
 
 S T R Y. PradJce, 
 
 dried, amounted only to one grain, had a fhining ap- Calculus, 
 pearance, and felt v.n-y foft, not unlike mica in pow- "v 
 der. It was not changed, but rather looked whiter 
 by expoling it to a fi;;rce heat for ten minutes. Ii 
 diffolved in diililled water without being precipitated 
 by caulllc volatile alk-rli. Mineral alkah', acid of fu- 
 gar, and nitrated terra pondcrofa, rendered the folu- 
 tion turbid; whence our author inferred,. that the pow- 
 der in queftion was felenite. 
 
 After the feparatir)n of this powder, the remaining, 
 folution was evaporated to drynefs with a gentle heat. 
 During the evaporation it continued to emit fubatid 
 vapours, leaving eleven grains of a powder of a dirty 
 yellow colour, having an aluminous talle. To this 
 powder he added as much diftiiled vvaier as was nearly 
 fuflacient to diffolve it; after which it was fet by for 
 three weeks. At the expiration of this term feveral 
 fmall, tranfparent, and cubical cryilals appeared on 
 the hde of the veifcl above the furface of the folution j 
 and thcfe hkewife had an aluminous tafle. The whole 
 was then diffulvtd In diililled water, and the folatloa 
 filtered. Acid of fugar produced no change in tlie 
 liquor for at leaft five minutes, but an Immediate 
 cloudinefs took place -^n a mixture with volatile alkali j. 
 and on filtering the Uquor it was again rendered turbid 
 by mineral alkali, though the caullic alkaii already 
 predominated. Nitrated terra pondcrofa threw down 
 a copious precipitate, and PruHian alkali difcovercd a 
 frail quantity of iron. Tuis aluminous folution left, 
 a yellow fubilance on the filter ; which, when col- 
 lefted and dried, weighed only half a grain : it dif- 
 folved without eftcrvelcciice In nitrous acid; acid of 
 fugar caufed no precipitation, but cauftic volatile al- 
 kali threw down a precipitate which difTolved in dif- 
 tilled water. Tiils folution was rendered turbid by 
 the acid of fugar and murluted terra pondcrofa, bift 
 no. effe6t was produced by caullic volatile alkali or 
 lime-water. 
 
 The yellow powder firft depofited by the folution 
 weighed two grains and a half, and by expofure to a 
 flrong heat acquired a deep orange colour. On dl» 
 geillon with diililled water, the iufoluble part w;is re-- 
 duced to three-fourths of a grain, and appeared to be 
 iron ; while the foluble pari was foui^ to be nothing, 
 elfe but gypfum. Our author, however. Is of opinion,, 
 that this iron is Impreguated with a fmall portion of 
 vitriolic acid, though not in fuch quantity as to ren- 
 der it foluble. 
 
 The charred matter remaining in the. retort was 
 reduced by lixiviatlan with water to 80 gi-ains. Thefe 
 wei-e calcined with a red heat in an open fire, but 
 could, not be reduced to a grey powder in lefs than, 
 three quarters of an hour. Wheii thoroughly cal- 
 cined and cold, it weighed only 21 grains, which com- 
 municated to hot diltilled water a limy tafle, and gave, 
 it the property of turning fy rup: of violets .green. Di- • 
 luted vitriolic acid had no effoA upon it, bvit it was 
 rendered turbid by ae;-ated volatile alkali and acid of 
 fugar. The remainder -^hen well dried weighed 16 
 grains, which diflblvcd in niti-ous acid at .firlt with a- 
 little effervefcen'je ; and when this ceafed, the folution 
 went on very flowly, until the whole was taken up. 
 
 -when it began to depofit a white powder, and to em.it Acid of fugar made no change in the hquld, but the 
 a fubaoid allvingent vapour, not unlike that of vitrio- whole'was precipitated by cauflic volatile alkaU. Pruf- 
 iic acid. This white precipitatej. when wafhed and fwu alkali threw, down a grain,, or perhaps more, of 
 
 blue • 
 
 / 
 
Pra(51ice. C H E M I 
 
 Cnlculus. blue ; the precipitate digcfted vv'ith diftilled vinegar lofi: 
 ^ ' ♦ ' a grain and an half, which was thrown down by cauilic 
 volatile alkali. The infoluble part being wafhed and 
 digelted in diililled water for half an hour, was partly 
 dilFolved ; the folution was not affc'tled by'cauftic vo- 
 latile alka'i, but acid of fugar and nitrated terrra pon- 
 derofa cauTed an immediate cloudinefs. Seven grains 
 
 Hi 
 
 1464 
 
 account ' 
 
 parts. 
 
 of its com- and an half of the powder, which was infoluble both in 
 acetous acid and diftilled water, were readily taken up 
 by diluted vitriolic acid, and precipitated by caullic vo- 
 latile alkali: the 16 grains laft treated, therefore, ap- 
 peared to contain, of clay 74- grains ; of felenite, fix 
 grains; magnefia, one and a half; and of iron, one grain. 
 The proportions of the different ingredients in the 
 whole ^Iculus, therefore, according to Mr Higgins, 
 arc as follow: 
 
 Grains. 
 
 1 I 
 
 74 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 il- 
 59 
 
 Iron 
 
 Stlenite 
 
 Clay 
 
 Alum 
 
 Pure calcareous earth 
 
 Aerated magnefia 
 
 Charry combuftible fubftance 
 
 In all 94-^ 
 
 '465 In this experiment, a darkifh yellow fublimate adhe- 
 xpen- ^j^^ neck of the retort ; the inner part next the 
 
 ments on o i l a r i m r 
 
 the fubii- retort more compact, but the rcit or a lamellar ipon- 
 
 mate ari- gy texture. This fubli mate-, when carefully coUedtedj 
 .'^V'" was found to weigh 425 grains, and readily diiTolved 
 
 «icn' in eight ounces- of liot dillilled water. A coally fab- 
 ftauce was feparated from this folution by filtration, 
 which, when wafhed and dried, weighed ten grdir.;;, 
 and when expofed to a red heat burned with a green- 
 ilh fl:i'me, emitting white fumes, which fmelled like vi- 
 triolic fal ammoniac : the refiduum after calcination 
 weighed half a grain, and was of a whitifh colour ; 
 appearing infoluble in diitilled water, but dilTolving 
 with efFei vefcence in nitrous acid. Acid of fugar cau- 
 fed a very fmall precipitation, which did not take place 
 until the mixture had ftood for fome time ; but cau- 
 ftic volatile alkali inftantly threw down a precipitate, 
 which was taken up, when wafhed, by the acetous a- 
 oid. The quantity was too fmall to be examined with 
 greater accuracy ;. but it feemed to poffefs the proper- 
 ties of magnefia. The faline folution had the colour 
 of fmall beer ; and, when, evaporated to two ounces, did 
 not depofit any fediment, or yield any cryftals. The 
 black matter with which the conical tube and air vef- 
 fel were lined, weighed 28 grains, and adhered fo f.ift 
 ^ to the glafs, that it was impoflible to coUeft the whole 
 
 from the fragments of the glafs. When diflfolved in 
 diftilled water and filtered, four grains of coals, fimi- 
 lar to that obtained from the former, were procured ; 
 but no figns of cryitallization were obferved after eva- 
 Jjaration to one ounce, and fufFering the liquor to ftand 
 aJl night. 
 
 By this treatment, the folution acquired the confift- 
 cnce of treacle ; fo that it was plainly not cryftallizable, 
 and therefore its analyfis was plainly to be attempted 
 after a different method. It was now put into a tu- 
 bulated glafs retort, together with fix ounces of di- 
 ftilled water to wafh It down. By diiiillation in a fand- 
 batli three ounces of water were procured, which dif- 
 
 S T R Y. J73 
 
 ft.red in nothing from common diftilled water, but in Calculus, 
 being coloured with a fmall quantity of the folution ' v 
 from the neck of the retort. On changing the recei- 
 ver, about half an ounce of liquor of th^ fame kind 
 came over, after which the diftiUation began to be at- 
 tended with an urinous fmell. This continued barely 
 perceptible for fome time ; but when about an ounce 
 and an half had pafTed over, it became ib very pun- 
 gent, that our author could no longer doubt of its 
 being in a caullic ftate. A fmall quantity of mild al- 
 kali, however, adhered to the lower part of the neck 
 of the retort, fome of wiiich was wafhed down by the 
 d'fliilation ; fo that the proportions betwixt the two 
 could not be afcertained. The volatile alkaline folu- 
 tion in the retort had the colour of fpirit of hartihorn,- 
 and like it becamt darker coloured by the contact of 
 air ; on account of the evaporation of part of the al- 
 kali, and the reft becoming lefs capable of fufpending, 
 the coaly matter mixed with it. 
 
 After all the liquor had pafTed over, and nothing, 
 remained in the retort but a fmall quantity of black 
 matter, the fire was raifed ;- and, as the heat increafed,. 
 this black fubllance acquired a white colour, with a 
 kind of arrangement on the furface, which was occa- 
 fioned by the heat applied to the bottom of the retort 
 being only fufficient to raife the fait to the top of the 
 matter in the retort ; but as the fand became nearly 
 red-hot, white fumes began to appear, which conden- 
 fcd on the upper part of the retort, and a little way 
 down the neck. The procefs lafted until the matter 
 was nearly red-hot, when the fumes ceafed, and no- 
 thing more paffed over. The fublim.ate, when col- 
 lected, was found to weigh 72 grains, a black porous 
 btittle fubftance remaining on the bottom of the re- 
 tort, which weighed 12. grains. This refiduum, when 
 expofed to a flrong heat, emitted white fumes, with 
 a flight alkaline fmell ; by which procefs it was redu- 
 ced, with very little apj>earance of combuftion, to a 
 grey powder weighing three grains, which was acci- 
 dentally loft. 
 
 Five grains of this purified fublimate, mixed with 
 as much quicklime, emitted no fmell of volatile alkali; 
 and, when thrown upon a red-hot iron, emitted white 
 fumes. Tue fame efFefh was produced by a mixture 
 of equal quantities of vegetable alkali and fublimate. 
 The remainder, confifling of 62 grains,, was divided 
 into two equal parts ; the one of which was mixed 
 with tv/o ounces of diftilled water, and on the other 
 was poured 60 grains of vilrriolic acid diluted with 
 half an ounce of water. Thefe two mixtures being 
 fuffered to remain for fix weeks, feeined to be but- 
 little ailed upon. That with vitriolic acid was thea 
 put into a fmall matrafs, and boiled on fand for half 
 an hour with two ounces of diftilled water, when the 
 whole was taken up. The folutioa.looked clear, and. 
 depofited nothing on ftanding. Mild mineral alkali, 
 had no effeft upon it ; but mild vegetable alkali threw 
 down a copious fediment in white flocculi, which waa- 
 rediffolved by cauftic alkali, lime-water, and partly by. 
 mild mineral alkali. Ehlogifticated alkali, acid of fu- ^. 
 gar, and acid of tartar, had no effeft upon it. The - * 
 other portion of fublimate, which had been mixed., 
 with diftilled water, was very little difTolved ; but in 
 pouring it into a matrafs fome fmall round lamps were 
 obiervdble on the battora of the glafs. Thefe w ere 
 
Experi 
 
 £id. 
 
 574 C H E M I 
 
 Calculus, fix or fevcn In number, fome weighing a whole grain, 
 others not more than one-half. They were very hard 
 and compafl, with a fmooth furface, and in figure re- 
 fembling the nucleus of the original calculus. The 
 whole was then put into a matrafs with about three 
 ounces of water. On boiling it on fand for three 
 quarters of an hour, about one-half of it was taken 
 up ; the folution pafled the filter very clear whilft 
 hot ; but on cooling became turbid, and at laft de- 
 pofited white flocculi, which were redilTolved on the 
 addition of cauftic volatile alkali and lime-water. It 
 turned fyrup of violets green ; which, however, our 
 author thinks might have been occafioned by its re- 
 taining volatile alkali, though it had not the fmallefl 
 appearance of any fuch impregnation. He has never- 
 thelefs frequently obferved, that fometimes the pureft 
 vegetable alkali contains volatile alkali, notwithltand- 
 ing the various operations and degrees of heat it un- 
 dergoes before it can be brought to the degree of pu- 
 rity at which it is called fait of tartar. 
 
 On filtering the folution to feparate what had been 
 depofited by cooling, no change was produced in the 
 filtered liquor by mineral alkali ; but mild vegetable 
 alkali produced a cloudinefs, which was inilantly taken 
 up on adding mineral alkali and lime-water. Neither 
 Pruffian alkali, nor the acids of arfenic, tartar, fugar, 
 or borax, nor any of the three mineral acids, had any 
 effe6t upon it. 
 
 2. An hundred and twenty grains of the fame cal- 
 ments withculus were put into a tubulated glafs retort, and half 
 nitrous a- ounce of ftrong nitrous acid poured upon it. An 
 elFervefcence immediately cnfued ; and fome part of 
 the extricated aerial fluid being preferved, appeared to 
 be fixed air mixed with a fmall quantity of nitrous air. 
 When the effervefcence ceafed, a quarter of an ounce 
 more of nitrous acid was added. On digefting the 
 mixture upon hot fand for an hour, it emitted nitrous 
 vapour and nitrous air ; but the latter in very fmall 
 proportion. When the folution was completed, the 
 whole was poured into a fmall matrais, and gently boil- 
 ed till the fuperabundant nitrous acid was nearly ex- 
 pelled. The folution was of a deep yellow colour and 
 turbid ; but on adding five ounces more of water, and 
 digefting it for a quarter of an hour longer, it acqui- 
 red the colour and confiftency of dephlogifticated ni- 
 trous acid. On cooling it became fomewhat turbid, 
 and in a few days depofited a darkilh yellow powder ; 
 which, when feparated, wafh^d, and dried, weighed 
 little more than a quarter of a grain, and, on exami- 
 nation, was found to be a calx of iron. 
 
 Our author being defirous to know what efFeA the 
 on expofure fun would have upon it, placed it in a window where 
 to the fun. jhe fun fhone full upon it for four hours every day. 
 
 Here a littk moillure feemed daily to exhale from it^ 
 the weather being hot, and the matrafs, which had a 
 /hort wide ne-ck, being only covered with bibulous pa- 
 per to keep out the duft. In this fituation, in the 
 pourfe of a week, a few very fmall .cryftals appeared 
 ■ to float upon the furface. Thefe in time fell to the 
 bottom, where they adhered together fo as to'form a 
 hard concretion, ftill retaining a cryftalline appearance, 
 but fo finall and confufed, that it was impolTible to di- 
 ftinguifli their figure ; and this depofition of cryftals 
 xrontinued for a month, after which it feemed to ceafe. 
 yjie folution vvas then filtered to feparate the fait i af- 
 
 Cryftallizcs 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 ter which one-half of the liquor waa evaporated away, Calculus, 
 and the reft fet in the ufual place for a fortnight long- ^— ^ 
 er, but no more cryftals appeared. The fait, which 
 weighed three grains, was then digefted in four ounces 
 of diftilled water ; but no part feemed to be diffolved. 
 Three ounces of the water were then decanted off, and 
 fix drops of vitriolic acid added to the remainder, 
 which by the help of digeftion feemed to ^ilfolve the 
 fait flowly ; but on adding half an ounce more diftil- 
 led water, the whole was readily taken up. Acid- of 
 fugar had no effedl on this folution ; but lime-water 
 rendered it turbid. The whole was then precipitated 
 with cauftic volatile alkali, and the folution filtered, 
 which likewife threw down the lime from lime-water. 
 The precipitate was then waftied, and diftilled vinegar 
 poured upon it, which did not take it up ; but it was 
 diflcilved by marine acid. Phlogifticated alkali had no 
 eScSt upon it ; and the acid of fugar occafioned very 
 little cloudinefs after ftanding three or four hours ; 
 from which our. author fuppofed that the matter was 
 phofphorated clay. 
 
 The folution, being now free from iron and phof- 
 phorated clay, had a fubacid tafte, and looked clearer, 
 though ftill retaining a yellow caft. Acid of fugar 
 had no effect upon it ; but nitrated terra pbnderofa 
 threw down a precipitate, as did likewife the cauftic 
 volatile alkali. Mild vegetable alkali caufed no preci- 
 pitation ; which our author attributed to the folution 
 of the manganefe and clay by the fixed air extricated 
 from the alkali. Two- thirds of the folution were 
 then put into a fmall glafs retort, and two ounces di- 
 ftilled ofi^, which had no tafte, but fmelled very agree- 
 ably, and not unlike rofe-water. After all the liquor 
 had palfed over, white fumes appeared in the retort, 
 and thefe were foon followed by an aerial fluid. Oa 
 collecting fome of this, a candle was found to burn in 
 it with an enlarged flame. Nitrous air did not dimi- 
 nifh it in the leaft ; and it feemed to be that fpecies 
 of air into which nitrous ammoniac is convertible. 
 No more than 13 or 14 inches of this kind of air 
 could be obtained ; and as foon as it cealed to come 
 over, cryftals were obferved in the lower part of the 
 neck of the retort. On augmenting the heat, a white 
 fait began to fublime and adiiere to the upper part of 
 the retort | the operation was continued until the re- 
 tort was red-hot ; but, on breaking it, the quantity 
 of fublimate was fo fmall, that very little of it could 
 be collefted ; though, from the fmall quantity obtain- 
 ed , our author was convinced of its heing the fame in 
 quality with what was obtained in the former analyfis. 
 The fait which cryftallized in th« neck of the retort 
 was nitrous ammoniac, as appeared from its detona- 
 tion J)er fe, &c. A grey powder was left in the bot- 
 tom of the retort, which hot diftilled water partly 
 dilfolved : muriated terra ponderofa, acid of fugar, 
 and vegetable alkali, rendered this folution turbid ; but 
 cauftic volatile alkali had no effeft upon it. The re- 
 maining part of the powder which was left by the di- 
 ftilled water, readily diflblved with effervefcence in the 
 marine acid, and was precipitated by cauftic volatile 
 alkali ; the part foluble in diftilled water appearing to 
 be gypfum, and that foluble in marine acid to be mag- 
 nefia. 
 
 From all thefe experiments, Mr Higgins concludes 
 the compofition of the human calculus to be vaftly dif- 
 5 fere at 
 
for diffol 
 ▼iBg it 
 
 Pradice. C H E M 
 
 Calculus, ferent from what cither Mr Scheele or Mr Bergman 
 have fuppofed it to be. *• It appears (fays he), that 
 H'^t'^^' calculus was compofed of the following different 
 
 account % Compounds blended together ; wa. felenite, alum, 
 the conft-- microcofmic fait, mild volatile alkali, lime, and caullic 
 tutnt parts volatile alkali, combined with oil, fo as to form a fa- 
 ©f calculus, ponaceous m fs; calx of iron, magnefia combined with 
 aerial acid, clay enveloped by a faponaceous and oily 
 matter, and the fubllmate already defcribed." Confi- 
 dering this to be the true ftate of the calculus in the 
 bladder, the fmall proportions of clay, felenite, mag- 
 nefia, and iron, which are the moft infoluble of the 
 ingredients ; the great folubility of microcofmic fait 
 and alum, and the mifcibility of lime, volatile alkali, 
 and oil, in water ; tend to {how, that the fublimate is 
 the ce'mcnting ingredient. Indeed, its infolubility in 
 water, and property of forming nuclei out of the body, 
 as above obferved, leave no room to doubt it. The 
 proportion of the other ingredients, and very likely 
 their prefence, depend upon chance, volatile alkali and 
 oil excepted ; therefore this fublimate fhould be the 
 1469 obje£t of our inveftigation. 
 Remarkfon Mr Higgins concludes his differtation with fome 
 the reme- praftical remarks concerning the remedies proper for 
 dies proper difTolvingr the ftone, for counteraftins; that difpofition 
 m the body which tends to produce it, and concern- 
 ing the regimen proper for thofe who are to under- 
 go the operation of cutting for it. " The effe£l of 
 mild mineral alkali (fays he) on the fublimate, is 
 well worth the attention of thofe who may have an 
 opportunity of trying its efficacy. Mild mineral al- 
 kali may be taken in large dofes, and continued for 
 a length of time with impunity to the moft deli- 
 cate conftitutions, only obferving a few circumftances; 
 but this alkali, in a caullic ilate, muft veiy often be 
 attended with mifchievous confcquences. Befides, if 
 we cohfider that it muft enter the mafs of blood before 
 any pait can reach the bladder, and the fmall portion 
 of the dofe taken fecreted with the urine, and, laftly, 
 the aftion of cauftic alkali upon animal fubftances ; we 
 fhall be at a lofs to know on what principle cauftic 
 alkalies have been recommended in preference to mild. 
 Soap itfelf might as well be recommended at once ; 
 for foon after cauftic alkali is taken, it muft be in a 
 faponaceous ftate. Fixed vegetable alkali fhould be 
 avoided, and the preference given to the other two al- 
 kalies. As it is evident that alkalies have no real ac- 
 tion on the ftone in the bladder, though their efficacy 
 has been experienced in alleviating the difeafe when 
 timely adminiftered, their mod^ of a6lion is only ex- 
 plicable in the following manner : They either prevent 
 the generation of the fublimate in the fyftem, or elfe 
 keep it in folution in the mafs of fluids ; and being in 
 the utmoft degree of divifibility, its ultimate particles 
 are capable of paffing through the nioft minute emunc- 
 tori'es ; by which means it is carried off by other fecre- 
 tions as well as the urinary. Thus the urine, not be- 
 ing faturated with this matter, a£i:s as a folvent on the 
 &one ; and as the moft foluble parts are firft wafhed 
 away, it falls through time into fragments of irregular 
 furfaces, which by their friilion initate and inflame 
 the bladder, as has been obferved by feveral pracli- 
 tioners» 
 
 " Allowing that the fublimate is the cementing fub- 
 ftance in the calculus, and judging, from the effedts of 
 
 575 
 
 Calculus. 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 alkalies upon it, their modus operandi in the conftitu- 
 tion, it remains now to inquire into the origin of the 
 calculus. Mr Scheele has found this fublimate in the 
 urine of different perfons ; and hence inferred, that it 
 was a common fecretion : but it ftill remains to be af- 
 certained, whether there be a greater quantity of it 
 procured from the urine of patients who labour under 
 this diforder than in thofe who do not ? If this fliould 
 not be the cafe, may not a deficiency of volatile alkali 
 in the conftitution be the caufe of concretions in the 
 kidneys, bladder, &c. ; or, which muft have the fame 
 effeft, too great a proportion of acid, which, uniting 
 with the alkali, may take up that portion which would 
 have kept the fubhmate in folution until conveyed out 
 of the fyltem by the urinary and other fecretions ; and 
 may not this be the phofphoric acid ? If this latter 
 ftiould be the cafe, an increafe of microcofmic fait mufl 
 be found in the urine ; but if the former, a decreafe 
 of the volatile alkali, and no increafe of the neutral 
 fait. The fmall quantity of phofphoric acid found in 
 the calculus proceeds from the folubility of micro- 
 cofmic fait. Do not volatile alkali and phofphoric 
 acid conftitute a great part of the human frame ? and 
 is there not a procefs continually carried on to gene- 
 rate thefe in the fyftem ? and is not this procefs liable 
 to be retarded or checked by intemperance, &c. which 
 may vary their quantities and proportions ? and may 
 not a due proportion of thefe be neccfiaiy to a vigo- 
 rous and found conftitution ? If fo, no wonder that an 
 increafe or deficiency in either or both of thefe fhould 
 be produftiveof feveral diforders." 
 
 On this fubjedt, however, our author has not had 
 fufficient leifure to make the experiments neceffary for 
 its elucidation. Indeed,, it feems not eafy to do fo y 
 as, in his opinion, at leaft 500 would be required for 
 the purpofe. " That the urinary fublimate is prefent 
 in tubercles found in the lungs of perfons who die ofo /r 
 pulmonary confumptions, and likewife in what are of caiculus^ 
 vulgarly called chalk Jones, is what I have experienced : found In 
 b\it in what proportion, or whether in quantities fuf- c""fump- 
 ficient to caufe the concretion, is what I cannot fay ; ^"'^ 
 for I have had but a few grains of each to examine, pie"*^^ 
 I have every reafon to fufped, that confumptions and 
 fcorbutic complaints very frequently arife from a fu- 
 perabundance of this fubhmate in the fyftem j and that 
 it is chiefly the caufe of the gout and rheumatifm, and 
 folely the caufe of the ftone in the bladder. I make 
 no doubt but thefe diforders generally proceed from- 
 obftrudlions ; and it is probable, that either a preci- 
 pitation of this fubhmate in the fyftem, or elfe a de- 
 ficiency of fome other fecretion, which would. hold it 
 in folution until conveyed out of the body, may be the- 
 chief caufe of thofe obftruaions ;. and likewife, that, 
 different degrees of precipitation may produce different" 
 fymptoms and difordera. 
 
 " That mineral or volatile alkali and bark have 
 been ufeful in the above diforders, has been affirmed: 
 by experienced phyficlans ; and I know an inftance 
 myfelf of mineral alkali and nitrous ammoniac being-; 
 ferviceable in a pulmonary complaint, of fome ftand- 
 ing. 
 
 " With refped\ to the ftone, when it acquires a cer- 
 tain magnitude, it is abfurd to attempt to diffolve it 
 in the bladder, it waftes fo very flowly ; and during- 
 this time the patient muft fuffer vaft pain, particularly- 
 
 whea 
 
576 ^ C H E M 
 
 Vitriolic when the ftone acquires a rugged furface : therefore 
 cutting for it at once is much pi-eferable. 
 
 " Mineral alkali taken in the beginning of the com- 
 plaint, and before the ftone accumulates, will no doubt 
 check its progrefs, and may in time change that dif- 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaicc. 
 
 poiltion in the habit. Patients' who are ctit for the Nitrouj 
 ftone fliould, I think, take mineral alkali for foine time 
 when the woimd is healed ; but not before, for fear 
 of bringing on a mortilication/' 
 
 A'--d. 
 
 R 
 
 N 
 
 D 
 
 I 
 
 X 
 
 Containing fuch Discoveries as have appeared fince the Compilation of tlie Article, 
 and which could not be inferted in their proper Places. 
 
 M7I 
 
 ■^'arious 
 methods of 
 reftifying 
 vitriolic 
 
 ether. 
 
 iWr Hig- 
 giiib's ob- 
 ifetvations. 
 
 ■1473 
 Account of 
 
 its coiifti- 
 tnent parts 
 by M. La- 
 voifier. 
 
 1474 
 By Mr Ca- 
 veiidilh. 
 
 T. Vitriolic Etkkr^ 
 
 MPelletier formerly propofed a trtetliod of rec- 
 • tifying this fluid by putting manganefe into 
 the veflcls ; but as the vitriolated manganefe might 
 perhaps comminiicate fome injurious quality, another 
 method is propofed by M. Tingry. After firft draw- 
 ing off the ether, he adds a diluted folution of volatile 
 alkali, and avoids as much as poffible the difiipation 
 of the vapours : the ether is then rediftilled. It may 
 afterwards in this way be wafiied more fafely, and 
 -with lefs lofs. The little proportion of the ether 
 nvhich is feparatcd in the water, mny be again recover- 
 ed, or the water may be again employed for the fame 
 ■purpofe. M. l.unel propofe-R calcined magnefia fot 
 this purpofe, as its fait is net loluble ; though perhaps 
 -pure terra ponderofa might be better. 
 
 II. Ni TROt' s ^ c I D- 
 
 On this fubjeft Mr Higgins has fcveral curious and 
 interefting obfeivatioir?. " It is not an eafy matter 
 (fays he), to afcertain exaftly the grsateft quantity of 
 dephlogifticated air, which a given quantity of nitroua 
 acid may contain. I always found nitre to vary, nut only 
 in its produA of phlogifticated and dephlogiiticated air, 
 but likewife in their proportion to one another. The 
 pureft nitre will yield, about the middle of the procefs, 
 dephlogifticated air fo pure as to contain only about 
 ^ of phlogifticated air. In the beginning, and near- 
 ly about the latter end of the ptoceis, air will be pro- 
 duced about tVvice better than common air. On mix- 
 ing the different prcduds of a quantity of pure nitre, 
 it was found that, by cxpofure to hver of fulphur, f 
 part was left unabforbed ; and this was the utmoll 
 purity in which I obtained dephlogifticated air from 
 nitre. 
 
 " According to M. Lavoifier, ico grains of nitrous 
 acid contain 79^ of dephlogifticated air, and' 204- of 
 phlogifticated air, which is not quite four to one. But 
 his experiments contradift this ; for whatever mode he 
 adopted to dtrcoinpofe nitrous acid, it appeared that the 
 proportion of dephlogifticated air was nearly as five to 
 one of phlogifticated air. 
 
 «« Mr Cav^ndifti has proved, that nitrous acid may 
 be formed by taking the eledlric fpark in a mixture of 
 three parts of phlogifticated air, and feven of dephlo- 
 gifticated air, which is but ^ more of dephlogifticated 
 air than nitrous air contains ; which may apparently 
 contradI6l M. L?.voif!er's, as well as my own, eftimation 
 of the proportion of the conftituent principles of ni- 
 
 N'75- 
 
 trous acid, when in its perfeft ftate. The red nitroxrs 
 vapour contains three parts of nitrous air and one of 
 dephlogifticated air, or one of phlogifticated and three 
 of dephlogifticated air ;. but nitrous vapour may be 
 formed with a lefs proportion of dephlogifticated air J 
 and which, though it may not be lo condenfible as a 
 more perfeft nitroiis vapour, yet will, when in conta£i 
 with pure alkali, unite with it, and f"orm nitre, as was 
 the cafe in the experiment of Mr Cavendilh. The 
 common ftraW-coloured nitrous acid contains more de- 
 phlogifticated air than the red nitrous acid or vapour ; 
 the proportion appears to be about four to one ; but 
 the colourlefs contains about five of dcphlogiRicated 
 to one of phlogifticated air. j^y^ 
 " Having once a charge of nItroUs and vitriolic acidMethoil 
 in a green glafs retort, I put it in a fand pot to di- <'l>tainjng 
 ftil ; but the pot being fmall) the edge came too "^^•"^-m-ous'^^ 
 the retort, about a quarter of an inch or more above 
 the charge ; which, before the procefs ^jommenced, 
 and when it acquired more than the heat of boiling 
 water, cracked It all round in that direftion. Being 
 thus fituated, I was obliged to withdraw the fire, and, 
 before the charge got cold, to ladle It into an earthen 
 pan. On introducing it into a frefti retort, I obtained 
 from it nitrons acid nearly as colourlefs as water. The 
 vitriolic acid iifed in this procefs not being very per- 
 feft, the goodnefs of the nitrous acid Was attributed to 
 the purity of the nitre from whence it was dillilled j 
 but in another procefs, though the fame nitre was ufed 
 with much purer vitriolic acid, the produce was of ati 
 high ftraw colour. On recoUefling the above-men- 
 tioned circumrtancp, the vitriolic acid and nitre were 
 next mingled in due proportion, and expofed in art 
 earthen pan fet in fand, to nearly the heat of boiHng 
 water, for half an hour or more, continually expofing 
 freih furfaces to the air. When the charge was quite 
 cold, I introduced it into a retort, and diililled as co- 
 lourlefs nitrous acid as the former. As no nitrous air 
 was emitted during dlgeftion, it muft have imbibed de- 
 phl.-igifticated air from the atmofphcre." ^ 
 
 MrProuft found, that ftrong nitrous acid will fet fire i^^J^^^'l^ 
 to charcoal if it be rendered very dry. He hkewife re- . al on 
 marked, that charCoal expofed to the air a few hours fire by 
 after calcination) was unfit for the experiment. Char- »:<^^"s 0 
 coal, he obferves, attrafts moifture very forcibly. The^ j'^""^' 
 fi;ft efi'eft of the charcoal on the nitrous acid, he ob- 
 ferv:-s, is to withdraw a portion of its water from it ; 
 by which it is rendered highly concentrated, at the 
 fame time that the condenfatlorl of the water heats the 
 charcoal in a fmall degree, but fufficiently to volatilize 
 a nitious vapour ; which, as foon as it reaches that 
 poi tion of dry Ghareoal next the humid part, is con- 
 
 denfed 
 
 1 
 
Pra^l'ice. 
 
 Nitre. 
 
 denfed by it, and genecates heat enough to promote 
 '"■""v——-' the decompofit ion of the nitrous acid. Hence we fee 
 why the experiment will not fucceed if the acid be 
 poured on the furface of the charcoal. 
 "Ef^call "^^^^ ^^'^^ nitrous acid on blood,- according to 
 iiiti cu' acidMr Higgins, is very fingukn Two parts of blood 
 -on blood, procured frefh at the butchers, one of ftrong nitrous 
 acid, and about one fifth of the whole of water, were 
 digefted in the heat nearly of boiling water (frefh 
 poitionsof water being occafionally added until the 
 whole of the acid was expelled), when it acquired 
 almoft the colour, and exaftly the tafte, of bile. When 
 mixed with a large quantity of water, it acquired a 
 fine yellow colour ; and, on ftanding, depofited a fub- 
 ftance of a brighter yellow, though the fupernatant 
 liquor ftill retained a yellow colour and bitter tafte, 
 but not fo intenfely as when the precipitate was fu- 
 fpended in it. The different ftages of this procefs 
 were well worthy of obfervation. No nitrous air was 
 produced, and the acid was expelled ia the ftate of a 
 white vapour. The liquor was found to increafe in 
 bitternefs as the acidity vanifhed. About the middle 
 of the piocefs, the folution firft tafted acid, but was 
 quickly fucceeded by a bitter fenfation. It appears 
 that the nitrous acid took dephlogifticated air from 
 the blood ; for though red nitrous acid was ufed, it 
 was expelled in a perfeft ftate. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 577 
 
 III. Nitre. 
 
 ^ Though the artificial generation of the nitrous a- 
 cid, froui a mixture of dephlogifticated and phlogifti- 
 tated air, is now fufficiently underftood, yet we do not 
 well know in what manner nature performs the ope- 
 ration. Some chemifts, particularly M. Thouvenal, 
 have found, that putrefadlion favours the produftion 
 of nitrous acid. AH animal lubftances, during theif 
 dccay, give out a vaft quantity of phlogiilicated air ; 
 therefore, if dephlogifticated air be prefent, it will u- 
 nite to the phlogifticated air in its nafcent ftate, and 
 form nitrous acid : but Mr Higgins has obfervod, that 
 1478 nitrous acid may be generated in plenty where there is 
 ^^it^e gene- putrid procefs going on. " The chemical elabo- 
 rated with-ratory at Oxford (fays he) is near fix feet lower than 
 Fadion ^''^ earth. The walls are Iconftrufted 
 
 with common lim.eftone, and arched over with the 
 fame ; the floor is alfo paved with ftone. It is a laro-e 
 room, and very lofty. There are feparate rooms for 
 the chemical preparations, fo that nothing is kept in 
 the elaboratoi-y but the neceflary implements for con- 
 dufting experiments. There is an area adjoining it 
 on a level with the floor, which, though not very 
 large, is fufficient to admit a free circulation of air. 
 The afiies and fweepings of -the elaboratofy are depo- 
 fited in it. There is a good fink in the centre of this 
 area, fo that no ftagnated water can lodge there. Not- 
 withfianding all this, the walls of the room afford 
 frefh crops of nitre every three or four monthiSi Dr 
 Wall, who paid particular attention to this circum- 
 ftance, and who told me it contained fixed vegetable 
 alkali, requefted I would analyfe it, and let him know 
 what it contained. I found that two ounces of it con- 
 tained fix drachms of nitrated fiy.ed vege table alkah, and 
 three of calcareous nitre. The nitre firft appears in fmall 
 whitifti filaments as fine as cob-web, which, when thev 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 get a httle larger, drop off ; fo that tl.ey never acquire Marine 
 uilhcient growth to diftinguifh their figure to a naked ^cid. 
 eye. On finding that they contained fixed vegetable — ~ 
 alkah, I concluded that it proceeded from minute ve- 
 getation ; but in this I was miftaken ; for I found 
 that they were fohible in water, and that they detona- 
 ted with charcoal at eveiy ftage of their growth. 
 Having fwept this faline eftlorefcence from the waH 
 I dug deep into it, but could not obtain nitre from it' 
 \Vhen a part had been white-waftied, it yielded nitre, 
 but not fo abundantly as a neighbouring foot which 
 had not been treated in the fame manner. " 'Hence it 
 is evident, that nitrous acid maybe formed without 
 the afiiftance of putrefcent proceffes in a ftill damp 
 air, wheie there is a fubftance to atfraft it when -lialf 
 formed, whereby it is in time brought to perfedion. 
 1 he above fafts moreover prove, that fixed vegetab^ 
 alkah is a compound." 
 
 IV. Marine ^ c i 
 
 Mr Higgins informs us, that he has, with a viewUnfSs- 
 to dccompofe fea-fa't, mixed it with manganefe in va- f"' >;ftemptj 
 nous proportions, and expofed them in a reverberatino- ^° '\.com- 
 furnace in a well clofed crucible for three hours, to a 
 heat nearly fufficient to melt caft iron. In the fame man- 
 ner he treated manganefe, faltj and charcoal, as well as 
 clay, fait, and charcoal, and fait and clay alone, with very 
 httle fuccefs. He treated calcined bones, fait, and char» 
 coal,^ and calcined bones and fait, as well as hme and 
 fait, in the fame manner, without effeding any appa- 
 rent change in the fait. He was informed, however, by 
 Mr Robertfon, apothecary in Bifhopsgate-ftreet, that 
 he had partially alkalized it, by expofing it with clay 
 to a fierce heat ; but that foon after it got into con- 
 taft with air, it became neutral again. " If common 
 fait and litharge be fufed (fays Mr Higgins), it is in 
 part decompofed ; the acid fuffers no decompofition, 
 but unites with the lead ; whereby it acquires, when 
 the faline matter is wafhed away, a yellow colour. It is 
 evident (adds he) from thefe fafts, that the bafis of 
 marine acid is a combuftible body, and quite different 
 from light inflammable air, charcoal, or any known 
 inflammable fubftance ; and that it attrads dephlogif- 
 ticated air with greater force than any fubftance hi- 
 therto difcovered. Though charcoal will dccompofe 
 all other acids, except a few, when united to bodies 
 which will fix them until they acquire k fufficient de- 
 gree of heat, yet it has no effeft on marine acid." 
 
 According to Fourcroy, if alkaline air be confined 
 by mercury, and dephlogifticated marine acid air be 
 added to it (which muft be done quickly, as the acid 
 air would diftblve the mercury), each bubble produces 
 a flight detonation, and furnifties a very amufing fpec- 
 
 Though in this country the diftiUation of fpirit of m ^f'^ > 
 fait with clay has long been entirely laid afide for theci-:r',iW 
 procefs with oil of vitriol, yet it is ftill praftifed in 'pi it. of 
 other countries, and may be effeded in the following '^^"^ 
 manner r Having previoufly decrepitated the fait, and 
 dried the clay, they are then to be ground, mixed, and 
 fifted together. The mixture is next to be worked 
 with a fpatula, and then with the hands, until it is 
 brought Into a moderately ftiff and uniform mafs. 
 
 4 ^ Thi» 
 
C H E M 
 
 This Is to be divided Into balls about the fize of a pl- 
 jreon's egg, fo that they can pafs through the neck of 
 the retort ; but before they are put into the diftilhng 
 veffel, it is proper to dry them thoroughly. The re- 
 torts muft be of ftone ware, and carefully coated, m 
 order to prevent them from breaking with the intenfe 
 heat to wlilch they are expofed. they are to be fil- 
 led two-thirds full of materials, and the diftillation 
 muft be performed in a reverberatory furnace. The 
 receiver at firft is not luted on, becaufe that which 
 rifes in the beginning of the diftillation, being very a- 
 queous, is to be put by itfelf. When tins has come 
 over, another receiver is then to be applied, and ce- 
 mented with fat lute, and covered with a cloth daubed 
 with a mixture of lime and the whites of eggs. The 
 beat is to be raifed until the retort is red-hot, and con- 
 tinued in this degree until the diftillation ceafes. 
 
 Various proportions of clay and fait have been re- 
 commended for this procefs ; but it feems probable 
 that not lefs than ten parts of clay to one of fait, as 
 Pott has direfted, will be found necefTary. Inftead of 
 the clay, fome direft the u(e of bole ; but this is in- 
 convenient, on account of the iron it contains. Pow- 
 dered talc has alfo been recommended, but this is not 
 always free from iron ; and where a very pure fpirit is 
 wanted, there is a neceffity for having recourfe to oil 
 ©f vitriol, and glafs or ftone-ware velfels. As the 
 marine acid cannot be feparated from the earthy mix- 
 tures above mentioned, but by means of moifture, 
 M. Beaume advifes to moiften the refiduum, and 
 repeat the diftillation, by which more acid will be 
 obtained. 
 
 As marine acid has very little aftlon upon phlogi- 
 marine acldftic matters, it cannot therefore affeft oils, either ex- 
 lupon phlo- prefled or eflential, in a manner fimilar to the vitriolic 
 gillie mat- njtrous. M. Marges, however, has obferved yellow 
 cryftals refembling amber formed in bottles, containing 
 a mixture of oils and marine acid of moderate ftrength, 
 which had ttood for feveral months. The little effed 
 which the marine acid has upon thefe fubftances was 
 firft fuppofed to be owing to its want of phlogifton in 
 itfelf ; but when it was afterwards found, that, by 
 the application of certain fubftances which have a great 
 attraction for phlogifton, the marine acid was render- 
 ed capable of uniting very readily with inflammable 
 matters, the former theory was abandoned. It was now 
 alferted, that the acid, inftead of containing no phlo- 
 gifton, was naturally endowed with a very confiderable 
 quantity ; and that, in its new ftate, it was dephlo- 
 gifticated by the fubftances applied. On the other 
 hand, the antlphlogiftlans afl'erted, that no change was 
 thus made upon it, farther than adding a quantity of 
 pure air, which they fuppofe to be the bafis of all a- 
 cids. On this fubjea, however, M. Cornette main 
 tains, that the marine acid feems to have fo little ac- 
 tion upon inflammable fubftances, merely becaufe It is 
 weaker than the reft ; and likewife that it is often 
 prevloufly combined with fome inflammable matter, 
 by which its attra^Ion is prevented. He maintains, 
 that if the marine acid be concentrated in fuch 
 a manner as to render its fpecific gravity to that 
 of water as 19 to 16, it will then aft upon oils with 
 heat and effervefcence, reducing them to a black and 
 thick fubftance, and even burning them to a kind of 
 coal Some experiments have been made by Mr HalTe, 
 
 EffeiV of 
 
 ters. 
 
 I S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 with a view to Inveftlgate the aaionof the marine M^nne 
 and vitrioKc acids upon balfams and oils ; for which 
 purpofe he mixed two drachms of fmoking fpirit of 
 fait with one of each of the oily fubftances to be tried. 
 The refults were, that Canada balfam gained one 
 fcruple in weight; balfam of capivi 19 grains; fto- 
 rax, and Venice turpentine, each one fcruple ;_ afphal- 
 tum 18 grains; but the effential oils of anife-feed, 
 benzoin, bergamot, coriander, and many others, were 
 not altered in any degree. The aftion of this acid ' 
 upon inflammable matters, however, is augmented by 
 its being reduced into the form of air. 
 
 GmeUn relates, that, by diftilling a mixture of five 
 parts of fait, twelve of fpirit of v^ine, and four of vitrio- 
 lic acid, to which he had prevloufly added one or two 
 parts of water, he obtained a completely dulcified l^pi- 
 rlt of fait, and an ImperfeAly dulcified fpirit of vitriol, 
 upon reftifying the liquor. 148* 
 
 Homberg found, that glafs- was corroded by the Glp.fs cor- 
 marine acid: and his obfervation has been confirmed by rodedby it. 
 Dr Prieftley ; who finds that its corrofive power is aug- 
 mented by confining the acid in tubes hermetically 
 fealed. Its power is exerted not only on flint-glafs, 
 but even on common green glafs ; though more power- 
 fully on the former, where It chiefly attacks the red- 
 lead ufed in Its compofition. By inclofing marine acid 
 gas for fome weeks in a glafs tube expofed to heat, an 
 incruftation was formed on the infide, while the air 
 was diminlflied to |- of Its original bulk, one half of 
 which was abforbed by water ; the other was phlogi- 
 
 ftlcated air. Cauff of 
 
 The marine acid is generally met with of a yellow 
 or reddifti colour, which by Macquer is given as one ot ^^j^,^^ 
 Its charafterlftlc marks. In general, however, this co- marine 
 lour is thought to proceed from iron ; but Dr Prieftley acid. 
 has found that it may be produced by many different 
 fubftances ; and his obfervations have been confirmed 
 by Scheele and other chemifts. The Doftor is of opi- 
 nion that it is occafioned for the moft part, if not al- 
 ways, by a mixture of earth ; and he was able to com- 
 municate It by means of calcined oyfter-fliells, calcined 
 magnefia, pipe-clay, or pounded glafs ; but not by 
 wood-aflies, from whence the air had been expelled by < 
 heat. It was effeaually difcharged by flowers of zinc, 
 a coal of cream of tartar, and by liver of fulphur ; but 
 he found, that the colour which had been difcharged 
 by liver of fulphur, would return by mere expofure of 
 the acid to the' atmofphere, but not that which had 
 been difcharged by flowers of zinc. 
 
 Dephloglftlcated Spirit of Salt. 
 
 When the aftlon of this vapour upon any thing is 
 to be examined, the fubftance muft be put into a bottle 
 In fuch a manner as to remain in contaa with it ; or 
 It may be put Into a glafs tube, which Is fufpetided and 
 fixed to the ftopper, and thus introduced into the 
 bottle. From its property of deftroying all vegetable 
 colours, It promlfes to be of very confiderable ufe in the 
 arts, provided It could be had In fufficient quantity, 
 and cheap. It bleaches yellow wax, and when proper- 
 ly applied to linen, will whiten It fufficiently, and with- 
 out injury, in a few hours. This may be effefted by 
 fteeping the linen for that fpace of time in water im- 
 pregnated with the dephlogiftlcated marine gas. It 
 unites widx this fluid rather more eafily than fixed air.. 
 
 1484 
 
 Expediti 
 method 
 bleachin 
 linen. 
 
I 
 
 Praaice. C H E M 
 
 Marine Berthollet, in order to impregnate water with it with- 
 S—^ l-^ out expofing the operator to the fume, which is ex- 
 tremely difagreeable, put the mixture of marine acid 
 and manganefe into a retort. To this he apphed firft 
 an empty bottle, and then feveral others filled with wa- 
 ter, and communicating with each other by means of 
 bent tubes ; furrounding the whole with ice. When 
 the water in the bottles was faturated, the gas became 
 concrete, and fell to the bottom ; but with the fmalleil 
 heat it arofe to the top in bubbles. The fpecific gra- 
 vity of the faturated water was to that of diftilled wa- 
 ter, when the thermometer was only five degrees above 
 the freezing point, as 1003 to 1000. This impreg- 
 nated water is not acid, but has an auftere tafte, and 
 has the fame action as the gas, though in a weaker de- 
 gree. Mr BerthoUet has obferved, that the addition 
 of alkalies does not prevent, but rather promotes, the 
 difcharge of colours ; for which reafon he direfts to 
 add a fixed alkali to the impregnated water in which 
 linen is to be fteeped for bleaching. This is the ex 
 peditious method hinted at under the article Bleach- 
 ing ; but which has not hitherto come into ufe, prin- 
 cipally through the high price of the dephlogifticated 
 gas. 
 
 The dephlogifticated marine acid does not difcharge 
 all colours with equal eafe. Thofe of htmus and fyrup 
 of violets are entirely deftroyed, and turned white. 
 The colouring matter of Brazil-wood, and fome green 
 parts of plants, retain a yellow tint. The leaves of 
 evergreen plants refift its action for a long time, and at 
 laft only acquire the yellow colour which they affume 
 by long expofure to the air; and in general the changes 
 of colour which vegetable matters fufFer from this gas, 
 are fimilar to thofe which take place on long expofure 
 to the air ; and by this operation the gas is converted 
 j^gj into common marine acid. 
 Effedtofthe Oils and animal fats arc thickened by this gas j and 
 depl],Iogift;- by thefe and other inflammable fubftances it is reduced 
 on phloei- ^^^^ common marine acid. Light is faid to 
 
 flic matter?, P'^'o<i"ce the fame effed:. It unites with fixed alkalies 
 ^c. and calcareous earths, but without any fenfible effer- 
 
 vefcence ; and thus they lofe their peculiar tafte and 
 colour. M. Berthollet having boiled in a retort, to 
 which a pneumatic apparatus was affixed, fome of the 
 dephlogifticated marine acid liquor with mineral alka- 
 li, thus obtained a confiderable quantity of elaftic 
 fluid, compofed partly of fixed air, partly of the air 
 contained in the veffels, and partly of air confiderably 
 purer than that of the atmofphere. The refult of the 
 combination was common fait. On repeating the ex- 
 periment with lime, no fixed air was obtained ; but 
 that which came over became gradually more and more 
 dephlogifticated. Volatile alkali, even when cauftic, 
 occafioned an effervefcence, and emitted a peculiar 
 kind of air, which was neither fixed nor dephlogiftica- 
 ted, but of a peculiar kind. 
 
 Green vitriol is changed to a red by the dephlogifti- 
 cated gas, but the colour of blue and white vitriols is 
 not affefted. By the affittance of light, it ads upon 
 phofpliorus, and the refult is phofphoric and common 
 marine acids. It does not diflblve ice nor cam- 
 phor ; in which refpefts it difi'ers from the common 
 marine acid gas. 
 
 Marine^ On mixing marine acid, manganefe, and fpirit of 
 ■«thcr. wine, and diftilling them with a very gentle heat^ little 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 air of any kind is produced, but a quantity of ethereal 
 liquor very flightly acid. The proportions ufed by 
 Pelletier were an ounce and a half of manganefe, five 
 ounces of concentrated marine acid, and three ounces 
 of fpirit of wine. " In this procefs (fays Mr Keir), 
 the whole of the dephlogifticated acid feems to have 
 united with the fpirit of wine, and to have formed 
 ether. The difficulty of combining marine acid with 
 fpirit of wine, fo as to form an ether, is well known ; 
 and though there have been fome approximations to it, 
 yet the o~nly inftances in which it has been completely 
 effefted, have fucceeded in confequence of the marine 
 acid being dephlogifticated ; by w^hich its aftion on 
 fpirit of wine, as well as on all inflammable matters, is 
 greatly increafed." 
 
 M. Pelletier has obferved, that when we put a bit of 
 phofphorus into dephlogifticated marine gas, the for- 
 mer is immediately diflTolved, and a light is perceived, 
 the veflel being filled at the fame time with white va- ,^§7 
 pours. He has likewife obferved, that fea-falt, with l\Te;^hod of 
 an excefs of pure air, thrown into heated vitriolic a- P' "during a, 
 cid, prdducesa fmall detonation. To make this fait 
 in quantity, take, for inftance, ten pounds of fea-falt, the acid in 
 mixing it with from three to four pounds of manganefe, quautity. 
 pour on the mixture ten pounds of vitriolic acid, and di- 
 ftil with Woulfe's apparatus. Pafs the difengaged 
 acid through a folution of fixed vegetable alkali, either 
 cauftic or otherwife. A little more than ten ounces of 
 the new marine fait with excefs of pure air is obtained, 
 and a quantity of fait of Sylvius, or digeftive fait. 
 The fait with excefs of pure air cryftalHzes firft, and 
 by means of repeated cryftallizations, is entirely difen- 
 gaged from the other. 
 
 V. ^ A Reg I A, 
 
 This acid, which is named from its property of dif- Various 
 folving gold, is compounded of the nitrous and ma- °/ 
 rine acids. Gold and platina cannot be diflblved in anurre"fa 
 any other menftruum, nor can regulus of antimony and 
 tin be fo eafily diflblved by any other as aqua re- 
 gia. It may be made in various ways. i. By adding 
 the two acids to each other direftly. 2. By diflblving 
 in the nitrous acid fome fait containing marine acid, 
 particularly fal ammoniac and common fait. 3. By di- 
 ftiUing nitrous acid from either of thefe falls. And, 
 4. In Dr Prieftley's method of impregnating marine 
 acid with nitrous acid vapour. ' 1489 
 
 The only difference between thofe liquors prepai-ed Differences 
 by the methods above mentioned is, that when fal ara- Ij^gj^'^^^^j 
 moniac or fea-falt are diflTolved in the nitrous acid, thei,quors? 
 aqua-regia contains a quantity of cubic nitre, or nitrous 
 ammoniac, which, tho' it cannot much affedi the acid as 
 a folvent, may make a confiderable difference in the na- 
 ture of the precipitate. Thus, gold precipitated from 
 an aqua-regia formed by the pure nitrous and marine 
 acids, does not fulmrinate, though it does fo when 
 precipitated from one made with fal ammoniac. There 
 are no eftabliflied rules with regard to the proportions 
 of nitrous and marine acids, or of nitrous acid and fal 
 ammoniac, vi'hich ought to be employed for the pre- 
 paration of aqua-regia. The common aqua-regia is 
 made by diflblving four ounces of fal ammoniac in 16 
 ounces of nitrous acid ; but thefe prx.por Lions muft be 
 varied, according to the nature cf the intended lolu- 
 4 D 2 tion. 
 
C H E M I 
 
 tiori. Platina, for inftance, is diffolved in the greateft 
 quantity by equal parts of the two acids ; reguhis of 
 antimony by four parts of nitrous acid to one of ma- 
 rine ; and, in general, the greater the quantity of ma- 
 rine acid employed in the mixture, the lefs are the im- 
 perfeft metals, particularly tin, calcined or precipita- 
 ted by it. A mixture of two parts of fpirlt of nitre, 
 and one of fpirlt of fait, difiblves nearly an equal weight 
 of tin into a clear Hquor, without forming any preci- 
 pitate ; but, for this purpofe, the operation muil be 
 conducted flowly, and heat avoided as much as pof- 
 llble. 
 
 VI. Borax, 
 
 In a memoir m Crell's Chemical Annals, by M. 
 Tychfon, the author fhows, by different experiments, 
 J g that it may fometimcs be purified by folution, filtra- 
 Methods cf tion, and evaporation only; but that fometimes the 
 purifyinsj operation is more eafy and effeftual by previous calci- 
 borax. nation ; but then the produft is a little lefTened, efpe- 
 clally if the calcined mafs be not well powdered, and 
 then boiled fufBciently in water. Powder of charcoal, 
 he fays, may be fometimes advantageoufly employed 
 in the purification ; but in general there is no diffe- 
 rence between the crude and purified borax, except 
 in the addition of extraneous matters ; at leaft, aa 
 the quantity of acid is the fame, the addition of mi- 
 neral alkali is ufelefs : thefe extraneous matters are an 
 animal fat, and a fand compofed of clay, lime, and a 
 martial earth. If the oily matter of tartar be fepa- 
 rdted by paffing the lixivium through a ftratum of clay, 
 as is fuppofed in the preparation of the cryftals at 
 MontpeHer, it would fuggeft a method of greatly a- 
 bridging the procefs of the purification of borax. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Pradicco 
 
 VII. Acw of Borax, or SsDAtiyE Salt. 
 
 Method of On the preparation of this fait MrBeaume obferves, 
 preparing ^hat a little more acid ought to be added to the borax 
 tlie fedative ^^^^ ^^^^^ jg j^j^ fufficient to faturate its alkaline ba- 
 borax.°°' fis- Unlefs this be done, the fedative fait remains 
 confounded with the other faline matters in the folu- 
 tion, and of confequence the cryftallization muft bellif- 
 turbed. The fait, though formed in an acidulated li- 
 quor, is eafily deprived of its fuperfluous acid by drain- 
 ing upon paper. It does not cryftaUize as foon as the 
 ftronger acid feparates it from its bafis, even tho' the 
 folution of borax had been previoufly made as flrong as 
 poiTible ; but this delay is occaiioned by the heat of 
 the liquor ; for as foon as it cools, a confiderable quan - 
 tity of cryftals is formed. 
 
 The acid of borax does not fall into powder when 
 expofed to the air, but rather attradls a little moifture 
 Its pJoper- from it. Its tafte is at firft fomev/hat fourifh, then 
 cooling and bitterifh ; and laftly, it leaves an agreeable 
 fweetnefs on the tongue. It makes a creaking found, 
 and feels a little rough between the teeth ; and when 
 vitriohc acid is poured upon it, exhales a tranfient o- 
 dour of muf]<. It is foluble, according to fome che- 
 mifts, in the proportion of one to 20 in cold water, or of 
 one to eight in boIHng water. Wenzel informs us, 
 that 960 grains of boiling water diffolve 434 of the 
 fait ; while, on the other hand, Morveau afferts, that 
 he could diCfolve no more than 183 grains in^ a pound 
 
 ties. 
 
 of diftilled water. Roufs informs us, that fixed air Acid of Eo- 
 prevents the folution of the fait in water; and Morveau, i;^-* ami its 
 that Its folubility is much augmented by cream ot tar- ^jo^is. 
 tar. When previoufly made red hot, it diffolvss in wa- — -y— 
 ter with a fmell of faffroii, and a grey powder of an 
 earthy appearance is precipitated, which is foluble in 
 vitriohc and. marine acids, and may be again precipita- 
 ted in the form of fedative fak. 
 
 jptdogifficated alkali makes no change on fedative 
 fait in folution ; but paper dipped in'a folution of it in 
 vinegar, and afterwards dried, burns with a green 
 flame. It is capable of vitrification, though mixed 
 with fine powder of charcoal; and with foot unites in- 
 to a black mafs like bitumen ; which, however, is eafi- 
 ly foluble in water, and can fcarce be reduced to 
 afhcs, but partly fubllmes. By the afhllance of heat 
 it difiblves in oils, efpecially thofe of the mineral kind ; 
 and with thefe it yields fohd and fluid compounds, 
 which give a green colour to fpirit of wine. Rubbed 
 with phofphorus it does not prevent its inflammation ; 
 but a yellow earthy matter is left behind. It feems al- 
 fo to give to white and red arfenic a great degree of 
 fixity, fo as even to become vitrefcible in- the fire ; and 
 this property it communicates alfo to cinnabar. When 
 mixed and heated with powder of charcoal, it forms nc* 
 liver of fulphwf. 
 
 Sedative Salt combined, 
 
 1 . With volatile alkali. The produce of this is a pe- 
 culiar ammoniacal fait, which does not evaporate when 
 thrown on burning coals, or otherwife intenfely heated, 
 but melts into glafs of a greyifh colour, but tranfpa- 
 rent, which cracks when expofed to the air ; and, on 
 diffolution in water, fhoots into fmall cryftals, which 
 appear to have loft none of their alkaline bafis. It may 
 be decompofed by the acetous as well as tiie mineral 
 acids, and by fixed alkalies and hme. 
 
 2. With magnefia this acid fhoots into irregular ciy- 
 ftalline grains foluble in vinegar and acid of ants ; in 
 which liquids they cryftallize like fmall needles joined 
 together at right angles. They are decompofed by all 
 other acids, and likewife by fpirit of wine. In the 
 fire, however, they melt eafily without any decompofi- 
 tion ; and in the dry way fedative fait decompofes all 
 the earthy falts formed by magnefia and any of the vo- 
 latile acids. 
 
 3. With pure earth of ahm, fedative fait forms a fait 
 very difficult of folution, when one part of earth is 
 ground with four times its weight of fe'dative fait and 
 water. The fame kind of earth, mixed with half its 
 weight of fedative fait, forms a hard grey mafs, refem- 
 bling pumice ftone ; part of which is foluble in water, 
 and yields a mealy fediment, together with fome fe- 
 dative fait unchanged. 
 
 4. With filiceous earth the fedative fait does not unite 
 in the moift way ; but, on melting one part of acid 
 with two of this earth, we obtain a frothy, hard, grey- 
 ifh-white mafs, from which, however, the acid may be 
 again procured. 
 
 5. Goldk not adled upon in the wet way by acid of 
 borax; neverthelefs Roufs obferved, that wfien fedative 
 fait was melted with gold-leaf, it did not vitrify, but 
 became frothy and hard, did not colour the flame of 
 fpirit of wine, and only a little of it was foluble in 
 water in which fedative fait had been cryftallized. 
 
 A 
 
Pra6llce. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Acid of Bo- A folution of borax in which fedative fait was difTolved, 
 raxandirs ^^^^ precipitate gold. 
 
 tions. "ictma IS not precipitated rrom aqua regia by leda- 
 
 w— — tive fait. 
 
 7. Silver is not afFeifted by melting with an equal 
 quantity of fedative fait ; but the latter is vitri- 
 fied in fuch a manner as to become infoluble in 
 water. 
 
 8. Mercury Is not difFolved either in the dry or wet 
 vway ; but a folution of borax faturated with feda- 
 tiivefalt precipitates it in a yellow powder from nitrous 
 acid. 
 
 9. With copper. On this metal fedative fait adls but 
 weakly, even when the folution is boiling hot ; ne> 
 verthelefs, as much of the metal is difTolved, as gives 
 a little white precipitate on the addition of fixed 
 alkali ; but volatile alkali does not tiirow down a 
 blue precipitate, nor turn the folution of that co- 
 lour. The folution of borax precipitates all folutions 
 of copper in acids, and then the fedative fait unites 
 with the copper in form of a light green jelly, which, 
 after drying, is of very difficult folution in water. 
 Bergman fays, it is of an agreeable green colour, which 
 it preferves after being dried ; and that, when expofed 
 to the fire, it melts into a dark-red vitreous fubftance. 
 Wenzel afferts, that by long continued trituration of 
 copper fihngs with fedative fait he obtained a folution 
 of the metal, which yielded cryftals on being evaporated. 
 With twice its weight of copper in a covered crucible, 
 an infoluhle vitreous mafs was obtained. 
 
 10. Tin is not apparently ailed upon by boiling with 
 fedative fait ; neverthelefs, the folution becomes turbid 
 on the addition of an alkali. By melting the calx 
 with half its weight of fedative fait, we obtain a black 
 mafs like the dark coloured tin ore. By rubbing for 
 a long time filings of tin with fedative fait and water, 
 and afterwards digefting the mixture with heat for one 
 day, an hard, fandy, and irregularly fhaped fait was 
 obtained, which, by difTolution in water, yielded 
 tranfparent, white,, polygonous cryllals ; and a fait of 
 the fame kind was obtained from the flag produ- 
 ced by melting equal parts of fedative fait and tin 
 filings. 
 
 1 1. Lead is not afted upon direcftly ; but, on adding 
 a folution of borax to folutions of the metal in vitriolic, 
 nitrous, marine, or acetous acids, the fedative fait unites 
 with the lead. One part of fedative fait with two of 
 minium gives a fine, greenifh-yeilow, tranfparent, and 
 infoluble glafs. 
 
 12. With iron. The acid of borax difTolves this 
 metal more eafily than any other. The folution is amber- 
 coloured, and yields an ochry fediment, with clutters of 
 yellow cryllals containing a little iron. The metal is 
 precipitated by borax from its folutions in vitriolic, ni- 
 trous, marine, and acetous acids, and the precipitates 
 are foluble in fedative fait. A folution of iron may 
 alfo be obtained by melting this fait with iron filings, 
 and lixiviating the mafs. 
 
 13. Zinc communicates a milky colour by digeftion 
 with folution of fedative fait. By evaporation it affords 
 a confufed faline mafs, and a white earthy powder by 
 precipitation with alkali. Flowers of zinc, melted 
 with fedative fait, form a light green infoluble flag. 
 
 1 4. Bifmuth, in its metallic ftate, is not afted upon by 
 Xedative fait, but is precipitated by borax froni a mix- 
 
 ture of vitriolic and marine acids, in form of a very Acid of Bo- 
 white powder, which keeps its colour when expofed J!^^ 
 to air, and melts in the fire to a white, tranfparent, and tioJ^. 
 permanent glafs. 
 
 15. Regulus of antimony is not afted upon direftly, but 
 'its calx is difTolved when precipitated by borax from 
 
 a folution in aqua regia. 
 
 1 6. White arfenic unites with fedative fait either in the 
 dry or moiil way, and forms a cryftallizable compound, 
 forming either pointed ramifications, or a white, greyifh, 
 and yellowifh faline powder. 
 
 16. On regulus of cobalt the acid has no direft aftion ; 
 but borax precipitates it from its folution, and the 
 calx melts with the fait into a flag of a bluiih-grey 
 colour; and this, by,lixiviation and evaporation, affords 
 a fedative fait impregnated with cobalt, of a reddifh 
 white colour, and of a ramified form. 
 
 18. Nickel h precipitated from its folution, and the 
 fedative fait unites with it into a faline fubflance diffi- 
 cult of folution. 
 
 A variety of opinions have been formed concerning 
 the nature of fedative fait. M. Beaume and M. Ca- 
 det particularly have made a great number of experi- 
 ments on the fubjeft ; but as none of thefe have led to 
 any certain conclufion, we forbear to mention them at ,4^^ 
 prefent. Thofe of MtfTrs Exfchaquet and Struve haveExperi- 
 indeed eftablifhed fome kind of relation between the mentsmade 
 acids of borax and phofphorus, and they have made [^j^^^^"" 
 feveral attempts to analize the former, but with little nature of 
 fuccefs. The moft remarkable of thefe experiments the fedative 
 are the following, i. They diflilled, with a ftrongfalt. 
 heat, two parts of phofphoric acid evaporated to the 
 confiflence of honey, one of fedative fait, and two of 
 water. Towards the end of the diftillation a very 
 acid liquor was obtained ; and the refiduum was a 
 white earth, in quantity above three-fourths of the fe- 
 dative fait employed, and which, on examination, was 
 found to be the filiceous earth ; the liquor which paf- 
 fed over into the receiver being found to be the vo- 
 latile phofphoric acid. If, in this experiment, too 
 much phofphoric acid be added, a greafy matter re- 
 mains; and, if too little, a part of • the fedative fait 
 will remain undecompofed. In their attempts to com- 
 pofe borax, they combined phofphoric acid with mi- 
 neral alkali, the refult of which was a compound re- 
 fembling borax in many rcfpedls. When expofed to 
 the fire, it melts into a very fufible glafs, which has a 
 mild tafle, and feems neutral, but, on expofure to 
 the air, becomes moifl and acid. On being faturated 
 with alkali a fecond time and vitrified, it again dell- 
 quefces and becomes acid ; and the more frequently 
 this operation is repeated, the greater is the refem- 
 blance it bears to borax. In this experiment they fup- 
 pofed that the alkah was decompofed, and converted 
 into an earth fimilar to that of fedative fait. 
 
 With earthy fubflances the refults were very re- 
 markable. With, earth of alum a cryftallizable fait 
 was obtained, which made paper burn with a greea 
 fiame. Fixed alkali added to a folution of this fait 
 precipitates an earth, and the fait then formed by 
 
 cryftallization refembles borax in feveral pioperties. 
 
 In the dry way the earth of alum, with the phofpho- 
 ric acid, mehs into a glafs of the fame fufibiliiy as 
 ;that of borax, and hke ii is fixed in the fire. The 
 folution of this glafs did not cryftallize. Common 
 
 clay , ^ 
 
582 C H E M I 
 
 Acid of clay digeiled with phofphoric acid produces filky cry- 
 ■ ' ^^^^^ referabh'ng fedative fait. When dried with their 
 
 * mother-water, thefe give a dear glafs, which, when 
 united with mineral alkali, has the taRe of borax, 
 fmells in the fame manner, and has the fame effeft up- 
 pon metals. With litne, magnefia, and terra ponde- 
 rofa, this acid produces fufible glaffes, infoluble in 
 water, and which communicate a green colour to 
 flame. Earth of bones and felenite mixed with the 
 acid gave a white, hard, fhining glafs, like the bed 
 cryftal, but as fufible as the glafs of borax, and which 
 continued flexible after it had ceafed to be red-hot. 
 Two parts of gypfum, with one of phofphoric acid, 
 gave a milk-white glafs fit for foldering metals and 
 enameling. In thefe experiments, however, it muft 
 be remembered, that unlefs the heat be raifed very 
 quickly, the phofphoric acid will be evaporated before 
 any fufion takes place. 
 
 VIII. ^ciD of Amber. 
 
 It was known to Agricola, that a particular kind 
 of fait could be obtained from amber by diftillation ; 
 but neither he, nor any fucceeding chemift for fome 
 time, afcertained its acid properties. On the contrary, 
 fome erred fo far as to imagine that it was a volatile al- 
 kali; but, about the beginning of the prefent century, its 
 acidity began to be generally acknowledged. This 
 property indeed difcovers itfelf by the tafte, which is 
 manifeftly acid and empyreumatic, along with the pe- 
 culiar flavour of amber. According to Scheele, alfo, 
 the aqueous fluid which pafles over in the difl:illation of 
 amber, is an acid refembling vinegar both in tafte and 
 chemical properties ; and which of confequence ought 
 not to be confounded with the true acid of amber, 
 I OA which manlftfts qualities of a very difl'erent kind. 
 Methods The properties of fait of amber ca,n hardly be in- 
 of purifying vefl:igated until it has been purified} for which, of 
 the fdlt of confequence, various methods have been propofed. 
 amber. p^^^. recommends cryft.allIzation, after having filtered 
 the folution through cotton-wool, in order to retain 
 the oil. Cartheufer attempts the purification by dif- 
 folving the inrpur^ fait in fpirit of wine, then dilating 
 with fix times its quantity of water, and cryftallizing 
 the fait. Others recommend fublimation with com- 
 mon fait or^fand, and Bergman with pure clay. 
 
 The fait of amber din'olves, by the afliftance of heat, 
 in nitrous and marine acids, and in the vitriolic with- 
 out heat. In none of thefe combinations, however, 
 does it either alter the diflblvlng acids, or fufFer any 
 alteration itfelf, except that it becomes whiter; with 
 nitre it detonates and flies ofl^ ; and if the quantity of 
 fait of amber his been greater than that of nitre, the 
 latter is alkalized. Stockar informs us, that it expels 
 the marine acid from fal ammoniac, and fubllmes be- 
 fore thar (alt ; with which it does not form any union. 
 Wi -m fublimed from common fait, it does not alter the 
 latte; in any uthei refpeft than giving it a darker colour. 
 It precipitates calcareous earth from its folution in vine- 
 g:\r; and it decumpoles fugar ofle-ad; but the precipitate 
 difi^ers from plumbum corneum. It does not prevent 
 the folution of lead in the acids fea-falt and nitre; nor 
 does it produce any fulphureous fmell by calcination 
 with charcoal. Hence it appears that it is neither a 
 yitriulic, nitrous, nor marine acid j and M. Bourde- 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Pradiice. 
 
 lin mufl; have been miftaken, when he affirms, that, Acid of 
 after detonation of this fait with niti-e, he obtained a^'^^ fP^^ 
 
 „ , , • 1 n 1 1-1 r 1 1 .Its Comui- 
 
 refiduum, which taited like common ialt, decrepita- ^j^Jq^s 
 
 ted in the fire, yielded cryfl;als of a cubical form, pre- y / 
 
 cipitated filver and mercury from the nitrous acid ; and 
 thence concluded that it was the fame with acid of 
 fea-falt.! It is very dear, as only about half an ounce 
 can be obtained from a pound of amber. 
 
 Acid of Amber combined, 
 
 1 . With Jixed vegetable alkali. By faturating fait of 
 amber with the fixed vegetable alkali, and then flow- 
 ly evaporating the folution, we obtain, according to 
 Wenzcl, a light deliquefcent falinemafs ; but, accord- 
 ing to Stockar, whofe experiments are confirmed by 
 thofe of Mr Keir, the folution above mentioned affords 
 ftiining white tranfparent cryftials of a triangular prif- 
 matlc figure, with the terminating points truncated. 
 Thefe cryftals readily diflblve in water, deliquefce in 
 the air, and have a peculiarly bitter faUne tafte. In 
 the fire they decrepitate, melt, and remain neutral ; 
 though Wenzel has obferved, that with an intenfc 
 heat they are decompofed and become alkaline. Thefe 
 cryftals do not change aquafortis into aqua-regia ; and 
 though they precipitate both the folutions of lead and 
 filver, the precipitates are neither plumbum corneum 
 nor luna cornea. 
 
 2. With mineral alkali. This combination produ- 
 ces long three-fided columnar cryftals, intermixed 
 with fome that are foliated. Thefe cryftals do not de- 
 liquefce in the air, and have a faline, bitter, and fmoky 
 tafte. They are lefs' foluble than common fait, and 
 melt with more difficulty than nitre. They do not 
 become alkaline on burning coals, and, in their other 
 properties, referable the former. 
 
 3. With 'volatile alkali. This fait ftioots into acicular 
 cryftals, having a fliarp, faline, bitter, and cooling 
 tafte ; when heated in a filver fpoon, they melt and 
 evaporate entirely ; in clofe vtffels they fublime. They 
 do not precipitate folution of filver,^ nor change fpirit 
 of nitre into aqua-regis. A powerful aniifpafmodic 
 remedy is prepared from redlified fpirit of hartfliorn 
 and fait of amber. 
 
 4. With lime. This fhoots into oblong pointed cry- 
 ftals, which do not dehquefce in the air, and are fo- 
 luble with difficulty even in boiling water ; nor, ac- 
 cording to Mr Stockar dc Neuforn, can they be de- 
 compofed by diftillation either with acetous or marine 
 acids. They detonate by diftillation with nitrous acid; 
 and are decompofed, either in the moift or dry way, 
 by the vitriolic. When mixed with common fal am- 
 moniac in the dry way, they fufFer a decompofition ; 
 the fuccinated ammoniacal fait flying off, and the com- 
 bination of marine acid with lime remaining behind. 
 
 5. With magnejia. This yields a white, gummy, 
 frothy, faline mafs, which acquires a yellowlfli colour 
 when dried by the fire ; and, when cool, deliquates 
 in the air. It is decompofed by alkahes and lime, as 
 well as by the vitriolic acid. 
 
 6. With clay. By uniting the acid of amber with 
 an edulcorated precipitate of alum with vegetable al- 
 kah, Wenzel obtained prlfmatlc cryftals, which could 
 not be decompofed by alkalies. 
 
 7. With filver. The acid of amber has no effect on 
 
 fiiver 
 
C H E M 
 
 Acid of {Silver In its metallic flate ; but with its precipitate 
 ioxms thin ob'ong ci yftal<;, radiatird and accumulated 
 natbiis upon one another, fiom which the filver may be fepa- 
 ^ raced by alkalies, by quickfilvtr, and by copper. 
 
 8. IVit/} copper. By ar long dis^eition of copper with 
 acid of amber a green folution is obtained, which by 
 mixture with common I'alt is rendered turbid, by vitri- 
 olic acid white, and lets fall a green precipitate on the 
 addition of fixed alkali. Wenzel, however, could not 
 obtain this precipitation by alkalies. His folution 
 yielded groups of green cryllals, gave a cruft of cop- 
 per to zinc, and was precipitated by liver of fulphur. 
 
 9. With tron. Wenzel diffolved a precipitate of this 
 metal in acid of amber, and from the folution obtain- 
 ed Imall, brown, tranfparent, and ftellated cryltals. 
 Zinc precipitated the metal, but not alkalie^;. From 
 a nightly coloured folution of metallic iron, Pott ob- 
 tained, by means of alkali, a white precipitate, which 
 foQU became yellow, and at length green, by pouring 
 water upon it. 
 
 10. With tin. Acid of amber difToIves tin when 
 precipitated by a fixed alkali ; and the folution yields 
 thin, broad, and foliated tranfparent cryftals. Alka- 
 lies throw down but little from this folution ; liver of 
 ftilphur more ; and lead, iron, or zinc, nothing. 
 
 11. With lead. Acid of amber whitens the furface 
 of lead in its metallic Hate, but does not dilfolve it ; 
 neither can lead be precipitated from its folutions in 
 nitrous and marine acids by fait of amber, though this 
 13 denied by Pott. According to Stockar, however, 
 it forms a white precipitate with fugar of lead. This 
 metal precipitated by an alkah, and diffolved in acid 
 of amber, forms long foliated cryftals lying upon one 
 another ; from the folution of which the lead may be 
 precipitated by alkalies in the form of a grey powder, 
 and by zinc in its metallic Itate, 
 
 12. Zinc, in its metallic flate, is readily difiblved by 
 the acid of amber ; and by a combination with the 
 precipitate formed by fixed alkali, we obtain long, 
 flender, foliated cryftals, lying upon one another. The ^ 
 folution lets fall a white precipitate on the addition of 
 fixed alkali ; but this is denied by Stockar, who fays 
 that volatile alkali produces a red precipitate. 
 
 13. Bijmvth. By means of heat, Stockar obtained 
 a folution of this femimetal in acid of amber, which 
 was decompofed by alkalies. Wenzel obtairied, from 
 a precipitate of bifmuth prepared by means of fixed 
 alkali, fmall, flender, foliated, and yellow ci7ftals ; 
 which alkalies cannot decompofe, though black pre- 
 cipitates are thrown down by lead and zinc. 
 
 14. Regidui of antimony. Little ot none of this fe- 
 mimetal, in its regidine form, is diffolved in the acid 
 of amber ; but it attacks the precipitate made with 
 fixed alkali. This folution is very copioufly precipi- 
 tated by liver of fulp'rut, but not by alkalies. 
 
 The combinations of this acid with gold, platina, 
 nickel, arfenic, and manganefe, have either been found 
 imprafticable, or not yet attempted \ all thofe above 
 delcribed are non-dehquefcent, and part with their 
 acid when expofed to fire. The eledtive attraftions 
 of this acid, according to Bergman, are fingular, as 
 it adheres more ftrongly, not only to terra ponderofa 
 and lime, but to magnefia, than to fixed alkali. 
 
 On the origin of fait of amber, Mr Keir remarks, 
 that it deferves to be cor.fidered as a pure and di- 
 
 I S T R Y. 583 
 
 ftinft acid. No proofs have been adduced of its being Acid of 
 a modification either of the marine or vegetable acids, -A™^*^'"^"^ 
 as MrCornette and M. Hermbftadt have fuppofed. n^don" ' 
 The former, having diftilled fpirit of fait with oil of — 
 lavender, obtained an acid which fmcUed like fait of 1495 
 amber, but on examination was found to retain the On the na- 
 properties of the muriatic acid. He alfo relates, that, ^"ff 
 when purifying a confiderable quantity of the fait of^g).^ 
 amber which he had prepared himfelf, fome fea-falt 
 was feparated, which in the diftillation had arifen along 
 with it. But this obfervation cannot be juftly applied 
 to fliow any refemblance betwixt thefe two, any more 
 than the fmell in the former cafe could {how an analo- 
 gy betwixt it and oil of lavender. This mixture of 
 fea-falt with acid of amber, however, may readily ex- 
 plain the millake of M. Bourdelin already mentioned. 
 M. Weftrumb and M. Hermblladt have both laboured 
 in vain to convert the acid of amber into acids of fu- 
 gar and tartar by frequent diftillations with fpirit of 
 nitre ; and their want of fuccefs confirms the account 
 already given, that the acids of nitre and amber have 
 no ailion upon each other, farther than that the for- 
 mer is phlogifticated or changed into red fumes," and 
 the latter becomes whiter. Neverthelefs, if Mr Scheele'g 
 obfervation of the identity of the acid liquor, which 
 comes over in the diftillation of amber with acetous 
 acid, holds good, we {hall have the beft reafon yet 
 given to afcribe the origin of this acid to the ve^>;etable 
 kingdom ; and when we confider the very different 
 properties that are affumed by the vegetable acids, 
 which, however, are convertible into one another, 
 no reafon can be drawn trom the diyerficy of its pro- 
 perties with thofe of other vegetable acids, againil its 
 having •» common origin with them. Indeed the na- 
 tural hiftory of amber, its fimilarity to gums and re^ 
 fins, and its involved infefts, afford other arguments 
 in favour of the opinion. 
 
 IX. Acid of Arsenic. 
 
 M. BerthoUet remarks upon Mr Scheele*s pro- M. PelTe* 
 cefs, that during the operation a great quantity of '^j^r's me- 
 dephlogifticated air is expelled from the acid. M. |.^^fj,'^^ fj^"" 
 Pellctier has found another method of procuring the arfeoKal ^ 
 arfenical acid. He mixes common white arfenic with acid, 
 nitrous ammoniac, and diflils the mixture. At firfl: 
 phlogifticated nitrous acid paffes over, then the vola- 
 tile alkah, and laftly the arfenical acid remains in the 
 retort in form of a vitreous mafs,. which deliquefcea 
 into a very denfe acid liquor, reddening fyrup of vio- 
 lets, and effervefcing with alkalies. M. Macquer had 
 formerly defcribed this procefs, and obferved, that the 
 nitrous acid paffes over firft, and then the volatile al- 
 kali ; but was of opinion that the refiduum was no- 
 thing but arfenic. He mentions a detonation which 
 took place in his experiment ; but nothing of this kind 
 was obferved by M. Pelletier ; he only informs U5,. 
 that the nitrous acid was driven over with gieat vio- 
 lence, while that of arfenic united with the volatile al- 
 kali. M. BerthoUet, who has endeavoured to afcer- 
 tain the weight gained by the converfion of fulphur, 
 phofphorus, and arfenic, into acids, determines that 
 of arfenic to be about one-ninth of the whole. At the 
 fame time he obferves, that this additional weight docssv 
 not difcover the whole weight of the air contained ia 
 
584 G H E M I 
 
 Acidxf Mn- the arfenic, as it had that neceflary to convert it into 
 lyb<i.'Era. before the operation of converting it into an acid 
 
 ^*~*~^ was begun. On the other liand, M. Bergman affttts, 
 that one-hfth of white arfenic is phlogirton, and that 
 this calx is conveited inio acid merely by being depri- 
 ved of its phlogifton. Thus the. faSs related by thefe 
 two celebrated chemills differ enormoufly from one 
 anotb.er ; M. BcrthoUet affirming that the arfenic gains 
 a ninth of its oiiginal weight in the procefs of acidi- 
 fication ; and I^. Bergman, that it lops a fifth part of 
 the fame. M. Berthollet endeavours^to rec^oncile this, 
 by fuppofing that Bergman liad employed marine acid 
 for the preparation of his aifenical acid, which is well 
 known to carry off with it forae part of moft of thofe 
 fubftances with which it is capable of combining ; and 
 to this he attributes the lofs of weight in Bergman's 
 procefs. 
 
 TX. Ac It) of MoLTBDMNA. 
 
 M. PeUc- The opinion of M. Bergman concerning the metal- 
 t'ei 'sexpe- He nature of the acid of molybdsena has obtained fome 
 rimencs. confirmation from the experiments of M. Pelletier. 
 
 He was not able indeed to obtain any regulus ; but by 
 means of oil alone he procured, by two hours vehe- 
 ment heat, a fubllance fiightly agglutinated with a 
 metaUic luftre, containing fmall round grains of a grey 
 metallic colour, very vifible by the help of a magnifier. 
 Thefe he fuppofes to have been a true regulus of mo- 
 lybdsena; which he found to pofTefs the following pro- 
 perties. 1. It is calcinable by fire into white calx. 
 2. It detonates with nitre, and the rcfiduum is a calx 
 of molybdffina united with the alkali of the nitre. 3. It 
 is converted into a white calx by means of nitrous 
 acid. 4. It yields inflammable air when treated with 
 alkalies in the dry way, and forms peculiar compounds 
 with them. 5. It forms regenerated molybdasna with 
 fulphur. 6. It unites, and forms peculiar fubftances 
 with metals. By uniting it with filver, iron, and 
 copper, we have friable reguline mafTes; and refradlory 
 powders with lead and tin. 
 
 Our author, in confequence of his experiments, con* 
 fiders molybdaena as. a metallic fubftance mineralized 
 by fulphur ; and the earth called the acid of molyb- 
 dsena as a calx much dephlogifticated, which has re- 
 tained part of the air contained in the nitrous acid. 
 He obferves likewife an analogy betwixt molybda;na 
 and antimony in their chemical refults. Both of them 
 yield vitrifiable argentine flowers by fimilar operations, 
 and both are changed into white 'earths by nitrous 
 acid ; but they difier in the two following refpefts. 
 I. The latter eafily gives a fufible regulus; but the 
 molybdaena feems to be the moft refraftory of all the 
 femimetals. 2. The calx of regulus of antimony is 
 foluble by alkalies in the moift way, but that of mo- 
 lybdasna is not. 
 
 X. Acid of Tungsten or Wolfram. 
 
 P 'erfies "^^^ Luyart, who has examined this mineral, gives 
 of tungfter.the following account of it. i. It is infufible by the 
 blow-pipe, though the angles of the pieces into which 
 it is br-oken are thereby rounded. 2. It effervefces 
 with microcofmic fait, and melts before the blow-pipe 
 into a reddifh glafs. 3. With borax it effervefces j 
 No 75. 
 
 S T R Y. ' Praaice, 
 
 and by the outward flame of the blow pipe is changed Acid of 
 into a reddifh glafs; by the internal flame into a green- Tuni^flea. 
 iflr one. 4. Heated by itfelf in a crucible, it fwelled, 
 became fpongy, femivitrified, and was attrafted by 
 the magnet. 5. With an equal part of nitre it deto- 
 nated, or boiled up with a blue flame round the edges, 
 and nitrous vapours arofe. The mafs was foluble in 
 water, and let fall a white precipitate with acid. 5. It 
 melted readily Vv-ith fixed alkali, leaving a kind of black 
 matter in the crucible, and a fmaller quantity of 
 hghter coloured fubftance on the filter. Thefe refi- 
 duums faowed a mixture of ii-on and manganefe. 6. 
 With nitrous acid the filtered folution let fall a white 
 precipitate, at firft fweet, but afterwai'ds bitterifh and 
 fharp, and which caufed a difagreeable fenfation in the 
 throat ; and the acidity of the folution of it was ma- 
 nifeft, by its turning the tinfture of turnfole red. 
 
 Having examined the fubftance by means of liquids 
 in Mr Scheele's way, they obtained the fame yellow 
 powder which he had chai-afterized as the acid of 
 tungften, along with a very fmaU refiduum, which ap- 
 peared to contain a mixture of tin. Proceeding far- 
 ther in the analyfis, they foimd that wolfram is com- 
 pofed of manganefe, calx of iron, the yellow matter 
 called the acid of timgfien by Bergman and Scheele, 
 with a very little mixture of quartz and tin, and which 
 they confidered as accidental. ^^^^ 
 
 They now proceeded to examine the yellow matter. Of the yel- 
 
 fuppofed by the two celebrated chemifts juft mention- '^^^"^ matter^ 
 
 ed to be a fmiple acid fait, b)ut which turned out verv*^^'.'f^ 
 y-rr 1 • • • • T I acid bv Mr 
 
 diirerent on their inquiries, in order to procure a Scheele. 
 
 quantity of it, they melted fix ounces of wolfram with 
 as much vegetable alkali, Miflblved the mixture in di- 
 ftiUed water, filtrated the liquor, and evaporated it to 
 drynefs. Thus they obtained a white fait ; upon 
 which, when dry, they poured nitrous acid, and fet 
 it to boil in a fand-bath ; by which operation it be- 
 came yellow. They then decanted the liquor, pour- 
 ing frefh acid upon the refiduum ; and repeated the 
 operation a third time in order to, deprive it of all the 
 alkali. The remaining powder was then calcined in a 
 cupelling furnace under a mufHe, when it came out 
 quite pure and yellow. The properties of it were 
 then found to be as follow, i. It is entirely infipid, 
 and of the fpecific gravity of 6.12. 2. Before the 
 blow-pipe, it continues yellow in the exterior flame 
 "even though put on charcoal ; but grows blacTc and 
 fwells, though it does not melt, in the internal flame. 
 
 3. In the internal flame it forms a blue tranfparent 
 glafs with microcofmic fait. The colour vanifhes in 
 the external flame, but appears again in the internal 
 one ; but by a continuance of this operation, it at laft 
 lofes its colour fo much that it cannot be recovered. 
 
 4. It effervefces, and forms a brownifli yellow tranf- 
 parent glafs with borax, which keeps its colour in 
 both flames. 6. When triturated with water, it forms 
 an emulfion , which paffes through filters without be- 
 coming clear, and continues a long time without any 
 depofition. 7. It is infoluble in acids, but dilTolves 
 readily in the vegetable alkali both in the moifl and dry 
 way ; though the produce has always an excefs of alkah. 
 8. On adding nitrous acid in greater quantity than 
 what is neceflary to faturate this excefs, a white pow- 
 der falls, which is the fame with the acid of tungften dif- 
 covered by Mr Scheele ; but which MellVs Luyarts will 
 2 not 
 
radice. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Acid of not allow to be a limple add, though they admit that 
 lu:.;.;uen.^ ,v contains one ; and affirm, that its properties are va- 
 _^ nous according to the ctrcumllanees of its precipita- 
 No fim'iie 1^'^*^ properties of it, as defcribed by them, are 
 
 do iJi-ocu-the following, i. It is fulible before the blow-pipe, 
 rable froai exhibiting the fame phenomena as the yellow miitter. 
 tuiigften. 2. By calcination in a little pot or tell, it emits the 
 fmell of nitrous acid, and tarns yellow ; but, on cool- 
 ing, remains white, infipid, and infoluble ; and this 
 refiduum melts by itfelf before the blow-pipe. 3. A 
 , yellow colour is produced either by vitriolic or marine 
 acids ; and the filtrated liquor affords a ncutJ'al fait 
 with bafis of fixed alkali, according to the nature of 
 the acid employed. If the vitriolic acid is employed, 
 and the operation perfornried in a retort, a quantity of 
 nitrous acid pafFes over. 4. If, inftead of pouring the 
 acid on the fait, it be poured upon its folution, no pre- 
 cipitate will be formed, not even by making the liquor 
 boil, if the quantity of acid is fmall ; only the folution 
 lofes its fweet tafte, and acquires more bitternefs. On 
 pouring on a large quantity of acid, aiid caufing the 
 liquor boil, a yellow precipitate is formed in every 
 refpett fimilar to the yellow matter fo often mentioned. 
 5. This fait is completely dilTolved by boiling with 
 vinegar. On leaving the folution to cool, a white 
 waxy matter adheres to the fides of the veiTtI ; w hich 
 being wafhed and kneaded with the fingers, forms an 
 adhefive mafs like bird-hme, havings fat und greafy 
 talle. By expofure to the air it acquires a dark grey 
 colour, lofes its adhefive property, and becomes bitter. 
 It diflblves in water ; and gives it firft a fweet, then a 
 bitter tafte, making the tinfture of turnfole red. 6. 
 On evaporating the alkaHne folution to drynefs, pour- 
 ing acetous acid upon the refiduum, and then making 
 it boil, the greater part of the refiduum was dif- 
 folved> and on cooling afforded feathery cryltals. Thefe 
 when edulcorated had a fweet tafte, though lefs ftrong 
 than that of the former fait, which afterwards be- 
 came bitter. Their folution turned blue paper red; 
 was precipitated, and became like ai\ emulfion with fpi- 
 rit of wine ; and the refiduum, which did not diffolve, 
 appeared to be of the fame niiture. The cryftals dif- 
 folved in frefti acetous acid, and communicated a blue 
 colour to the acid ; but this gradually difappeared 0x1 
 cooHng, and a glutinous matter was depofited on the 
 lides of the veflel, which had the properties of the 
 former fubftance of that fort. If, in place of letting 
 tlie folution cool, it ftiould be kept boiling, the blue 
 colour difappears, and nothing is precipitated. By ad- 
 ding fpirit of wine when the liquor is almoft evapora- 
 ted to drynefs, a white powder is precipitated ; which, 
 after being edulcorated with frefli fpirit of wine, taftes 
 exceedingly bitter, and is very foluble in water. This 
 Jolution, however, does not redden blue paper, nor 
 make a blue with vinegar. With vitriolic acid its 
 lolution is blue ; with vitriol of copper it forms a white 
 precipitate. All thefe falts, by calcination, firft be- 
 come blue, then yellow, and laftly white. 7^ On 
 pouring a quantity of lime-water upon the folution of 
 the precipitate formed by the nitrous acid, as well as 
 on thofe obtained by the acetous acid, white precipi- 
 tates wei-e formed, all of which were a true regenera- 
 ted tungften. Having afterwards impregnated the li- 
 -quors with Hxed air, and boiled them in order to pre- 
 cipitate the lime more completely, they found in the 
 •Vol. IV. Part XL 
 
 I S T R y. 
 
 folutions, after they were filtrated and evaporated to Acid of 
 drynefs, neutral falts formed of the precipitating acids, 'I'^^^'g' en. 
 
 joined with alkaline and calcareous bales. This pro- 
 
 ved, that both alkali and acid were concerned in the- 
 precipitation. 8. On pouring the vitriohc folutions of 
 iron, copper, and zinc, as well as that of marine mercu- 
 rial fait, alum, and Pruffian alkali, upon the folution 
 of the precipitate formed by the nitrous acid, no pre- 
 cipitation enfues, and the acetous falts of copper and 
 lead give white jxecipltates ; but the Pruflian alkali 
 forms no precipitate with the acetous falts. Hence it 
 appears, that this fait is not a fimple acid, but rather 
 a fait compofed of the yellow matter, fixed alkali, and 
 the precipitating acid; and its compofition appears 
 more fully from the following experiments with the 
 volatile alkali. 
 
 1. The yellow powder diffolves entirely in volatile 
 alkali, but without any perfedt faturation taking place ; 
 and the alkali always prevails. 2. The folution being 
 fet in a faud-bath, produced needle-like cryftals, which 
 had a fharp bitter tafte, exciting a difagrceable fen- 
 iation in the throat. Their folution turned the tinc- 
 ture of turnfole red, and the Hquor from which they 
 were cryftallized had the fame properties. 3. Having 
 repeated this operation with different quantities of the 
 fame cryftals, leaving fome longer on the fire than 
 others, folutions were obtained, whofe acidity was In 
 proportion to the time tbey had remained on the fire ; 
 but during the operation they all emitted the fmell of 
 volatile alkali. By calcination this alkali was entirely 
 dlfTipated, and the refiduum wjm a yellow powder, per- 
 fedly fimilar to that with which the operation was be- 
 gun. On making ufe of a retort for the operation, 
 the remaining powder was blue. 4. This fait precipi- 
 tates the vitriolic falts of iron, copper, zinc, and alum, 
 calcareous nitre, marine mercurial fait, the acetous 
 falts of lead and copper ; and with lime-water regene- 
 rates tungften. The vitriohc acid decompounds it, 
 and forms a blue precipitate ; the nitrous and marine 
 acids produce a yellow ; but no precipitate isoccafiou- 
 edby the Pruffian alkali. 
 
 Having poured nitrous acid upon a portion of the 
 folution with excefs of alkali, a white powder was pre- 
 cipitated, which, after edulcoration, had a tafte at firft 
 fweet, but afterwards fharp and bitter, and its folution 
 turned the tindlure of turnfole red. This, on exami- 
 nation, appeared to be a triple fait formed of the 
 yeUow powder, volatile alkali, and the precipkatlng 
 
 The following experiments reahze the conjefture of a IdJd'of 
 Bergman, that the acid of tungften is the bafis of a fciiiimetal 
 particular femimetal. procurable 
 
 1. " Having kept too grains of the yellow powder 5[°"' '""^'^ 
 (fays M. Luyart) in a Z^mora crucible well covered, 
 
 and fet the whole in a ftrong fire for half an hour, it 
 became a fpongy mafs of a bluifii black colour, the 
 furface of which was cryftallized into fine points, like 
 plumofe antimony, and the infide compact, and of the * 
 fame colour. It was too hard to be broken in pieces 
 by the fingers ; and, when ground, was reduced to 
 a dark-blue colour. 
 
 2. " Having mixed 100 grains of the fame powder 
 with 100 of fulphur, and put the mixture in a Zamo- 
 ra crucible on a ftrong fire for a quarter of an hour, it 
 came out a dark-biue mafs, which was eafily bioke by 
 
 4 E the 
 
85 C H E M I 
 
 Acid of the fingers ; and the Infi^e prefcnted a cryftalHzatbn 
 Tungden. needles as the laft, but tranfparcnt, and of the 
 ^"^"''r^ colour of a dark lapis lazuH. This mafs weighed 42 
 
 grains, and when placed on burning coals yielded no 
 
 fmell of fulphur. _ 
 
 3. " Having put another 100 grains of this powder 
 into a Zamora crucible, provided with charcoal, and 
 well covered, and placed it in a ftrong fire, where it 
 remained an hour and a half, we found, on breaking 
 the crucible after it was cool (a), a button, which fell 
 to powder between the fingers. Its colour was dark 
 brown ; and on examining it with a glafs, there was 
 feen a congeries of metallic globules, among which 
 fome were the bignefs of a pin's head, and wheal broke 
 had a metallic appearance at the fradure in colour like 
 Heel. It weighed 60 gr.ilns ; of courfe there was a di- 
 minution of 40. Its fpecific gravity was 17.6. Having 
 calcined part of it, it became yellow, Avith ^^ increafe 
 of wei"-ht. Having put one portion of this fubftance 
 powdered, in digeftion with the vitrioHc acid, and 
 another with the marine acid,, neither of them fufFcred 
 more diminution thaji tIo of their weight;- then de- 
 canting the hquor, and examining the powder with a 
 glafs, the grains were ftill perceived of a metallic a- 
 fpea. Both the acid liquors gave a blue precipitate 
 with the Pruffian alkali, which let us know that the 
 fmall diminution proceeded from a portion of iron 
 which the button had undoubtedly got from the pow- 
 der of the charcoal in which it had been fet. The ni- 
 trous acid, and aqua-regia, extrafted likewife from, two 
 other portions the ferruginous part ; but befides, they 
 converted them into yellow powder, perfedly fimilar 
 to that which we ufed in this operation. 
 
 4. " Having put 100 grains of gold and fifty of the 
 yellow powder in a Zamora crucible furniflied with 
 charcoal, and kept it in a ftrong fire for three quarters 
 of an hour, there came out a yellow bvitton, which 
 crumbled in pieces between the fingers ; the infide of 
 which fliowed grains of gold, feparated from others of 
 a dark-brown colour. This demonftrated there had not 
 been a perfed fufion, and likewife that this fubftance 
 was more refraAory with gold, fince the heat which it 
 endured was more than fufficient to have melted it. 
 The button weighed 139 grains; of eouife there was a 
 diminution of n grains. Having put this button 
 with lead in the cupelling furnace, the gold remained 
 pure in the cupel ; but this operation was attended 
 with confiderable difficulty. 
 
 5. Having made a mixture of platina and yellow 
 powder in the preceding proportions, and expofed it 
 to a ftrong fire, with the fame circumftances, for an 
 hour and a quarter, it produced a button which crum- 
 bled with eafe between the fingers, and in which the 
 grains of platina were obferved to be more white than 
 ufual, and fome of them, changed fenfibly in their fi- 
 gure. This button weighed 140 grains, and of con- 
 fequence there had been a lofe of 10 grains. When 
 calcined, it took a yellow colour, with very little in- 
 creafe of weight } and after wafliing it to feparate the 
 platina, there remained 1.18 grains of a black colour. 
 
 S T R Pra«flice. 
 
 Having placed this portion again to calcine over a ^ Acid of 
 ftrong fire in a muffle, it fuffered no fenfible alteration Tur.gften. 
 
 ftrong 
 
 in weight or colour ; for it neither grew yellow, nor 
 took the brown colour of the platina, but kept the fame 
 blacknefs as before it was calcined. It muft be attend- 
 ed to, that in the wafhings there was not fo much 
 care taken to coUedl all the platina as to deprive it o£ 
 the yellow colour, and for this reafon the water car- 
 ried off part of the fine black powder ; and confequent- 
 ly the increafe which the platina preferved, after being, 
 wafhed and calcined the fecond time, ought to be com- 
 puted more than the 1 8 grains which it Ihowed by it«- 
 weight. 
 
 " Having mixed the yellow powder with other me- 
 tals in the preceding proportions, and treated them in. 
 the fame manner, the refult was as follows : 
 
 6. " With filver it formed a button of a whitifh-brown 
 colour, fomething fpongy, which with a few ftrokes 
 of a hammer extended itfelf eafily, but on continuing 
 them fplit in pieces. This button weighed 1 42 grains, 
 and is the moft perfed mixture we have obtained, 
 except that with iron. 
 
 7. " With copper it gave a button of a copperifh 
 red, which approached to a dark brown, was fpongy,. 
 and pretiy dudlle, and weighed 133 grains. 
 
 8. " With crude or caft-iron, of a white quality, it 
 gives a perfed button, the frafture of which was corn- 
 pad, and of a whitifh brown colour : it was hard^ 
 harfli, and weighed 137 grains. 
 
 9. " With lead it formed a button of a dull dark- 
 brown, with very little luftre ; fpongy, very dudile, 
 and fplitting into leaves when hammered: it weighed 
 127 grains. 
 
 10. " The button formed with tin was of a Hghtcr 
 brown than the laft, very fpongy, fomewhat dudile^ 
 and weighed 138 grains. 
 
 II . " That with antimony was of a dark-brown c«- 
 lour, fliining, fomething fpongy, harfli, and broke in. 
 pieces eafily : it weighed 108 grains. 
 
 12. " That of-bifmuth prefented a fradure, which,, 
 when feen in one light, was of a dark-brown colour, 
 with the luftre of a metal J and in another appeared 
 like earth,' without any luftre :. but in both cafes one 
 could diftinguifh an infinity of little holes over the 
 whole mafs. This button was pretty hard, harfli, and 
 weighed 68 grains.. 
 
 1 3. " With.manganefe it gave a button of a dark 
 bluifli-brown colour and earthy afped ; and on exa- 
 mining the internal part of it with a lens, it^ refem- 
 bled impure drops of iron: it weighed 107 grains." 
 
 XI. ^CJD o/Jnts. 
 
 Etmuller is among the firft authors who mentions 
 the exiftence of this acid,, and fpeaks of obtaining it 
 by diftillation. Nothing of its properties, however,, 
 was known, until Margraaf undertook to examine it ; 
 of whofe experiments we have an account in the 
 Memoirs of the BerHn Academy for 1749. Since his 
 time a number of chemifts have profecuted the fubjed 
 
 to 
 
 Ya^ « The firft time we made this experiment, we broke the crucible without letting it cool entirely ; and': 
 as foon as the matter was in-contad with the air, it took fire, and its dark brown colour turned xnftantly yel. 
 
Pra<51ce. 
 
 G H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 Acid of to a confiderably greater length ; but Mr Keir prefers 
 Ants. ^jjg refearches of Arvidfon, Bucljoltz, and Herrabftadt, 
 to the reft. 
 
 The acid in queftion is a natural juice which the in- 
 fers difcharge when irritated, and which is very pun- 
 gent to the fmell as well as tafte. Thus it _ may in- 
 ftantly be perceived on turning up an ant-hill in fpring 
 er fummer. The formica rubra of Linnjeus are thofe 
 infefts which have hitherto fuppHed this acid. Mr Ar- 
 methods'of vidfon advifes to colled them in the mouths of June 
 obtaining: and July, by laying feme fmooth fticks upon an ant- 
 this acid. . vvhich being then diilurbed, the ants will run 
 
 upon the fticks in great numbers, and may then be 
 fwept off into a veflel containing water until it be full. 
 Henubftadt coUefts them in the fame manner, but into 
 a dry bottle, to avoid the evaporation of the fuper- 
 fluous liquid. Bucholtz having moiftened the inlide 
 of a narrow necked glafs bottle with honey and water, 
 funk it into a difturbed ant-hill until the mouth was 
 level with the ground ; on which the infedls, allured 
 by the fmell of the lioney, went into the bottle, and 
 could not get out. 
 
 For obtaining the acid, Margraaf employed diftd- 
 lation, with the addition of frefh water. Thus he ob- 
 tained, from 24 ounces of frefh ants, 1 1 ounces and 
 two drach-ms of acid, fome volatile alkali, empyreuma- 
 ti« oil, and a refiduum containing earth and fixed fa^t. 
 Arvidfon made ufe of two methods : One confifted in 
 dittilling the ants when dry ; from a pound of which, 
 in this ftate, he obtained eight ounces of acid befidcs 
 the empyreumatic oil. His other method was to in- 
 clofe, in a piece of linen, the ants preyioufly cleaned 
 by waflung in water, then to pour boiling water upon 
 them, and to repeat the operation until it could ex- 
 traft no more acid ; which is then obtained by fqueezlng 
 the linen, mixing all the liquors, and filtering theiii. 
 Thus froni a pound of ants he obtained a quart of acid 
 liqtfor, which tafted like vinegar, but was fpecifically 
 heavier. By diftlUatlon Hermbftadt obtained from a 
 pound of dry ants ten ounces and a half of yellow em- 
 pyreumatic liquor, which did not tafte more ftrongly 
 acid than the fpirit obtained by dIftiUing wood, on 
 which fwam three drachms of a brown fetid oil, in all 
 refpeds like that of hartfhorn. In the retort was left 
 a black refiduum weighing one ounce fix drachms, 
 which exhibited figns of containing volatile alkali. By 
 dlftllling a pound of ants with three of water, according 
 to Mr Margraaf's method, he obtained an acid liquor 
 and fome oil in the receiver ; and from the furface of 
 that which remained undiftlHed, he coUeded a draehm 
 and an half of ftit oil. 
 
 The fpecific gravity of the acid liquor obtained by 
 Mr Arvidfon 's maceration was i.ooii ; that of the 
 fame liquor, when diftilled, 1.0075; and of the acid 
 concentrated by freezing, 1.0453. _ According to 
 Bucholtz, the acid liquor thus obtained by macera- 
 tioa did not grow in the leaft mouldy in the fpace of 
 iour weeks ; during which it was allowed to reft in 
 order to free itfelf perfedily from the impurities it con- 
 tained. Mr Hermbftadt, however, prefers Margraaf's 
 method of diftillatlon to that of Arvldfon's macera- 
 tions, not only as being a more perfeft analyfis, but as 
 Icfs laborious; though he finds fault alfo with Mar- 
 graaf's method, as diluting the acid too much, and al- 
 tering It fo that it has hoI the fmell of living ants. He 
 
 totally difapproves of the method of diftlUIng dried 
 ants, as the acid is thus in a great meafure decom- 
 pofed, and the remainder united with much oil. To 
 avoid all thefe inconveniences, he contrived another 
 method, namely, to exprefs the juice of the infedls ; by 
 which means he obtained at once a concentrated liquor 
 fit for diftillatlon. In this way he obtained from two 
 pounds of dried ants 2 1 ounces and two drachms of 
 juice, which had a pungent and highly acid fmell, re- 
 fembling the vapours of fluor acid; In tafte refembling 
 concentrated vinegar and acid of tartar; to which laft it 
 might be compared for ftrength of acidity. By di- 
 ftilling eight ounces of this expreffed liquor, he ob- 
 tained fix ounces and a half of clear acid, equal in 
 ftrength to a very concentrated vinegar. 
 
 The acid, when thus procured in purity, has a pun- Properties 
 gent, not unplcafant fmell, a fliarp, cauftic tafte, and^t die pure 
 an agreeable acidity. It reddens blue paper, fyrup of **^'^* 
 violets, and litmus ; blackens the vitriolic acid, and 
 converts part of it into a fuiphureous vapour. It is aU 
 fo decompofed by diftillatlon with nitrous acid. Spirit 
 of fait likewife, when dephlogifticated, decompofes it, 
 but not in its ordinary ftate. It does not form fulphur 
 by an union with phlogifton, but produces Inflamma- 
 ble vapours by diffolving iron or zinc. By the af- 
 fiftance of a gentle heat it diffolves foot, but oils with 
 much more difficulty, and powder of charcoal not at 
 all. It does not unite with vitriolic ether ; but in di- 
 ftilling a mixure of this acid with fpirit of wine, Mr 
 Arvidfon faw fome traces of an ether, and .M. Bu- 
 choltz perfeftly fucceeded in making an ether by means 
 of it. It unites with fixed alkah, forming, according 
 to M. Margraaf, a neutral fait, conftfting of oblong de* 
 liquefcent cryftals, from which very Uttle acid could 
 be procured by diftillatlon per fe ; but ofi adding con- 
 centrated oil of vitriol, a very ftrong and pure acid was 
 obtained ; from a mixture of which with fpii lt of wine, 
 M. Bucholtz readily obtained a true ether. With 
 mineral alkali it forms deliquefcent foliated cryftals of 
 a faUne bitter tafte, and foluble in twice their weight 
 of water. With volatile alkali it fonns an ammonia- 
 cal Hquor ; which, according to Arvidfon, cannot be 
 brought Into a dry ftate ; but Mr Arvidfon fays he 
 has obtained cryftals from it, though very thin and 
 deliquefcent. Margraaf obtained dry cryftals by uni- 
 ting this acid with chalk or coral ; and Arvidfon ob- 
 ferves that this fait Is tranfparent, cubical, or rhom- 
 boidal, nondeliquefcent, foluble in eight parts of water, 
 of a bitter tafte, and Infoluble in fpirit of wine. No 
 acid can be obtained from it by diftillatlon per fe. From 
 a folution of magnefia in this acid, Mr Arvidfon ob- 
 tained fome fahne particles by depofition, and after- 
 wards an efflorefcencc of traniparent fait rifing round 
 a faline mafs. This fait had fcarcely any tafte, was 
 foluble in 1 3 parts of water, and infoluble in fpirit of 
 wine. With ponderous earth the acid formed a clu- 
 fter of bitter needle-Uke cryftals, which did not deli* 
 quefce, were foluble in four times their quantity of 
 water infoluble in fpirit of wine, and when burnt gave 
 out a fmell Hke that of burnt fugar, leaving a coal 
 which effervefced with acid. It unites with diffi- 
 culty to the earth of alum, and can fcarcely be 
 faturated with it. It does' not precipitate filver, 
 lead, or mercury, from their folution in nitrous 
 acid ; whence it feems to have no affinity to the ma- 
 4 E 3 rine 
 
588 C H E M 
 
 Acid of ni,e acid : and as it does not precipitate lime from the 
 . marine acid, it feems to have as little with the vitriolic. 
 
 1504 From his experiments, however, Margraaf conclud ed, 
 Hasan affi- that the acid of ants, in m^ny refpefts, though not in 
 ^thl a ^^^ allj lias a great affinity with the acetous acid. From 
 acid. ^'"^ diftinguifhed by forming different compounds, 
 
 and likewife by having different afSnities. It dif- 
 lodges the acetous acid alfo in all inilances, and the 
 arfenical acid from cobalt and nickel. It has a great- 
 y^p^ er attradlion for fixed alkalies than for lime. 
 Its effedls ^ folvent it afts but weakly upon copper ; not 
 
 •II metals, at all, or very little, on filver, lead, tin, regulus of an- 
 timony, or bifmuth, but ftrongly on iron or zinc. It 
 diffolves, however, the calces of copper, filver, zinc, 
 and lead, without affefting thofc of tin, regulus of an- 
 timony, or bifmuth. The calx of quickfilver, accord- 
 ing to Margraaf, is revived by it. According to Ar- 
 vidfon, it eryflallizes with iron, zinc, or lead ; does 
 not aft upon the regulus of antimony, of arfenic, co- 
 balt, or nickel ; though it diffolves, their calces as 
 well as the precipitate of manganefe. Gold, mercury, 
 and the calx of platina, are not affcAed by it ; but it 
 eryflallizes with thofe of copper, filver, lead, bifmuth, 
 and mercury. 
 
 In its ftrength of attraftion, the acid of ants ex- 
 j^j^g ceeds thofe of vinegar, borax, and the volatile fulphu- 
 Acid pro- reous and nitrous acids. Infefts amied with flings, 
 cured from as bees, wafps, and hornets, are likewife faid to dif- 
 v^ious m- charge a very acid juice when irritated ; and Mr Bon- 
 *' net has obferved a very llrong acid ejefted by a cater- 
 pillar which he diflinguifiies by the name of grande che- 
 nille clu faule a queu fourchtie. None of thefi;, however, 
 have been as yet particularly examined. 
 
 XII. Acid of Apvles. 
 
 That the juices of unripe fruits contain fome kind 
 of acid has been univerfally known, and attempts to 
 invefligate the nature of it have been made fome time 
 j^Q^ ago : but it is to Mr Scheele that we owe the difco- 
 Acld of ci- very of the particular acid now treated of. He had 
 troiis how obferved that the juice of citrons contained a particu- 
 procured. j^j- ^^id ; which, by being united with lime, formed a 
 fait very infoluble in water ; and which therefore by 
 means of lime could be readily feparated from the 
 mucilaginous part of the juice. By adding vitriolic 
 acid to this compound of lime with the acid juice, al- 
 moft in the fame manner; in v,'hich he ufed to procure 
 the acid of tartar, the lime was again feparated, and 
 the pure acid of citrons obtained. Proceeding in the 
 fame manner with other fruit, he found that an acid, 
 agreeing in every refpeft with that of citrons, could 
 be procured from the juice of the rihes grojfularia. 
 Examining the juice which' remained after the fe- 
 paration of the former acid from the citrons, he 
 found that it flill contained another acid; which being 
 o faturated with more calcareous earth, formed a fait 
 Another eafily foluble in water, and therefore remained fufpend- 
 acid procu- ed in the juice. To feparate this new fait, he added 
 red from fome fpirit of wine, by which the fait was precipita- 
 the i»ice of ^^^^ finding: that it flill contained much gummy 
 matter, he judged that it v^'ould be proper to attempt a 
 feparation of this gum before he precipitated the fait. 
 For this purpofe he evaporated fome of the juice of the 
 ribes groffulai-ia to the confiflence of honey, diffolving 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 Practice. 
 
 the mafs afterwards in fpirit of wine. Thus the acids, -^crd of 
 which are foluble in the fpirit, were eafily feparated , Apples. ^ 
 by filtration from the infoluble gum. He then eva- * 
 porated the fpirit, adding to the remainder twice its 
 quantity of water, with as much chalk as was necef- 
 fary for the faturation. The liquor was next boiled 
 for two minutes ; during which the infoluble fait was 
 precipitated, and the liquor feparated from it by fil- 
 tration contained the folution of chalk in the new 
 acid. To this folution he added fpirit of wine, which 
 again precipitated the fait, while fome faponaceous 
 and faccharine matters remained diffolved in the fpi- 
 
 Having thus at lafl; obtained the fait in a ftatc of pu-lts proper- 
 rity, he proceeded to examine its nature ; and found, ties. 
 I. Thai fome of it, fpread on his nail, loon dried, 
 and afliimed the appearance of varnifh. 2. It was 
 very foluble in water, and turned litmus red. 3. When 
 the folution had flood fome days expofed to air, it was 
 found to have depofited a number of fmall cryflals, 
 which could only be diffolved by a quantity of boiling 
 water ; and this fait was alfo found to be completely 
 neutralized, fo that it yielded its calcareous earth to 
 a fixed alkali. 4. The fait was decompofed by heat- 
 ing per fe in z. crucible, and left a milcj calcareous 
 earth. 5. The acid was feparated from the earth by 
 adding oil of vitriol diluted with water until gypfum 
 was no longer precipitated, and the new acid was left 
 difengaged, fo that it could be feparated by filtration. 
 6. By this operation, however, all the lime was not 
 precipitated, fo that the feparation of the acid was not 
 complete. 7. He obferved that the acid had a greater 
 attradiion for lead than for lime ;. and therefore made 
 ufe of the m.ethod he had formerly difcovered for fe- 
 parating the acid of forrel. To the acid he added a 
 folution of fugar of lead;, by which the acid was preci- 
 pitated along with the lead, and the vinegar was left ,^,0 
 in the liquor. To this precipitate, cleaned from How pro- 
 the acetous aeid by filtration, he added vitriolic acid, cured in 
 which expelled the weaker vegetable one, and thus j.^j''^'^'^^*^ 
 left it quite pure and free from any heterogeneous 
 mixture. 
 
 The juice of apples, either ripe or utirspe, was found 
 to contain no acid of citrons, but a large quantity of 
 the new acid; which, being thus alone, he could more 
 eafily procure by a fingle operation. The befl method 
 of procuring this he found to be by faturating the 
 juice of the apples with a folution of fixed vegetable 
 alkali, and pouring a folution of fugar of lead to that 
 of the fait jufl mentioned. The effeft of this was a 
 double decompofition, and a preciptate of lead com- 
 bined with the new acid. To the edulcorated pre- 
 cipitate he then added a dilute vitriolic acid till he 
 could no longer perceive any fweet tafle in the liquor ; 
 for the firfl portions of the vitriolic acid diffolve a part 
 of the calx of lead, and impart a fweetlfh tafle to the 
 liquor, which is fenfible, notwithflanding its acidity ; 
 but when the quantity of vitriolic acid is fufficient to 
 faturate the whole of the calx, all the metal falls to the 
 bottom, and the fweetnefs ceafes ; fo that the acid is at 
 once obtained pure. j^jj 
 
 The acid of apples is poffeffed of the following pro- Properties 
 perties. i. It cannot be cryllalHzed, but always re-^^f 't when 
 mains in a liquid flate ; or, if much evaporated, at- 
 tradls the moillure of the air. 2. With fixed alkalies 
 
 of api ks. 
 
Pradlice. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Produced 
 
 nitrous a' 
 •id 
 
 of all kinds it forms dellqiiefcent falts. 3. With cal- 
 careous earth if for s fraail irreajularly fhaped cryftals, 
 which cannot be 'JifTo' /ed but in a large quantity of 
 boiling water ; hat iP the acid is fuperabundant, the 
 fait readily difiolvesin lime-water. 4. It is affefted by 
 ponderous earth in the fame manner as by lime. 
 5. Earth of alum forms, with the acid of apples, a fait 
 not very foluble in water. 6. Wiih magnefia the acid 
 forms a deliquefcent fait. 7. Iron is diffolved into a 
 brown liquor, which does not eryftallize. 8. The fo- 
 lution of zinc affords fine cryftals. 9. On other me- 
 tals it has no remarkable effefts. From the acid of 
 citrons it differs, i. The acid of citrons fhoots into 
 fine cryftals. 2. The acid of apples can be eafily con- 
 verted into that of fugar, which Mr Scheele could not 
 accomplifli with that of citrons; though Mr Weftrumb 
 has fince done it. 3. The fait formed with the citron 
 acid and lime is almoft infoluble in water ; but that 
 with acid of apples and lime is cafily foluble. 4. Acid, 
 of apples precipitates mercury, lead, and filver, from 
 their folution in nitrous acid, and likewife the folution 
 of gold, when diluted with water ; but the acid of 
 citrons does not alter any of thefe folutions. 5. The 
 acid of citrons feems to have a greater attraillon for 
 lime than that of apples. 
 
 It is remarkable that this acid is the firfl produced in 
 fi om fufjar the procefs for making fugar. If a diluted acid of 
 b;- means of nitre be drawn off from a quantity of fugar until the 
 mixture becomes a little brown, which is a fign that 
 all the nitrous acid is evaporated, the fyrup will be 
 found to have acquired a fourifh tafle ; and if, by 
 means of lime, we next feparate all the acid of fugar, 
 another will ftill remain, which diffolves the calcareous 
 earth. When this acid is faturattd with chalk, and 
 the folution filtered and mixed with fpirit of wine, a 
 coagulation takes place. On feparating the curdled 
 part by means of a fieve, diffolving it in water, and 
 then adding fome vinegar of lead, the calx of lead will 
 be precipitated ; and if the new acid is then feparated 
 from the metal by means of diluted oil of vitriol, it 
 will be found to poffefs all the properties of the acid 
 of apples, ar>d is indeed the fame. The fpirit of wine, 
 which has been employed to precipitate the calcare- 
 ous fait, leaves on evaporation a refiduum of a bitter 
 tafte, very deliquefcent, and limilar to the faponaceous 
 extraft of the citron. 
 
 The following are the refults of Mr Scheele's ex- 
 periments with the nitrous acid upon different fub- 
 ftances. i. From gum Arabic he obtained both the 
 Bients with acid of apples and of fngar. 2. The fame products 
 nitrous acid were obtained from manna. 3. From fugar of milk 
 f "Kft*" he obtained not only its own peculiar acid, but thofe 
 ances. ^£ apples and fugar. 4. Gum tragacanth, during its 
 folution in nitrous acids, lets fail a white powder, 
 which was found to be the acid of the fugar of milk. 
 This gum contained alfo the acid of apples and of fu- 
 gar, and a fait formed from lime and the acid of ap- 
 ples. 5. Starch left an undiffolved matter j which be- 
 ing feparated by filtration, and vvafhtd, refemblcd a 
 thick oil like tallow, which, however, was found to be 
 very foluble in fpirit of wine. By dittillation he obtain- 
 ed fron^, this oily matter an acid fimilar to that of vine- 
 gar, and an oil which has the fmell of tallow, and con- 
 geals by cold J and, befides the£e fubltances, he found 
 
 I S T R Y. 389 
 
 that flarch yielded the acids of apples and fugar. Acid of 
 6. From the root of falep he obtained the acid of ap- , Ap j iles. 
 pies, with a large quantity of calcareous faccharine ^ 
 fait. 7. Extraft of aloes indicated the exiftence of 
 the acids of fugar and apples, and loft the greatcft 
 part of its bitter- tafte. During the digeftion a refi- 
 nou3 matter was feparated, which fmelled like flowers 
 of benzoin, and took fire on being heated in a re- 
 tort. 8. Extraft of cclocynth was converted by ni- 
 trous acid into a refinous fubftance, and fhowed fome 
 figns of containing acid of fugar. 9. The extrafts 
 of Peruvian bark and of the other plants examined by 
 Mr Scheele, gave both the acids of apples and fugar. 
 10. Thefe two acids were likewife obtained from an 
 infuiron of roafted coffee, evaporated to the confiftencc 
 of a fyrup. 11. The fame produfts were obtained 
 fr-om an extraft of rhubarb, which yielded alfo a 
 refinous matter. 12. Juice of poppies afforded the 
 fame refuhs. 13. Extract of galls did the fame. 
 14. The effential oils afforded little or none of the 
 acids ; but the oil of parfley feeds feemed to be 
 entirely convei-tible into them. 15. With a very 
 concentrated acid he was able alfo to dtcompofe ani- 
 mal fubftances. From glue he thus obtained fine 
 cryftals of acid of fugar, and afterwards acid of apples. 
 Ifinglafs, whites and yolks of eggs, afforded the fame 
 produfts. From all thefe fubftances, efpecially the 
 laft, a fat matter was feparated : but it was remarkable 
 that the gas, expelled during the procefs, was com- 
 pofed of a little fixed air, a gr eat quantity of phlo- 
 gifticated air, and very little nitrous air ; whereas no 
 phlogifticated air is obtained in the ufual procefs for 
 preparing acid of fugar. He obferved alfo, that in 
 the procefs for this acid, a fmall quantity of vioegar 
 is found in the receiver. He could not obtain the 
 acid of fugar from the faponaceous extraft of ur ine ; 
 but got infttad of it a fait, which, when completely 
 purified, refembled exaftly the flower:s of benzoin. 
 The fame fait is precipitated in abundance by adding \ 
 to the extraft of uririe a little vitriolic or marine 
 acid ; and Mr Scheele had already remar ked that the 
 fame fait is obtained in the diilillation of fugar of milk. 
 
 From the various experiments which have been made r,c\i^* 
 
 ... ^ ^ . -K/r rr • i - "J' the na- 
 
 on thrs acid, it teems, accordrng to Mr Kerr, to be mture uf thi» 
 
 an intermediate ftate betwixt acid of tartar and acidaciJ. 
 of fugar. This, however, ought not to prevent it 
 from being accounted a feparate and diftinft acid, 
 otherwife we might confound all the vegetable acids 
 with one another. It approaches more nearly to the 
 nature of acid of milk than of any other. From this 
 alfo, however, it is diftinguifhed„ becaufe the fait 
 formed by the union of acid of milk with lime is fo- 
 luble in fpirit of wine, but n6t that from hme and 
 the acid of apples. According to Mr Hermbftadt, if 
 three parts of fmoking nitrous acid be abflrafted from 
 one part of fugar, and if the brawn acid mafs which 
 remains in the retort be diluted with fix times its 
 weight of diftilled water, and faturaced with chalk, 
 two compounds will be formed ; one confifting of the 
 acids of tartar and lime, which will precipitate ; and 
 the other of lime and the acid of apples, which will 
 remain fufpendcd. If the calcareous earth be preci- 
 tated from this latter folution by adding acid of fu^ 
 gar, a pure acid of apples will be left in the liquor £ 
 
 ondi 
 
590 
 
 Acetous A' 
 cid. 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 and he further infontis us, that this acid of apples may 
 be changed entirely into thofc of fugar and vinegar, 
 by means of ilrong nitrous acid. 
 
 15 » 5 
 
 How to 
 cryftallize 
 fpiritus 
 
 acid com- 
 bined with 
 calcareous 
 earth. 
 
 XIIT. JcETovi Acid. 
 
 It is generally believed, that the combination of 
 this acid with volatik -alkali is altogether incapable 
 of cryftallization ; but Scheffer and Morveau informs 
 Mindereri. ti^at Jt may be reduced into fmall needle-(ha- 
 ped cryftalcj, when the fpiritus Mindereri is evapo- 
 rated to the confidence of a fyrup, and left expofecl 
 to the cold. The fah has a very (harp and burn- 
 ing taRe, but a confiderable quantity is loft during 
 the evaporation. Weftendorf, by adding his concen- 
 trated vinegar to volatile alkali, obtained a tranfparent 
 liquor which did not cryftallize. By diftillation it 
 went over entirely into the receiver, leaving a white 
 fpot on the retort. A faline tranfparent mafs, how- 
 ever, appeared in the receiver under the clear fluid. 
 On feparating it from the liquid, and expofing it to 
 a gentle heat, it mehed, threw out white vapours, 
 and in a few minutes fhot into ftiarp cryftals refem- 
 tling nitre. Thefc remained unchanged in the cold ; 
 but when melted with a gentle warmth, fmoked and 
 evaporated. Their tafte was firft fharp and then 
 fweet. 
 
 yifi The fait formed by uniting acetous acid with cal- 
 the'^acet"ous careous earth has a (harp bitter tafte, and {hoots in- 
 to cryftals fomewhat refembling ears of corn. Thefe 
 do not deliquate in the air, unlefs the acid has been 
 fuperabundant. They are decompofed by diftillation 
 J>er fe, the acid coming over in white inflammable va- 
 pours fmelling Hke acetous ether, fomewhat empy- 
 reumatic, and condenfing into a reddifli brown li- 
 quor. By reftification this liquor becomes very vo- 
 latile and inflammable; on adding water, it acquires 
 a milky appearance, and drops of oil feern to fwim upon 
 the furface; a reddifh brown liquor, with a thick black 
 oil, remain after reftification in the retort. On mix- 
 ing this calcareous fait with that of Glauber, a double 
 decompofition takes place ; we have a gypfum and 
 the mineral alkali combined with acetous acid. By 
 calcination, the mineral alkali may be obtained from 
 thi« fait in a ftate .of purity. This acetous calcareous 
 fait is not foluble in fpirit of wine. 
 
 On faturating this acid with magnefia, and evapo- 
 rating the liquor, we obtain a vifcid faline mafs hke 
 mucilage of gum arable, which does not fhoot into 
 cryftals, but deliquefces in the air. It has a fweetifh 
 tafte at firft, but is afterwards bitter. It is foluble in 
 fpirit of wine, and parts with Its acid by diftillation 
 without addition. 
 
 Acetous acid diflblves zinc both in its metallic and 
 calclform ftate, and even when mixed with other me- 
 tals. By concentrated vinegar the zinc Is diflblved 
 with great heat, fulphureous fmell, and exhalation of 
 inflammable matter. By this union we obtain a con- 
 gealed mafs, which on dilution with water flioots into 
 oblong fliarp cryftals at the firft cryftallization, and 
 afterwards into cryftals of a ftellated form. From this 
 liquor indeed cryftals of various forms have been ob- 
 tained by different chemifts. Monnct obtained from 
 it a pearl-coloured fait In friable talky cryftals ; which 
 ^vhen thrown on the coals, fulminated a little at firft, 
 
 1517 
 With mag- 
 neiia. 
 
 With zinc. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice. 
 
 and gave a bluifli flame, and then melted, letting Its Acetous A» 
 acid efcape, while a yellow calx remained. Hellot . ^I*^' . 
 informs us, that this fait by diftillation J>er fe into wa- * 
 ter, affords an inflammable liquor, and an oil at firft 
 yellow and then green, with white flowers burning 
 with a blue flame. Weftendorf obtained no oil in thia 
 diftillation, but fome acetous acid ; a fweet-tafted em- 
 pyreumatic liquor Impregnated with zinc ; fweet 
 flowers, or fublimate, foluble in water, and burning 
 ■ttrith a green flame. On applying a ftronger heat, 
 the zinc was fublimed in its metallic form, leaving a 
 fpongy coal at the bottom of the retort. The folu- 
 tion gives a green colour to fyrup of violets, lets fall 
 a white precipitate on the addition of alkalies or an 
 infufion of galls. It Is not precipitated by common 
 fait, vitriolated tartar, vitriolic or marine acids, blue 
 vitriol, or corrofive fublimate ; but forms a red pre- 
 cipitate when added to folution of gold ; a white pre- 
 cipitate with folution of filver ; a cryftalline pearly 
 precipitate with folution of mercury; and cryftalline 
 precipitates with folutions of bifmulh and tin. Ac- 
 cording to Bergman, It is decompofed by acid of ar- 
 
 . . . . 
 
 Though regulus of arfenic Is not foluble in this its pheno- 
 
 acid, it^ calx maybe diflblved either In common or mena with 
 diftilled vinegar. M. Cadet obtained a fmoking liquor 
 by diftillation from a mixture of white arfenic and 
 terra foliata tartari. This experiment has been re- 
 peated by the chemifts of Dijon, and attended with 
 the following curious circumftances. '* We digefted 
 (fay they), in a fand-bath, five ounces of diftilled vi- 
 negar on white pulverized arfenic ; the filtrated liquor 
 was covered, during evaporation, with a white faline 
 cruft. Of this fubftance were formed 150 grains; on 
 which fixed alkali appeared to have no eff'efk, and ' 
 which was at firft confidered as pure arfenic. How- 
 ever, a cat, which had fwallowed 72 grains of it, was 
 only affefled with vomitings that day and the next, ^ 
 and afterwards perfeftly recovered. A fimilar dofe vinegar 
 was given to a little dog ; but as he ran away, thefuppofed to 
 eff"e6l it had upon him could ROt be difcovered ; but ^'^ anti- 
 he returned afterwards in good health, and "^v^'^ ^"fg^j^j ^'"^ 
 fhowed any uneafinefs : whence It may be concluded, 
 that vinegar is in fome meafure an antidote againft the 
 pernicious qualities of arfenic. 
 
 " On redifl()lving this faline cruft in pure water, 
 filtering and mixing it with liquid alkah, an irregu- 
 larly cryftaUized fait was formed in It after a few days 
 ftanding. By this fait a yellow precipitate was thrown 
 down from the nitrous folution of filver ; whereas the 
 folution of arfenic and terra foliata tartari threw down 
 a white one. 
 
 " Equal parts of terra foliata tartari and arfenic, di- 
 ftilled in a retort, gave firft a fmall quantity of limpid 
 liquor with a penetrating fmell of garHc, and which 
 had the property of reddening fyrup of violets ; while 
 folution of arfenic In water turns that fyrup green. 
 The vinegar which now arofe was not faturated with 
 arfenic, but effervefced ftrongly with fixed alkali, with 
 which it became turbid, but did not let fall any pre- 
 cipitate. Oh changing the receiver, there came over a 
 reddiflr brown liquor, accompanied with thick vapours, 
 diffufing an Intolerable fmell, in which that of arfenic 
 could fcarcely be diftinguiflied. On continuing the 
 operation, a black powder fublimed into the neck of 
 
 the 
 
Praaice. C H E M 
 
 Acetous A- the retort, togetlier with a little arfenic in its metal- 
 lie form, and a matter which took fire by a lighted 
 candle like fulphur. 
 
 " The red liqiior ftill preferved Its property of fmo- 
 king though cold ; diiFufing at the fame time its pe- 
 culiar and abominable fetor, from which the apart- 
 ment could fcarcely be freed in feveral days. This 
 liquor does not alter the colour of fyrup of violets, 
 but efFervefces flightly with fixed alkali, letting fall 
 at the fame time a yellow precipitate, which, however, 
 difappeared on an attempt to feparate it by filtration. 
 M. Cadet had obferved, that the fmoking liquor 
 £aa^°"*' of arfenic did not kindle at the approach of a lighted 
 ' candle ; but that, on pouring it from the receiver into 
 another velTel, it had kindled the fat lute with which 
 the junftures had been clofed, and which had been 
 dried during the opeiatlon : but we, being defirous 
 of examining more fully the nature of the red liquor 
 which collefts at the bottom, and has the appearance 
 of oil, having decanted that which fvvlms on the top, 
 and poured the remainder on a filter of paper, 
 before many drops had palled, there arofe a thick 
 fmoke forming a column from the veflel to the ceiling; 
 a flight ebullition was perceived at the fides of the vef- 
 fel, and a beautiful rofe-coloured flame appeared for 
 a few moments. The paper filter was burnt at one 
 fide, but moft of it was only blackened. After the flame 
 was extingulflied, a fat reddlfli matter remained; which, 
 being melted on burning coals, fwelled confiderably, 
 emitting a white flame. It then funk, and left on the 
 coal a black fpot^ which could not be effaced but by 
 the .mofl. vehement fire. 
 
 " At the time thefe obfervattons were made, the 
 liquor had been diftllted for three weeks, and the bot- 
 tle frequently opened. The inflammability could not 
 proceed from the concentration of the vinegar : for 
 the rofe- colour of the flame, the precipitation of the 
 fublimate, and the fixity of the fpot remaining on the 
 coal, evidently fliowed that the two fubftances were in 
 a ftate of combination ; which is alfo further evinced 
 by the lofs of the inflammable property wlven the li- 
 quor was decompofed by fixed alkali. — The fmell of 
 the liquor, however, though fo intolerably fetid, was 
 attended with no other inconvenience than a difa* 
 greeable fenfation in the throat, which further 
 flirengthens the fufpicion that vinegar is an antidote 
 againit arfenic. 
 
 " The faline brown; mafs remaln'ng In the retort 
 was partly diflolved by hot water ; and the filtrated lixi- 
 vium was very limpid, but emitted the peculiar fmell 
 of the phofphoric liquor. By evaporation it yielded 
 a fait which did not deliquefce in the air, of an ir- 
 regular ftiape ; and which being put on burning coals, 
 did not fmell fenfibly of arfenic ; loft its water of cry- 
 ftallization ; and became mealy and white without be- 
 ing diffipated by heat. On expofing the refiduum to 
 the air, it was found next day refolved into a liquor; 
 whence it is probable that mofl: of it was compofed of 
 cryitallized alkali, having received from the decompo- 
 fition of the vinegar as much fixed air as was necef- 
 X5ja fary for Its ci-yftallization." 
 IffeiSl of ^ This acid does not a£l upon mercury in Its metal- 
 lie ftate, but diflblves the mercurial calces, as red pre- 
 SQSrcury. eipitate, turbith mineral, and the precipitate formed 
 
 I S T R. Y . 
 
 591 
 
 by adding fixed sdkali to a folution of mercury In ni- Acetous A- 
 trous acid ; with all which it forms white, fliining, . 
 fcaly cryftals, like thofe of fedative fait. 
 
 Vinegar does not adi upon filver in its metallic ftate, q^^^ ^ijygj^ 
 but readily dlfTolves the yellow calces precipitated 
 from its folution in nitrous acid by microcofmic fait 
 and volatile alkali. By the help of a boihng heat al- 
 fo it very coploufly dilTolves the precipitate obtained 
 by means of a fixed alkali. The laft mentioned folu- 
 tion yields Ihlning, oblong, needle-fliaped cryftals, 
 which are changed to a calx by means of feveral acids, 
 efpecially the muriatic. The filver is thrown down In 
 its metaUic form by zinc, iron, tin, copper, and quick- 
 
 filver. _ , I5'24. 
 
 Though the acetous acid has no- effed upon gold in On Goid» 
 its metaUic ftate, yet a folution of this metal is de- 
 compofed by crude vinegar, which produces both a 
 metallic precipitate and dark violet-coloured powder. 
 DirtlUed vinegar throws down the gold in its metallic 
 form. The precipitate by fixed alkali digefted with 
 acetous acid is of a purple colour. This, as well as 
 fulminating gold, is dilfolved by Weftendorff"'s con- 
 centrated vinegar ; the fulminating gold very eafily.. 
 The folution is of a yellow colour ; and with volatile 
 alkali affords a yellow precipitate ; with lixivium fan- 
 guinis, a blue one ; both of which fulminate. The 
 dry fait of gold diflblves in the acetous acid, and pro- 
 duces ablong yellow cryftals. ^ 
 
 This acid has no effeft on fat oils^ farther than that, On inflam*. 
 when diftilled together, foi»e mixture takes place, as mable fub«, 
 the Abbe Rozler has obferved. Neither does diftil- dances* 
 led vinegar aft upon eflfentlal oils, though M. Weften- 
 dorff's diftilled vinegar diflolved about a fixth part of 
 oil of rofemary, and about half its weight of cam- 
 phor. The latter folution was inflammable, and let 
 fall the camphor on the addition of water. The a- 
 cid diflblves all the true gums, and fome of thofe cal- 
 led gum-refins, after being long digefted with them. 
 By long boiling, Boerhaave oblerves, that it diffolves 
 the bones, cartilages, flefli, and ligaments of animals. ^^^g 
 
 The concentration of this acid may be effeded by Concenrra* 
 combining it with alkalies^ earths, and metals. By tion of the 
 combining it with copper, and then cryftalllzing andac^'^usa- 
 dlftlUIng the compound, we obtain the acid in the'^' * 
 higheft ftate of concentration in which it is ufually 
 met with. To produce this ftrong acid, we have 
 only to diftlll verdegris, or rather its cryftals in 
 a retort. The operation muft be begun by a very 
 gentle fire, which brings over an aqueous liquor. This 
 is to be fet afide, in order to procure the more con- 
 centrated acid, which comes over with a ftronger fire. 
 On changing the receiver, and augmenting the heat,, 
 we obtain a very ftrong acid, which comes over partly in 
 drops, and partly in white vapours. It is called radical 
 vinegar, or fometlmes fpirit of Venus, and has a very 
 pungent fmell, almoft as fuffbcating as that of volatile 
 fulphureous acid. As the laft portions of it adhere 
 pretty ftrongly to the metal, we are obliged to raifc 
 the heat to fuch a degree as to make the retort quite 
 red, in order perfectly to feparate them. Hence fome 
 part of the metal is raifed along with the acid, which, 
 diflblving in the receiver, gives the liquor a greenifli. 
 colour ; but from this it may be eafily freed by a fe- 
 cond diftillation, when it rifes with a very gentle heat^ 
 3, ^nd: 
 
592 
 
 Acetous A 
 cid. 
 
 Of its cry- 
 
 ilallization. 
 
 T5a8 
 
 Difference 
 between ra- 
 dical vine- 
 gar aiul 
 common a- 
 cctouii acid 
 
 CHE M I 
 
 ■and becomes cxlr; incl\- white. Cryftals of vcrtlegris 
 afford about one r.alf their weight of radical vinegar ; 
 but verdegris ili .If much Icfs, and of a more oily qua- 
 lity. 
 
 If this acid be heated in a wide-mouthed pan, ami 
 fire applied to it, it will burn entirely away like fpirit 
 of wine. This obfervation we owe to the count de 
 Lauragais, who has likewife obferved, that it is capa- 
 ble of cryftallization. This, how^evcr, takes place only 
 ■with the laft portions which come over, and the cryltals 
 appear in the form of plates or needles. The mar- 
 quis de Courtrivon, who has repeated and confirmed 
 the experin\ent of the count de Lauragais,. fujjpofes 
 this phenomenon to be owing to a fulphiu-like mixture 
 of acetous acid and pldoglfton. Leonhardi fuppofes 
 an analogy between thefe cryftals and the white fait of 
 ■copper expelled at the end of the operation by the 
 count de LafTone. Tliis fait was at firft very white, 
 and fixed on the neck of the retort pretty thick ; but 
 imlefs quickly collected, was foon deftroyed by the 
 lucceeding vapours. When expofed to the air, it 
 attra£ls moifture, and runs into a greenifh liquid. 
 It is uncommonly light, and in fuch fmall quantity, 
 that fcarce five or fix grains can be collecled from a 
 pound of verdegris. Its tafte is acid^ auftere, very un- 
 pleafant, and permanent. It readily and totally dif- 
 lolves in water, and partially in fpirit of wine, leaving 
 a yellow powder totally foluble in volatile alkali, and 
 which burns with a green fiame. From this fait, vola- 
 tile alkali acquires a blue colour, and. litmus a red 
 one ; and thus it difcovers itfelf to be compofed of 
 acetous acid and copper. 
 
 Experience has (hown that radical vinegar differs 
 confiderably in its properties from the common acid. 
 It has a greater attraction for alkalies, forms with 
 them more pcrfetl combinations, and is lefs volatile. 
 M. BerthoUct obferves, that when vinegar concei*.ra- 
 ted by froll and radical vinegar, are reduced to equal 
 denfitieSjby adding water to the heavier of the two, they 
 differ very much both in fmell and talle. LafTone 
 found, that radical vinegar formed a cryflallizable 
 compound with volatile alkali ; and Berthollet has ob- 
 ferved the fame with regard to fixed vegetable alkali. 
 The cryftals of the latter with radical vinegar were 
 flat, tranfparent, and flexible, flowly deliquefeent in the" 
 air. On comparing the falts formed by the two acids, 
 he found, that the acetous fait rendered the fyrup of 
 violets green ; but its colour remained unaltered with 
 that made with radical vinegar. The latter alfo re- 
 quired a ftronger fire to expel part of its acid; it was 
 alfo whiter, and had a lefs acid taile. On pouring 
 radical vinegar on the acetous fait, the folution afford- 
 ed, by evaporation and cryftallization, a fait perfeAIy 
 fimilar to that procured direftly from radical vinegar 
 and fixed alkali. On diltilling the mixture, the radi- 
 cal vinegar appeared to have expelled the common a- 
 cetous acid, as the liquor which came over eflervefced 
 with vegetable alkali, and formed with it a terra foli- 
 ata tartan. 
 
 ** It feems probable (fays Mr Keir), that the radi- 
 cal vinegar contains a larger portion of the aerial prin- 
 ciple than the common acetous acid ; by which it un- 
 dergoes a change fimilar to that of marine acid, when 
 brought into that ftate in which it is faid tc be de- 
 
 cid. 
 
 S T R y. Praaice. 
 
 phlogifticated. This air it may acquire from the me- '^cerous A- 
 tallic calx, which being deprived of its air is reduced 
 to its metallic flate. Thofe who believe in the phlo- 
 gifton of metals, may fay that the acid is dcphlogifti- 
 cated by imparting its phlogifton to the metal, which 
 is thereby metallized. It appears, however, to be very 
 diftinft from common acetous acid, and deferves to 
 have its properties and compounds farther invelliga- 
 ted." 
 
 Concentrated acetous acid, of a great degree of How to 
 ftrength, may alfo be obtained by diftilling terra foha- obtain it 
 ta tartari with vitrioHc acid ; brit Leonhardi obferves, P"'"'' f*"' "* 
 that the acid thus obtained is always more or lefs con- "^"'^ fohi.vA 
 taminated with the volatile acid of fulphur. He ob- '■^'■'^"* 
 ferves alfo, that the method propofed of feparating 
 the fulphureous acid by a fecond diflillation firom fait 
 of tartar is not effeftual, becaufe the fulphureous acid 
 has lefs attraction for alkalies than the acetous. Wef- 
 tendorff recommends the neutral fait formed by ace- 
 tous acid and mineral alkali, inilead of the terra folia- 
 ta tartari. Thus, in the firft place, we readily obtain 
 cryftals free from the inflammable matter of the vine- 
 gar ; and, in confequence of this, though we diftil it 
 afterwards with concenti-ated oil of vitriol, no fulphu- 
 reous taint < a,i be produced. Even fuppoiing this to 
 be tlie cafe (he fays), it may be removed by a fecond 
 diftillation from fome .'uueral alkali. Mr Kcir, how- 
 ever, obferves, tliat " probably all the acids diftilled 
 from acetous falts by means of the vitriolic, partake 
 of the property of tliat procured by diftilling cryftals 
 of verdegris ; and none of them can compare with 
 that from which Mr I^ouitz obtained acetous ether 
 without addition, as a pure concentrated ana unalter- 
 ed vinegar." 
 
 XIV. JciD of Bf.nzois: 
 
 The properties of this acid have been inveftigated by j\i Y.xh- 
 M. Lichtenftein, and are as follow, i. Expofed to teniieif 's 
 the heat of a candle in a filver fpbon, it melts as clear acciMint of 
 as water, without burning, though it is deftroyed by '^^^''^i*^'^' 
 contaft of flame. 2. When thrown upon coals, it eva- 
 porates, without refiduum, in a thick white fmoke. 
 ■3. It is not volatile without a confiderable degree of 
 heat. 4. By very flow cooling its aqueous fohition 
 yields large cryftals, long, thin, and of a feathery 
 fhape. 5. It is foluble in the concentrated acids of 
 nitre and vitriol, but feparates from them, without de- 
 compofition, on the addition of water. 6. By the 
 other acidd it cannot be diffolved without heat, and 
 feparates from them alfo without any change, merely 
 by cooling. 7. It is copioufly diffolved by fpirit of 
 wine, and precipitated from it on the addition of wa- 
 ter. 8. W ith alkalies it forms neutral falts, very fo- 
 luble in \\ ater, and of a fharp faline talle. With ve- 
 getable alkali it forms cryftals of a pointed feathery- 
 form ; with mineral alkali it yields larger cryftals, 
 which fall into powder on being expofed to, the air; 
 and with volatile alkali it is difficultly cryftallizable in- 
 to fmall, feathery, and deliquefeent cryftals. It is fe- 
 parable from alkalies by the mineral acids. 9. With 
 calcareous 'earth it forms white, fliining, and pointed 
 cryftals, not eafily foluble, and which have a fweetifla 
 taile without any pungency. 10. With magnefia 
 
 it 
 
Pra<5lice. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 153 1 
 
 Effeds of^ 
 nitrous acid 
 v\^on it. 
 
 AcettHis A- fmafl feathery cryflals are formed, of a fliarp (zVine 
 tafte, and eafily foluble in water. 11. An aftringent 
 fait is foi-med with earth of alum. 
 
 AH thefe earthy falts are eafily decompofed by tli€ 
 mineral acids ss well as by alkalies. The acid of ben- 
 zoin itfelf reddens litmus, but has little efFeft upon fy- 
 rup of violets. 
 
 MefTrs. Hermbftadt and Lichtenftein have both tried 
 the effedls of nitrous acid upon thit of benzoin. In 
 this operation, however, a great obftacle arofe from 
 the volatility of the acid of benzoin, which prevent- 
 ed it from bearing any confxderable heat without paf- 
 fing over into the receiver. By i-epeated diftillations, 
 however, the acid of benzoin, diminiflied in its vola- 
 tility, affumed a darker colour, and acquired a bitter- 
 ifh tafte. A coal was alfo left at the bottom ; and, at 
 the end of the third operation,- when the nitrous acid 
 had been all drawn off, M. Hermbftadt obferved, that 
 fome brown drops came over which had the appear- 
 ance of a dark-coloxnred tranfparent oil, foluble in di- 
 ftilled water, emitting acrid fumes, and having a very 
 cauftic tafte. On diftilling this acid liquor a fecond 
 time, a yellow faline mafs was obtained, which, when 
 diffolved in diftilled water, formed a fluid acid, which 
 precipitated a folution of fugar of lead and lime-water. 
 On examining the charred refiduum left in the retort, 
 he obferved, that, after calcination, fome of the earth 
 had been vitrified, while another was of a foft ceniift- 
 cnce, and had acquired a cauftic tafte. From a mix- 
 ture of the above-mentioned dark-brown acid and fpi- 
 rlt of wine, he obtained an ether, which differed from 
 the nitrous in being much lefs volatile, and fmelling like 
 bitter almonds. 
 
 From this refiduum Mr Lichtenftein obtained a re- 
 fmous fubftance, to which he afcribes the volatility of 
 the acid of benzoin, as well as the fmell of bitter al- 
 monds already mentioned. 
 
 Scheele failed in his attempt to obtain ether from 
 flowers of benzoin and fpint of wine ; but, by adding 
 ii little fpirit of fait, he obtained a kind of ether which 
 fell to the bottom. On diffolving this in alkalized 
 fpirit of wine, and drawing off the latter by diftilla- 
 tion, he obtained from it a quantity of flowers of ben- 
 zoin. From Peruvian balfani alfo Lehman obtained a 
 quantity of the acid of benzoI:i. It may alfo be pro- 
 cured from urine, either by precipitation, fi-om the 
 faponaceous extrad (a), or by repeatedly diftilling 
 vian balfani fro"! it fpirit of nitre, as in the preparation of acid 
 •«nd urine, of fugar. In the urine it is found combined with 
 volatile alkali, by which it becomes foluble in fpirit of 
 wine. 
 
 "XV. Sebaceous Acib. 
 
 This is And to have been firft difcovered by Mr 
 Gruitzm?.cker, who publiflied an account of it in 
 1748. It was afterwards more accurately trctated of 
 "by Mr Rhades in 1753. Its properties were invefti- 
 gated hy Meffrs Segner and .Knappe in 1 754 ; and 
 .afterwards more fuUy'by Dr Crell, =of whofe difcove- 
 ries an account is given in the Philofophical Tranf- 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 S T U Y. 
 
 aftions for 1780 and. 1782. 
 
 15 3 i 
 Acia of 
 benzoin 
 
 595 
 
 It is found not oiily in Sebaceous 
 the fat of all animals, but in fpermaceti, the butter 
 of cocoa, and probably in other vegetable oils. In fe- 
 veral refpecls it feems analogous to the marine acid; ^^^-"^ -^33 
 but in others it is remarkably different, particularly ^^jj^^'p^^py. 
 in precipitating a folution of corrofivo fublimate. It rable from 
 is probable, however, that its principles are the fame various 
 with thofe contained in all other vegetable and ani-^'^'^^^""'' 
 mal acids ; and this opinion is fupported by what hap- 
 pens on treating tallow in the ufual manner for ob^ 
 talning acid of fugar ; for thus, not the febaceous, but »5j4 
 the faccharine acid is found to be produced, it has aj^j^jj^yj 
 very great ftrength of attraftion, and by means of heat p.j^yei. <jf 
 decompounds even the vitriolic falts themfelves ; but in attrad:ion. 
 the moift way is expelled by the three mineral acids, 
 though it expels all the vegetable ones, as well as 
 thofe of fluor and arfenic. Its moil; remarkable pro- ^535 
 perty is its effedl on tin. The filings of this metal, ^^^^j"'^^^^'^^ 
 efpecially with the affiftance of heat, are corroded by^n tin. 
 it into a yellow powder, and at the fame time give 
 out a very fetid fmell. The folution, though filtered, 
 ftill continues turbid, and depofits more yellow pow- 
 der, acquiring at the fame time a fine rofe-red co- 
 lour. By adding water to this yellow powder, a 
 white deliquefcent fait may be obtained, and a fimi- 
 lar one obtained by diffolving a yellow powder pre- 
 cipitated by this acid from folution of tin in aqua 
 regla. ^ j^.r, 
 
 It corrodes lead rather than diffolvesit; but dlffolves Its effsd* 
 a confiderable quantity of minium, and chansres the 
 reft to a white powder. This folution is fweetifli, and 
 is not precipitated by common fait. The metal is 
 precipitated by febaceous acid from the nitrous, in 
 white needle-like cryftals, eafily foluble in water. A 
 like precipitation takes place in folution of fugar of 
 lead ; but the precipitate is ftlll foluble in ttrong vine- 
 gar, provided it be not adulterated with oil of vitriol. 
 In its eleftive attractions it agrees with the acids of 
 apples and of fluor, preferring magnefia to fixed al- 
 kali. 
 
 XVI. ^ciD of Galls. 
 
 Though it has for a long time been known that 
 the infufion of galls has the property of reddening ve- 
 getable juices, diffolving iron, and decompofing liver 
 of fulphur, thefe effefts were generally afcribed to its 
 aftringency. -Of late, however, it has been found, 
 that befidcs this aftringent principle a trne acid exifts 
 in galls ; and to this, rather than to the aftringent 
 principle, are we to afcribe the properties of galla in 
 llriking a black with folution of vitriol, &c. 1537 
 
 To feparate the acid from the other matters con- ^le^*^""^ of 
 tained in the galls, we muft add fixed alkali to a de- [jj*"*,^"^ 
 coftion of them ; by which means the aftringent mat- 
 ter will be thrown down, and the acid remain in the 
 liquor joined to the alkali. The precipitate, wafhed 
 with clean water, dried, and rediffolved, blackened a 
 folution of vitriol but faintly, and no more than what 
 may be fuppofed to proceed from fome remaining acid, 
 which could not be abftrafted. This is proved by di- 
 4 ^ ftilling 
 
 fubftance*. ' 
 
 (a) By this is meant urine evaporated to a thick confifterice, and "deprived of mdft of its falts by folution in 
 fpirit of wl»c. 
 
594 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Acid of 
 Galls. 
 
 An acid 
 obtained 
 fioni sralb 
 by diftilla- 
 tion. 
 
 1539 
 
 Proiiei:ties 
 
 of this acid 
 
 1540 
 Mr Keir's 
 «bje<5tioiis 
 to the opi- 
 nions on 
 tliis fubjedt 
 
 ftUlIng the aftrlngent matter in qucftion, when an acid 
 liquor comes over, which has the property of blacken- 
 ing fohition of vitriol. Scheele has obferved, that 
 when galls in fub [lance are expofed to diftillation, an 
 acid liquor rifes of an agreeable fmell, without oil, 
 and afterwards a kind of volatile^ fait, which is the 
 true acid of the galb. Hence he infers, that this fait 
 is contained ready formed in the galls thcmfelves ; but 
 fo much involved in fome gummy or other matter, 
 that it cannot be eafily obtained feparately. 
 
 The acid of galls is capable of being fcparated by 
 cryftalhzation. In an infufion made with cold water, 
 Scheele obfetved a fediment which appeared to have a 
 cryrtaUine form, and which was acid to the talle, and 
 had the property of blackening folution of vitriol. 
 By expofing the infufion for a long time to the air, 
 and removing from time to time the mouldy fkin which 
 grew upon it, a large quantity of fedlment was form- 
 ed. On redlffolving this in warm water, filtering and 
 evaporating it very flowly, an acid fait was obtained 
 in fmall cryftals hke fand, which had the following 
 properties: i. It tailed acid, effervefced with chalk, 
 and reddened litmus. 2. Three parts of boiling wa- 
 ter dilfolved two of the fait ; but 24 parts of cold 
 water were required to diflblve one. 3. It is like wife fo- 
 luble in fpirit of wine ; four parts of which are re- 
 quired to diffolve one of the fait when cold, but only 
 an equal quantity when affilled by a boihng heat. 
 
 4. The fait is deftruftlble by an open fire, melts and 
 burns with a pkafant fmell, leaving behind a hard in- 
 foluble coal, which does not eafily burn to adies. 
 
 5. By diftillation an acid water is firft. obtained with- 
 out any oil ; then a fubliraate, which remains fluid 
 while the neck of the retort is hot, and then cryftal- 
 lizes. This fublimate has the tafte and fmell of flowers 
 of benzoin ; is foluble in water and in fpirit of wine ; 
 reddens htmus ; and precipitates metallic folutions of 
 the following colours, viz. gold of a dark brown ; fil- 
 ver of a grey colour ; copper of a brown ; iron of a 
 black ; lead of a white colour ; mercury of an orange ; 
 bifmuth, lemon-coloured. The acid of molybda:na be- 
 came yellow coloured, but no precipitate enfued. So- 
 lutions of various kinds of earths were not altered ; 
 but lime-water afforded a copious grey-coloured pre- 
 cipitate. 6. By treating this acid with that of nitre, 
 in the manner dlreflrd for producing acid of fugar, it 
 wa3 changed into the latter. 
 
 XVri. loEffTiTY of the Vegetable Acws. 
 
 On the proofs o£ the identity of the vegetable acids 
 with one another, Mr Keir makes the following re- 
 marks : " The experiments and obfervations which 
 have been nude, prove evidently a ftrong analogy be- 
 tween the acetous acid, fpirit of -.vioe, tartar, and acid 
 of fugar J and they feem to fhow the exillence of a 
 common principle or bafis in all of them, modified 
 either by the addition of another principle not com- 
 mon to all of them, or by different proportions of the 
 fame principle. None of the opinions on this fub- 
 jeft, however, are quite fatisfadlory. The produdlion 
 of the acetous acid by treating fpirit of wine with 
 other acids, does not prove that the acetous acid was 
 contained in the fpirit of wine, but only in concur- 
 rence with them, that they contain fome common prin- 
 
 1473-564 
 1047.6018 
 
 78 
 182 
 
 340 
 
 726.9402" 
 
 ciple. There is no faA adduced to fapporl Morveau's Identity of 
 opinion, that fixed air is abforbed during the acetous l^j^j^^'*^' 
 fermentation ; or that the prefence of this fixed air is ^.j^^^ 
 necefTary. The decompofition of all vegetable acldj .j 
 by heat, and the produclion therefrom of fixed and 
 inflammable gafes, fliow that thefe acids contain fome 
 of the fame principles as thefc elalllc fluids, but do 
 not prove that the gafes exilled in the fluids. We 
 have good reafon to believe that acetous acid does not 
 contain any fixed air ready formed ; for it yields none 
 \Then vitriolic acid is added to it, or to foliated earth ; 
 neverthelefs, my opinion that vegetable and animal 
 acids are, by heat, in a great meafure convertible into 
 fixed air, feems to be fufficiently proved by experi- 
 ments. Thus Hales has Ihown the great quantities of j^^^ 
 this gas whidh tartar yields on diftillation. Berthollet Quaiitities 
 has obtained the fixed and inflammable gafes from fo- i>f the diffi- 
 liated earth ; and Dr Higgins has verified this ^^P'^^^-i^^"'^^"^'^,. 
 ment, and deduced the quantities. From 7680 grains j^jjjg^jfYy^^^ 
 of foliated earth, the Dodlor obtained foliated 
 
 Cauftic alkali - 3862-994 grains, earci 
 
 Fixed air 
 
 Inflammable air 
 
 Oily matter retained in the re- 
 fiduura. 
 
 Oil - - 
 
 Water condenfed 
 
 Deficiency attributed chiefly to 
 water - - 
 
 As fixed and inflammable gafes may be obtained 
 from every vegetable fubfl;ance by fire, nothing can be 
 inferred from thefe experiments to, explain particularly 
 the nature of the acetous acid, excepting that it con- 
 tains fome of the inflammable matter common to the 
 vegetable kingdom, and efpecially of the matter com- 
 mon to vegetable acids; all which alfo, when analyfcd, 
 furnilh large quantities of thefe two gafes. 
 
 " Although we are far (adds our author) from the 
 knowledge requifite to give a complete theory of the 
 acetous fermentation, yet it may be ufeful to explain 
 the ideas that appear mod probable. In all the in- 
 liances that we know of the formation of acids, whe- 
 ther effefted by combuftion, as the acids of fulphur and 
 phofphorus, or by repeated abft;ra6Hons of nitrous acid, 
 as in the procefs for making acid of fugar, a very fen 
 fible quantity of pure air is abforbed. In the cafe o 
 
 combuiUon we know, from the weight acquired, that 
 , , , - ' . r • ° J • ..1 formation 
 
 there is a great abforption of air and in the latter ^jj ^^^^^ 
 
 cafe, of acids being produced by application of nitrous 
 ax;id, as this acid confiils of nitrous acid and pure air 
 and as in thefe operations a quantity of the nitrous gas 
 is expelled, there feems little doubt but that there aUb 
 the pure air of the nitrous acid is united with the fub- 
 fl^ance employed in the formation of the new acid. 
 Hence, from all that we know, the abforption of air takes 
 place in all acidifying proceflis. But it alfo aftually 
 takes place in the acetous fermentation, as has been 
 obferved, particularly by the Abbe Rozler ; and it is 
 generally known, that air is neceflary to the forma- 
 tion of vinegar. The next queftion is, What is the 
 bafis ? And from the experiments already related, . of 
 forming the acetous acid by means of fpirit of wine, 
 it feems probable, either that this fpirit is the bafis of 
 the acetous acid, or that it contains this bafis : and 
 from, the convertibility of the acids of tartar and of 
 
 fugar 
 
 «543 
 
 In the cafe of Air abforb- 
 
Praftice. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 tiie Vej^e- 
 cids. 
 
 '544 
 Inflam- 
 mable fpi- 
 rit produ- 
 ced from 
 
 Identity of fugar into the acetous acid by the proceffes- above de- 
 fcribed, it feems probable that thefe alfo contain the 
 fame common bafis ; which, being united with a de- 
 termined quantity of pure air, forms acid of tartar ; 
 with a larger quantity, acid of fugar j and with a ftill 
 larger, the acetous acid. 
 
 " An inflammable fpirit is faid to appear at the end 
 of the diftillation of radical vinegar from verdigris. 
 Now, if the ardent fpirit were contained in the verdi- 
 radical vi- gris, as it is more volatile than the acid, it ought to 
 aegar. come over firft ; but as it appears only towards the 
 end of the dilHUation, it feems to be formed during 
 the operation ; and I imagine, that the metal, when 
 almoft deprived of its acid, attrafts fome of the air of 
 the remaining acid ; and the part or bafis of the acid 
 thus deprived of its air becomes then an inflammable 
 fpirit, and in fome cafes an oil appears. But as the 
 quantity of acid thus decompofed is very fmall, and 
 little air of confequence remains united with the me- 
 tallic part of the verdigris, the copper appears rather 
 m a metallic than calciform fl;ate after the operation. 
 But zinc, during its folution in concentrated vinegar, 
 dec©mpofes the acid as it does the vitriolic and other 
 »545 ftrong acids, and accordingly inflammable vapours are 
 Sulphure- produced ; and what is remarkable, thefe vapous have 
 ous infiam- a fulphureous fmell. Iron always, during its folution 
 pmirs^pro- conccBtrated vinegar, produces an expulfion of in- 
 tluced from flammable vapours ; which, however, do not explode 
 it. like inflammable gas. 
 
 nf'h*^- V imagine that we arc yet able to ex- 
 
 fthuent*^"" P}^'" completely what paffes in the acetous fermenta- 
 partsof the^^''"> ^^^^^ the acetous acid is a compound of mere 
 ^r^tf.„o fm'ri'f ^nA ry,,r-^ o,V Befides this combination' of fpirit 
 
 acetous a- fpirit and pure air. 
 
 <^'d. and air, it is obferved, that a precipitation always takes 
 
 place before the fermentation is completed, of fome 
 mucilaginous matter, which difpofes the vinegar to 
 putrefy, and from which it therefore ought to be care- 
 fully feparated. Stahl affirms, that without a depo- 
 fition of fuch fediment, vinegar cannot be made from 
 fugar, wine, or other juice. Befides the matter that 
 is depofited, probably as much remains in the liquor 
 as can be diffolved therein ; for, by diftillation, much 
 ef a fimilar extractive matter is left in the retort. 
 What the nature of this matter is, and how it is form- 
 ed, has not yet been examined. Though diftillation 
 frees the acid from much of this extraftive fubftance, 
 yet we have no reafon to believe that we have ever ob- 
 tained it entirely free from inflammable matter; as 
 it retains it even when combined with alkalies and 
 with metals. When fugar of -lead and other acetous 
 falts are diftilled with a ftrong heat, the fubftances re- 
 maining in the retort have been obferved to poffefs the 
 properties of a pyrophorus ; and this will happen 
 whatever pains have been taken to purify the vinegar 
 employed. See the article Pyrophorus. This faft 
 fliows the exiftence of an inflammable matter in this 
 acid ; and which may perhaps be eficntial in its com- 
 pofition, and neceffary to its properties. Although 
 fermentation is the ufual mode of obtaining acetous 
 acid, yet it appears from the inftances obferved by 
 latter chcmifts, that it is not effential to its formation, 
 nicii pro- but that it is alfo formed in various chemical proceffes ; 
 <;flc3. and the acids obtained by diftillation from woeds, 
 wax, &c. are very analogous to vinegar. It appears 
 alio on treatingthe acid of fugar with nitrous acid, as has 
 
 I 
 
 .1547 
 It is lorna- 
 ed in va- 
 
 ritsus chc' 
 
 been obferved both by Weftrumb and Scheele. Tlie Addition- 
 latter further acquaints us, that he obtained it in ana- ^^ 
 lyfinga tallow hke oil, which remained undiffolved f 
 upon digefting ftarch in nitrous acid. As acid of fu- ^^"""^ 
 gar alfo may be obtained from a variety of animal fub- 
 ftances, and as this acid is convertible into the ace- 
 tous, we have ©ne reafon more added to many others, 
 to prove that the matters of vegetable and animal fub- 
 ftances are not capable of any chemical diftinftion." 
 
 XVIII. Jddition to Se(ft. I. f 20. concerning the Volatility 
 of a Mixture of Mar we and Nitrous Acids. 
 This is much lefs fenfible when the acids are weak 
 than when they are concentrated. On mixing the ,,48 
 two when moderately fmoking, and which had remain- How to de- 
 ed for a long time feparate without occafioning any P^Y*^ ^q^a- 
 difturbance, a vaftly fmoking aqua-regia has been pro-'''=f 
 duced, which would either drive out the ftopple, or 
 burft the bottle in warm weather. On diftilling a 
 pretty ftrong nitrous acid from fal ammoniac, M. 
 Beaume obferved, that the vapours which came over 
 were fo exceedingly elaftic, that notwithftanding every 
 precaution which could be taken in fuch a cafe, the 
 diftillation could not be continued. By letting this 
 efcape, however, Mr Cornette obferved, that the 
 diftillation of thefe two fubftances may be carried on 
 to the end without any inconvenience^ and the aqua- 
 regia will then be no longer troublefome. 
 
 XIX. Test for Acids and Alkjlies. 
 
 The general method recommended for difcovering 
 a fmall quantity of acid or alkah in any liquid, is by 
 trying it with any vegetable blue, fuch as fyrup of 
 violets ; when, if the acid prevails in the liquor, the 
 fyrup will acquire a red colour, more or lefs deep ac- 1^49 
 eording to the quantity of acid ; or if the alkali pre- Inaccuracy 
 vail, it will change the fyrup green in like proportion. ^'^^^^ "T™* 
 Since the late improvements in chemiftry, however, the ' 
 fyrup has been found deficient in accuracy, and the 
 infufion of turnfole, or of an artificial preparation 
 called litmus, have been fubftituted inftead of it. 
 The infufion of litmus is blue, and, like fyrup of vio- 
 lets, becomes red with acids. It is fo fenfible that it 
 will difcover one grain of oil of vitriol though mixed 
 with 100,000 of water. Unfortunately, however, this 
 infufion does not change its colour on mixture with al- 
 kalies ; it is therefore neceffary to mix it with juft as 
 much vinegar as will turn the infufion red, which will 
 then be reftored to its blue colourby being mixed with 
 any alkaline Hquor. The blue infufion of litmus is al- 
 fo a teft of the prefence of fixed air in water, with 
 which it turns red, as it does with other acids. 
 
 The great fenfibility of this teft would leave very 
 little reafon to fearch for any other, were it always an 
 exa6l teft of the point of faturation of acids and alka- 
 lies ; but, from the following faft, this appears to Mr 
 Watt to be dubious. A mixture of phlogifticated ni- 
 trous acid with an alkali will appear to be acid by the 
 teft of litmus, when other tefts, fuch as the infufion of 
 the petals of the fcarlet rofe, of the blu^ iris, of vio- 
 lets, and of other flowei-s, will fnow the fame liquor to 
 be alkaline, by turning green k> evidently as to leave 
 no room to doubt. 
 
 When Mr Watt made difcovery% the fcarlet! ro- 
 4 F 2 fes, 
 
596 
 
 Teft for A- 
 cids andAl 
 kalies. 
 
 T550 
 Red cab- 
 bage a«- 
 fwet s the 
 jiurpofe 
 
 1S5I 
 How to 
 prepare it 
 for ufe. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 fes, and feveral other flowers, whofe petals change their 
 colour by acids and alkalies, were in flower. Ha- 
 ving ft:ained paper with their juices, he found that it 
 was not affefted by the phlogifticated nitrous acid, ex- 
 cepting in fo far as it afted the part of a neutralizing 
 acid ; but he found alfo, that paper fl:ained in this 
 manner was much lefs eafily efi'edled than litmus was ; 
 and that, in a fliort time, it loft much of the fenflbi- 
 lity which it poflefled at firft ; and having occafion in 
 winter to repeat fome experiments in which the phlo- 
 gifticated nitrous acid was concerned, he found his 
 ftained paper almoft ufelefs. Searching, therefore, for 
 fome other vegetable which might ferve for a teft at 
 all feafons of the year, he found the red cabbage to 
 anfwer his purpofe better than any other; having 
 both more fenfibillty with regard to acids than Htmns, 
 being naturally blue, and turning green with alkalies, 
 and red with acids ; to all which is joined the advan- 
 tage of its being no farther affeftcd by the phlogiftica- 
 ted acid of nitre than as it afts as a real acid. 
 
 To prepare this teft, Mr Watt recommends to take 
 the freflieft leaves of the cabbage ; to cut out the 
 large ftems, and mince the thin parts of the leaves very 
 fmall ; then to digeft them in water at about the heat 
 of 120 degrees for a few hours, when they will yield a 
 blue liquor ; which, if ufed immediately as a teft, will 
 be found to poffefs great fenfibility : but as in this 
 ftate it is very apt to turn putrid, fome of the follov/- 
 ing methods muft be ufed for preferving it. 
 
 1. After having minced the leaves, ipread them on 
 paper, and dry them in a gentle heat ; when perfedly 
 dry, put them up in glafs bottles well corked ; and, 
 when you want to uie them, acidulate fome water 
 with vitriolic acid, and digeft or infufe the diy leaves 
 an it, until they give out their colour; then ftrain the 
 liquor through a cloth, and add to it a quantity of 
 fine whiting or chalk, ftirring it frequently, until it 
 becomes of a true blue colour, neither incl'ning to 
 green nor purple ; when yon perceive that it has ac- 
 quired this colour, filter it immediately ; otherwife it 
 will become greenifh by ftanding longer on the whi- 
 ting. This liquor will depofit a fmall quantity of 
 gypfum, and, by the addition of a httle fpirit of wine, 
 will keep good for fome days ; but will then become 
 fomewhat putrid and reddifii. If too much fpirit is 
 added, it deftroys the colour. If the liquor is wanted 
 to keep longer, it may be neutralized by a fixed alka- 
 li inftead of chalk. 
 
 2. As thus the h'quor cannot be long preferved 
 without requiring to be neutralized afrefii juft before 
 it is ufed ; and as the putrid fermentation which it 
 undergoes, and perhaps the alkalies or fpirit of wine 
 mixed with it, feem to leflen its fenfibility ; in order 
 to preferve its virtues while kept in a liquid ftate, fome 
 frefli leaves of the cabbage, minced as above direded, 
 may be infuftd in a mixture of vitriolic acid and wa- 
 ter, of about the degree of acidity of vinegar ; and it 
 may be neutraKzed, as it is wanted, either by means 
 of chalk, or of the fixed or volatile alkali. It muft 
 be obferved, however, that, if the liquor has an ex- 
 cefs of alkalf, it will foon lofe its colour, and become 
 yellow ; from which ftate it cannot be reftored ; care 
 ftould therefore be taken to bring it very exadly to a 
 blue, and not to let it verge towards a green. 
 
 3. In this manner, Mr Watt prepared a red infufion 
 
 Aikali. 
 
 S T R Y. Praaice* 
 
 of violets; which, on being neutralized, formed a very Volatile 
 fenfible teft, though he did not know how long thefe 
 properties would be preferved ; but he is of opinion 
 that the coloured infufiofis of other vegetables may be 
 preferred in the fame manner by the antifeptic powep 
 of the vitrioHc acid, in fuch a manner as to lofe little 
 of their original fenfibihty. Paper frefli ftained with 
 thefe teds, in their neutral ftate, has fufficient fen* 
 fibility for many experiments; but the alum and glue 
 which enter Into the preparation of writing paper, 
 feem. In fome degree, to fix the colour ; and paper 
 which is not fized becomes fomewhat tranfparent 
 when wetted ; which renders fmall changes of colour 
 imperceptible. Where accuracy Is required, there- 
 fore, the teft fliould be ufed in a liquid ftate. 
 
 4. Our author has found that the infufion of red Various o- 
 cabbage, as well as of various flowers In water, a-therteft=. 
 cidulated by means of vitriolic acid, are apt to 
 turn mouldy in the fummer feafon, and llk^wife that 
 the moulding is prevented by an addition of fpirit of 
 wine. He has not been able to afcertain the quan- 
 tity of fpirit neccflary for this purpofe, but adds it by 
 little and little at a time until the proctfs of mould- 
 ing is ftopped. — Very fenfible tells are afl'orded by 
 the petals of the fcai let rofe, and of the pink coloured 
 lychnio treated in the above-mentioned manner. 
 
 »55a 
 
 155.1 
 
 XX. Volatile AiKAir. 
 
 Mr HtGGiNs claims the firft difcovery of the coji- 
 ftituent parts of volatile alkali, or at leaft of an expe- y_^j --j^ ^^j, 
 riment leading to It. "About the latter end ofj^-gij prepjl 
 March 1785 (fays he), I found that nitrous acid red from 
 poured on tin filings, and Immediately mixed with "ittous a- 
 fixed vegetable alkali, generated volatile alkali iiyCid and uo, 
 great abundance ; fo Angular a fa6t did not fail of 
 deeply imprefiing my mind, though at the time I could 
 not account for It. About a fortnight after, I men- 
 tioned the circumftance to Dr Brocklefljy. He told 
 me he was going to meet fome philofophical gentle- 
 men at Sir Jofeph Banks's, and defired I would ge- 
 nerate fome alkali to exhibit before them : according- 
 ly I did ; and had the pkafure of accompanying hittv, 
 thither. The December following I mcntion^^d the 
 faft to Dr Caulet, and llkewife the copious genera- 
 tion of volatile alkali from Pruflian blue, vegetable 
 alkah, and water ; on which we agreed to make a fet 
 of experiments upon the fubjed. At prefent I ftiail 
 only give an account of the following, which dreWr 
 our particular attention. Into a glafs cylinder, made- 
 for the purpofe, we charged three parts of alkaline 1555 
 air, and to this added one part of dephloglfticated air } ^^^^''^^^^j^ 
 we pafled the eleftrlcal fpark repeatedly In It, withrl^^.^^ 
 out apparently effeftlng the fmalleft change. Wlien 
 It had received about lOO ftrong fnocks, a fmall quan- 
 tity of moifture appeared on the fide& of the glafs, 
 and the brafs conduftors feemed te be corroded i.. 
 when we had pafled 60 ra,ore fliocks In it, the quan- 
 tity of moifture feemed tp inoreafe,, and acquire a 
 greenifli colour, though at this;time the column of air 
 fufl"ered np diminution. On examining the air, it 
 burned with a languid greenifh flame, from which we 
 Inferred that the dephloglfticated air was total^ coi»- 
 denfed: It ftill retained an alkaline fmeli; and the alka- 
 line part was not readily abforbed by wat^er. 
 
 " From 
 
 . on \: 
 
Pra(5licc. 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 ** From Mi Cavendifh's famous difcovery of the 
 conflitutent parts of \yater we could readily account 
 for the lofs of the depbloglfticatcd air in this exptri- 
 mcnt ; but the quantity of water was more than we 
 could expect from this : therefore water mxift have 
 been precipitated from the decompofed alkali ; for 
 volatile alkali, from its great attraflion to water, 
 muft keep fome in folution, even in its aeriform ftate. 
 From the above circumftances it might be expefted, 
 that a contra(Elion of the column of air fl^ould take 
 True com- place ; but it muft be confidered, that the union took 
 pofition of place gradually in proportion as the alkali was de- 
 volatiie al- compofed ; and tliat, in this cafe, the txpanfion muil; 
 
 equal the condenfation. During the fpring of 1786, 
 I had often an opportunity of mentioning different 
 h&.s to Dr Auftin relating to volatile alkali, who at 
 that time was too much engaged to pay attention 
 to the fubjeft. In the end of Auguft 1787, he 
 gave me an account of a fet of experiments which he- 
 had made, and which aclually proved, that volatile 
 alkali confuls of light inflammable and phlogifticated 
 airs ; not knowing at that time what MefTrs Houf- 
 man and Berthollet had done. Without depreciating 
 the merit of thefe two gcntl-emen, Dr Auftin has an 
 equal claim to the difcovery, laying afide priority ; as 
 his experiments are as decifive as theirs. Dr Pricftley 
 made the firft ilep towards our knowledge of volatile 
 alkali." 
 
 XXI. Prussian Blvp... 
 
 Th e acid of this fubftance, as far as it contains an 
 acid, is fuppofed to be that of phofphorus. Mr Woulfe 
 propofed a teft of this kind for difcovering iron in mi' 
 neral waters, which, he obferved, would not be affefted 
 155^7 acide ; but the lixivium defcribed by him had the 
 "Woulfe's bad property of letting fall the Pruflian bkie it copr 
 teft for mi- tains in a few weeks. The precipitate 'of copper, 
 tcrs'^ treated again with alkali, retained this pro- 
 
 perty upwards of nine months. The volatile alkali, 
 he obferves, is dilTolved by the Pruflian acid ; and tlie 
 cryflals depofited are rendered blue by the colouring 
 matter, though the colour at firft is loft by the union 
 of the alkali with the fabftanee already made. The 
 metals were precipitated by this teft of the following 
 xjjg colours : Gold of a brownifh yellow, the precipitate 
 EfFed of it afterwards becoming of a full yellow: platinaof a deep 
 on various blue, but when quite pure, of a yellow colour, turning 
 flightly green. Silver in the nitrous acid was preci- 
 pitated of a whitifii colour ; copper from all the dif- 
 ferent acids was precipitated of a deep broAvn colour, 
 the liquid remaining greenifh ; green vitriol let fall a 
 deep blue powder, leaving a colourlefs lixivium; fugar 
 of lead and muriated tin gave a white powder; nitra- 
 ted mercury a white or yellowifh precipitate ; the 
 Illfeld manganefe a brownifh, but that from Devon- 
 fhire a blue, whiyh firft became afh-coloured and 
 then reddifh. Nitiated bifmuth sfForded a white 
 precipitate, and the lixjivium was flightly green : mu- 
 riated antimony yielded a white precipitate, with 
 a yellowifh lixivium : vitriolatied zinc a whitrfh : co- 
 balt in aqua-regia a reddifli white powder : the pre- 
 cipitate of arfcnic and the different earths was com- 
 monly white- 
 
 5- 
 
 metallic fo 
 iuti'jns. 
 
 1 T R Y. 
 
 XXIII. NRir Chemical Nomenclaturbs. ^LTl no-' 
 I. Of that propofed in I'jS'j l>y Mefrs Morveau, Berthol-^^^^^f^' 
 let, Fourcroy, and Lavo'ifitr. ■ , - i * 
 
 When this nomenclative Avas firft publiflred, M. La- 
 voifier informs us, that fome blame was thrown upon 
 the authors for changing the language, wliich had re- 
 ceived the fauftion of their matters, and been adopted i559 
 by them. Inaniwer tothis,howcver,he urges, that Meflr&|^^^''&'"^*"'»^ 
 Bergman andMacquer had expreffed a wifh for fome re- Morveau- 
 formation in the chemical language. Mr Bergman had,, n this lub-.- 
 even written to M. Morveau on the fubjed in the fol- 
 lowing terms. " Show no favour to any improper 
 denomination : Thofe who are already poffeffcd of 
 knowledge, cannot be deprived of it by new terms ; 
 thofe who have their knowledge to acquire, v/ill be 
 enabled by your improvement on the language of the 
 fcience to acquire it fooner." 
 
 The following is M. Lavoifier's explanation of the 
 principles on which his new language is compofed. 
 " Acids confift of two fubftances, belonging to that ^^g^. 
 order which con^jjrehends fuch as appear to us 10 be Lavoiiier'a 
 fimple fubflances. The one of thefe is the principle exphnation; 
 of acidity, and common to all acids ; from it therefore °' '^"^ "^^^ 
 fhould the name of ths clafs and genus be borrowed : 
 The other, which is peculiar to each acid, and diftin- 
 guiflies them from one another, fhould fupply the fpe- 
 cific name. But in moft of the acids, the two coniti- 
 tuent principles, the acidifying and the acidified, may 
 exift in different proportion, forming different degrees 
 of equilibrium or faturation j this is obierved of the 
 fulphiaic and fulphurecus acid. Thefe two ftates of the 
 fame acid we have expreffed by- varying the termina- 
 tion of the fpeclfic name. 
 
 " Metallic fubftances, after being expofed to the 
 compound aftion of air and fire, lofe their metallic 
 luftre, gain an increafe of weight, and alfume an earthy 
 appearance. In this flate tliey are, like acids, com- 
 pound bodies, confifting of one principle common 
 to them all, and another peculiar to each of them. 
 We have therefore in like manner claffed-them under 
 a. generic name, derived from the principle which is 
 common to them aU, • The name Avhich we have adopt- 
 ed is Oxuk : The peculiar names of the metals from 
 which they are formed, ferre. to diftinguifli thcie 
 ' compounds from one another. 
 
 " Combuftlble fubftances, which, in.'acids and me- 
 tallic oxides, exift as fpecffic and peculiar principles,^ 
 are capable of becoming, in their turn, the common 
 principle of a great number of fubftances. Combina*- 
 tions of fulphur were long the only compounds of this 
 fort known : but of late the experiments of Meffrs 
 Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, have fhown that 
 coal combines with iron and perhaps with various o- 
 ther metak ; and that the refults of its combination ■ 
 with iron are, according to the proportions, fteel, plum- 
 bago, i!Sc. It is alfo known from the experiments of 
 M. Pelletier, that phofphorus combines with many 
 metallic fubftances. We have therefore arranged thefe 
 difl'ei-ent combinations together under generic names, 
 formed from the name of the common fubftance, with 
 a termination indicating this analogy ; and have dlC" 
 tinguiflied them from each other by fpeclfic names dep- 
 rived from the names of the pecuHar fubftances. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Pra(f^ice« 
 
 " It was found lomewhat more difliciilt to form a no- 
 menclature for the compounds of thofe three fimple 
 fubftances ; becaufe they are fo very numerous, and 
 fllU more, becaufe it is impoflible to exprefs the na- 
 ture of their conllituent principles, witkout ufmg more 
 compound names. In bodies belonging to this clafs, 
 fuch as neutral falts for inftance, we had to confider, i. 
 the acidifying principle common to them all; 2. the 
 acidifiable principle which peculiarizes the acid ; 3. 
 the faline, earthy, or metallic bafe, which determines 
 the particular fpecies of the fait. We have derived the 
 name of each clafs of falts from that of the acidifiable 
 principle, common to all the individuals of the clafs ; 
 and have then diftinguifhed each fpecies by the name 
 of the Jaime, earthy, or metallic bafe peculiar to it. 
 
 " As fait, confifting of any three principles, may, 
 Vv ithout lofing any of thefe principles, pafs through dif- 
 ferent ftates by the variation of their proportions; 
 6ur nomenclature would have been defeftive without 
 expreffions for thefe differeat ftates. We have expref- 
 fed them chiefly by a change of termination, making 
 all names of falts in the fame ftate to end with thte 
 ■fame termination.'* 
 
 2. Nomenclature by M. Wteglel. 
 
 Mr Wieg- In Wiegleb's General Syftem of Chemillry tranfla- 
 niencla " Hopfon, we have another nomenclature formed 
 
 ture ' different principles. In this he gives to fixed ve- 
 
 getable alkali the name of Spodium, from the Greek 
 word o-jraS®- ( ajhes ). The mineral alkali he calls natrmriy 
 the name by which it was anciently diftinguifhed ; and 
 the volatile alkali ammonium, from fal ammoniac which 
 contains it in great quantity. The compound falts 
 may be diftinguifhed into double, triple, and quadru- 
 ple ; though, in the fcheme given in the work, the firtt 
 divifion is omitted, as tending only to create confufion. 
 The irregular falts, confifting of thofe which are triple 
 and quadruple, are admitted. Such as are imperfeft 
 by reafon of an excefs of acid, he fays, are bcft deno- 
 minated by converting the adjedlive, expreffive of the 
 bafe, into a participle ; a praftice which, on many oc- 
 cafions, though countenancedby the authority of a late 
 eminent writer, feems aukw;ard and ftiff. The excefs 
 of acid is denominated by the word hypero-xys, and a 
 defe£l of it T>y hypoxys. Hence his denominations are * 
 formed in the following manner. 
 
 Salts with excefs of acid. Cream of tartar, or tarta- 
 rm fpodatus, or tartaroxys fpodicus. Acid vitriolated 
 tartar, or vitriolum fpfldatum, •vitrioloxys fpodicus. 
 The falts ivhich are imperfeft from a defeil of acid 
 
 have their denominations by mentioning the bafebefore New Che- 
 the acid, and expreffing the former fubftantively, the 
 latter adje<Slively. Thus, tures. 
 Salt of tartar, aerated vegetable C Oxyfpodium, ae- w-v— «-' 
 
 alkali, fpodium aerocraticum, rocraticum. 
 Aerated volatile alkali, ammoni- C Oxyammonium 
 acum aerocraticura, I aeiocraticum. 
 
 ^, , . C Oxycalcitis aero- 
 
 Chalk, or caix aerocratica^ j craticus. 
 
 1 . ? Oxynatrum bora- 
 Borax, or natrum boracicum, ■< ^ 
 
 ' ) cicum. 
 
 With refpeft to other terms, Mr Wiegleb expreffes 
 the acid with which any bafe is combined, by the ter- 
 mination cratia, from the Greek xpur®- {roburj, added 
 •to it ; excepting only thofe with the nitrous and mu- 
 riatic acids; and thefe (for what reafon does not ap- 
 pear) he calls ylponitra and Epimuria. His genera of 
 falts are as follow. 
 
 I. Vitriols -(Sulphurocratta J. 2. l^itr (Aponitra). 
 3.Murias {Epimuria). 4. Boraxes. 5. Fluoricrates- 
 ^. Arfenicrates. 7. Baryhthicrates, (thofe with acid 
 of tungften). 8. Molybdaenocrates. 9. Photocrates, 
 (with acid of phofphorus). 10. Eled^rocrates. ii.Oxy- 
 crates, (with the acetous acid) ; ot epoxy crates, (with the 
 aerated acid), i Z.Tartars ; or, with the acid changed by 
 fire, pyro-tartars. 13. Oxalidicrates. 1 4. Cecidocrates 
 (with acid of galls). ij.Citrlocrates. 1 6. Melierates 
 (with the acid of apples). ly.Benzicrates. iS.Xylo- 
 crates. i9.Gummicrates. zo.Camphoricrates. 21. Aero- 
 crates. 22. Galadlicrates. 23. Gala-melicrates (with 
 acid of fugar of milk). 24. Myrmecicrates. 25. Cy- 
 anocrates ( with the colouring matter of Prulllan blue) . 
 26. Steatocrates. 27. Bombycicrates. 28. Zoolitho- 
 crates, (.with acid of calculus). 
 
 On the fubjeft of nomenclatures it is obviows to 
 remark, that whatever may be the defefts of the old 
 one, we are ready to be involved in much greater dif- 
 ficulties by the introduction of a new one. Or fup- 
 pofing a new language to be adopted, where would 
 be the fecurity for its permanence ? That which ap- 
 pears moft fpecious at one period, may ftill be fu- 
 perfeded by the refinements of another; and colourable 
 pretenfions would never be wanting to fuccelfive inno- 
 vators. Hence a continual fluftuacion, and an endlefs 
 vocabidary. As the nomenclature firft above mention- 
 ed, however, has attrafted no fmall degree of attention, 
 we fhall here fubjoin a fcheme of it, as well for the fa- 
 tlsfaAion of our readers in general, as for the gratifi- 
 cation of thofe in particular who may have imbibed the 
 doctrines of its authors. 
 
 tFoUows, the Whok'Jhtet TabU.J 
 
A TABLE- 
 
 1 1 I T I N G TUP. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE 
 13^ morveau, Lavoisier, pertholi.et. De fourcroy. in my .7S7. 
 
Back of 
 Foldout 
 Not Imaged 
 
C 599 3 
 
 TABLE, fhowing the Manner in which Natural Bodies, confidered in a Chemical View, may he 
 divided into Clafles ; with their feveral Subdivifions j their Properties defined j and the Manner in 
 which they are obtained, pointed out. 
 
 NATURAL B 0 D I E Sy conftdered as the ObjeEls of Chemijlry^ may be divided into the foUowwg Cltifjes, viz, 
 I. Salts. 2. Earths. 3. Metals. 4. Inflammables. 5. Waters. 6. Airs. 
 
 I. 
 
 Italy, 
 It i3 
 
 I. SALTS. 
 
 These are foluble in water, fapid, and not inflammable. They are either Acids or Alkalies. 
 Acids are diftinguiflied by turning fyrup of violets red, or forming with alkalies neutral falts ; and are fuppofed to con- 
 lift of dephlogifticated air condenfed, as their acidifying principle. The different acids yet known are, 
 
 1. Vitriolic, fixed. The moft ponderous of all fluids next to liiercury, the moft fixed in the ;fire, and the' moft powerful as a 
 folvent ot all the acids. Obtained chiefly from fulphur by inflammation. 
 
 2. Vitriolic, volatile. Obtained alfo from fulphur by inflammation } air being admitted during the procefs. It a£ls lefs pow- 
 erfully as a folvent than when in its fixed Hate. 
 
 3. Nitrous, or Jquafortis : a volatile fluid, generally met with of a reddifh colour, and emitting noxious fumes, when in its con- 
 ecntrated ftate ; though this is found not to be efTential to it, but owing to a mixture of phlogiflon. In its pure itate it is al, 
 moft as colourlefs as water, and fmokes very little. It is next in ftrength to the vitrioHc acid, and obtained chiefly from nitre' 
 It confifts of deplJogiiticated and phlogifticated air condenfed, and may be obtained by taking the ekaric fpark for a loni 
 time in a mixture of thefe. By uniting with fome metals it appears to be converted into volatile alkali. 
 
 4. Muriatic, or fprit of fia-falt. A volatile fluid, generally of a fine yellow colour ; though this alfo is owing to the admix- 
 ture of foreign fubftances, generally of iron. Inferior in power to the former, and obtained from fea-falt. Naturally this acid 
 feems to be in an aerial ftate, but eafily contrafts an union with water. On mixture with manganefe, it is wholly converted into 
 a yellow, and almoft incondenfible vapour, called dephlogipcated fpirit of fait ; but which, on mixture with inflammable air re- 
 compofes the marine acid. * 
 
 5. Fluor acid. Obtained from a fpecies of fpar: has little acid power, but is remarkable for its property of corroding gkfs. 
 
 6. Acid of borax, or fedative fait. Obtained from borax in the form of fcaly cryftals ; found alfo naturally in fome waters iV 
 and in certain minerals in other countries, 
 
 7. Acetous acid. Obtained by allowing any fermentable liquor to proceed in the fermentation till paft the vinous ftate. 
 much lefs corrofive, and lefs powerful as a folvent, than the vitriolic, nitrous, or marine acids. 
 
 8. Acid of tartar. Procured from the hard fubftance called tartar, depofited on the fides of wine vefFels. 
 
 9. Acid affugar. Found naturally in the juice of forrel, and procured artificially by means of nitrous acid from fugar and a jrreat 
 variety of other fubftances. Affumes a dry form. ° 
 
 10. Acid of phofphorus. Obtained artificially from urine, and in large quantity from calcined bones ; found naturally in fome kinds 
 of lead-ore ; and in vaft quantities in Spain united with calcareous earth. Affumes a folid form, and melts into glafs. 
 
 Acid of ants. Procured from the animal from which it takes its name, by expreffion or diftiUatlon, in a fluid form," 
 Acid of amber. Obtained in a folld form from amber. 
 
 Acid of arfenic. Obtained from that fubftance by means of nitrous acid. Is extremely fixed in the fire. 
 Acid of molybdana. Procured from that fubftance by means of nitrous acid. Refembles a fine white earth. 
 Acid of lapis ponderofus, twigjlen, or ivolfram. Obtained as an acid, per fe, from this fubftance by f,Ir Scheel'e ; but its real aci- 
 dity is denied by other chemifts. Is in the form of a yellow powder. ' 
 
 1 6. Acid of milk. Obtained In a fluid form from that liquor.. 
 
 17. Acid of fugar of milk. Obtained In form of a white powder, by means of nitrous acid, from fugar of milk. 
 
 18. Lithifiac acid. Obtained In a folid form from human calculus, by means of nitrous acid. 
 
 19. Acid of benzoin. Obtained in a folid form from that gum by fublimatlon or lixiviatlon with quicklime. 
 
 20. Acid of lemons. Obtained from the juice of that fruit by cryftalllzation. 
 
 21. Sebaceous acid, or acid of fat. Obtained In a fluid ftate from fuet by diftHlation* 
 
 22. Acid of citrons. Obtained in a fluid from the juice of that and other fruits. 
 
 23. Acid of apples. Obtained in a fluid ftate from the juice of apples and other fruits. 
 
 24. Acid of forrel. Obtained In a fohd form from the juice of that plant the fame with acid of fugar. 
 
 IT. AtKALtm. Thefe turn fyrup of violets green, and with acids form neutral falts. They are, 
 
 1. Fixed vegetable, or Pot-ajh. Always obtained from the afhes of burnt vegetables. A dellqucfcent fait. 
 
 2. Fixed f affile. A fohd cryftalline fait, fometimes found native, as the natrum of Egypt; and fometimcs by burning fea.- 
 weed as kelp. ' 
 
 3. Volatik. ^ Obtained from fal ammoniac, from the foot of burning bodies, and from the putrefaftlve fermentation. It is- 
 naturally in the ftate of an inviilble and elaftic vapour, conftituting a fpecies of aerial fluid, and confifts of phlogifticated and' 
 
 inflammable air. 
 
 Acids, by their union with other bodies, form 
 
 Metallic Stilts. 
 Formed of an acid and metal. 
 The principal of thefe are 
 vitriols ; the others may be 
 
 II. 
 
 14. 
 15 
 
 Nevtral S.iirs. 
 Thefe are always compofed of 
 an acid and an alkali, and 
 are of many different kinds, 
 as may be feen iu. the fol- 
 lowing table. 
 
 Earthy Salts. 
 Compofed of an acid joined to 
 an earthy bafis, as alum and 
 gypfum. See the folovcing 
 itable. 
 
 feen in the following table. 
 
 Essential Salts. 
 Obtained from vegetables, and: 
 contain an acid joined with 
 the jin'ces of the plant in M 
 particular manner not to - be 
 imitated by art. To thefe be- 
 long fugar, manna, honey,, 
 a«d others of that fort. 
 
 II. EARTHS- 
 
5oo CHEMISTRY. Table. 
 
 11. EARTHS. 
 
 These are folid bodies, not foluble in water, nor inflammable ; and if fufed in the fire, never refmne their earthy form again, 
 hnt take that of glafs. They are divided into abforbmtf cryjlallhie^ and argillaceous. 
 
 I. Absorbf-N'T Earihs are capable of being united with acids, and are either calcareous, or not calcareous. 
 
 a, The calcareous abforbent earths are, 
 J. Jjmcjlcne, or marble. This is of infinite variety as to colour and texttire. Marble is the hardefl and fineft. Thofe kinds of 
 limeftone 'w'hich feel nnftuous to the touch, are generally impregnated with clay : thofe that feel gritty, or where the Hme 
 is hard and weighty, contain fand ; this is the beft for building ; the other for manure. 
 2. Chalk. A white, friable, foft fubitance. This is much more free of heterogeneous matters than any limeftone, and is eafily 
 
 calcined into quicklime. It is probably nothing elfe than lime-ftone fuddenly concreted without being cryftallized. 
 7,. Sea Jhells, ate hkewife a calcareous earth, and yield a very fine quickhme. Thefe are ufed in medicine. 
 
 4. Terra ponderofa. A fine white earth fometimes found combined with fixed air, but more commonly with the vitriolic acid i 
 and forming with it a very heavy compound named fpathim ponderofum. It is found in mines and veins of rocks. 
 
 h. The abforbent earths which cannot be reduced into quicklime are, 
 .1. Magnefia alba. A white earth, ufually found combined with the vitriohc acid, and forming bitter purging fait. It is likewufe 
 obtained from the mother-ley of nitre, the aflies of burnt vegetables, Cs'r. ^ 
 
 2. Earth of alum. A particular kind of abforbent eartli, found in many places mixed with fulphureous pyrites, as in Yorkfiiire,, 
 &c. Clay of any kind may by a particular procefs be converted into this earth. ' 
 
 3. Earth of animals. This is obtained by the calcination of animal fubltances, and by precipitation in the procefs for making 
 acid of milk. It can hardly be converted into glafs ; and is therefore ufed as a bafis for white enamels, &c. It is faid to confilt 
 of the phofphoric acid united to calcareous earth. 
 
 II Crvstalline or Vitrescent Earths, are hard, and ftrike fire with fteel ; may be calcined in the fire ; but are not foluble in acids. 
 
 Of this kind are, 
 
 ■t. Sand?inA Flint ; found plentifully ever)- where. With alkaline fubltances they are eafily changed into glafs ; and hence are 
 termed vitrefcent. 
 
 2. Precious Jones of all kinds are likewife referable to this clafs ; but they are of a much greater de^ee of hardnefs and tranf- 
 parency than the others. 
 
 in. Argillaceous Earths are diftinguifned by acquiring a very hard confiftence when formed into a pafte with water, and expofed 
 
 to a confiderable degree of heat ; not foluble in acids. They are, 
 
 1 . Common clay. It is of many different colours ; but chiefly red, yellow, or white. The pureft is that which burns white ia 
 
 2. ^ Medical boles. Thefe are of d ifFerent forts ; but are only a purer kind of clay, fometimes mixed with a Httle iron or other matters. 
 ?! Lapis nephriticus, or Jleatite. Thefe are indurated clays, found in various parts. They are at flrft foft, and readily cut ; but 
 
 turn extremely hard in the air. Many other varieties of thefe earths might be mentioned ; but as they do not difl"er in their 
 chemical properties fo much as in their external appearance, and being all mixed with one another, they more properly be- 
 long to the natural hifl.orian than the chemift. 
 
 III. METALLIC SUBSTANCES. 
 
 These are bodies of a hard and folid texture ; fufible in the fire, and refuming their proper form afterwards ; not mifcible witk 
 «vater, nor inflammable. They are divided into Metals and Semimetals. , ^ 
 
 I. Mf.tals are malleable ; and the fpecies are, 
 
 1, Gold. The moft ponderous and fixed in the fire of all bodies except platina, and the mofl; duftile of any. It has a yellow 
 * colour, and is more commonly found in its metallic ftate than any other metal. It has no proper ore ; but is found in 
 
 ores of filver, and almofl; all fands contain fome of it. 
 
 2. Siher is next to -gold in malleaibility and du£lllity ; but lefs fixed in the fire than either it or platina. It is fometinies 
 ' found in its native ftate ; but moft commonly in that of an ore with fulphur, fometimes with arfenic, and alTuming difl'erent 
 
 appearances. 
 
 t?. Platina. A white metal of a greater fpecific gravity than gold, and altogether as fixed m the fire ; the moft diiUcult to be 
 melted of all known fubftanc€s ; refifting the tefts which have ufually been applied for difcovering the purity of gold, fuppofed 
 from hence to be the Jmiris of the ancients. Found in South America. 
 
 4 Copper. Of a reddifh colour ^, hard and fonorous ; admits of being extended greatly under the hammer, either hot or cold. 
 Is difficult of fufion. It is generally found in the ftate of an ore with fulphur. There are a great variety of ores of it, ex- 
 tremely beautiful, blue, red, green, and yellow. 
 
 r Iron. A grey-coloured metal, extremely duAile when hot ; the lighteft of them all except tin. It is the only metal certainly 
 known to admit of being welded ; though platina is hkewife faid to poflefs fome fliare of this property. It is hkewife the 
 only one capable of being tempered by cooling. It is found almoft every where ; and its ores are infinitely various. 
 
 <). Tin. A white foft metal, the lightcl of the whole, and very duftile. The ores of it are generally arfenical, and affiimc a cry- 
 ' ftalline appeaiance ; their colour being rpoft ufually of a dark brown^ and fometimes very beautifid. 
 
Table. CHEMISTRY. 601 
 
 7. Leaf. A metal of a dull blulfh colour, exceedingly foft and malleable, and very weighty. Seldom found in Its metallic ftate. but 
 ufual y m an ore with fulphur or arfenic ; but feldona with fulphur alone. The principal ores of it are the ciiblc, called 
 and the glaliy, called Jpar. * ' 
 
 I. Mercury or quickfdver ; formerly accounted a femimetal, on account of its fluidity, but n6w reckoned amone the moft perfeft 
 metals. It is a white, opaque, metallic body ; fluid, except in a very intenfe degree of cold ; very heavy, and eafily volatilized 
 by heat, hometimes found in its fluid form, but ufually in a beautiful red ore with fulphur, called cinnabar. 
 
 ^ _ 11. S^MiMETALS are brittle, and do not ftretch under the hammer. They are, 
 
 1. Zinc. A b'luifli white fubfl;ance _of a fibroua texture, confiderably hard and fonorous, with a fmall degree of duaility • eafilv 
 fufed and volatilized. Its principal ore is lapis calaminaris. Z > / 
 
 2. Biftputh, or tin-glafs. A white, ponderous, hard, brittle, and fonorous body, of a plated texture ; eaflly fufed and vitrified. It 
 is only reduced to an ore by arfenic. Its appearance much the fame with regulus of antimony. 
 
 3. Antimony. A blackifli fubftance, of a fibrous needle-like texture ; hard, brittle, and of a confiderable weight ; not difficult of 
 fufion, and eafily convertible into glafs. Its only ore is with fulphur, which is the crude antimony. 
 
 4. Arfenic. A bright, fparkling, whitifli-coloured femimetal ; of a plated texture ; very brittle, and extremely volatile. It is ee- 
 neraUy found in the ores, of other metals. ° 
 
 5. Cobalt. A brittle femimetal fufible in a moderate heat, and eafily convertible into a beautiful blue o-lafs caUed fmalt. It is 
 always obtained from an arfenical ore, likewife called cobalt. ^ 
 
 §. Nickel. A reddilh white fubftance, of a clofe texture, and very bright ; eafily melted, but very diflicult to vitrify. 
 
 IV. INFLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES, 
 
 Are tbofe which continue to burn of themfelves when once fet on fire. They are divided into oils, fulphur or brimflone, alcshot 
 ®r ardent fpints, and charcoal. '' ' ^ j </. 
 
 I. Oils are thickifli, vifcous fluids, not mifcible with water. Divided into animal, vegetable, and fofik. 
 
 a, b. The animal and vegetable oils are, 
 
 1. Exprefed. Thefe are of a mild and bland tafte, inodorous, and not foluble in alcohol. They are obtained by expreffion as 
 oil of olives, rape-feed, almonds, &c. Animal fats are of the fame nature, as is alfo wax. ' r » 
 
 2. Ejfential Thefe are always obtained by diftillation, poffcfs the tafte and flavour of the fubjea from whence they are drawn 
 and are foluble in alcohol. Of this kind are oil of cloves, fpike, &c. The oil of ants is an example in the animal kingdom * 
 
 3. Empyreumdtic. Thefe are obtained by a confiderable degree of heat, and poflbfs an acrid tafte and burnt-like flavour oil* of 
 hartftiorn. They are foluble in fpirit of wine. * 
 
 r, Foffile oils. Thefe are found in the earth in their native ftate ; Tind are called, when pure, naphtha; which is of an acrid tafte 
 and extremely volatile, not mifcible with ala^rftol. A great many inflammable foffils contain this, as bitumens, pit-coal, &c. * 
 
 XL SuimvR or Brimstone. This is a dry friable fubftance, not mifcible with water. It is found in many mineral fubftances 
 metallic ores, &c. but is for the moft part met with in pyrites. Great quantities of it are found in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. ' 
 
 III. Alcohol or Ardent Spirits. This is a fluid of an acrid and volatile nature, mifcible with water ; obtained from fermented 
 vegetable juices by diftillation ; as from the juice of the grape, malt-liquors, rice, &c. 
 
 i V. Charcoal. The refiduum of moft inflammable matters after undergoing diftillation with a ftrong fire. A black fubftance 
 aded upon with difficulty by acids ; foluble in hepar-fulphuris, and entirely diffipable into inflammable air by a very violent 
 heat. Of great ufe as fuel, and eflentially neceflary in metallurgy and other arts. 
 
 V. W A T E R. 
 
 A colourlefs infipid fluid well known. It is either flmple or mineral. 
 
 I. Simple, or pure rain-ivater, as it is called, though the moft homogeneous fluid of this kind with which we are acquainted is not 
 perfeftly pure, but always contains a portion of mucilaginous matter, which can never be perfeftly feparated. It is fuppofed 
 to confift of dephlogifticated and inflammable air condenfed. ' ^ 
 
 II. ilf/jvss^z wa/frj are thefe fpring-waters impregnated with faline fubftances ; the diverfity of which is exceedlnp; ^reat • but 
 they all agree in having an acid joined with them. The moft common forts are impregnated with iron and fulphurf ' 
 
 yi. AIR. 
 
 An Invifible and permanently elaftic fluid, is of the following kinds : Dephlogijicated, phhgijlicated, fixed or Jixable, inflammahk 
 nitrous^ vitrtohc acid air, marine acid air, dephlogi/licated marine acid, alkaline air, hepatis air, atmofpherical air. ' 
 
 I. Dephlogi/licated. An elaftic fluid naturally extricated In the procefs of vegetation; artificially procured from nitre, minium 
 manganefe, water, &c. eminently capable of fupporting flame and animal life. One of the component parts of our atmofphere * 
 Vol. IV. Part IL 4 G / pj^j^^ 
 
CHEMISTRY. Table. 
 
 Phhiftkafc-{ rroduced In great quantities during the putrefaftive fermentation ; obtained alfo in the caltlnation of metals and 
 * other phlogiftic proceffes. Deftroys animal life, and extinguillies flame, but is veiy friendly to vegetation. Is another of the 
 component parts of our atmofphere. ^ „ . • , i r • -.nr • .1 n rn. c 
 
 Fixed or fixable Has its name from the property of adhering to certain bodies, and fixing itfelf m them. Conhtts oi de- 
 phlogilticated air united to charcoal. Is obtained by fermentation, and In all phlogittic proceffes. Maaifells the properties of 
 an acid : cxtlnguifiies flame, and deftroys animal life. ^ ^ . , n r u • .1 r i . r 11 
 
 InflammaLh Confifts wholly of charcoal and a little water rarefied by heat ; is remarkable for being the liglitelt of all gravi- 
 
 nrifl frnm nntrifl waters : artificiallv orocurcd from certain metallic folutions, 
 
 tatmg 
 by paiTn 
 to the 
 
 to the heat ol a burning lens in vacuo. j.l cALinguiuico nan..- i^iii^ic. x^. ^..^^v. ...... 
 
 deohloffift'cated air ; in which cafe It explodes violently, deftroys animal life, but is friendly to vegetation. , , 
 
 Nitrous Procured artificially in diffolving metallic or other fubltances in the nitrous acid. On mixture wiih dephlogiaicated 
 air both the fluids lofe their elafticity, and a fmall quantity of nitrous acid is produced. It inftantly kills animals, and exting-uiftcs 
 flame By -nnion with fome metals is converted into volatile alkali. In fome cafes it may be made to fuppoit flame, and evea 
 animal life. Its property of condenfing along with dephlogifticated air renders it a teft of the falubrlty of the atmofphere. 
 6 Vitriolic acid air. The fame with volatile or fulphureous vitriolic acid. . ^ _ „ 
 
 n Marine acid air. The fame with marine acid reduced into vapour, and deprived ol moft ot its water. , , . 
 
 8 Debhlo,inicated marine acid. Suppofed by fome to be the marine acid deprived of its phlogifton ; by others, to be the fame 
 acid with an addition of pure air. It deftroys many kinds of colours ; whitens linen, and with inflammable air regenerate* 
 
 common marine acid. , , . r 11 •<!• 1 t ' a t,i • 
 
 n Alhahie air The fame with pure volatile alkali ; is formed by an union of phlogifticated and inflammable air. ^ 
 10. BeJ>atlc air. Produced from the decompofition of liver of fulphur by acids, or in the common atmofphere. It 13 inflammable, 
 
 but does not burn with explofion. , , • , i-r 1 
 
 J I Jtwvperkal air. Compofed of dephlogifticated and phlogifticated air ; and thus fupports both animal life and vegetation. 
 
 TABLE fliowing the feveral Combinations that the simple chemical elementary bodies: 
 admit' of with one another; the Compound refivlting from that Mixture; and the Manner in 
 which the Union is effeded : With fome Account of the principal Ufes to which thele are ap- 
 plied in Arts or Manufactures. 
 
 N. B. This mark*, put above any word, denotes that there is fome difficulty in the procefs, or that 
 
 the union is not very complete. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 But thefe mlx- 
 
 VIT R 10 L I C JC I D may be combined with the folh'wlng Suhjlances, viz. 
 f Nitrous Acid. A mixture vv^hich readily inflames oils. By folution, generating heat, 
 "i Muriatic, Vegetable, and all other Acids yet known. By folution, generating heat 
 tures are applied to no particular ufe In medicine or arts. 
 
 c Fltrlolated tartar. By folution and cryftalllzation, or double ekaive attradion from a great 
 variety of bodies. . . 
 
 Vegetable.-! iV/Vr«w vltrlolatum. A vltrlolated tartar, obtained by diftlUing from nitre with the -ntriohc 
 
 acid. 1 t • J r • 
 
 Sal polychrefum. By deflagrating nitre with fulphur. There are many other kinds of vi- 
 trlolated tartar, known formerly by different names, and fuppofed to be poffeffed cf parti- 
 cular properties, but they are now neglefted- 
 FossiLE. Glauber's fab. By folution and cryftalllzation. Much ufed In medicine as a gentle purgatne. 
 i_VoLATiLE. Secret ammoniac. By folution. Formerly fuppofed a moft powerful menftruura for metals, &c 
 but without any juft foundation. , ., 
 
 fA corroded calx. By fimple corrofion. This when perfeftly edulcorated wath water is 
 found to bea true gypfum. 
 Seknltes. By precipitation from, a very dilute folution of chalk In the nitrous acid, hr means 
 of the vitriolic acid. 
 
 Terra pondtrofa. With this It unites In preference to alkalies, forming a very heavy and in- 
 
 foluble fubftance called fpathum ponderojum. 
 Gypfum or Parls-plajler. Often found in a native ftatc. May be_ artificially formed by preci- 
 I I pitating from a folution of chalk in a very concentrated nitrous acid. Ufed as a ce- 
 
 1 i ment; for taking Impreffions from medals, &c. 
 
 I ITalc, ajbejos, iffc. A native produftlon which cannot be perfeftly Imitated by art. Ufed for 
 
 holding objefts in microfcopes, making Incombuftible cloth, &c. 
 , or magnefta Glauber's fait. By folution r.nd cry ftailizatlon. ivludi ufed 
 
 CCalcareous 
 1 Earths. 
 
 Magnesia. Epfom 
 \^ the fame purpofcs as real Glauber's fait. 
 
 In medicine for 
 EARTHS. 
 
Table, 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 SEMIMETALS. i 
 
 «ILS. 
 
 i5ULPfIUR 
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 WATER. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTm. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 603 
 
 TEarth of Alum. ^lum. By folution, cryftallization, &c. Ufed by dyers as a preparatory for takino- on 
 j the colours, papermakcrs, goldfmiths. &c. 
 
 [ Earth of Animals, Osteocella, &c. By folution. The mixtures of thefe are not applied to any 
 I particular ufe. 
 
 . Clay* ^hm. By digefting pure clay for fome time in this acid, and expofing it for fom: time to the air, 
 j an alum is produced; and if the clay is precipitated from this aluminous concrete, it is found to be a pure 
 
 earth of alum, foluble in all acids. 
 (_Flint. a thickiih coagulum. By digefting the liquor filices in the vitriolic acid. 
 fGoLD*. Imperfeftly. By a particular procefs after being feparated from aqua-regia. 
 Silver*. By folution, after it has been precipitated from the nitrous acid by alkahes. The fumes which 
 
 arife in this folution are inflammable. 
 Copper. Blue vitriol. This is fometimes a native produftion, but in this way it is never pure. It is arti- 
 ficially prepared by folution in a very concentrated acid, and cr^-ftallizing it. 
 'Green vitriol or copperas. Obtained at large by particular procefs from pyrites ; or by folution, &c. in 
 a diluted acid. This is the bafis of all black dyes, ink, &c. as it itrikes a black colour with 
 Iron.-! vegetable aftringents. 
 
 Salt of fteel. By calcining the cryftals of green vitriol till they are converted into a white powder. 
 \Colcothar of vitriol. By continuing the calcination till it affumes a brown colour. 
 Lead S^^^"^"'" A folution In a boiling heat, but is again precipitated when cold. 
 
 * cAn Indiffoluble concrete. By precipitation from the nitrous aeid. 
 Tin. Jupiter corrofivus. By a boiling heat in a concentrated acid. 
 
 ^Ignis Geheme^ or infernalis of Paracelfus. By a boiling heat, and repeated codions with frefh 
 Mercury. \ acid when it is evaporated. 
 
 l^Turpeth mineral, ox mercuiius precipitatus flavus. By evaporating to drynefs, and then wafliing 
 with water. 
 
 f Antimony*. A metallic fait. By eledtive attraction from butter of antimony. 
 
 I Zinc. White vitriol. Often found in its native ftate. Artificially made by folution and cryftallization in a 
 diluted acid. Ufed by' painters for drying. 
 Bismuth. A corroded calx. By folution in a concentrated acid. 
 I Arsenic - - - By ditto. 
 
 LCoBALT. A rofe-coloUred mixture. By folution. If this is precipitated by a fixed alkali, and again dif- 
 
 folved, the liquor appears of a beautiful red. 
 fExPREssED. A blackifh gummy-like mafs. By folution, generating a confiderable heat. Natl 
 [ fuppofed to owe their origin to a mixture of this kind. 
 Essential. A dark-coloured rcfinous mafs. A great heat and violeflt efFervefcence being produced by this 
 mixture. Native refins fuppofed the fame. 
 I Empyreumatic. Little known. By folution. 
 LFossile. a fubftance refembling amber. By folution. 
 Here there is no proper union of fubftaTices ; but if fulphur is boiled in this acid, it becomes lefs inflammable and 
 more fixed than any oi'dinary fulphur. 
 
 f Vitriolic ether. By careful folution and diftillatioll, the ether being feparated by the addition of watef. 
 I Spiritus vitrioU dulcis. By Solution and diftlUation. 
 Oleum didce. By continuing the heat after the ether has arifen. 
 
 Okum anodynum minerale. By rediftlHIng the refiduum of the laft with alcohol. A medicine much cele- 
 I bratcd by Hoffman. 
 
 {.Sulphur. By pufliing the heat after the oil comes over. It Is to be obferved that this is produced in every 
 combination of this acid with inflammables or metals. 
 An acidulated water. Sometimes 
 ticular ufe. 
 
 N I T R 0 U S ACID may he combined ivith tlx following Sub/lances, viz. 
 Vitriolic, as above. 
 
 Muriatic. Aqua regia. By folution. This Is the only proper menftruum for gold ; and it is a folution of 
 
 tin in this menflruum which is the bafis of the fcarlet dye. 
 Vegetable, and all others. By ditto. Thefc compounds have no particular names, nor are applied to any 
 
 particular ufes in medicine or arts. 
 Vegetable. Common nitre. A native pi-oduftion. Made artificially by folution and cryftallization. 
 
 deflagrates with oily or metallic bodies, and Is the foundation of gun-powder. 
 FossiLE. Cubic nitre. By folution. 
 
 Volatile. Nitrous arriKojuac. By folution. This dllxers from all the other 
 foluble in alcohol. 
 
 CilCar^ous S-^^^'^Q^d}'^^^ '■''xIJ'^'^' " By ditto and cryftallization. 
 
 ' LBaldivin^s phofphorus. By ditto and evaporating to dr)'nefs. 
 
 By folution. The compounds have no names 
 
 tive gums are 
 
 though feldom, found Iflulng along with native fprings. Applied to no par- 
 
 Thi 
 
 ammonlacal falts, by being 
 
 C .... 
 
 ^ Earth of Alum, and all other ahforbent earths. 
 fj ^ remarkable properties hitherto difcovered. 
 
 Crystalline Earths*. 
 
 By folution after precipitation from the liquor fihces, 
 4 G 2 
 
 any 
 
 METALS. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 SEMIMETALS. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 OILS-. 
 
 ALCOHOL. 
 •WATER.. 
 
 ACIDS>. 
 
 ALKALIES. <[ 
 
 'Gold*. Slightly Impregnated. By a boiling heat in clofe veflels, after the ordniary method of fcparating filver 
 from gold by the nitrous acid. It fpontaneoully fublides in the air. 
 
 j AJltdd fohition. By folution. This when diluted with water ftains hair and bones black ; a».alfo 
 marble, agate, jafper, &c. of different colours. 
 Sal metallorum. By folution and cryftallization. 
 y Cathart'icum lunare, lunar cauji'ic^ or lapis infernalis. By infpifTating the folution to drynefs. 
 Copper. A green-coloured folution. By folution. 
 
 Iron. A greenirti folution, if a diluted acid is employed ; if otherwife, it is of a yellowlfh <jj»Iour : evaporated 
 to dtynefs, it dehquates in the air. 
 
 I A yellow folution. By diffolving in a diluted acid. If much water is added, the metal is pre- 
 Lead. -s cipitated. 
 
 (^Saturni fulm'inans. By infpiilating the folution. This explodes when put upon the fire with greater 
 force than nitre, and has been propofed to be ufed as an ingredient in gun-powder to augment its force. 
 Tin. a folution or corroded calx. By a careful folution without heat it remains fufpended ; if otherwife, 
 it falls down in form of a calx. This is commonly fuppofed to be the compofition ufed in dyeing fcarlet; 
 but by miftake : for it is a folution of tin in aqua-regia that communicates that fine colour to cochineal. 
 The fame folution is the bafis of the powder which tinges glafs of a ruby colour. It is the precipitate of 
 gold from aqua-regia by means of tin. 
 
 fA limpid folution, intenfely corrofive. By folution. 
 Red precipitate. By evaporating the folution to drynefs, and then calcining till it becomes red. 
 Mercurlus corrofivus fufus. By precipitating from the nitrous acid by fixed alkali. 
 I White precipitate - By ditto with the volatile alkali. 
 
 C A greenilh folution. By vfing a concentrated aclij. This might be applied in fome cafes in the 
 Bismuth. \ art of dyeing ; but is not yet come into general ufe. 
 
 ^ Magiftery of bifmuth. By precipitating from the folution by means of water. This has been em- 
 ployed as a cofmetic, but is inefficacious and unfafe. If mixed with pomatum, this ftains 
 hair of a dark colour without injuring it. 
 Zinc. A corroded folution. By the ordinary means. 
 
 fA coburlefs calx. By fimple corrofion. 
 Be%oardic mineral. By diftilling from butter of antimony, after having added the nitrous acid, 
 "1 Jlntimonium diaphoreticum. By adding nitre to crude antimony, and deflagrating. 
 \.Cerufa antimonii. By deflagrating regulus of antimony with nitre, 
 r A red liquor. By folution cither in its calcined or metallic ftate. 
 Cobalt. XRoJe-coloured cryftals. By adding muriatic acid, and allowing it to cryfl:anize. 
 
 C^Green fympathetic ink. By diffolving thefe cryfl;als in water. The folution is red when cold, and 
 green when warm ; when wrote with, it difappears when drj' ; but when held to the fire it 
 becomes green, and again difappears when cold. 
 Nickel. A green coloured liquor. By folution. 
 
 f Expressed. A thick bitumlngus-like fubfliance. Upon the mixture a confiderable degree of heat is genc- 
 [ rated, and fometimes, though very feldom, adlual flame is produced. 
 
 J Essential. Ditto. A more violent heat Is generated upon the mixture with thefe oils than any other, and 
 J with many of them an aftual flame Is produced. 
 
 j, Empyreumatic. This mixture has no name, nor Is it applied to any remarkable ufe in arts. 
 l^FossiLE. Ditto. 
 
 C Nitrous ether. By digefliing ; the ether arifing to the furface. 
 2_ Spiritus nitri dulcis. By digefting a Uttle, and then diiliUIng. 
 Acidulated water. By folution. 
 
 Tht MURIAT IC ACID may he combined with the folloauing Suljlancesy viz. 
 f Vitriolic, and Nitrous. As in the former part of this Table. 
 
 < Vegetable, and all others yet known. By folution: but as none of thefe mixtures are applied to any particu* 
 
 {_ lar purpofe, we take no notice of them. 
 
 ( Vegetable. Digejlive fait. By folution and cryftallization. 
 
 Common fait. Commonly obtained by evaporating fea-watei- to drynefs ; or artificially made by- 
 mixing the acid and alkali, and ciyftallizlng. 
 Sal gem. A native foffile fait,, found In. mines in Poland', Spain, Ss'c. of the fame nature as com- 
 mon fait, but more pure.. 
 
 Volatile. Common a7nmoniac.. Obtained at large by a particular procefs from foot. Artificially made by 
 mixing the acid and alkali, and cryflallizing. 
 
 i Liquid fhell. By folution. A fubfl:anee whofe effefts in medicine have been greatly extolledi 
 Calgareou s. J 01. calcis per deliquium. By evaporating liquid fhell to drynefs. It naturally dehquefces. 
 
 ) Fixed ammoniac. By folution and cryilaUizatlon. This fometimes appears luminous in. the. 
 dark when ftruck with a hammer. 
 Osteocella, Magnesia, and other abforbents. By foltttion ;. but the properties or ufes of thefe are not 
 known. 
 
 METALS^ 
 
 FOSSILE. 
 
6or 
 
 Table. CHEMISTRY. 
 
 f Gold*. A yellom>l'tquQr, By boHing a calx of gold (In whatever way obtained) in this acid. It does not 
 act upon It in its metallic llate. 
 
 ^ C^/wW/c//«//o«. By diffolvlng the ore of filver in this acid. It does not aft upon pure me* 
 biLVER*. ■< talhc filver. ^ ^ 
 
 C Luna cornea. By eleftive attraftion from the nitrous acid. 
 Platina*. Afluid folution. With difficulty efFeded, after having been precipitated from aqua regia 
 by alkalies. i t> 
 
 Copper. A green deliquef cent hiflammahh fait. By folution and infpiiTating to drynefs. 
 
 Iron. TinBura martis aurca. By folution. The iron is in fome meafure rendered volatile by this 
 operation. 
 
 METALS. ^ l^^^-o. 5 ^ ^'""^P^^ folution. By a boiling heat, and frequent cohobations with freib acid. 
 
 I Cornea Saturni. By precipitation from the nitrous acid. 
 Tin*. J ^^'■'^O'i^^ pow^^i"' By fimpie corrofion. 
 
 (_ Butter of tin. By diftilling from corrofive fublimate. 
 
 ' A colourlefs cryllaUine mafs, extremely acrid. By corrofion, employing the fumes of a very 
 concentrated aid. ^ 
 Mercur. corrofv. alius. By precipitation from the nitrous acid. 
 Mercury N<| Corrofive fublimate. By fubliming from fal ammoniac, common fait, or many other bodies. 
 1 Mercurius dulcls. By refubliming corrofive fubhmate with more quickfilver. 
 j Mercurial panacea. By fubliming corr, fub. nine times, and digeftln? for "fome time in fni- 
 l_ rit of wine. o & 
 
 r Bismuth*. A folution very flightly impregnated. By employing a very concentrated acid. 
 I Zinc.' A folution of a very flight yellow colour. 
 
 dPTVrmTTTATcj J^^^^^!^*- Butter of arfenlc. By diftiUing corrofive fublimate witli arfenic ; the arfenic uniting 'v^'ith tl«5 
 br^MlMil- 1 AL,b. 1 acid, and leavmg the mercury. ° 
 
 j Cobalt. reddifh folution. By the ordinary means. It becomes green by a gentle heat. 
 ^Nickel. A green folution. By the ordinary means. 
 OILS *. By folution. The union here is but Imperfeft, nor have they any particular name. 
 
 ;^<'/r/V«j/a& dulcls. By digeftion, and afterwards dllliUing. The acid here Is never totally dulci'ned. 
 WAiLiv. Acidulated nvater. Generating heat by mixture. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 EARTHS. 
 
 V I hi EGA R may be combined ivltJ) the folloivlng Subjances^ viz. 
 Vitriolic, Nitrous, and Muriatic, as in the above table. It llkewife unites with aU other acids, gene- 
 rating heat ; but the properties or ufes of thefe are not known. 
 
 {Vegetable. Regenerated tartar. By folution and cryftallizatlon. 
 FossiLE. Polychrejl of Rochelle. By dllto. 
 Volatile. Spirit us Minder erl. By folution. 
 t Calcareous Earths. Earthy falts. Not known In medicine or arts. 
 
 i Magnesia. _ Dr Black's purging fait. By folution. It unites with all the other abforbent earths ; but tile 
 properties of thefe mixts are unknown. 
 
 f^^^o'f'the^r?^'''' ^""^ cryftallizatlon ; or at large, by ftratifying copper plates with the huflcs. 
 
 , Iron. Sahnartls aperlens. By folution and cryftallizatlon. 
 
 j Lead. \ ^''''f- expofing, in certain circumftances, thin plates of lead to the fumes of vinejr-r. 
 1 ( bacckarum Saturnt. By folution and cryftallizatlon. 
 
 ^'"^ *io\2on P''°P'*"^y moh^^ ; but the acid is evidently Impregnated. By the ordinary means of 
 
 Mercury*. \ ^f'^'^ffijutlon. By employing a precipitate of mercury from the nitrous acid by alkalies. 
 I A red calx. By long digeftion with fluid mercury. 
 fZiNC, A colourlefs folution of a fweetifti tafte. By digefting for fome time 
 
 j Antim<.ny*. Vlmm benediSum. This is not a proper folution of the metal, but the acid is impregnated 
 <; with an emetic quality. * ° 
 
 I Arsenic. Vlnum arfenlcum. By ditto. A curious phofphoric liquor. 
 I Bismuth. An auftere ftyptic liquor. By ftrona coftion. 
 A T7?r^ir/-.T ^^'"^ imperfea, nor have any of them obtained particular names.. 
 
 Al^L-UilUi.. A mixture much ufed for anolntinji fpralns. Sec. 
 WATER. Acidulated 'water^ ^ ^ ' 
 
 METALS. 
 
 &EMIMETALS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 ACID QF^ TAR TAR may be combined iiAth the folloiulng Subjlances, v% 
 
 Vegetable. 
 ' FossiLE. 
 ^Volatile. 
 
 5 Cream of tartar with excefs of acid. 
 C Soluble tartar, when completely faturated. 
 Rochelle fait, 
 
 5 A fait very difficult of folution with excefs of acid: 
 vi^ beautiful aod foluble fait when perfectly faturated.. 
 
 1 
 
 EAJRXii 
 
6o6 
 
 EARTH. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 SEMIMETAL. 
 
 C -II E M I 1 
 
 Calcareous. An indiflbluble felenite. 
 
 (Copper. A fine green colour for painting. 
 
 I Iron. A green altringent liquid. Chalybeatcd tartar. 
 Regulus of Antimony. Emelicj^tartar. 
 
 T R Y, 
 
 Table. 
 
 alkall 
 
 J C ID OF URINE may hs combined tvith the jllloiving SulfuinccSy viz. 
 ACIDS of all kinds. The nature of thefe not known. 
 
 f Fixed Vegetable. A fait not eafily cryftalHzed, the nature of which is not known. 
 Fossile. a fine cr}-ftallized fait ufed in medicine. 
 
 Volatile. A glafs-like faline fubftance called mkrocofmk fait. The acid is always found in this flate 
 I evaporating urine. 
 VITRESCENT EARTHS. Glafs of different forts. By fufion. 
 
 fLEAD. An inflammable malleable mafs. By calcining the dry fait with lead. 
 I Tin. a mafs refem.bling zinc ; and inflammable. By ditto. 
 1 , C A true phofphorus. By ditto. 
 
 \ -'■^ON. ^ ^ i^j^jj^ folution. By employing a watery folution of the acid. 
 
 ] Copper. A corroded powder, or green folution. By a boiling heat in a watery folution of the acid, 
 t Mercury. A femi- opaque mafs. By fufion with the acid in its folid ftirm. 
 ' c A corroded powder, fcluble in water. By folution in the acid in a watery fituuticn. 
 
 Zinc. } ^ x.\yx>i phofphorus. By fufion with the dry acid. 
 
 (A folution in the ordinary way.. 
 Antimony. ^ ^ brilliant ftrlated mafs. By fufion with the dry acid. 
 
 Bismuth. A mixture but little changed in appearance from ordinary bifmuth. By fufion- 
 i Arsenic. A whitifli femitranfparent dellquefcent mafs. By fufion. 
 (^Cobalt. A reddifh tinfture. By folution. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 SEMIMETALS. \ 
 
 OILS. BaU'win's phofphorus. By diftilling with fubllances that contain oils or inflammable matters. 
 
 VIZ. 
 
 Great part 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 EARTHS. 
 METALS. 
 
 FLUOR ylCID may Is combined with the following Subjlancs, 
 Fixed Vegetable. A gelatinous faline mafs which cannot be cryftallized 
 
 pated by evaporation to drynefs. 
 iFossiLE. A fubftance fimilar to the foregoing. 
 Volatile. Lets fall a quantity of filiceous earth, and forms a cryftallizabls ammoniacal fait 
 Lime. 1 
 
 IMagnesia. > A gelatinous matter. 
 
 (Earth of Alum, j 
 
 Siliceous Earth. After long ftanding, cryftals of _ quartz. 
 
 of it is alfo diflii 
 
 Silver. I The calces of thefe metals partially diflblved ; bnt the properties of the folution im 
 
 Quicksilver. ^ known. 
 
 Copper. The calx eafily foluble, and affording blue cryftals ; the metal only partially fo. 
 Iron. Diffolved with violence with the emiflion of inflammable vapours into an uncryltallizable liquor. 
 
 ACID OF SUGAR may be combined luilh the following Subjlances, viz. 
 f Fixed Vegetable. A fait fcarce capable of cryftallization when perft^ly neutral. 
 ALKALIES. 4 Fossile. A fait difficultly fokible in water. 
 
 (.Volatile. An anunoniacal fait fliooting into quadrangular pnfms. 
 
 r Lime. A kind of felenite from which the acid cannot be feparated but by a burning lic.it. 
 Sterra Ponderosa. a fait formed into angular cryftals, fcarce foluble in water. 
 EARTHS. jMagnesia. A white powder infoluble without an excefs of acid. 
 
 CEarth of Alum. A yellow pellucid mafs incapable of cryftallization, and liquefying In the air. 
 ["Gold. T 
 
 1 Silver. ( rp,^^ c^zc^ of all thefe metals diffolved, but the nature of the folutions unknown. 
 
 METALS. \ Platina. r 
 
 i Quicksilver. J -r • r i n r 1 t_i • 
 
 LIron. Diffolvtd in gieut quantity, and forming a yellow pnfmatic fait eafily loluble in water. 
 
 <iEMIMETAL. Cobalt. A yellow-coloured fait forming a fympathetic ink with fea-falt. 
 
 INFLAMMABLES. Alcohol. An ether which cannot eafily be fet on fire unlels previoufly heated, and burning with 
 blue flame. 
 
 ACID 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 J^ARTHS. 
 
 ut 
 
 i; 
 
 OF BORAX, or SEDATIVE SALT, may be combined ivhh the following Suhflartces, viz. 
 Fossile. Borax. A native fubftance, which may be imitated by art. Ic is of great ufe in promoting th 
 fufion of metals and earths. . ' . . 
 
 OLATiLs. An ammoniacdl fait fliooting Into fmall cryftals, and melting by an intenfe heat into a grcyl 
 
 coloured glafs. . . . . 
 
 " " ' , . ■. r . Decompofed by other acids and fpirit of win€ 
 
 In others a hard mafs refembling pu 
 
 METAI 
 
 CMagnksia. a fait cryilallizable in vinegar and acid of ants. D 
 <• Earth of Alum. In certain proportions a fait difficult of folut 
 nilce-ftone, yet partially foluble In water. 
 
Table. 
 
 METAL. 
 SEMIMETAL. 
 
 ALCOHOL. 
 ; WATER. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 SEMIMETALS, 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 607 
 
 Iron. An amber- coloured folutlon yielding cryftals of a yellow colour. 
 
 Arsenic. A cryftallizable compound (hooting into pointed ramifications, or forming a greyi/h, white, or 
 yellow powder. 
 
 A folution with a confiderable heat, which burns with a green flame. 
 
 A iolution in a confiderable heat. The other mixtures wkh this acid not known. 
 
 ACID OF AMBER may be combined lu'ith the follonving Suljlances, viz. 
 r Fixed VEGEXiiBLE. ^ A tranfparent and cryftallizable fait, but deliquefcent. 
 ■sFossiLE. A cryftallizable fait not deliquefcent. 
 e Volatile. An ammoniacal fait fliooting into acicular cryftals. 
 
 r Lime, A cryftallizable fait, difBcult of folution and not deliquefcent. Decompofed by common fal am- 
 ^ moniac. 
 
 )Magnceia. a gummy deliquefcent faline mafs, not cryftallizable. 
 C Earth of Alum. A prifmatic flUt incapable of decompofition by alkalies. 
 
 ''Silver. A fait lliooting into thin oblong cryftals obtained from the precipitate ; but no folution of the per* 
 fed metal. ^ 
 Copper. A cryftallizable fait of a green colour. 
 Iron. A cryftallizable fidt.of a brown colour. 
 
 Tin. a cryftallizable fait from the precipitate, fcarce to be dccompofed by alkalies. 
 Lead. A cryftallizable fait from the precipitate. 
 CZiNC. A cryftallizable fait. 
 
 j Bismuth. A cryftallizable fait from the precipitate, not to be decompofed by alkalies. 
 ( Regulvs of Antimony. A folution of the precipitate. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 ACID OF ANTS may be combined nvith the foUoiv'mg Suhjiances.y viz^ 
 f Fixed Vegetable. A cryftaUizable fait, deliquefcent in the air. 
 ALKALIES. <Fo3siLE. A fait of a fimilar nature. 
 
 ([Volatile. An ammoniacal liquor, cry.ftalHzable with difficulty. 
 Chalk or Coral. A cryftaUizable fait which does not dtliquate. 
 Magnesia. A faline liquor fcarcely cryftallizable. 
 Terra Ponderosa. A cryftallizable fait which does not deliquefce. 
 
 Earth of Alum. Unites with difficulty, and fcarcely to the point of faturatlon. The nature of the eom- 
 pound not known. 
 
 f Silver *. By folution. The cakof filver precipitated frxim aquafortis by alkalies ; but does not aft upon 
 It m Its metallic ftate. 
 
 Copper. Beautiful gieen cryftals. By dilTolving and cryftallizing calcined copper. It afts flowly upon it ia 
 ^ Its metallic ftate. ^ 
 
 Iron. A cryftallizable fait. It diflblves this metal with great facility. 
 I Lead *. _ A fait refembling faccharum faturni. By dilfolving the red calx of lead. But it does not ad upon 
 l_ It in Its metallic ftate. ^ 
 SEMIMETAL. Zinc. Elegant cryftals. By the ordinary means. 
 
 ■ The eff^efto of this acid upon other bodies, or the ufe& to which thefe combinations might be applied, are not yet fufiiclently 
 known. ^ ^ 
 
 METALS. 
 
 [ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 ACID OF ARSENIC may be combined iv'ith the foUo'wwg Subjlances, viz. 
 r Fixed Vegetable. A ponderous fait fhooting into fine cryftals by fuperfaturation with acid. 
 < FossiLE. A fait cryftallizable when perfeftly neutral. 
 
 C Volatile. A peculiar kind of ammoniacal fait parting with the alkali, and decompofing fome of it in 3. 
 ftrong fire. 
 
 r Chalk. A cryftallizable fait fcarcely foluhle. 
 "I Magnesia. A gelatinous mafs which cannot be cryftallized. 
 (.Terra Ponderosa. An infoluble white powder. 
 Copper. A green-coloured folution. 
 Iron. A very thick gelatinous folution. 
 Lead. A folution which cannot be crvftallized. 
 
 Tin. A gelatinous folution in the moift way. A mixture taking fire in clofe veffds in the dry way.. 
 Zinc, a folutton in the moift way, and in the dry, a mixture taking fire in clofe vclfels. 
 Bismuth. A partial folution. 
 SEMIMETALS. '{ Reculus of Antimony. A partial folution. 
 
 I Cobalt, A partial folution of a red colour. 
 
 LMangas'ese. a partial folution in its natural ftate. When the manganefe is phloglftlcated, a cryftallizabre. 
 lalt may be obtained. ^ o ^ 1 
 
 r Charcoal. A mixture taking fire and fublimlng when heated in clofe veflele. 
 -j Oil of Turpentine, &c. A thick black fubftance after fome days digeftion. 
 L Sulphur, A red fublimate. 
 
 ALKi^LIES: 
 
 INFLAMMA- 
 BLES. 
 
€o8 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METALS. 
 SEMIMETAL. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 EARTHS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METAL. 
 SEMIMETAL. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 EARTHS. 
 
 METAL5. 
 SEMIMETALS. 
 
 ALKALIES. 
 EARTHS. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ACID OF MO LTBDMNA may he united mth the following SuhfiansMt vi'«. 
 Fixed Vegetable. A cryftallizable fait. 
 Volatile. A neutral fait, the nature of which is unknown. 
 
 ACID OF MILK may be combined with the follotving Suhfances, viz. 
 
 {Fixed Vegetj\ble. A dtliquefcent fait foluble in alcohol. 
 FossiLE. A fait of a fimilar nature. 
 Volatile. A deliquefcent fait partinsf with much of the alkali by heat. 
 5 Calcareous and Argillaceous. Deliquefcent falts. 
 ^Magnesia. A fait more eafily cryftallized, but deliquefcent. 
 
 {Copper. A blue folution, which cannot be cryftallized. 
 Iron. A brown folution, with the emiflion of inflammable alr,^ yielding no cryftals. 
 Lead. An aftringent fweetifh folution, which does not cryftallize. 
 Zinc. A cryftallizable fait, with the emiflion of inflammable air during the folution. 
 
 ACID OF SUGAR cf MILK may be combined ivith the following Svbfances, viz. 
 r Fix ED Vegetable. A fait very difficult of folution. 
 <Fossile. a fait more eafily foluble. 
 (^Volatile. A peculiar kind of ammoniac. 
 Absorbent and Argillaceous. Infoluble falts. 
 
 ACID OF APPLES may be combined ivith the following Subjlance!, viz. 
 Fixed Vegetable, Fossile, and Volatile. Deliquefcent falts. 
 
 rCALCAREOus. A fait difficult of folution unlefs the acid prevail. 
 
 ^Magnesia. A deliquefcent fait. 
 
 C Earth of Alum. A fait very difficult of folution. 
 Iron. A brown folution, which does not cryftallize. 
 Zinc. A fine cryftallizable fait: 
 
 ACID OF FAT may b( combined with the following Stdjlances, viz. 
 C Fixed, Vegetable, and Fossile. Neutral falts of a particular nature. 
 "l Volatile. A Concrete volatile fait. 
 
 r Calcareous. A cryftallizable fait of a brown colour. i 
 
 "S Magnesia. 1 ^ -ummy mafs, which refufes to cryftallize. 
 
 C Earth of Alum. 3 & ' 
 
 rSiLVER. A folution of the calx. • . j r 
 
 Platina. The calx copioufly diflblved, and even theperfea metal attacked by diftillation to dryncia. 
 I Copper. A green folution, which cannot be cryftallized. 
 \ Iron. A cryftallizable fait, which does not deliquate. ^ 
 j Lead. An aftringent folution of the red calx called minium. 
 
 Tin. a folution in fmall quantity. 
 LMercury. a folution by being twice diftlUed from the metal. 
 Zinc. Diflblved in its metalline ftate. 
 Bismuth. A folution of the precipitate. 
 ' Regulus of Antimony. A cryftallizable fait, which does not deliquate. 
 Manganese. A perfeft and clear folution. 
 
 ACID OF BENZOIN may be combined with the following Sub/lances^ viz. 
 rFixED Vegetable. A fait fliootlng into pointed feathery cryftals. - 
 
 Fossile. A fait procurable in larger cryftals. 
 C Volatile. A deliquefcent fait fcarce cryftaUizable. 
 ( Calcarfous. a cryftallizable fait not eafily foluble. 
 C Magnesia. A cryftallizable fait eafily foluble. 
 
 Tabk 
 
 The FIXED ALKALI, whether Vegetablf. or Fossile, can be united with the following Bodies ; hit the Vegetabh is b£ lnow^ 
 ACIDS : Vliiolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable; and acid of Uri«e, of Amber, of Ants, of Borax, &c. as xn the form, 
 part of this Table. 
 
 ALKALIES of all forts. The ufes of thefe mixtures are not known. • , r n r 
 
 r Liquor filicmn. By fufion with twice their weight of alkalies. 
 C Crystalline. -5 Glafs, By fufion with a much fmaller proportion of alkali. This is the compofition . 
 •PAPTHS < C cry ftal gJUfs, and all others commonly ufed. ^ 
 
 ^ /Absorbents. Argillaceous, and all kinds of earths. Glafs. By fufion ; differmg m quality according 1 
 
 the nature of the ingredients. Glafs Is llkewlfe produced with it in fufion with metals, 
 r Gold*. After having precipitated it from aqua-regia, It difl-olves it if the alkali has been calcined with an 
 
 METALS. ^g^^^^;'! '"^ifter having precipitated it from the nitrous acid, it dilfolves it if the alkali has been calcined , 
 
 contad with the flame. TvnrT'A t < 
 
Table. 
 
 Gog 
 
 PETALS. 
 
 lEMlMETALS. <!* ^^^timonv. '\ 
 
 LArsenic *. 
 
 fExPRESSED. 
 
 )ILS. 
 
 ULFKUR. 
 t^ATER. 
 
 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 TTiM. A corrodeJ powder. By the ordinary means of folution. 
 
 Copper. By ditto. 
 ^ Lead. A fluid folution. By ditto. This ftains hair black. 
 Iron *. A blood- coloured folution. By dropping a folution of iron in the nitrous acid, into an alkaline lixivium. 
 7''''.-"/. , -'"^ folut>on. After precipitating it from acids ; if the alkali is in too large proportions, it 
 then diholves it, efpecially if the alkali has been calcined in contad with the flame. 
 rZiNC*. By folution, after having precipitated it from the nitrous acid. 
 Bismuth *. By folution, after having precipitated it from the nitrous acid. 
 
 CKennc-s mineral. By diffolvlng antimony in an alkaline lixivium, filtering, and allowing It to 
 I Itand in a cool place till it precipitates. 
 Golden Julphur of antimony. By diflblving a crude antimony in an alkaline lixivium, and preclpi- 
 tating by an acid. 
 ,j Hepar antimonii. By deflagrating crude antimony with nitre. 
 Crocus mstallorum. Is hepar antimonii pulverifed and edulcarated with water. 
 Diaphoretic antimony. By deflagrating regulus of antimony with nitre. 
 
 ^ntimoniated nitre. By diffolvlng diaphoretic antimony in water, and allowing it to cryftallize. 
 Magijhry of antimony. By precipitating a folution of diaphoretic antimony by adding vinegar. 
 \^Regulus antmonn medicinalis. By fufing crude antimony with alkali. This is not properly a 
 compound of alkah and antimony, but of another kind. But as it is a term much ufed. 
 It was proper to explain it. 
 A metallic arfenical fait. By a particular ekaive attraaion from regulus of antimony and nitre. 
 iyoap. The beil hard foap is made of olive-oil and foffiie alkali. The ordinary white foap of 
 j this country is made of tallow and potafh ; black foap with whale-oil and potafli. 
 
 j Essential. Saponaceous mafs. Beft made by pouring fpirit of wine upon cauilic alkali and then oil, diVeft- 
 1 ing and lhaking. ° 
 
 Empyreumai ic. This mixture diffolves gold when precipitated from aqua regla ; and is the bafis of the fine 
 coloui cajitd Prufpan Llue ; and has various other properties, as yet but little known. 
 LFossiLE. This has no name, nor are the properties well known ; but from fome obfervations that have been made 
 on nat ive foapy waters, it is probable that It would keep linen much longer white than any other kind of foap. 
 ^Hepar Julphuns. By injeding alkalies upon melted fulphur. 
 
 LLdc fulphuris. By diflLlving fulphur in an alkaline hxivium, and precipitating by an acid. 
 
 Alhalme lixivium, when cauftic, or even the ordinary folution of mild alkali, is a fluid of great power in wafhin?. 
 blacking, &c. or 6» 
 
 Fixed. Mild alkali. This is the general flate in which alkalies are found ; but if they are rendered cauftic by 
 means ot quick-hme or otherwife, they again abforb it from the air, or from many other bodies, by ckaivc 
 attraction. When perfedly mild, this alkali may be made to alfume a cryflalline form. 
 
 PTT^c /LKALI, or SPIRIT OF SAL AMMONIAC, can be united r^ith thefe Bodies, viz. 
 
 ^UlJJb: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable; of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, &c. 
 as above. 
 
 ^ Gold *. 5 ^'^rum fulminam . A powder obtained by precipitating it from aqua regia by volatile alkalies. 
 
 ^ A liquid folution. By adding a large proportion of alkali after it has been precipitated from aqua 
 regia. This depofites the gold when long expofed to the air. The curious vegetation called 
 arior Dian<e_ is formed by adding mercury to this folution. A violently fulminating powder ob- 
 tained by digcftion. ° *^ 
 Silver *. A folution.^ After it has been precipitated from the nitrous acid. A fulminating powder by digeftion 
 j 1 LATiNA • . By folution, after having precipitated It from aqua regia. 
 ^ETALS. \ blue-coloured folution. By the ordinary means. This when evaporated to drynefs, and mixed 
 
 I with tallow, tinges the flame green. 
 Copper. «! Sapphire-coloured cryftals. By ciyltallizing the folution. 
 
 V mus fulminans. By evaporating the folution to drynefs. 
 
 Aqua cerulea fapphirina. By mixing fal ammoniac, quijk-lime, and thin plates of copper, with wa- 
 ter, and allowing them to remain a night. 
 Trok. By ordinary folution. 
 ^ Lead. By ditto. 
 
 |_l iN. The mixts that are produced by thefe metals are little known. 
 Bismuth *. By folution, after having precipitated it from the nitrous acid. 
 Antimony. 
 
 Cobalt. A reddifh liquor. By folution. 
 Nickel. A blue liquor. By ditto. 
 Expressed. Has no name. Byfolutlon. 
 
 Essential. Sal volaiile oleofim. By ditto with feme difScuIty, unlefs the alkali is in a cauftic ftatc. 
 Empyreumatic. a pungent oily fubftance, of great power in medicine. The principal one of this kind in 
 uie IS Ipirit of hartfhorn. r , 
 
 ^FossiLE. A particular kind of foRpy fubftance. 
 Vol, IV. Part XL SULPHUR, 
 
 JR. 
 
 LMIMETALS. 
 
 :ls. 
 
6io 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 ALCOHOL' 
 WATER. 
 
 AIR. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. Table. 
 
 Smoklnff fpirit of fulphur. By diftilling fal ammoniac, quick-lime, and fiilphuf. ^ ^ 
 By dill'Uinff alcohol from volatile alkalies, it acquires a cauftic fiery tafte ; but the union is not complete. 
 This folution might be of ufe in wafhing or bleaching ; but, unlefs in particular cafes, would be too cxpenhve. 
 
 It coagulates with alcohol. , g 
 
 Fixed. Mild volatile alkali. The ufual ftate in which it is found ; nor has any method yet been diicovered ot 
 rendeiing it folid but In this ftate. 
 
 EXPRESSED OILS may he combined with the following Subjlances, y\t. _ 
 ACTPS: Vkriolfe, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Amber, as in the foregoing part of this Table. 
 ALKALIES; Fixed and Volatile, as above. _ 
 CALCAREOUS EARTHS, A kind of plafter. By mixture when in a cauilic ftate. 
 
 C Tin*. Ditto. By folution uhen the tin is in the ftate of a calx. 
 
 J Lead*. Ditto. By boiling the calx of lead in oils. This is ufed for cements in water-works. 1 he com- 
 ^ mon white paint is a mixture of this lefs perfe£l. 
 SEMIMETALS. Zixc*. Ditto. By ditto. _ , ^ . r * i i, 
 
 OILS : EfTential,, Empyreumatic, and Foffile. By mixture ; but their ufes arc not much known, 
 
 SULPHUR. Balfam of SuMnn: By folution in a boihng heat. . , , , , • i • ^^ rt 
 
 ALCOHOL. Af/er expreffed oils are freed from foap or plaiters, they are foluble m alcohol ; but not in their ordinary flate. 
 
 ESSENTIJL OILS ?7iay be combined with the following SubflanceSy viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, &c. as above, 
 ALKALIES : Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 •K*T7T-ATQ (Copper. By folution. 
 
 METALS. |l,EAD. By ditto. 
 
 SULlHOR^t balL'^f^;^^^^ imperfealy , better by adding eirentW ells to the folution made by exprelfe 
 
 oils or hepar fulphuris. 
 5 I"ipfrfedl mixture. By folution. 
 ALCOHOL. I Aromatic waters. By dlftlUation. 
 
 WATER. Diftillcd water of the (hops. By diftiUing recent vegetable fubftances with water. 
 
 EMPTREUMATIC OILS may be comhiued with the following Subjlances, viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic and Nitrous, as above. 
 ALKALIES : Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 OILS of all kinds. By mixture. ^ 
 
 ALCOHOL. By folution. By repeated diftillations the oils are rendered much more lubtile, 
 
 FOSSII^E OILS may be combined with the following Sub/lances, viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic and NItrc us, as above. 
 ALKALIES : Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 OILS of all kinds. By mixture. 
 SULPHUR. With fome difficulty, by folution. 
 ALCOHOL . - - By ditto. 
 
 ■^^ *■ SULPHUR may be combined with the following Subjances, riz. 
 
 ACID * • Vitriolic ; with the phenomena above defcribed. 
 
 ALKa£iES : I'i-f =;:;,tf7;,d.like colour. By adding folphur to red-hot filver. and fuf.ng , found dfo ™th 
 
 in the ftate of an ore. • , i , rnu- • n. J 
 
 Lead. A fparkhng friable mafs, hardly fufible. By deflagrating fulphur with lead. This in a native ftat 
 
 forms the ore of lead called ^flW . rx a .-c • vi, r ■ 
 
 Copper. A black brittle mafs, eafily fufed. By adding fulphur to red-hot copper, or ftratifying with fu 
 phur and fufing. Naturally in fome yellow pyrites. rru- • ir r j J 
 
 f A fpungy-like drofs, eafily fufiWe. By putting^ fulphur to red-hot iron. This is alfo- found na 
 turally in the common yellow or brown pyrites. 
 A fulminatin<r compound. By mixing filings of iron with fulphur, moiftemng them with wat 
 and pi-effing them hard, they in a few hours burft out into flame. This eortipofition has be 
 METALi^ ^ Iron. ^ employed for imitating earthquakes. 
 
 ^ * ^ ' Crocus martis. By deflagrating with iron. .„ . ^ 
 
 i Crocus martis aperiens. By calcining the crocus martis in the fire till it affumes a red- appearance. 
 iCrocus martis aflringens. By pulhing the heat ftill further. 
 Tin. a dark-colovu-cd mafs, refembllng antimony. By fufion. ^ , • 
 
 (Ethiops mineral. By heating flowers of fulphur, and pouring the raercuiy tipon it, and ftirnng 
 well-. Its natural ore Is called cinnabar. 
 
 X 
 
 Faaitious cinnabar. By applying tk« mercury and fulphur to each other in their pure ttate, an 
 
 Mercury. \ fubliming. 
 
 Cinnabar of antimony. By fubliming corrofive fubliraate and crude antimony ; or the refiduun 
 L after diftilling butter of antimony. SEMIMETAL 
 
^Tablc. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 6r I 
 
 If in its mstalline flate, the fulphur fe- 
 
 JEMlMEtALS. <! 
 
 METALS. 
 
 BiSMVTH. A faint greyifli mafs, refembling antimony. By fufion. 
 
 parates in the cold ; but not fo if the calx has been employ<#d. 
 Antimony. Crude antimony. By fufion. . . - 
 
 Zinc*. A very brittle, dark-coloured, fliining fubftance. With fome difficulty, by keeping it long ma 
 moderate fire, and covering it feveral times with fulphur, and keeping it conllantly ftirred. 
 [relloii) arfenic. By fufing it with ^ig-th its weight of fulphur. 
 Red arfenic. By ditto with |tli its weight of fulphur. 
 Arsenic..! Ruby of fulphur, or arfenic, or golden fulphur. By fubliming when the proportions are equal. _ 
 Orpiment. A natural produdion ; not perfeftly imitable by art ; compofed of fulphur and arfenic. 
 Much ufed as a yellow paint. 
 Nickel. A compound; compaa and hard as-lead ; of a bright metallic appearance ; internally yellow. By fufion. 
 OILS • ExprefTed, Eflential, and Fofiile, as above. „ j • r i 
 
 "WATER. Gasfyhepe. By receiving the fumes of burning fulphur in water. This ought rather to be called a union ot the 
 volatile vitriolic acid with water. 
 
 ALCOHOL may be combined iv'ith the following Subjlances^ viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, and of Borax, as above. 
 AU^ALI* : Volatile, as above. 
 METALLIC calces, in fome particular cafes. 
 
 OILS : ExprefTed, Eflential, Empyreumatic, and Foflile, as above. 
 
 WATER. By folution. „ . n r/» 
 
 GOLD way be combined with the foUoiuing Subjlances, viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitiiollc*, Nitrous*, and Muriatic*. In the circumftances and with the phenomena &bove defcribed. 
 ATKALIES: Fixed*, and Volatile*, as above. , , ,f - i i 
 
 ^giLvER. By fufion. And the fame is to be underftood of all the combinations of metals, unleis particularly 
 
 fpecified. . . c r r 
 
 Platina. Duftile, and of a duflcy colour. This has been employed to debafe geld, as it is of the fame Ipe- 
 I cific gravity, and is not difcoverable by the ufual tefts for difcovering the purity of gold. 
 Lead. A very brittle mafs. Gold is rendered pale by the leaft admixture with this. 
 
 Tin. ' A brittle mafs when the tin is added in confiderable quantity ; but the former accounts of this have 
 been exaggerated. 
 
 Copper. Paler and harder tlian pure gold. This mixture is ufed in all our coins, the copper being called 
 the alloy. 
 
 Iron. Silver-coloured, hard and brittle ; very eafily fufed. 
 •^Mercury. Soft, like a pafte called an amalgamum. By folution ; it being in this cafe called amalgamation; 
 
 and the lame is to be underftood of the folution of any other metal in quickfilver, _ 
 f Zinc. A bright and whitifli compound, admitting of a fine pollili, and not fubjed to tarnilh ; for which 
 •qualities k has been propofed as proper for analyfing fpecula for telefcopes. 
 Arsenic. Brittle ; and the gold is thus rendered a httle volatile. 
 SEMIMETALS. <} Antimony. A fine powder for ftaining glafs of a red colour. By calcination. 
 I Bismuth*. A brittle v/hitiih regulus ; volatile in the fire. 
 . Cobalt. 
 
 ^Nickel. White and brittle. 
 
 S IL VER may be combined with the following SubJIances^ viz, 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic*, Nitrous*, Muriatic*, Vegetable *, and Acid of Ants*, as above. 
 
 ALKALIES- Fixed* and Volatile*, as above. , r c a ii • 4. c \ - 
 
 CRYSTALLINE EARTHS and other vitreous matters. A fine yellow opaque glafs. The finelt ycUow paint tor porcelain is 
 procured from a glafs mixed with filver. 
 
 fGoxD, as above. , 1 u 
 
 I Platina. Pretty pure and malleable. Difficult of fufion ^ and in part fcparates when cold. 
 { Lead. Very brittle. 
 
 J Tin. Extremely brittle, as much fo as glafs. 
 METALS. I Copper. Harder than filver alone. Ufed in fmall proportions as alloy in coins. 
 
 ! Iron. A hard whltllh compound. 
 
 ' Mercury* By amalgamation with filver-leaf, or calx of filver precipitated by copper, but not by ialts. 
 ^ This is ufed for filverizing on other metals, in the fame way as the amalgamum of gold, 
 f Zinc. Hard, fomewhat malleable, and of a white colour. 
 I Antimony. A brittle inafs. 
 SEMIMETALS. ^ Bismuth, A white femi-malleable body. 
 
 I Arsenic, Brittle ; the filver being rendered in part volatile 
 Cobalt. 
 ^ULPHUR as above. 
 
 ^ ' LEAD may he combined nvifh the following Subjances, viz.. 
 
 •VCIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Ants, as above. 
 \LKALIES: Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 
 4 H 2 
 
 CRYSTALLINE 
 
Table 
 
 If a large 
 folder for lead ; and 
 
 612 C H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 CRYSTALLINE EARTHS. _ A thin glafs. By fufion in a moderate heat, 
 f Gold and Silver, as aiiBve. 
 
 j Platina. Of a leafjr or fibrous texture, and purpllfli or blue colour, when expofed to the air 
 proportion of platina is ufed, it feparates in the cold. 
 Tin. ^ A little harder than either of tht metals, and eafily fufed : hence it is ufed as a ^^^..i , 
 
 METALS. ^ forms the principal ingredients of pewter. If the fire is long continued, the tin floats on the furface 
 
 Copper*. Brittle and granulated, hke tempered iron or fteel when broke. By throwing pieces of copper 
 
 into melted lead. The union here is very flight. 
 Iron*. An opaque brownifli glafs. By a great degree of heat if the iron has been previoufly reduced to 
 the ftate of a calx ; but never in its metallic Hate. 
 ERCURY*. By amalgamation. Effefted only in a melting heat, unlefs fome bifmuth has been previoufly 
 united with the mercury. 
 
 Zinc. Hard and brittle. By pouring zinc on melted lead. If the zinc is flrft melted, and the lead in- 
 
 je£led upon it, it then deflagrates. 
 Antimony*. 
 
 Bismuth. A grey-coloured femi-malleable body, eafily fufed; and thence ufed as a folder for lead or tin. 
 
 ( A grey-coloured brittle mafs , eafily fufed, and extremely volatile. 
 Arsenic. ■< A hyacinth-coloured glafs. . By fufion in a confiderable heat. This glafs is eafily fufed ; and 1*3 
 C a much more powerful flux than pure glafs of lead. 
 The nature of this compound is not known. 
 A brhtle metallic body. 
 
 ^EMIMETALS. i 
 
 METALS. 
 
 SEMBIETALS. <{ 
 
 Cobalt 
 , Nickel, 
 
 OILS : Expreffed* and Efl'ential, as above 
 S-ULJPHUR, as above. 
 
 TIN may be conil'med iv'ith the folluiving Sul/flances, viz 
 ACIDS: Vitriolic*, Nitrous*, Muriatic, Vegetable*, of Urine, as above. 
 ALKALIES : Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 CRYSTALLINE EARTHS or other vitreous matters. An opaque vi hite vitreous mafs, which forms the bafis of white enamels* 
 fGoLDj Silver, and Lead, as above. 
 
 j Platina. A coarfe hard metal which tainlflies in the air 
 
 j Copp^er. a brittle mafs. When the copper is in fmall proportions, it is firmer and harder than pure tin^ 
 \ This, in right proportions with a httle zinc, fovms bell-metal. 
 
 j Iron. A white brittle compound. By heating filings of iron red-hot, and pouring melted tin upon them* 
 
 A metal refembling the fineft: filver is made of iron, tin, and a certain proportion of arfenic. 
 I^Mercury. ^ This amalgamum forms foils for mirrors ; and forras the yellow pigment called aurum mojalcum 
 By being fubllmed with fulphur and fal ammoniac. 
 Zinc Hard and brittle. When the zinc is in fmall proportions, It forms a veiy fine kind of pewter. 
 Antimony* Regulus veneris. By eleftive attva£lion from copper and crude antimony. 
 
 Bismuth. Bright, hard, and fonorous, when a fmall proportion of bifmuth is ufed. This is very eafili 
 
 fufed, and employed as a folder. ' 
 Arsenic. A fubfliance in external appearance refembling zlnc» 
 Cobalt. By fufion. 
 LNiCKEL. A brittle metaUic mafs. 
 OIL : Expreffed*, as above. 
 SULPHUR, as above. 
 
 COPPER may he combined luith the following Suliflmces, viz. 
 ACIDS : Vitrlohc, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, as above. 
 ALKALIES : Fixed, and Volatile, as above. 
 
 f Gold, Silver, Lead*, and Tin, as above. 
 
 I Platina. A white and hard compound,- which does not tarnifli fo foon as pure copper, and admits of a fine 
 \ polilh. 
 
 I Iron. Harder and paler than copper. Eafily fufed. 
 
 ^Mercury*. A curious amalgam. Soft at firil, but afterwards brittle. By trituratlnp"" mercury with ver- 
 digris, common fait, vinegar, and water, 
 f Brafs. Commonly made by cementation with calamine. The larger the proportion of zinc, the 
 I paler, harder, and more brittle is the brafs. 
 ZiNC.-^ Prince's metal, pinchbeck, and other metals refembling gold. By employing zinc in fubfl:ance in fmall 
 I proportions. The beft pinchbeck about i-4th of zinc. 
 
 ySpelter. A native fubftance,, found in Cornwall, confifting of zinc and copper, .and ufed as a foMer 
 SEMIMETALS. { Antimony. By fufion. 
 
 Bismuth. A palifli brittle mafs. Somewhat refembling filver. 
 
 Arsenic. White copper.- By pouring arfenic, fufed with nitre, upon copper In fufion. If too large a pro 
 
 portion of arfenic is ufed, it makes the compound black and apt to tarnifh. 
 Cobalt. White and brittle. ? 
 ^Nickel. White and brittle,, and apt to tarnlfn. 
 Oil.. : Effential, as above. 
 SULPHUR, as above. 
 
 IRON 
 
 METALS, 
 
6i3 
 
 TThe colour is 
 
 /[ETALS. 
 
 ^lETALS. 
 
 ibk. CHEMISTRY. 
 
 IRON may be combined lu'uh the foUotving Subjlances y viz, 
 VCIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of UrinCj of Amber, of Ants, as above. 
 IlLKALTES : Fixed *, and Volatile, as above. 
 
 /ITRESCENT EARTHS. A tranfparent glafs. In general blackifh ; but fometimes yellow, green, or blue, 
 influenced by the degree of heat as well as nature of the ingredients. 
 ( Gold, Silver*, Lead*, Tin, and Copper, as above, 
 
 (Platina. Yv^ith caft iron it forms a compound remarkably hard, fomewhat duclile, and fufceptiblc of 
 
 a fine polifii. 
 'Zinc. A white fubftance refembling filver. 
 
 Antimony. The magnetic quality of the iron is totally deftroyed in this compound. 
 Bismuth. In a ftrong heat, this emitteth flames. 
 jSEMIMETALS. \ Arsenic. A v^hitifh, hard, and brittle compound. By fufing with foap or tartar. A metal referabliag.. 
 fine fteel is made by fufing caft iron with a little arfenic and glafs. 
 Cobalt. A compound remarkably duftile. By fufion in a moderate heat. 
 ^Nickel. A brittle mafs. 
 ULPHUR, as above. 
 
 ME R C UR T may be combined ivith the folloiuing Subjlances, viz. 
 ^CIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable*, of Urine, as above. 
 
 >lLKALI : Fixed*, as above. ' 
 ( Gold, Silver*, Lead*, Tin, and Copper, as above. 
 ( Platina. The compound refulting from this mixture is not known, 
 f Zinc An amalgam. Soft or hard, according to the proportions employed. 
 
 I Antimony. By melting the regulus, and pouring it upon boiling mercury. By frequently diftilling from- 
 'EMIMETALS \ amalgam, the mercury is rendered much more pure, and is then called animated mercury. 
 
 p * j Bismuth. A filverizing for iron.. By putting this amalgam upon iron, and evaporating the mercury. It 
 
 I has much the appearance of filver. 
 
 vOobalt. By mixing firll with nickel, and then adding mercury. 
 ULPHUR, as above. 
 
 ZINC nay be combined -with the folloiuing Subftances, viz. 
 CIDS :• Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, as above, 
 r Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. 
 fcvIETALS. •< Platina. A hard fubftance. 
 
 I C Mercury, as above. , <, 
 
 fANTiMONV. This mixture Is applied to no particular ufe. 
 SEMIMETALS. ^ Arsenic. A black and friable mafs. 
 
 l^CoBALT. The particular nature and properties of.thls mixt is not known» 
 DIL : Exprelfed*, as above. 
 SULPHUR*, as above. 
 
 JlN T I MONT may be combined 'with the foUotving Stdijlances^ viz. 
 \CIDS : Vitriolic*, Nitrous, Vegetable*, and Urinous. With the phenomena, and by the meaiu above defcribed. 
 Alkalies : Fixed and Volatile, as above. 
 
 I^ITREOUS EARTHS. A thin penetrating glafs ; which is a powerful flux of metals. 
 Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin*, Copper, and Iron, as above. 
 Platina. A hard mafs. 
 Mercury, and Zinc, as above. 
 
 Bismuth. A mafs refembling regulus of Antimony. 
 Arsenic. The nature and qualities of this mixt are not known. 
 Nature unknown. 
 Ditto. 
 
 PETALS. 
 
 IEMIMETALS. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 Nickel. 
 JULPHUR, as above. 
 
 B IS MUTH may be combined tuith the follonving SubflanceSf viz. 
 \CIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, and Urinous ; with the phenomena, i^c. above defcribed. 
 \LKALIES : Fixed*, and Volatile*, as above. 
 
 /TTREOUS matters, a yellow glafs. The ore of Bifmuth affords with thefe a blue glafs ; but this is probably owing to 
 fome mixture of Cobalt with it. 
 
 C Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. 
 ilE TALS. "S Platina. This mixture changes its colour much on being expofed to the air* 
 
 CMercury, as above. 
 
 S Antimony, as above. 
 Arsenic Nature not known. 
 t.MiiVii:.JL-^^-i-.o. -aCobalt*. By mJxing firft with nickel or regulus of antimony, and then adding cobalt ; but it cannotJse" 
 / united by itfelf. 
 
 NiCKEL. This mixt is not known. . 
 LfLPHUR, as above. 
 
 jARSENIC may be combined ivith the folloiuing Subjlances, viz. 
 CIDS : Vitriolic, Muriatic*, Vegetable*, and Urinous ; v^-Ith the phenomena, ^c. above mentionedv 
 
 4 ALKALIES i: 
 
6^4 CHEMISTRY, Table, 
 
 ALKALIES : Fixed, and Volatile ; with the phenomena, and by the means mentioned above. 
 
 VITREOUS MATTERS. A gkfs which greatly promotes the fufion of other fubilances. The arfenic mult firft te prepared 
 by diffolving and precipitating from alkalies. 
 ,-nrr A T c ^ Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. ^ 
 METALb. J^Platina. 
 
 f Zinc, Antimony, and Bifmuth, as above. 
 SEMIMETALS. < Cobalt. . , i ,r ^ 
 
 (Nickel. The phenomena attending thefe mixtures have not been as yet particiuarly oblerved. 
 
 SULPHUR, as above. 
 
 T LAT INA may le comhhied iv'ith the fvUoiv'mg Suhjlarxcs, viz. 
 .ACIDS: Muriatic*; with tke phenomena, fiff. mentioned above. 
 ALKALI : Volatile, as above. 
 
 METALS : Gold, Silver, Mercury, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above, 
 
 f Zinc, Bifmuth, and Arfenic, as above 
 
 SEMIMETALS 
 
 {Zinc, Bii 
 Cobalt. 
 Nickel. 
 
 The phenomena attending tliefe mixtures not yet ei>ferved. 
 
 COBAL T may le combined unth the foUoiving Suhftances, viz. 
 ACIDS.-: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, and Urinous; with the phenomena, ^c. as above defcribed. 
 
 ALKALI : Volatile, as above. , . „. , -n ■ ^ • -l 
 
 ^Safre. By mixing calcined cobalt with calx of flint, and moiftening them with water, wiu 
 
 EARTHS. Calx of Flint. ^ preffing them clofe in wooden tubs.^ 
 
 I Smalt. By vitrifying thefe with the addition of a little potafh. 
 METALS : Gold, Silver, Platlna, Mercury *, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron^ as above. 
 
 ^ . ^ „ CZiNC, Antimony, Bifmuth*, and Arfenic, as above. 
 SEMIMETALS. ijsjj^^jjEL. The properties of this compound not known. . 
 
 NICKEL may le combined unth the foUoiving Std/flances, viz. 
 ACIDS : Nitrous, and Muriatic ; with the phenomena, ^c. as mentioned above. 
 ALKALI : Volatile, as above. 
 
 METALS : Gold, Platlna, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. 
 SEMIMETALS : Antimony, Bifmuth, Arfenic, and C&balt, as above. 
 SULPHUR, as above. 
 
 ABSORBENT EARTHS may le comblv.ed with the follo'wmg Suhftances, viz. 
 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, and Vegetable ; with the phenomena, and by the affiftances above mentioned. 
 
 ALKALIES : Fixed as above. ^ r -l i .i. r ^ u*^ 
 
 r Crystalline. By this mixture they are both much eafier melted into glafs than by themielves, but not 
 
 EARTHS. \ without the addition of fom€ alkali. 
 
 CArgillaceous. This mixture eafily runs into a glafs without any addition. 
 WATER Lime-ivater. By folution. It is fometimes found flowing out of the earth in fpnngs ; and as it alv%'ays quits 
 
 ' the water when expofed to the air, it is there depofed on the banks of the ftreams, forming the iton^ 
 
 incruftations called petrifications : And filtering through the pores of the earth, and dropping through 
 the roofs of fubterraneous caves, it forms the curious incruftations found hanging from the root oi iucU 
 places ; fometlmes afTuming forms ftupenduoufly magnificent. _ , • • i • r 
 
 ATR FixT. Lime-ftonc. It is from the quality that quick-lime lias of abforbing its air, and again with it relu 
 
 niing its ftony confiftcnce, that it is fitted for a cement in building ; and the great hardnefs of ttf 
 cements in old buildings is owing to the air being more perfeSly united with theft than m new^ 
 works. 
 
 CRTSTALLINE ar VITRESCENT EARTHS may le combined M the fsJIswing Suljances y yiz. 
 ACIDS : Vitriolic*, and Nitrous* ; with the phenomena, ^c. as above mentioned. 
 ALKALI : Fixed, as above. 
 ABSORBENT EARTHS : as above. 
 
 ARGILLACEOUS EARTHS. A mafs running into gkfs in a moderate beat. 
 METALS : Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. . . u-^ c „ 
 
 WATER. Although this is not fdluble in water by any operation that we are acquainted with ; _ yet, from -its cryfxalhne fom 
 
 it is probable that it has been once fufpended ; and certainly it is fo at this day in thofe petrifying fprmgs vvhofe mcruilatiOE 
 
 are of the cryfl;alline fort. 
 •SEMIMETALS : Antimony, Bifmuth, Arfenic, and Cobalt, as above, 
 
 ,JR GIL LA CEO US EAR TH may le combined mth Abforbent and Cryftalline Earths, as above. Wixh water it only utiites int 
 a pafte of a mechanical nature. I N D E 3 
 
Index. 
 
 H E M I S T R Y. 
 
 6iS 
 
 N 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 X. 
 
 Absolute heat, defined, n« 37. 
 
 Difference of the abfylure heat ot 
 different fluids, 46. _ 
 Abrorption of heat the univerfal caufe 
 of lauidity, i'9- Vapour formed 
 by the abfo! ption of latent heat, 
 
 of H.>mberg*s pyrophorus 
 explained, 1418. 
 Acetous acid, its fpecific gravity, 400. 
 Thi-i acid and its combmat:ons j.ar- 
 ticulavly treats,-^ of, 867. Procu- 
 red by a particular kind of fermen- 
 tation, ib. Of its coiv.b.nation 
 with alkabe5,868. With earths, 8 7X 
 etfeg. With metallic fubftiuces.ib. 
 Whether tin be Coiuble in it 879- 
 Of its o.ncentrati' n, ^Hf. M^>y^be 
 crvftalli/.ed in forri of a fait, 882,. 
 May be reducc.l into an aerial 
 form, 88.V - combination vvith 
 inflammable bodies, 884. Prodii- 
 ces a greater qi.antit) of etbe._ than 
 the x^trlotic acid, ib. Acd of 
 milk fcems to be of the acet us 
 kind, 9-3 Whey n-.ay be con- 
 verted into an acetous acid^ 979; 
 May be almoft entirely deftroyed 
 by fire, icoi. Requifite. for 
 bringing it nearer to the ftate of 
 ta-tar 1002 Weftrumb s unfuc- 
 cefsful attempt to do fo, 1003. Dr 
 Creil's opinion of the pollibiiry ot 
 this tranfrautation, 1004. Method 
 recommended by him for trymg 
 the experiment, 1005. His expe- 
 riments proving that all the vege- 
 table acids may be reduced to the 
 acetous, .co6, 15"/^. Manga- 
 nefe foluMe with difficulty m it, 
 1^60 Procurable from the reli- 
 d^luni of vit irdic eth<tr, 2d 72^. 
 Beft nrep-^ired from fugar of lead 
 and oil of vitriol, 88z MrDolfufts 
 method of making the acetous 
 et-her readily, 884. How to pre- 
 pare it from vinegar of wood, ib. 
 The acetous acid has an aftirity 
 with that of ants, 1504- How to 
 cryftallize its combination with the 
 volatile alkali, 13.5. Particular 
 defcription of the falts formed by 
 combining it with calcareous earth, 
 M16. Withmaiinefia, 1517. U^s 
 rhenomena with zir.c,. 15 ' 8. With 
 Lrfenic, .519- Supp. fed to be an 
 antidnteagainrt thatpoilon, 1520. 
 Produces a curious pholphonc h- 
 quor with it. ad 957, 15"- J" 
 effcds o'.i filver, 1523- 
 1C24 I'lflammahle fubftance^ 
 ^\^c,. Diffolvesgums gum-refins, 
 the flefli and bones of animals, &c. 
 ib Varieue methods of con(::en- 
 tratingit,i5^6 Of its cryftalli- 
 zai ion 15^7 Difference between 
 common acetous acid and ra .icai 
 vinegar, 15^8. Mr Kei: s opi- 
 nion concerning thcmjS^P- How 
 to obtain it from terra fohata 
 
 tartari, ib. , , . •, , 
 
 ^.A^n/'s method of making crucibles 
 
 rrom the calx of platina, 587- 
 A-iJ- Phenomena attending the fo- 
 
 'lution of a meral in one, 180. The 
 
 nitrous moil violent in us opt:ra- 
 
 tion, t8l. Vitriolic acid next to 
 it, 182. The marine acid much 
 weaker than either, except when 
 dephbgil icated, 183 The other 
 acids 111 weaker, r -4- Why the 
 nitn.us acid precipitates a folntion 
 of tin or antimony, 200. Puie 
 vitriolic acid cannot be reduced in- 
 to an atrial ftate but by cornbi- 
 nation with ph.ogift.on, 202. The 
 ni-ro:,:s acid ftiil more remaik- 
 ?.hly changed by f !cb a combina- 
 tion, 203. The marine acid ca- 
 pable of affuniing an aerial ft ;te 
 by reafcn of the phlogift -n it na- 
 turally contains, 205. Table of 
 the qi'ianrity of acid taken up by 
 various l- afes, 268. The vitriolic 
 acid contains more fire than the 
 nitrous or marine, 278. On the 
 expulfion ' f the nitrous by the di- 
 luted vitriolic acid, 280. By ihe 
 fame concentrated, 281. By a 
 fmall quantity of dilute vitriolic 
 acid, a!i2. On the expullion of 
 the marine acid by the concentra- 
 ted vitriolic, 283. On the decom- 
 pofition of vitriolated tartar by ni- 
 trous acid, 28 ;. This fah cannot 
 be decompofed by dilute nitrous 
 acid, 287 Of its decomi ohtioii 
 by marine acid, 288. Requiiites 
 for the fuccefs of the experim.ent, 
 a89. Why the m.-irine acid can- 
 not decompofe vitriulated tartar 
 previoufl) diffolvcd m water, 290. 
 'I'he dec'ompofitions of vitriolic 
 anm-ioniac and Glauber's fait by 
 this acid never complete, 291- Ni- 
 trous falts decompolld by it, 292. 
 Marine fahs decompofed by the 
 nitrous acid, 293. Selcnite can- 
 not be decompofed by marine acid, 
 and why, 294. Why the vitriolic 
 acid rdume-, on evaporation, the 
 bafis it had left, 295. An e^cefs 
 of acid requifite to make metals 
 loluble in water, 297. Nitrous 
 acid attradls filvermore than fixed 
 alkali, 301. Solution of lead in 
 nitrous acid decompofed by falts 
 containing the marine acid, 312. 
 Vi'riol of niercury dec mpofed by 
 marine acid, 313. i recipitation 
 of corrofive fiiiilimate by con- 
 centrated vitrichc acid exjilained, 
 ^li^. Of the excefs of" acid in 
 the folution proper for ma- 
 king experiment-; on metal'ic i)re- 
 cipitates, 334. Iron and zinc 
 the only hietals diffolved by vitrio- 
 lic acid, 337. Nitrous acid dif- 
 lolves all metals, though it has 
 kis affinity wi h them than the 
 vitriolic or marine, 338. V/hy 
 it cannot diff ilve them when vei y 
 concentrated, 339. In what cafes 
 marine acid can d:fL.'lve metals, 
 and when i' cannot, 340. A r :ple 
 fait lormed by m:\nnc acid, iron, 
 atul regulus i f ; ntimony, 366. A- 
 nothtr by the fame acid, regulus 
 of ai timony, a;;d copper, 367. 
 Bifniuth prccijutates arfenic from 
 thenitrouh acid.^otj. Copper preci- 
 pitates it fron^ the aiariae acidj 370. 
 
 Method of finding the quantity ef 
 prire acid contained in fpirit of fait, 
 376. In other acid liquors, 378. 
 QviantiMCbof acid, water, an 1 alka- 
 li, in .ligeftive fait, 379. Mr Kir- 
 wan's method of faturating an acid 
 exadlly withanalkah, 3S1. quaii- 
 rity of mild and caullic vegetable 
 alkali faturated by a given quanti- 
 ty of marine acid, 382. Pure ni- 
 trous acid cannot be made to af- 
 fume an aerial ftate, 383. How 
 to determine the quantity of pure 
 acid in f, irit of niti e, 384. Pro- 
 portion of acid in fpirit of nitre to 
 thtit in fj'irit of fair, 385. To find 
 the fpecific gravity of the pure ni- 
 trous acid, 386. To de; ermine 
 its mathematical fpeciiic gi avity, 
 3S8. Of the quantity of real acid 
 contained in it, 3S9. '^antity of 
 acid, water, and alltali, in nitre, 
 39X. Experiments on the fpecific 
 gravity, &c. of vitiiolic acid, 395. 
 Dilution of the concentrated acid 
 neceffary for thefc experiments, 
 396. How to find the fpecific 
 giavity of pure vitriolic acid, 397. 
 Quantity of acid, water, and alka- 
 li, in vitriolated tartar determined, 
 398. Specific gravity of the ace- 
 tous acid, 400. Why the ^ recipi- 
 tates of alum and mercury ccnt-.tin 
 a part of the acid, 408. iiow to 
 determine the quantity pure 
 acid in anyfubftance, 410. Iixa6b 
 computation of the tpantity of 
 pure acid taken up by mild vege- 
 table alkali, 418. Of the quanti- 
 ties of acid and water in {\ ivit of 
 nitre, 42(3. Quantity of pure acid 
 taken up by variou- fubilances, 
 428. Quantity .i vitiislic acid 
 neceffary to faturate mineral alka- 
 li, 430. Of the fame alkali la- 
 turated by dephlogiitlcated nitrous 
 acid, 432. By marine acid, 
 433- Quantity of marine a- 
 cid faturated by calcareous earth, 
 438. Abim always contains an 
 excefs of acid, 448. Proportion 
 of the pure earth of alum taken up 
 by nitrous acid, 449. By marine 
 acid, 450. Quantity of iron taken 
 up by ■' he vlt. ioiic acid, 453. Why 
 vitriolic air is produced by diffol- 
 vmg iron in concentrate ! vitiiohc 
 acid. 455. Of thefolufion of the 
 calces of iron in vitriolic acid, 456. 
 Proportion of iron diffolved by the 
 nitrous- acid, 458. Vitriolic acid 
 adls on iton in a much more di- 
 lute ftate thaii the nitrous, 461. 
 Pro[;ortion of thi-^ metal taken up- 
 by the marine acid, 462. Calces of 
 iron precipitatedof areddifli colour 
 ffom the marine acid, 463. Of the 
 quantity of copper diffolved in tlie 
 vitriolic .-.cid, 464. l.iflammable 
 ai d vitrf dic air obtained bydiffol- 
 ving copper in this acid, 465. Why 
 the d-Uite vitriolic acid will not 
 a<5l upon copper, 466. Qt^autityr 
 of copper diffolved in nitrous aci ', 
 468. In marine acid, 4.09. Ef- 
 fe£l of the vitriolic acid on tin, 
 
 410. Of the nitrous acid, of the 
 marine acid of the vitrii He aci-i, 
 01. lead,-474. Of the nitrous acui, 
 476. Scarce foluble in dilute vi- 
 triolic acid, 475. liffedls of the 
 marine acid upon lead, 477. Of 
 the vitriolic acid on filver, 478. 
 Of nitr us acid on the fame, 479. 
 Of rhf diffolution of filver in ma- 
 rine acid, 480, The r-.itrous acid 
 cai.not, according to Mr Kirwan, 
 diffolve gold, 484. Effedls of the 
 vitriolic acid on mercury, 485. 
 Of the nitrous acid, 486. Of the 
 marine ^cid, 2d 486. Of the vi- 
 triolic acid on zinc, 4S7. < f ni- 
 trous acid upon it, 488. Le!-; of 
 this femimetal diff'dvel by con- 
 ce-.trated than by dilute nitrous 
 acid, 4S9. Effedls of the mariiic 
 acid on zinc. 490. Vitriolic acid 
 can fcarce diffolve bifmu'h, 491. 
 Nitrous acid diffolves it readily, 
 492. Marine acid fcarce adls lip- 
 on it, 493. Effcds of vitriobc a- 
 cid on nickel, 2d 493. Of nitrous 
 acid, 494. Of marine acid, 495. 
 Of the vitriolic acid on cobalt, 
 496. Of nitP.us acid, 497._ Of 
 the marine acid. 49S. Of vitrio- 
 lic acid o-.i "egulus of antimony, 
 499. Of nitrous acid, 500. Of 
 the marine acid, coi- Of vitrio- 
 lic acid on regulus of arfenic, 502. 
 Of nitrous acid, 503. Of marine 
 acid, 504. Quantity of phligiftoii 
 contained in it, 509. Why the 
 marine acid ads fo weakly, 
 510. How to diftil acid fpirits, 
 575. Luting prop.-r for them, 
 ^77. Of the vitriolic acid and its 
 comb'jiations, 612, etfeq: See f^i^ - 
 trlolic. Mlftake of Mr Morveau 
 concerning the exeefs of acid con- 
 tained in alum> deicded by Mr 
 Kirviran, 642. This excels necef- 
 fary to render alum foluble in wa- 
 ter, 643. Too great an excefs- 
 prevcnts the cryftaUiza: ion of the 
 lalt, 681. Tills excefs beil reme- 
 died by the addition i.i pu. c clay- 
 to the liquor, 6S2, etfiq. I he fu- - 
 periiuous acid might be advanta- 
 geoufly.diftibed, 6S9. Nitrous a- ■ 
 cid and its eombi:;atii»ns,722,£."/y^^. . 
 See Nitrous. Experiment <'n the 
 tranfmutation of vitriolic into ni- ■ 
 trous acid, 721. Incunclufr- e, 722. 
 Marine acid and its r. m!iinations, 
 7-82, et fi'q.; Tins acid m ly be de- 
 phlogiitlcated by fpirit of nitre or 
 manganefe, 790. Mr Scheele's 
 method of doing it- by ineans of 
 manganefe, 791. l^ropercies of 
 deplil<igifticau,d marine acid, 792, 
 A miftake of StahV concerning its 
 convcrfion into nitrous acid ac»- 
 couiitedfor,793. Stc Murine. Fluor" 
 acid difcovered by .R'Ir M; rt;raaf, . 
 &c. 826, et I'l'q. Marine aci;! pro- 
 ved to b^ different fr-m that of 
 fluor, 835. And bkewife the vi- 
 triolic, 836. &i.e Fluor. Of the 3" 
 cid i/f borax and its combinations, 
 858 — 866. See Borax and Sal Se- 
 daiivus. Gi' the acetous acid and 
 i&3 
 
6r6 
 
 its combinali.ns, 8(J^- — 8S4, 'Stt 
 Acetous. Of the acid of 
 8S5 — 895. See 'Taitar. Of the a- 
 cid of fugar, 896-— 903. Pee iSa^g-i?*- 
 and Sacckarine. Of the ph(:f[.-ho- 
 ric acid, 904 — 907. See Vhcfphorl-. 
 Of the acid of ant?, ad 9C7, oc8. 
 See ^n/j. Of the acid of amhcr, 
 909 — 915. Purified by marine a- 
 cid, 911. Effefts of fpii it of nitre 
 on it, 91a. Of oil of vitriol, 013. 
 Of the acid of arfenic, 916, et feq. 
 Nitrous acid decompofcs arfenic, 
 91 8. As dees alfo dej Iilogifticatetl 
 marine acid, 919. See Arfenic. Of 
 the acid(jf molybcljcna, 958, etfcq. 
 Effedls of the arfenical acid on 
 Riol)bdxna, 959. Nitrous acid 
 adts violently upon it, 960. See 
 MolyLdd-nn . Of the acid cf lapis 
 p(-nL'eri;fu3, tungften or v/olRvm, 
 ()(■,•], et fiq. ScQ. '-run^fen. DifTcr- 
 ence between the acids c f xnolyb- 
 da;i:a and tut;gf!:en, 071. M'hy 
 Ber(rn;an fuppt fed both ihefe to 
 be metallic earths, 972, 973. Of 
 the acid of milk, 974, ct fcq. Cun- 
 tains tlic acids of tartar and fca- 
 falt, 975. Of the ru'id of fugar of 
 Hiilk, 9S0, 981. Sec Milk. Of the 
 ac'd of human calculus, 9S2. Sea 
 C.dcidas. Of tl'.e acid of !'t-nz!>in, 
 
 984, ct fcq. See Flavers and Ben- 
 zsifi. Whe'her the acid of fugar 
 ■ or of tartar- is the balis of the an."'- 
 malous veg"et;iMe r.cids, 996. Dr 
 CrcU's method of crytlalli/iny; the 
 acid of lemot-s, 997. The cvyllai- 
 lized Calt cannot be converted into 
 acid of fugar, 999. Product of the 
 acid of tartar by dry diitillatioii, 
 1000. Acetous acid alaioH entirc'ly 
 tleftrudtible by lire, looi. Of the 
 ■tranfmutation of the vegetable a- 
 cids into the acetous acid, 1002 — 
 1015. See Acetous. Phenomena re- 
 fulting from the mixture of acid 
 .fpirits with one another, 1040. 
 Solution of falts promoted by vi- 
 triolic acid, 1048. Terra ponde- 
 ruh ufually found in a ftate of 
 combination with this acid, 1049. 
 Eficdls of marine acid aerated 
 terra ponderofa, 1053. See Terra 
 Pomkrofa. White matter coi;tain(>d 
 in the vitriolic acid fliown to b.j 
 pypfum, IC59. Vitriolic acid ea- 
 fily difcoverable byfolution of terra 
 ponderofa, 105S. Marmor metal- 
 liciim foluble in very concentrated 
 vitriolic acid, 1063. Whythefliior 
 Ecid will not dilToIve flint: diredlv, 
 1073. Why the filiceousearth 1'. <me- 
 tinies cannot be precipitated by an 
 acid without the airiflaiice of lieaf, 
 1079. Earth < f Hints precipitatecl 
 by fluor acid, 1080. Neither the 
 nitrous nor marine acid necefTuy 
 for the preparation of aurum fid- 
 minans, 11 17. Vitriolic acid par- 
 tially difiolvts aifenlc, 1271. Tvla- 
 rine acid diffolvcs it totally, 1272. 
 Phlogifticated alkali precipitates 
 arfenic from its folution in marine 
 acid, and from that only, 1273. 
 Arfenic decompofcd by dephlogi- 
 llicated marii'.e acid, 1274. Pheno- 
 mena of arfenic with ultious acid, 
 I28c>. Butter of arfenic can fcarce 
 be made to unite with marine acid, 
 1282. Reguius <if arfenic convert- 
 ed by the vitriolic acid into white 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 'i !e!:ir, ug?,. Pliencimsna of co- 
 b,i't with vitrii.'Iic acid, 1300. With 
 uitr. us acid, 1301. With marine 
 acid, 1302. With the acid of borax, 
 13 33. Lilrdtii cf the nitn us acid 
 u;i nickel, 1313. Dephlogifticatid 
 marine acid the only Iblvent of 
 platina, 1319. Snlution of that 
 metal in an aqua regia compofed 
 of nitrous acid and fpirit of fair, 
 i3:,3. I;i oi;e conipofed of marine 
 acid and nitre, 1324. Solurii n 
 cf calx of platina in marine acid 
 lets fall a cryflalline powder on the 
 addition of vegetable alkali, 1325. 
 But not that in the nitrous acid, 
 1326. Phenomena of manganefe 
 wi;h vitriolic acid,i36'o. Phlogi- 
 lllcated vitiiolic acid entirely dif- 
 folves it, 1361. And likcwife the 
 ].h'(igifi:icTtcd nitrous acid, 1363. 
 Ei'liscfts (fit on r.-aiine acid. 1364. 
 Entirely diffcKv^d by this acid 
 without addition, 1365. Eliior 
 acid can fcarceiy difTolve it, I36(). 
 Or phofpiioric acid, 1367. Acid 
 of tartar partly diflblves manga- 
 nefe, 1368. Acetous acid effeds 
 a folution with difficulty, 1369. 
 Acid of lemons entirely ciifToIves 
 it, 1370. As d.:es a!fo water im- 
 pregnuted with ucrial acid, 1571. 
 N.) ] u- e acid can diifolve ma:;ga- 
 ncff after v ha-; loft its pi;iogifi:op, 
 1375. W!-.y the c-n:enti ated vi- 
 ti irilic acid diff. Ives it withotit 
 additioi', 1378. VVliy the volatile 
 fid[ hureoi fe acid diilcdves it. 1379. 
 EffcClrs cf the nitrous acid on it 
 explained, 1380. Exigence of ' 
 phloyifton proved in the mari: e 
 acid, 1381. Kx]-)Iana'ion of the 
 efledls of acid of tartar and (;f le- 
 mons, 13C2. And of llucr acid, 
 13S3. I'ffeAs of dici-efting man- 
 ganefe and volatile al!-:ali with ni- 
 trous acid, 1393. An. acidfuppofed 
 to occafii'H the tafle of cffential 
 oils, 1420. A new one dilcoveied 
 by Mr Homber,?,.2d 825 . See Aclis. 
 See alfo Vitrioik, Nitrons, Marine, 
 Acetous, Tartar, Fliwf, Si.C. 
 Acids, one of ihe principal clafTts < f 
 falts, T69. Divided in' o miiicial, 
 vegetable, and animal, ib. Their 
 difierent adion cmpared with 
 that of alkalies, >7i. Unite with 
 alkalies into neutral falls, fome- 
 times with, and fc-metimes with- 
 out, flFervefcence, 172, Change 
 the blue coh ur of vegetables t^> 
 red, 173. DiTeient degrees of their 
 attradioii to alkalies, 174. The 
 vitriolic ftrongeft in a liquid fta'e, 
 ib. Marine acid Arongctl: in a 
 flate of vapour, \h. 'I'he fixed 
 acids llrongetl when the fubjedls 
 are urged with a vioK-nt heat, ib. 
 Attiadion of the cUfTerent acids 
 for pldrgifioi], (75. The acids are 
 caijabie of formiiig an union with 
 metals or earths, i;6. Will leave 
 a meral to uiiite with an earth, 
 176, 177. And an ec.rth to unite 
 v/iih a ndid vobitile alkali, ih. 
 Will leave a volatile, to unite with 
 a fixed alkali, ib. Some will Icive 
 
 i'lxed alkali to unite v\itii phlo- A. 
 gillon, 175, 178. Exceptions to 
 thefe rules, 179, Why precipi- 
 tates are fomctimes thrown down 
 by them, Exnkaation of the 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 df compolitlons efLded l)y acid, 
 lone, 266. Quantities of the dif- 
 ferent acids taken up by v.irious 
 bafes, 268» I'his quaiitity exprcf- 
 five of the quantity of attradion 
 they have for each of thefe bafes, 
 267. Vitriolic falts decompound- 
 ed by the nitrous and marine acids, 
 275. Acids tmite with alkalies l y 
 giving out iire , and qiut them by i e- 
 ceivingit,286. Theattradivei-i.w- 
 ers of acids to metals diflicidt to be de- 
 termined, 296. Proprrcions of the 
 differdnt metallic fubftances taken 
 up by the different acids. 298.. .Me- 
 tals have a greater affinity with a- 
 cids than alkalies, 1()<),Z'^^. Ex- 
 planation of the table of the affi- 
 nities to the different metallic fub- 
 flances, 316. An equal quantity 
 of all the mineral acids taken up 
 by vegetable fixed alkali, 402. 
 Quantity of this alkali recpiifite to 
 faturate the feveral acids, 403. A- 
 cids can never totally dephlogi'di- 
 cate metallic eartlis, 407. Con- 
 centrated acids phi igrllicated by 
 alkahes, 4C9. Of the time re- 
 qidred by mixtures of the mine al 
 acids with wa'.er to attain their ut- 
 mort der.fity, 422. Of the altera- 
 tii-ms of their denfities by various 
 dcjjrees of iieat, 423. Acids can- 
 not difi' l^e calc i;ed ma-nefia 
 Without heat, 442. P'lenome- 
 na of d'.tferent acids with in- 
 fl?.mmable fubftance-, 518. Me- 
 tals folulde in acids, 520. Calci- 
 nation and incieafe of their weight 
 by acids, 523. H-.w to diHil the 
 mineral acids, 5 75. Vitriolic, phof- 
 phoric, and acetous, acids, found 
 in tbe refm extradcd fiom the le- 
 fieiuum of vitriolic ether, 2d 722, 
 Ni'ruiis, marine, and phofphorlc 
 acids, capable of expeilintr the fluor 
 acid, 2d 850. Atids of fal amnno- 
 niac and nitre expelled by fait of 
 amber, 910. Of the anomalous ve- 
 getable acids, and the rcfemblmce 
 which vegetable acids in gei.cral 
 hear to one another, 984, et fe/, 
 EIovv the anomalous vegetable a- 
 cids are d.lvided, 993. Of the cf- 
 iential acids, 994, Empyrtuma- 
 tic acid«, 995. Whether the acid 
 of fugar or of tartar be the bafis of 
 the vegetable acid'^,vy96. D/Creli's 
 proofs that all the vegetable acids 
 may be reduced to one, wliich is 
 contained in the purelt i'j.irit of 
 wine, ioc6. Phenomena attend- 
 ing the d ffolution of vitriolic falts 
 in nitious or marine aci<l--, 1041. 
 Nitrous or marine acids are not ne- 
 celT-iry for the preparat-o.n of nu- 
 rum fulmmans, J 1 1 7. C->rper un- 
 dergoes a change by combination 
 with vegetable acids, lijl. Co- 
 loiirin',r matter of Pi-uffiun blue e.x- 
 pelled by acids, and then taken up , 
 by the atmofpheie, 1177. Pheno- 
 mena of arfenic with different a- 
 cids, 1275. Manganefe becomes in- 
 foluble in puie acids, by lofing its 
 phi 'gillon, 1375^ See /lciJs,Vitri(i- 
 l':c, 'Slarir.e, Vegetable, l3'c. 
 eiJs and Aliif/ies- inaccuracy of the 
 common teds for trying them, 
 15.-J9. Mr Watt's experim.cnts ..)n 
 this fuiijeift, ib. His method of 
 p iparlnga tell from .cabbage and 
 
 c_^her plai-its, 1550, etfeq. Abforb 
 ?.ir d•c.ri.^g their fouuation, 1543. 
 
 Adopters, or Aliideh, defcribed, 5 79. 
 
 Aerated terra ponderofa, analized \ff 
 Dr Witheriiitr, --0^ 7. 
 
 Aerial acid: the converiion c f dej hlo- 
 giflicaied air irto it by means of 
 charcoal, a proof of the identity of 
 phlogiiton and charcoal, rjr. De- 
 fcription of the terra ponderofa 
 combined with the aerial acid, 
 1051. Aerial acid and phlogiilofl 
 fuppofed to e.xiLt in the colouring 
 matter of Pruffian h ue, 1196. Sec 
 Fixed Air. 
 
 ■4jU^ni.ties,Q\Atkt\',t and divcllent, de- 
 fcribed,'267. Table of the affini- 
 ties cf the three nihieral acids fo 
 the different metals, 298. Expla- 
 nativ-n of this table, 316. Table of 
 the proportlon.-.l affinities of the 
 nict.illic calces to phlogillon, -530, - 
 Dr Black's general table of affmi- 
 tje-S 553- 
 
 AJjhiity of the different metals to 
 ph!oj;ifton, how determined, 318. 
 
 Ager.ts in chemiilry.howdiflirguifli- 
 ed from the obieds of It, 22. 
 
 Air fnpjiiies inflamm.-ble bodies with 
 the heut rhey em't during contbu- 
 flion,. 137. Tor. irreut a quantity 
 of air will diminifh the heat of a 
 lire, or even put it out entirely, 
 and why, 159. O.dy a fmall quan- 
 tity of air can be cbta'ned from 
 metals when calcined, r9i. Dif- 
 fe:ent kinds of it produced during 
 the diffolution of n etals, jor. Spe- 
 cific gravity i f the diffarent kin. Is 
 of air according to Fontana, 375. 
 Expofure of alun.inous ores to the 
 air fome'imes has the fame effcdt 
 with roalbng them, 663. Vitriol 
 deprived of its phi, .gift on by expo- 
 furcto the air, 687. Lixivium fan- 
 gidnis lofes its colouring matter 
 by expofure to tl-.e air, 1172. This 
 colouring matter taken up by the 
 air after It has been expelled by a- 
 cids, IT77. Ab '"orbed during the 
 formation of acids, 1543. 
 
 Air-L:bbles j)r(,duced in water du- 
 ring the ad of congelaticm, occa- 
 fion its expai.fion and prodigious 
 force, 109. Tliey are extricated 
 by a part ( f the latent heat dif- 
 charged from ihe water at that 
 time, no. 
 
 Alchcmifis : their labours were of fome 
 advantage to chemiftr) , 13. 
 
 Alchemy firft mentioned by Julius 
 Ficmdcus Maternus, a writer of 
 the 4th centin y, 8. Suppofed tobe 
 firit derived from the Arabians, 
 JO. The j.rcteHders to it very 
 nunaerous in the beginning of the 
 1 6th century, n. 
 
 Alchirnfs experiments on the efftd,s 
 of mixing tin with gold, 109J, 
 etfeq, 
 
 Alemhic, derivation of that word, 5. 
 
 Alembrotb Jul, made by fuliliming e- 
 qual quantities of corrofive fubli- 
 mate and fal ammor.iac, 1047. 
 Said to diffolve all the metals, ib. 
 Convertible by rep-ated didilla- 
 tions into a fluid that cannot be 
 raifed into vapours by the ffrongefl 
 heat, ib. 
 
 A'g.iruth po-zvder, prepared by preci- 
 pitatmg butter of an'imoiiy with • 
 wate.-, Szi. Tiie nioli pro] er ma- 
 terial 
 
Index. 
 
 terial for the preparatinn of eme- 
 tic tartar, 1459. Shown by Mr 
 Si;hct-)e to be a regulus Jialf calci- 
 neil by deplilr^gifticated marine a- 
 ci ', i2ti. His receipt for prepa- 
 ring it cheap, T l6l. 
 
 Ali'Ui k'fs attracSVed by nitrous acid 
 than filver, 301. Adecailic earths 
 more P:i (ngly attracted by acids 
 than volnrile alkali, ,^03. Why the 
 T'CtaMic f-arths frldom decnnTjX'f'e 
 thofe f< Its that have an alkal- for 
 their hafi«, ^o/^- Quantity of alka- 
 li, acid, and water, contained in 
 d.geftive fait, 379. M Kirwan's 
 tneth:;d of fatiirating an alkali ex- 
 adtlv wit!-, an acid, 381. (>nantity 
 of mild and cauftic vegetable fix- 
 ed aikali futurated by a given 
 weijjht of marine acid, 382. Quan- 
 tity of alkali, water, a:,d acid, in 
 nitre, 391 Of the fame ingre- 
 dients in vitriolated f.rtar, 398. 
 
 i Vegetable fixed alkah takes up an 
 equal quantity of all (he mineral 
 acids, 402. .Sj)ecific gravity of the 
 •vegetaMe alkali detej miped, 411. 
 Quancit) of earth contained in 
 this alka'i, 413. Of the quantity 
 of fixed air contained iti oil i f tar- 
 tar ai d dry vegetable alkali, 414. 
 i^antinci of fixed air contained 
 in impure vegetable alkali deter- 
 ji'iined by M- Cavendiih, 417. Ex- 
 a(5l quantity of acid takeij up by 
 n ild fixed alkali, 418. iM'neral al- 
 kali how prepared by Mr Kirwan 
 for his experiments, 429. Of the 
 quantity of yitriolic acid neccf- 
 fary to faturate 100 grains nf it, 
 430. Quantity of dephlogiilica- 
 ted nitrous acid taken up by it, 
 432. Of the marine acid, 433. 
 Proportion of pure alkali, water, 
 and fixed air, in crjftdliized mii.e- 
 ral alkali, 434. Excels of acid in 
 aluminous liquor cannot be remo- 
 ved, by mineral aikali, though it 
 may be !>y the vegetable and vo- 
 Jat:le kinds, 680. Vitriolic acid 
 combined with fixed alkali, O28, 
 629. With volatile alkali, 633. 
 Nitrou" acid combined with vege- 
 table fixed alkali, 740. With fof- 
 filf alkali, 741. With volatile al- 
 kali 745 Marine acid combined 
 with vegetable alkali, 794. With 
 mineral aikali, lb. Wi,h volatile 
 alkali, 795 Fluor acid combined 
 with fixe ! alkali, 4th 850. With 
 volatile alkaK, i . Glafs cor- 
 roded by the fait foimed from the 
 union of faior acid and volatile al- 
 kali, 854. Sedative fait combined 
 with the vegetable a kaii, 862. 
 With the miner?.! alkali, 863. A- 
 cetocs acid combined with vei e- 
 table alkaii, 868. Wi:h mineral 
 lalkali, 869. With volatile alkali, 
 870. Acid of tartar co)rJ)iiied 
 with vegetable alkali, 889. With 
 fofli! alkali, 891. With volatile 
 alkaii, 892. Acid of f;.gar with 
 vegetable alkali, 899. W:th fclfil 
 
 • alkali, i!\ Incredible quantity of 
 volatile alkalifaturated by it, 900. 
 Phc fphoric acid v\itb. fix,:d alkali, 
 906. With volatile al!:a!i, 904. 
 Acid of ants combine i with lixtd 
 and volatile sikali, 908. Acid < f 
 aBiber with fixed alkalies, oog. 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 With Volatile alkali, ib. Aci ! of 
 arfenic with vegetable fixed alkali, 
 92^. With mineral aikali, 927, 
 With volatile alkali, 928. Vege- 
 table alkali capable of being re- 
 duced into cryflals by means of fpi- 
 rit of wine, ior7. Without any 
 addition into ('eliq';efcent cryflals, 
 ib. Mineral al!:ali always affumcs 
 a ciyttalline f. rni, ib. t.'haiige 
 on the vegetaMe alkali by being 
 united with fpirit of fait, 1018. 
 Difference betwixt the vegetable 
 and mineral alkali, 1019. The for- 
 njcr has a greater attratftion for a- 
 cids, ib. Both of them compofed 
 of a cauflic fait and fixed air, 1020. 
 Of the volatile alkali, 1030. Of the 
 method ofdi{l;illingit,i03l. Of its 
 reclilication,i032. Combined with 
 fixed air, 1033. Combined wi'h 
 merals, 1034. With inflammable 
 fubft.mces 1055. With expreffed 
 oils, ih. With eflential oils and 
 fpirit of wine, 1036, 1037. With 
 fulphur, 1038. Solutions of cal- 
 careous earth decompofed by n^ild 
 volatile alkah, J046. Cauftic fix- 
 ed alkali throws down an infoluble 
 precipitate from folution of terra 
 ponder ofa, 1056. Vegetable al- 
 kali precipitates marnior nietalli- 
 cum unchanged from c )ncentra- 
 ted vitriolic acid, 1064. Volatile 
 alkali precij itates filiceous earth 
 more completely than any other, 
 1074. A tri; le fait formed by pre- 
 cipit.'.tiiig this earth with fixed al- 
 kali, 1075. Siliceous earth diffol- 
 ved by boiling in folution of alka- 
 li, 1076. A remarkable atrraiftion 
 betwixt fixed alkali and fihceous 
 earth in the dry way, 1077. 
 The ufe of volatile alkali only 
 lately known in the prepara- 
 tion of aurtim fulminans, (106. 
 This alkali the caufe of the 
 explofion, 1121. It exhibits a 
 flalh when thrown into a crucible 
 by itfelf, 1122. Ufed in the prepa- 
 ration of fulminatin? filver, 1139. 
 Plilogifticated alkali lofes its pe- 
 culiar properties, 1 168. Colouring 
 matter ©f Fruflian blue ui;iies with 
 volatile alkali, 1182. Forms a kind 
 of ammoniacal fait with it, 11 86. 
 Volatile alkali produced by difliil- 
 liiig Fruflian blue, 1197. Pheno- 
 mena on diflrilling metallic preci))i- 
 tates thrown down by Fruflian alka- 
 li, 1 198. Volatile alkali capable of 
 uriting with fixed alkali and phlo- 
 giflon foas to be capaliJe of fulb n- 
 ing a great d;'gree of heat, 120a. 
 Phl.igiflicated alkali cannot preci- 
 pitate arfenic except from marine 
 acid, 1273. EflTeciis of volatile al- 
 kali on nickel, 1314. Mineral 
 alkali capable of drcompofing c: y- 
 ftals (pf platina, but not the vege- 
 table alkali, 1322. Cr ftallinc 
 powder j recipitated from folu- 
 tion of calx < f platii.a in marine 
 arid, by means of vegetable alka- 
 li, 1325. But Hi t from the fokiti n 
 in nitro«'< acid, 1326. Whether 
 mine; al alkali can decoaipofe folu- 
 tii.ns of platina, 1328. Fifty-fix 
 times HS much of it required for 
 thi--- purpo'e as of vegetable alkali, 
 ^.3*9. £ifcds of the volatile alkali 
 
 S T R y. 
 
 on folut'ons of pb.thia, 1330. Vo- 
 latile alkali deltroycd by manga- 
 nefe attradling its phlogifton, i3i;4. 
 See Alkalies. Wiegleb's account 
 of the phenomena attending the 
 diffolutlon of copper in it, 1035. 
 I's elfe^son dejihlf giilicated Ipirit 
 of fait, 1485. Higgins firft d fco- 
 vercd its conflituent parts, 1553. 
 Procured if fr(mi nitrous acid and 
 tin,ib. Effedl of Jie cledricfpai k 
 on a mixture of it and dej hlogifri- 
 cated air, 1555. True compofi- 
 tion of it, 1556. 
 Alkalks ; one of the general clafTes of 
 falts, 169. Divided into fixed and 
 volatile, 170. The former fubdi- 
 vided into vesjetable and mineral, 
 ib. Difference between their a (Slion 
 andthatof acids, i-i. Neutral falts 
 foi m them by being united with 
 acids, 172. Vegetable blues chan- 
 ged green by them, 173. Diflerent 
 degrees of attraction betwixt them 
 and acids, 174. Phenomena at- 
 tending the precipitation of me- 
 tals by them, 220. Vula ile alka- 
 lies particularly apt to form trij le 
 falts, 274. Why they precipitate 
 the metals, 300. Metals have a 
 greater affinity with acids than al- 
 kalies, though the latter fepaiate 
 them from acids, 299. Why luna 
 cornea cannot be reduced without 
 lofs by alkaline falts, 314. Alka- 
 lies phlogifl;icare concentrated a- 
 cids, 409. Proportions of the dif- 
 ferent ingredients in volatile alka- 
 lies, 436. Stone-ware veflels cor- 
 roded by cauftic fixed alkalie?,595, 
 596. Advantages of ufing ch.y ra- 
 ther than alkalies for abforbing 
 the fuperfluoHs aci 1 in aluminous 
 liquor, 083. Solution of filver de- 
 compofed with difTu ulty by alka- 
 lies, 756. How the alkalies are 
 jirocured, ioi6. Differences be- 
 tween the vegetable ai)d mineral 
 alkalies, 1019. Combinatiojis of 
 them w ith fulphur, 1021. With 
 exijefled oils, 1026. With eflen- 
 tial oils, 1027. With phloj;iiion, 
 1028. Diflfercnces between the 
 fixed alkalies obtained from diffe- 
 rent vegetables, ib. Solution of 
 terra ponderofa in marine acid 
 P'ecipitated by ail the alkalies, 
 whether mild o;- cauflic, 1054. 
 Alkalies difTolve lead by boiling, 
 1216. Effccfls of arfenic on alkalies, 
 1290 Teit for them and acids, 
 1549. See AUali, Acid, and Acids, 
 Alkaline falts. See Alkali and Alia- 
 lits. Alkaline ley improper for 
 extradlitig the flowers of ben- 
 zoin, 989. 
 Aljlon-Moir '\\\ Cumberland, a kind 
 of aerated terra poni^erofa found 
 near that place, loji. 
 Aludels, or Adopters, defcribed, 579. 
 Alum : cannot form Glauber's fait 
 by being difl" Ived in water along 
 with comm n fait, 274. Miftake 
 ol Dr Ciell on th s fubje(il cor- 
 redlcd, ib. Nor blue vitriol by 
 boiling it with coj per filings, 349. 
 Why its precipitate retain- pan of 
 the acid, 408. Its earth contains 
 26 J>er cent, of fixed air, 446. Pro- 
 portions (/f the ingredieiits in it, 
 447. The fait always Ct^ntains.an 
 4 I 
 
 61 i 
 
 exc.fj of add, 443. Proportion of 
 the earih of alum taken up by ni- 
 trous acid, 449. By m.arine acid, 
 450. Alum of the ancients diffe- 
 rent from ours, 637. The name 
 Roch-alitm derived from J?c«o, a 
 city of Syria, 6_,8. Fi'-(t made ia 
 Europe in the middle of the 15th 
 century, in Italy, 639. Made in 
 Spain in the 1 6th century, 640. In 
 iEiigland and Swedisn in the 17 th, 
 ib. I'S component parts firfl difco- 
 vered by Boulduc and Geoffroy, 
 641. Found to contain an excefs 
 of acid, ib. This ilenied by Mr 
 Morveau, 642. His miftake dif- 
 covered by Mr Kirwan, ib. Info- 
 luble in water when deprived of 
 its fuperfluous acid, 643/' Eafily 
 calcinable in the fire; after which it 
 is cal'ed burnt alum, ib. Bergman's 
 method of (inding the proportion 
 of the i igredients it contains, 644. 
 Difficulty of obtaining the earth 
 of alum in a pure fl;ate, 645. Mr 
 Bergman's account of the propor- 
 tion of the ingredients, 646. Whe- 
 ther earth of alum be a pure clay 
 or not, 647. Dr Lewis's experi- 
 ment, tending to fliow that clay 
 undergoes fume change by being 
 converted into earth of alum, 649. 
 Quantities of alum foluble in 
 wa-m and in cold water, 650. 
 Bergman's account of the Swedifli 
 ores of alum, 651. Component 
 parts of the aluminous fchill, 65a. 
 How changed by roafling, 653. 
 Prefence of pyrites the onlyrequi- 
 fitf for the prndudtion of alum, 
 '654. Ores containing alum ready 
 formed only to be met with in 
 volcanic countrirs, 655. Ores of 
 alum at Solfatara in Italy, 656. 
 Analyfed by Mr Bergman, 657. 
 Heffian, Bohemian, and Scanian, 
 ores, 63 8. Alum, fulphur, and vi- 
 triol, extra(fled from the fanre ore, 
 6;;9. Ah m Hate foimd at York in 
 England, 660. Bergman's direc- 
 tions for the preparation of alum, 
 661. Ufes of roafl;ing the ore, 66z. 
 Expofure to the air fometimes has 
 the fame effedl wi h roafl:ing, 66% 
 Earthy ores unfit for either pur- 
 p'jfe,_664. Method of roafting the 
 ore in Sweden, 665. How often 
 the operation is to be repeated, 
 666. Danger of increafing the heac 
 too much, 667. Rinman's method 
 « f roafting the ore at Garphyttan, 
 668. Method of burning the hard 
 ores at Tolfa in Italy, 669. Me- 
 thod of elixating the burned ore at 
 Garphyrtan, 670. Heat and cold 
 water ufed f( r this jiurpofe in dif- 
 ferent j.laces, ib. Differer.t me- 
 tbo Is of elixation, 671. Singular 
 circumftance by which the alum is 
 faid to be deftrwyed, 67a. Of the 
 proper ftrength of the lixivium be- 
 fore It is c mmitted to evaj ora- 
 tion, 673. Conflrudion of t e e- 
 vaporating veff.'!, 6-4. He vv far 
 the liquor ou'^ht to be evaporatetl, 
 67J. Of the lin. cry;:;,niz:,.t;on, 
 670. D puiation of the cryflals, 
 6; 7- Beigman's remarks v.n the 
 proper fi^rm of the c;..,icr5, 678. 
 They ought to be of a conical 
 Ihape, lb. Aluminous ley contains 
 to 
 
6iS 
 
 fo much acid tliat 5c f annct be cry- 
 ftallized without abftradcing part 
 of the excefs, 679. Which m'.y 
 be d me by tlie addition of vej^e- 
 table fixed alkali, or volatile alka- 
 li, but not by the mineral alkali, 
 (>io. Experiments in proof of the 
 excefs of acid preventing the cry- 
 ftallization of alum, 681 . Another, 
 Ihowing the ut ility of adding clay 
 to the a'uniinousley, 68i. Advan- 
 tage of ufing it in preference to 
 the alkalies, 683. Alum general- 
 ly contamir.ated by dephl'^gifli- 
 cated vitriol, 684. Thi^ defetfl: re- 
 medied by the addition of pure 
 day, 685. Perfedt vitriol cannot 
 be deftroyed by clay, 686. How 
 the phlogifton of vitriol may be 
 diffipated, 687. Epfom fait fup- 
 pnfed to be producible from the 
 mother liquor of alum, 688. Su- 
 perfluous acid of this liquor might 
 be advantageoufly (^iftilled, 689. 
 Combination of arfenical acid with 
 earth of alum, 938. How to make 
 it fhoot into cubical cryftals, 689. 
 J^lum JIate. See yllum. 
 Alum ivorh, when firft fet up in I- 
 taly, 639. In Spain, England, and 
 Sweden, 640. 
 Aluminous ores. See Alum. 
 Amalgamation of filver : a difficulty 
 concerning it fulve l by Mr Berg- 
 man, 217. Of copper with mer- 
 cury, 115a. Dr Lewis's methods, 
 1153. Amalgamation of mercury 
 with different metals, 1132 
 Amber, acid of, 908. Mr Pott's ex- 
 peiiments on it, 909. Requires a 
 large quantity of water for its fo- 
 lution, ib. Rendered fomewhat 
 purer by cryftallization, ib. Part- 
 ly deftroyed by fublimation, ib. 
 Forms a neutral faline liquor with 
 fixed alkalies which does not cry- 
 flallize, ib. Forms an oily fluid 
 with volatile alkali, ib. Extri- 
 cates the acids of fal ammoniac and 
 liitre, 910. Purified by marine a- 
 cid, 911. Doet not contain any 
 mineral acid, ib. Converted al- 
 moft entirely into a liquid by di- 
 flillation with fpirit of nitre, 912. 
 Moft of it rifes in a folid form by 
 diflilling with oil of vitriol, 913. 
 Forms a folution of quicklime, 
 moftlyrefembling the fame, in ve- 
 getable acids, 914' Its effefls on 
 the metals, 91J. Amber, by di- 
 flillation, yields an acid fait and oil, 
 1444. Difference in the produdl 
 by certain additionsfometimes ufed 
 in the diftillation, ib. Addition 
 of fea-falt produces the greateft 
 yi^ld of fait of amber, ib. Greateft 
 quantities of amber diflilied in 
 PruiFia, 1445. Diftiiledthere with- 
 out any addition, ib The fak ) u- 
 rificd by bcin;^ kept on bibulous 
 paper to abforb the oil, ib. Cry- 
 llals refembling it formed by the 
 nnion of marine acid with phlogi- 
 ftic matters, 1481. Methods of 
 purifying its fait, i494- An acid 
 of another kind paffes over in di- 
 AiUing this fubfiance, i493- Com- 
 bination of the fait with alkalies, 
 earths, and metals, ib. Mr Keir's 
 remarks on the nature of fait of 
 amber, 1495- 
 
 G H E M I 
 
 Amh?tfgreafe yields a produ6l on di- 
 ftillation fimilar to that of am- 
 ber, 1446. 
 
 America : method of making nitre 
 there, 726. 
 
 Ammoniac, vitriolic, decompofed by 
 folution of filver, 306. How to 
 prepare this kind of fal ammo- 
 niac, 633. Erroneoufly faid to 
 hav.! powi rful effefts on the difib- 
 lution of metals, ib. Mr Pott's 
 experiments on it, ili. Nitrous am- 
 moniac, how prejiared, 745. Is fo- 
 luble in fpirit of wine, ib. Defla- 
 grates without any addition, ib- 
 The principal ingredient in Ward's 
 white drop, 746. Common fal 
 ammoniac prepared from marine 
 acid and volatile alkali, 795. Dif- 
 folves refins according to Mr Gel- 
 lert, ib. Its volatility diminilhed 
 by repeated fiiblimations, ib. A 
 fmall quantity producible by di- 
 ftilling fea-falt with charcoal, &c. 
 ib. Originally prepared in E- 
 gypt. 796. A method of making 
 it defcribcd, ib. Vegetable ammo- 
 niac formed of the acetous acid and 
 volatile alkali, 870. Can fcarcebe 
 procured in a dry ftate, ib. Acid 
 of common fal ammoniac extrica- 
 ted by acid of amber, 910. And 
 by the arfenical acid, 932. Vola- 
 tile fal ammoniac, how prepared, 
 1E33. Common fal ammoniac nr)t 
 decompofed by regulus of cobalt, 
 1304. Effects of it on nickel, 
 1312. Solution of it precipitates 
 a folution of platina, 1352. 'I'he 
 precij)itate fufible by a ftrong foi ge 
 heat, 1353- This fufion fuppofed 
 by Macqutr not to be perfedl, 
 1354. Effedts of manganefe on 
 it, 1392. 
 
 Ammoiiiacal fait, formed by the union 
 of the colouring matter of Pruf- 
 fian alkali with volatile alkali, 11 86, 
 Animal earth, very infoluble in acids, 
 and infufible in the fire, 515. 
 Earth of the foft parts more fo- 
 iuble than that of the hard, ib. 
 This earth erroneoufly fiippofed to 
 contain phofphoric acid, ib. Ani- 
 mal fats analyfed, 1428. Yield 
 a great quantity of oil by diftilla- 
 tion, ib. A particular kind of a- 
 cid produced from tallow, 1429. 
 How to redflify the empyreumatic 
 oil of animals, 1417. Of animal 
 and vegetable fubftances, 145 1. 
 Anomalous earths, 513. Anomalous 
 vegetable acids, how divided, 993. 
 Antimony : why nitrous acid precipi- 
 tates a folution of it, 500. Preci- 
 pitates of it by common and phlo- 
 gifticated alkalies, 246. Of its pi e- 
 cipitates with other metals, 365. 
 A triple fait formed by regulus of 
 antimony, marine acid, and iron, 
 366. Another with the regulus, 
 marine acid, and copper, 367, Of 
 the folution of the regulus in vi- 
 triolic acid, 499. Of its combina- 
 tion with that acid, 709. Corrod- 
 ed by the nitrous aeid, 768. Re- 
 gulus of antimony combined with 
 marine acid, 821. Of the amal- 
 gamation of it with mercury,! 237. 
 Renders bifmuth capable of unit- 
 ing with cobalt, 1251. The re- 
 gulus particularly treated of, 1232, 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 et feq. Has the appearav.ce of a 
 ftar OH its furface when well made, 
 
 1252. Sublimable into flowers, , 
 
 1253. Different methods of pre- 
 paring the regulus, 1254. Confi- 
 derable differences in the regulus, 
 according to the difftxent fubftan- 
 ces ufed to ahforb the fulphur, 
 125J. Of the regulus made with 
 cawk, 1256. This femiiuetal ea- 
 fily mifcible with mercury, 1255. 
 Enters into the comjufition of 
 fpeculumsandjirinting types, 1256. 
 Was the bafis of many medicinal 
 preparations, now difufcd on ac- 
 count of their uncertain operation, 
 ib. Glafs of antitnony, how pre- 
 pared, 1257. More violent in i's 
 effedts than the regulus itfelf, ib. 
 Pi eparation of emetic tartar from 
 glafs of antimony a:)d pulvis alea- 
 roth, \%$%,et feq. See Tartar and 
 Algaroth. Preparation of golden 
 fulj^hur of antimony and kermes 
 mineral, 1263. Diaphoretic anti- 
 mony, 1264. Crocus metallo- 
 rum, 1265. Butter of, Mr Dol- 
 fus's method of preparing it, 821, 
 
 Antiphlogijlians : their abfurd way of 
 explaining the explofion of fulmi- 
 nating filver, II44. 
 
 Ants yield an acid by diftillation or 
 infufion in water, 2d 907. Its na- 
 ture and properties, 908. 
 
 Ants, acid of, cr.mpo.'"es an ammo- 
 niacal liquor with volatile alkali 
 which cannot be reduced to a dry 
 fait, 908. Cryftallizes with fixed 
 alkalies, ib. And with coral chalk 
 or quicldime, ib. Diffolves cal- 
 cined copper, and forms beautiful 
 cryftals with it, ib. Makes a pe- 
 culiar kind of faccharum fatunii 
 with minium, ib. Its effedls on 
 other metals, ib. Different me- 
 thods of procuring their acid, 
 
 1502. Properties of the pure acid, 
 
 1503. Has an affinity with the 
 acetous, 1304. Its effedts on me- 
 tals, 1505. 
 
 Apples, th«ir acid treated of, 1506, 
 Its properties, 1509,1511. How 
 prfflcured in perfedt purity, 15 10. 
 Produced from fugar by means of 
 nitrous acid, 1512. Mr Keir's opi- 
 nion concerning its nature, 1514- 
 
 Aquafortis, procured by means of ar- 
 fenic of a blue colour, 7^9. 
 
 Aqua-regia, beft kind of it for diffol- 
 ving gold, 481. Quantity of gold 
 taken up by it, 482. How pre- 
 pared from nitrous acid and com- 
 mon fait, 788. Of the folution of 
 gold in aqua-regia, 1099. Solu- 
 tion of platina in an aqua-regia 
 compofed of niti ous and marine a- 
 cids, 1323. In one made *ith 
 marine acid and nitre, 1324. Va- 
 rious methods of preparing if, 
 
 1488. Differences between the li- 
 quors prepared by thefc methods, 
 
 1489. How to deprive it of its 
 volatility, 1548. 
 
 Aquila alba, a name for mercurius dul- 
 cis, 814. 
 
 Arabians, the firft broachers of alche- 
 my, 10. 
 
 Arbor Z);i7n«, how made, 754. 
 
 Ardent fpirits, diffolve camphor in 
 great quantity, 1425. 
 
 Argqnd'i lamps, ufed_for Ump-furna- 
 
 Index. 
 
 ces 6ir. Doubtful whether they 
 be preferable for this purpofe to 
 Lewis's or not, ib. 
 
 Argentine fotvers , formed of regulus 
 of antimony, 1253. 
 
 Argillciceous earth, in what it differs 
 from the calcareous, 5 12, Tobac- 
 co-pipe clay the pure'l earth of 
 this kin 1, ib. Abfor]) colours, ib. 
 Refift the utmoft violence of fire 
 by fhemfelves, but melt by a mix- 
 ture with chalk, ib. Combina- 
 tion of the aririllaceous earth with 
 vitriolic acid, 637, &c. See Alum. 
 
 Argonauts, origin of the fable of 
 them, (>. 
 
 Arfenic : Of its diffolutioii and preci- 
 pitation, 243, 36H. Calculation of 
 the quantity if pld' gillon contain- 
 ed in regulus of aifonic, 318. Pi e- 
 cipi.tatcd by bifmuth from the ni- 
 trous acid, 369. yVnd by copper 
 from the marine, 370. Quantity 
 of vitriolic acid taken uji by regu- 
 lus of arfenic, 501. Of nitrous 
 acid, 503. Of marine acid, 504. 
 Compounded of a particular kind 
 of acid and phlogifton, 548. U- 
 nites with fulphur, ib. Is foluble 
 in water, ib. Expels the acid of 
 nitre, ib. Reafon of this decom- 
 pofition, ib. Phenomena on di- 
 Itillation with the virriolic acid, 
 711. Dephlogilticated by the ni- 
 trous acid, 770. Of the adultera- 
 tion of eorrofive fublimate by ar- 
 fenic, 818. Oil and butter of ar- 
 fenic, 823. Foi meJ by fubliming 
 arfenic with corroilve fublimate, 
 ib. Of the arfenical acid, 916, et 
 feq. See Arfenic, acid of. A fingle 
 grain of regulus of arfenic dellroys 
 the malleability of an ounce of 
 gold, 1095. Has a great affinity 
 with tin, 1219. Methods of fe- 
 parating arfenic from tin, 1220. 
 The crackling noife of tin in 
 bending fuppofed to arifa from ar- 
 fenic, 1 22 1. Arfenic found in 
 f ime places of Germany in a me- 
 tallic form, 1266. The regulus 
 eafily convertible into cemmon 
 white arfenic by diifipating part of 
 its phlogifton, 1267. Why the ar- 
 fenical calx may be mixed with 
 other metals which will unite with 
 it in its reguline ftate, 1268. Of 
 the folution of the calx in water, 
 1169. In fpirit of wine, 1270. 
 Forms a very infoluble and fixed 
 fait with vitriolic acid, 1271. Dif- 
 folves in large quantity in the. ma- 
 rine acid, and forms a more vola- 
 tile fait with it, though difficultly 
 foluble in water, 1272. Refem- 
 blance of this folution to butter of 
 arfenic, ib. Phlogifticated alkali 
 precipitates arfenic from marine a- 
 cid, and from that only, 1273. Ar- 
 fenic decompofed by dephlogifti- 
 cated marine acid, 1274. Pheno- 
 mena exhibited by it with other 
 acids, 1275. Liver of arfenic 
 formed by combining it with fix- 
 ed alkali, 1276. Arfenic unites 
 with fome metals, and cryftallizes 
 with iion and zinc, 1277. Unites 
 readily with fulphur, 1278. Com- 
 pounds thence refulting, ib. 1279. 
 Phenomena exhibited by minera- 
 lized arfenic with nitre, 1280. 
 
 Butter 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Index. 
 
 Butter (){ arfenic, laRi, Thi? fub- 
 ftanre can fcarce be made t<i miite 
 with marine acid, laSa. Of t'M 
 ■ oil f f aifenic, 1283. Of the mine- 
 ralisation of arfenic by ful}'hui-, 
 128+. Ho'.v to prepare pure regu- 
 lus of arfenic, 1285. A native re- 
 gulus called m[fpkkel, ii86. This 
 contains a laige quantity of iron, 
 which will not obey the mag- 
 net till the reguliis is diflipated, ib. 
 Great: volatility of the reguline ar- 
 fenic, 1187. It dellroys the mal- 
 leability of the metals with which 
 it unites, ia88. May be expelled 
 by heatfrom ail of them except pla- 
 <ina, 1289. Volatilizes all of them 
 except platina,ib. EfFeils of arfenic 
 upon alkaline falts and nitre, 1290. 
 Decompofes corrofive fublimate, 
 
 1291. The regulus converted in- 
 to white arfenic by vitriolic acid, 
 
 1292. Eire6ts of it on metallic f(i- 
 lutions, 1293. Platina may be 
 melted by means of arfenic, 1,349. 
 EfFcifts of it on manganefe in con- 
 juiitflion with nitre, 1391. Phe- 
 nomena on diftillation with man- 
 ganefe, 1395. 
 
 Arjeni:, acij of, firft difcovercd by 
 Mr Scheeic, 916. Two methods 
 of procuring it, 917. By means 
 of nitrous acid, 918. By dephlo- 
 giflicated fpirit of fait, 919. This 
 acid equally poifonous with the 
 white calx, 920. Eafily rofumes 
 its phlogifton, 921. Takes fire 
 and fublimes inflantancoufly into 
 regulus with charcoal, 922. Be- 
 come* black and thick with oil of 
 turpentine, 923. With fulphur, 
 924. Cryftallizes into a neutral 
 fait with vegetable alkali, 925. 
 This fait decompofed and forms a 
 regulus with charcual, 926. Forms 
 a cryftallizable fait when pcrfeAly 
 faturated with mineral alkali, but 
 requires an excefs of acid to matce 
 it cryftallize with the vegetable al- 
 kali, 927. Forms likewife a cry- 
 ftallizable fait with the volatile 
 alkali, 928. Expels the vitriolic 
 acid from vitriolated tartar and 
 Glauber's fait, 929. And likewife 
 thofe of nitre and common fait, 
 93O) 93 1 • Phenomena on diftiliing 
 it with fal-ammoniac, 93a. De- 
 compofes fpathum poi iderofum and 
 gypfum : but cannot expel the fluor 
 acid, 339, 934. Precipitates lime- 
 water, 935. Forms a cryftalline 
 fait with chalk, 936. But refufes 
 to cryftallize with magnefia, 937. 
 Or with earth of alum, 938. Does 
 not diffblve white clay, 939. Dif- 
 folves terra ponderofa, 940. Has 
 no cStSt on gold or platina, 941, 
 $42. Diffolves filver in the dry 
 Way by a violent heat, 943. Fixes 
 quickfiiver, 944. Produces cor- 
 rofive fublimate by dilUllation 
 with meciirius dulcis, 945. No 
 butter of arfenic obtained by this 
 profefs,946. Diffolves copper, 947. 
 Forms a very thick gelatinous fo- 
 lutioK of iron, 948. Diffolves lead 
 in the dry way, 949. And likewife 
 tin, 950. DilTolves ziac with effer- 
 vcfcence, 941. But cannot diffolve 
 biihiuth, 952. Nnr regulus of an- 
 timony, 953. Diflblves cobalt par- 
 
 tially, 954. But not nickel, 955. 
 Diffolves a fmall quantity of man- 
 ganefe, 956. Converts regulus of 
 arfenic into the white arfenical 
 calx, 957. Strange phenomena 
 from it and the acetous acid, 
 9575 1521- M- Pelletier's me- 
 thod of procuring the acid of arfe- 
 nic, 1496. Differences concern- 
 ing the weight of the acid fo pro- 
 cured, ib. 
 
 AJhes of different vegetables, Dr 
 Gmclin's account of their colours, 
 &c. 1089. 
 
 AttraSiion : Fire detained in bodies 
 partly by it and partly by the 
 prelTure of the furrounding fluid, 
 55. Of chemical attraction, 162. 
 This kind of attradtion not e- 
 qually ftrong between all bodies, 
 ib. Different degrees of it betwixt 
 the different acids and alkalie;*, 
 174. Attrailion of phlogifton fup- 
 pofed to be the caufe of cuuflicity, 
 219. Kirwan's definition of che- 
 mical attradtion, 260. Difference 
 betwixt it and cohefion, 261. 
 Geoffroy's rule fjr determining 
 the degrees of chemical attradlion, 
 262. True method of afcertaining 
 the quantity of atfratSlion each of 
 the acids has for the difFereiit ba- 
 fes, 265. This quantity expreffed 
 by that of the bafes taken up by 
 the different acids, 269. Attrac- 
 tion of metallic calces to phlogi- 
 fton determined, 326. 
 
 AttraBive /lo-zrtfrj of dift'erent fubftan- 
 ces heft expreffed by numbei s, 264. 
 Difiictilties in detei mining the at- 
 tractive ;iowers of the different 
 acids to metallic fubftances, 296. 
 
 Auruni fuhninans, its nature and pro- 
 perties, 1103. Was known in the 
 15th century, 1 104. l"he firft di- 
 redlions for its preparation given 
 by Bafil Valentine, 1105. The 
 ufe of volatile alkali for this p\ir- 
 pofe but lately known, 1106. Dif- 
 ferent accounts of the increafe of 
 weight in the metal by being con- 
 verted into aurum fulmiHans,iio7. 
 Explodes with incredible force, 
 iro8. Twenty grains of it more 
 than equivalent to half a pound of 
 gun-powder, ib. Does not explode 
 in clofe veffels, 1109. The utmoft 
 caution neceffary in managing it 
 in the open air, ib. Dr Lewis's ac- 
 count of the heat neceffary to 
 make it explode, mo. Explodes 
 by fritSlion fcarce fufficient to occa- 
 fion any heat, 11 11. Teniblc 
 accidents occafioned by it, in 2. 
 The ff)rce of the explofion direcSled 
 equally every way, 1113. Parti- 
 culars relating to the explofion, ib. 
 Will not explode when moift, 
 1 1 14. ^^antity of elaftic vapour 
 produced during the explofion, ib. 
 Caufe of the explofion attributed 
 to a faline principle, 11 15. This 
 opinion fhown to be erroneous by 
 Mr Beigman, 1116. Why the ful- 
 minating property is deftrcyed by 
 trituration with fixed alkali, ib. 
 The explofion rendered more vio- 
 lent by boiling with fixed alkali, 
 ib. Why the fulnjinatin.^ proper- 
 ty is deftroyed by boiling with too- 
 'ftrong a folution of alkali, or with 
 
 concentrated vitriolic acid, ib. 
 Neither the prefence of nitrous or 
 marine acids neceffary for the pro- 
 dudlion of fulminating gold, ii 17. 
 The explofion is not occaiioned by 
 fixed air, 11 18. How the fulmi- 
 nating calx may be prepared, 1 1 1 9. 
 The calx moft readily thrown 
 down by volatile alkali, ib. A ful- 
 minating calx produced from folu- 
 tion of gold in dephlogifticated 
 fpirit of fah, ib. Mr Bergman's 
 theory of the caufe of the explo- 
 fion, 1 120. Volatile alkali the 
 true caufe of it, 1121. Great 
 quantity of elaflic fluid generated 
 by the explofion of aurum fulmi- 
 nans, 1123. Why a flight calci- 
 nation deftroys the fulminating 
 property, 1124. Why the calx will 
 not explode in clofe veffels, 11 25. 
 
 Aurum Mofaicum, or Mujivum, how 
 prepared, 1224. 
 
 Bacon (Lord), his opinion of heat, 
 28, 29. See Verulam. 
 
 Bahhuin's fhofphorus prepared from 
 folution of calcareous earth in fpi- 
 rit of nitre, 749. 
 
 Balneum tireme, or fand-bath, defcri- 
 bed, J78. 
 
 Balfiims of fulphur, how prepared, 
 1401. Vegetable balfams whence 
 procured, 1432. May be confi- 
 dered as effential oils thickened by 
 the diffipation of fome of their 
 more volatile parts, ib. Analyfis 
 of them exemplified in turpen- 
 tine, 1437. 
 
 Barefelenhe, a name for the marmor 
 metallicum, or combination of 
 terra ponderofa with vitriolic a- 
 cid, lojo. 
 
 B»ftl V alentine, the firft who gave di- 
 redions for the preparation of au- 
 rum fulminans, 1 105. 
 
 Beaume^s obfervatious on gypfum, 
 636. His account of the forma- 
 tion of fedative fait ill founded, 
 862. Vitrifies a calx of platina, 
 
 Beccarias obfervations on phofpho- 
 ri, 1085. 
 
 Bell-metal, conipofed of copper and 
 tin ,1155. Its fpecific gravity great- 
 er than that of either of the me- 
 tals fingly, 1 156. 
 
 Bellows, when to be ufed in chemi- 
 cal operations, 608. 
 
 Bells : Reaumur's hint concerning an 
 improvement in their fhape,i2ii. 
 
 Benzoin, yields a fragrant acid fait by 
 fublimatic)n,984. The fame obtain- 
 ed by lixiviation, 985. Quantity ob- 
 tained by both thefe methods, 986. 
 Mr Schecle's experiments in order 
 to procure all the flowers benzoin 
 is capable of yielding, 987, &c. 
 Boiling with chalk infufficient, 
 988. Or with alkaline ley, 989. 
 Boiling with lime the beft method, 
 990. Scheele's receipt for prepa- 
 ring the flowers of benzoin by this 
 method, 991. The flavour of 
 thefe flowers deftroyed and repro- 
 duced at pleafure, 992. The gum 
 analized, 1439. Acid of, nivclti- 
 gated by Mr Lichteiiftein, 15^0. 
 Effedts of nitrous acid upon it, 
 1531. Procurable from Peruvian 
 ball'am and from uvaie, 153a 
 
 Bergmun'i account of the caufe of 
 4 I a 
 
 619 
 
 chemical folution, 193. Differences 
 between him and Kirwan account- 
 ed for, 435. His method of find- 
 ing the proportion of ingredients 
 in alum, 644. His account of the 
 quantity of thefe ingredients, 646. 
 His account of the Swedifh ores of 
 alum, 651. His analyfis of the 
 ores at Tolfa in Italy, 657. His 
 dire<3:ions for the preparation of a- 
 lum, 661. His remarks on the 
 proper form of the coolers for a- 
 lum, 678. Confiders the lapis 
 ponderofus or tungftcn as a m.etal- 
 lic earth, 967. Hisopisiion con- 
 cerning the acids of tungften and 
 niolybdxna, 972. Denies the fo- 
 luliility v{ filiceous earth in acids, 
 1070. Forms cryllals of flint arti- 
 ficially, 1072. Shows the error 
 of thofe who imagine the explo- 
 fion of aurum fulminan,- to be oc- 
 cafioned by a I'aline principle, 11 16. 
 His theory of the explofion, 1120. 
 His opinion concerning the fulmi- 
 nation of other calces, 11 26. His 
 opinion concerning the compofi- 
 tion of nickel, 1316. His experi- 
 ments on platina, 132 1. Letter 
 to Morveau on the fubjedt of a 
 new nomenclature, 1559. 
 
 Serkenhout'i opinion of heat, 56. Hi* 
 divifion of it into fixed and vola- 
 tile, J 7. Sec Heat. 
 
 Berthollet difcovers fulminating fil- 
 ver, 1138. Procures the mani;e 
 acid in a fohd ftate, 785. His new 
 faltrefembling nitre, 2d 793. How 
 to procure this fait in quantity, 
 1487. 
 
 Bejlucheff \ tin<fture of iron, 2d 808. 
 Miftakesof chemifts concerning it, 
 3d 808. True method of preparing 
 it, 4th 808. Suppofed to abforb 
 ))hlogifton from the fun's rays, 
 5th 808. 
 
 Bile : fome of its properties affumed 
 by blood when mixed with the ni- 
 trous acid, 1477. 
 
 Bifmuth : Of its precipitation from 
 acids, 241. Copper and bifmuth 
 precipitate one another alternately" 
 from the nitrous acid, 357. Is 
 fcarcely, foluble in vitriolic acid, 
 491. !ncreafes the fufibility of tin 
 and lead, 543 . A compound of this 
 kind fufible in boiling water, 544. 
 Diffolved in great quantiiiesbyni- 
 trous acid, 765. Volatile alkalies, 
 after precipitating the metal take 
 it uy, again, ib. The fame thing 
 hapjieiis with fixed alkalies calci- 
 ned with inilammable matter, ib. 
 Magiftery of bifmuth prepared hj 
 adding water to the nitrous folu- 
 tion, 766. Neuraan's obfervations 
 concerning this preparation, ib. 
 Effecfls of acid of arlenic upon it, 
 952. Is coi:vertible into litharge 
 and glafs, 125c. Occupies lefs 
 fpace when it! fufion than when in 
 a folid Itate, 1250. Mifi-ible with 
 all the metallic fubftances except co- 
 balt and zinc, 1251. Promote- the 
 fiifion of all the metals with which 
 it ism'xe l, 1251. Platina may be 
 alloyed wuh it, but without any 
 aivanraye, 1348. 
 
 Bittern a kind of fait prepared from 
 it, f.cquei tly fu|.erfedes the ufe of 
 the true Giauljer's.lait,632, How 
 t© 
 
620 
 
 to procure the marine add from It, 
 736. 
 
 Bitumens particularly tnated <if,i44r. 
 Whether they are nf a vegetable 
 or niii;eral oriL'in, ib. Macqiier's 
 opinion that they are only vege- 
 table refins a'cered, ib. I)r I-ewis's 
 reaf<ins for being of a contrary 
 opinion, ib. 
 Bl'ick, Dodlior, his theory of heat, 35. 
 Experiments by which he was led 
 to the difcovery of latent heat, 4 1 . 
 His metl;od of calculating the 
 quantity of heat produced by the 
 condenfation of vapour, 44. Dif- 
 ference betwixt his calculations 
 and thofe of Dr Crawford, 5 1 . 
 Expanfive force of water in free- 
 zing explained by Dr Black's theo- 
 ry of latent heat, 108. His expe- 
 riments on the convcrfion of wa- 
 ter into vapo'.r, lai. His obfer- 
 vations on chemical veffels, 557. 
 His dire(Sti< ns for performing the 
 operation of folution, 565. Dc- 
 fcription of his po^ table furnace, 
 2d 602. How it is adapted to the 
 various operations of chemirtry, 
 603. Of the luting proper for the 
 infiJe of this furnace, 604. Me- 
 thod of applying the lute, 605. 
 HisaccoL.nt of the preparation of 
 nitre, 724. His conclufions con- 
 cerning the nature of that fait, 
 73Z. His method of making ni- 
 trous erher, 775. Shows a me- 
 thod of making it without any 
 fpirit of wine, 777. 
 
 JBlack-leady a valuable material for 
 fome chemical veffels, ^62. 
 
 £leachifig, how performed by means 
 of dephlogifticated fj irit of fait, 
 1484. 
 
 £lood, ftrangely altered in its pro- 
 perties by mixture witli nitrous 
 acid, 1477. 
 
 3oerhaavi% experiments to p* >ducea 
 change on mercury hy keeping it 
 long in a gentle heat, and by re- 
 peated diililiations, without fuc- 
 cefs XiK), 1130. 
 
 'Bohemia. : Bergman*^s account of the 
 aluminousores in that country, 65 8 . 
 
 Jioilipg-point of water in vacuo de- 
 termined by Mr Boyle, 122. And 
 by Mr Robinfun of Glafgow, 123. 
 
 Bale: camphor converted into an cflen- 
 tial oil by diiUlIation with it, 1423. 
 
 Bolognian Jione, a kind of native phof- 
 pkorus, 1081. How firft difca- 
 vcred, ib. Margraaf's account 
 cf the appearance of this flone, 
 ib. How rendered lumujous, 
 I082. Seems to be of a gypfeous 
 nature, 1081,1083. Analyfis of 
 it, and reafon of its fliining in the 
 dark, ib. 
 
 Borax, compofed of a peculiar kind 
 of acid and mineral all^li, 863. 
 How prepared in the Ea(l Indies, 
 lb. Of its flate when firft im- 
 ported from thence, 864. Hww 
 refined, ib. .Said to be adultera- 
 ted during this operation, ib. This 
 denied by Dr Black, ib. Simple 
 dilTolution and filtration all that is 
 rieceffary, according to him, for the 
 purification, ib. Its purification ac- 
 cording to others, 1490. Has a glu- 
 tinous quality, by which it gives a 
 glofi to iiiks, ib. Us properi ies with 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 acids and various falts, 865. 
 
 jBor7,v,acid ofjfound in akind(^f m:ne- 
 ral-n Geimany , 838. Procured from 
 the fait either by fulilimation or 
 cryfta!!iza;ion, 858. Is fixed in 
 the fire, and melts into a kind of 
 glafs by a violent heat, 860. Dif- 
 folves in f;.'!' it of wir.e, ib. Makes 
 no change on the colour of vege- 
 tabls juices, ib. Mr Bourdelin's 
 experiments on its nature, 861. 
 Mr Cadet's experiments, 86a. M. 
 Beaume's opinion that it is produ- 
 ced by rancid oils unfatisfadlory, 
 ib. Of its combination with al- 
 kalies, ib. Forms an unknown fait 
 T/ith veget.ihle alkali, ib. And 
 bo ax with the mineral alkali, 863. 
 
 . Its efre(5ls on cobalt, T303. Beau- 
 mc's obfervanons on the method 
 of preparing the fedative fait from 
 it, 1491. Properties of tlie fait, 
 1492. It* cnmbinatio!T^ with vo- 
 latile alkali, earths, and metals, ib. 
 Experiments with a view to deter- 
 mine the nature uf the acid, 1493.- 
 Boulduc, M. with GeofFioy, difco- 
 vers the component parts of alum,. 
 641 . 
 
 Boiillangert. opi'-von that the flnor 
 acid is no other than the niarine 
 combined with an earthy iub- 
 ftance, 833. Shovstn to be error 
 neous by Mr Scheele, 834. 
 
 Bourdelin's experiments on the na:ure 
 of the acid of borax, 861. 
 
 Boyle, Mr, improve? the fcience of 
 chemiftry, 17. His ojiinion con- 
 cerning the mimber and nature of 
 the elements, 24. Attempts to 
 pros'e that fire is not an element, 
 ib. I'hat the folid fubftance of bo- 
 dies is converted into.air, ib. That 
 water is converted into earth, ib. 
 His arguments inconclufive, ib. 
 His account of the produdtion of 
 heat, 30. Determines the boiling 
 point of water in vacuo, 122. His 
 experiment fhowing the deftrudli- 
 bility of gold, 1098. Curious kinds 
 of mercury prepared by him, 142 7. 
 
 Brafs, how prepared from copper 
 and calamine, 1154. May be re- 
 duced to copper again by a long 
 continued atid violent heat difiipa- 
 ting the zinc, ib. A compound of 
 brafs and platina, a proper mate- 
 rial for fpeculums, 1344. 
 
 Burning : phenomena of it, 5 16. A 
 great quantity of water produced 
 from oil by burning, ib. Part of 
 this probably from the atmor 
 fphere, ib. 
 
 Butter of antimony compofed of re- 
 gulus of antimony and marine a- 
 cid, 821. Becomes fluid by recti- 
 fication or expofure to the air, ib. 
 Lets fall the pulvis algaroth by the 
 diredl afFufion of water, ib. For- 
 merly ufed as a cauftic, ib. M. 
 Dollfufs's method of preparing it, 
 ib. 
 
 Batter of arfenic, prepared from re- 
 gains of arfenic and cerrofivc fub- 
 limate, 823. Becomes fluid by re- 
 peated redlifications, ib. Is not 
 obtained from white arfenic and 
 corrofive fublimed together, 946. 
 May be pre] ared alfo byfubliming 
 orpiment and conolive fublimate, 
 isSi. Qan fcarcely he made to 
 
 S T R y. 
 
 unite with marine acid, 1282. 
 
 CABBAGE, an excellent tell for aclc!* 
 or alkalies prepared from it, T550, 
 
 Cadet' % ex^ieriments on the nature 
 of the acid of berax, 862,.. 
 
 Calcareous tartbs. Deconipofition. of 
 vitriolated tartar hr their folu'-iv)ns 
 explained, 270. Mr Kirwan's ex- 
 periments on tltem, 437. Forrti- 
 gyjifum with vitriolic acid, 635. 
 DilFoivein the nitrous acid into an 
 acrid liquor which ca: mot be cry- 
 ftalHzed, 747. De^ompofes this 
 acid hy frequent difl;illations, 784. 
 Are convertiJile by it into a kind 
 of phofphoriis, 749. Fonii like- 
 wife a phofphoi u< with the marine 
 acid, 797. Their cffeJls on the 
 folution of^ ftlver, 756. Form ar 
 ftringent compounds with tlie ace- 
 tous acid, 871. Decompnfe cream 
 of lar.ar, 887. Have a grrat at- 
 traftion for facchariite acid, 90c. 
 Compofe fluor fpar by being com- 
 bined wich its acid, 831. And- 
 tungftau with tlie acid extradted 
 from it, 971. 
 
 Cakes of metals; arguments againft 
 the exiflence of phlogiftoii from 
 the reduelion of thofe of the per- 
 feifl metals without additi on, 140. 
 Redudlion of metallic calcc? hy in- 
 flammable air, 149. Diffeientco- 
 1 urs exhibited by them, 19a. 
 Thofe of fume n etals, when pre- 
 pared by nitrous asid, almoft to- 
 tally infoluble ever afterwards, 1 96. 
 M''hy little or no e'aftic fluid is 
 produced from t hem , 2 1 3 . Of i heir 
 attrartion to i.hlo^ift(]n,3a6. How 
 to find the frecific gravity of the 
 different metallic calces, 327. 
 Whence their vai-ious degrees of 
 afiinity to phlogifton may he de- 
 termined, 328. Calces of cojiper 
 precipitate dephlogiilicated foiu- 
 tions of iron, 343. Solutions of the 
 dephlogifticated calces of iron re- 
 fufes to cryftallize, 457. Calces 
 of iron precipit.ated of a re Idilh co- 
 lour from fpirit of fait, 463. C:d- 
 ces of gold foluhle in the vitriolic 
 and nitrous acids, 483. Reafon of 
 the increafe of weight in metalline 
 calces, 524. Beignian's opinion 
 concerning the fulmination of me- 
 tallic calces, 1 1 26. Erroneous, ib. 
 Effedts of the colouring matter of 
 Pi uflian blue on metallic calces, 
 1193. 
 
 Calcination : quantity of philogifton 
 loft by metals during that ojiera- 
 tion, 332. Of the affinity of their 
 calces to the deficient part, 332. 
 Calcination of metals by fire de- 
 fcribed, 52a. Of their calcination 
 and increafe of weight by acids, 
 523. Reafon of this increafe,j24. 
 Solubility of metals increafed by 
 calcination, 545. How to perform 
 the operation of calcination, 383. 
 Why a flight calcination deftroys 
 the explofive prope-ty of auruni 
 fulminans, 1124. Effedls of vio- 
 lent calcination on nick<;l, 1307. 
 
 Calcined metals. See Calcination , Cal- 
 ces, Calx, and Metal. 
 
 Calculus, human ; Schcele's experi- 
 ments on it, 1455. His conclu- 
 fions concerning its coirtpofition, 
 i4j6. Is found uuivtrfaiiy iii u- 
 
 rilie, 1457. Bergman's experi- 
 i.-.eiits on it, 1460. Calcareoui 
 e;'.rth contained in it feparatcd hy 
 means of the vitriolic acid, 1462. 
 Rcvl colour of the folu<'ion in ni- 
 trons acid accounted for, 1460. 
 Mr Higgins's experiments, 1463. 
 H's account of its component [iaif, 
 1465, 1468. Exjieriments on the 
 fuhlimate arifing from it on diftil- 
 lation, 1465. Experiments with 
 nitrons acid, 1466. Cryftailiza- 
 tion of the nitreus folution by ex- 
 pofu' e to the fun, 1467. Remarks 
 on the remedies proper for dilE li- 
 ving the flone, 1469. Suhliaiate 
 of calculus met with in C{)nfnmp- 
 tive and gouty perfons. 1470. Dif- 
 fi lutioii ought not to be attempted 
 whf n the flone is large, ib. 
 
 CjIcuIi/s: of the acid obtained from It, 
 982. All the calculi jiroduced in 
 the human body of the fame na- 
 ture, ib. Diflblved by concentra- 
 ted vitriolic, and by the nitrous 
 acid, but not by the marine acid, 
 iS. The acid of calculus produces 
 deep red f] ots on the ikin, 983. 
 Afl"umes a blood-red colour by eva- 
 poration, ib. 
 
 Calomel, a name given to mercurius 
 dulcis I'cveral times fublimed, 8t4. 
 Repetited fublimation no improvc- 
 men"- on the me<liciiie, ib. 
 
 Calx of the diffolved metal,, with va- 
 rious degrees of phlogifton, con- 
 ta ned In metalline folutiuns, 214- 
 Reafons for believing that metals 
 are reduced to a calx by folution, 
 215. Increafe of attraiflion be- 
 twixt the calx of iron. and phlogi- 
 fton dehionftrated, 543. Cailx of 
 iron foluble in lixivium fanguinis, 
 117^. But not when highly de- 
 phlogifticated, 1176. 
 
 Ga>iiphur,-i. volatile fubftance belong- 
 ing to the clafs of cflential oiU, 
 1422. Converted into a true effen- 
 tial oil by repeatedly diftilling it 
 with bole,'i423. Into an acid hdt by 
 diftilling it feveral times with de- 
 phlogiftica'^ed fpirit of nitre, IA24. 
 Effedts of this faJt on alkalies and 
 metals, ib. How-diftinguiflied from 
 acid of fugar, ib. Account of the 
 method of extradling it from the 
 trees which produce it, its.ufes, 
 &c. ib. 
 
 Canton's phofphoriis, how prepared, 
 1414. Becomes luminous by ex- 
 pofure to the fun, or the light, of 
 an eledlrical flafla, ib. 
 
 Cnpacities of bodies for containing 
 heat : that phrafe exjilained, 52. 
 How they arc to be diilinguifhed 
 from the temperature and abfolute 
 heat of bodies, 53. The capacity 
 of a body for containing heat the 
 fame with the aftion of heat on 
 the body, c r i . Nicholfon's account 
 of the capacities of bodies for con- 
 taining heat,. 113. 
 
 Cajt-iron fcarcelv decompofcs the fo- 
 lution of copper, 345. 
 
 Canalio's method of purifying ether, 
 2d 722. Shows that pyroj>horus is 
 not injured hy expofure to light, 
 1418. 
 
 Cai'cndijh, fup]iofes heat not to he a 
 diftindl fubftance, 69. His calcu- 
 lation of chc t^uantity of lixed air 
 
INDEX. 
 
 contained in impure vegetable fix- 
 ed alkalies, 417. Shows tliat ni- 
 trous acid m ay be artificially pro- 
 duced ft-om <a mixture of dephlo- 
 gifticated aad j hlogift-ratcd air, ad 
 ' 722. His opinion concerning the 
 . nitrous acid, 1474- 
 '^ai/fih alkali, ii'-w prepared by Mr 
 ; Bergman fo.r his exiieritnents on 
 the j recipitation of metals, 231. 
 Pldtina imperft (5lly precipitated by 
 caiulic alkali, 2.^4. 'I'hro a s down 
 a brown precipitate from iblution 
 of filver. 2.35 . Corrodes ftone- 
 ware, J 95 [396]. Is beft refilled 
 by filvei , ib. How to prepare lu- 
 nar caullic, 7S2. Spirit of wine 
 converted into vinegar and water 
 by repeated diftiliations with cau- 
 ftic a kali, 1615. The common 
 fixed alkalies compofed of a cauftic 
 fait and fixed air, iOiO. Throws 
 down an inf luble precipitatejrom 
 folution of terra pondc-r< fa, 1056. 
 C.njikitt fuppofed 1 1 be occafioned 
 by the attraiStion of phlogiflon 
 from thefabliance atftedupon, ai 9. 
 Ca-jL'k, a kind of f] ar, the fame with 
 Ipathuni p( nderofum, forms a rc- 
 ; g-ullis .if antimony inftamaneouily, 
 : 1256. Dr Withci ing's flffcription 
 ^< of a fubftance of this kind found in 
 : Derbyfliirc, 1068. 
 teri'p, or IVhit^-leod , how prepared, 
 :\ 875. Obfer.vatiors (-n the jircct f-; 
 
 for preparing it, &76. Its poifo- 
 , nous qualities, ib. 
 Qh^lk at firft difiolved, and. the foliir 
 tioii afi-trwards coagulateii, by acid 
 of ai fcnic, 936, I'lowej s of ben- 
 zoin imperfecl y excradleJ by boil- 
 ing with rhalk, 9881 
 ebaljbeatcd tarUir made by boiling 
 * CI earn of ta;tar with iroH, ,895. 
 ^hat^Sicrs, chemica', cx])iaiiied, 5.51. 
 ^ Some curioufly mai-ked on the in- 
 fide of a phial by means of the light 
 of the f..n, 756. 
 Cbcircoal proved to be the fame with 
 & phlojjifton, 145.. Derifive proofs 
 f of their identity from Dr Prielt- 
 i ley's experiments, 145. , S) irit i f 
 h wine aaivertiblcintocharc oal. 147. 
 [; Charcoal entirely diilipated into 
 , inflammaiile air by the htat of a 
 ' burning lens in uacuo, 14S. . De- 
 i phio^ifticated air converted into 
 aerial acid by its union with char- 
 , coal, 151- Sulphur produced by 
 \ diftilling concentrated vitriolic a- 
 cid with cliarccal, 715. Or by 
 calcining vitriolated tartar with 
 the fame, 71(1. Arfenital scil 
 takes lire and fublinies ii to rtgulus 
 Wiith it, 92a. Neutral aifenicsl 
 fait decompofed by it, 926. Char- 
 coal; dilTo ved by liver < f fulj hur, 
 X025. Phenomena on diftillation 
 with manganefe, 1388. Moft in- 
 flammable matte, s reduced to char- 
 coal, 1450. Difference between 
 the coals < f different fubilanccs, ih. 
 Some coals, paiticularly thofe if 
 aiiim:'.! fubftances, can fcaice be 
 reduced to allies, ib. Bullock's 
 blood affords a coal of this kind, 
 \h. Concrete oily fubf ances, or 
 foot, burn with equal difficuliy, 
 ib. oome of thefe coals a'.moft re- 
 fift the aflioii of nitre, ib. This 
 fubllancei^ erfe<aiy refra(aory,i4S 1 . 
 
 C H E M ] 
 
 How fet on fire by the nitrous acid, 
 1476. 
 
 Chemic.il attracihn pai ticularly treated 
 oi,-i62,etfeq. See AttraSiioti . Berg- 
 man's ac onnt of the caufe of che- 
 mical folution, 193. Ki)twan's 
 definition of chemical attr^cSlion, 
 260. Difference betwixt it and 
 crhefion, 261. Geoffroy's rule for 
 de'ermiuing the degrees of che- < 
 mical attracl'on, 262. Chi-inital 
 dtcomporuions a)3pare:itly (ingle 
 are often double, 263. Invention 
 of chemical n^arks and chara<fl;ers, 
 
 551. New chemical language in- 
 veiUed by th.e French cheniiits, 
 
 552. Its rii'.iciil itis aj.pearance in 
 an attempt to explain the fulmina- 
 tion i)f the calx of filver, 1144. Of 
 tables of chemical affinities or at- 
 tradions, 553. Dr Black's gene- 
 ral table of attradtions, ib. His 
 obfervations on chemical veffelsj 
 557. Goc'd and bad qualities of 
 giafs as a material f jr tliefe vcf- 
 fels 558. Of metals, 560. Of 
 earthen ware, 561. Of chemical 
 furnaces, 599. See Furnaces. 
 
 Chemijlry defcribed, 1. Hij^h anti- 
 quity of the fcience, 2. Suppofed 
 to be founded by Si^hcas, an Egyp- 
 tian, 3. Miies thoUf^ht 10 have 
 been w^ell ve-fed in chemiffry, 4. 
 Democrituv tauglit cbemiflry by 
 the Egyptian j riefls, ib. Chemi- 
 {Iry introduced into medicine after 
 h s lime, ib. Some advantages ac- 
 crued to chemiftiy from the la- 
 bours of the akhemifts, 13. Hi- 
 flory of chemiflry from the time 
 0! Paracell'us, 15. The fcience 
 fludied by l^ord Verulam, 16. 
 improved by Mr Boyle, 17. Che- 
 niiftry emerges fom its obfcurity, 
 18. Receives coiifiderable ?.dvan- 
 tages fiom the founding of the 
 Rcyal Society, and others of that 
 kind, 19. Great impro Yemenis 
 made by cheiv.iiis of various na- 
 tions, 20. Pe feft theo'y < f che- 
 miflry defined, 21. Objedls of 
 chemiftiy how diflini^ulfhed from 
 the agents, 22. Clalfificatii n of 
 tiie objedts, 163. Hew far water 
 is an ob^cifl of chemifti y, 549. Of 
 ihi different operations in chemi- 
 
 '^ry. 554, <^,A"?- 
 
 Chen.ijls, iir^:riivcments by thofe ci 
 dififerent nations, 18,19, 20. How 
 divided, 555. 
 
 Clio turpentine defcribed, 1433- 
 
 Cinnabar! of the diftillation of it from, 
 manganefe, 1396. See Vermilion. 
 
 Cldy: whether the earth of alum is 
 to be confidered as a pure clay or 
 not, 647. Mar^raaf denionflrates 
 all clay to be compounded of earth 
 vf alum and fome other principle 
 mechanically mixed, 648. Expe- 
 riment of Dr Lewis, which feems 
 to fbow that clay undergoes a 
 change by being converted into 
 earth of alum, 649. Bergman's 
 experiment to determine the utili- 
 ty of adding clay to the ley of alum 
 in Ol der to abforb the fuperHiious 
 acid, 682. Advantages of ufing 
 clay rather than alkalies, 683. De- 
 phioififticated vitriol decompofed 
 by clay, 684. But n< t the pei - 
 fcdl kind, 685 , Clay ufed, in tiie 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 : thepurificationof wine3,885. And 
 in ih^.t of tartar, ib. Combina- 
 tion of arfeiiical acid with clay, 
 939. Colounng matter of Pruf- 
 fian blue cannot diffol\e clay, 
 1 1 89. Method of dillilling fpirit 
 of fait by means of it, T480. 
 
 Cleghorn, Dr : great difference be- 
 twixt hi'^ calculations and thofe of 
 Dr Crawford, 48. His opinion 
 conccrniiig the iife of thermoiiie- 
 tcrs, 72. His hypothefis concern- 
 ing fire, 74. His proof that fire 
 is an elementary fluid, 82. 
 
 Cloth-printing: iron liquor, how pre- 
 pared for that piirpofe, 873. 
 
 Clyjfus of nitre ^ a liquor prepared by 
 deflagrating nitre and charcoal, 
 780. 
 
 Coating of glajfes: lute proper for that 
 purpofe, 580. 
 
 Cobalt: of its diffolution in acids, and 
 precipitation from them, 244. Is 
 not compofed partly of iron, 256. 
 Is pr ecijutated by iron, 362 . Some 
 heterogeneous matter precipitated 
 f(om it by nickel, 363. Solutions 
 of cobalt 1st fall a white powder 
 cn the addition of bifmuth or cop- 
 per, 364. Of its folution in vitri- 
 olic acid, 496, 710. In nitrous- a- 
 cid, 497. In marine acid, 498. 
 Fo:ms a red folution with the ni- 
 trous acid, 7(^9. llifcoverable in 
 ore-; by meuns of this acid, 770. 
 Forms a lieiutiful fympathetic ink 
 with marine acid, 822. Diffolvsd 
 by ihe acid of arfenic, 954. The 
 femimetal particularly defcribed, 
 and its properties confidered, X293. 
 Its calx, called zaffre, defcribed, 
 1294. Reducftion of the calx ex- 
 tremely difficult, 1296. Its pro- 
 perties when expofed to heat, 1297. 
 Calcines fpontrneoufiy in the air, 
 1298. A beautiful blue glafs foim- 
 ed from its calx, 1209. Pheno- 
 mena of it with vitriolic acid, 1300, 
 A\''ith nitrous acid, 130T. With 
 marine acid, 1302. With the 
 acid of borax, 1303. With nitre, 
 il^. With fal ammoniac, 1304. 
 Wi h fulphur, 1305. IVIa) be fe- 
 jiaratedfrom nickel. by nitre, 1311. 
 Method of preparing a red fait 
 from it by means of the vitriolic 
 acid, 710. 
 
 Cobejion : differenre betwixt it and 
 cfiemical attradlion, 261. 
 
 Cold: an exceflive degree of it at 
 Glafgovv, 62. In Siberia and 
 Hudfoii's Bay, 63. Severity of 
 the cold in the northern regions 
 mitigated by the produdlion of- 
 ice, S7. Heat, light, cold, and 
 eledtricity, the effedls <;f an uni- 
 verfal fluid, loi . Particular folu- 
 tion of the phenomena of heat and 
 cold, 102. Inrtances of bodies ex-T 
 panding by cold, 105, Cc!d fup- 
 pofed to be a pofifive fuhflanca 
 from the prodigious expanfive force 
 of water in freezing, 107. Dr 
 Cullen's experiments on cold pro- 
 duced by evaporation, 124. 
 
 Colour of metallic foluticns caufed by 
 phlogiflon, 218. A beautiful 
 white one from lead, 703. A green 
 one from c >pper and cream of tar- 
 tar, 894. How to reflore tlie co- 
 lour ofgoid, 1 130, Of fiiverj 1137. 
 
 a: 
 
 621 
 
 Colouring mafter of Pnifllan blue in- 
 velHga-ed by Mr Scheele, 1171. 
 This matter flies off from the lixi- 
 vium fangulnii when expofed to 
 the air, 1172. This effedt fuppo- 
 pofed to be owing to fixed air in 
 the atmnfjihere, 1173. The co- 
 louring matter fixed by the addi- 
 tion of fome green vitriol to the 
 lixivium, 1 174. Calx of iron fo- 
 luble ill the lixivium, 1175. But 
 not when highly dcph'ogifticated, 
 1 1 76. The colouring matter ta- 
 l;en up by the air after it has been 
 expel ed by acid-i, 1177. Effefts 
 of diftilling the lixivium with vi- 
 triolic acid, 1178. Attempts to 
 procure the colouring matter by 
 itfelf, H79. Neutral fait formed 
 by it for difcovering iron in mine- 
 ral waters, 1 180. Effeds of di- 
 llilling this fait with oil of vitriol, 
 1181. The colouring matter u- 
 nites with volatile alkali, 1182, 
 How to free it perfedtly from any 
 vitriulic taint, 11 83. To prevent 
 its efcape through the lute during 
 diftillation, 11 84. The colouring 
 matter neither acid nor alkaline, 
 1 1 8 5 . Forms a kind of ammoni- 
 acal fult with volatile alkali, 11 85. 
 Diffolves magnefia alba, 11 87,. 
 Very little terra ponderofa, 11S8, 
 Diffolves lime, but not clay, 1189. 
 This folution moft proper for ma- 
 king experiments on metals, 1190, 
 Precipitates the folutions of filver 
 and quickfilver in nitrous acid, and 
 of iron in fixed air, 1191. Its ef- 
 fecls on the metallic calces, 1192. 
 On metallic folutions, H93. Its. 
 conftituent parts inveftigated by 
 experiment, 1194. Is of an in- 
 flammable nature, 1195. Suppo- 
 fed to contain aerial acid and 
 phlogjfton, 1 1 96. Ingredients in 
 its compofitioii, 1199. Unfuc— 
 cefsful attempts to 2)roduce it by 
 volatile alkalies in a liquid ftatc,, 
 1200. Succefsful method with 
 fid ammoniac, fait of tartar, and 
 charcoal, 1201. Its volatility de- 
 ftroyedby manganefe, 1204. Can 
 feparate »nly mercury and filver 
 from their folution in nitrous acid, 
 1205. 
 
 Colours of vegetables changed by a- 
 cids and alkalies, 173. Different 
 colours of metallic calces, 192. 
 Colours imparted to various kinds 
 of ftoiies by folution of filver, 753, 
 Colours of various kinds dcftroyed 
 by dephlogifticated fpirit of fait, 
 1484. 
 
 Ge/Jiparutiw heat of bodiea defined, 
 40. 
 
 Compojii artificial, of Cramer for ma- 
 king nitre, 728. 
 
 Compounds of two metals fbmetimcs 
 lieavier than either of the ingre- 
 dients, 1 1 56. More fufible than , 
 either of them fmgly, 542. Great 
 fufibility of thofe of tin and bif- 
 muth, 543. Fufibility of . thefe 
 aAigmented by the addition of lead, 
 ih. _ One fufible in the heat of 
 boiling water, 544. Platina-unites 
 readily with compound metals, 
 1343- 
 
 Cnncentrated acids phlogifticated by 
 alkalies, 409. Conceatrated ni-= 
 traa s . 
 
62 2 
 
 trous acid dlffolves lefs metal than 
 vhen diluted, 489. How to ob- 
 tain a very concentrated acetous 
 ■ acid, 881. Violent adtion of the 
 concentrated nitrous acid upon 
 molybdaena, 960. Marmor me- 
 talliciim foluble in concentrated 
 vitriolic acid, 1063. Precipitated 
 from it unchanged by vegetable 
 fixed alkali, 1064. W'hy the 
 concentrated vitriolic acid dif- 
 ft-lvesmanganefe without addition, 
 1378. 
 
 Condenfation of vapour produces a 
 great quantity of heat, 43, 125. 
 Dr Black's method of calculating 
 it, 44. 
 
 Congealed zuater, the difficulty with 
 which it melts, a mean of pre- 
 venting inundatioils in countries 
 vdiere fnow and ice abounds, 
 88. 
 
 Copper: of its precipitate^, 238. Why 
 it is diffolved by folutions of filver, 
 mercury, and iron, 335. Why 
 iron and copper precipitate one 
 aiiother, 341. Dephloyifticated 
 folutions of iron precipitated by 
 calces of copper, 343. Dephlogi- 
 fticates the iron which precipitates 
 it, 344. Its folution fcarcely de- 
 compofed by caft iron, 345. Why 
 it fometimes cannot precipitate 
 filver, 348. Precij>!tations of mer- 
 cury by it, 353. Precipitations of 
 copper by nickel, 360. Copper 
 throw? down a white powder from 
 folutions of cobalt, 364. Forms a 
 triple fait with rcgulut. of antimo- 
 ny and marine acid, 367. Preci- 
 pitates regubis uf arfenic from the 
 murine acid, 370. Proportion of 
 it diffolved by the vitriolic acid, 
 464. Inflammable and vitriolic 
 air produced from its folution in 
 this acid, 465. Quantity ©f the 
 metal diffolved by nitrous acid, 
 468. }jy marine acid, 469. Forms 
 blue vitriol with the vitrielic acid, 
 693. Of its folution in nitrous a- 
 cid, 757. In the marine acid, 804. 
 Forms a beautiful green fait with 
 acetous acid, 872. And with 
 cream of tartar, 894. Combina- 
 tion of arfenical acid with it, 947. 
 Forms a moft beautiful blue fait 
 ivith cauftic vobitlle alkali, 1035. 
 Does not greatly diminifh the duc- 
 tility of gold though previoufly 
 alloyed witl; tin, 1094. Its nature 
 partic ularly confidered, 1146. Al- 
 *vays f iler ihan iron, 1147. Will 
 not Itrike fire with flint ; and there- 
 fore of ufe to make hoops, &c. for 
 grnpowder calks, ih. Its ducftility, 
 te :acity, and f ecific gravity, ib. 
 Exv'Sode.' viukn'iy by ihe contadb 
 of n oifl, re whe. in fulion, 1148. 
 How granulate<! ib. How calci- 
 iitf '.<-^-'i- The calx exceedint);ly 
 rc'. afiory, ,b. Soluble by all acid 
 and .'tier faline fubltances, and 
 even by water, 11 50. More fo- 
 lubic in cold liquors fh, n in hot, 
 ib. • Jndcr>oes fi»me change by 
 co!:li:natio with vegeiatile acids, 
 II- How amabjaii ated with 
 mercury, ^152. A curious amal- 
 gam formed by mercury aid ver- 
 digris, li Vi- Dr Lewis's methods 
 of amalgamation, 11 53. Forms 
 
 C H E M 
 
 brafs, prince's metal, &c, by the 
 addition of calamine or zinc, 1 1 54. 
 Crucibles in which thefe operations 
 are performed tinged of a deep 
 blue colour, ib. Forms bcll-metal 
 with a mixture of tin, 1155. 
 Lewis's obfervations on the fpeci- 
 fic gravity of this and other me- 
 tallic compounds, 1156. White 
 copper made by fufion with aa e- 
 qual part of arfenic, 1 157. A fine 
 gold- coloured metal formed by a 
 mixture of copper and platina, 
 1 341. Phenomena attending the 
 diffolution of it in volatile alkali, 
 1035- 
 
 Copperas. See F'itriol. 
 
 Corrofive fublimate precipitated with- 
 out any decompoli:ion by oil of 
 vitriol, 315. May be decompofed 
 by filver in the dry, but not in the 
 moilf way, 356. Of its prepara- 
 tion from quickfilver, 814, et feq. 
 Differences of iis quality according 
 to the different methods by which 
 it is prepared, 816. Reafon of 
 thefe differences, ib. Method of 
 making itatAmfl:erdam,ib. Obfer- 
 vations on the different methods, 
 817. Of its adulteration with ar- 
 fenic, 818. Yields no butter of 
 arfenic by fublimation with that 
 fubftance, 945, 946. Its ufe in the 
 preparation of butter of antimony, 
 821. Of its fublimation with 
 manganefe, 1397. 
 
 Cramer i artificial compoft for ma- 
 king nitre, 728. 
 
 Craivford, Dr, his explanation of Ir- 
 vine's theory of heat, 36. Dif- 
 fers jrreatly in his calculations from 
 Dr Clcghorn, 48. His account of 
 fenfible heat, 49. Differs from 
 Dr Black, 51. His opinion con- 
 cerning heat in the abflrad:, 54. 
 His definition of fire, 59. His 
 method of determining the pro- 
 porti(jnal quantities of heat in 
 bodies, 77. Infufficiency of his 
 method, 78. His folution of a 
 difficulty concerning the feeming 
 dilappearance of heat, 86. Infuf- 
 ficieiit, 91. 
 
 Cream of tartar, how prepared, 886. 
 Analyfcd by Mr Scheele, 887. 
 Regenerated, 890. 
 
 Crell, Dr, a miftake of his concern- 
 ing the produdion of Glauber's 
 fait from alum and common fait 
 corredfed, 272. His method of 
 cryflallizing the acid of lemons. 
 997. His attempts to bring vine- 
 gar nearer to the ftate of tartar, 
 1004. His proofs that all vege- 
 table acids are to be derived from 
 one origin, 1006. 
 
 Crocas metallorum, how prepared, 
 1265. 
 
 Cronjlcdt difcovers the new femlmetal 
 called nickel, 1306. 
 
 Crucibles: of the mod j^ropcrmaterials 
 for them, 585. Achard's method 
 of making them from calx of pla- 
 tina, 587. Mr Pott's diredlions 
 for making them, 5S8. Dr Lewis's 
 oblisrvations on their conftrudlion, 
 589. Porcelain probably the fitteft 
 material for veffels of this kind, 
 591. Of Reaumur's porcelain as 
 a material for crucibles, 592. 
 
 Cruji produced by the fluor acid on 
 
 : s T R y. 
 
 the furface of water, 828. Found 
 to be of the nature of liliceous 
 earth, S29. Scheele's experiments 
 to determine the nature of this 
 earth, 830. The fame cruft pro- 
 duced from artificial riuor, 831. 
 Scheele's opinion that the earth is 
 formed by the union of the acid 
 and water, 832. Contefted by 
 I Meffrs BouUaiiger, Monnet, &c. 
 833. Their opinions Ihown to be 
 erroneous by Air Scheele, S34. 
 Wiegleb's experimeni s oh the ori- 
 gin of it, 839. Found to proceed 
 froni the corrofion of the glafs- 
 didilling vcffel, 840. How to 
 procure the acid free from it, 
 842. None formed by mixing 
 fand with a fait containing fluor 
 acid, 844. But a great quantity 
 by adding powdered green glafs, 
 845- 
 
 Cryjiallme. pmtvder thrown down from 
 folution of calx of platina by ve- 
 getalde fixed alkab, 1325. 
 
 Cryjlallixation, in chemillry : how 
 to perform chat operation, 573. 
 Cr) Itallization of alum impeded 
 bj' vitriolic acid, 681. 
 
 Cryjhils of one kind of fait contain 
 none of any other, 573. Fulmi- 
 nating cryfiaii, 1142. Cryflals of 
 platina decompofed by the mineral, 
 but not by the vegetable, fixed al- 
 kali, 1322. 
 
 Cullen, Dr, his experiments on the 
 produdion of cold by evaporation, 
 124. 
 
 Cupellation : why lead Is ufeful in that 
 operation, 331 . Attempts to refine 
 platina by cupellation, 1355. 
 
 Cuprum ammoniacale, how prepared, 
 1034. 
 
 Decompositions, chemical, are 
 often double, though apparently 
 fingle, 263. Explanation of thofe 
 effected by acids alone, 266. De- 
 compofitions of vitriolic falts fup- 
 pofed to arife from compound for- 
 ces, 276. Why decompofitions 
 are fometimes incomj)lete, 405, 
 406. 
 
 Deflagration, an operation in chemi- 
 llry, how performed, 582. 
 
 De>?wcritus taught chemifiry by the 
 Egyptian priefts, 4. Said to be 
 able to imitate the precious ftones, 
 particularly the emerald, ib. Was 
 probably only acquainted with the 
 method of making green glafs, 
 ib. 
 
 Denjity of mixtures, its increafe ac- 
 counted for, 374. How to deter- 
 mine the accrued denfity of fpirit 
 of nitre mixed with water, 387. 
 Increafe of it in compound fubftan- 
 ces, 404. 
 
 DepMogiJlicated air converted into a- 
 erialacid by charcoal, 151. Ob- 
 jedion to the exiflence of phlogi- 
 flon from the total combuftion of it 
 in fomc cafes, 152. Little phlogi- 
 flon confumed by the combuftion of 
 iron in this kind of air, 153. Of the 
 dephlogiflicated marine acid, 206, 
 790, rfjQj'. 14^4. Dephlogifticated 
 green vitriol eann it, recipitate folu- 
 tion of gold, 226. Quantity of mine- 
 ral alkali taken up by dej)hlogift;i- 
 cated nitrous acid, 432. Solution 
 uf dephlogillicated cal« of irun 
 
 cannot be cryftallizcd, 457. . 
 phlogifticated green vitriol decooj 
 pofed by clay, 684. DephiogiJ 
 cated air a material for the nitrJ 
 acid, 2d 722. How to prepare tl 
 dephlogifticated fpirit of fait, 79( 
 791. Can fcarcely be coiidei.it 
 into a liquid, 79a. Its other pn 
 perties, ib. Acid of arfenic pn 
 cured by its means, 919, 127 
 The only fblvent of platina, 131 
 Dephlcgifticated fpirit of nitre J 
 compofes cam}>hor, 1424. 
 Dephlugijii cated fpirit of fdt: exped 
 tious method of bleaching linen i: 
 means of it, 1484. EffeiS; of it f 
 phlogiflic matters, 1485. Fffcrvt 
 ces with cauftic volatile alkab, 140 
 Forms marine ether with fpirit 
 wine, i486. Diflblvcs pholj : 
 rus, ib. Method of procuring 
 detonating fait in quantity from i 
 1487. 
 
 Diabolus mctallortm, a name for ti: 
 on account of its bad effects c 
 other metals, 
 
 Diaphoretic antimony, how preparei 
 1264. 
 
 Di-^ejler, Papin's, defcribed, 567. E 
 feds of it producible by long boi 
 iiig, ib. 
 
 Digefiion, in chemiflry, how perforni 
 ed,s6s. 
 
 Digefiivefalt : Quantity of ingredien 
 in it, 379, 421. Prepared froi 
 vegetable alkali and mai-ine aci( 
 794-, 
 
 Diffolution of metals: heat produce 
 by that operation, 190. 
 
 Difiillation : liow that operation wj 
 originally performed, 6. M 
 Watt's experiments on the difti: 
 lation of water in -oacuo, 45. Pre 
 per method of performing th 
 operation of diftillation, 574. Ph< 
 nomena on dil'tiUation of inflani 
 mablefubftances,5 17. Boerhaave 
 experiments on tlie diftillation c 
 mercury, 1230. ^ 
 
 Diftilled verdigris, how preparec 
 872. 
 
 Divellent ajfnities explained, 467. 
 
 Dollfufs, Mr, his method of prepa 
 ring butter of antimony, 821. Hi 
 procefs for muriatic ether, 82-^ 
 For acetous ether, 884. 
 
 Du Fay fuppofcs all calcareous flone 
 to be phofphoric, 1084. 
 
 Dyeing: the vitriol formed by precl 
 pitating copper with iron lefs pro 
 per for this purpofe than that mad 
 after the common method. 344, 
 
 Earth: water fuppofed tobe<con 
 vertible into it, 24. Has not th 
 charader of an element, 25. Solu 
 ble in acids, 176. Why the me 
 tallic earths feldom decompofe fali 
 whofe bafis is a calcareous earth < 
 alkaline fait, 304. Quantity 
 earth in vegetable alkali, 41 . 
 Dilficulty in obtaining the pur 
 earth of alum, 645. Lewis's ex 
 periment to fliow that clay under 
 goes fome change by being con 
 verted into this earth, 649. Siii 
 ccous earth found in the relii 
 produced from the refiduum 0 
 vitriolic ether, 2d 722. Quan 
 tity of filiceous earth cariiG 
 up by fluor aciJ, 847. Earth < 
 alum combined with arjlsnical aci< 
 93 
 
DEX. 
 
 1^8. , SiFc'firs e?."th mcfr rrr,-"- 
 tletcly precipitated by volatile al- 
 TO74. F<^rm.s a triple fak by 
 (reci]nratio'- w-'b " aikal;, 
 :o75. Is dinolvt-; , wiih 
 
 ilkali, 1076. >^c'. V:'- 
 retsble eai th fupj 1 ])y Lewis 
 o be the fame wmIi inap-iiefia, 
 fo8S. Mr GiT.elin's experiments 
 bn it, 1089. 
 
 irihs how div'dcd,*^!!-! 510. Vifrio- 
 iic acid combined witli dilTerent 
 eartbs, 633, ftfcq- Nitrous acid 
 toirbinedwith them, 746. Soluti'in 
 bf filver deccmpofed by calcareous 
 earths, 755. Charaders curiouily 
 narked by the fun's lioht on the 
 precipitate, 756. Marine acid 
 combined with earths, 797. Fluor 
 acid with tliem, 8~a. Acetous 
 Bcid, 871. Acid of tartar, 893. 
 Of phofphoric earths, 108I. Eat ths 
 do not attratft the colouring mat- 
 ter of Pruflian blue, 1169. 
 \rthen ivare : of its properties as a 
 material for chemical veffels, 561, 
 irthy crttfl. See Crujl. 
 ■tjl Indies: of the method of pre- 
 paring nitre there, 724. 
 2u de luce, how prej ared, 1037. 
 fci-cejceiice attends the folutiou of 
 metals, 188. 
 
 hlcoration, a chemical operation, 
 how performed, 571. 
 iinbtirgh: a kind of ponderous fpar, 
 or niarmor metallicum, found near 
 that city, 1061. 
 
 laJVic jluids extricated during the fo- 
 lutiou of metals, 189. Gteat 
 quantity of elaftic fluid generated 
 "by the explofion of aurum fulmi- 
 nans, 1123. 
 
 laftidty occafioned by heat, and not 
 phlogifton, 239. 
 
 ieilive attraiiions, in chemiftry, de- 
 fined, 177. Preci] itation of me- 
 tals by one another cs^ing to a 
 double one, 229. 
 
 icBr'tc fuid, in winter, the faire 
 v^'ith the heat fent down from the 
 lun in fummer, 99. 
 XeBrk fpari produces nitrous acid 
 in a mixture of dephlogifticated 
 rand phlogifticateil air, 2d 72a. Its 
 eifedt on a mixture of alkaline and 
 dephlogifticated air, If 5 r. 
 hBrical heat, why fo much ftronger 
 than tliat of furnaces, 160. Ca- 
 pable of viti ifying platina, 1335. 
 kBricity : proofs of the identity of 
 its fluid with fire and light, 96. 
 Connexion betwixt it aii(l fire or 
 heat, 97. ExceflTive eledlricity of 
 tlie polar regions, 98. Eledtricity, 
 heat, light, and cold, are to be 
 looked upon a? the eflefts of one 
 univerfal fluid, loi. Expiofion 
 of fulminating lilvcr probably ow- 
 ing to it, 1 146. 
 
 lements; the fuppofition of them the 
 origin of alchemy, 23. Mr Boyle's 
 opinion of them, 24. Are in their 
 own nature invifible, 26. 
 metic tartars : difierent degrees of 
 their ftrength as commonly jirepa- 
 rcd, 1258. Pulvis algaioth the 
 ;inol1 proper material for their pre- 
 paration, I2J9- 
 
 v/fyreimatic acids produced by dry 
 '<ii?l illation of vegetables are all pf 
 cne niiture, 995. An acid of this 
 
 C H E M 
 
 kind pi'oduced from the liquor in 
 which felenitcs tartaroui is boiled, 
 1010. 
 
 Kmpyrexiviatic oils, hoW rectified, 
 1426. 
 
 Eiirltixd: alum-works when erefted 
 
 there, 640. 
 Eugni-uing on ^lafs, how performed 
 
 by means of tluor acid, ad 857. 
 Eolipile may fometimes be ufed for 
 
 blowing up fires, 609. 
 Epfo-m felt: proportion of ingredients 
 in the common kind, 443. In ni- 
 trons Epfom, 444. Cannot be 
 fo'ind in marine Epfom, 445. The 
 true E) f ;m fait found in the ley 
 remaining af;ci- th.e cryftallization 
 of alum, 688. Prepared from the 
 bittern of fea-falt, 690. 
 Equilibrium ff heat defined, 75. 
 Epnlial fai t of lemons, a kind of rartar 
 extrwcfted from forrel, 888. EfTen- 
 tial acids produced from the juices 
 of vegetables, their properties, 994. 
 Phofphor us combined wit hcffential 
 oils 1412. Analyfis of efleinial oils, 
 1419. Their tafle fuppofed to be 
 owing to a difengaged acid, 1420. 
 Why they lofe theirfolubilityinfpi- 
 rit of wine by being frequently di- 
 flilled, 1421. Converted by ftrong 
 heat into empyreumatic oils, ib. 
 A cc nfiderable quantity yielded by 
 all the kinds of turpentine, 1437. 
 Ether, \ itriolic, produced by a com- 
 bination of vitiiolic acid and fpirit 
 of wine, 717. Mr Beaume's me- 
 thod of making it, 718. Is the 
 liglileil of ail liquids, 719. Boils 
 in vacuo at 2o'' below o of Fahren- 
 heit, ib. Produces a great degree 
 of cold by its evaporation, ib. Dif- 
 foivts gold, ib. An inflammable 
 lalt produced by Wallerius by 
 combining- ether with fait of tar- 
 tar, 720. This thought to be a 
 proof of the tranfmntatlon of vi- 
 triolic into nitrous acid, ib. The 
 phei.omenon otherwife accounted 
 for, 721, 72a. Mr Cavallo's me- 
 thod of purifying ether, 2d 722. 
 A refin producible from the refi- 
 diiun; of its diftillation, aiFording 
 vitriolic, phofphoric, and acetous 
 acids, Glauber's fait, felenite, iron, 
 and "earth of flint, ib. Nitrous 
 ether produced by combining that 
 acid with fpirit of wine, 775. Dr 
 Black's method of making it, ib. 
 Mr Woidfc's procefs for procuring 
 it in large quantity, 776. Inquiry 
 into the nature of ether, 777. 
 Made by Br Black vithout any 
 fpirit, ib. Marine ether how pro- 
 duced, 824. Acetous ether, 884. 
 Saccharine ether, 90a. Vitriolic 
 ether ciyftallizes gold, II29. Dol- 
 fufs's method of preparing it with 
 marine acid, 824. Wiih acetous, 
 acid, 884. Methods of Pelletier 
 and others for redtifying vitriolic 
 ether, 1471. 
 Ethcrial fulution of gold, its properties, 
 1129. 
 
 Evaporating veffel in alum-works dc- 
 fcribcd, 6; 4. 
 
 Evaporation : DrCu lien's experiments 
 on the produdlion of cold by it, . 
 124. Of the method of perform- 
 ing that operation in chemillry, 
 J 72. Lead veflels moft proper 
 
 [ S T R Y. 
 
 for evaporations in the large way, 
 ib. 
 
 Expanfion, one of the general effeCTs 
 of heat, 65. That of mercury and 
 fome other fluids proportional to 
 the degrees of heat, ib. Infl;ru- 
 ments formeafuring the expanfioit 
 of bodies, 103. Inltances of bodies 
 being exi'Pnded by coM, 105. Ex- 
 pasiiion f f water in freezing oc- 
 cafioned by the extrication of air- 
 bubbles, 109. 
 
 Expanfi-jc force of ivater excei'live in 
 the adt of freezing, 106. Ufed as 
 an argument for the pofitive exift- 
 ence of cold, 107. Explained by 
 Dr Black's theory of latent heat, 
 108. 
 
 Exphfion of fulminating gold vaftly 
 fuperior to that of gunpowder, 
 Ho8. A fmall degree of heat 
 fuflicient to make this fubftance 
 explode, 11 10. Inltances (>f its 
 mifchievous effieds, 1112. Its 
 force is not entirely directed 
 downwards, II 13. Of the explo- 
 fion of moifl: aurum fulminans, 
 1 1 14. Not occafioned by a faline 
 principle, 1115, tii6. Nor by 
 fixed air, 11 18. Mr Bergman's 
 tlieory of its caufe, 1120. Occa.- 
 . fioned by volatile alkali, iiai. 
 Expiofion by the vapours of mer- 
 cury, 1231. 
 
 Explofions, violent, occafioned by heat 
 fuddenly applied, 722. 
 
 Fat, acid of; how procured from 
 fuet, ad 1 015. Salts formed by 
 combining it with alkali«s, 3d 1015. 
 With earths, ib. With metals, 
 4th 1015. 
 
 Fats of animals analyfed, 1428. 
 
 Fermentation : milk cap able of a com- 
 plete one, 979. 
 
 Filings of iron grow hot and take fire 
 fpontaneoufly with fulphur, 1207. 
 
 Firmietis Maternus the firft writer on 
 alchemy, 8. 
 
 Filtering large quantities of water, a 
 fcheme for, 569. 
 
 Filtration : how to perform that 
 operation in chemift;ry, j68. 
 
 Fire fuppofed by Mr Boyle not to 
 be an element per fe, 24. The 
 contrary opinion now generally 
 embraced, 3a. Two general the- 
 ories of it in eflieem at prelent, 33. 
 In what tliey differ from the theo- 
 ry of Boyle and Newton, 34. Fire 
 detained in bodies partly by attrac- 
 tion and partly by the preflure of 
 the furrounding fluid, 55. Berken- 
 hout's divifion of I'ire into fixed and 
 volatile, 57. Pure or volatile fire 
 defcribed, 58. Dr Crawford's de- 
 finition of fire, 59. Mr Kii'wan's 
 ojiinion, 68. Mr Cavendifh's 
 oi)inion that it is not a diftindl 
 lubftance, 69. Seems deftitute of 
 gravity and vis inertia, 93. Proofs 
 of its identity with light and elec- 
 tricity, 96. Conne<ftion betwixt 
 fire and eledlricity, 97. Vitriolic 
 acid contains more fire than the 
 nitrous or marine, 278. Acids 
 unite to alkalies by giving out fire, 
 and quit them by receiving it, 286, 
 289. 
 
 Fixed air: its fpecific gravity deter- 
 mined, 411. Of the quantity of 
 it in vegetable alkali, 414. In 
 
 62J 
 
 I'mpurc vegetable alkali, 417. Of 
 the quantity contained in mineral 
 alkali, 434. Earth of alum con- 
 tains a great quantity, 446. Of 
 the quantity of phlogiflon in fixed 
 air, 2d 505. Alkaline falts com- 
 pofed of a cauftic fait and fixed air, 
 1020. Is not the caufe of the ex- 
 piofion of aurum fulminans, 1118. 
 Expels the colouring matter from 
 lixivium fanguinis, 1173. Water 
 impregnated with it diflblves man- 
 ganefe, 1371. 
 
 Fixed alkali lefs attraded by nitrous- 
 acid than filver, 301. Vegetable 
 fixed alkali takes up an equal quan- 
 tity of all the acids, 40a. Exadt 
 calcidation of the quantity of acid 
 taken up by vegetable fixed alkali, 
 419. Stone wai e corroded by the 
 cauflic fixed alkali, 595. iFi-ved 
 fal ammoniac the fame with a 
 combination ( f the marine acid 
 and calcareo'is earths, 797. Com- 
 bination of fluor acid with fixed 
 alkali, 4th 850. Fixed alicaline 
 falts how procured, 1016. Vet't - 
 table alkali cryftallized in varioiis 
 ways, 1017. Changed by combi-.- 
 nation with marine acid, 1018. 
 C ombination of fixed alkalies with 
 fuiphur, 1021. With expreffed 
 oils, 1026. With eflcnciai oiN, 
 1027., With phlogi/ n 11.28. 
 Differences obferved hecv/ixr thofe 
 obtained from different vegetables, 
 1029. Precipitate f utions o£ 
 terra ponderofa, whether in their 
 mild «r cauflic ffate, 1054. The 
 cauftic fixed alkalies throw down 
 an infolubie precipitate from tliefe 
 f)lutions, 1056. Marmor metal- 
 licum precipitated unchanged from 
 oil of vitriol by mild vegetable al- 
 kali, 1064. A triple fait formed 
 bjr fixed alkalies, filiceou; earth, 
 and fluor acid, ro75. The mine- 
 ral, but not the vegetable, fixed 
 alkali decompofes cryflals of pla- 
 tina, 1322. 
 
 Flints, earth of, fuppofed to undergo ^ 
 a tranfmutation by being diffolved 
 in an alkaline liquor, 1069. This 
 change denied by Mr Bergman, 
 1070. The fuppofed tranfmuta- 
 tion found to arife from an admix- 
 ture of clay, 1071. Cryfials of 
 flint produced artificially by Mr ' 
 Bergman, 1072. Wliy the? fluor 
 acid will not dilfolve flint dire<ftly, 
 1073. Earth of flints mofl: com- 
 pletely precipitated by volatile al- 
 kali, 1074. Forms a triple falt- 
 with fluor acid and fixed alkali,. 
 1C75. Diffolved by boiling in an 
 alkaline liquor, 1075. Has a re- 
 markable attradiion for alkaline 
 falts in the dry way, 1077. 's 
 very rare and fpongy when preci- 
 pitated, 1078. Why the alkaline 
 Iblution fometimes cannot be pre- 
 cipitated by an acid without heat, 
 1079. Liquor of flints decompo- 
 fed by too great a quantity of wa- 
 ter and by fluor acid, 1080. Sae; 
 Siliceous earth. 
 
 Flares martiales, how prepared, 80S. 
 
 Floni ers of Benzoin, how prepared, 
 9S4, etfeq. See Benzoin. FLwers 
 of zinc prepared by the defla- 
 gration of that femimetai, 1241. . 
 
 D*i' 
 
624 
 
 Dr Lewis's method of reducing 
 them, 1242. An oil fuppofed 
 to be ( btaincd from them by- 
 Mr Homberp, 1243. His mi- 
 ftake deccdlcd by Nciunann, ih. 
 Another oil by Mr Hellot, 1244. 
 Gold and filver Iraf diffolved by 
 this oil, ib. A. j^reat proportion 
 of :iitre alkalized by the flowers of 
 zinc without any feulible deflagra- 
 tion, 1249. 
 Flotvers: method of preparing fefts 
 for acids and alkalies from rheni, 
 '552- 
 
 Fluid: Dr Cleghorn's proof tliatheat 
 is occaficned by wne, 82. Difli- 
 cuitic's concem'Tg 'he nature and 
 properties of this lluid, 83. Heat 
 moft jirr bably tl^e at5lioii .of an 
 omi;ijirefent ili^id, 92. fienfible 
 heat slv^ays jr^ duced by the con- 
 veriiun c*f a fluid into a folid, 
 116. 
 
 Huidiiy occaConed by the alifot ption 
 of heat, 115, 119. A proof of this 
 from its being poUible to cool wa- 
 ter below 32*^ witliout freezing'-, 
 117. 
 
 jFluUs diff"er in the dei^rees of a^fol; te 
 heat they contain, 46. The tl^in- 
 reft fluids contain the f^'eateft 
 quantity of heat, 47. Mj' Watt's 
 experiments on the evaporation of 
 fluids in ■vitciw, 116. Fli;ids part 
 with more heat tlian fbiid bodies 
 can, 212. 
 
 fltior acid : w!;y it can be reduced 
 int© ail without any addition, 207. 
 Firft .difcovcred by Mr Margraaf, 
 ■826. Prepared by dillilling fluor 
 fpar with oil of vitriol, 827. Foims 
 a white earthy crufl on thefurfacc 
 of water put into the receiver, 
 S28, tt fiq. S£e Crujl. Fluor acid 
 proved t.i be diflii'dl f oni that of 
 fea-falt, 835. And from the acid 
 of vitriol, 836. Quicklime pro- 
 ved to be the bafis of flu: r fpar, 
 837. Miftake of M. R'lonnet on 
 this fubjedt, 838. Wiegleb's ex- 
 periments on the earth contained 
 in this acid, 839, S40. Mayer's 
 examination of the acid, 841. How 
 to procure the acid free from fili- 
 ceous earth, 842. Flxperiments 
 for this purpofe with an iron di- 
 ftilling veflel, 843. A fait con- 
 taining fluor acid forms no cruft 
 \)y being mixed with fund, 844. 
 But a great quantity wiih powder- 
 ed glafs, 845. Of the quantity of 
 filiceous earth which fliior acid 
 carries along with It, 847. Vio- 
 lent acftion of it upon glafs, 848. 
 Mr Wenzel's experiment,? on the 
 fluor acid in a leaden retoi t, 850. 
 This acid procuralile by means of 
 the acids of nitre, lea-falt, and 
 phofphfirus, 2d 850. Appearance 
 and properties of it, 3d 850. Of 
 its combinaticn with fixed alkali, 
 4th 850. Wi;h vohtile alkali, 
 851. With earths, 852. With 
 inetals, 853. Glafs corrode;', by 
 it and ty the fait produced by its 
 combination with volatile alkali, 
 854. Great difliculty of prefer ving 
 this acid, 855. Golden vefleJs, 
 cr a phial lined with oil and wax, 
 recommended for this purpofe, 
 856. Dr Piieftley's method 
 M° 76. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 ronvenlng the fluor acid into air, 
 857. Retrads his o; in ion of its 
 being only the vitriolic arid alter- 
 ed, ib. Fluor acid cannot be ex- 
 pelled by that of arfenic, 934. 
 Why it cannot difToIve flint direcft- 
 ly, 1073. Why it decompofes li- 
 qiior of flints, loSo. Is fcarcc cn- 
 ).able of difi/dving manganefe, 
 1366. Ex[J,inat:on of its ailioa 
 cn manganef?, 1383. 
 
 Fluxes: platina and fome of its cal- 
 ces fufible by their means, 1337. 
 
 Fontana^s account of the fpecific gra- 
 vity of different kinds of air, 375, 
 An experiment of his confirming 
 thofe of Mr Kii wan 394. 
 
 Fojftle i:lkali. See Mineral. 
 
 Fourcroy denies that platina can be 
 amalgamated with mercury, 1350. 
 Inc nnftcnce in his account of its 
 hard:;efs. 1351. 
 
 Fragility of glafs w hen Bot wdfl an- 
 nealed, 559. 
 
 Fr.ince: of the method of making ni- 
 tre fhei e, 731. 
 
 Freezing: of the prodigious expan five 
 power exerted by wat£r during 
 that a<Si:, 106. 
 
 FriScion mabes at.Tuni fulminans ex- 
 plode without any heat, iiii. 
 
 Fulminating calx of fiiver made by 
 Kunckel, 756. Fulminating cop- 
 per, 1035. Fulminating gold, 
 1 103. See Aiirum fulminans . Ful- 
 minating filver made by M. Ber- 
 thollet, 1 138. How prepared, 
 1 139. .See Silver. Fuhninating 
 qwickfdver, how prepared, 3d 905. 
 
 Fumes: nitrous and fulphnreous ef- 
 fervefce with one another, 626. 
 Gold not rendered brittle by the 
 fumes of tin, 1093. 
 
 Furnace, a portable one defcribed, 
 600. Form of Boerhaave's port- 
 able furnace, ib. Another defcri- 
 bed, ib. Dr Lewis's portable fur- 
 naces, 601. Objedlioii to their 
 ufe in fonie cafes, 602. Dr Black's 
 furniice, 2d 602. How adapted 
 to the various operations of che- 
 mifliy, 603. Luting proper for it, 
 
 604. Method of applying thr^ 
 lute, 605. Melting furnace, 2d 
 
 605. Mr Pott's melting fuinace, 
 
 606. Why its cavity is made of 
 a roundifli form, 607. Lewis's 
 lamp, 611. One conftrudled on the 
 principles of Argai:d'» lamps, ib. 
 
 Furnaces nccfflary for the ojieiations 
 of chemiftry, 5 99, ef fcq. DiretSions 
 for building them properly, 6ro. 
 
 Fufibility of metals increafed by mix- 
 ture, 542. Great fufibility of 
 mixtures of tin and bifmuth. 543. 
 Increafed by the addition of lead, 
 ib. 
 
 Fufion ; how to pcrfo-m that opera- 
 tion in chemifl;ry, 584. Difference 
 betwixt the watery and dry fufion, 
 ib. Of the crucibles necefliry for 
 the f.ifion of chemical fubjeifts, 
 585, etfeq. See Crucibles. Fuliou 
 of all metals promoted by biihiuch, 
 1251. 
 
 GiRPHTTTAN, in Sweden: Rin- 
 man's method of burning the alu- 
 minous ore there, 668. Method 
 of lixiviating it, 670. 
 
 Galh, acid of, how feparated from 
 tjiem, 1537. An acid liquor pro- 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 cmed from them by di ft illation, 
 
 1538. Its ptoperties, 1539. 
 Gajlric juice of animals contains phof- 
 
 phoric acid, 904. 
 Geofftoy'^ rule for determining the 
 
 degrees of chemical attraction, 
 
 262. His table of affinities, 553. 
 
 InveOigafes the conftituent parts 
 
 of alum, 641. His theory of Pi uf- 
 
 fian blue, 11 65. 
 'Germ.iiiy: method of making nitre 
 
 in fome par ts of it, 730. 
 <jlafaoiv: a kind of fpathum pondie- 
 
 rofum found in its neighbourhood, 
 
 1060. 
 
 Glafs: method of errg-aving on it by 
 
 means of fluor acid, 2d 857, 
 Glafs. vejfels, when to be ufed by che- 
 jnirts, 556. Dr Black's reniaiks 
 on the properties of glafs 558. 
 AfFor 's the filiceous criifb obferved 
 on fluor acid, 840. Violent aiftion 
 of that acid on glafs, S48. Cor- 
 roded by it and by the amnioniacal 
 fait produced from it, 8^4. Bif- 
 muth convertible into giafs, 1250. 
 How to prepare glaf's of antimony, 
 1257. A beautiful blue glafs pro- 
 duced by the calx of regulus of 
 cobalt, 1299. 
 Glafs of lead: of the veffcls raoft; ca- 
 pable of refifl;ing its aAion, 5S9. 
 Glafs- making : Pliny's account of the 
 
 origin of it, 7. 
 Glajfes : of the materials projier for 
 
 coating them, 580. 
 Glauber's fal ammoniac prepared from 
 vitriolic acid and volatile alkali, 
 633. See Ammoniac. 
 Glauber s fait: Dr Crell's miftafce 
 concerning its preparation from 
 alum and comm' n fait, 272. Its 
 decompofition by marine acid 
 never complete, 291. Reafon of 
 this decompofition explamed, 306. 
 Quantity of ingredients in it, 431. 
 Piepared irom vitriolic acid and 
 mineral alkali, 632. Dangerous 
 confequerces of mifliaking ci-yflals 
 of nitre for it, 743. Produced from 
 the refin extratAed from the refi- 
 duum of vitriolic ether, 2d 722. 
 Glauber's fpirit of nitre, 734. 
 G»?(7i'«, Dr,his experiments on the dif- 
 ferences berwixt the a'kaline falts 
 produced from different vegetables, 
 1029. On the afhes of different 
 plants, 1089. Method of making 
 dulcified fpirit of fjlt, 1481. 
 Gold: why its folution is precipitated 
 by green vitriol, 225. But not by 
 the dephlo^fiilicated kind, 226. 
 Why it is precipitated by folution 
 oftiii, 227. Various precipitates 
 of it, 233. Beit kind of aqua regia 
 for diilolving it, 481. Quantity of 
 it taken up by aqua re.>ia, 482. 
 Its calces foluhle in the vitriolic 
 and nitrous acids, 483. Kirwan's 
 o] inion that thii r^etal cannot in 
 any quantity be difl'olved in the 
 nitrous acid, 484. Dr Brandt's 
 experiment-, fliowing that it may 
 be f> i!i clofc veflel s, 750. Lewis's 
 obfervation on this experiment, ib. 
 Solution (f its cakes in fpirit of 
 fait, 799. Sublimes along with 
 the acid, ib. 'I'he fubliraate faid 
 to he the material iifed for the 
 blood of St Januarius, 800. Is not 
 alfeilcd in any way by the arfeni- 
 
 Inde; 
 
 ca\ acid, 941. Its nature and pi 
 perties particularly treated 
 1089. Unit! s readii} with all t 
 metals, 1090. Its colour debaf 
 by all the metals except copper, 
 Said to lole its malleability 
 markably with tin, J091. 1 
 Lewis's account of the bad eStt 
 of this metal up<!n it, ib. Mr A 
 chorne's experiments in oppofiti o 
 1092. Gold not rendered brif; 
 by the fum.es > f tin, 1093. Nor 1 
 the additioti of the metal itftlf . 
 fmall quantities, ib. Nor wit 
 the addition of copper, xo^\ 
 Malleability of gold entirely i' 
 ftroyed by a fmail quantiiy of 
 gulus of arfe;:ic, 1095. Surr 
 fing tenacity of its parrs, 1096, 
 notHable to ruft, 1097. Mr Boy! 
 experiment to fliowits dcflrudiib 
 lity, 109S. Of its f .lution in aqi 
 regia, 1009. This folution of 
 corrofive nature, iioo. May \ 
 cryitallized, ib. Of the precip 
 tation of the metal from it, no 
 Separated from other metals b 
 green vitriol, iioa, Explodi 
 with prodigious force in forr 
 cafes, 1 103 — 1126. See Aurum ft 
 minans. Solution of g(ildby htp^ 
 fulphuris, 1 127. Medical virtu< 
 of gold entirely imaginary, ii2j 
 Solution ;n eflential oils not pel 
 manent, 1128. Difli.lved per.nj 
 nently in ether, and cfyfl;a]li2ab] 
 by its means, 1 1 29. Revived froi 
 its folution in aqua regia by mil 
 ing it with fpirit of wine, ib. 
 method thus afforded of purifyin 
 it frum other metals, ib. lloi 
 to reftore its colour when lof 
 1 130. Mercury fixed by amalgi 
 mation with gold, 1234. Wht 
 ther it be pofiible to adulterat 
 gold with platina, 1356. How t 
 detedl this fraud if it fliould b 
 pradtifed, 1357. 
 
 Golden calf: its diffblution adduce 
 as an inftance of Mcifes's ikill i 
 chemiflry, 4. 
 
 Golden julphur cf antimony, how pre 
 pared, 1263. 
 
 Golden vefj'els recommended for keep 
 ing the fluor acid, 856. 
 
 Granulation of copper, how performec 
 
 II48. 
 
 Gra-uity ■ the element of fire fcem 
 to be dt fUtutc of it, 93. Of find 
 ing the fpecific gravity of the dif 
 ferent metallic calces, 327. Hov 
 to find the fpecific gravity of bo 
 dies, 371. Of the fpecific gravit; 
 of fpirit of fait, 377. How tl 
 find that of the ingredients in di 
 geftive fait, 380. Of the pure ni 
 trous acid, 386. Of its mathcma 
 tical fpecific gravity, 388. Hov 
 to coniti u(5l a table of the fpecifii 
 gravities of fpirits of nitre of dif 
 ferent ftrength, 390. How tt 
 fiitd the fpecific gravity of puri 
 vitriohc acid, 397. Of the ace 
 tous acid, 400. Of ftrong vinegar 
 401. Of fixed air, 411. Ol tixe< 
 vegetable alkali, 412. Mr Wad 
 foil's account of the fpecific gra 
 vi y of fait of tartar, 415. D; 
 Lewis's obfervations on the fpeci 
 fic gravity of bell-metal and othe: 
 metallic compounds, 11 56. 
 
 J Gree. 
 
■Creen colour produced from verdigrig 
 arid cream of tarrar, 894.. 
 
 Gun-ponvder : 4|R expic.five fierce vaflly 
 inferior to that of aurum fulmi- 
 naiis, 1 108. 
 
 Gypfum: prop >rt ion of iii;^red;eats In 
 the natural kiml, 439. Formed 
 of the vitriolic aci 1 aiid calcare ms 
 eari-h, 635. Some diffei ences be- 
 twixt the natural and artificial 
 kinds, ib. Is fohible in fome de- 
 gree by acids, (136. Convertib e 
 into quicklime by a Oroni;, heat, 
 ib. Fufcd by a very violent and 
 fudden heat, a:^d likewife by the 
 addition of clay or ca'carenus 
 earth, ib. Decom]iorod by fixed 
 and mild volutile alkalies^ ib. And 
 by the ?.cidof arfenic, 933. Found 
 in the concentrated vitriolic acid, 
 1059. 
 
 HANovt. r: method of making ni- 
 trr there, 729. 
 
 HaJJi I : of the alurninous ore^s found 
 in that country, 6-58. 
 
 Heat, two general theories of, iS. 
 JLord Bacru's , definition of it, 29. 
 Mr Boyle's opinion, 30. Senti- 
 mcnt> of Sir Ifaac Newton on tl e 
 fubjeA, 31. Fire or beat general- 
 ly allowed to be an elemeii-jt^r fe, 
 
 32. Two other theories inftitiited, 
 
 33. In what they difler from the 
 f irmer, 34. General account of 
 Dr Bl ic'- 's and Dr I'-vn-e's tiu^rry, 
 35. Dr Irviiif's theory ex plained 
 by Dr C- awford, 36. Abfolute 
 heat defined, 37. Great quanti'y 
 of heat produced by the condenfa- 
 tion of vapour, 43, 125. DifTcr- 
 cnce of the abfolute heat of differ- 
 ent fluids, 46. Thiniieft fluids 
 contain the greateft quantity of it, 
 47. Crawford's account of fen- 
 fible heat, 49. Capacities for c<in- 
 taininj;- heat explained, 52. Craw- 
 ford's 0] inion conceri.ini;; heat in 
 the abftia«9-, 54. Dr Bcrkenhout's 
 opinion of its nature, 56. Heat 
 has a tendency to diffufe itfelf e- 
 qnal'y over bodies, Cc. Is con- 
 tained in. confiderable quantities in 
 all bodies, 61. Its quantity limi- 
 ted in all bodies, 64. Ex; anfion 
 an univerfai efTed of heat, 65. 
 Bodies of the fame kind and of 
 equal 'empcrature cmitain quanti- 
 ties of heac proportioned to their 
 quantities of matter, 67. E<piili- 
 brium of heat defined, 75. Dr 
 Crawford's meih' d of determini::g 
 the proportional deerees of lieat, 
 77. His method infi.fiicient, 78. 
 Nicholfon's account of the theories 
 of heat, 79. Advantages of the 
 do(51:rine th.:t heat is caufed by vi- 
 bration, fio. Anfwer to Mr Ni- 
 cholfon's argument, 81. Dr Cleg-, 
 horn's proof that heat is occafioned 
 Lyafluid, 82. Difi^icuity arifn+g 
 from 'he fuppofition that heat dif- 
 fufes itfelf eqXially, 84. Another 
 from the feeming difappearance of 
 lieat, 85. Equal diftiibution of 
 heat promoted by its abforption 
 and evolution, 89. Heat of the 
 torrid zone thus mititia^ed, 90. 
 Heat moft probably the adlion of 
 an omniprefent fluid, 92. Diftri- 
 bution of heat occa!lo;ied by the 
 »6>;ion of the fun, 94. How heat 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Is produced by his rays, 95. Cnn- 
 nccijHon between heat and eledri- 
 city, 97. Heat in fummer becomes 
 eleiftric fluid in winter, 99. Solu- 
 tion of the phenomena of heat, 
 102. Wr Kirwaii's tht-oreni for 
 fintlingilie poii:t of total privation 
 of hear, ri4. Hoat the cat fe of 
 the foftnelli of bodies a] proac hing 
 to fluidity, II S. Abforption of 
 heat the un.iverfal caufe of fluidity, 
 1 20. Heat p odncedin the burning 
 of inflammable l;odic8 comes from 
 the air, 157. Too much phlogiflion 
 prevents the heat ( f burning liodies 
 from being intei fe, 158. Wi y 
 the folar heat and that of eledlri- 
 city are fo intcnfe, 160. Table of 
 the various degrees of heat, 161. 
 Heat ]iroduced during the diflblu- 
 tio:i of mccals, 190. Heat and 
 not phlogifton the caufe of elafti- 
 city, 209. Heat produced in fo- 
 lution moft probably proceed- from 
 the folvent liquor, 211. Argu- 
 ment in favour of the weight of 
 precipitates being augmented by 
 tli.e matter of heat, 249. Experi- 
 ment^ to dcteimiine the caufe of 
 fomecliemicaldeconip lltionsfrom 
 the degrees of heat ])roiiuced by 
 various mixture^, 277. Alteration 
 of the denfity of acii's by various 
 degrees of heat, 423. Strong fpi- 
 rit of nitre move expanded by heat 
 than weak, and why, 424. Dila- 
 tation of fpirit of fait by various 
 degiees of heat, 417. What me- 
 t:>.Is are caii-inablej and by what 
 degrees of heat. 530. Violent ex- 
 pioli .ns from the fudden applica- 
 tion of heat, 722. Effcdsofheat 
 on lapis pontlerofus, 969. Mercu- 
 ry unalterable !;y being kept 15 
 y ?ais in a gentle heat, 1229. 
 Hdlot [ rocures from flowers of zinc 
 an oil capable of diflijlving gold 
 and filvcr leaf, 1244. 
 Hepar fulphiiris formed by a conibi- 
 nati>..n of fixed alkalies an.l ful^;hu^, 
 lozi. Maybe made either in tJie 
 moift ord yway, 1021. Partly 
 decompofed by fixed aii-, i!). En- 
 tirely by acids, 1022. Eflcdl.=: of 
 the inflammable vapour arifing 
 duriiig its decompofition, ib. 1023. 
 Its ] hi ogiilon very much difpofed 
 to fly off, 1024. Diflblves many 
 metals, and chaicoal, 1025. Solu- 
 tion of gold by its means, 1127. 
 It.s effecfis of it upon nickel. 1309. 
 Hepatic air contain.s fuljihur. 210. 
 Hermes Trifmegijlus, the fame with 
 Siphoas, an Egyptian, the founder 
 of chemifiiry, 3. 
 Hig.r'ins, Mr, his experiments on hu- 
 mao calcuius, 1463, et jeq. His ob- 
 fer vations on tlie nitrous acid, 14 72 . 
 Mefho 1 of obtaining it quite co- 
 It. uiief, 1475. Difcovers tiie true 
 con:po(:tion of volaf ilealkali, 1553. 
 Horidrrgh exj eriments on fpecific 
 gravities comparrd v ith thofe of 
 Kirwan. 392. Diflferent refults of 
 them accounted for, 393, 399. An 
 0;) obtained by Horaberg fuppofed 
 to come from the flowers of zinc, 
 1243. The mi; ake difcovered by 
 Neumann, 1243. How he difco- 
 vered his pyrophorus, 141 5. Bell 
 nie-hod of preparing it, 1416. See 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 Pyrophorus. Difcovers that ftia- 
 rine acid corrodes glafs, 1482. 
 Houfe-pdintiiig : a yellow colour for 
 
 that 1 urpofe, 699. 
 J.iNif ARIL'S, St, afublimateof ma- 
 rine acid and gold fliown for his 
 blood, 800. 
 Ice: a quantity of heat loft in the 
 
 melting of it, 42. 
 Jelly, the mucilage of animal fubftan- 
 ces, 1454. All of them reducible 
 to this by long boiling, ih.^ Is the 
 only true animal fubftaTO^j ib. 
 Forms a very ftrong cement, ib. 
 Ignited ladies all equally hot, 128. 
 Ignition an univerfal eff"c<ft of fire, 
 130. Diff"er;'nce betwixt ignition 
 and inflammation, 132. 
 Ilex nquifoUuiii : the grov,'th of that 
 jilaiit a fign of aluminous ores in 
 the ground, 639. 
 Injldmmable and ■vitriolic 'acid air ob- 
 tained from fokition of copper in 
 Vitriolic ac'd. 465, 471. Inflam- 
 mable fubllances, theii- nature and 
 proj erties, 516. Principles into 
 wliich they aic refolved by burn- 
 ing, ib. By diftillatioii, 517. 
 Their ])hcnomena v. ith different 
 aci'U, 518. .Some fingu'ar pro- 
 dudions, ';r9. Vitriolic acid com- 
 bined with rlrem, 712,^7^^. Nitrous 
 acid, 77 Marine acid, S24. 
 
 An inflammable fpirit extia(£l:ed 
 ft om fugar of lead, 87S. Inflam- 
 mable vapour arifing fi om the de- 
 co:npofirion of hepar fulj huris, 
 1023. Volatile alL-aiies combined 
 with fhcm, 1035. Of iheir divifion 
 and chemical pro]iertieR,i398,('/y7-y. 
 InJiaiiitnaUe a?>.- nietallic ci-lces re- 
 duced I7 it, 149. Revival of lead 
 from nrinium by it, 324. Quan- 
 tify of inflam.muble air produced 
 from i on. 454. Why none is 
 produced from the nitrous folution 
 of iron, 400. Ciiarcoal entirely 
 C(<nveriibie into it, 1451. 
 IiiflarrimoLle fpirit produced from ra- 
 dical vinegar, 1544. Sulphuie- 
 ous inflanunable vapours produced 
 from it, 1345. 
 Injlummution : differeiice betwixt it 
 and ignition, 132. Bo '.ie^ decom- 
 pounded but not deftroyed by in- 
 flanni.ation, 1 33. 
 Ink: a fine fyni]iathetic one produced 
 from loll. lion of cobalt hi fjnrit of 
 fait, 82a. Anothei- by means of vo- 
 latile tinclui-e of fuljil'.ur andfaccha- 
 runi faturni,io39 Blue fympathe- 
 tic ink prepared from cobalt, 822. 
 Injhlitble precipitate thrown down bv 
 cauftic fixed alkali from fohition of 
 terra ponderfa, 10^6. 
 Inundations prevented !>)■ the flownefs 
 with wliich coiigealed water melts, 
 88. 
 
 Iron: objeclion to tlic exiftencc 'of 
 j'hiogifton fi-om the total ccnfump- 
 tion of dei)hl(.'g!fticated air in burn- 
 ing it, I J 2. Little phlogifton ex- 
 pelled from it by this means, 153. 
 The objcdion inconciufive, 154. 
 This me!al not reduced to a calx 
 by burning in dephlogiflicated air, 
 I55. Water pn duced in the re- 
 du61ion of it by inflammable air, 
 156 Of it", precipitate.^ by dilTer- 
 cnt fubftances, 239. Is not an of- 
 ienriai IngredicHt in platina, 254. 
 
 Nor regulus of nickel, 255. Nor 
 cobalt or manganefe, 256. Why 
 Ibhuions of iion diffolve copper, 
 336. Iron and zinc the otily me- 
 tals diffolved by vitriolic acid, 337. 
 Why copper and iron preei;>itatc 
 one another, 341. Increafe of the 
 attradion of calx of iron to phlo- 
 glfton demonftrated, 342. De- 
 phlogifllcaredfointir'ns of iron pre- 
 cipitated by calces of copper, 343. 
 Why a ftiiurated folution of filvcr 
 cati fcarce be precipi'ated by iron, 
 346- _ Of the precij'itation of zinc 
 and iron b\' one another, 347. 
 Iroi: and nickel will fcarcely pre- 
 ci] itate one another, 359. Cobalt 
 precipitated by iron, 362. A triple 
 fidt formed by iron, rec.ulus of an- 
 timony,^ and marine acid, 365. 
 Proportion of iron taken up by 
 the vitriolic acid, 453. Why vi- 
 triolic ai!- is produced by dlfr)lving 
 iron in concenrrated vitriolic acid, 
 455- Solution of the calces of 
 iron in vitriolic acid, 456. That 
 of the dephloginicated calces re- 
 fufes to cryftallize, 457. Propor- 
 tion of iron difl'olved in ni'troua 
 acid, 458. In the marine acid, 
 4('2 Calces of iron afiume a red 
 cdourwhen precipitatedfrom their 
 fohition in the marine acid, 463. 
 Produces green vitriol by combi- 
 nation with virriolic acid, 696, 697. 
 Precipitaies fpontaneoiifly from 
 the vitriolic acid, 69B. li'on con- 
 tained in the refin jiroduced from 
 the rcfi.luum of vitriolic ether, 
 ad 722, Cannot be diffolved by 
 concentrated, though it will by- 
 diluted, nitrous acid, 7 = 9. Dif. 
 fijives and produces inflammable 
 aij- with mat ine acid, 805. Volatili- 
 zed by this acid, So(5. Its folution 
 nfed in medicine, 807. Combined 
 with acetous acid, 873. With acid 
 of tartar, 895. With the acid of 
 arh nic, 948. Its nature and pro- 
 ptrties particularly treated of, 
 1 1 57. Has great tenacity of parts, 
 1158. Is a combuftible fubftance, 
 1159 Is the only metal capable 
 of being welded, 1 160. Cor.tradh 
 in fi^fion, and expands again on 
 becon-.ing cold, 1 161. Is (lifl'olved 
 by all metals except lea{l and mer- 
 cury, 1162. Becomes brittle by 
 being immeifed for fome time in 
 that fluid, 1102. Can fcarce be 
 unite.l to zinc, ib. Has a ftrong 
 atrradion for arfeitic, ib. Is the 
 bafis of Prnflian blue, 116^, et feq. 
 See PruJJiutt blue. Calx of iron fo- 
 I ihlein lixivium fanguinis, 1171;. 
 Neutral fair for difcovering it in 
 mntcial waters, 1180. Precipita- 
 te 1 bt the co;t)uring matter o£ 
 Pruliian bhie from \t' folution by 
 aenai acid, 1191. Nitre alkalized 
 by It, i2o5. Its filings take fire 
 fjx ntaneoufly with fulphur, 1207. 
 Unites with platina, 1347, 
 ■on liquor for printing "cloth, how 
 prepared, 873. 
 
 ■■vir.e. Dr : general account of his 
 and Dr Black's tlieory of heat, 35. 
 Bis theory explained by Dr Craw- 
 ford, 36, 
 
 Italy: of the firft a!un>works fet up 
 there, 639. 
 
 4 K ^ui(4» 
 
626 
 
 yince, gaflrlcj yields phofphoiic acid, 
 904. 
 
 3Ceir, Mr, his ebje6lions to the doc- 
 trines of Mr Kirvvan, 2d 5 10. His 
 method of prepaiing an alkaline 
 llandard, 4rh 510. Of finding the 
 fpccific j^ravity of differerit liquors, 
 5 th ^10. His objeftions to the 
 opinions concerning the identity 
 of the vegetable acids, 1540. 
 
 Kermes mineral, how prepared, 
 
 JCetley, in Shropfhire : a kind of fjja- 
 thum ponder ofum found there, 
 1060. 
 
 JCilfatrict-hills, near Glafgow : fpa- 
 thum ponderofum found there, 
 
 1060. 
 
 Kir-wan s opinion concerning fire, 
 6S. His theoi em fcir finding the 
 point of total privation of heat, 
 1 14. His remarks on feme expe- 
 riments of Dr Prieftlcy, 325. His 
 experiments compared with thofe 
 of Homberg, 392. Different le- 
 fults of their experiments account- 
 ed for, 393, 399. Kirwnn's expe- 
 riments confirmed by one of Fon- 
 tana, 394. Differences with Mr 
 Bergman and Lavoifier accounted 
 for, 435. Is of opinion that gold 
 cannot be diffolved in nitrous acid, 
 484. Miflake of Morveau con- 
 cerning a I'liperabuir.Iance of acid in 
 alum accounted for, 642. Objec- 
 tions to his doflrine concerning 
 the fpecific gravity, &c. of differ- 
 ent fubftances, 2d 5 10, et feq. To 
 lus calculation of the quantity of 
 phlogifton in fulphur, 6th 510. 
 Kunckel pre})ares a fulminating cak 
 
 of filver, 756. 
 Lamp- FURNACE : Dr Lewis's de- 
 fcribed, 6ti. Is not capable of 
 giving a greater heat than 450° of 
 Fahrenheit, ib. 
 Language: fpecinien of a new chemi- 
 cal one, 552. Itsflrange appear- 
 ance in attempting to account for 
 the phenomenon of fulminating 
 iilver, 1144- 
 Lapis ponderofus confidered as a me- 
 tallic earth by Mr Bergman, 967. 
 See Tungjien. 
 Latent beat: experiments by which 
 Dr Black was led to the difcovery 
 of it, 41. iThis heat cannot be 
 meafured, 73. Expanfion of wa- 
 ter in freezing explained by the 
 theory of latent heat, 108. Air 
 feubbles in ice produced by part of 
 the latent heat of the water, 110. 
 Va))Our formed by the abforption 
 of heat into a latent flate, 120. 
 Lawifier denies the exillence of 
 phlogifton, 137. His arj.niments 
 drawn from the increafed weight 
 of metals by calcination, 138. His 
 theory of inflammation, 139. His 
 - arguments fiom the redudlion of 
 the calces of perfed metals with- 
 out addition, 140. Difpute be- 
 twixt him and Prieftley, 141. His 
 differences with Kirwan accounted 
 for, 435. Account of fome of 
 iiis experiments on the increafed 
 weight of metallic folutions. 525. 
 Confequences deduced by him from 
 thefe experiments, 526. Not v eil 
 fuundcd, J 2 7. Account of the 
 
 C H E M I 
 
 conftituent parts of the nitrous 
 acid, 1473. His nev^ nomencla- 
 ture, 1560. 
 Lead: quickfi'iver produced from it 
 in certain cafes, 12, 762. Water 
 may be made fufficiently hot to 
 melt lead, 131. Why tiie vitrio- 
 lic acid cannot ac^ upon it v/ith- 
 out a bo-Hng l eat, 197. Pre- 
 cipitates of lead, 237. Sea-falt 
 decomp /fed in various ways by 
 inea||p of it, 302. In what cafes 
 folution of lead is precijutated by 
 other metals, 309. The folution 
 in marine acid decomi'oled by vi- 
 triolic fa! ts, 310. Revival of lead 
 from muiium by inflammable air, 
 324. Why it is ufeful in cujielh- 
 tion, 331. Precipitation of it by 
 nickel", ' 360. Veffeh cap;;l-le of 
 refining the glafs of lead, 5S9. 
 Lead vefl'els mofl: proper for the 
 preparation of oil of vitriol, 627. 
 Cannot he diffolved in the vitriolic 
 acid, 702. A beautiful wliite for 
 painting in water pre[ ared from 
 litharge, nitrous and vitriolic acids, 
 703. Diffolvcs and ciyflallizes 
 with the nit'ous acid, 761. This 
 fait decrepitates witli great violence 
 in the fire, 762. Becomes fluid 
 like oil by repeated difTolutions in 
 aquafortis, 762. Combination of 
 lead with marine acid, 811. Plum- 
 bum corneum. Si 2. Combined 
 with acetous acid, 874. White 
 lead the refult of this preparation, 
 875. Oblervations on the procefs 
 for making it, 876. Sugar of lead 
 prepared freni acetous acid and 
 vvhite lead, S 77. Inflammable fpirit 
 procured By diftlUing this fait, 878. 
 Combination of lead with the acid 
 of arfenic, 949. Great attra<Slion 
 betwixt filver and lead, 1136. Car.- 
 notbf united to iron, 1162. The 
 metal particularly treated of, 1207. 
 e( fcq. The lead dudlile and tena- 
 cious of all metals, 120S. Sheet- 
 lead, how cad, 1209. Milled lead 
 fcarce to be preferred to this kind, 
 1210. Rendered fonorous by be- 
 ing call into a certain fliape, 
 Of its calcination, 1212. Minium 
 or red-lead, how prepared, 1^13. 
 Litharge, 1214. Phenomena with 
 other metals, 1215. Remarkable 
 way of uniting with copper and 
 feparating from it again, ib. So- 
 luble in alkalies an.d oils, 1216. 
 Of its union with platina, 1348. 
 Lemons, effcntial fait of, a fjiecies of 
 tartar extraded from forrel fold 
 under this name, 888. Dr Crell's 
 method of cryflallizing the acid 
 of lemons, 997. This acid cannot 
 be converted into acid of fugar, 
 999. Entirely diffolves manganefe, 
 1370. Explanation cf the adlion 
 of the acids of tartar and lemons 
 on manganefe, 1382. 
 Lemgation, a chemical operation, 
 how performed, i 99. Reaumur's 
 porcelain recommended for leviga- 
 ting utenfils, ib. 
 Leiuis, Dr, his obfervations on the 
 making of crucibles, 590. ?Iis 
 experiments on Reaumur's porce- 
 lain, 50?, 594. Defcriptiiin of his 
 portable furnaceS; 601. Objedtion 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 to their ufe in fome cafes, 602. 
 His lamp-furnace dcfcribed, 61 r. 
 His experiment to Ihow that clay 
 undergoes fome change by being 
 converted ii^to earth of alum, 649. 
 His directions for making turbilh 
 mineral, 706. E-Kperinu-nts on 
 the folubility of tin in the acetous 
 acid, 880. His o];i:!ion conctrn- 
 ingthe earth of \ egetables, 1088. 
 His methods of amalgamatiiig 
 mercury with copper, 1153. H:s 
 obfervations on the fj ecific gravity 
 of bell-metal and other compounds 
 t)f the metallic kind, 1156. His 
 cbfervation on the ci ackling noife 
 made by tin in bending, 1221. 
 His deteClion. f an erroneous pro- 
 cefs in which mercury was fup'po- 
 I'ed to be converged into water, 
 1236. His method of reducing 
 the flowers of zinc, 1242. His 
 experiments on alloying platina 
 with other metals, 1338. 
 Ley, alkaline, why it is unfit for ex- 
 ciacHng the flowers of benzoin, 
 989. 
 
 LV,Hi-Au!, fmoking liquor of, how 
 prcj-ared, 8ro, 
 
 LiJiienfeins, experiments on the acid 
 of benzoin, 1530. 
 
 Light: proofs of its idei:t!ty with fire 
 and elecflricity, 96. Tlie tfftd of 
 one univeifal fluid, lol. Charac- 
 tei s cui ii ufly miuked by the^ fun's 
 light on a precipitate of Clvcr by 
 calcarei^us eaiih, 756. 
 
 Lime the mofl; proper material for ex- 
 tradling the flowers of benzoin, 
 991. Cryfl;al!lzation of the acid 
 of lemons prevented by tlie fmal- 
 left particle of lime, 99S. Terra 
 ponderofa convertible into a kind 
 of lime capable of decomp' fmg vi- 
 triolic faltP, 1055. Diflbived by 
 the colouring matter of Prufiiaii 
 blue, 11S9. How 1 revented fiom 
 flicking to the bottoms of diftiUing 
 veffels, 1033. 
 
 Lime-iv.:ter pVccipit2tcd by the arfe- 
 nical acid. 935. 
 
 Z!>/'V//'o/2.'/'6™,howprepared,i4TO. 
 
 Litharge prepared in the refiiMng of 
 fiher with lead, 1214- Alrnoft 
 always contains fome lead in a 
 metallic Itate, ib. Bifinu;h con- 
 vertible into a fubllance of this 
 kind, 1250. 
 
 Lithyiac acid. See Calculus, acid of. 
 
 Lixivium fu-iguiuis lufes its culoui ing 
 matter by expofure to the air, 
 1172. Calx of iron foluble in it. 
 
 Liver If arfenic {ormcd of alkali and 
 arfenic boiled together, 1 276. 
 
 Lubbock, Dr, his theory of heat, &c, 
 142. 
 
 Luna cornea, why it cannot be redu- 
 ced wiihoat lofs by alkabne f-ilts, 
 314. May be decompofcd by 
 mercury, 356. How j>reparcd, 
 80Z. It-i properties gave rife to 
 the notion of malleable glafs, 803. 
 How reduced, ii34' 
 
 Lunar caufic, how prepared, 75 
 
 proper for hning furnaces, 605. 
 
 Luting foi acid fpirits,'577. 
 
 Maceration, in chemifl;ry : how 
 to perform that operation, 598. 
 
 Macjueri. theory of. Pruffian blue, 
 
 Index. 
 
 1 1 67. Suppofes the fufion of calx 
 of platina l)y the methods recom- 
 mended tabe imperfc<51:, 1354. 
 Magnejta combined with viuiolic 
 acid, 690. With acid c f arfenic, 
 937. Diffolved by the colouring 
 matter of Prwflian blue, 1 187. 
 Will rot diffolve in acids after cal- 
 cination without lieat, 442. Its 
 preparation and properties, 514. 
 Combined with the nitrous acid, 
 
 749- ^ , 
 Magi/lery oj bifmuth, 766. 
 Manganefe: how to dephiogiflicate 
 fpirit "of fait by it for tlie decom- 
 pofition of arfenic, 919. Combi- 
 ned with the arfenical acid, 956. 
 Identity of vegetable acids proved 
 iVc/m the folution of manganefe by 
 tlie niti ous acid with the additi'in 
 of acid of lugar, iCii. Fi omits fo- 
 lution by.meaiiaof viti io.ic acidand 
 fj.irit of Wine, 1x14. K^eps the 
 colouring matter of Pruflian blue 
 from rifjng, 1204. Anew femi- 
 metal afforded, 1359- Common 
 niangauei'c treated with v'triolic 
 acid, 136c. Is entirely diffolved || 
 by phiogilHcated vitriolic acid, i 
 1361. Precipitate ai d cry llals ob- 
 tamed from rhe f'olurion, 1362, ; 
 Difl'oive 1 by ph'Ogiiiicated iiitruus 
 acid, 1363. £fie<ils of it on foirit i 
 of falc, 1364. See DephLgificated 
 ar.d M.irine aci !. Entirely dif- ' 
 folved b)' marisfe acid, 1365. ; 
 Scarce foU.bie in fluor aciJ, 1366. 
 Or in that of phofi Jiorus, 1367. 
 Partly difl'olves ui acid of tartar, . 
 1368. With (iifticulty m the ace- 
 tous, 1369. Entirely diffolved by 
 acid of lemons, 1370. And by 
 w.iter impregnated with fixed, air, 
 1371. Has a ilroiig attiacition for 
 phlogifton, 1372. Eeconies white 
 by fafuration wiih it, 1373. Con- 
 tains fume pldcgiflon naturally, 
 1374. Becomes inlbluble- in pure 
 acids by loflng its phlogifton, 1375. 
 Partial folutions of .manganefe ex- 
 plained on this priiuiiile, 1376. 
 it=- ffi ong attr?,(5tion foi^ phlogifton 
 wlien combined with acids, 1377- 
 Why it is diffolved by the concen- 
 trated acul of vitriol v/ithout ad- 
 dition, 1378. Why the volatile 
 fu pliu: eous acid diflblves it, 1379. 
 Explanation of the eff'eds of ni- 
 trous acid upon it, 1380. Of tiiofe 
 of tartar .nd lemons, 1382. Of 
 fluor acid, i3§3. Effeds of man- 
 ganefe on nitre, 1384. Experi- 
 ments c-f ma! gd-:efe united with 
 phiogifl;on, 1385, f.' yi'y. By di- 
 ftil.alion per je, 1386. Boiled 
 with oil-olive, 1387. By diflilla- 
 tion with charcoal, 1388. With 
 fulphur, 1389. By calcination 
 witli nitre, 1390. With the ad- 
 dition of r.rfenic, 1391. By di- 
 fliliation with fal ammoniac, 1392. 
 By digefdun with pure nitrous a- 
 cid, 1393. Dcihoys volatile alka- 
 li by attrat^fing its phlogiflonj 
 1394. Effcdls of di;tilling it with 
 arfenic, l39^• Wjth cinnabar, 
 
 1396. W.th conofrve fablimatcj 
 
 1397. Ufcd. for tlie retStificatit a 
 of ether, 147V 
 
 Margraaf% auiilyfis 01 all the diffc- 
 
 iXJit 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Index. 
 
 rent kinds of clay, 648. His ex- 
 periments on the phofj.horic acid, 
 906. Hl^ liiethod of reducii g 
 luna cornea, 1 134. Hi- pro els foi' 
 makingphofphoras with i.lumbuni 
 corneum, 1407. Experiments with 
 ph'ifj<h<'ius on metals, 1413. Me- 
 thod of ^ rocuihig the acid of ants, 
 150a. 
 
 idarine ac'i!, the weakeft of the three 
 mineral acids, except v. hen de- 
 phlogifticated, 183. Why it ads 
 on fome metals and not "n others, 
 198. Phenomena exhibited by the 
 marine acid on account of its na- 
 turally containinji phlogifton, 205. 
 Dei hiogilHcated marine acid exa- 
 mined, 206. Vitiiclic faits de- 
 compofed by a marine acid, 
 Contains lefs fire tlian the vitrio- 
 lic acid, 278. On its expullionby 
 the concentrated vitrioli.- acid, 283. 
 Receives fire from the vitriolic 
 acid during its expulfion, 284. 
 Decompolt-s vitriolated tartar, 288. 
 Requifites for rhe fuccefs of the 
 experiment, 7.89. Cannot dcroin- 
 pofe vitiioLted tartar previoufly 
 diifi lived in water, and why, 290. 
 DecompoFition of Glaul-cr'.s falc 
 and vitriolic amni' mi ac by marine 
 acid never complete, 29I. Nitrous 
 falts (lecumpofed by marine acid, 
 K)l. Can.not decompofe fe'enite, 
 294. Solurion uf iilver conilantly 
 decomjofed by falts containing 
 mari::e a -id, 308, 312. Vitri-d 
 of mercury decompofed in die 
 fame manner, 313. Nirrous acid 
 has lefs affinity with metals than 
 the marine, 338. In what cafes 
 marine acid can diffolve metals and 
 •when it canriot, 340. Form.s a 
 triple fait with iron and legulusof 
 an imony, 366. And with regu- 
 lus of antimony atid copper, 367. 
 Arfenic precipitated from marine 
 acid by copper, 370. Quantity 
 of marine in digeflive fair, 379. 
 Of mild and cauilic vegetable al- 
 kali faturated by marine aci :!,382. 
 Quantity of miner^.l alkali fitura- 
 ted by it, 433. Of the quantity 
 of marii:e acid faturated by calca- 
 reous earth, 438. Quantity of acid 
 in marine feienite, 441. Cannot 
 be calculated in marine Ej f'm, 
 445. Quantity of earth of ahim 
 faturated by marine acid, 450. 
 Quantity of iron diffolved b)- it, 
 462. Calces of iron precipitated 
 from it t'f va reddiih colour, 463. 
 Quantity of copper diiTolved by it, 
 469. Tin diffoivcd in marine acid, 
 47:. Lead difl'idvcd in it, 477. 
 Of the diflbliition i f filver in it, 
 480, 8cr. Solution of zinc in ma- 
 .rine acid, 49O. Bifmuth fcarce 
 foluble in it, 493. Solution of 
 nickel in it, 493. RegidLs of aa- 
 timony fcarce foliible m marine a- 
 cid, 5,05. Why the marine acid 
 adts fo weakly, 510. Its nature 
 and combinations with other fub- 
 ftances particularly treated of, 782. 
 Mofc commonly found combined 
 with the mii-eral alkali, ib. Why 
 it is thought by fome to be the 
 fame with the vitriolic, 783. An 
 experiment tcndin.g to make this 
 .obfcivat-on probable, 784. Dr 
 
 Piicftley's obfervations on marine 
 acid, 785. How procured by 
 means of the via iolic, 786. Why 
 its diilillation with copperas docs 
 not fuccecd,787. To ; rocure ma- 
 rine acid ])y means of the niLrou,s, 
 788. By diftilling common fait 
 pdr fe, 989. Murine acid deplilo- 
 gillicated by that of nitre, or by 
 manganefe, 790. Mr Scheele's 
 method of dephlogifticatiny- it l)y 
 manganefe, 791. Properties fit 
 wlien dephlogillicated, 794. Ma- 
 rine acid combined with alkaline 
 falts, 793, With vegetable fix- 
 ed alkali, 794. With mineral 
 alkali, 795. Volatile alkali, 795, 
 
 796. Combined with earths, 
 
 797. Witli metallic fubftances, 
 799. DifTolves" and volatilizes the 
 calx of gold, ib. With filver, 801. 
 DifTolves the red filver ore, ib. 
 Forms luna cornea with this me- 
 tal, 802,803. With copper, 804. 
 Witli iron, 805. Volatilizes this 
 metal. 806. The folutiou of iruo 
 in tf.is acidufed in medicine, 807. 
 Sul>liraate of iron, and fal ammo- 
 niac named Jlores martiahs, 808, 
 Solution i;f tin, 809. Of great ufe 
 in dyeing, ib. Volatilizes the me- 
 t il, and forms with it tlie fmoking 
 liquor of Libavius, 810. With 
 lead, 811. Forms with it plum- 
 bum corneum, 8li. With qiiick- 
 fiiver, 813. Forms with it corro- 
 hve fuldiraate, 814, et fcq. See 
 Corro/l-ve. Volatilizes zinc, 830. 
 With regulus of antimony, 8ji. 
 See Butter. F'orms a fine fympa- 
 thec!c ink wit)-, regulus of cobalt, 
 812. Combined with infiamiv.abie 
 fubilances, 824. Marine ether, 
 824. Of its attracftion for phlogi- 
 fton, 823. Is not the fame with 
 fluor acid, 83J . Expels the fluor 
 acid, id 850. Purifies fait of am- 
 ber, 911. Phenomena on dilTol- 
 ving vitriolic falts in marine acid, 
 1041. On mixing them with fo- 
 lutions of calcareous earth in ma- 
 rine acid, 1042. Of the folution 
 of terra ponderofa m it, 1053. Is 
 not neceffary for the preparation 
 of aiirum fulminans, 1117. So- 
 lution of cobalt in marine acid, 
 1302. Effeds of manganefe upon 
 it, 1364. Exiftence of phlogilton 
 in it proved, 1381. Can fcarcely 
 unite with butter of arfenic, 1282. 
 Dephloglllicated marine acid the 
 only folvent of platnia, 1319. U- 
 fed for diftillation of fpirit of ni- 
 tre, 737. Various methods of ma- 
 king marine ether, 824. Method 
 of diflilling the acid with clay, 
 1480. EfFe6l of it upon phb giftic 
 matters, 1481. Glafs corroded 
 by it, 148a. Caufe of its yellow 
 colour, 1483. EfFed; of tlie de- 
 phlojjifticated acid upon phlcgillic 
 matters, I485. How to make ma- 
 rine ether fr<jm the dephlog'iflica- 
 ted acid, i486. 
 
 Aliiris, chemical, treated of, 551. 
 
 JMarmor wdaWiciim, Witheriiig's ex- 
 periments on it, 1060. DifTolves 
 in c;)nccntrated vitriolic ac;d, 1063. 
 Precipitated from it unchanged 
 by vegetable fixed alkali, 1064. 
 May .be decompofed in the dry 
 
 way by fait of tartar, 1065. 
 Marital litriol, procured by prealpi- 
 
 tating copper with iron, lefs fit for 
 
 d) eing than the common, 344. 
 Marroiu aualyfed, 1430. 
 Mathematifal fpecific gravity ex- 
 plained, 373. The mathematical 
 
 fpecilic gravity of fpirit of nitre 
 
 dcteiiuined, 388. 
 Mayer's exami: ation of the fluor a- 
 
 cid, 841, &c. 
 Melting furnace defcribed, ad 605, 
 
 et feq. See Furn.;ce. 
 Menjlruum, a quantity of it retained 
 
 by fome jiiecipitates, 251. 
 Menji mum fine frspitii, a liquor for 
 
 diflblving gold, I3r9. 
 Mercurhts dnlcis, how prepared from 
 
 corrofive fublimate, 814, 819. 
 
 Preparation of it in thenu-iif way, 
 
 I23«. 
 
 Mercurhts precipitatus per fe, how pre- 
 pared, 1228. 
 
 Mercurius Trifmegiflus, the fame with 
 Hermes or Siphoas, an Egyptian, 
 the founder of chemifl:ry, 3. 
 
 Mercury, of its precipitates, 236. Its 
 folution in nitrous acid decompo- 
 fed by vitriolic falts, 31 1 . Vitriol 
 of mercury decompofed by marine 
 acid, 313. Why corrofive mercury 
 is precipitated by oil of vitriol, 
 315. Examination of Dr Prieft- 
 ley's experiment concerning the 
 revival of mercury, 322.* Whyfo 
 much of the metal was revived in 
 the DoiSor's experiments, 323. 
 Why copper is diffolved by folu- 
 tion oF mercury, 336, Precipita- 
 tions of mercury by copper, 353. 
 Why mercury and filver precipi- 
 tate one another from the nitrous 
 acid, 355. Corrofive fublimate 
 cannot be decompofed by filver, 
 though mercury can decompoutid 
 luna cornea, 336. Why precipi- 
 tates of mercury and ulum contain 
 part of the acid, 40b. Of mercury 
 difl"olved in vitriolic acid, 485, 704. 
 See ^ulfl'ver. Copper, how amal- 
 gamated with mercury, 115a. Dr 
 Lewis's m.ethods, 1153. A cu- 
 rious amalgam with ve 'digris, ib. 
 Cawnot be united with ii on, 1 16a. 
 May be feparated from its folution 
 in nitrous acid by the colouring 
 matter of Piuflian bhie, 1203. 
 Ufes of the amalgam of mercury 
 and tin, 1223. I'he metal parti- 
 cularly defcribed, laaj. Is fen- 
 fihly heavier in winter than in 
 fummer, ib. How purified, 1226. 
 Curious mercu! ies i^repared by Mr 
 Boyle, ia27. Is calcitied into a red 
 powder, by being cxpofed to a con- 
 fiderab'e degree of heat, and f o the 
 air at the fame time, 1228. Isun- 
 alterable by a gentle heat, or by 
 repeated diftillations, 1229, 1230. 
 Explofion by its vajiours, 1231. 
 Amalgamated with different fuh- 
 fiauces, 1232. Separation of the 
 amalgamated metal, 1233. Be- 
 conit's fixed by amalgamation with 
 gold, 1234. Suppofed to be con- 
 vertible into wa'er, 1235. The 
 niifiake detedlcd by Dr Lewis, 
 1236. How to amalgamate it 
 with regulus of antimony, 1237. 
 Can fcarce be united with pla- 
 tina, 134J. Will leave platina, to 
 4 K a 
 
 627 
 
 unite with gold, 1346. 
 
 Metallic calces, of their various co- 
 lours, 192. Metallic folutions con- 
 tain a calx of the metal with va- 
 rious degrees of phlogifton, 214. 
 Phlogifton the caufe of their co- 
 lour, 218. Some metallic falts de- 
 compofe others, 224. Advanta- 
 ges to be de; ived from the exami- 
 nation I'fmeiallic precipitates, 253. 
 Metal ic falts infoluble in water 
 without an cxccfs of acid, 297. Of 
 the attradtlon of metallic calces to 
 phlogifton, 326. Of finding their 
 fpecific gravity, 317. Table of the 
 proportional affinities of metallic 
 calces to phlogift. n, 329. They 
 can never be totally dejihlogiftica- 
 ted by acids, 407. Of their gene- 
 ral properties J 19. Are foluble in 
 acids, 520. Compofed of an eanh 
 and phlogifton, 321. Their calci- 
 nation and revivication, 522. In- 
 c;eafe of weight by acids, 523. 
 Reafon of the increafe of weight 
 in metallic calces, 324. Combi- 
 nations of them with acids. See 
 ylcid and Metals. Lapis pondero- 
 fus fuppofed by Mr Bergman to be 
 a metallic earth, 967. Why he 
 fuppofed the acids of molybdaena 
 and tungften to be metallic earths 
 973. Chemical properties of the 
 different metallic fubftances in- 
 veftigated, 1089, /?• Effeds 
 of the colouring matter of Prullian 
 blue on metallic calces, 1192. Its 
 effeds on metallic folutions, 1 193. 
 
 Mrtals may receive a vaft quantity 
 of heat more than is fuflicient to 
 bring them into a ftate of fufion, 
 129. The cakes of the perfcd 
 ones re/iucible withoht addition, a 
 proof of the noiiexiftcncc of phlo- 
 gifton, 140. Why they weigh lefs 
 m the;r metallic than in their cal- 
 cined ftate, 130. Combine with 
 acids, 176. Sej arate from them 
 again on tlie addition of earths or 
 alkaline falts, 177. Phenomena 
 attending their folution in acids, 
 180. Of their different degrees of 
 foiubilicy, 183. Their folution 
 attended with effei vefcence, 188. 
 And heat, 190. Yield little air 
 after they have been calcined, 191. 
 Why marine acid ads on fome of 
 them and not on others, 198. Why 
 fome metals are more fiiluble than 
 others, 199. Their folutions con- 
 tain a calx of the diffolved metal, 
 214. Rer.fons for believing that 
 this calcination takes place, 215. 
 Why the cakes of the perfed me- 
 tals may be reduced without addi- 
 tion, 216. Pheneniena attendinjj 
 the precipitation of metals by al- 
 kaline falts, 220. Their precipi- 
 tation by one another owing to 
 a double eledive attradion, 229. 
 Variations in the order in which 
 they precipitate one another, 330. 
 They contain different quantities 
 of phlogifton, 258. Diflicukles in 
 determining the attractive p<<vvers 
 of the metals to acids, 296. Quan- 
 tities of the different metals taksn 
 up by aciJs, 298. Metals have a 
 greater affinity than alkalies with 
 the acids, 299. Why alkalies pre- 
 cipiiaje the metals, 300. Why 
 
the metallic eartJis feldnm deeom- 
 pofe faito having an earth or alka'.i 
 f )r their bafis, -504. Explanation 
 cf the table of affinities of the acids 
 to the different metals, 316. Of 
 the quantity of phli gilTo!i contain- 
 ed in the different metals, 317. 
 Quantity of it loft by metals du- 
 ring calcination, 3.31. Why the 
 metals are more dephlogifticated 
 hy mutual precipitation than by 
 direi£l folution, 335. All of them 
 diflblved by nitro;:s acid, 338. In 
 vhat cafes the marine arid can 
 diflt.lve metals, and when it can- 
 not, 340. Mr Kirwan'--- experi- 
 ments on metals, 451. Beft me- 
 thod of diffolving them, 452. 
 What metals are calcinable, and 
 Vvith what degrees of heat, 530. 
 Gf their rudiug, ^41. Their fu- 
 fibility increaf-'d by mixture, .54a. 
 Their fohibility increafed by calci- 
 nation, 545. Effedls of fulphur 
 on them, 546. Of their divifinn 
 into nietais and fcmimetafs, 547. 
 Their good and bad qualitiei as 
 materials for chemic.vl veffels, 560. 
 Vitriolic fa! ammoniac ermneotifly 
 fuppnfed to be a great folveiit of 
 metals, 634. Effetfts of vitriolic 
 acid on metals, 69 1 , etfej. Of the 
 nitrous acid, 750. Of the marine 
 acid, 799. Of the fluor acid, 853. 
 Of the acetous, 87a. Of the acid 
 of tartar, 894. Of the acid of fu- 
 gar, 901. Of the { hofpharic acid, 
 9C6. Of the acid "f amber, 9T5, 
 Acid of molybdssna has no iitrn of 
 any metal, 964. Metals dilTolved 
 by hepar fulphuris-, 1025. Combi- 
 nation of volatile alkali with m.e- 
 tals, 1034. 7'hcir properties par- 
 ticularly treated of, 1090. The 
 fufion of all rae^aIs promoted by 
 bifmuth, 125s. Of the efrccSs of 
 white arfenic on them, 17.77. Ef- 
 f*<fls of regulu^ of arfenic on other 
 metals, 1288. Combination of 
 metals with fulphur, 1403. EfFeils 
 of phofphorus on them, 1413. 
 
 X^icrocofmic fait, how prepared from 
 uiine, 905. Mr Margraaf'a ex- 
 perin'.ents on it, 606. 
 
 J^lilk, of its acid, 974. ^Xcquires its 
 greateft aciJ.ity by ilanding a fort- 
 night, ib. Scheele's method of 
 procuring the pure acid of milk. 
 976. Properties of this acid, 977, 
 It feems to be of the acetous kind, 
 978. Milk is capable of complete 
 fermentation, 979. How to pro- 
 cure the acid of fiigar of milk, 980. 
 
 Milled lc.:d : the advantages of ufing 
 it in preference to fheet-lead pre- 
 carious, 1270. 
 
 JMindi^reri fpiriius ; how to cryftal- 
 lize it, 1515. 
 
 Jflinium. of the revival of lead from 
 • it by inflammable air, 324. How 
 to prepare it from the m.etal, 1213. 
 
 Mineral alkali^ why preferred as a 
 precipitant by Mr Bergman, ■231. 
 Precipitates platina imperfedly, 
 ^34. An equal quantity of all tl-.c 
 mineral aci-is taken up by vege- 
 table fixe ! alkali. Stc Acids. How 
 to prepare the mirerai alkali for 
 experiments on the precipitation 
 of metab, 419. Quantity of it ta- 
 ken up by the dej^hlo^lilicated nL- 
 
 C H E M 
 
 tro-as acid, 532, Excefs of acid in 
 aluminous ley cannot be removed 
 by mineral alkali, 630. Of its 
 coiv.l)inattons with the diffc ent a- 
 cids. See Acttm/s, Marine, Vi- 
 triolic, &:c. Difference between it 
 and the vegetable alkali, 10 19. 
 Whether mineral alkali can fepa- 
 rate platina from its fol vent, 1 329. 
 Fifry-fix times as much cf ;t re- 
 quired to precipitate tliis mei;d as 
 of vegetable all.*li, 1329.. 
 Aliiie>al ileitis . Sc'e y'ciJs. 
 Mineral -waters: Mr W' ulfe's tefb 
 for them, 1557. See lV.,ters. 
 
 Mi/fiiciel, a natural rcgtdus of arfe- 
 nic, 1286. 
 Mixti'res : the attradtive powers of 
 acids determined by the various 
 degrees of heat excited by them, 
 277. Increafed denfity of mix- 
 tures accounted for, 374. Time 
 required by mineral acids and wa- 
 ter to acquire their utmoft denfity, 
 422. Phenomena refulting from 
 mixtures of the diiferent acids, al- 
 kalies, and neutral falts, with one 
 a:iother, 1040, ef feq. 
 
 Molybdcsna, acid of, examined, 957. 
 How to reduce the fubftance to 
 powder, 958, EfFedlsi of the acid 
 of arfenic upon it, 9^9. Violent 
 acSlion of the concentrated nitrous 
 acid upon this fubftance, 960. A- 
 cid of niulybdana )irocurable by 
 fire alnne, 961. Its chemic;il pro- 
 perties, 96*. Is capable of ujiic- 
 ing with phlogifton, 963. Shows 
 no figii of containing atiy metal, 
 964. Properties of (he acid ob- 
 tained by nitre, 965. Molybda;- 
 na recompofed by uniting- iis acid 
 wi'h fulphur, 966. Differ ences be- 
 twixt the acids of tungflen and 
 molybdaena, 971. M. Pelletier's 
 cxjierimcnts on this acid, 1497. 
 
 iWo«/ eif's opinions concerning the fluor 
 acid, 833. Shown to be erroneous 
 by Mr Scheele, 834. Miftake of 
 Mr Monnet concerning the bafis 
 of fluor fpar, 838. 
 
 Morveau's niillake concerning the 
 preparation of Glauber's fait from 
 alum deteded by Mr Kirwan, 642. 
 
 iVfe/'« fuppofed to be well Ikilled in 
 chemiftry, 4. 
 
 Mucilage of Vegetables confidered, 
 145 s. Of animals the fume with 
 jeliy or giue, 1454. 
 
 Muriatic. See Marine. 
 
 Naphtha, a fine kind of mineral oil 
 defcribed, 1442. 
 
 Neumann's obfervations on the pre- 
 paration of the magiftery- of bif- 
 muth, 766. 
 
 Neutral falts compoffd of an acid and 
 alkali, 172. One for difcovering 
 iron in mineral vvaters,ii8o. Pla- 
 tina m,iy be partly precipitated by 
 fome neutral falts, 1331. 
 
 Nexuton, Sir Ifaac, his fentiments con- 
 cerning heat, 31. 
 
 Nicholjons account of the theories of 
 heat, 79. Anfwer to his argu- 
 ment: concerning vibration as the 
 caufe of heat, 81. His account of 
 the capacities of bodies for con- 
 taining heat, &c. 113. 
 
 Nickel, a kind of fcmimetal, of its 
 folution and precipitation, 242. Is 
 precipitated by zinc, 3j8. Iron 
 
 : S T R Y. 
 
 and nickel will fcarcely precipi'fate 
 one another, 359. Nickel preci- 
 pitates copper, Icfid., and bifuiurh, 
 360. 7'iu ows down fome hetero- 
 geneous matter from cobalt, 363. 
 Of^ It', folution in vitriolic acid, 
 493. hi the nitroas acid, 770. Ef- 
 feA^ of acid ofaifenic u)'on it, 955. 
 The femimetal particularly treat- 
 ed of, 13C6. Difc'ivered by Mr 
 Cronftcdt, ib. Effefls of calcina- 
 tion with a violent heat u])on it, 
 1307. Of fulphur and borax, 13C8, 
 Gf hepar fulj huris, 1 309. Of mtre, 
 13 ic. 1 his fait feparates all the 
 co'ialt in the femimetal, 131 1. 
 Eft( (f.s. of fal ammoniac upon it, 
 131a. Of nitrous acid, 13 I 3. Of 
 volatile alkali, 1314. Nickel can- 
 not be obtained in a flate of pui i- 
 ty, 1 3 15. Bergman's opinion of 
 its compofition, 1316. Exr eri- 
 meius to cumpofe it artificially. 
 
 Nitre: quantity of acid, water, and 
 alkali in it, di-tei mined, 391. Why 
 it is fo much lighter than vitrio- 
 lated tartar, 416. The ingre- 
 dients of which it is compoled, 
 420. Of the preparation of nitre, 
 724, et feq. Difcovcred in fome 
 places in Podolia in Poland, 725. 
 In Spain and America, 726. Re- 
 quifites for its formation, 727. 
 Cramer's artificial comport for ma- 
 king ]t, 728. How prepared in 
 Hanover, 729. In other parts of 
 Germany, 730. In France, 731. 
 Dr Black's conclufioii coi'.cerning 
 its ntiture, 732 Suppofed to be 
 the laft effedl of putrefadion, 733. 
 How to procure the fpirit of nitre 
 by means of viiriolic acid, 735. 
 Of its r( difieation, 736. Different 
 methods of diilillinti:, 737. Its 
 ufes, 738. Prepared from the ni- 
 trous acid and. vegetable fixed al- 
 kali, 740. Cubic nitre formed 
 fnim this acid and mineral alkali, 
 741. Enumeration of its proper- 
 ties and ules, 742, 743. JQanger 
 of fwallowing large quantities of 
 iit, ib. Is purified by throwing a 
 little fulphur on its liirface wliile 
 melted, 744. Calcareous nitre, 
 747. How alkalized by charcoal, 
 779. Clyffus of nitre, 780. Its 
 acid expelled by that of phofpho- 
 rus, 907. And by that of amber, . 
 910. And by the acid of arfenic, 
 930. Properties of the acid of 
 molybdsena obtained by nitre, 955. 
 Alkalized by iron, 1 206. And by 
 the flowers of zmc, 1249. Effedls 
 of regulus of arfenic on nitre, 
 1290. Effecfts of it on cobalt, 
 1303. On nickel, 1310. Is ca- 
 pable of feparating all the cobalt 
 from nickel, 13 11,. Effeds of 
 manganefe on nitre, 1384. Of 
 phlogilHcated manganefe upon it, 
 1390. M. Berthollet's new fait 
 refembling it, 2d 793. Method 
 of miking it in quantity, 1487. 
 Genejated in fome cafes without, 
 putrefaction, 1478. 
 
 Nitrous acid, the moft-violcnt of any 
 in its operations, 181. Renders 
 the calces of metals almoft info- 
 luble, 196. Why it precipitates a 
 folution of tin ot, autiiaony, 400. 
 
 I* more obvioufly changed than 
 vitriolic by the addition of phlo- 
 gifton, 203. Vitriolic falt^decom- 
 pofed by if, 275. Contains lefa 
 fire than the vitridic acid, 278, . 
 On the expiilfio'.i of it by the vitrio- 
 lic acid, 280. By a linali quantity 
 of ddute vitriolic acid, 282. Re- 
 ceives fire from the vitriolic during 
 its expulfu n, 284. Of the decom- 
 pofition of vitrialated tartar by it, 
 285. Vitriolated tartar cannot be 
 decomjiol'ed by dilute nitrous acid, 
 287. Nitrous lalts dccompofed by 
 marine acid, 292. Marine falts 
 by the nitrous acid, 293. Ni- 
 trous acid attradls filver more than 
 fixed alkali, 301. Nitrous fok- 
 tis^ns of mercury decompofed by 
 vitriolic falts, 31 r. Nitrous acid 
 diffolvesall metals, though it has 
 lefs affinity with tJiem than the 
 vitriolic or marine, 338, Why 
 mercury and filver precipitate one 
 aiiotlier from the nitrous acid, 355. 
 Regulus of arienic precipitated by 
 bilhuith from the nitrous acid, 369. 
 This acid, when pure, cannot be 
 made to exift in an aerial form, 
 383. To find the Ipecific gravity 
 of pure nitrous acid, 386. Quan- 
 tity of mineral alkali taken up by 
 dephlogifticated nitrous acid, 432. 
 Quantity cf ingredients in nitrous 
 feleuite, 440. In nitrous Epfom, 
 444. Of pure earth of akun taken 
 up by it, 449. Of iron diffolvci 
 by it, 4^58. Quantity of nitrous 
 air obtained from this f lution^ 
 459. Nitrous acid cannot up- 
 on iron in fuch a dilute ftate as the 
 vitriolic, 4(11. Of copper diffol- 
 ved by the nitrous acid, 468. Tin 
 difl'olved by it, 472. Ofleaddif- 
 folved in nitrous acid, 476. Sil- 
 ver wnh nitrous acid, 479. Calces 
 of gold foluble by it, 483. Can- 
 not diffolve gold according to Mr 
 Kirwan, 484. Zinc with nitrous 
 acid, 488. Lefs metal diffolvcd 
 by concentrated than by diluted 
 nitrous acid, 489. Effed-; of this 
 acid on nickel, 494. On regulus 
 of antimony, 3 00. On regulus of 
 ai,fenic,303. Effcrvefcence between 
 nitious and fulphureous fumes, 
 626. Experiment relating to the 
 converfion of the vitriolic into the 
 nitrous acid, 720. Inconclufive, 
 721. Of its origin, ad 722. At- 
 traiftion for phlogifton, its diftin- 
 guifliiiig charaiSteriftic, 734. How 
 to e.xtra(5l it by means of the vi- 
 triolic, 735. How to purify it- 
 from any vitriolic taint, 736. Of 
 diftiiiing it with different fubftan- 
 ces containing the vitriolic acid,. 
 
 737. Of its ufes, and the method 
 of diftiiiing it in the large way, 
 
 738. Procured of a blue colour by, 
 means of arfenic, 739. Of its 
 combination with alkaline falts,.. 
 740. Forms common nitre with 
 the vegetable alkali, ib. Cubic 
 nitre with the mineral, 741. Ni- 
 trous ammoniac with volatile al- 
 kali, 745. Of its cornbination with 
 ear ths, 747 . Forms calcareous nitre 
 With quicklime or chalk, 747. Is 
 decompofed by quickhme, 748, 
 Forms Jiald win's phofphorus with 
 
•Index. 
 
 if, 749. Produces aftriiigent e«m^ 
 pounds with earth nf alum, and 
 jurgatlve ones with mafnefia, 
 ib. Of its ctimhira'ion with me-, 
 tola, 750. Is capable of diiFulving 
 gold in fonie cafes, 750. DifTolves 
 and cryllallize< vv.th filver, 751. 
 Forms lunar cauflic with it, 752. 
 PifTolvesand cryll allizes with top- 
 per, 757. Corn des, and ad;s vio- 
 lently upon iron, l-ut fcarcely dif- 
 fulves it, 759. Difirlves tin in 
 very fniall quantity, 760. Forms 
 a- violently decrepitatirg fdt with 
 lead, 761. Difiblvss qiiickfilver 
 in great quan-ity, 763. Purified 
 hy diilillati'^n from this metal, 
 from vitriolic or marir.c acids, 
 764. Readily diffolves bifmiirh, 
 705. And zinc, 767. Corrodes 
 regulus of antimony, 768. Dif- 
 folves cobalt, nickel, and arfenic, 
 769, 770. Affords a nie.hod of 
 difcovering cobalt in ore-, 770. 
 Thickens expreffed oils, 77 r, 
 Forms ether with fpirit of wine,. 
 773, etfeq. Of its decompofition 
 tjy, phlogiftoii, 778. Takes fire 
 with f'.ime effontia! oils, ib. How 
 to procure iftarire acid by its 
 means, 788. Dephlogilticates this 
 acid, 790. Fluor acid procured by 
 its means, 2d 850. Effec&s of it 
 on fait of amber, 91a. Arfciiic 
 decompounded by it, 918. Vio- 
 lent aiStiiin of it on molybda:na, 
 950. Effedts of diffolving vitrio- 
 lic falts in it, 1040, 1042. Forms 
 fine cryftals with terra pondei ofa, 
 1066. Is nnt r.eceffary fur the 
 preparation of aurum fulminans, 
 III 7. EfFedls of it on arfenic 
 mineralized by fulphur, 1280. Re- 
 gulus of cobalt cor.i'iined with it, 
 1301. Its effefls on nickel, 1313. 
 Explanation of its cffedlis on man- 
 ganefe, 1380. Of digefting.ph'o- 
 gifticated manganefe with pure ni- 
 trous acid, 1393. Camphor de- 
 compofed by it, 1424. Procurable 
 by means of fpirit of fait, '737. 
 • How to procure the deplilogilH- 
 cated kind, 738, 1475. JLavoifier's 
 account of the conftituent parts of 
 nitrous acid, 1473. Mr Caven- 
 difh's account, 1474. How to fet 
 charcoal on fire by means of if, 
 1476. Remarkable effe6ts of it 
 on blood, 1477. Mr Scheclc's ex- 
 periments witli it on various liib- 
 ftances, 1513. Volatile alkali pre- 
 pared from nitrous acid and ci:!, 
 »553- 
 
 Some late experiments of Dr 
 ' rieftley iiave Ihown, that though 
 
 rous acid is produced fri m the de- 
 ompofition of dephloglfticated and 
 phlogiflicated air, by taking the elec- 
 tric fpark in the mixture, it is iike- 
 wife produced by the more rapid 
 decfimpofif ion of combuftion, when 
 inflammable air i^ made ufe of in- 
 ftead of' the phlogifticated Vmi. In 
 this cafe, tht)ugh } hlogifticaied air 
 Ihould happen to exill in the mix- 
 ture, it is not in the leall; affeded by 
 the procefs, but remains after the 
 combuition of the others juft as it 
 ■was ; nay, the Dv dtor obfcrves, that 
 by the addition of phlogifticated air, 
 the quantif y of niu ous acid p.rodu- 
 
 C H E M 
 
 ced is fo far from heit!^ augmented, 
 that it !■* much diminilhed. The a- 
 cid in thefe protefle^ always appears 
 to he extremely volatile, infcmuth 
 that forns par t of it conifantlv efcapes. 
 No liquor at all was condenfed when 
 tlie expldfions v\'e e made in quick 
 fuccefiinn, even though the veflei ne- 
 ver becai-.ie ht t'er than the hand. In 
 another procefs, the atmofph?ric air 
 was perfectly excluded, while the 
 ]iure'l dephiogii'ticated air was pro- 
 duced from o: e of the materials em- 
 ploye,!, viz. precipitate per fe. In 
 this experiment he found, that a c^n- 
 Cderable quantity of lixed air was 
 pr.iduced, and that rbe water be- 
 came acid by the abforprion of it. 
 He co.'!ciud;!s, therefore, on the 
 whole, that a mixture of dephlogl- 
 fticated and inflammable air always 
 produces an acid by combuftion ; but 
 that, when they are in their .nafeent 
 ftate, the ae- ial acid is generated ; 
 when both are completely formed 
 previous to the experiment, the ni- 
 trous acid appears. 
 Nitrous air : Why it does not unite 
 with water, 204. Qiiantify of it 
 produced by f lution of iron in ni- 
 trous acid, 459. C^antity of phlo- 
 gifton contained in it, 505. 
 Objects of chemiftry, h!>w diftin- 
 guiilted from the agent--, la. How 
 clafled, 163. 
 Oil of vitriol precipiiates corrofive 
 fubliniate f oni water, and why, 
 3 15. Kirwan's experiments on it, 
 395. Why the dilution of it is 
 necelTary in thefe experiments, 
 395. Quantity of iixed air in oil 
 of tartar, 414. Why oil of vitriol 
 and iroii produce vitri(j]ic air, 4 55, 
 Combination of oil of vitriol witii 
 comruon oil, 712. Oil of arfenic, 
 how prepared, 823. Effeds of oil 
 of vitriol on fait of am.ber, 913. 
 Effcfts of mixing oi! of turpentine 
 with arfenical acid, 923. Of oil 
 of vitriol by diftlllation wich the 
 fait comj.ofed of alkali and the co- 
 louring matter of Prufllan blue, 
 II91. Oil fuppofed by Honiberg 
 to be obtained from flowers of 
 zinc, 1243. The miftake difco- 
 vered by Neumann, ib. Another 
 capable of diffolving gold and fil- 
 ver leaf by Mr Hellot, 1244, Ef- 
 fe6ts of oil olive on manganefe, 
 1387. Camphor foiuhle in oil, 
 1 425. Quanti*y of efl"ential oil 
 obtained frojn tuipentine, 1437. 
 This oil very difficult of folution, 
 1438 
 
 Oils ey.prej[id, thickened by nitrrus 
 acid, 771. Effential, fired i)y fpi- 
 rit of nitre, 778. Fixed alkalies 
 combine t With exprelTedoih, 1026. 
 Wiih effential oils, 1027. Lead 
 foluble in oils, 1216. Of the com- 
 bination of phofj)hf»rus with effen- 
 tial oi's, 141 2. Chemical proper- 
 ties of oils treated of, 1419, et feq. 
 Effential oils, ib. Empyreumatic 
 oils, 1426. How to purify ran- 
 cid oils, 1431. 
 
 Opcr.itions in chcmiftry defcribed, 
 with directions how to perform 
 them, J j 4, et feq. 
 
 Ores: Bergman's account of the a- 
 luminous ores in Sweden, 6j,i. 
 
 r S T R Y. 
 
 Alum, f ilphur, and vitriol, ex- 
 tracSled from the fa:vc,6y9. How 
 to d fcover cobalt in ores Ly means 
 of the nitrons acid, 770. 
 
 Orpimtnt formed ef I'ulphur and ar- 
 fenic, I 479. 
 
 Oyjlerjhdls, of rheir phofphoric qua- 
 lity, 1087. 
 
 Pa pin's digefter defcribed <;67. 
 
 Paracelfus, account of iiim, 14. Hi- 
 ftory of thenriltry fiacc his time, 
 IS- 
 
 ■Pent analyfed. 1440. 
 
 PelL-iio, M. hi, method of rjaify- 
 ir.g ether, I471. His experiments 
 on molybdaeiia, 1407. 
 
 Pelican, an obfolete chemical vtllel 
 delcribrd, 566. 
 
 Pentland Hills, marmor metallicuiu 
 found near the;n, 1060. 
 
 P erf eSl metals. See Metals. 
 
 Peruvian balfim, yields acid of ben- 
 zoin, 1552. 
 
 Fetroleuniy or rock oil, account of it, 
 1443- 
 
 Phiiojophic fal ammoniac, compofed of 
 vitriolic acid and volatile alkali, 
 633- 
 
 Phlogijfic matters : eftedl of marine 
 acid upon them, 1481. 
 
 Phlo^ijiicatcd alkali, quantity of pre- 
 cijiitate obtained from manganefe 
 by if,Z57. Phlogifticated air an in- 
 gredientin the nitrous acid,2d72i. 
 How prej ared, 1028. Lofes its 
 alkaline properties, 1168. Cannot 
 precipitate a fenic excep't from ma- 
 rine acid, 1273 Phlogifticated ni- 
 trous acid diffolves manganefe, 
 
 Phhgijlon : Of its exiftence, 27, 136 
 Denied by M. Lavoifier, 137. 
 Arguments again 11; it from the 
 increafed weight of n.etals by cal- 
 cination, 138. From tliC reduc- 
 tion of the calces of perfedt metals 
 without addition, 140. The dif- 
 putes on this fubject muft fo^n be 
 entiiely decided, 143, Objedbions 
 from its invifibility and fuppofed 
 want of gravity, 144. Commonchar- 
 coal and phlogifton the fame, 145. 
 Dec ifive proofs of its identity from 
 Prieftley's experiments, 146. Too 
 much phlogifton prevents the heat 
 of a fire from being intenfe, 158-. 
 Soluti(,n fometimes promoted by 
 abftradfing part of the phlogi- 
 fton, 186. But totally prevented 
 by taking away too much, as ex- 
 emplified in masiganefe, 187. 
 Hindered by too great a quantity 
 of phlogifton, 194. Is the caufe 
 of colour in metallic folutions, 
 218. Attradlion of phlogiftun 
 fu):pofed to be the caufe of caufti- 
 city, 219. Metals contain diffe- 
 rent quantities of it, 258. Of the 
 phlogifton contained in the diffe- 
 rent metals, 317. Method of cal- 
 culating this quantity exemplified 
 in regulus of arfenic, 318. Table 
 of the quantities of phlogifton in 
 different metals, 319. Of the at- 
 tradiion of metallic calces to phlo- 
 gifton, 326. Whence their va- 
 rious deg-'ees of affinity to phlogi- 
 fton may be determined, 328. 
 Table of their proportional affini- 
 ties to phlogifton, 329. Quantity 
 of It lolt by them during calcina- 
 
 629 
 
 tiop, 3?T. Thcif affinity to the 
 deficient part of their })hlog!fton, 
 332. Increafe of the attraction of 
 the calx of iron to phlogifton de- 
 niohftrated, 342. Quantity of 
 phlo'gifton contained m nitro;;g 
 ^'•■j 505- 1" fi>;t^d air, 2d 505. In 
 vitriolic acid air, jo6. In fulphur, 
 507. Inmari !eacidair,5C9. Attrac- 
 tion of marine acid for plilo^ifton, 
 825. Union of phlogifton witha- 
 cid cf molybda;na, 963. Is re- 
 markaMy difpofed to ft}- off from 
 hcpar fulphurif, 1024, Combined 
 with fixed alkalies, I0i8. Suppo- 
 fed to exift in the colouring matter 
 ofPrufuan blue, 1 196, Is ftrong. 
 ly attraiiled by manganefe, 1372, 
 Gives a white colour to manga- 
 nefe, 1373. Some phlogifton na- 
 turally contained hi this fubftance, 
 1374. Proof of its exiftence in tho 
 muriatic acid, 1381. Sulphur de- 
 compofed by a fuperabundance of 
 phlogifton, 1 40 1, 
 Phofphoric acid, found in the refiduum 
 of ether, 2d 722. Expels tlv.it of 
 fluor, 2d 850. This acid particu- 
 larly treated of, 904, et feq. Ex- 
 pels the acids of vitriolated tartar, 
 nitre, and fea-faU,907. Can fcarce- 
 ly dilfolve manganefe, I367. Of 
 phofphoric eai thg, \o%i, etfeq. Sur- 
 priling phofphoric quality of oyfter- 
 ftielh, 1087. By whom difcover- 
 ed, 904. Found in vaft quanti- 
 ties in the mineral kingdom, ib. 
 In vegetables and the gaffric juice 
 of anima's, ib. 
 Phofphoric liquor, curious one from 
 aTenic and vinegar, 2d 957,1521. 
 Pbofphoriii of Baldwin prepared from 
 nitrous acid and calcareous earth, . 
 749. Phofphorus fcintillans, of 
 marine acid and calcareous earth, 
 797. Boiognian phofphorus, jo8r. 
 How rendered luminous, 1082. 
 Analyfed, 1083. Phofphorus of 
 urine, 1406. Mr Margraaf's pro- 
 cefs f)r making it, 1407. Redi- ■ 
 fication of this phofphorus, 1408. 
 The procefs for making it fume- 
 times daiigerous, 1409. Liquid 
 phofphorus, how prepared, 1410. 
 Experiments with- phofphorus on ■ 
 fpirit of wine, 1411. With effen- 
 tial oils and acids, 141 2. Mr Mar- 
 graaf 's experiments witLit on me- 
 talf, 1413. Canton's phofphorus, 
 414. Homberg's phofphorus, 1415,. 
 et feq. See Vyrophorus. 
 M. Pelletier has now difcovered a- 
 method of unitintr phofphoi us, with- 
 out any decomj ofition, with all the 
 metalsj though lie cautions againft 
 the danger with which the procefs is 
 attended. Gold is phofphorated by. 
 mixing half an ounce of itsoalx with 
 anounce of phofphoric.glafsand about 
 a grain of powdei ed charcoal ; the 
 whole is then put into a crucible, the- 
 compofition covered with a little 
 powdered charcoal, and a degree of 
 heat fufiicient to fufe the gold ap- 
 plied. A great many phofphoric va- 
 pours arife, but part are detained,, 
 and unite with the gold which, is left . 
 at the bottom of the crucible. The . 
 metal by this operation lofes its co- 
 lour, becomes whitifh, breaks under ■ 
 the hammer, and has a cryftalUne 
 appiar, . 
 
630 
 
 appearance. By continuing the fii C 
 a long time the Jshofphorus wou d I'C 
 entirely diflipated. The quantity of 
 phofphoric glafs and chaixoal juft 
 mentioned is fufficient to phofphorate 
 a whole ounce of platina. Hy an 
 hour's calcination in a crucible, the 
 metal is converted into a bkckilh 
 mafs refembling fiiver, weighing up- 
 wards of an ounce, and of which 
 the lower part confifts of cubica! cry- 
 ftals. Notvvithflandinjir this change, 
 however, the quantity <;f phofpho- 
 rus united with the platina is very 
 inconfiderahle ; for from 12 ounces 
 of the metal, and as much phofphin- 
 ric glafs, only ii ounces and five 
 grains of the phofphorated metallic 
 mafs was obtained. It was very 
 brittle, but of confiderable hardnefs; 
 was not attratfted by the n-agnet, and 
 by expofure to a ftrong fire parted 
 with the phofphorus it had been com- 
 bined with. He obft-rves, that all 
 the metals lofe their malleahiiity l)y 
 combination with phofphorus, ex- 
 cepting tin and lead ; and the refi- 
 duum of the matter which has once 
 ; phofphorated.a metal, wil'i ferve again 
 for the fame purpofe. 
 
 The fait formed by a combination 
 • of the phofphoric acid with mineral 
 alkali is found to be an ufefiil purga- 
 tive, and as fuch is now brought into 
 practice 
 
 Meffrs Struve and Marquart are 
 faid to have difcovered, that the ga- 
 ftric juice of animals is comp led (.f 
 the phofphoric acid and volatile alka- 
 li; and Mr Sci uve has compofed a li- 
 quid from thefe twe ingredients 
 which ads in a fmular manner on a- 
 limentary matters. 
 
 ?ifoa/analyfed, 1447. 
 Platina not partly compofed of iron, 
 aj4. An excellent material for 
 chemical velfels, 587. MrAchard's; 
 method of making crucibles of its 
 calx, 587. EiFe<fts of acid of ar- 
 fenic upon it, 942. Is the heavieft 
 of all metals, 1 31 8. Infoluble ex- 
 cept by dephlogifticated marine 
 acid, 1319- Found in fmall grains, 
 1320. Bergman's experiments on 
 it, 1 32 1 . Cryftals of it can be de- 
 compofed by the mineral, but not 
 the vegetable fixed alkali, 1322. 
 Soluble in aqua regia made with 
 nitrous acid and fea-falt, 1323. 
 In one made of nitre and fpirit of 
 fait, 1324. Solution of the calx in 
 marine acid lets fall a cryftalllne 
 powder on the addition of vege- 
 table alkali, 1325. But not the 
 nitrous folution, 1326. I'his pre- 
 cipitate a kind of triple fait, 1327. 
 Whe; her mineral alkali can fepa- 
 ratc platina from itsfolvent, 1328. 
 Fifty-fix times as much mineral 
 alkali as of vegetable requifite for 
 the precipitation, 1329. Effeils 
 of the volatile alkali on the folu- 
 tion, 1330. The metal [ artly 
 precipitable by neutral falls, 1331. 
 Triple falts formed by tliis metal, 
 1332. Platii^a the mofl: infufibic 
 ^ubftance in the world, 1533. Firft 
 melted by a burring mirror, 1334. 
 Maybe vitrified by eledric fire, 
 1335. Its precipitate fuiiblc in a 
 .common .forge, 733-6. Tliis 1 ve^ 
 
 G H EMI 
 
 cipitate, or even crude platina, 
 
 fulible by the alliilance of fluxes, 
 1337. Alloyed by Dr Lewis with 
 other metals, IJ38. With g^-ld, 
 1339. With fiiver, 1340. Cop- 
 p.cr conilderably improved by 
 union wiih it, 1341. It unites 
 mod readily with zinc, 134^- 
 And with the compound metals, 
 1343. 'I'lic compound of brals 
 and platina a proper material It^r 
 fpeculunis, 1344. It can fcarce be 
 united with mercury, 1345. Is de- 
 fijited by mercury when gold is 
 ad.lcd, 1346. May be united 
 witli f irgeJ and caft iron, i347» 
 And with tin, lead, or bifmuth, 
 1348. May be melted by means 
 of arfenic, 1349. "^^^ polfibility 
 of uniting it with mercury denied 
 byF(mrcroy,i350. Inc iifidencuin 
 his account of its ha diiefs, I3S«- 
 Precipitate of platina vitnfisd by M. 
 Beaunie, 1352. The precipitate by 
 fal vimniDiiiac fuiiblc in a ftrong 
 forge keat, 1353. This fufion fup- 
 pofed b) jVIacqiier not to be perfect, 
 1354. Attempts to purify platina 
 by cupellation, 13^5. Of the pof- 
 fibi'ity of adulterating gold with 
 it, 1356. Methods of detecting 
 this fiaud if it fli'iuid be ptactifed, 
 1357. Platina moft ealily difco- 
 verabie by its great fpecific gravi- 
 ty, 1358- 
 
 P/.viji's account ot the origin of glafs- 
 
 m;iking, 7. 
 Plumbum uorivnnn formed of marine 
 
 acid and lead, 812. 
 Podo'.'r,, in Poland : nitre found in 
 
 tlie earth in that country, 725. 
 Folar regions : the exceflive Cwld of 
 
 winter, how mitigated, 98. 
 Poland. See Po iolia. 
 pan Icroiis fp ir formed of terra ponde- 
 
 rofa and vitriolic or aerial acid, 
 
 105 I. See Terra pondeiofa. Ana- 
 
 lyiis and properties of the aeruted 
 
 kind, 10J7. 
 Por<i;Lle furnaces ^ 600, et feq. See Ftir- 
 
 !i<:ces. 
 
 Porcelain -vpls of ufe in ch.emifcry, 
 563, 591. Reaumur's porcelain 
 recominended, 592. Ur Lewis's 
 experiments upon it, 593. 
 
 Po«'s directions concerning criicibles, 
 588. His melting furnace defcvi- 
 bed, 606. See Furnace. His ob- 
 fervations on the decompofition of 
 nitrous acid by quicklime, 748. 
 His experiments on the fait of am- 
 ber, 909. 
 
 Precipitate, infoluble, thrown down 
 by cauftic alkali from folution ( f 
 terra ponderofa, 1056. Pheno- 
 mena Oil diilUling metallic preci- 
 pitates thrown down by Pruilian 
 alkali, 1 198. Precipitate of plati- 
 na vitrified by M. Bcaumc, 135a. 
 Precipitates, why 1( mecimcs thriAvn 
 down by acids, 221. By the per- 
 fecSl neutral fiJts, 222. By a triple 
 combination, 223. Various pre- 
 cipitates of gold, 233. Of the 
 . caafe i.f fuch great variations in 
 the we:glit« of pn ci,'itatcs, 248. 
 . Arguments in favour of the weight 
 , of precipitates belitg augmented 
 ;by the matter of iietvt, 249. A 
 , quantity of the menftruum retain- 
 ,ed by fome p; ecipitates, 251. 
 
 S T R Y. 
 
 Table of different ones, 259. Why 
 thofe of merciu-y and alum con- 
 tain part of the acitl, 408. 
 Prccifd.dion: phenomena attending 
 that of meta;8 by alkaline falt^, 
 220. Their precipitation by one 
 another o\Mng to a double ckcfive 
 attradion, 229. Ufe of the tables 
 and calculations for knowing d 
 priori the phenomena of precipita- 
 tion, 333. Why mutual precipita- 
 tion ucjihlogiiHcates the metals 
 more than direct folution, 335. 
 Pi-eci; itations by lead, 3.5'2. Of 
 mcrcut y by copper, 353. Of nickel 
 by zinc, 358. Of corpcr, lead, 
 andbifmuth, by mckcl, iio. Of 
 cobalt by iron, 362. Of fome 
 heterogeneous matter from co- 
 balt by nickel, 363. Precipita- 
 tions of, and by tcgulus of anti- 
 mony, 36'3'. Of and by aifeuic, 
 368. Of regulus of aifenic by 
 bifmuth, 369. And by copper, 
 370. The operation of precipita- 
 tion defcribed, 570. 
 Pre/ervutit'es gj'xvood, 62 1. 
 Prcjjiire of the furroiinding fuid a ntean 
 
 of retaining fire in bodies. 5.5. 
 Priejlley: dilpute betwixt him and 
 Lavoificr, 141. Identity of ph!o- 
 gifton and charcoal given by his 
 experiments, 146. Kirwan's ex- 
 amination of his experiment con- 
 cerning tlie revival of mercury, 
 
 322. Why fo much of the metal 
 was revived in his exptriments, 
 
 323. Kir\». tin's remarks on tliefe 
 experiments, 325. His method of 
 procuring the lulpluireous vitrio- 
 lic ticid, 714. His obfervations oH 
 marine acid, 765. Experiments 
 on conveiting ihc fluor acid into a 
 kind of air, 857. His ex^ erimcnts 
 on the vegetable acid aii , 883. 
 
 Prinution r,/ heat totally: Mr Kirwan's 
 theorem for finding the point of it, 
 
 Pri:jjian blue a prepaiat'.on ot iron, 
 1163. Dr Woodward's receij t 
 for making it, ii()4. Mr Geuf- 
 froy's the -ry, 1165. ximufing 
 ph.ci;onie;;on in th^ preparation, 
 1 166. Macquer's theory, 1167. 
 Some blue produced by the com- 
 mon aikr.lics, 1 170. Mr Schecie's 
 inveitigation of it, 1171, et jeq. 
 Prulfian blue y ieids volatile alkali 
 by diltillation, 1197. Appearances 
 on diftiliing other precipitates 
 thrown down by the Pruilian alka- 
 li, 1 1 98. Appearances < n diailhr'g 
 Pruffian blue accounted for, 1203. 
 See Colouring mailer. 
 Puk-is Alg iroth, the mtjft proper ma- 
 teriid for emetic tartar, 1239. 
 ObjcClion to its ufe, 1260. The 
 objedlion removed by Mr Scltetle, 
 1261,1202. Algaroth. Ptdvis 
 fulminant how prepared, 1405. 
 Purijicdlio'i of qui ckj liver. See iVItrci/- 
 
 r'l and l^iiriijd'uer. 
 PairefaLiioi, : nitre fnppofed to be ihe 
 lati erfeCl of it, 733. Not ahvtrys 
 neccfiii) y for the prouuCLioii ol ni- 
 ttc, ^47^• 
 Pyrites: how to cxtr^icl; greet) vi- 
 triol frotri it, <i,y. lis j rclence 
 the only rcquiikc for tne produc- 
 tion of aiuni, 654. 
 Fyrometsr, an inlirument for meafu- 
 
 Index« 
 
 ring the expanuon of bodies, 103. 
 
 Pyropborus of plumberg, 1415. Btll 
 formed of alum and fngar, 14115. 
 Is not uijured by expofui e to li.eht, 
 1417. I'heory of its accenfion, 
 1418. 
 
 QuABRupLE SALTS, how fonncd, 
 
 273- 
 
 ^.antity of heat, difficulty of deter- 
 mining It, 70. It cannot be ufed 
 in the common acceptation of the 
 word With regard to fire, 71. It 
 cannot lie determined by Dr Cleg- 
 hi rn's hypothelis, 76. Is impoi- 
 iible ta be determined in any way, 
 112. 
 
 Quicklime a calcareous earth dep.rived 
 of its fixed air, 511. Decompofea 
 fpirit of liitre, 748. Is the balls of 
 fluor fpar, 837. Effects cf it on 
 fait of amber, 947. 
 
 ^uicifflvcr fometimes produced from 
 lead, 12, 762. Its combination 
 with acids. See Mercury. How 
 to obtain a perfedtly faturated Ib- 
 lution of it in nitrous acid, 1293. 
 (^ickfilver, fulminating, 3d 903. 
 
 ^iefcent affinities defined, 267. 
 
 Radical vinegvr differs from 
 the common acetous acid, 1528. 
 Inflammable fpirit j-roiiuced from 
 
 Rancid oils purified by churning with 
 water, 1431. 
 
 Realgar, or red arfenic, prepared 
 from aifcnic and fulphur, 1279. 
 
 Reaumur's porcelain prepared by ce- 
 menta*-!' n of green glafs, 592. Dr 
 Lewis's obfervations on the me- 
 thod of making it, 593. An ex- 
 cellent material for chemical vel- 
 I'ciS, lb. And for levigating planes, 
 599. His method of rendering 
 lead f iiiorous, I3II. Hint for an 
 im])ro^■ement of the fiiape of beils, 
 ih. 
 
 Red lead, how prepared, 1213. 
 Red precipitate of mercury, how prepa- 
 red, 764. 
 
 Reduction of metallic calces, without 
 addition, an argument againft the 
 exifience of phlogilton, 140. The 
 phenomenon explained, 320. 
 
 Regulus. See Antimony, Arfenic, and 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Reid, Dr, his obfervations on the 
 temperatures of bodies, 50. 
 
 Relative heat explained, 38. 
 
 Reftns analyfed, 1432. Are only bal- 
 fanis thickened by evaporation, 
 ib. 
 
 Retort, a chemical veffel, defcribed, 
 570. 
 
 Re-jivification of metals, how accom- 
 
 plilhed, 522. 
 Rinm m's method of burning the ores 
 
 of alum, 668. 
 Roajling aluminous ores, ufes of it, 662, 
 
 et feq. Seii Alum. 
 
 Robinfoii, Mr, of Glafgow, deter- 
 mines the boihng point of water 
 in vacuo, 1 23. 
 
 Roch-. lum, whence that name is dt> 
 1 ive:i, 638. 
 
 Roc.-M-he formed of cream of tartar 
 and irouoi al alkali, 891. Scheelc's 
 method of preparing it, 89X. 
 
 Roy 1 1 Society, when founded, 19. 
 '1 his and othe.- focicties of the 
 kind has been of great advantage ; 
 to chemillry, ib. 
 
 Muf'tng 
 
Index. 
 
 Rulfing of metals explained, 541. Tin 
 lefs liable to this dcfeca than iron 
 or copper, ■L^Z3■ 
 .. Saccharine Acrn, how prepared, 
 896 Sacchcrine ether, 90a. Is 
 not eafily fe^- ou fire, and burns 
 with a bUie flame, ib. 
 
 Saccharum falurni. lis frtl'-.tion dc- 
 ftroysihafof '^recn vitriol, 1044. 
 and folution of tin, 1045. How 
 prepared from lead, 877. An in- 
 llammable fj irit jirocirable from 
 it by diftillation, 878. A parti- 
 cular kind of it obrainable by 
 means of acid of ants, or fpirit of 
 verdigris, 908 
 
 Sal aUmhroth, corapofed of fal am- 
 moniac ?.nd corrofive fublin.ate. 
 See ^.lembrotb. 
 
 Sal amnioniac. See Ammenwc. 
 
 Sal digejlhiii. See Dig^f i-ve Salt. 
 
 Sal ditiretkus, bow prepared from 
 acetous acid and vej;etable fixed 
 alkali, 868. 
 
 5.;/ prunella, prepared from nitre and 
 fulphur, 744- , Why the l itre is 
 thus purified, ib. 
 
 Sal riipellenjis . See Rochelh Salt. 
 
 Sal fedati-vus. See Borax-, acid of. 
 
 Sal ■volatile oleofam, a prepar.ition of 
 volatile alkali, fpirit of wine, and 
 cfiential oils, T036. 
 
 Sali>!s m'lxfvre prefcribed in fevers, tlie 
 fame with a folution of foluble tar- 
 tar, 889. 
 
 Salt of vinegar, formed f. om fpint of 
 verdigris, 88l. Eleential fait of 
 lemon's, a kind of tartar extratSled 
 from forrel fold for it, 888. True 
 fait of lemons cannot be converted 
 into acid of fogar, 999. Neutral 
 fait for difcoverinti; iron in mineral 
 waters, I180. Watfon's account 
 of the fpecific gravity of fait of. 
 tartar, 4i5' 
 
 Saltpetre. See 'KHre. 
 
 Salts: their general properties con-- 
 fidered, 164, et feq. are either fu- 
 fible or volatile, ib. Soluble in 
 water and cr^ ftallizable, ib. Their 
 folution attended with an emiflion 
 of air-bubbles fometimes mlRaken 
 for an effervefcence, 165. Gene- 
 rally foluble ill greater quantity in 
 hot than in cold ^^ater, ib. _ Sea- 
 falt an exception to this rule, ib. Of 
 their mixture and fepai ation, 166. 
 Hypothefes concerning their fo- 
 lution, 167. Are deftru<5)-ible_ by 
 repeated folution and exficcation, 
 168. Divided into acids and alka- 
 lies, 169. See AciJ and Alkali. 
 Neutral falts formed by the com- 
 bination of thefe two, 17a. Per- 
 fedl and imperfeft neutral falts de- 
 fined, ib. Why the acids and al- 
 kalies generally eflervefce on mix- 
 ture, ib. Metallic folurions fome- 
 times diflurbed by neutral falts, 
 222. Triple and quadruple falts, 
 how formed, 2.7.1- Vitriolic falts 
 dcconipofed by tlie nitrous and 
 marine acids, &c. See Vitriolic. 
 Nitrous falts decompofed by the 
 marine acid, &c. Sec Nitrous. 
 Why the metallic calces feMom 
 decompofe the perfedl neutrals, 
 304. Anomalous falts formed fi om 
 the acetaus acid and earths, 871. 
 Of fixed alkaline falt=, See: 
 Jlikalies. Neutral falts partly pre- 
 cipitate platlna, 1531. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 Sand mixed wi;h fluor acid, ju-odu- 
 ces no earthy cruil by diibliation, 
 844. 
 
 S an i-pots, fills, &c. how tofet them 
 in furnaces, 616. 
 
 Ecani.t, of th^alumin ius ores found in 
 thai co'intry, 658. * 
 
 ScheeWi metliod of dephlogifiicating 
 fpirit of fait, 791. Difcovers the 
 fluor acid, 826. His opinion tliat 
 the earthy cruft f )rmed by this 
 acid proceeds from an union oi' it 
 with water, 8.U- Df teds the er- 
 lors i)f Boullanger and Monreton 
 this fiibjedl, 834. Explanation of 
 one of his experiments concerning 
 this cruft, 846. His method of 
 analyfing cream of tartar and ex- 
 tradting its acid pure, 887. Dif- 
 covers the acid of arfenic, 916. 
 His method of analyfing mol) b- 
 dsena, 959. Tungften, 968. His 
 method of j rocuriiig the pure acid 
 of milk, 976. His receipt for pre- 
 paring the llowers of benzoin, 991. 
 Fi)]- preparing the pulvis algaroth, 
 1262. Difcovers the nature of the 
 colouring matter of Pruffian blue, 
 II 71 Method of preparing Ro- 
 chelle fait, 801. 
 
 Sthiller's nierhod of preparing the a- 
 
 cid of tartar, 838. 
 Schif, aluminous, component parts of 
 it, 65a. 
 
 Sea-fdt, decompofed in various ways 
 with lead, 302. Why the diftil- 
 lation of it dees not fucceed with 
 copperas, 7S7. It> acid not the 
 fame wi'h that of fluor, 835. Its 
 acid expelled by that of-pbofjiho- 
 rus, 907. And by acid of arfenic, 
 931. Whitens filver, 1 137. Un- 
 fuccefsful attempts to decompofe 
 it, 1479. Method of diftilling its 
 acid with clay, 1480. Effe(5is of 
 the fpirit upon phlogiftic matters, 
 1481. 
 
 Sebaceous acid, procured from a va- 
 riety of fu! ftances, 1533. Has a 
 remarkalde f-rce of attradlion, 
 1534. Its tffeds on tin,i535. On 
 other fubiiancts, 1536. 
 
 Secret fal ammoniuc, Glauber's. See 
 Glauber and Amrr.oniac. 
 
 Sedative fait. See Borax, acid of. 
 
 Seignette's fait. See Rocbelle fali. 
 
 Selenite. See Cypfuvi. Found in the 
 refiduum of vitriolic ether, 2d 722. 
 Why it cannot be decompofed by 
 marine acid, 294. Quantity of 
 ingredients in nitrous felenite, 440. 
 In marine felenite, 441. 
 
 Selenites tartareuj, conipofed of acid 
 of tartar and caicareousearth.887, 
 893. The liquor from which it 
 has been extraftcd affords an em- 
 pyreumaric acid of tartar, loio. 
 
 Semlmetal, a new one procui-ablc from 
 tungften, 1501. 
 
 Semimetdls, one of the general claffes 
 of metallic fubftances, 547. 
 
 Senfible he.it^ Cra^^ ford'a account of 
 it, 49- 
 
 Sleet-lead, how made, 1209. The 
 advantages of milled lead over it 
 very dubious, 1210. 
 
 Silex, found in the refiduum of vi- 
 triolic ether, 2d 722. 
 
 Siliceous far//5, produces a cruft on the 
 water into which fluor acid is di- 
 ftilled, 829. See Cruf. Of ti e 
 quantity of fiticeous earth tarried 
 
 [ S T R Y. 
 
 along with this acid, 847. Moft 
 completely precijiitated from its 
 foivents by vt^latile alkali, 1074. 
 Dilf lived by boiling in fixed alka- 
 linr ley, 1076. 
 Silver: Why the vitriolic acid cannot 
 adl upon it without a boiling heat, 
 197. Difficulty concerning its a- 
 m-dgamation fo'ved by Mr Berg- 
 man, 2x7. Precipitates of it, 235. 
 Is attradled more than fixed alkali 
 by nitrous acid, 301. Explanation 
 of the decomi ofition of vitriolated 
 tartar by folution of filver, 305. 
 Of other vitriolic falts, 306. Its 
 folution always decompofed by 
 marine falts, 308. Experiment 
 explaining the reduiSlion of itscal- 
 ce^per fe, 320. Why co] per isdif- 
 folved by folution o{ filver, 336. 
 Why a faturated f dbtion of filver 
 can fcarce be precipit;»ted by iron, 
 346. Why cop])er fometimes can- 
 not precipitate filver, 348. Can- 
 not precipitate coj'per from vi- 
 triolic acid, 354. Why it preci- 
 pitates mercury from the nitrous 
 acid, 355. Cannot decomi ofe cor- 
 rofive fublimate except in the dry 
 way, 356. Of its folution in vi- 
 triolic acid, 478. In marine acid, 
 480, 801. Of its combination with 
 vitriolic acid, 691. Has a ftrong 
 attradion for mercury in this 
 ftate, ib. Combination with the 
 nitrous acid, 731, Volitihzed 
 by uniting w ith this acid, ib. Co- 
 lours ptoduced by this folution, 
 7^3- Tlic folutiiai decompofed, 
 
 755. Is not adled on by tiie arfe- 
 ni^al acid, 043. The metal par- 
 ticularly treated of, 11 31. Its duc- 
 tility inferior to that ef gold, ib. 
 Its colour and dudtillty deftroyed 
 by fulphur, 1 132. Purified by cu^ 
 pellation with lead, 1133. Redu- 
 ced from its combination with ma- 
 rine acid, 1134, 1135- Has a great 
 attirailioir for lead, 1136. Whiten- 
 ed externally by common fait and 
 cream of tartar, 1137. Fulmina- 
 ting filver difcovered by Kunckel, 
 
 756. 13/ M. Berthollet, 1138. 
 How prepared, 1139. Fulmin ;tcs 
 by the touch of any fubftance, 
 whether cold or hot, 1140. Dan- 
 gerous to fulminate more than a 
 grain at a ti-T'e, 1141. Cryftals 
 formed by evaporating the liquor 
 after the precipitation of the calx 
 explode violently by a touch,! 142. 
 Cautions to be ufed in preparing 
 it, 1 143 . Abfurd theory by which 
 the antiphlogiftians attempt to ac- 
 count for this pheiu.menon, 1144. 
 Remarks on it and others, 1 145. 
 Eledlricity probably the caufe of 
 this phenomenon. 1146. Silver 
 ]irecipitated from its folution in ni- 
 trous acid by the celouring matter 
 of Pruflian blue, 1191 120S- Conv 
 binatioii of it with platina, 1340. 
 
 Siphoas, an Egyptian, the founder of 
 chemiftiy, 3. 
 
 Smalt produced from the calx of co- 
 balt and flints, 129,5. 
 
 Smoking liquor of Libavius prepared 
 from corrofive fublimate and tin, 
 810. 
 
 Scap, common, prepared by com- 
 bining fixed alkalies with exprefl"- 
 ed oils, 1C35, Starkey's foap, by 
 
 631 
 
 combining them with effential oils, 
 1017. This combination difficult 
 to be effe(iled, ib. M. Beaume's 
 method by leng trituration of the 
 ingijgdients, ib. Dr Lewis's, by 
 heating the alkali red hot, and 
 nii.ting it with the oil in that 
 ft ate, ib. Tliis foap naturally fub- 
 jccl to a dccompofition by the ef- 
 florefcence of a fait, ib. 
 
 Sof/nefs, of bodies, approaching to 
 fluidity cau'ed by heat, 118. 
 
 Solar Le it, why fo much more in- 
 tenfe than that of cjmmon fires, 
 160. 
 
 Solfatarct, aluminous ores found there 
 
 ai alyfed by Mr Bergman, 656. 
 Solid bodies do not part with fo much 
 
 heat as fluids, 212. 
 Soh'.bility of different metals, various 
 degrees of it, 1 85 . Their folubi- 
 lity increafed by calcination, 545. 
 Soluble tart.:r, prepared by com- 
 bining cream of tartar with vege-- 
 table fixed alkali, 889. The fame 
 with the faline mixture prefcribed 
 in fevers, ib. 
 So&jtion of falts in water, p^henomena 
 attending it, 165. Hypothefis 
 concerning it, 167. Salts deflruc- 
 tible by repeated folutions, 168. 
 Phenomena attcndit;g the folution' 
 of metah, 180. Sometimes pro- 
 moted by abfti acSting a portion of 
 phloj-ifton, 186. Totally prevent- 
 ed by taking away too much, 187. 
 Solution of metals attended with 
 effervefcence, 188. And the ex- 
 trication of varioui kinds of elaftic 
 fluids, 1 89. Bergman's account of 
 the caufe of chemical folution, 
 
 193. Solution impeded by too 
 great a quantity of phfigifton, 
 
 194. Heat produced in folution 
 mofl probably proceeds frtjm the 
 folvent liquor, 211. Reafons for 
 believing that metals are calcined 
 by folution, 215. Why folution 
 of gold is precipitated by folution 
 of tin, 227. Why f ilution of cal- 
 careous earth deconiiiofes vitrio- 
 lated tartar, 270. Dccompofition 
 of vitriolated tartar by folution of 
 filver cx] lained, 30J. This folu- 
 tion always decompofed by marine 
 falts, 308. As alfo folution of 
 lead, 309. Solution of lead in 
 marine acid decompofed by vitrio- 
 hc falt«, 310. And nitrous folu- 
 tion of mercury, 311. Solution 
 of copper fcarcely decomp( fed by. 
 caft iron, 345. Why a faturated fo- 
 lution of filver. can fcarce be pre- 
 cipitated by iron, 346. Of the fo- 
 lution of calces of iron in vitriolic 
 acid, 456. That of the deplogiftl- 
 cated calces refufes to cryftaliize, 
 457. Solution of tin in vitriolic 
 Bcid yields inflammable air, 471. 
 How to ]ierf(>rm the chemical ope- 
 ration of fblLtion, 564. Solution . 
 of filver in nitrous acid, 751. 
 Shoots into a corrofive fait, ib. Its 
 cryftals form lunar cauilic, 752. 
 Stains hair, liones, &c. of a brown 
 or bia-rk colour, 753. Imparts va- 
 rious colours to ftones, 753. Cu- 
 rious vegetations produced fi'om it, 
 754. Sevei-ai curi.;u=i cii cumflances 
 attending its dccompofition, 755, 
 756. Solution of calces of gold in 
 marine acid, 799. Of tin in aqua . 
 
 rcgia- . 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 632 
 
 regia, S09. This f^lutlon ufeful 
 in dyeing, ib. Is decoinj cfed by 
 faccharum faturiii, 1045. Calci- 
 rec'ii^ foliitions by mild volatile al- 
 Itab, ib. Solution of falts prcujioted 
 hy vitridb'c acid, 1048. Solution 
 of terra pondtrofi a teil of ihe vi- 
 triolic acid, 1058. Solution of 
 flint, 1069. Solution of alkali dif- 
 folvc's fiHcemis earth, 1076. Solu- 
 tion of gold IT) aeju i rp;^ia, 1099. 
 et feq. Ill hepar fulpliuri?, 1 127. 
 In vitriolic e'her. 11Z9. So'iition 
 of lime by the colouririir matter of 
 Pruffian blue, (he moft j)roper for 
 makinjT experiments cn mctais, 
 1190. Effcdts of this matter oa 
 >nietallic f I tions, 1I93. How to 
 attain a pc fefftly faturated folu- 
 "tion of q'iicklilver, 1 239. Of rhe 
 fbhition of arfer.Ic in water, 1269. 
 r.ffeds of legulus of arfenic on me- 
 tallic folutions, 1293. 
 
 :Sorrel, a kind of tartar extracTced 
 from it fold fur effential fait of le- 
 mons, 888. Si?e Sugar. 
 
 Sfain : when alum v/a^ firft made 
 there, 640. Nin-e, how prepared 
 in that country, 726. 
 
 S/y/tr, fionJerotis, account of Dr Wi- 
 thering*? experiments on it, 1057. 
 
 Specijic gra'jliy . Ste Gravity. 
 
 Specula, riiateriaU proper for them : 
 propofed by Mr Heilot fiom a 
 ■mixture of gold and zinc, 1246. 
 A mixture of lirafs and platina 
 propofed by others, 1314. 
 
 Spirit of nitre: how to determine tbe 
 quantity of pure acid contained in 
 it, 384. Propoi tion of it to that 
 in fpirit of fvlt, 385. How to de- 
 termine the accrued denfity on 
 mixing fpirit of nii re vvirh water, 
 387. Experiment to determine 
 the real quaiitit}- of acid in fpirit 
 of nitre, 389. Mow to conftrucfl 
 a table of fpecific gravities for fpi- 
 rit of nitre, 390. Stron;>- fj^irit of 
 nitre more expanded by heat than 
 Weak, and why, 42 1. ExaA 
 quantity of dilalation of fpirit of 
 nitre, 425. Sohition of m.erciiiy 
 ■with fpirit of nitre, 426. Quan- 
 tity of bifmurh dilTolved by it, 49^2. 
 Of cobalt, 497. Of rcguius of ai- 
 lenic, 304. How to prepare this 
 ipirit ay means of oil of vitriol, 
 735. By means of arfenic, 739. 
 Oils fired by it, 778. Effedh of 
 it on fait of amber, 9r2. 
 
 Spirit of fait: method of findin;>: the 
 quantity of pure acid contained in 
 it, 376. Of finding its fpecilic 
 gravity, 377. Proportion of -acid 
 in fpirit of fait to that in fpirit ( f 
 nitre, 385. Dilatation of i\ \\\t of 
 fait by various degrees of heat, 
 427. EfFecfts of it i;i the way of 
 folution in cohalt, 498. How pro- 
 cured by me,ins of vitriolic acid, 
 786. By nitrous aciil, 788. By 
 diftillation of common fait without 
 addition, 789. DilTolves and vo- 
 latilizes the calces of gold, 799. 
 Arfenic deconipof^d by dephlogi- 
 fticated fjurit of fair, 919. 
 Spirit of ivine yields a great quantify 
 of water by being imrned, 134. 
 Convertible intti charcoal, 147. 
 Ether produced by its combination 
 with vitriolic acid, 717. Its com- 
 bination with nitrous acid produ- 
 
 Cr-s fpiritUR nitri dulcis and ether, 
 773, &c. Ethtr with the marii c 
 acid, 824. With the vegetable 
 a' id, 884. And with the Ticcha- 
 nne acid, 902. Convcrt.'d into 
 acetous acid by di.ueflicn with the 
 acid of tar tar, 1013. Enables vi- 
 triolic acid to diifnlve mangancfe, 
 1014. Yields a great' qnan city of 
 ■water by diftillation v^ith caufi-ic 
 alkali, 1015. DilTolves a fmall 
 
 . proportion of arfenic, 13 70. How 
 it may be made to diiTolve fui- 
 phiir, 1402. DifToIves efiential 
 oils, 1421. 
 
 Spir'itus Mindcreri : how to cryfial^ize 
 
 Spiritus nitri dulcit, how pi'epnred, 
 7 74. Analyfis of i-s reliduufi by Mr 
 Pott, 781. Affords a^e^ous acid, 
 IC07. Anrl acid of tartar, 1009. 
 
 Spiritus -i clatiiis fuccinatus. See Fmu 
 df luce. 
 
 Stiihl: a miftake of hi.= cencernirg 
 tlie convcrfion of marine into ni- 
 trous acid dete6le.l, 793. 
 Stan Jar J filver : quantity of pure me- 
 tal contained in it, 321. 
 Star formed on the furface of regulus 
 
 of antimony, 1252. 
 Steel, fait of, the fame with green 
 vitri 1, 697. How prep.ared from 
 iron, 1207. 
 Stills, how to fet them, 610. 
 Stune ivare Corroded by cauflic alka- 
 lies, 59S. 
 Strafbiirg turpentine defci ibed, 143^. 
 Sublimation, in chemiflry, how I'tr- 
 
 formed, 581. 
 Sublimate. See Corroftve. 
 Sugar, acid of, the fame with that 
 offorrel, 2d 903. Acid of apples 
 procured f;om fugar hy means of 
 the nitrous acid, 1512. 
 l"he acid procurable from this fub- 
 ftance by means of the nitrous, re- 
 fembles that of tartar, in beirg ca- 
 pable i-.f fuperfaturatii'.g- tl.e vegt ta!>!e 
 alkali, and forming with it an acid 
 fait refembling crude tartar. This 
 is found naturally cxlfting in fi.rrel 
 and fome other plants. There is, 
 ho-u'ever, another acid obtained from 
 fugar along with an empyreiimatic 
 oil by dry diftillation, which has 
 been put ified and txamined by Mr 
 Schrikel. Eight ounc^ s and f ur 
 fcruples of liquid vvere obtained in 
 this manner from t6 of fine fugar. 
 About fix drachms of water came 
 over firft ; after which the acid paf- 
 fed in white vapoui s, which conden- 
 fed in unAuous ftrias on the fides of 
 the receiver. It had a pungent and 
 agreeable f)i:ell, and tafled empyreu- 
 matic. By repeated diftiliations from 
 pure clay, its fmell became mild, arid 
 it acquired an, appareiit incrcafe of 
 acidity. With vegetable alkali, it 
 formed a f^lt tufting like that of Syl- 
 vius, and ftioo-ing into needle- like 
 cryftals,- filuble with difticulty in 
 cold water, but not at a 1 in fj irit of 
 wine. It did not deliquate in the 
 air ; but decrejvtated in the fire, and 
 did not melt on be t coals. With the 
 mineral alkali yellow cryftals were 
 iormed •■efenibling Rochelle fait in 
 tafte, eafilyfolubie in water, and not 
 deliquating in the air. Volatile al- 
 kali gave a fiiarp falinc liquor, which 
 couJd not be crj ftaliized, but left a 
 
 3 
 
 faline raafj on evaporation ; and afimi- 
 lar faline mafs was produced by uni- 
 ting it with calcareous earth. Mag- 
 uefia aiid earth of alum formed gum- 
 my comp. und". Wh,°!i concentrated, 
 it diffolved the calx of gold, and even 
 gold-leaf; but had r;o effed on fil- 
 ver, mercury, or their calces With 
 minium it gave a )'ellow folution, 
 whicii fliot into oblong white cryftais 
 of an aflringent tafle. A blood-red 
 folution, whicii ll'ioc into green cry- 
 ftals, was obtained from iron. Co})per 
 was diir Ived into a green liquid, 
 which did not cryfta lize. Regulus of 
 antimony was alfo dilfolved, and the 
 folution was of a grecnifli col(;ur. 
 Zinc was partly iliffolved into a 
 green liquor, and partly corroded. 
 The precij)itates were remarkable. 
 The cryi;tals of iron gave a green 
 precipitate with alkalies, a black or 
 dark blue one with Pruffian alkali, 
 and a white one with marine acid. 
 Solution of regulus let fall a yellow 
 precipitate with fixed alkali ; with 
 volatile alkali, a powder foluble aijahi 
 i:i the precipitant ; vitriolic and ma- 
 rine acids, and an infufion of galls, 
 threvii (?o-vvn a white powder, but no 
 preciiiitate eniue 1 on adding nitrous 
 acid. Sobatlon of zinc gave a white 
 precipitate^with infufion of galls, al- 
 kalies of ail kinds whether fixed, vo- 
 latile, or phlogifticated, as well as by 
 the vitriolic acid. Tin was partially 
 diffoiviid, and the fo'-ition precipita- 
 ted by alkalies, and an infufion of 
 galls, but not by any of the mineral 
 acids, L.ead was precipitated <<f a 
 ■white colour by vitriolic ar.d marine 
 acids, and cf a grey colour b} infu- 
 fion of galis. 
 
 Sugar of lead. See Srcch.:rum and 
 Saccharine. Whether the acid of 
 fugar or of tartar is tJie bafis of 
 vegetable acids, 996, Identity of 
 vegetable a.::d& proved fiom the 
 decoirpofition of this acid, 1008. 
 Nitrons acid enabled by the aci<l 
 of fugar to diffolve manganefe, 
 loii. Method of procuring the 
 acetous acid from it, 882. 
 
 Sug.ir ( f milk: how to procure its a- 
 cid, 980. 
 
 Sulphur de[hlngifticated by nitrous 
 acid, 195. Exifts in hepatic air, 
 aio. Q^iantity of phlogifton in 
 it, 507. Proper method of burn- 
 ing it, jo8. Dellroys the malle- 
 ability of metals, 54(5. How to 
 jirocure t're vitriolic acid from it, 
 623. Quantity of the acid con- 
 tained in ful[hur, ib. Quantity 
 procurable from it, (124. Me- 
 thods of obviating the diificulties 
 in the proc;;fs, 625. Effervofcence 
 betwixt the fumes of nitre and 
 fidphur, 626. Extrafted from the 
 fame ore with alum and vitriol, 
 659. Prepared by combining the 
 vitriolic acid with phlogillon, 715, 
 716. EfTeits of acid of arfenic up- 
 on it, 924. Molybti^ena recom- 
 pr fed by uniting its acid with ful- 
 phiir, 966. CoiT.bi' ed with fixed 
 alkalies, 1021. Its phlogifton dif- 
 pofed to fly off when fulphur is 
 combined with fixed alkalies, 1 024. 
 Its combination with volatile alka- 
 lies, 1038. Effedlsof it on filvcr, 
 113a. Takes fire fpontaneoully 
 
 Index. 
 
 with Iron-filings, 1207. Cannot 
 be united with zirc, 1248. Hovy 
 to fejiarate it from antimony, 1254. 
 Eafily united with arfei ic, 1278. 
 And mineiializes it, 1264. Effeds 
 < f it on regulus of cobalt, 1305. 
 hiffeds of it on nickel, 130S. On 
 mang-atiefe, r3K9. Its nature and 
 properties p,ai ticularJy confidered, 
 1398, et feq. May be cryihilized, 
 1400. Decom.pofcd by fuperabun- 
 dance (i phlogifton, 1401. How 
 it nmy be d.ff lved in fpirit of 
 Wine, 1402. Its union with me- 
 tals, I403. 
 Sulphureous fumes efiervefce with 
 th< fe of i'pirit of nitre, 6%6. Vo- 
 larile fulphureous acid dcfcribed, 
 713. How procured by Dr Piicft- 
 ley, 714. Why this acid dilTolves 
 maugancfe, 1379. Sulphureous 
 
 inftannnable vapoursprocurcdfrom 
 radical vii egar, 1 545. 
 S,i7, difh-ibutes tlie lu at on the earth 
 y4. How heat is produced by his 
 lays, 93 , His light blackens the 
 precij)itates of Ibiution of filver. 
 756. 
 
 Si.nfoioer contains nitre, 733. 
 
 Su-eJc/:.- when alum was firft made 
 there, 640. Method of roafting 
 the: aluminous ores there, 665, et 
 M- 
 
 Sympathetic inL of a blue colour, S22. 
 
 Table -of the different degrees of 
 heat, 161. Of different preciiu- 
 tates, from Mr Bergman, 259. 
 Of the quantity of ac-d taken 'up 
 by different bafes, 268. Coinci- 
 dence of tiiis table with experience, 
 271- Of the quantities of the dif- 
 ferent meials taken up by acids, 
 298. Table of rhe affinities of 
 the acids to the different metals 
 explained, 316. Of the quantitiej 
 ol phlogift m in different metals, 
 319. Of the proportional afl^inities 
 of metallic calces to phlogifton, 
 329. Dr Black's table of affiriitie?. 
 553- 
 
 Talluiv anr.lyfed, 1429. 
 
 Tartar: quantity of fixed air in nil 
 of tartar, 414. Jts acid particu- 
 larly treated of, 885, et feq. Crude 
 t at tar defcribed, ib. Purified, and 
 then called cream of tartar, !>y 'boil- 
 ing with fomc of the finer kinds 
 of clay, 886. Scheele's analyfis 
 of cream of tartar, and method of 
 procuring the pure acid, 887. So- 
 luble tartar formed by uniting the 
 vegetable fixed alkali with cream 
 . f tartar, 889. Cream of tartar, 
 liow regenerated, 890. Seignette's 
 or Rochelle fait formed by com- 
 bi;;i:;g the mineral alkali with 
 cream of ta tar, 891. Sait formed 
 by the union of cream of tartar 
 with volatile ali:ali, 892. Combi- 
 nation of the acid of tartar with 
 earths, 893. With metallic fub- 
 ftances. {594. Foi ms a fine green 
 colour with copper, 894. Chaly- 
 beated tartar with iro . 89^. 
 Whether this acid or that of fugar 
 is the bafis of vegetable acids, 995. 
 Piodudt of acid of tartar by dry 
 diftillation, 1000. Requifite.* for 
 bringing vinegar nearer the ftate 
 of tartar, 1002.- Weftrumb's nn- 
 fuccefsful attempt for this purpofe, 
 1003. Dr Crell's opinion of the 
 
■Index. 
 
 poffibility of the tranfmvitat'ion, 
 1004. Method recommended ly 
 him for artemptintf the experi- 
 ment, 1005. Ari^urnent in favour 
 «)f tlie identity of vejjetinile aci^is 
 frdm tl'e prnduifliqii of an empy- 
 JXiimaric nciri if tartar from the 
 liquor in wliicii tartareous felenite 
 is boiled, 1010. From tlie fo'.u- 
 tion uf ina!i^a!iefe in a mixture of 
 yitrioiicand tartareous acids, 1012. 
 Silver whitened by cream of tar- 
 tar and common fait, 1137. Of 
 the preparation of emetic tirtar, 
 X 1257, I25S, I't feq. See Emetic. 
 Manganefe f>luhlein acid of car- 
 tar, 1368. Explanation of its ac- 
 ti< 11 upi n mar4;anefc, 13S2. Schil- 
 ler's metl^od of procuring- its acid, 
 £88. 
 
 Tliough the ac>d of tartar has been 
 ■commonly fuppofed a j!;odu61: of ti,e 
 ■vinous fermentation yet lare exj^e- 
 riments have fliowri tliat tlii-, i,% i;ot 
 the cafe. It has been fmrn \ not on!y 
 in the juice of the grape, hut in that 
 ■of tamarinds, rlie be rie-- of the rbus 
 ioriiir/a, ai:d the leave- i-f the riimcx 
 ■acdofn. In tl'.efe it is ),enerai!y com- 
 bined vvith the vi--get:d-i!e fixed a'Jca- 
 !i, or wi'h calcnri cus e^'.rth. H^rm.b- 
 fladt has found it combined with cal- 
 careous earth in the j dee of he 101 ts 
 of the triticum re/>ens . the L'vntoJoii-tiix- 
 ar.icum, and CfAita'bark. By the afiift- 
 ance of nitrons acid he obtained it 
 alfo from the juice of grapes, mul- 
 1-erries, aiijdes. pears, oranii;es, ftraw- 
 fierries, and plums; alfo from ]\ 
 Tie)', fuoar, gum araliic, manna, 
 fpirit of wine, b ech-wood, anil tlie 
 root of black liellebore. In th: fe 
 cafes, where the nitr^insacid is made 
 , life of, however, ir may juftly be 
 fiippofed that the acid < f tai tar is 
 j)artly at Teall iTi -duccd from i'. hi 
 Schecle's procefs for prijcuring the 
 pure acid of tartar by mr: n- of cal- 
 careous earth, it is a Ivifab'e 10 
 J:iake ufe of qnicklimr ratl^er fl an 
 -clialk, as by this double the quajitity 
 '^f tanar will he (!econ-])ofed. An 
 hundred parts <i pure taitar rontain 
 ■about 23 of vi'tretable alkali, 43 paits 
 I of acid employed to faturatcthat al- 
 Pkali, and 34 of fuperabundanr acid. 
 By ufing oyfler-fliells well prcjiared 
 by boi'ing and powd-erii g, ihecr) - 
 flals of the acid niay be nijtaiiied very 
 V.'I:iteand pure. .Some ciiemils hav - 
 imagined that th.e vegerable afia i 
 -diies not cxifl: ready f rmed in tartar, 
 feut that it is produced l;y fire or 
 r ineral acids, in proof of this M. 
 ]Machi oflisrs the f Ilo'.vir.g cxjicri- 
 rnents. On an (junce of cream of 
 tartar were po:ired 10 oir:ce- of 
 Ixiiling water, and the n^ivivire al- 
 ii' wed to remain i'l a jar covered 
 y,\'v\\ pa; er and paithmcnt in Nvh cli 
 a fmall hole was made with a liin. 
 At the end of tiiree mrenth^ it was 
 confiderably diminiflied ; ai;d con- 
 tained a qnant'ty of thick, foiigh, 
 J-ellow, mucilaginous mnt'er, which 
 ri'ither efTervefced with acii'.s roral- 
 kaaes, and, when burnt, the afhes 
 tvere found to confiin only a very 
 mall quantity of alkali, 'rhu ex- 
 periment was repeated by Mr Cor- 
 ifjnu^ with foire variation. He kept 
 ■ Vol. IV. P.vtll. 
 
 C H E M 
 
 a folutjon ef cream of tartar In a 
 heat between lo*^ and 30'^' of Reau- 
 mur's fcale 5 removing the fal-ne pel- 
 licles which formed on the furf^ce 
 as fall as they ap; eared, and redif- 
 f dving them iu waiter. By cotiti- 
 nuin^- the digeftion for feveral 
 months, the liquor becanse at hifl: 
 eviden'ly alkaline: and he thus ob- 
 tained ai6 grains of a brown alkali 
 from two isuuces of crearn of laitAr, 
 Mr Jiettliodet expofed for nine 
 months, to the heat of his laboratory, 
 a folution of two ounces of cream oi 
 tartar in eight ounces of water; ta- 
 kinvj care to replace, the water which 
 evaporated, but without removin^r 
 the crufts which formed upon the 
 furface. At the end of this time lie 
 loun<l that the liquor was no longer 
 a:iii, but begnn to turn the fy:uj) of 
 v;'olers green. In 18 months it be- 
 came firongly alkalme ; and left, 
 wlien evaporated, an oily reliduum 
 which efTervefced with acids, and 
 weighed 468 grains. On treating 
 in the fame manner a folution rf 
 terra f >iiata fart;'.ri, the liquor beg-Ui 
 to change t! e f. rup of violets v^recn 
 i:: two :ronth-, and in four the de- 
 compoiition leemed to be romjijete. 
 At the end of a year he fil ered 
 and evaporated the liquor U> drynels, 
 by which procefs he olitained 432 
 grains of fixed alr.ali. 'J he fame 
 quantity of terra fobata tartari <le- 
 comiiofed immediately by dilHllation, 
 yielded only u fains more of alkali, 
 Soliit lonol fait oi v/o'od-l<)rreifi flfei ed 
 no deconipoftion by a fnnilar treat- 
 ment for two years. The latter he 
 olift.rvcd to be a much more pnwer- 
 fi 1 aiitlfeptic than tartar; for which 
 reafon it feems to refill decompofiticm 
 in a j ! oportionalde degree. He fuj)- 
 pnfe.s oil to be the p incipa' caufe of 
 the deilruiflion of thefe acids ; and 
 tiie oln ious deftclerxy of oil in the 
 la; c:ia. ine ;u id, in comparifon with 
 fa"tar, fee:'-s to be tiie caufe of tlie 
 want of ca])acity in it to midergo the 
 decompon ion juft menti inect. A 
 remarkable circumllaure attends this 
 fprntaneou.s decc mpofition, viz. th'it 
 no air is either ablbrbcd or emitted 
 during the whole j>rocefs. It is alfo 
 worth notice, that in conibinitig acid 
 of.ta' tar with lixed alkalies the lalt 
 fuperfaturatcd with acid or cream of 
 tartar is alwny-^ form.ed in frefe-enre 
 to the other c-^'ltAfjluhU tarlar. Thus, 
 if tQ a fann-ated folution of alkali 
 w ith cream of tartar we add another 
 of pure tartai eou s acid^ a w J lite fpongy 
 mr.tter will be precij.itaie J to the 
 b itlom ; winch, on examination, is 
 found to be a true tartar. Any other 
 acid added to the folution of tartari- 
 fed tartar will in like manner pro- 
 duce a prccipitatiiou of tartar, by en- 
 ^ngitig a part of the iilkali with 
 which rt was rnmbined ; arid if the 
 acid of tariar be added tri a folution 
 of any neutral fair containing the 
 vegetable fixed alkali, as vitriola ed 
 tai:ar, fait of .Sylvius, and nitre, a 
 fimilar i>rec:pitati<3n of tartar will 
 cnfue. iJlence the acid of tartar may 
 be employed as a teO to difcover the 
 prefeiice of the ve-etable fixed alka- 
 li, aud to dift.ing.uini it ft oni the nn- 
 
 I S T R Y. 
 
 neral, wliirh has not that tffe<!l:. 
 Be'gman indeed obferves, that Ro- 
 chelle fak will do the fame thing ; 
 but it mull: he remembered, that this 
 is prepared witJi crude tartar, which 
 coo:tain.'. a por'ioii of veg.-jtable alka- 
 li, and n t with tiie pure acid. 
 Tanpcratiires : Dr Reid's obfcrfa- 
 
 tions concerning, J o. 
 Terra foliata t.irtari. See Sal rHureti- 
 
 cus. How to J referve it in a bottle 
 
 without danger of its deliquating, 
 
 868. 
 
 Tarr.i ponderofci combined with acid 
 of aj fenic, 940. Ufually found 
 united witii vitrioLc acid, IQ49. 
 Dr Witlieritig;'s experiments iiiuni 
 it, 1050. Its appearance when 
 combined witli aerial acid, 105 1, 
 Effe<5ls of fire upon it, 1052. Phe- 
 H jmena with marine acid, 10; ^. 
 Is precipiiable from it by mild and 
 caulHc fixed alkali, 1054. Con- 
 vertible into lime capable of de- 
 c -mpofing vitriolic lidt-, 1055, 
 Infoluble precipitate thrown down 
 by cauftic alkali, 1056. Analyfis 
 au'd properties of the aerated jion- 
 detou- fpar, lOjy. Its foi.ition .a 
 ted: of the j refence of vitriolic a- 
 cid, 1C58. Nitrous folution ihoots 
 into fine cryftals, 1066. A fmail 
 quaniity diffjvcdby the colouring 
 matter of Pruffian bln,», 11 88. 
 
 '^^J^^ f°'' <"^^ds and alkalies : Inaccu- 
 racy of (hofc commonly in ufe, 
 1549. How to pi epare-one from 
 red cabbage and other vegetaldes, 
 IJ50— I5S2. Mr Woulfc's tell 
 tor mineral waters, 15 ty. 
 
 TI.H-ory of ihemifrs defined, 21. 
 
 Thi^rmomdcr : its uf,'., 103. Wedge- 
 wood's improvement, 104. 
 
 TLunJer ami l!^/jt/ii// r : why Ulcere 
 common in lummer than in win- 
 ter, 100. 
 
 Ti//; why nltrou<! acid preciiu'tates 
 it-< fokition, 200. Why Ibhfioii 
 of g;)ld i.i precipitated by folution 
 f^f tin, 227. The precipitate con- 
 fills ])artly of tin, 228. Of its 
 precipitates, 240. Why'it cannot 
 he prccipifa'edin itsnK-tallic form, 
 350. Avflion of the vitriolic acid 
 on tin, 47,3. Diifolved in nitrous 
 'ari.l, 472. Great fufibilin- of the 
 *:om[ ouiids of tin and b.fmuth, 
 343. One foliibie in hot water, 
 544. Of the c.)mpound farmed 
 by it and vlt iolic acid, 701. Its 
 folution in marine acid ufeful in 
 tl^'cing, 809. Is volatilized by 
 this acid, and foj nis the fmokfn.»- 
 liquor of Libavii;s, 810. Of [tl 
 combination with the acetous acid, 
 879. Dr l^ewis's experiments on 
 this fubjeA, 880. .Eifeas of acid 
 of ai fenic upon it, 950. Solution 
 of tin d;'flr..yed by laccharum fa- 
 tnrni, 1045, Said to defir(.y the 
 malleability of gold remark'ibly, 
 10^ I. Mr Akhome's experi- 
 ments to determine thi.s j oint, 
 1092. Its fumes' do not render 
 gold britde, 1093. Nor the ad- 
 dition of fmall quantities of tin 
 and copi^er, 1094. The m-ral 
 particularly treated! f, 1216. May 
 hebtat into thin leaves, 1217. Of 
 its calcination, 1218. Its affinity 
 with arfenic, 1219. Arfen.^; fc- 
 4 h 
 
 ,^13 
 
 parable from it, 1220. Dr Lewis's 
 ol.fervations on this afTuiity, i22r. 
 Other metals injured by tin, 1222. 
 Tin no\ liable to ruft, 1223. An 
 ingredietit in aurum iTK^faifuni, 
 1224. Of its union widi fu'phur, 
 ib. Kciidi:; unites with pl.itina, 
 134:-;. il^vc i ir.-icabie cfl^dTts of the 
 febaceotrs acid iij'oti it, i53<;. Vo- 
 latile alkali ]irepHre,i from a mix- 
 ture of it wirli nitrous acid, 1553. 
 Tinilura mariis made from marint 
 
 acid and iri-n, 8or. 
 Tohaico naturally contains nitre, 735., 
 TtdJ]:: method of bin ning the hard 
 
 ores of aluin tliere, 6( 9. 
 Torrid zom h. ac of ic h )w mitiga- 
 ted, 90. 
 
 Tran fm^itation of metals not to be cre- 
 dited, II. A feeming tranfmura- 
 tion of vitriolic into marine acid, 
 784. Tranfmutation cvf earth of 
 flints into fome other, \o<S^. The 
 miftake dif.overed by Mr Berg- 
 man, 1070, rf/y. ^ez Flint. 
 Trifle and -qinidyuple [alts, how form- 
 ed, 273. Vo atile alkali particu- 
 larly adapted f .r Itheir formation, 
 274. Metallic folutions fonie- 
 times dec impofed by a ti-ijde coni- 
 binati. n, 223. A triple falc fiirm- 
 ed by marine acid, iron, and re- 
 gulus of antimony, 366. Another 
 by marine aci l, copper, and re^'u- 
 li;s of amimoiiy, 367. A triple 
 fait forme, 1 by prec'pitating filice- 
 ou-.- earth wi:h fixed alkali, 1075. 
 A kind of triple lalt foi-med by 
 prccij itating calx of platina fr 
 x.]k marine acid, 1327. Oihcr 
 triple falts formed by it, 1332. 
 
 ain: whether to be account- 
 ed a chemifl or not, 2. 
 Tungjien parri.ularly examined, 967, 
 et Jcq. Cotifi lered as a metallic 
 earth by Mr Bergman, 967. 
 Scheelc\s method (yf anal)fing it, 
 968. Effcc'ls of heat upon it, 960, 
 Its chemical properties, 970. Dif- 
 ferences betwixt the acids . f tung- 
 flen and molybda;na, 971. Berg, 
 man's opinion couceniing them, 
 972. Why he fuppofed the acids 
 to be metallic earths, 973. Irj 
 prop4»rties according to M. Lu- 
 yart, 1498. Of the yellow matter 
 called its acid by Mr Schceic, 
 14 99- No finipie acid pTOcurable 
 from the mitteral, 1501. A new 
 femimetal made from it, 1501. 
 Turbithminer.il, llow prepared, 705, 
 706. 
 
 Turpentine Appearance of oil of 
 turpentine with acid of arfenic, 
 92.3. Chio turpentine defcribed 
 M3.^ Venice turpentine, 1434. 
 Strafbiirg, 1435. Common, 1436. 
 Analyfis of turpentine, 1437. Ef^ 
 fcntial oil difficult of Iblutioii, 
 1438. 
 
 V'.vrouR formed hy the abforptiori 
 of latent heat, 120. Dr Black's 
 experiments on the cwnverlion t>f 
 water into vapour, 121. Heat ex- 
 pelled in great quantit)' by its con- 
 denfation, 125. 
 Vegetable colours changed by acids 
 and alkalies, 173, Of vegetable 
 earths, 515, 1089. Suppnfed by 
 Dr Lewis to be the fame with 
 in:\gnefia, 1089. Dr Gmelin's 
 exj'cjiir.ep.ts, 
 
634 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 experiments, !b. Vegetable ammo- 
 niac, 870. Vegetable ether, 884. 
 Vegetable acids produce a remark- 
 able change on copper, 1151. Ve- 
 getable fubftauces in general confi- 
 (lered, 1451. 
 
 folloivlng h a lijl of the Vegetables 
 from ivbich the indujlry of tik vioilern 
 chemijis has procured diff'cr^nt acids, 
 •zvith tie names of the difcuverers. 
 
 1. Agave Ameruanet. 'J he juice 
 exfuding fi on the calyx of this plant 
 yields acid of tartar and apples. Mr 
 Hoffman of IV eimar. 
 
 2. Aloes. Acid of fugar £Mid ap- 
 ples. Mr Schede. 
 
 3. /ipples. A peculiar acid called 
 by the name cf the fruit. By ni- 
 trous acid tliat of tartar is .prccu- 
 red. Mr ?,c.heeU and Mr Hermlf.idt. 
 
 4. liarberry. Ac:d i f apj.lc- , and 
 of tartar. By trea'rnent with ni- 
 trous acid it yield*- acid of fugar. 
 jSehcele and Hern:ljiuJt. — HofTnian de- 
 nies that it contains any native acid 
 of tLirtar. By treating it with fpirit 
 of wine and raangancfe he obtained 
 an ether. 
 
 5. Bilberry {J^.ieriiiim/i tKyrtillus). 
 .Eqi;al ;'arts of the acids of cii rons and 
 app'cs. Sci'u'ele. 
 
 6. Bramble {Ri!b::s chamamoriis') . 
 The fame with theforegoin.^. Scheele. 
 
 1 C. inpLor. A peculiar kind of 
 Gryllallizahle acid. M. Kofeyarten. 
 
 3. CLerrics. Equal parts cf acids 
 of citrons and a; pies. Saccharine 
 acid by treatment with I'pirit of 
 nitre. ' Scheelc, Herr>7hfiadt, ai;d We- 
 fnnnb.' — Hcrmbftadt fays that he 
 found acid of tartar alfo. 
 
 9. Citrons and lemons. A particular 
 kind of cryllallizable acid. Scheele. 
 
 10. Coffee. The infufion evapo- 
 rated and treated with fpiiit of 
 nitre. Acids of fugar and apples. 
 Scheele. 
 
 11. Corls. A yellow acid by re- 
 peated abftraiftions of fpirit of nitre. 
 With fome of the alkalie's and earths 
 this acid forms ciyftallizable falts 
 which do not deliquate, though others 
 do. That with fixed vegetable alka- 
 li forms needle-like cryfials, foluble 
 in water, virrioKc, nitrous, or ma- 
 rine acids, but not in vinegar or fpi- 
 rit of v/ine. liike the facchatine a- 
 cid it has a Ikong affinity to calca- 
 reous earth, which it feparates from 
 lime-water, and forms a grcyifli fa- 
 hne powJer, foluble in marine acid, 
 but not in water, nor even in its 
 t,wn acid. It exhibits fome appear- 
 ances with metals, wiiich deferve far- 
 ther examination. BrugnatelH. 
 
 I a. Craiibsriy. {Vaccinitim oxy- 
 (occos). Acid of citrons. Scheele. 
 
 13. Currants, red a^id ivhite. Acids 
 (i citrov.s and apples. Wijlrumb. 
 Hernibftadtfays that they contain a- 
 culof tartar. 
 
 14. Elderberries. Acii of apples. 
 Seheele. 
 
 15. Galls. A peculiar k-.nd cf a- 
 cid. Scheele ~-^'r Keir obferves, that 
 from other aflrin.'ci.t matters, efpe- 
 cially thoff ufed i'.. dyeing, _it is pro- 
 bable that fimi'- r c.cids might be ob- 
 tained. Mr !\T'-.'-vcau has obtained 
 from galls a lei:'' which he fuppofes 
 ro b« their uciiliubic bcife; and 
 
 which, along with pure air, forms 
 the acid of galls. When purified, 
 this acid is faid t» make a fine and 
 durable ink. 
 
 16. Geranium acidum. Small acid 
 cryftals. Cartheufer. Said by Hermb- 
 fladt to be the acid of fugar. 
 
 17. Goofi-berries. Acid of ap)>les. 
 -HermbHadt fays that they 
 
 contain the acid of t; rtar alio. 
 
 18. Grafes. Their juiceweil known 
 to contain the acid < f tartar par- 
 tially combined with fixed alkali. 
 
 19. Grafs-roots. Saline cryftals 
 from the extracft of the juice after 
 three months {landing. Thcfe were 
 foluble in water, and >iave an earthy 
 precipitate on mixture with fixed al- 
 kali. 0\¥ abtlradling the nitrous a- 
 cid from them, and adding a folu- 
 tion of calcareous earth in vine^iar, a 
 precipitate fell, which was found to 
 con lilt of acid of tartar faturated 
 with lime. Hermlfladt. 
 
 ao. Gum Arabic. Acid of fugar 
 and a] pies. Scheele. 
 
 21. Gum tragacantb. Aclds of fu- 
 gar of milk, apples, and fugar. 
 
 22. Haw {Cr.ittegus aria). Equal 
 parts of acids of citrons and apples. ^ 
 
 23. Honey. An acid liquor by di- 
 flillatiiin; and with fpirit of nitre, the 
 acid of fugar. The diftilled acid has 
 been faid to diffolve gold. 
 
 24. Lemons. An acid the fame 
 with that of citrous. 
 
 25. Leoiitodon taraxacum. Acid of 
 tartar by treatment with fpirit of 
 nitre. 
 
 26. Manna. Acid of fugar by 
 treatment with fpirit of nitre. 
 
 27. Mulberries. Acid of tartar. 
 Hermbfladt. A cryflallizable acid fait 
 by evaporating the juice. Angelus 
 Sala. 
 
 28. Oil of olives. A fait which 
 fubhmed and cryftallized, by re- 
 peated and copious abftradlions of the 
 nitrous acid. IVifrumb. 
 
 29. Peruvian bark. Acid of aj'ples 
 and fugar, by treating the extradt 
 with nitrous acid. Scheele. 
 
 30. Prunus fpinofa et dtmejlica, A- 
 cid of apples. Scleele. 
 
 31. Prunus padus. Acid of ci- 
 trons. Scheele. 
 
 32. Peppy. Acids of fugar and 
 apples, by treating the juice with 
 nitrous acid. Scheele. 
 
 33. Rajpberries. Acids of apples 
 and citrons. Scheele. Acid of tar- 
 tar by faturating the juice with 
 chalk, and then feparating the earthy 
 bafis by means of vitriolic acid. 
 Hermbfladt. 
 
 34. Rh.ipontic. Acid of tartar ^ly 
 cryflallizing the juice ; of fugar by 
 treating it whh nitrous acid. Bind- 
 heim. 
 
 35. Rhubarb. Acids of fugar and 
 apples by treating the infufion with 
 nhroiis acid. If a pound of Indian 
 rhubarb be infufed in hot water, a 
 powder fubfides, which by wafhmg 
 becomes white, weighing then about 
 nine drachms, and is found to con- 
 fift of calcareous earth united with 
 the acid of f igar. SJjeele, 
 
 36. Ribes cynofhati. Acid of citrons 
 or lemons. Scheele. 
 
 37. Salep. Acids of fugar and 
 
 apples by treatment with nitrous a- 
 cld. Scheele. 
 
 38. Service (Sorbus aucuparia). A- 
 cid of apples. Scheele. 
 
 39 Solanum dulcamira. Acid of 
 citrons. Scheele. 
 
 40. Sorrel (Rumex acetofa). Cryfials 
 of tartar by evaporating and cryflal- 
 lizing the juice; and pure acid of tar- 
 tar byf iturathig the acid with chalk, 
 and then expelli:-.g it by means of 
 the vitriolic. Hermlf.idt. Other che- 
 mills, however, have certainly found 
 it to contain the acid of fugar partly 
 neutralized with alkaii, and which is 
 capable of being cryflallized. I'his 
 is jrer.erally known under the name 
 oi' fait of uooJ-forrel, and is manufac- 
 tured in confiderable quantities in 
 Tliuringia, Suabia, Switzerland, and 
 the riartz. It is prepared from this 
 )>lant as Avell as the oxalis acettfella. 
 The plants are bruifed in flone or 
 wooden mortars; the juice is fquee- 
 zcd through Unen; and when cleared 
 by fettling, is to be boiled to a pro- 
 per confiflencc, and clarified with the 
 whites of eggs, or with blood. It is 
 to be fliraiiifd whilft hot, and then 
 kept in a cold cellar. In a few 
 weeks cryftals will be formed, from 
 which the remaining liquor muft be 
 poured olF, and by further evapora- 
 tion will yield more fait. Savary 
 obtained only two oiuices and a half 
 of fait from 25 pounds of the juice. 
 
 41. StrazL'berries. Equal jiarts of the 
 acids of apples and citrons. Scheele. 
 
 42. Sugar. See the article. 
 
 43. Sumach [Rhus coriaria). Cry- 
 fials of tartar. Profcflor Tromfdorf 
 and Son. 
 
 44. Tamarinds. Acid of tartar, 
 tartar itfelf,wi=h a mucilaginous and 
 faccharine matter. Weflrumb. 
 
 45. Vaccihium vitis idwa. Acid of 
 citrons. Scheele. 
 
 46. Wood and bark of the birch tree. 
 From 55 ounces of the wood we're 
 obtained 1 7 Ounces of retflificd acid, 
 which when freed from an araber- 
 coloured oil was to the fpecific gra- 
 vity of water as 49 48, and of 
 fuch flrcngth that one ounce of it re- 
 quired 23 of lime-water f ir its fatu- 
 ration. Chemijis of Dijon.— 'By allow- 
 ing the acid diftlUed from the bark to 
 remain at reft for three months, much 
 of its oil was feparaied; by fatura- 
 tion with fixed alkali a dark- coloured 
 neutral fait was obtained, which was 
 purified by fufion and fubfequent fil- 
 tration and evaporation. On fub- 
 jedling the ptirified fait to diltiUa- 
 tion, an acid arofe, wliich had no 
 longer an emj-.yreumatic fmell, but 
 rather a flavour of garlic. Coettling. 
 Vegetations, curious, produced from 
 
 folution of filver, 754. 
 Venice turpentine. See Turpentine. 
 Verdigris, how prepared, 87a. Di- 
 flilled, ib. Verdigris diftiiled, beft 
 method of making It, 872. 
 Vsrditer, a preparation of copper, 
 758. Method of making blue 
 verditer generally unluiown, ib. 
 Vermilion made by fubiiming fulphiir 
 and mercury together, 1404. Dif- 
 ficulty in adjufling the proportions 
 of the ingredients, ib. May be 
 made without fubliraation from 
 
 Index-. 
 
 quickfilver and the volatile tinc- 
 tni e of fulphur, ib. Or with the 
 folution of^fulpimr by fixed alkali 
 or quicklime, ib. Is darker or 
 lighter accordmg to the quantity 
 of fulphur, ib. 
 
 Veridam, Lord, ftudies and revives 
 tbe fcience of chemiftry, 16. flis 
 opinions concerning heat, 29. 
 
 Veffels, cb.emical : of the proper ones 
 to be ufed, 357, et fq. Or Black's 
 ojunion, i!). Of glafs, 558. Of 
 mctil, 560. See Chemical, GLifs, 
 Metal, Earthen ivare, and Porce- 
 lain. 
 
 Vibr^ii.en: Nicholfon's account of the 
 advantages attending the fuppofi- 
 tion that heat is occafi. ned by it, 
 80. Anfwcredj 81. 
 
 Vineg.ir: fpe ilic gravity of it when j 
 flrongiv conceiitr.ited, lOi. Why : 
 It may be reduced into air without ■ 
 addition, 208. Procurable from; 
 the reiiduum of vitriolic ether, 2d 
 722. Lewi-'s experiments on the 
 folubility of tin in this acid, 880. 
 Whey convertible into vii.egar.i 
 979. Requifites for brhiging it i\ 
 nearer the Hate of tartar, 1002. 
 Weftrumb's attempts for thi» pur- 
 pofe, 1003. Dr Crell's opinion 1, 
 of the poflibility of the tranfmu- ji 
 tation, 1004. Method recom- il 
 mended by him for attempting tha ]' 
 experiment, 1005. Suppofed to be i 
 an antidore againfb arfcnic, 1520. | 
 Difference between radical vir.egar r 
 and comuKUi acetous acll, is'^'i- 
 
 Vis inertia: fire feems to be deftitutc 
 of it, 93. 
 
 Vitriol: why folution of gold is pre- 
 cipitated by the green kind, 225. 
 But not by this fait when dephlq- 
 gifticatcd, 226. That procured 
 by precipitation of copper with 
 iron lefs fit for dyeing than the 
 common, 344. Blue vitriol can- v 
 not be formed by boiling aluml 
 and copi er filings, 349. Propor- 
 tion of ingredients in blue vitriol, 
 467. How to extradl green vi- 
 triol from pyrites, and to diftil the 
 acid from it, 620, et feq. Extrac- 
 ted from the fame ore with ful- 
 phur and alum, 659. Alum is 
 generally contaminated by dephlo- 
 giilicated vitriol, 684. PerfeA 
 green vitriol cannot be deftroyed 
 by clay, 686. How to abftiacl 
 the phlogifton from it, 687. How 
 to prepare blue vitriol, 693. Parts 
 with its acid with more difTicuity 
 than the green kind, 694- 'ts 
 ufes, 69J. White vitriol, how 
 prepared, 708. Why the diftiUa- 
 tion of fea-falt with copperas does 
 not fucceed, 787. Green vitricd 
 decompefed by faccharuni faturni,, 
 1044. Fixe'; the colouring m.^ttep 
 of Pruifian blue, if74- How af- 
 feded by dephiogifticated marine 
 gas, 1485. 
 Vitriol, acid of. See Vitriolic acid. 
 Vitriolic acid: why It cannot a6l on 
 lead, filver, &c. without a boil- 
 ing heat, 197. Cannot be redu- 
 ced into an aerial form but by ^ 
 combination with phlogifton, 202.I 
 On the expulfion of the nitrous 
 acid by the vitriolic diluted, 280. 
 Uy tlic fame in a ccncentraceu 
 ftate. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Index. 
 
 ftate, a8i. With a final! quan- 
 tify of vitriolic acid diluted, 282. 
 On the expulfion of the ma« 
 rine acid by the concentrated vi- 
 triolic, 283. Decompofitlt'n of 
 vitriolic ammoniac by.marine acid 
 never complete, 29I. Why tlie 
 vitriolic acid refumes on evapora- 
 tion the bafes it had left, 285. 
 Deconipofition of vlniolic animo- 
 niac by folutionof filver ex-dained, 
 306. Of CQrrofive mercury by 
 concentrated vitriolic acid, 315. 
 Can diffctlve no other metals than 
 iron and zinc, 337. Kirwan's ex- 
 periments on the fpecific gravity 
 of oil of vitriol, 385. Why it 
 is necelTary to dilute the acid in 
 thefe experiments, 396. To find 
 " it^ fpecific gravity, 397. Quan- 
 tity of acid neceffary to faturace 
 pure mineral alkali, 430. Why 
 vitriolic air is produced by diflbl- 
 ving iron in concentrated vitriolic 
 acid, 45 5. Solution of the calces 
 «f iron in vitriolic acid, 456. It 
 adts on iron in a much more di- 
 lute ftate than the nitrous, 461. 
 Proportion of cojiper diffolvcd by 
 vitriolic acid, 464. Vitriolic air 
 ©btained from this folution, 4^)^. 
 Why this metal cannot be a61ed 
 upon by diluted vitriolic acid, 466. 
 A<ftion of the vitriolic acid on tin, 
 470. On lead, 474. On filver, 
 478. On mercury, 485. Zinc, 
 487. Bifniuth, 49T. Nickel, 
 ad 493. Cobalt, 496. Re^ulus 
 ef antimony, 499. Regulus of 
 arfentc, 502. Quantity »f })hlo- 
 gifton in. vitriolic air, 506. This 
 acid and its combinations parti- 
 cularly treated of, 6li, et feq. Is 
 never found naturally pure, 612. 
 How redified, 613. Attradts 
 moifture from the air, 614. Pro- 
 duces cold and heat according to 
 circumftances, 615. Quantity of 
 aflcali faturated by it, 616. Its 
 elFedls on the human body, 617. 
 Difficulty of procuring it by itfelf, 
 618. Diflillation of it from cop- 
 peras, 620. Redtification of the 
 acid thus obtahied, 6aa. To pro- 
 cure it from fulphur, 623. Quan- 
 tity of acid contained in it, 623. 
 Quantity produced from it, 624, 
 Methods of obviating the difficul- 
 ties in this procefs, 625. Ou;<ht 
 to be made in lead veflels, 627. 
 Of its combination with fixed al- 
 kali, 628. With. calcareous earth, 
 ^7>S- With argillaceous earth, 
 637. With magnelia, 690. With 
 metals, 691. With Inflammable 
 fubftances, 712. Bergman's ex- 
 periments to (how that an cxcefs 
 of this acid impedes tlie cryftalli- 
 aation of alum, 681. Procured 
 from the refidnum of vitriolic 
 ether, ad 722. Of its tranfmuta- 
 tion into the nitrous acid, 720. 
 How to cxtrad the nitrous acid 
 
 by its means, 734. Whether the 
 marine acid be the fame with it, 
 783. Experiment feenjing to 
 prove the tranfmutatlon, 784. 
 Expelled by acid of fugar, 898. 
 EfF<^(5ts of it on fait of amber, 913. 
 Dilfolvcs manganefe in conjunc- 
 tion with the acid of tartar, 1012. 
 Or with fpirit of wine, 1014. 
 Expelled hy the nitrous and ma- 
 rine acids, 1041. Promotes the 
 foiubility of falts, 1048. Terra 
 ponderofa ufually found united 
 with the vitriolic acid, 1049. 
 Unites with this fuhftance more 
 readily than witli alkalies, I055. 
 Its prefence readily difcovered by 
 terra j)onderofa, 1058. The oil 
 of vitriol ufually fold . contains 
 gypfum, 1059. Effe(Sls of it on 
 arfenic, 1271. Converts the re- 
 gulus into white arfenic, 1292. 
 On regulus of cobalt, 1300. 
 Vitriolated tartar : its decomprfition 
 by calcareous earth explaiised, 270. 
 On its deconipofition by nitrous 
 acid, 28?. Canaot be decompo- 
 fed by diluted nitrous acid, 287. 
 Decompofed by marine acid, 288. 
 Requifite-i for the fuccefs of this 
 experiment, 289. Cannot be de- 
 compofed in a ftate of folution by 
 this acid, 290. Explanation of its 
 deconipofition by folution of fil- 
 ver, 305. Why it is fo much 
 heavier than nitre, 416. Of the 
 quantity of ingredients in it, 419. 
 How prepared, 628, 629. Its 
 ufes, 631. Decompofed and ful- 
 phur procured from it hy calcina- 
 tion with charcoal, 716. Its acid 
 expelled by that of phofphorus, 
 907. And by the arfenicai acid, 
 929. 
 
 Volatile alkali lefs ftrongly attradled 
 than metallic earihs by acids,303. 
 May be ufed to remove the exccfs 
 of acid in aluminous ley, 680. 
 Fiirms Glauber's fal ammoniac 
 with vitriolic acid, 633. Nitrous 
 aramoniac with the nitrous, 745. 
 Common fal ammoniac with the 
 marine, 795. Vegetable ammo- 
 niac with the acetous, 870. A 
 fait forming into elegant cryftals 
 with the acid of tartar, 892. 
 Its combination with fluor acid, 
 851. Glafs corroded by this fair, 
 854. A great quantity of k fatu- 
 rated by acid of fugar, 900. 
 Forms microcofmic fait with the 
 phofphoric acid, 905. Combined 
 with acid of arfenic, 928. In its 
 mild ftate decompofes calcareous 
 folutions, 1046. Precipitates fili- 
 ceous eart-h completely, 1074. Its 
 preparation particularly treated of, 
 io^p,etfeq. Obtained from various 
 fubftances, ib. Proper way of diftil- 
 liiigit, 1031. How purified, 103a. 
 Volatile fal ammoniac, how prepa- 
 pared, 1033. Volatile alkali com- 
 bined with metaJs, 1034. With 
 
 cffential oils and fjiirit of wine, 
 1036,1037. With fulphur, 1038. 
 Volatile tiniSlure of fulphur, 1038. 
 Ttsufe in the preparation of aurum 
 fulminans but lately known, 1 106. 
 The caufe of its explofion, iiai. 
 Unites with the colouring matter 
 of Pruffian blue, 1182. Obtained 
 by diftillation from Pruffian bhie, 
 1197. May be united with phlo- 
 gifton and fixed alkali, fo as ta fu- 
 fiaia a great degree of heat, 1202. 
 Effei5ls of it on nickel, 1314. On 
 folution of plarina, 1330. Why 
 the volatile fulphureous acid dif- 
 folves manganefe, 1579. Volatile 
 alkali deftroyed by manganefe at- 
 tradtiiig its phlogifton, 1394. 
 
 Volcanic countries only afford ores 
 containing alum ready made, 63 5. 
 
 Ungiientum citrinuvi, how prepared, 
 772. 
 
 Urine, how the microcofmic fait is 
 procured from it, 905. Always 
 contains a calculous matter, 1457. 
 Why frefti urine reddens lacmus, 
 1458. Different falts contained in 
 it, 1459. Affords the acid of ben- 
 zoin, 1532. 
 
 Ward's drop : Nitrous ammoniac 
 the principal ingredient in it, 746. 
 
 Water : Its flownefs in melting when 
 congealed, a preventative of in- 
 undations, 88. Prodigious force 
 exerted by it in freezing, 106. 
 Remains fometimes fluid though 
 cooled below 32 degrees, 117. 
 Dr Black's experiments on the 
 converfion of water into fteam, 
 121. Its boiling point in vacuo 
 determined by Mr Boyle, 122. And 
 by Mr Robiiifon of Glafgow, 123. 
 May be made fufficicntly hot to 
 melt lead, 131. A great quanti- 
 ty of water yielded by burning 
 fpirit of wine, 134. Produced 
 fjom the deflagration of dephlo- 
 gifticated and inflammable air, 
 135. In the redudlion of iron by 
 inflammable air, 156. Why it 
 does not unite with nitrous air, 
 204. Cannot diffolve metallic 
 falts without an excefs of acid, 297. 
 Quantity of it in digeftive fait, 
 379 Innitre,39l. In vitriolated 
 tartar, 398. In fpirit of nitre, 
 426. How far it is an objedt of 
 chemiftry, 549. Scheme for fil- 
 tering large quantities of it, 569. 
 Earthy cruft formed on it by fluor 
 acid, 833. See Cruji. Neutral fait 
 for difcovering iron in mineral 
 waters, 11 So. Mercury fuppofcd 
 convertible into it, 1235. The 
 miftake difcovered by Lewis, 1 236 . 
 
 Waters, mineral, Mr WouJfe's teft for 
 them, IJ57. 
 
 Wattes experiments on the diftilla- 
 tion of water in'ii,!-cuo, 45. On 
 the evaporation of fluids in vacuo, 
 126. His teft for udids and alka- 
 lies, 1549. et feq. 
 
 WeJ^eivoodh improvement of the 
 
 ^^35 
 
 thermometer, 1 04. His ftonc-wafe 
 an improvement in chemical vef- 
 fels, 597- 
 
 Weight of mctah increafed by calci- 
 nation, ^23, et feq. 
 
 Wenzel's experiments on fluor acid, 
 850. Method of preparing cry- 
 ftals of verdigris, 872. 
 
 W i-j1rumh\ analy fis of the refiduum of 
 vitriolic ether, 2d 721. His at- 
 tempt to reduce vinegar nearer t» 
 the ftate of tartar, 1003. 
 
 Whey : chemical properties of it, 9 70, 
 Convertible into vinegar, 979. 
 
 White : a beautiful white colour from 
 lead, 703. White drop of Ward, 
 746. White copper, how pre- 
 pared, 1157. 
 
 Wiegleb'i experiments on fluor acid, 
 839. Account of the diftidurion 
 of nitrous acid by clay, &c. 737, 
 His new chemical nomenclature, 
 
 Wil/on's experiments on phofphori, 
 1086. 
 
 Winch's method of purifying ether, 
 2d 722. Wine8,how purified, 886. 
 
 Withering'^ experiments on terra 
 ponderofa, 1050. 
 
 Wolfram. See 'Tungjten. 
 
 Wood, prefervatives for, 52r,''7oo, 
 
 IVoodivarf^ receipt for making Pruf - 
 fian blue, 1 164. 
 
 Woulfe% method of procuring nitrous 
 ether in large quantity, 776. Teft: 
 for mineral waters, 1557. 
 
 Yellow colour for houfe-painting, 
 699. 
 
 Yorh, account of the aluminous ore 
 found near that place, 660. 
 
 Zaffre, a c:dx of cobalt, defcribed, 
 1294. 
 
 Zinc and iron, the only metals dif- 
 folved by vitriolic acid, 537. Of 
 their precipitation by one another, 
 347. Precipitates nickel, 3^8, 
 Cannot precipitate cobalt, 361. 
 Forms white vitriol with the vi- 
 triolic acid, 707. Combined with 
 the nitrous acid, 767. With the 
 marine acid, 820. Volatilized by 
 it, ib. With acid of arfenic, 951. 
 Cannot eafily he combined with 
 iron, 1 162. Its combination with 
 copper, 1154. Tha metal parti- 
 cularly treated of, 1240. Defla- 
 grates violently in a ftrong heat, 
 ib. Sublimes into flov/ers, 1141. 
 Dr Lewis's method of reducing 
 them, 1242. Oil fuppofed to be 
 obtained from them by Homberg, 
 1243. The nilftake difcovered by- 
 Neumann, ib. Another oil by Mr 
 Hellot, capable of diiTolving gold 
 and filver leaf, 1244. Combina- 
 tion of zinc with other metals, 
 
 1245. Its combination with gold 
 a pn^per material for fpecula, 
 
 1 246, Its deflagration with other 
 metals, 1247. Cannot be uni'cd 
 with fulphur, 1248. Nitre alica- 
 lyfed by its iloweis, 1249. Unitts 
 readily with platiua, 1342. 
 
 4La CHEMNITZ, 
 
 « 
 
ChetnpJtz 
 
 II 
 
 Clienopo- 
 dium. 
 
 CHE. [ 636 ] C II E 
 
 CHEMNITZ (Martin), a famous Lutheran divine, leaves become hard and unfit for the table; but that Chepelib- 
 the difciple of Melandhon, was born at Britzen in nourilhment is then found in its root, which ferves as a 
 Brandenburg, in 1522. He was employed in feveral rcfource in times of famine and fcarclty. ' When the ^'^^j 
 important negociations by the princes of the fame belvidere has attained to its natural fize, the Chinefe 
 communion ; and died in 1589. His principal work feparate its_ prindpal ftalk froin the rei^, and put it 
 is the Examen of the Council of Trent, in Latin. into a lye of afhes, which cleans and foftens it, and 
 
 CHEMOSH. See C H AMos. frees it from all impurities of the bark. After this 
 
 CHEMOSIS, a difeafe of the eyes, proceeding from bath, it is expofed to the fun; and, when dry, it is 
 an inflammation ; wherein the white of the eye fwells baked and feafoned. With regard to the root, which 
 above the black, and overtops it to fucli a degree, has fomet-hing of a violet- colour, they ftrip off the llcia 
 that there appears a fort of gap between them. Others by filaments, which may be boiled and eaten : but 
 define it to be an elevation of the membrane which what is particularly fought after, is the root itfelf ; of 
 furrounds the eye, and is called the ivhite ; being an which, when reduced to powder, they colled only 
 affeftion of the eye, hke white-fleih. what remains in the bottom of the veflel„ and form it 
 
 CI-IENOPODIUM, GoosE-FooT, or IVlld Oraeh : into finall loa\'es, that are baked by being held over 
 
 the fteam of boiling water. People of a delicate talle 
 will fcarcely be tempted to admit this difli at their 
 tables ; but is it not ufeful to point out to the poor 
 peafants, that, in cafes of neceffity, they may always 
 have recourfe, without danger, to this ruilic food ? In. 
 fuch cafes, they will be indebted to the Chinefe for 
 having made the firft trial, which, fortlie mo-il part, is- 
 dangerous. The Chinefe Herbal cites the example of 
 four mountaineers, who having lived on nothing but 
 the leaves, roots, and ftallcs, of the belvidere. With 
 which their country abounded, had neverthelefs en- 
 
 A genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pen 
 tandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method 
 ranking under the \ 2ti\ or(^cy, Jloloracda'. The calyx 
 is pentaphyllous and pentagonal ; no corolla ; one 
 feed lenticular, fuperior. There are 18 fpecies, 13 of 
 which are natives of Britain. The moll remarkable are 
 the follov»'ing; i. The bonus henricus, or common En- 
 ghili mercury, foiind growing naturally in fhady laaes 
 in many places in Britain. It iias large triangidar, ar^ 
 row-pointed, entire leaves ; upiight, thick, Itriated 
 italks, garnifhed with triangular leaves, and terminated 
 
 by clofe fpikes of apetalous yellowilh-green flowers joyed perfed health to a very great age. 
 in June auJ July, which are fucceeded by ripe feeds CHEPELIO, an ifiand in the bay of Panama and 
 
 in Auguit. 2. The fcoparia, belvidere, or annual province of Darien, in South America, fituated about 
 
 Hiock-cyprefs, which is of a beautiful pyramidal three leagues from the city of Panama, which it fup- 
 
 form, refcmbhng a young cyprefs-iree. 3. The bo- plies with provifions. W. Long. 8 1. N. Lat. 9. 
 
 trys, or oak of Jerufakm. 4. The ambrofoides, or 
 oak of Cappadt)cia. All thefe are very eafily pro- 
 pagated from feeds ; and will thrive beft in a rich 
 light earth. Moft of the fpecies have an aromatic 
 fraell. A fpecies which grows near the Mediter- 
 ranean is ufed by the Egyptians in fallads, on ac- 
 count of its faltiih aromatic talte. From- the fame 
 plant kelp is made in other countries. — The firft fpe- 
 cies, or Englilh mercury, was formerly ufed as ipi 
 
 CHEPSTOW, a market town of Monraouthfliire 
 in England, feated on the river Wye near its mouthy, 
 in W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 51. 40. 
 
 CHEQ^or Cherif, the prince of Mecca, who is^ 
 as it were, high prieft of the- law, and fovereign pon- 
 tiff of aU the Mahometans of whatever fetl or countrjt 
 they be. See Calipk. 
 
 The grand fignior, fophis, moguls, khans of Tarta- 
 rf, &.C. fend him yearly prefents, efpeclally tapeftry to 
 
 nach ; but is now difufed, as being greatly inferior cover Mahomet's tomb withal, together with a fump 
 to that herb. As an article of the materia medica, it tuous tent for himfelf, and vail fums of money to pro- 
 is ranked among the emollient herbs, but rarely made vide for all the pilgrims during thsri? days of ^leir 
 ufe of in praftiee. The leaves are applied by the devotion. 
 
 common people for heahng flight wounds, cleanfing CHERASCO, a ftrong and confiderable town of 
 
 old ulcers, and other like purpofcs. The roota are Italy, in Piedmont, and capital of ^ territory of the 
 
 given to flicep that have a cough. Goats and flieep fame name, with a (Irong citadel belonging to the 
 
 are not fond of the herb; cows, horfes, and fwine, king of Sardinia, where he retired in 1706, during 
 
 vefufe it. — The fecond fpecies, or belvidere, is a plant the fiege of Turin. It is fedted at the confluence of 
 
 Miuch efteemed in China. The following are the the rivers Sturia and Tanaro, upon a mountain. E.. 
 
 properties attributed to it in the Chinefe Herbal. Long. 7. 55. N. Lat. 44. 35.. 
 
 After having faid that it is about the end of March or CHERBURG, a fea-port town of France, in Nor- 
 
 beginning of April that the belvidere fprings up from mandy, with a harbour and Auguftine abbey. It is 
 
 the earth ;. that its fuckers or flioots rife to the height remarkable for the fea-fight between the EngHfli and- 
 
 of eight or nine inches, in fhape of a child's fift half French fleets in 1692, when the latter were beat, and 
 
 ihut ; that it afterwards extends itfelf, and fends forth upwards of twenty of their men of war burnt near 
 
 a number of branches loaded with leaves like thofe of Cape la Hogue. The Britifh landed here in Augufl- 
 
 llax ; and thai, as it grows> its branches arrange them- 1758, and took the town, with the fhips in the bafon,, 
 
 felves naturally in the form of a beautiful pyramid ; demoliflied the fortifications, and ruined^ the other 
 
 it adds, that its leaves, yet tender, abound with juice, wcjrks which had been long carried on for enlarging 
 
 and have a very agreeable talte ; that it may be eaten the harb-our and rendering it more fafe and conveni- 
 
 as a fallad with vinegar, to which a Little ginger has ent. Within thefe fev/ years it has been attempted 
 
 been added ; that being prepared like other leguminous again to improve the harbour, and rebuild the works;, 
 
 plants, and baked with meat, it gives it an agreeable but after confiderable progrefs had been made, a great 
 
 and pkafing flavour ; that, when in its full beauty, its part of them fuddenly g ave way, and the enterprife it 
 
 5 w 
 
CHE 
 
 Chcreni 
 
 II 
 
 Cherniei. 
 
 is thmiglit will not be again refumcd. E. Long. 1.38. 
 N. Lat. 49. 33. 
 
 CHEREM, among the Jews, is ufed to fignify a 
 fpecies of annihilation. See Annihilation. 
 
 The Hebrew word cherem.., fignifies properly to de- 
 Jlroy, exterinimie, devote, or anathemat'ife. 
 
 Cherem is likewife fometimes taken for that which 
 is confecrated, vowed, or offered to the Lord, fo that 
 it may no longer be employed in common or profane 
 tifes. No devoted thing that a man fliall devote uuto 
 the Lord, of all that he hath of man and beaft, and 
 of the field of his polfefiion, fhall be fold or redeemed ; 
 every devoted thing is mo ft holy to the Lord : none 
 devoted, which fhall be devoted of men, ihall be re- 
 deemed, but fliall furely be put "to death. There are 
 fome who alfert that the perfons thus devoted were 
 put to death ; whereof Jephtha's daughter is a me- 
 moral:I>; example. Judges xi. 29. ^c. 
 
 Cherem is alfo ufed for a kind of excommunicatio-n 
 in ufe among the Jews. See Nionui. 
 
 CHERESOUL, or Chakrzul, a town of Turkey 
 in Aha, capital of Curdillan, and the feat of a begler- 
 beg. E. Long. 45. 15. N. Lat. 36. o. 
 
 CHERILUS, of Samos, a Greek poet, flouriflied 
 479 j-ears before Chriit. He fung the viflory gained 
 by the Athenians over Xerxes, and was rewarded 
 with a piece of gold for every verfe. His poem had 
 afterwards the honour of beirtg rehearfed yearly with 
 the woi-ks of Homer. 
 
 CHERLERIA, in botany: A genus of the tri- 
 gynia order, belonging to the decandriaclafs of plants; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 22d or- 
 der, Caryophyllex. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there 
 are five nedlaria, bifid, and petal-hke ; the anthers al- 
 ternately barren ; the capfule is trilocular and three- 
 valved. 
 
 CHERLESQLJIOR, In Turkifh affairs, denotes a 
 lieutenant general of the grand lignior's armies. 
 
 CHERMES, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong- 
 ing to the order of infedfa hemiptera. The rollru;Ti 
 is fituated on the breatt ; the feelers are longer than the 
 thorax ; the four wings are defledted ; the thorax is 
 gibbous ; and the feet are of the jumping kind. There 
 are 1 7 fpecies ; and the trivial names are taken from, 
 the plants which they frequent, as the chermes gra- 
 minis, or grafs-bug ; the chermes ulmi, or elm-bug, 
 ficc. The chei'ines ficus, or fig-tree bug, one of the lar- 
 geft of the genus, is brown above andgreenlfli beneath. 
 The antenna, likewife brown, are large, hairy, and 
 one third longer than the thorax, 'i he feet are yel- 
 lowifti ; the wings large, twice the length of the ab- 
 domen. They are placed fo as to ioxm together an 
 acute roof. l he membrane of which they confifi: is 
 thin and very tranfparent ; but they have brown veins,, 
 ftrongly marked, efpecially towards the extremity. 
 The roftrum of this chermes is black, and takes its 
 rile fi-om the lower part of the thorax, between the 
 firft and fecond pair of feet. It is an infect to be 
 met with in great numbers upon the fig-tree. The 
 larva has fix feet. It is like the infeft, when pro- 
 fldod with wings. Its form is oblong, and its mo- 
 tion flow. I'he chryfalis differs from it by two flat 
 buds that fpring from the thorax and inclofe the wings, 
 
 r 637 ] 
 
 CHE 
 
 plates of their thorax give them a broad uncouth ap- 
 pearance, and a heavy look. When the little chryfa- 
 Itds are going to be metamorphofed, they remain ino- 
 tionlefs under fome leaves which they fix themfelves 
 upon. Their flcin then divides upon the head and 
 tlujrax, and the perfe6l infeft comes forth with his. 
 wings, leaving the fpoil of his chryfalis open and rent 
 anteriorly upon the leaf. Thefe kind of floughs are 
 often found beneath the leaves of the fig-tree. l"he 
 perfetl infect is furniHied with four wings, large in 
 proportion to its body, veined, and placed in the 
 form of a roof; and with them it flies, it has, more- 
 over, the faculty of leaping pretty brifkly, by means of 
 its hinder-legs, which play like a fpring. When it is 
 attempted to catch the chermes, it makes its efcapc 
 rather by leaping than flying. Some of thofe infe»it* 
 have a mancEuvre worthy of notice. Several fpecies- 
 are provided at tlie extremity of their body with a 
 fmall fiiarp-pointtd implement, but which lies con- 
 cealed, and that they draw out in order to depofit 
 tlieir eggs, by making a puncture in the plant that 
 fuits them. By this method the fir-tree chermes pro- 
 duces that enormous fcaly protuberance that is to be 
 found at the fummit of the branches of that tree, and 
 which is formed by the cxtravafatlon c^f the juices oc- 
 cafioned by the punftures. The young larvre fiielter 
 themfelves in cells contained in the tumor. The white 
 down, under which the larva of the pine-chermes is 
 found, feems to b& produced much in the fame manner.- 
 That of the box -tree chermes produces no tuberculi 
 like thofe ; but its punttures make the leaves of that 
 tree bend and grov/ hollow In the (liape of a cap, which 
 by the union of thofe inflefted leaves produces at the 
 extremity of the branches a kind of knobs, in which 
 the larva; of that Infect find fiielter. The box-chermes,. 
 as well as fome others, has yet another peculiarity, 
 wliich is, that the larva and Its chryfalis eject at the 
 anus a white fweet-tafted matter, that foftens under 
 the touch, and Is not unlike manna. This fubftance is- 
 found in fmall white grains within the balls formed by 
 the box-leaves, and a firing of the fame matter is often' 
 feen depending from the anus of the infedt. 
 
 Chermes Mineral. Sea Kermes. 
 
 CHERRY -ISLAND, an ifland in the northern ocean,^ 
 lying, between Norway and Greenland, in E^Long,- 
 20. 5. N. Lat. 75. o. 
 
 CHERRr-Trce, in botany. See Prunus, 
 
 CHERSO, an ifland in the gulph of Venice, wlth- 
 a town of the fame name near Croatia, belonging ta 
 tlxe Venetians. The air is good, but the foil fi;ony 
 however, it abounds in wine, cattle, oil, and excel-- 
 lent honey. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 45. 8. 
 
 CHERSONESUS, aniong modern geographers^ 
 tlie fame with a penlnfula ; or a continent almoft en- 
 compafied round with the fea, only joining to the mala 
 land by a narrow neckv or iilhinus. The word is- 
 Greek, ,:tE/'o-ov»(r@' ; of x^P'^°^'' land, and vra-or, ifland 
 which fignifies the fame. In ancient geography^ 
 it was applied to feveral penlnfula*; as the Cherfo^ 
 nefus-Aurea, CImbrIca, Taurica, and Thracia, now 
 thought to be Malacca, Jutland, Crim Tartary, and-; 
 Romania. 
 
 CHERT, Pet ROsiLEx, Lapis Corneus, the Horn- 
 
 afterwards feen in the perfeit infedt. Thefe chryfa- Jle'in of the Germans ; a fpecies of ftone claffed by 
 lids are frequently met with on plants ; and the two Cronftedt among the fxlic^ous eartliS. Itisofacoar- 
 
CHE 
 
 [ 638 1 
 
 CHE 
 
 Chert 
 II 
 
 Cherub. 
 
 fer texture than the common flint, as well as fofter ; 
 for which reafons it is not capable of fuch a fine po- 
 ; lifli. It is femitranfparent at the edges, or when bro- 
 ken into veiy thin pieces. It is found of different 
 colours, viz. white, wnitifii-yellow, flefh-coloured, and 
 greenifli. According to Mr Kirwan, it runs in veins 
 through rocks, from whence its name is derived ; its 
 fpecitic gravity being from 2590 to 2700. In the fire 
 it whitens and decrepitates like filex, but is generally 
 fufible jf)er fe. Mineral alkali does not totally diffolve 
 it in the dry way, but borax and microcofmic fait do 
 fo without effervefcence. Its appearance is duller and 
 lefs tranfparent than common flint. The reddifli pe- 
 trofilex, ufed in the count de Lauragais's porcelain 
 manufaftory, and there called feld-fpat, contained 72 
 per cent, of lilex, 22 of argill, and 6 of calcareous earth. 
 
 Cronlledt obferves that there are not as yet any 
 certain charafters known by which the cherts and 
 jafpers may be dillinguiflied from one another, though 
 they can eafily be fo by fight ; the cherts appearing 
 of a fine fparkHng texture when broken ; but the jaf- 
 pcr being grained, dull, and opaque, and having the 
 appearance of a dry clay. The chert is alfo found 
 forming larger or fmaller veins, or in nodules like ker- 
 nels in rocks ; whereas the jafper, on the contrary, 
 fometimes conilitutes the principal part of the high- 
 eft and mofl: extended mountains. The chert is like- 
 wife found plentifully in the neighbourhood of fcaly 
 limeft(^e, as flints are in the llrata of chalk. 
 
 The connexion between thefe bodies is not yet dif- 
 covcred ; but it is impolTible to eftablifh any eflential 
 difference between them, from the circumftance of 
 flints and agates being generally found in fmgle, loofe, 
 and irregular nodules, and hardly in rocks like the 
 chert : for near Conitantinople the agate ftone runs in 
 a vein acrofs the rock, of the fame hardnefs, and as fine 
 and tranfparent, as thofe agates found in round nodules 
 at Deux Fonts. 
 
 CHERTZEY, a market town of Surrey in England, 
 about feven miles weft from Kingfton upon Thames. 
 W. Long. 30'. N. Lat. 51. 25. 
 
 CHERUB, (plural, Cherubim) ; a celoftial fpirlt, 
 which in the hierarchy is placed next to the feraphim. 
 See Hierarchy. 
 
 The term cheruhy in Hebrew, is fometimes taken for 
 a calf or ox. Ezekiel fets down the face of a cherub 
 as fynonyraous to the face of an ox. The word cheruhy 
 ill Syriac and Chaldee, fignifies to till or plonvy which 
 is the proper work of oxen. Cherub alfo fignifies 
 Jirong and powerful. Grotius fays, that the Cheru- 
 bim were figures much like that of a calf. Bochart 
 thinks likewife, that the cherubim were more like to 
 the figure of an ox than to any thing befides ; and 
 Spencer is of the fame opinion. Laftly, St John, in 
 the Revelations, calls cherubim beajls. Jofephus fays 
 the cherubim wei'e extraordinary creatures, of a figure 
 unknown to mankind. Clemens of Alexandria be- 
 lieves, that the Egyptians imitated the cherubim of 
 the Hebrews in the reprefentations of their fphinxes 
 and their hieroglyphical animals. All the feveral de- 
 fcriptions which the fcripture gives us of cherubim 
 difler from one another ; but all agree in reprelenting 
 them as a figure compofcd of various creatures, as a 
 aiian, an ox, an eagle, and a hon. Such were the 
 tlicrubim dtfbi-ibed by EzekieL Thofc whidi Ifaiah 
 
 faw, and are called feraphim by him, had the figure Chervil 
 of a man with fix wings ; with tvp© whereof they I' 
 covered their faces, with two more they covered their Chefelden. 
 feet, and with the two others they flew. Thofe 
 which Solomon placed in the temple of Jerufalem are 
 fuppofed to have been nearly of the fame form. Thofe 
 which St John defcribes in the Revelations were all 
 eyes before and behind, and had each fix wings. The 
 firft was in the form of a lion, the fecond in that of a 
 calf, the third of a man, and the fourth of an eagle. 
 The figure of the cherubim was not always uniform, 
 fince they are differently defcribed in the fhapes of men, 
 eagles, oxen, lions, and in a compofition of all thefe 
 figures put together. Mofes likewife calls thefe fym- 
 bolical or hiereglyphical reprefentations, which were 
 embioidered on the veils of the tabernacle, cherubim of 
 coftly work. Such were the fymbolical figures which 
 the Egyptians placed at the gates of their temples and 
 the images of the generality of their gods, which were 
 commonly nothing but ftatues compofed of men and 
 animals. 
 
 CHERVIL, in botany. See CHiEROPHYLLUM. 
 
 CHESAPEAK, in America, one of the largeft 
 bays in the known world. Its entrance is between 
 Cape Charles and Cape Henry in Virginia, 12 miles 
 wide ; and it extends 270 miles to the northward, 
 dividing Virginia and Maryland. Through this ex- 
 tent it is from 7 to 18 miles broad, and generally about 
 9 fathoms deep ; affording many commodious har- 
 bours, and a fafe and eafy navigation. It receives the 
 waters of the Sufquehannah, Patomak, Rappahan- 
 nock, York, and James rivers, which are all large and 
 navigable. 
 
 CHESELDEN (William), an eminent anatomlfl 
 and furgeon, was born at Burrow on the Hill, in the 
 county of Leicefler, defcended from an ancient family 
 in the county of Rutland, whofe arms and pedigree 
 are in Wright's " Hiftory of Rutland." He received 
 the rudiments of his profeffiona! fl<ill at Leicefler ; 
 and married Deborah Knight, a citizen's daughter, 
 by whom he had one daughter, Wilhamina Deborah. 
 In 17*3 he publifhed his Anatomy of the Human 
 Body, one volume 8vo ; and in 1723, A Treatife on 
 the High Operation for the Stone. He was one of 
 the earlieit of his profeffion who contributed by hie 
 writings to raifc it to its prefent eminence. In the 
 beginning of 1736, he was thus honourably mention- 
 ed by Mr Pope : " As foon as I had tent my lafl 
 letter, I received a mo ft kind one fit)m you, ex- 
 prefTing great pain for my late illnefs at Mr Chefel- 
 den's. I conclude you was eafed of that friendly ap- 
 prehenfion in a few days after you had difpatched 
 ^ yours, for mine muft have reached you then. I won- 
 dered a little at your quaere. Who Chefelden waS ? It 
 fhows that the trueft merit does not travel fo far any 
 way as on the wings of poetry : he is the moft noted 
 and moft deferving man in the whole profeffion of 
 chirurgery ; and has faved the lives of thoufands by 
 his manner of cutting for the ftone." He appears to ' 
 have been on terms of the moft intimate friendflrip 
 with Mr Pope, who frequently, in his Letters to Mr 
 Richavdfon, talks of dining with Mr Chefelden, who 
 then lived in or near C^een Square. In February 
 X737, Mr Chefelden was appointed furgeon to Chel- 
 fca hofpital. As a governor of the Foundling Ho- 
 
 fpital 
 
CHE 
 
 [ 639 ] 
 
 CHE 
 
 Chefnut. 
 
 Chelhirc fpltal, he fent a benefadion of 50 1. to tliat charity, 
 May 7. 1 75 1, inclofed in a paper with the following 
 lines : 
 
 *Tis what the happy to th' unhappy owe ; 
 For what man gives, the gods by him bellow. Pope. 
 
 He died at Bath, April 11. 1752, of a diforder ari- 
 Cng from drinking ale after eating hot buns. Finding 
 himfclf uneafy, he fent for a phyfician, who advifed 
 vomiting immediately ; and if the advice had been 
 taken, it was thought his hfe might have been faved. 
 By his direftion, he was buried at Chclfea. 
 
 CHESHIRE, a maritime county of England, 
 bounded by Lancafhire on the north ; Shropfhire and 
 part of Flintfhire, on the fouth ; DerbyPnire and Staf- 
 ford(hire, on the eaft and fouth-eall ; and Denbigh- 
 fhire and part of Flintfliire on the well and north-well. 
 It extends in length about 44 milert in breadth 25 ; 
 and is fuppofed to contain 125,000 inhabitants. Both 
 the air and foil in general are good. In many places 
 of the country are pcat-moflcs, in which are often 
 found trunks of fir-trees, fometimes feveral feet under 
 ground, that are ufed by the inhabitants both for fuel 
 and candles. Here alfo are many lakes and pools well 
 ftored with fi(h ; befides the rivers Merfee, Weaver, 
 and Dee, wliich lall falls into a creek of the Irifli fea 
 near Cheller. This county alfo abounds with wood : 
 but what it is chiefly remarkable for, is its cheefe, 
 which has a peculiar flavour, generally thought not to 
 be inferior to any in Europe ; (fee Cheese). The 
 principal towns are, Cheller the capital, Cholmondely, 
 Namptwitch, &c. 
 
 William the Conqueror erected this county into a 
 palatinate, or county-palatine, in favour of his nephew 
 Hugh Lupus, to whom he granted the fame fovereign- 
 ty and jurifdiftion in it that he himfelf had in the rell 
 of the ifland. By virtue of this grant, the town of 
 "Cheller enjoyed fovereign jurifdiclion within its own 
 precinfts ; and that in fo high a degree, that the earls 
 held parHaments, conlifting of their barons and tenants, 
 which were not bound by the ^&.s of the Englifli par- 
 liament : but this exorbitant power of the palatinates 
 was at lall reduced by Henry VIII. ; however, all 
 cafes and crimes, except thofe of error, foreign-plea, 
 foreign-voucher, and high-treafon, afe Hill heard and 
 determined within the fliire. The earls were ancient- 
 ly fuperiors of the whole county, and all the land- 
 holders were mediately or immediately their valTals, 
 and under the like fovereign allegiance to them as 
 they were to the kings of England ; but the earldom 
 was united to the crown by Edward III. lince which 
 time, the eldell fons of kings of England have always 
 been earls of Cheller, as well as princes of Wales, 
 Chefhire fends four members to parliament ; two for 
 the county, and two for the capital. 
 
 CHESNE (Andrew du), llyledthe father of French 
 hlftory, was born in 1584. He wrote, 1, A hiilory 
 of the popes. 2. An hillory of England. 3. An in- 
 quiry into the antiquities of the towns of France. 4. 
 A n hillory of the cardinals. 5. A bibliotheca of the 
 authors who have written the hiftoiy and topogra- 
 phy of France, &c. He was crulhed to death by a 
 cart, in going from Paris to his couutry-houfe at Ver- 
 riere, in 1640. 
 
 CHESNUT-TRjEE. See Fag us.- 
 
 CHESvS, an ingenious game performed with diffe- 
 rent pieces of wood, on a board divided into 64 fquares " 
 or houfes ; in which chance has fo fmall a fliare, that 
 it may be doubted v/hcther a perfon ever loll a game 
 but by his own fault. 
 
 Each gameller has eight dlgnliied pieces, viz. a 
 king, a queen, two bifliops, two knights, and two 
 rooks, alfo eight pawns : all which, for diillnaion's 
 fake, are painted of two different colours, as white 
 and black. 
 
 As to their difpofition on the board, the white king 
 is to be placed on the fourth black houfe from the 
 corner of the board, in the firfl: and lower rank ; and 
 the black king is to be placed on the fourth white houfe 
 on the oppofite, or adverfary's, end of the board. The 
 queens are to be placed next to the kings, on houfe3 
 of their own colour. Next to the king and queen, 
 on each hand, place the two bifhops ; next to them, 
 the two knights ; and laft of all, on the corners of the 
 board, the two rooks. As to the pawns, they are 
 placed, without dlftinftion, on the fecond rank of the 
 houfe, one before each of the dignified pieces. 
 
 Having thus difpofed the men, the onfet is com- 
 monly begun by the pawns, which march llraight for- 
 ward in their own file, one houfe at a time, except 
 the firfl move, when it can advance two houfes, but 
 never moves backwards : the manner of their taking 
 the adverfary's men is fide-ways, in the next houfe 
 forwards ; where having captivated the enemy, they 
 move forward as before. The rook goes forward or 
 crofs-ways through the whole file, and back again.. 
 The knight flcips backward and forward to the next 
 houfe, fave one, of a different colour, with a fidling 
 march, or a Hope, and thus kills his enemies that fall 
 in his way, or guards his friends that may be expofed 
 on that fide. The bifliop walks always in the fame 
 colour of the field that he is placed in at firll, forward 
 and backward, aflope, or diagonally, as far as he liils.. 
 The queen's walk is more univerfal, as llie takes all 
 the fteps of the before mentioned pieces, excepting; 
 that of the knight ; and as to the king's motion, it is 
 one houfe at a time, and that, either forward, back.- 
 wa-rd, flcping, or fide-ways. 
 
 As to the value of the different pieces, next to the 
 king is the queen, after her the rooks, then the bi- 
 fhops, and laft of the dignified pieces comes the knight. 
 The difference of the worth of pawns, is not fo great 
 as that of noblemen ; only, it muft be obfervcd, that 
 the king's bilhop's pawn is the bell in the field, and: 
 therefore the ftilful gameller will be careful of him. 
 It ought alfo to be obferved, that whereas any man 
 may be taken, when he falls within the reach of any 
 of the adverfary's pieces,- it is otherwife with the king, 
 who, in fueli a cafe, is only to be fainted with the 
 -w ord c/jcci, warning him of his danger,, out of whicix 
 it is abfolutely neceffary that he move ; and, if it fo 
 happen that he cannot move witliout expoling himfelf 
 to the like ineonveniency, it. is check-mate, and the. 
 game is loll. The rules of the game are, 
 
 I. In order to begin the game, the pawns muft be 
 moved before the pieces, and afterwards the pieces mult 
 be brought out to fupgort them.. The king's, queen'?^, 
 and biOiop's pawns, Ihould be moved firft, that the .gams 
 may be well opened ; the pieces mull not be played, 
 out early in the gamt*^, becaufe the player may thereby, 
 
 k>ls. 
 
CHE [640 
 
 iCheft. lofe his moves : but above all, the game Hiould be well 
 arranged before the queen is played out. Ufelefs 
 checks fliould alfo be avoided, unlefs fome. advantage 
 is to be gained by them, becaufe the move may be loll, 
 
 if the adverfary can either take or drive the piece away- 
 
 2. If the game is crowded, the player will meet with 
 obftrudtions in moving his pieces; for which reafon he 
 Should exchange pieces or pawns, and caiUe (a) his 
 king as foon as it is convenient, endeavouring at the 
 fame time to crowd the adverfary's game, wlilch may 
 be done by attacking his pieces with the pawns, if the 
 adverfary fliouW move his pieces out too foon. 
 
 3. The men {hould be fo guarded by one another, 
 that if a man faould be loll, the player may have it in 
 his power to take one of the adversary's in return ; and 
 if he can take a fupenor piece in lieu of that which 
 he loft, it would be an advantage, and dillrcfs the 
 adverfary. 
 
 4. Tlie adverfaiy's king fliould never be attacked 
 without a force futFicient ; and if the player's king 
 fhould be attacked without having it in ^lis pov/er to 
 attack the adverfary's, he fhould offer to make an ex- 
 change of pieces, which may caufe the adverfary to lofe 
 a move. 
 
 5. The board fhould be looked over with attention, 
 and the men reconnoitred, fo as to be aware of any 
 flroke tlrat the adverfary might attempt in confcqucnce 
 of his laft move. If, by counting as many moves for- 
 ward as poflible, the player has a profpeft of fuccefs, 
 he fhould not fail doing it, and even facrifice a piece 
 or two to accomplifli his end. 
 
 6. No man fhould be played till the board is tho- 
 roughly examined, tliat the player might defend him- 
 felf againft any move the adverfary has in view ; nei- 
 ther fhould any attack be made till the confequcnces 
 of the adverfary's- next move are confidered ; and when 
 an attack may with fafety be made, it Oiould be pur- 
 fued without catching at any bait that might be thrown 
 out in order for the adverfary to gain a move, and 
 thereby caufe the dcfign to mifcarry. 
 
 7. The queen fhould never ftand in fuch a manner 
 before the king, that the adverfarjs by bringing a rook 
 Or bifhop, could check the king if fhe were not there ; 
 as it might be the lofs of the queen. 
 
 8. The adverfaiy's knight fhould never be fufxcrcd to 
 check the king and queen, or king and rook, or queen 
 and rook, or the two rooks at the fame time ; efpc- 
 cially if the knTght is properly guarded: becaufe, in 
 the two firfl cafes, the king being forced to go out of 
 ♦heck, the queen or the rook mufl be lofl ; and in the 
 two laft cafes a rook muft be lolt at leaft for a worfe 
 piece. 
 
 9. The player fliould take care that no guarded 
 pawn of the adverfary's fork two of his pieces. 
 
 10. As foon as the kings have caftled on different 
 fides of the board, the pawns on that fide of the board 
 fliould be advanced upon the adverfary's king, and the 
 pieces, efpeciajly the queen and rook, fhould be brought 
 
 ] C H E 
 
 to fupport them ; and the three pawns belonging to 
 the king that is caftled mufl not be moved. 
 
 11. The more; moves a player can have as it were in 
 anibufcatle, the better; that is to fay, the queen, bifhop, 
 or rook, is to be placed behind a pawn or a piece, in 
 fuch a pofition as that upon playing vliat pawn or piece 
 a check is difcovered upon the adverfaiy's king, by 
 wliich means a piece or fome advantage is often 
 gained. 
 
 12. An inferior piece fhould never be guarded 
 with a fuperior, when a pawn would anfwer the fame 
 purpofe ; for this reafon, the fuperior piece may re- 
 main out of play ; neither Ihould a pawn \it guarded 
 with a piece when a pawn would do as well. 
 
 13. A well fupported pawn that is paffed often cofts 
 the adverfary a piece ; and when a pawn or any other 
 advantage is gained without endangering the lofs of 
 the move, the pkiyer fliould make as frequent exchanges 
 of pieces as he can. The advantage of a paffed pawn 
 is this: for example, if the player and his adverfary 
 have each three pawns upon the board, and no piece, 
 and the player has one of his pawns on one fide of tlie 
 board, and the other two on the other fide, and the 
 adverfary's three pawns are oppofite to the player's 
 two pawns, he fhould march with his king as foon as 
 he can, and take the adverfary's pawns: If the ad- 
 verfary goes with his king to fupport ihem, the play- 
 er fhiould go on to queen with his fmgle pawns; and 
 then if the adverfary goes to hinder him, he fliould 
 take the adverfary's pawns, and move the others to 
 queen (b). 
 
 14. When the game is near finllhed, each party 
 having only three or four pawns on each fide of the 
 board, the kings muft ende~avour to gain the move in 
 order to win the game. For inftance, when the play- 
 er brings his king oppofite to the adverfarj-'s with on- 
 ly one fquare between, lie will gain the move. 
 
 15. If the adverfaiy has his king and one pawn on 
 the board, and tlie player has only his king, he cannot 
 lofe the game, provided he brings his king oppofite to 
 the adverfaiy's, when the adverfar)'- Is directly before 
 or on one fide of his pawn, and there is only one 
 fquare between the kings. 
 
 16. If the adverfaiy has a blfliop and one pawn on 
 the rook's line, and this bUhop is not of the colour 
 that commands the corner fquare the pawn i;^ going to, 
 and the player Iras only his king, if he can get into 
 that corner, he cannot lofe ; but, on the contrary, 
 may win by a Ptale (c). 
 
 17. If the pl-ayer has greatly the difadvantag* of the 
 game, having only his queen left in play, and his king 
 happens to be in a poficion to win, "as above mention- 
 ed, he fhould keep giving check to the adverfary's 
 king, always taking care not to check him where he 
 can interpofe any of his pieces that make the ftale ; 
 bv fo doing he will at laft force the adverfary to take 
 his queen, and then he will win the game by being in 
 a ftale-mate. 
 
 18. The 
 
 Cb 
 
 (a) Ca/lle his Mng, is to cover the king with a caftle ; which is done by a certain move which each player 
 has a right to whenever he thinks proper. 
 
 (b) T^o queen, is to make a queen ; that is, to move a pawn into the adverfary's back row, which is the 
 rule at this game when the original one is loft. 
 
 (c) When the king is blocked up fo as to have no move at all. 
 
G H 
 
 Chefs. i8. The pk'/er (hould 
 
 ""V""* piece that a pawn puflied upon it may take, for fear 
 of getting only the pawn in exchange for the piece. 
 
 19. A player fiiould never crowd his adverfary up 
 with pieces, for fear of giving a ftale-mate inadver- 
 tently, but always fhould leave room for his king to 
 move. 
 
 By way of corroborating what has been already faid 
 with refpeft to this game, it is neceffary to warn a 
 player againft playing a timid game. He Ihould never 
 be too much afraid of lofing a rook for an inferior 
 piece ; becaufe although a rook is a better piece than 
 any other except the queen, it feldom comes into play 
 to be of any great ufe till at the end of the game ; for 
 which reafon it is often better to have an inferior piece 
 in play, than a fuperior one to lland ftill, or moving to 
 no great purpofe. If a piece is moved, and is imme- 
 diately drove away by a pawn, it may be reckoned a 
 bad move, becaufe the adverfary gains a double ad- 
 vantage over the player, in advancing at the fame time 
 the other is made to retire ; although the fiift move 
 may not feem of confequence between equal players, 
 yet a move or two more loil after the firft makes the 
 game fcarcely to be recovered. 
 
 There never wants for variety at this game, pro- 
 vided the pieces have been brought out regular ; but 
 if otherwife, it often happens that a player has fcarce 
 any thing to play. 
 
 Many indifferent players think nothing of the pawns, 
 whereas three pawns together are l^rong ; but four, 
 which conilitute a fquare, with the affiftance of other 
 piecesj well managed, make an invincible-ftrength, and 
 in all probability may produce a queen when very much 
 wanted. It is true, that two pawns with a fpace be- 
 tween are no better than one ; and if there fhould be 
 three over each, other in a line, the game cannot be in 
 a worfe way. This ihows that the pawns are of great 
 confequence, provided they are kept clofe together. 
 
 Some middling players are very apt to rilk loling 
 the ^3.me in order to recover apiece; this is a mifl-ake; 
 for it is much better to give up a piece and attack the 
 enemy in another qnar'.cr ; by fo doing, the player 
 has a chance of 1 Hatching a pawn or two from, or 
 gaining fome advantage over, the adverfary, whiKt his 
 attention is taken up in purfuing this piece. 
 
 If the queen and another piece are attacked at the 
 fame time, and that by removing the queen the piece 
 mull be loft ; provided two pieces can be gained in 
 -exchange for the queen, the queen faould be given up, 
 ■ it being the difference of three pieces, and confequently 
 more than the value of the queen By lofuig the 
 queen, the game is not thrown into that diforder which 
 it would otherwile have been : in this cafe it would 
 be judicious to ^ive the queen for even a piece, or a 
 pawn or two ; it beiag well known among good players, 
 that he who bcgviis the attack, and cannot maintain it, 
 being obliged to ret re, generally lofes the game. 
 
 A player fhonld never be fond of changing without 
 reafon, becaufe the adverfary, if he is a good player, 
 will ruin his fituation, ana gain a coniiderable advan- 
 tage over him. But rather than lofe a move, when a 
 j)layer is llronger than the adverfary, it is good play 
 to change, for he thereby increafes his ftrength. 
 
 "When the g>i.De is almoil drawn to a conclufion, 
 the player fhould recoUeit that his king is a capital 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 E [ 641 ] C H }l 
 
 never cover a check with a piece,, and confequently fhould keep him in motion 
 
 by fo doing he generally gets the move, and often the 
 game. 
 
 As the queen, rook, and bifhop, operate at a di~ 
 ftance, it is not always neceffary in the attack to have 
 them near the adveifary's king. 
 
 If a man can be taken with different pieces, the 
 player faould take his time, and confider which of 
 tliofe pieces is the beft to take it with. 
 
 If a piece can be taken almofl at any time, the 
 player fliould not be in a hurry about it, 'but try to 
 make a good move elfewhere before he takes it. 
 
 A player fliould be cautious how he takes his ad- 
 verfary's pawn with his king, as it often happens to be 
 a fafe -guard to it. 
 
 After all that has been faid, it is flill neceffary for 
 us to advife thofe who would play well at this game, 
 to be very cool and. attentive to the matter in queflion; 
 for it is impoffible that any perfon in the univerfe can 
 be capable of playing at chefs if their thoughts arc 
 employed elfewhere. The laws at this game are, 
 
 1. If a player touches his man, he muft play it, and 
 if he quits it, he cannot recal it. 
 
 2. If by miftake or otherwife a falfe move is played, 
 and the adverfary takes bo notice of it till he hath 
 played his next move, it cannot be recalled by eitlier 
 of the parties. 
 
 3. If a player mifplaces the men, and he plays twa 
 moves, it is at the option of the adverfary to permit 
 him to begin the game or not. 
 
 4. If the adverfary plays or difcovers a check to a 
 player's king, and gives no notice of it, the plaver 
 may let him fland ftill till he does. 
 
 5. After the king is moved, a player cannot cafde. 
 
 ^ Sarafin has an exprefs treatife on the different opi- 
 nions of the origin ef the Latin fchacchi^ whence the 
 French ethecs, and our chefs, is formed. Menage is 
 alfo very full on the fame head. LeuncUvius takes it 
 to come frem Ufcoches, famous Turkifh robbers : P. 
 Sirmond, from the German fcachhe, " theft;" and that 
 from calculus. He takes chefs to be the fame witli the 
 Indus latrunculonim of the Romans, but miflakenly. 
 Ihis opinion is countenanced by VofTuis and Salma- 
 fius, who derive the word from calculus^ as ufed for 
 latrunculus. G. Tolofanus derives it from the Hebrew, 
 fcach, vallaDit et mat mortinis ; whence check and che:k- 
 maie. Fabricius fays, a celebrated Perfian aftronomer, 
 one Schatrenfcha, invented the game of chefs ; and 
 gave it his own name, which it ftill beai-s in that 
 country. Nicod derives it from fchccgue, or xeque, a 
 Moorifh word for lord, king, and prince. Bochart 
 adds,^ that fcach is originally Perfian ; and that fcach- 
 mat, in that language, fignifies the king is dead. - The 
 opinion of Nicod and Bochart, which is likewife that 
 of Scriverius, appears the moft probable. 
 
 Mr Twifs mentions a fmall treatife on chefs, written, 
 as he fuppofes, about 400 years ago ; at the 
 which is a-reprefentation of a round chefs-board, 
 direftions for placing the men upon it. In thi 
 knight can cover the 64 fquares on the boani 
 many moves. The board is divided into thefe 64 
 by four concentric circles, having an empty fpat. 
 the middle; and each of thefe is divided into 16 parts. 
 Number i is placed in the outermofl circle ; number 
 2 in the third circle counting inwards, in the divifion to 
 4M "the 
 
 of 
 
 •ith 
 
 ihe 
 . as 
 rrts 
 in 
 
'CHE [64 
 
 the right hand of the former ; number 3 is placed in 
 the outermoft circle, in the divifion to the right hand 
 of 2 ; 4 in the third circle counting inwards to the 
 right hand of three ; and thus alternately from the 
 firll to the third, and from the third to the firft circle, 
 till the round is completed by 16 on the third <:ircle to 
 the left hand of i. Number 17 is then placed on the 
 divilion of the innermoft circle to the right hand of i ; 
 18 on the fecond circle counting inwards, to the right 
 hand of 17; and thus alternately from the fourth to 
 the fecond, and from the fecond to the fourth circles, 
 until the round is completed by 32, direftly below 
 number i. Numl^er 33 then is placed on the third 
 circle direftly to the right hand of number 2 ; 34 on 
 the fourth circle, to the right hand of 4 ; and thus al- 
 ternately between the third and fourth circles, until 
 the round is again completed by 48 on the fourth cir- 
 cle, direftly below number 33. The numbers are now 
 placed in a retrograde fafhion ; 50 on the outer circle 
 in that divilion immediately to the right hand of 1 ; 
 51 on the third circle, to the left hand of 2, and di- 
 reclly below number 32 ; 52 is then placed on the 
 outer circle, immediately on the left hand of i : 53 
 on the third circle direftly to the left hand of 16 ; and 
 thus alternately on the firll: and third circles, until the 
 lafl round is completed by 64 between the numbers 3 
 and 5. On this round chefs-board, fuppofmg the black 
 king to be placed in number 48 on the fourth circle, the 
 queen ftands on number 17 at his left hand ; the bi- 
 fliops in 33 and' 2 ; the knights 18 and 47 ; the callles 
 in 3 and 50 ; the pawns on 19, 4, 49, 64, and 46, 51, 
 32, I. The white king will then lland in 25, oppofite 
 to the black queen ; the white qileen in ^ o oppoGte to 
 the black king, and fo on. In playing on a board of 
 this kind, it will be found, that the power of the callk is 
 double to that in the common game, and that of the 
 bifliop only one half ; the former having 16 fquares to 
 range in, and the laft only four. The king can caftle 
 only one way ; and it is very difficult to bring the game 
 to a conclufion. 
 
 With regard to the origin of the game at chefs, we 
 are much in the dark; Thoughj, it came to us from 
 the Saracens, it is by no means probable that they 
 were the original inventors of it. According to fome, 
 it was invented by the celebrate^ Grecian hero Dio- 
 medes. Others fay,that two G recian brothers, Ledo and 
 Tyrrheno, were the inventors; and that being much 
 preifed with hunger, they fought to alleviate the pain by 
 this amufement. It is certain, however, that it is a game 
 of very ancient ftanding, and in former ages has been 
 ▼ei-y fafhionable in every part of Europe ; though in 
 this country it is not now very common, probably on 
 account of the intenfe application of thought required 
 to play at it. It has long been a favourite of the 
 Icelanders and other northern people. There is little 
 difference between their game and ours. 
 
 The game of chefs has been generally praftifed by 
 the greateft warriors and generals; and fome have even 
 fuppofed that it was necefiary for a military man to be 
 well fl<illed in this game. It is a game which has fome- 
 thing in it pecuharly interefting. We read that Tamer- 
 lane was a great chefs-player, and was engaged in a game 
 during the very tune of the deciiive battle with Bajazet 
 tiie Turkilh emperor, who was defeated and taken pri- 
 
 2 ] CHE* 
 
 foner. It Is alfo related of Al Amin the khalif of Bag- Che 
 
 dad, that he was engaged at chefs with his freedman >^ 
 
 Kuthar at the time when Al Mamun's forces were car- 
 rv'lng on the fiege of that city with fo much vigour 
 that it was on the point of being carried by affault. 
 Dr Hyde quotes an Arabic hiftory of the Saracens, In 
 which the khalif is fald to have cried out when warned 
 of his danger. Let me alone, for I fee checkmate agalnlt 
 Kuthar ! We are told that Charles I. was at chefs- 
 when news were brought of the final intention of the 
 Scots to fell him to the EngHlh ; but fo little wa3 he 
 difcompofed by this alarming intelligence, that he 
 continued his game with the utmoll compofure ; fo. 
 that no perfon could havt^ known that the letter he 
 received had given him information of any thing re^ 
 markable. King John was playing at chefs when the 
 deputies from Rouen came to acquaint him that their, 
 city was befieged by Philip Auguftus ; but he would- 
 not hear them until he had finlflied his game. 
 
 The following remarkable anecdote we have from 
 Dr Robertfon in his Hiftory of Charles. V. John. 
 Frederic, eleftor of Saxony, having been tiiken pri- 
 foner by Charles, w?.s condemned to death. The 
 decree was intimated to him while at chefs with 
 Erneft. of Brunfwic, his felloW-prifoner. After a. 
 Ihort paufe, and making fome refledtions on the 
 irregulai-ity and Injuftice of the emperor's proceed- 
 ings, he turned to his antagonift, w'hom he challen- 
 ged to finlfh the game. He played with his ufual in- 
 genuity and attention; and having beat Erneft, expref- 
 fed all the fatlsfaftlon that is commonly felt on gain- 
 ing fuch viftorles. He was not, however, put to death,., 
 but fet at liberty after five years confinement. 
 
 In the Chronicle of the Moorlfli kings of Granada w& 
 find it related, that In 1 396, Mehemed Balba felzed up- 
 on the crown in prejudice of his elder brother, and 
 pafTed his life in one continual round of difafters. His 
 wars with Caftile w^ere invariably unfuccefsful ; and hl& 
 death was occafioned by a poifoned veft. Finding his 
 cafe defperate, he difpatched an officer to the fort of 
 Salobrena to put his brother Juzaf to death, left that 
 prince's adherents fhould form any obftacle to his fon's 
 fucceflion. The alca,yde found the prince playing at 
 chefs with an alfaqui or prieft. Juzaf begged hard for 
 two hours refpite, which was denied him ; at laft with 
 great reludlance the officer permitted him to finifh the 
 game ; but before it was finifhed a meflenger arrived 
 with the news of the death of Mehemed, and the un- 
 animous eleftion of Juzaf to the crown. 
 
 We have a curicus anecdote of Ferrand count of, 
 Flanders; who having been accuftomed to amufe him- 
 felf at chefs with his wife, and being conftantly beaten 
 by her, a mutual hatred took place; which came to 
 fuch an height, that v^hen the count was . taken pri- 
 foner at the battle of Bovines, (he fuffered him to re- 
 main a long time in prifon though ^e could eafily. 
 have procured his releafe. 
 
 The game of chefs has undergone confiderable vari- 
 ations fince it was firft invented. We have it on good, 
 authority, that . among the eaftern . nations, the pieces 
 now called the queen was formerly called the vizir or- 
 king's minifter, and that the powers of the queen her- 
 felf were but very fmall. The chefs-boards ufed by, 
 Tamerlane were larger, and contained many more- 
 
 fquares,,. 
 
CHE 
 
 Cliefs, 
 Cheft. 
 
 fquares, tlian thofe at prefent in ufe. Carrera invented 
 ^ two new pieces to be added to the eight commonly in 
 ufe. One of thefe, which he calls Campiotie, is placed 
 between the king's knight and caftle; the other, named 
 Centaury between the queen's knight and caftle, has 
 the move of the bifhop and knight united. This in- 
 vention, however, did not furvive its author. In an- 
 other of this kind, the two additional pieces are called 
 the centurion and c/ecurion the former, fituated between 
 the king and his biihop, in its move the fame with 
 that of the queen, but only for two fquares; the latter 
 moves as the bifhop, but only one' fquare at a time. 
 This, like the former, died with its inventor. The 
 chefs-board of Tamerlane was a parallelogram, having 
 eleven fquares one way and twelve the other. In the 
 Memoirs of the late Marlhal Keith, we find it related, 
 that he invented an amufement fomething fimilar to 
 that of chefs, with which the king of PiufTia was 
 highly entertained. Several thoufand fmall flatues 
 were call by a founder ; and thefe wei-e ranged oppo- 
 fite to each other as if they had been drawn up in an 
 army ; making the different movements with them as 
 in real fervice in the field. 
 
 A very complicated kind of game at chefs was in- 
 vented by the late duke of Rutland. At this the 
 board has 14 fquares in breadth and 10 in heio-ht, 
 which make in all 140 lioufes; and there are 14 pawns 
 on each fide, whicli may move either one, two, or three 
 fquares the firfl time. The other pieces were the king, 
 queen, two bifliops, two knights, a crowned caftle 
 uniting the move of the king and caftle, and a com- 
 mon caftle. On tlie other fide of the king was a con- 
 cnbine, whofe move united that of the caftle and knight, 
 two bifliops, a fingle knight, a crowned caftle, and a 
 common one. In this game the pawns are of very 
 little ufe; and by the extent of the board, the knights 
 lofe much of their value, which confequently i-enders 
 the game more defeftive and lefs interetting than the 
 common one. 
 
 There is an amufing variety at the game of chefs, 
 in which the king with eight pawns engages the whole 
 fet, by being allowed to make two moves for every 
 one o£ his adverfary. In this he is almoft certain of 
 coming off viftorious ; as he can make his firfl move 
 into check, and the fecond out of it. Thus he can 
 take the queen when fhe flands immediately before her 
 king, and then retreat ; for he cannot remain in 
 check. He cannot be check-mated unlefs hjs adver- 
 fary has preferved his queen and both caftles. 
 
 CHf:sS'Tn'es, taqxtcts d'aniure; two pieces of wood 
 bolted perpendicularly, one on the flarboard, and an- 
 other on the larboard, fide of the fhip. They are ufed 
 to confine the clue, or lower corners of the main-fail ; 
 for which purpofe thei-e is a hole in the upper part, 
 through which the rope paifes that ufually extends the 
 clue of the fail to windward. See Tack. 
 
 The chefs-trees are commonly placed as far before 
 the main-maft as the length of.the main-beam. 
 
 CHEST, in commerce, a kind of meafure, contain- 
 ing an uncertain quantity of feveral commodities. 
 
 A cheft of fugar, v. g. contains from ten to fifteen 
 hundred weight ; a clieil of glafs, from two hundred 
 to three hundred feet ; of Caftile foap, from two and 
 an half to three hundred weight; of indigo, from one 
 
 [ ^43 ] 
 
 CHE 
 
 and an half to two hundred weight, five fcore to the 
 hundred. 
 
 Chest, or Thorax. See Anatomy, Part IV. 
 ^ CHESTER, commonly called Wejl-Chcjlcr, to dif- 
 tinguifli it from many other Chefters in the kingdom ; 
 the capital of Chefhire, in England. It is a very an- 
 cient city, fuppofed to have been founded by the Ro- 
 mans; and plainly appears to have been a Roman fta- 
 tion by the many antiquities which have been and are 
 ftiil difcovered in and about the town. It was among 
 the laft places the Romans quitted ; and here the Bri- 
 tons maintained their liberty long after the Saxons had 
 got poffeffion of the reft of their country. At prefent 
 it is a large well-built wealthy city, and carries on a 
 confiderable trade. Mr Pennant calls it a city without 
 parallel, on account of the fingular ftruaure of the 
 four principal ftreets. They are as if excavated out 
 of the earth, and funk many feet beneath the fiirfacc : 
 the carriages drive far beneath the level of the kitchens 
 on a line with ranges of fiiops. The houfes are moftly 
 of wood, with galleries, piazzas, and covered walls 
 before them ; by which not only the fiiops, but thofe 
 who are walking about the town, are fo hid, that one 
 would imagine there were fcarce any inhabitants in it, 
 though it is very populous. But though by this con- 
 tnvance fuch as walk the ftreets are fcreened from 
 ram, &c. yet the fliops are thereby rendered dark and 
 inconvenient. The back courts of all the houfes are 
 on a level with the ground ; but to go into any of the 
 four prmcipal ftreets, it is neceffary to defcend a flight 
 of feveral fteps. 
 
 Chcttcr is a bifiiop's fee. It was anciently part 
 of the diocefe of Litchfield; one of whofe bifhops 
 removnig the feat of his fee hither in the year 
 1075, occafioned his fucceffors to be frequently 
 fl;yled bl/l:ops of Chejer. But it was not erefted in- 
 to a ddtinft bifiioprick until the general diffolutioa 
 of monaftenes, when king Henry VIII. in the 
 year 1541, raifed it to this dignity, and allotted the 
 church of the abbey of St Werburg for the cathedral, 
 ftyhng It the cathedral church 'of Chnft and the hkjfed 
 V irgui; adqmg the bifhoprick to the'province of Can- 
 terbury : but foon after he disjoined it from Canter- 
 bury, and added it to the province of York. When 
 this abbey was diffblved, its revenues were valued at 
 L. 1003 :5 : II. This diocefe contains the entire 
 counties of Chelter and-Lancafter, part of the counties 
 of Weftmoreland, Cumberland, and Yorkfhire, two 
 chapelnes in Denbyfhire, and five pariHies in Flint- 
 flure; amounting in all to 256 parifiies, of which loi 
 are impropriations. This biihoprick is valued in the 
 king's books at L.420 : i : 8, and is computed to be 
 worth annually L.2700; the clergy's tenth amounting 
 to L.435 : 12 : o. To this, cathedral belong a dean, 
 two archdeacons, a chancellor, a treafurer, fix pre- 
 bendaries, and other inferior officers and fervants. W. 
 Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 53. 12. 
 
 CHESTER-le-Street, the Cuneacejre of the Saxons ; a 
 fmall thoroughfare town between Newcaflle and Dur- 
 ham, with a good church and fine fpire. In the 
 Saxon times this place was greatly refpefted on ac- 
 count of the relics of St Cuthbert, depofited here by 
 biftiop Eardulf, for fear of the Danes, who at that 
 time ^about 884) ravaged the country. His fiirine 
 4 M 2 became 
 
 Cheft, 
 Chefter, 
 
CHE 
 
 New-Chef- became afterwards an objeft of great devotion. 
 
 Cheviot 
 
 Athelfton, on liis expedition to Scotland, paid it a 
 vifit, to obtain, by interceflion of the faint, fuccefs on 
 his arms; beltowed a multitude of gifts on the church; 
 and direfted, in cafe he died in his enterprize, that his 
 body fnould be interred there. At the fame time that 
 this place was honoured with the remains of St Cuth- 
 bert, the biflioprick of Lindesfarn w^as removed here, 
 and endowed with all the lands between the Tyne and 
 the Were, the prefent county of Durham. It was 
 ftyled St Cut/jicri's patrimony. The inhabitants had 
 great privileges, and always thought themfclves exempt 
 from all military duty, except that of defending the 
 body of their faint. Chefter-le-Street may be con- 
 fidered as the parent of the fee of Durham ; for when 
 the relics were removed there, the fee in 995 followed 
 them. Tanner fays, that probably a chapter of monk^, 
 or rather fecular canons, attended the body at t its 
 place from its firft arrival : but bifliop Beke, in 1286,, 
 in honour of the faint, made the church collegiate,, 
 and eftablifhed here a dean and fuitable ecclefiaftics ; 
 and, among other privileges, gives the dean a right of 
 filhing on the Were, and the tythe of iiih. 
 
 New Chester, a town of Pennfylvania in America, 
 and capital of a county of that name. It is feated on 
 the Delawar ; and has a tine capacious harbour, ad- 
 mitting veffels of any burden.. W. Long. 74. 7. 
 N. Lat. 40. 15. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, a market town of Derby flilrc 
 in England, pleafantly fituated on a hill between two 
 fmall rivers. It has the title of an earldom; and a 
 confiderable market for corn, lead, and other country 
 commodities.. The houfes are, for the molt part, built 
 of rough Hone, and covered with flate. W. Long. 1.25. 
 N. Lat. 53. 20. 
 
 Chesterfiei.d (Earl of). See Stanhope. 
 CHEVAL c/e Frise, a large piece of timber pier- 
 ced, and traverfed with wooden fpikes, armed or 
 pointed with iron, five or fix feet long. See Plate 
 GXXXVL. 
 
 The term is French, and properly fignlfies a Frief- 
 land horfe; as having been firft Invented in that coun- 
 try. — It is alfo called a Tiimplhe or Tiirniquet. 
 
 Its ufe is to defend a paffage, ftop a breach, or make 
 a retrenchment .to ftop the cavalry. It, Is fometimes 
 alfo mounted on wheels, with artificial fires, to roU 
 down in an alTault. Errard obferves, that the prince 
 of Orange ufed to inclofe his camp with Chevaux de 
 Frtfe, placing them one over another. 
 
 CHEVALER, In the manege, is fald of a horfe, 
 when, in pafTaglng upon a walk or trot, his off fore- 
 leg crolTes or overlaps the near fore-leg every fecond 
 motion. 
 
 CHEVALIER,a French term, ordinarily fignifying 
 a Knight. The word is formed of the French, che- 
 val, *' horfe ;" and the barbarous Latin cavallus. 
 
 It is ufed, in heraldry, to fignify any cavalier y or 
 horfeman armed at all points; by the Romans called 
 cataphraBus eques : now out of ufe, and only to be feen 
 in coat-armour. 
 
 CHEVAUX ^£ Frise. See Cheval de Frifc. 
 
 CHE V IN, a name ufed in fome parts of England 
 for the Chub. 
 
 CHEVIOT (orTivior) HILLS, run from north to 
 ip-uth through Cumberland i and were, forperfy the 
 
 [ 644 1 CHE 
 
 King borders or boundaries between England and Scotland, Cbevifance- 
 where many a bloody battle has been fought between ^j^jy,,^^ 
 
 the two nations ; one of which I3 recorded in the bal- _ 
 lad of Chevy cLife. Thefe hills are the firft land dif- 
 covered by fallors in coming from the eaft into Scot- 
 land. 
 
 CHEVISANCE, la law, denotes an agreement or 
 compofitlon, as an end or order fet down between a 
 creditor and his debtor, Cffc. In the ftatutes, this 
 word is moft commonly ufed for an unlawful bargaih- 
 or contract, 
 
 CHEVREAU (Urban), a learned writer, born at 
 Lundun In 1 61 3. He diftingulflied himfelf in his youth 
 by his knowledge of the bellts lettres ; and became fe- 
 cretary of ftate to queen Chriftlna of Sweden. Seve- 
 ral German princes invited him to their courts ; and' 
 Charles-Lewis, the eleftor palatine, retained him un- 
 der the title of couafellor. After the death of that, 
 prince, he returned to France, and became preceptor 
 to the duke of Maine. At length retiring to Lundun,.. 
 he died there in 1701, aged 88. He was the author 
 of feveral books ; and amougft others, of an Univerfal 
 Hiftory, which has been often reprinted. 
 
 CHEVRON,, or Cheyeron, in heraldry. See 
 Heraldry.' 
 
 CHEWING-BALLS, a kind of balls made of afafce- 
 tida, liver of antimony, bay-wood, juniper- wood, and 
 pellitory of Spain ; which being dried in the fun, and 
 wrapped in a linen cloth, are tied to the bit of the 
 bridle for the horfe to chew ; they create an appetite; 
 and It Is fald, that balls of Venice-treacle may be ufed 
 in the fame manner v,^ith good fuccefs. 
 CHEYKS. See EckGAL, n° 17. 
 CHEYNE (Dr George), a phyficlan of great learn- 
 ing and abilities, born In Scotland In 1671, and edu- 
 cated at Edinburgh under -the great Di Pitcairn. He 
 paffed his youth in clofe ftudy, and with great tem- 
 perance : but coming to fettle at Loudon, when about 
 30, and finding the younger gentry and free-livers to 
 be the moft eafy of accefs and moft fufceptible of. 
 frlendflrlp, he changed on a fudden his former manner 
 of living In order to force a trade, having obferved 
 this method to fucceed with fome others. The con- 
 fequence was, that he grew daily in bulk, and in in- 
 timacy with his gay acquaintance; fwelling to fuchan 
 enormous fize, that he exceeded 32 ftone weight; and 
 he was forced to have the whole fide of his chariot 
 made open to receive him into it ; he grew fiiort- 
 breathed, lethargic, nervous, and fcorbutic ; fo that 
 his life became an intolerable burden. In this deplo- 
 rable condition, after having tried all the power of 
 medicine in vain, he refolved to try a milk and vege- 
 table diet ; the good effefts of which quickly appear- 
 • ed. His fize was reduced almoft a third ; and he re- 
 covered his ftrength, a&ivity, and cheer fulnefs, with 
 the perfeft ufe of all his faculties. In fhort, by a re- 
 gular adherence to this regimen, he lived to a mature' 
 period, dying at Bath in 1742, aged 72. He wrote fe- 
 veral treatlfes that w^ere well received ; particularly, 
 « An Effay on Health and Long Life ;" and " The 
 Englifii Malady, or a Treatlfe of Nervous Difeafes ;" 
 both the refult of his own experience. In fiiort, he 
 liad grKit i-eputation in his own time, both as a prac- 
 titioner and as a writer ; and moft of his pieces palTed 
 thro' ffiveral editions. He is to be ranked among thofe 
 
 phyficians 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 645 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 medicines and the morbid alterations which take place 
 in the human bodjr upon mechanical principles. A 
 fpirit of piety and of benevolence, and an ardent zeal 
 for the interefts of virtue, are predominant throughout 
 his writings. An amiable candour and ingenuoufnefs 
 are alfo difcernible, and which led him to retraft with 
 readinefs whatever appeared to him to be cenfurable in 
 what he had formerly advanced. Some of the meta- 
 physeal notions which he has introduced into his 
 books, may, perhaps, juftly be thought fanciful and ill- 
 grounded ; but there is an agreeable vivacity in his 
 produ6lIons, together with much opennefs and frank- 
 nefs, and in general grc-at peripieuity. 
 
 CHIABRERA (Gabriel), etteemed the Pindar of 
 Italv, was born at Savona in 1552, and went to ftudy 
 at Rome. The Italian princes, and Urban VIII. gave 
 him public marks of their elleem. He wrote a great 
 number of poems ; but his lyric verfes are moll admi- 
 red. He died at Savona in 1 638, aged 86. 
 
 CHI AN EARTH, in pharmacy, one of the medici- 
 nal earths of the ancients, the name of which is pre- 
 ferved in the catalogues of the materia medica, but of 
 which nothing more than the name has been known 
 for many ages in the (liops. 
 
 It is a very denfe and compaft earth ; and is fent 
 hither in fmall flat pieces from the ifland of Chios, in 
 which it is found in great plenty at this time. It 
 ftands recommended to us as an aitringent. They tell 
 us, it is the greateft of all cofmetics; and that it gives a 
 whitenefs and fmoothnefs to the fliin, and prevents 
 wrinkltB, beyond any of the other fubilances that have 
 been celebrated for the fame purpofes. 
 
 CHIAOUS, a word in the original Turkifli, fignify- 
 ing " envoys," are ofiicersto the numbe'r of five or fix 
 hundred in the grand fignior's court, under the com- 
 mand of a chiaous bafchi. They frequently meet in 
 the grand vifir's palace, that they may be in readi- 
 nefs to execute his orders, and carry his dlfpatches in- 
 to all the provinces of the empire. The chiaous baf- 
 chi affifts at the divan, and introduces thofe who have 
 bufmefs there. 
 
 CHIAPA, the capital of a province of the fame 
 name in Mexico, fituated abort 300 miles eail of A- 
 capulco. W. Long. 98. o. N. Lat. 16. 30. 
 
 Chupa el Real, a town of Mexico, in a province of 
 the fame name, wath a biihop's fee. Its principal 
 trade confiils in chocolate-nuts, cotton,, and fugar. W. 
 Long. 98. 35. Lat. 16. 20. 
 
 Chiapas de los Indos, a large and rich town of 
 North Americaj in Mexico, and in a province of 
 riie fame name. The governor and moft of the in- 
 habitants are originally Americans. W. Long. 98. 5. 
 N. Lat. 15. 6. 
 
 CHIARI(Jofeph), a celebrated Italian painter, was 
 tiie difciple of Carlo Maratti ; and adorned the churches 
 and palaces of Rome with a great number of fine 
 paintings. He died of an apoplexy in 1 727, aged 73. 
 
 Chiar.1, a town of Italy, in the province of Brtfcia, 
 and territory of Venice, 7 miles weft of Brefcia, and 
 27 eaft of Milan. Here the Imperialifts. gained a vic- 
 tory over the French in 1701. E. Long. 18. 18. 
 K. Lat 45. 30. 
 
 CHIARO-scuRO. See CiARo-Ohfcuro^ 
 
 GHIAVLNNA, a haudfomc^ populous, and large 
 
 Chtabim phyficians who have accounted for the operations of town of SwUfeiland, in the country of the Grifons. 
 
 . (I *^ ^ • - ^ . 1 ' T. _ . .J- -r_. J 
 
 Chiav ;in-i. . , , , , — A fi'ults. The governor's palace and the churches are 
 
 very magnificent, and the inhabitants are Roman Ca- 
 tholics. It is fcated near the lake Como. E- Long. 
 9. 29. N. Lat. 46. 15. 
 
 CHL'\USI, among the Turks, officers employed in 
 executing the vizirs, bafliaws, and other great men : 
 the ordeis for doing this, the grand fignior fends 
 them wrapped up in a black cloth ; on the receptioa 
 of which, they immediately perform their ofiice. 
 
 CHICANE, or Chicanery, in law, an abufe of 
 judiciary proceeding, .tending to delay the caufe, to 
 puzzle the judge, or impofe upon the parties. 
 
 Chicane, in the fchools, is applied to vain fo- 
 phifms, diftinftions, and fubtleties, which protraft dif- 
 putes, and obfcure the truth. 
 
 CHICHESTER, the capital city of the county of 
 Sufiex, was built by Ciffa, the 2d king of the South' 
 Saxons, and by him called ClffciJi Caejier. It is fur- 
 rounded with a wall, which has four gates, anfwering 
 to the four cardinal points ;. from which run two 
 ftreets, that crofs one another in the middle and form 
 a fquare, where the market is kept, and where there 
 is a fine ftone piazza built by biOiop Read. The fpace 
 between the weft and fouth gates is taken up with the 
 cathedral church and the bifhop's palace. It has five 
 parlfli-churches ; and is feated on the little river La- 
 vant, which w^afhes it on all fides except -the north. 
 This city would h?.ve been in a much more flourifhing 
 condition if it had been built by the fea-fide ; how-- 
 ever, the inhabitants have endeavoured to fupply this 
 defe£t in fome meafure, by cutting a canal from the 
 city down into the bay. The principal manufadlures- 
 of tile town are malt and needles. The market of Chi- 
 chefter is noted for fifli, wheat, barley, malt, and oats: 
 the fineft lobfters in England are bred in the Lavant 
 and it is obfcrvable, that this river, luihke moft others, 
 is very low in winter, but in fummer often overflows 
 its banks. Chichefter is a city and county of itfelf ; 
 it is governed by a mayor, recorder, aldermen, common- 
 council without limitation, and four juftlces of the 
 peace chofen out of the aldermen ; and it fends two 
 members to parliament. It is a bifiiop's fee. The 
 cathedral church was anciently dedicated to St Peter,.. 
 It was new built by Radulph, the twenty-fifth bi- 
 ftiop ; but being defti'oyed by fire, it was again built 
 by Seffridus II. the twenty-ninth bifaop. This fee 
 hath yielded to tlie church two faints, and to the na- 
 tion three lord chancellors, two almoners, and one 
 chancellor to the univerfity of Oxford. Anciently 
 the bifliops of Chichefter were confeffors to the queens 
 of England. This diocefe contains the whole of the 
 county of SufTex (excepting 22 parifhes, peculiars of 
 the archbilhop of Canterbury), wherein are 250 pa- 
 rifties, whereof 112 are impropriated. It hath two 
 archdeacons, viz. of Chichefter and Lewes ; is valued 
 in the king's books at L. 677 11:3, and is computed 
 to be worth annually L 2600. The tenths of the 
 whole clergy is L. 287:2: c'^. To the cathedral be- 
 long a biftiop, a dean, two archdeacons, a treafurer, a 
 chancellor, thirty-two prebendaries, a chanter, twelve 
 vicars-coral, and other officers. W. Long 50. N. 
 Lat. 5c. 50. 
 
 CHICK, or Chicken, in zoology, denotes the 
 
 young 
 
 Chlaiifi 
 
 Chick. 
 
C H I 
 
 C'liick- 
 vveeJ 
 li 
 
 •ChiuJ. 
 
 [ 646 J 
 
 C H I 
 
 young of the gallinaceous order of blrtlsj efpecially the 
 common hen. See Phasianus. 
 
 CniCK-V/edd, in botany. See A l. sine. 
 J Chjcken-Pox. See f Index fubjoineJ to) "blzr^i el's u. 
 CHICKLING-PEA, in botany, a name given to the 
 
 L.ATHYRUS. 
 
 CHICUITOS, a province of South America, in the 
 government of Santo-Cruz de la Sierra. The chief 
 riches coniift of honey and wax ; and the original in- 
 habitants are very voluptuous, yet very warlike. They 
 rriaintaintd bloody wars with the Spaniards till 1690 ; 
 fince which, fome of them have become Chriftians It 
 is bounded by la Plata on the N. E. and by Chili on 
 the W. 
 
 CHIDLEY, or Chimley, a market-town of De- 
 vonfhire, fituated in W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 51. o. 
 
 CHIEF, a term fignifying the head or principal part 
 of a thing or perfon. Thus we lay, the chief of a 
 party, the chief of a family, ^<r. -The word is formed 
 of the Yrench' c/jefy " kead;'^ of the Greek xEpaxiT, ca- 
 put, " head ;" though Menage derives it from the Ita- 
 lian cfifio, formed of the Latin caput. 
 
 Chief, in heraldiy, is that which takes up all the 
 upper part of the efcutcheon from iide to fide, and re- 
 prefents a man's head. In chief, imports fomething 
 borne in the chief part or top of the efcutcheon. 
 
 CHIEFTAIN, denotes the captain or chief of any 
 clafs, family, or body of men. Thus the chieftains or 
 chiefs of the Highland clans, were the principal noble- 
 men or gentlemen of their refpeftive clans. See Clans. 
 
 CHIELEFA, a llrong town of Turky in Europe, 
 in the Morea. It was taken by the Venetians in 1685; 
 but after that the Turks retook it, with all the Mo- 
 rea. E. Long. 22. 21. N. Lat. 26. 50. 
 
 CHIGI (Fabio), or Pope Alexander VII. was 
 born at Sienna in 1599. His family finding him a 
 hopeful youth, fent him early to Rome, where he foon 
 engaged In a friendfnip with the marquis Pallavicini, 
 who recommended him fo effeftually to Pope Urban 
 VIII. that he procured him the poll of Inquifitor at 
 Malta. He was fent vice-legate to Ferrara, and af- 
 terward nuncio into Germany : there he had an op- 
 portunity of difplaying his intriguing genius ; for he 
 was mediator at Munfter, in the long conference held 
 to conclude a peace with Spain. Cardinal Mazarln 
 had fome refentment againfl Chigi, who was foon af- 
 ter, made a cardinal and fecrctary of flate by Inno- 
 cent X. but his refentment was facrificed to pohtical 
 views. In 1655, when a pope was to be chofen. Car- 
 dinal Sacchetti, Mazarin's great friend, finding it was 
 impoffible for him to be raifed into St Peter's chair 
 becaufe of the powerful oppofition made by the Spa- 
 nifh faftion, defired Cardinal Mazarin to confent to 
 Chigi's exaltation. His requeft was granted, and he 
 was elefted pope by the votes of all the 64 cardinals 
 who were in the conclave : an unanimity of which 
 there are but few inftances in the eleftlon of popes. 
 He fliowed uncommon humility at his eleftion, and at 
 firft forbade all his relations to corne to Rome with- 
 out his leave ; but he foon became more favourable to 
 his nephews, and loaded them with favours. It Is af- 
 ferted that he had once a mind to turn Proteftant. 
 The news-papers in Holland beftowed great enco- 
 miums upon him ; and acquainted the world, that he 
 did not approve of the cruel perfccutions of the Wal- 
 
 Children. 
 
 denfes in Piedmont. Tliere is a volume of his poems Clnlblala 
 extant. He loved the Belles- Lettres, and the conver- 
 fatlon of learned men. He was extremely fond of 
 ftately buildings : the grand plan of the college Delia 
 Snpknza, which he finifiied, and adorned with a fine 
 libraiy, remains a proof of his taite in a'rchitedlure. 
 He died in 1667. 
 
 CHILBLAIN, (pernio), in medicine, a tumour 
 afFcclIng the feet and hands ; accompanied with an in- 
 flammation, pains, and fometimes an ulcer or folution 
 of continuity : in which cafe it takes the denomina- 
 tion of chaps on the hands, and of kihes on the heels. 
 Chilblain is compounded of c^i//,and blain; q. d. a blain 
 or fore contrafted by cold. Pernio is the Latin name 
 adopted by phyficians ; and Is derived by Vofiius from 
 perna " a gammon of bacon," on account of fome re- 
 femblance. Chap alludes to gape, both in found and 
 appearance. Kihes, in Welch kibws, may be derived 
 from the German herben, *' to cut;" the ilcln, when 
 broke, appearing like a cut. 
 
 Chilblains aie occafioned by exceffive cold (lopping 
 the motion of the blood in the capillary arteries. See 
 the article Pernio. 
 
 CHILD, a term of relation to parent. See Parent 
 and Children. 
 
 Barthohne, Pare, Licetus, and many other writers, 
 give an account of a petrified child, which has feemed 
 wholly incredible to fome people. The child, hov/- 
 ever, which they dcfcrlbe, is ftlll in being; and is kept 
 as a great rarity in the king of Denmark's mufeum 
 at Copenhagen. The woman who was big with this, 
 lived at Sens in Champaign in the year 1582 ; it vvaa 
 cut out of her belly, and was univerfally fuppofed to 
 have lain there about 20 years. That it is a real hu- 
 man fretus, and not artificial, is evident to the eyes of 
 any obferver; and the upper part of it, when exami- 
 ned, is found to be of a fubftance refembling the gyp- 
 fum, or ftone whereof they make the plalter of Pa- 
 ris : the lower part is m.uch harder ; the thighs and 
 buttocks being a perfecl Itone of a reddifii colour, and 
 as hard as common quarry-ftone : the grain and fur- 
 face of this part appears exaftly like that of the cal- 
 culi, or itones taken out of human bladders : and the 
 whole fubftance examined ever fo nearly, and felt 
 ever fo carefully, appears to be abfolute ftone. It 
 was carried from Sens to Paris, and there purchafed 
 by a goldfmith of Venice ; and Frederic III. king of 
 Denmark, purchafed It of this man at Venice for a very 
 large fum, and added it to his colleftion of rarities. " 
 
 CniLD-Bed, \ 
 
 73 .,! c See MmwiFERY. 
 
 Child- IVit, a power to take a fine of a bond-w«- 
 man unlawfully gotten with child, that i», without 
 confent of her lord. Every reputed father of a bafc 
 child got within the manor of Writtel in Effex, pays 
 to the lord a fine of 3 s. 4d. ; where, it feems, child- 
 wit extends to free as vi^ell as bond women. 
 
 CHILDIilRMAS-DAY, or Innocent's Day, an an- 
 niverfary held by the church of England on the 28th 
 of December, in commemoration of the children of 
 Bethlehem maftacred by order of Herod, 
 
 CHILDREN, the plural of Child. 
 
 Mr Derham computes, that marriages, one with 
 another, produce four children, not only in England, 
 but in other parts alio. 
 
 1a 
 
CHI 
 
 «hl! 'rea 
 
 In the genealogical hiftory of Tufcany, wrote by 
 Gamarini, mention is made of a nobleman of Sienna, 
 named Piclii, who of three wives had 150 children; 
 and that, being fent ambaffador to the pope and the 
 emperor, he had 48 of his fons in his retinue. In a 
 monument in the church-yard of St Innocent, at Pa- 
 ris, erefted to a woman who died at 88 years of age, 
 it is recorded, that fhe might have feen 2^% children 
 diredlly iffued from her. This exceeds wliat Hake- 
 well relates of Mrs Honeywood, a gentlewoman of 
 Kent, born in the year 1527, and married at 16 to 
 her only hufband R. Honeywood, of Charing, Efq; 
 aiid died in her 93d year. She had 16 chUdren of her 
 awn body ; of which three died y«ung, arid a fourth 
 had no iftue : yet her grandchildren, in the fecond ge- 
 neration, amounted to 114; in the third, to 228; 
 though in the fourth, they fell to 9. The whole num- 
 ber fhe might have feen in her life-time, being 367. 
 16+114+228-1-9=367. So that (he could fay the 
 fame as the diilich does of one of the Dalburg's fa- 
 mily at Baiil: 
 
 ^ . ^ . 3 4 
 
 Mater mt nata die nata Jilia natam, 
 
 5 6 
 Ut moneat, nata, plangnre^JUlolam. 
 Management of Children. See Infant. 
 Overlaying of Children, is a misfortune that fre- 
 quently happens; to prevent which, the Florentines 
 have contrived an inftrument called arcucclo. See Ar- 
 
 GUCCIO. 
 
 Children are,, in law, a man's iflue begotten on 
 his wife. As to illegitimate children, fee Bastard. 
 
 For the legal duties of parents to their children, 
 fee the articles Parent and Bastard. 
 
 As to the duties of children to their parents, they 
 arife from a principle of natural juflice and retribu- 
 tion. For to thofe who gave us exigence, we natu- 
 rally owe fubjeftion and obedience during our mino- 
 rity, and honour and reverence ever after : they who 
 protefted the weaknefs of our infancy, arc intitled to 
 our proteftion. in the infirmity of their age ; they 
 who by fuftenance and education have enabled their 
 offspring to profper, ought, iu return, to be fupported 
 by that oflFspring, in cafe they ftand in need of affill- 
 ance. Upon this principle proceed all the duties of 
 children to their parents,, which are enjoined by poii-- 
 tive laws. And the Athenian laws carried this prin- 
 ciple nito pra6tice with a fcrupulous kind of nicety ; 
 obliging all children to provide for their father when 
 fallen into poverty; with an exception to fpurious 
 children, to thofe whofe chaflity had been proftitutcd 
 with confent of their father, and to thofe whom he, 
 had not put In any way of gaining a Hvelihood. The 
 legiflature, fays baron Montefquleu, confidered, th;:t,. 
 in the firfl cafe, the fathar, being uncertain, had ren- 
 dered the natural obligation precarious ; that, in the 
 fecond cafe, he had fullied the life he had given, and 
 done his children the greateil of injuries, in depri- 
 ving them of their reputation ;, and that, in the third 
 cafe, he had rendered their life (fo far as in him lay) 
 an infupportable burden, by, furnifhing them with no 
 means of fubfiftence. 
 
 Our laws agree with thofe of Athens, with reeard 
 
 [ 1 
 
 c H r 
 
 the tie of nature to be diiTolved by any mii'bthaviour 
 of the parent ; and therefore a child is equally jufti- ' 
 fiabie iu defending the perfon, or maintaining the 
 caufe or fuit, of a bad parent as of a good one; and is- 
 equally ccmptlhible, if of lufficicnt ability, to malntaia 
 iand provide for a wicked and unnatural progenito.-, 
 as for one who has fhown the greatefl tendernefs and 
 parental piety. See further the article Filial Afeaion. 
 
 CHILI, a province of South America, bounded by 
 Peru on the north, by the province of La Plata on 
 the eaft, by Patagonia on the fouth, and by the Pacific 
 ocean on the welt, lying between 75 and 85 degrees 
 of well longitude, and between 25 and 45 degrees of- 
 fonth latitude ; though fome comprehend in this pro- 
 vince Patagonia and I'erra del Fuego. 
 
 The firft attempt of the Spaniards upon this coun- 
 try was made by Almagro in the year 1535, after he 
 and Pizaro had completed the conquefl.of Peru. He 
 fet out on his expedition to Chlh with a confiderable 
 body of Spaniards and auxiliary Indians. For 200 
 leagues he was well accem.modated with every nc- 
 ceirary by the Indians, who had been fubjeds of the 
 emperors of Peru: but reaching the barren country 
 of Charcas, his troops became difcontented through 
 the hardlhips they fufiered ; which determined Alma- 
 gro to climb the mountains called Cordilleras, in order 
 to get the fooner into Chili; being ignorant of the in- 
 valuable mines of Potofi, contained in the province ol 
 Charcas where he then was. At that time the Cor- 
 dilleras were covered with fnow, the depth of which 
 obliged him to dig his way through it. The cold 
 made fuch an imprefTion on his naked Indians, that it 
 is computed no lefs than -10,000 of them perlfhed on. 
 thefe dreadful mountains, 150 of the Spaniards fliaring- 
 the fame fate ; while many of the furvivors loft their 
 fingers and toes through the excels of cold. At laft,, 
 after encountering incredible difficulties,- Almagro 
 reached a fine, temperate,, and fertile plain on the op- 
 pofite fide of the Cordilleras, where he was received 
 with the greateft kindnefs b)i the natives. Thefe poor 
 fayages, taking the Spaniards for deputies of their god. 
 Virachoca, immediately collefted for them an ofi'ering- 
 of gold and filver worth 200,000 ducats : and foon . 
 after brought a prcfent to Almagro worth 300,000. 
 more. Thefe oflerings only determined him to con- 
 quer the whole country as foon as poffible. The In- 
 dians among whom he now was, had acknowledged.^ 
 the authority of the Peruvian incas, or emperors, and 
 confequently gave Almagro no, trouble. He therefore 
 marched immediately againfl thofe who had never 
 been conquered by the Peruvians, and Inhabited the 
 fouthern parts of Chill. Thefe favages. fought with, 
 great refolution, and difputed every inch of ground : 
 but in five months time the, Spaniards had made fuch 
 progrrefs, that they mull infallibly have reduced the 
 whole province in a very little time, had not Almagro 
 returned to Peru, in confequence of a conitniffion fint 
 him from Spain. 
 
 In 1540, Pizaro having overcome and put Alma- 
 gro to death, fent into Chili, Baldivia or Valdivia, 
 who had learned the rudiments of war in Italy, and 
 was reckoned one of the beft . officers in the Spanifh . 
 fervice. As he penetrated fouthwards, however, he- 
 
 Chili, 
 
 to .he &ft o^y of there particulars, th^ ^^io. ^uch „p^ 
 
 «o« .(Tue. I„ the other cafes, the law does not hoM frequently gave battle", and d4t;^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 3, rasre 
 
CHI t 648 ] CHI 
 
 Cliii;. ra^c and rcfolutlon ; but could not prevent him from ces Into bodies of 1000 cacli. Thefe he dii-edcd to ^ 
 
 ■ penetnitlnc^ to the valley of Mafiocho, which he found attack the enemy by turns ; and, though he did not 
 
 incredibly lertile and populous. Here he founded the expeft that a fmgle thoufand would put them to flight, 
 
 city of St Jago ; and finding gold mines in the neigh- he dlrefted them to make as long a ftand as they could; 
 
 bourhood, forced the Indians to work in them ; at the when they were to be relieved and fupported by ano- 
 
 fame time building a caftle for the fafety and protec- ther body ; and thus the Spaniards would be at lalt 
 
 tion of his new colony. The natives, exafperated at wearied out and overcome. The event fully anfwered 
 
 thisflavery, immediately took up arms; attacked the his expeaations. The Chilefians maintained a fight 
 
 fort ; and^ though defeated and repulfed, fet fire to for feven or eight hours, until the Spaniards, grow- 
 
 the outworks, which contained aU the provifions of the ing faint for want of refrefliment, retired precipitately. 
 
 Spaniards. Nor were they dlicouraged by this and Valdivia ordered them to pofTefsa pafs at lome ddtance 
 
 ^any other defeats, but ftill continued to carry on the from the field, to flop the purfuit; hut this defign be- 
 
 war with vigour. At laft, Valdivia, having overcome ing difcovered to the Chilefians by the treachery of 
 
 them in many battles, forced the inhabitants of the his page, who was a native of that country, the Spa- 
 vale to fubmit ; upon which he immediately fet them niards were furrounded on aU fides, and cut in pieces 
 to work in the mines of Ouilotta. This indignity qf- by the Indians. The general was taken and put to 
 fered to their countrymen redoubled the fury of thofe death : fome fay with the tortures uliially inflitted by 
 who remained at liberty. Their utmoft efforts, how- thofe favages on theii prifoners ; others, that he had 
 
 ever, were as yet unable to Hop Valdlvia's progrtfs. 
 Having eroded the- large rivers MuuUe and Hata, be 
 traverfed a vail trad of country, and founded the city 
 of La Conception on the South-fea-coaft. He eredted 
 fortrelTes in leveral parts of the country, in order to 
 keep the natives in awe ; and built the city called Im- 
 jserial, about 40 leagues to the fouthward of Concep- 
 tion. The S'panifti writers fay, that the neighbouring 
 valley contained 80,000 Inhabitants of a peaceable dif- 
 pofitlon ; and who were even fo tame as to fufier Val- 
 divia to parcel out their lands among his followers, 
 while they themfelves remained In a ftate of Inaftlvlty. 
 About 16 leagues to the enftward of Imperial, the Spa 
 
 melted gold poured down his throat ; but all agree, 
 that the Indians made flutes and other inftruments of 
 his bones, and preferved his flcuU as a monument of 
 their vlftory, which they celebrated by an annual fef- 
 tivah After this vitloiy the Chilefians had another 
 engagement with their enemies ; in which alio they 
 proved vlftorious, defeating the Spaniards with the 
 lofs of near 3000 men ; and upon this they bent their 
 whole force agalnft the colonies. The city of Con- 
 ception, being abandoned by the Spaniards, was taken 
 and deftroyed : but the Indians were forced to ralfe 
 the fiege of Imperial ; and their progrefs was at laft: 
 flopped by Garcia de Mendoza, who defeated Capau- 
 
 nlfli general laid the foundations of the city Filla Rica, Ucan, took him prifuner, and put him to death. No 
 
 fo called on account of the rich gold mines he found 
 there. But his ambition and avarice had now Involved 
 him in difficulties from which he could never be ex- 
 tricated : He had extended his conquefts beyond what 
 his ftrength was capable of maintaining. The Chile- 
 fians were IHU as defirous as ever of recovering their 
 liberties. The horfes, fire-arms, and armour of the 
 Spaniards, indeed, appeared dreadful to them ; but 
 thoughts of endkfs flavery were ftill more fo. In the 
 courfe of the war they had difcovered that the Spa- 
 niards were vulnerable and mortal men like themfelves; 
 
 defeats, however, could difplrit the Chilefians. They 
 continued the war for 50 years ; and to this day they 
 remain unconquered, and give the Spaniards more 
 trouble than any other American nation. Their mofl; 
 irrcconcikable enemies are the Inhabitants of Araccea 
 and Tucapel, thofe to the fouth of the river Bobio, 
 or whofe country extends towards the Cordilleras. — 
 The manners of thefe people greatly refemble thofe of 
 North America, which we have already defcrlbed un- 
 der the article America; but feem to have a more 
 warlike difpofitlon. It is a conftant rule with tlie Chi- 
 
 thev hoped, therefore, by dint of their fuperlority in lefians never to fue for peace. The Spaniards are ob 
 
 numbers, to be able to expel the tyrannical ufurpers 
 Had all the nations joined In this refolutlon, the Spa- 
 niards had certainly been exterminated ; but fome of 
 them w^ere of a pacific and fearful difpofitlon, while 
 others confidered fervitude as the greateft of all pof' 
 fible calamities. Of this laft opinion were the Arac 
 
 liged not only to make the hrft overtures, but to pur- 
 chale it by prefents. They have at lail been obliged 
 to abandon all thoughts of extending their conquefts, 
 and reduced to cover their frontiers by eredling- forts 
 at proper diftances. 
 
 The Spanilh colonies in Chili are difpei-fed on the 
 
 , the moft Intrepid people in Chili, and who had borders of the South-fea_. They are parted from Peru 
 
 p-Iven Valdivia the greateft trouble. They all rofe to a 
 inan, and chofe Capaullcan, a renowned hero among 
 them, for their leader. Valdivia, liowever, received 
 notice of their revolt fooner than they intended he 
 fhould, and returned with all expedition to the vale of 
 Araccea ; but before he arrived, 14,000 of the Chi- 
 lefians were there affembled under the conduA of Car 
 paulican. He attacked them with his cavalry, and 
 forced them to retreat into the woods ; but could not 
 obtain a complete viftory, as they kept continually 
 fallving out and haraffing his men. At laft Capauh- 
 can', having obferved that fighting with fuch a num- 
 ber of undifcipllned troops only ferved to contribute to 
 the defeat and con.fufion of the whole, divided his for- 
 
 No 77. 
 
 by a defert 80 leagues In breadth ; and bounded by 
 the ifland of Chlloe, at the extremity next the ftralts 
 of Magellan. There are no fettlements on the coaft 
 except thole of Baldlvia, Conception Ifland, Valparalfo., 
 and Coqulmbo or La Serena, which are all lea-ports. 
 In the inland country Is St Jago, the capital of the co- 
 lony. There is no culture nor habitation at any dl- 
 ftance from thefe towns. The buildings In tiie whole 
 province are low, made of unburnt brick, and moftly 
 thatched. This practice is obferved on account of 
 the frequent earthquakes ; and is properly adapted to 
 tlie nature of the climate, as v/ell as the indolence of 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 The cHmate of Chili is one of the moft wholefome 
 2 in 
 
C H I 
 
 in the whole world. The vicinity of the Cordilleras 
 _ gives it fuch a delightful temperature as could not 
 'j otherwife he expefted in that latitude. Though gold 
 mines are found in it, their richnefs has been too much 
 e^it oiled ; their produce never exceeds L. 218,750. 
 The foil is prodigiously fertile. All the European 
 fruits have improved in that happy- climate. The 
 wine would be excellent if nature were properly af- 
 fifted by art : and the corn-harveft is reckoned a bad 
 one when it does not yield a hundred fold. With all 
 thefe advantages, Chili has no direcl intercourfe with 
 the mother-couHti-y. Their trade is confined to Peru, 
 Paraguay, and the favages on their frontiers. With 
 thefe laft they exchange their lefs valuable commodi- 
 ties, for oxen, hovfcs, and their own children, whom 
 ■they are ready to part with for the moll trifling things. 
 Tills province fupplies Peru with great plenty of hides, 
 xlried fruit, copper, falt-meat, liorfes, hemp, lard, 
 wheat, and gold. In exchange, it receives tobacco, 
 fagar, cocoa, earthen-ware, woollen cloth, hnen, hats, 
 made at Quito, and every article of luxitry brought 
 from Europe. The fliips fent from Callao on this 
 traffic were formerly bound to Conception Bay, but 
 now come to Valparaifo. The commerce between this 
 province and Paraguay is carried on by land, though 
 it is a journey of 300 leagues, 40 of wb.ich lie through 
 the fnows and precipices of Cordilleras ; but if it was 
 carried on by fea, they mull either pafs the ftraits 
 of Magellan or double Cape Horn, which the Spa- 
 niards always avoid as much as polfible. To Para- 
 guay are fent fome woollen ftuffs called porichos, 
 which are ufed for cloaks ; alfo wines, brandy, oil, 
 and chiefly gold. In return they receive wax, a 
 kind of tallow fit to make foap, European goods, and 
 negroes. 
 
 _ CbiH is governed by a chief, who is abfolute in all 
 civil, political, and mihtary affairs, and is alfo in-de- 
 pendent of the viceroy. The latter has no authority 
 except wb.cn a governor dies ; in wliich cafe he may 
 appoint one in his room for a time, till the mother- 
 
 [ 649 ] 
 
 G H I 
 
 may be refolvcd into as many triangles as k has fidss. Chni^rcha 
 The author of iWh-t de Penfer, p. 44. has brought this " 
 inftance to (how the diftinftion between imagination , ' j 
 and conceiving. ^ " 
 
 CHILTARCHA, or Chiliarchus, an officer In 
 the arm.ies of the ancients, who had the command of 
 a thoufand men. 
 
 CHILIASTS, in church-hiilory. See Mill en A- 
 
 RIANS. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH (William), an eminent di- 
 vine of the church of England, was born at Oxford 
 in 1602, and bred there. He made early great pro- 
 ficiency in his ftudies, being of a very quick genius. 
 He^ was an expert mathematician, as well as an able 
 divine, and a very good poet. Study and converfa- 
 tion at the univerlity turning upon the controverfy 
 between the church of England and that of Rome, on 
 account of the king's marriage with Henrietta daugh- 
 ter to Henry IV. king of France, Mr Chillingworth 
 forfook the church of England, and embraced the 
 Romifh religion. Dr Laud, then bilhop of London» 
 hearing of this, and being greatly concerned at it, 
 wrote Mr Chillingworth ; who expreffing a gi-eat deal 
 of candour and impartiality, that prelate continued to 
 correfpond with him. This fet Mr Chillingworth on 
 a new inquiry ; and at laft determined him to return 
 to his former religion. In 1634 he wrote a confuta- 
 tion of the arguments which liad induced him to go 
 over to the church of Rome. He fpoke freely to his 
 friends of all the difficulties that occurred to him ; 
 which gave occafion to a groundlefs report, that hr 
 had turned Papift a fecond time, and then Proteftant 
 again. His return to the communion of the church 
 of England made a great noife, and engaged him in 
 feveral difputes with thofe of the Romifh perfuafion. 
 But in 1635 he engaged in a work which gave him a 
 far greater opportunity to confute the principles of the 
 cliurch of Rome, and to vindicate the Proteftant re- 
 ligion, under the title of " The Religion of Prote- 
 Itants a fafe Way to Salvation." Sir Thomas Coven- 
 
 ' - . r rr t r r ".v...i.v.- a lai, . » ay l<j kjaivrttxun. Oir i. flOmaS L;OVen 
 
 country names a fucceffor. If, on fome occafions, the try, lord keeper of the great feal, offering him ore 
 
 viceroy has interfered in the government of Chili, it 
 was when lie has been either authorifed by a particu- 
 lar trufl repofed in him by the court, or by tlie defe- 
 rtnce paid to the eminence of his office ; or v/hen he 
 lias been aduated by his own ambition to extend his 
 nuthority. In the whole province of Cliili there are 
 not 20,coo white men, and not more than 60,000 ne- 
 groes, or Indians, able to bear arms. The mihtary 
 eftablifliment amounted formerly to 2000 men ; but 
 the maintaining of them being found too expenfive, 
 thty were reduced to 500 at the beginning of this 
 century. 
 
 ferment, Mr Chillingworth refufed to accept it on ac- 
 count of his fcruples with regard to the fubfcription of 
 the 39 articles. However, he at laft furmounted thefe 
 fcruples ; and being promoted to the chancellorfhip 
 of the church of Sarum, with the prebend of Brix- 
 worth in Northamptonfhire annexed to it, he com- 
 plied with the ufual fubfcription. Mr Chillingworth 
 was zealoufly attached to the royal party; and, in 
 Auguft 1643, was prefent in king Charles I.'s army 
 at the fiege of Gloucefter, where he advifed and di- 
 refted the making certain engines for affauhing the 
 town. Soon after, having accompanied the Lord 
 
 PMrTTA-p> n- n rr i , .^wv.,. cixl^i, ndviuw ^Lwiupauiea tne JLorcl 
 
 "T r , ' ^" .^^r^^^^^J-'ge ^^everal tnings ranged Hopton, general of the kind's forces in the weft to 
 
 by thoufands. I'he word is formed of the Greek 
 niiliey a ihouland. 
 CHILIAGON, in geometry-, a regular plain figure 
 of 100 lules and angles. Though the imagina'tion 
 cannot form tlie idea of fuch a figure, yet we may 
 
 Arundel caftle in SufTex, he was there taken prifoner 
 by the parliamentary forces under the command of Sir 
 William Waller, who obliged the caftle to furrender. 
 But his illoefs increafing, he obtained leave to be 
 conveyed to Chichefter, where he was lodged at the bi- 
 
 have a very clear notion of it in the mmd, and can fhop's palace ; and, after a fhort ficknefs, died in 1644. 
 
 eali y demonffrate that the fum of ail its angles is e- He hath left feveral excellent works behind him 
 
 ^ual to 1996 right ones: for the internal angles of CHILMINAR. See Persepolis 
 
 every plane figure a.-e equal to twice as many right CHILD, one of the feven fages of Greece, and of 
 
 ones as the figure hath fides, except thofe four which the ephori of Sparta the place of his birth, flourilTied 
 
 %?L.1v PaTiT ^'""^ ""^''"^ ^^f^'-^ Chrift. He was ^ccuftomed 
 
 4 N to 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 65 
 
 Chiloe 
 il 
 
 Chimaera 
 
 to fay, that there were three things very difficult 
 " To keep a fecret ; to know how beft to employ 
 , c-ur time ; and to fufFer injuries without murmur- 
 ing." According to Pliny, it was he who caufed 
 the (hort fentence, Knoiv thyftlf, to be written in let- 
 ters of gold in the temple of Delphos. It is faid that 
 he died with joy, while embracing his fon, who had 
 been crowned at the Olympic games. 
 
 CHILOE, an ifland lying near the coaft of Chili, 
 in South America, under the 43d degree of fouth la- 
 titude. It is the chief of an archipelago of 40 iflands, 
 and its principal town is Caftro. It rains here almofl 
 all the year, infomuch that nothing but Indian corn, 
 or fome fuch grain, that requires but little heat to ri- 
 pen it, can ever come to perfedlion. They have ex- 
 cellent fliell-fifh, very good wild-fowl, hogs, iheep, and 
 beeves ; as alfo a great deal of honey and wax. They 
 curry on a trade with Peru and Chili ; whither they 
 fend boards of cedar, of which they have vaft forettr.. 
 
 CIIILTENHAM, a town in Gloucellerfhire, fix 
 miles from Gloucefter ; noted for its purgative chaly- 
 Beat fpring, which has rendered it of late years a place 
 of fafhionable refort. This wa,ter, which operates with 
 great eafe, is deemed excellent in fcorbutic comxpkints, 
 and has been ufed with fuccefs in the gravel. 
 
 CHILTERN, a chain of chalky hills forming the 
 fouthern part of BuckinghamOiire, the northern part 
 of the county being diftingulflied by the name of the 
 Vide. The air on thefe heights is extremely health- 
 ful : The foil, though ftoney, produces good crops of 
 wheat and barley ; and in many places it is covered 
 with thick woods, among which are great quantities 
 of beach.— C/j/'&ra is alfo applied to the hilly parts 
 of Berkfhire, and it is believed has the fame meaning 
 in fome other counties. Hence the Hundreds lying 
 in thofe parts are called the Chiltern Hundreds. 
 
 Chiltern Hundreds {Steivards of.) Of the Hundreds 
 into which many of theEnglilTi counties were diylded by 
 Kino- Alfred for the better government, the jurifdidion 
 V. as originally veiled in peculiar courts ; but came after- 
 wards to be devolved to the county courts, and fo re- 
 mains at prefent ; excepting with regard to fome, as the 
 chlkerns, which have been by privilege annexed to the 
 crown. Thefe having Itill their own courts, a Steward 
 of thofe courts is appointed by the chancellor of the 
 exchequer, with a falary of 20s. and all fees, &c. be- 
 longing to the office : And this is deemed an appoint- 
 ment of fuch profit, as to vacate a feat in parliament. 
 
 CHlMuERx^, a port-town of Turkey in Europe, 
 filuated at the entrance of the gulph of Venice, in the 
 -province of Epirus, about 32 miles north of the city 
 Corfu, near v/hich are the mountains of Chimera, 
 which divide Epirus from ThelTaly. E. Long. 20. 40. 
 
 N. Lat. 40. 20. , , J 
 
 Chimera, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated mon- 
 fter, fprung from Echidna arid Typhon. It had three 
 heads ; that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon ; and con- 
 tinually vomited flames. The forepart* of its body 
 were thofe of a lion, the middle was that of a goat, 
 and the hinder parts were thofe of a dragon. It ge- 
 nerally Hved in Lycia, about the reign of Jobates, by 
 whofe orders Bellerophon, mounted on the horfe Pe- 
 gafus, overcame it. This fabulous tradition is explain- 
 ed by the recolleftion that there was a burning moun- 
 tain in Lycia, whofc top was the refort of lions on 
 
 4 
 
 o 1 CHI 
 
 account of its defolate wildernefs ; the middle, which ^ Chimes, 
 was fruitful, was covered with goats; ar\d at the hot- 
 torn the marfhy ground abounded with ferpents. Bel- 
 lerophon is faid to have conquered the Cliimsra, be- 
 caufe he deftroyed the v/ild beafts on that mountain, 
 and rendered it habitable. Plutarch fays that it was the 
 captain of fome pirates who adorned their fhip with 
 the images of a Hon, a goat, and a dragon. 
 
 By a ch'micra, among the philofophers, is under- 
 ilood a^ere creature of the imagination, compofed 
 of fuch contvadlftions and abfurdities as cannot pof- 
 fibly any where exill but in thought. 
 
 CHIMES of a Clock, a kind of periodical muiic, 
 produced at equal intervals of time, by means of a 
 particular apparatus added to a clock. 
 
 In-order to calculate numbers for the chimes, and 
 adapt the chime-barrel, it mull be obferved, that the 
 barrel muft turn round in the fame time that the Lime 
 it is to play requires in fmging. As for the ciiime- 
 barrel, it may be made up of certain bars that run 
 athwart it, with a convenient number of holes punch- 
 ed in them to put in the pins that are to dr v, \:\\. 
 hamm.er : and thefe pins, in order to play tlie : - of 
 the tune rightly, mull; Hand upriglit, or huiig down. 
 from the bar, fome more, fome lefs. To place the 
 pins rightly, you may proceed by the way of changes 
 on bells, viz. i, 2, 3, 4; or rather make ufe of the 
 mufical notes. Obfeive what is. the compafs of yom-. 
 tune, and divide the barrel accordingly from end to end. 
 
 Thus, in the examples on Plate CXXXVII. each 
 of the tunes is eight notes in com.pafs ; and accor- 
 dingly the barrel is divided into eight parts. Thefe 
 diviiions are ftruck round the barrel; oppofitc to- 
 which are the hammer-tails. 
 
 We fpeak here as if there were only one hammer 
 to each bell, that it may be more clearly apprehend- 
 ed ; but when two notes of tlie fame found come to- 
 gether in a tune, there mud be tv.'o hammers to the 
 bell to Ih-ike it : fo that if in all the tunes you intend 
 to chime of eight notes compafs, there {hould happen 
 to be fuch double notes on every bell, inflead of eight 
 yon mull have fixteen hammers ; and accordingly you 
 muft divide the barrel, and llrikc fixteen ftrokes round ^ 
 it, oppofite to each hammer-tail : then you are to di- 
 vide it round about into as many divifions as there 
 are mufical bars, lemibreves, minims, .'cc. in the tune. 
 
 Thus the hundredth-pfalm tune has 20 femibreves, 
 and each divifion of it is a femibreve: the firft note 
 of it alfo is a femibreve ; and, therefore, on the chime- 
 barrel muft be a whole divifion, from five to five ; as 
 you may underftand plainly, if you conceive the fur- 
 face of a chime-barrel to be reprefented by the above 
 figures, as if the cylindrical fuperficies of the barrel 
 were ftretched out at length, or extended on a plane : 
 and then fuch a table, fo divided, if it were to be 
 wrapped roiyid the barrel, would fhow the places where 
 all the pins are to ftand in the barrel ; for the dots 
 running about the- table are the places of the pins that 
 play the tune. 
 
 Indeed, if the chimes are to be complete, you ought 
 to have a fet of bells to the gamut notes ; fo as that 
 each bell having the true found of fol, ^^h nd, fa, you 
 may play any tune with its flats and iharps : nay, you 
 may by this means play both the bafs and treble with 
 one barrel : and by fettlng the names of year bells at 
 
 the 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 651 ] 
 
 CHI 
 
 Cliiinney., the head of any tune, that tune may eafily be tranf- 
 ' " V " ferred to the chime-barrel, without any Ikill in mufic : 
 but it mult be obferved, that each line in the mufic is 
 three notes diftant ; that is, there is a note between 
 each line, as well as upon it. 
 
 CHIMNEY, in architefture, a particular part of a 
 houfe, where the fire is made, having a tube or funnel 
 ,to cany off the fmoke. The word chimney comes 
 from the French cheminee ; and that from the Latin 
 caminata, " a chamber wherein is a chimney :" cam'mata, 
 again, comes from cam'mus ; and that from the Greek 
 xa^.iv(^, «< a chimney ;" of uro " I bum." 
 
 Chimneys are ufually fuppofed a modern invention; 
 the ancients only making ufe of ftoves : but Oftavio 
 Ferrari endeavours to prove chimneys in ufe among 
 the ancients. To this end, he cites tlie authority of 
 Virgil, 
 
 Et jam fumma proful vUlarum culmina fummt : 
 and that of Appian, who fays, " That of thofe per- 
 fons profcribed by the triumvirate, fome hid them- 
 felves in wells and common fewcrs, and fome on 
 the tops of houfes and chimneys ;" for fo he under- 
 Rands ^ '^"^^^li ^^"po^i^Cjfumarla fub teilo pofila. Add, 
 that Ariftophanes, in one of his comedies, introduces 
 his old man, Polycleon, (hut up in a chamber, whence 
 he endeavours to make his efcape by the chimney. 
 However, the few inftances remaining among the an- 
 cients, together with the obfcurity of the rules of Vi- 
 truvius on this head, make us rather conclude the ufe 
 of ftoves, whereof the ancients had entire apartments, 
 induced them to negleft this part of building which 
 the coldnefs of our climates obliges us to have a prin- 
 cipal regard to. 
 
 Method of Building Cvimnf.ys that nvill not fmoke. 
 V/ orkmen have difterent methods of drawing up the 
 funnels of chimneys, generally accprding to their own 
 fancies and judgments, and fometimcs according to the 
 cuftoms of places. They are feldom diretled by found 
 and rational principles. It will be found for the molt 
 part, that the fmoking of chimneys is owing to their 
 being carried up narrower near the top than below, or 
 zig-zag, all in angles : in fome cafes, indeed, it is 
 Owing to accidental caufes ; but, for the moil part, 
 to thofe two above mentioned. Where they are car- 
 ried up in the pyramid or tapering form, efpecially if 
 the houfe be of a confiderable height, it is ten to one 
 but they fometimes fi:\oke. The air in the rooms, 
 being rarined, is forced into the funnel cf the chim- 
 jiey, and receives from the fire an additional force to 
 carry up the fmoke. Now it is evident, that the fur- 
 ther up the fmoke flies, the lefs is the force that drives 
 it, the flower it muft move, and confequently the 
 more room in proportion it fhould have to move in ; 
 whereas in the ufual way it has lefs, by the fides of 
 the chimney being gathered clofer and clofer toge- 
 ther. 
 
 The method here propofed of carrying up chim- 
 neys will be obje£led to by fome thus ; The wider a 
 chimney is at the top, fay they, the more liberty has 
 the wind to blow down. Very true ; but is it not re- 
 fifted in going down, both by the form of tlie chim- 
 ney and other evident caufes, fo that it mult return 
 again ? In the other way, when the wind blows down, 
 the refiltance being lefs, the wind and fmoke are, if 
 we may ufe the exprefiion, imprifoned, and make the 
 
 fmoke puff out below. This method has proved eft. Chimney 
 feAual after all others had failed ; and that in a houfe [I 
 placed in the worft fituation poffibly, namely, und^r a , 
 high mountain to the fouthward, from which ftrong 
 blafts blow down upon it. A vent was carried tip 
 without angles, as perpendicular as poffible ; and was 
 made about three or four inches wider at top than at 
 the bottom : the funnel was gathered in a throat di- 
 rectly above the fire-place, and fo widening upwards. 
 Since that time the houfe has not only ceafed to fmoke^ 
 but, when the doors ftand open, the draught is fo 
 ftrong that it will carry a piece of paper out at the 
 chimney-head. See more on this fubjcdt under the 
 article Smoke. 
 
 Ch iMNEY-Money, otherwife called Hearth-money ^ a 
 duty to the crown on houfes. By ftat. i^. Char. 11. 
 cap. 2. every fire-hearth, and ftove of every dwelling 
 or other houfe, within England and Wales (except 
 fuch as pay not to church and poor), was chargeable 
 with 2 s. per annum, payable at Michaelmas and Lady- 
 day to the king and his heirs axid fucceffors, l^c. ; 
 which payment was commonly called chimney -money. 
 This tax, being much complained of as burdenfome 
 to the people, has been fince taken off, and others 
 impofed in its ftead ; among which that on win- 
 dows has by fome been elleemed almoft equally grie- 
 vous. 
 
 CHIMPANZEE, in natural hiftory. See SiMiA, ' 
 CHINA, a country of Afia, fituated on the moft E^^^f.^'j."'' 
 eaftarly part of that continent. It is bounded on the ' 
 north by Tartary ; from which it is divided, partly by 
 a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length, and partly 
 by high, craggy, and inacceffible mountains. On the 
 eaft. It is bounded by the ocean ; on the weft, by part 
 of the Mogul's empire, and India beyond the Ganges, 
 from which it is parted by other ridges of high moun- 
 tains and fandy deferts. On the fouth, it is^'bounded 
 partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and 
 Cochin-China, and paitly by the fouthern or Indian 
 fea, which flows between it and the Philippine iflands. 
 There are feveral ways of computing its length and 
 breadth. According to fome of thefe, it is reckoned 
 1269, 1600, or 1800 miles in length, and as much in 
 breadth : however, by the beft and lateft accounts, 
 this vaft country is fomewhat of an oval form, the 
 breadth being lefs than the length by little more ^ 
 than a fourth-part. It contains 15 provinces, exclu- Divifion in- 
 five of that of Lyau-tong, which is fituated without the provin- 
 great wall, though under the fame dominion. Their 
 names are, i. Shenfi ; 2. Shanfi ; 3. Pecheli: which 
 are fituated on the north fide, along the wall. 4. Slian- 
 tong ; 5. Kyan-nang; 6. Che-kyang ; 7. Fo-kyen : 
 which are fituated along the caftern ocean. 8. Quang- 
 tong; 9. Quangfi ; 10. Yu-nan ; 11. Se-chuen : 
 which Itretch themfelves towards the fouth and 
 fouth-weft. And, 12. Ho-nan ; 13. Hu-quand ; 14. 
 Quey-chew ; 15. Kyang-fi : which take up the middle 
 part. For a particular defcription of all thefe, fee 
 their proper articles. 
 
 The origin of all nations is involved in obfcurity 5 
 
 and fable 
 any other 
 
 but that of the Chlntfe much more fo than ^^^'^^^^ 
 
 _ Every nation is inchned to affume too ['o^nl'km?' 
 high an aniquity to itfelf, but the Chinefe carry theirs ty. 
 beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on 
 earth are more exaft in keeping records of every me- 
 4 N 2 morable 
 
C H I 
 
 t 652 ] 
 
 G H I 
 
 china. 
 
 Why their 
 Julcury 1 
 fo uncer 
 tain. 
 
 Pabulous 
 hiftory of 
 China. 
 
 moraWe traafa£lton, yet fuch is the genius of the Chi- 
 ncfe for fuperilition and fitble, that the firil part of 
 their hiilory is defervedly contemned by every ratio- 
 nal perfon. What contributes more to the uncertain- 
 ty of the Chinefe hiitory is, that neither we, nor they 
 themfelves, have any thing but fragments of their an- 
 cient hiftorical books ; for about 213 years before Chriit, 
 the reigning emperor of Si-whang-ti caufed all the 
 books in the empire to be burned, e>:cept thofe writ- 
 ten by lawyers and phyficians. Nay, the more ei- 
 fetlally to deftroy the memory of every thing con- 
 tained in them, Jie commanded a great number of 
 learned men to be buried alive, left, from their me- 
 mories, they ftiould commit to writing fomething 
 of the tnie memoirs of the empire. The inaccuracy 
 of the Chinefe annals is complained of even by their 
 moil refpetted author, Confucius himftlf ; wlxo alio 
 affirms, that, before his time, many of the oldell ma- 
 terials for wiiting fuch annals had been dellroyed. 
 
 According to the Ciiinefe hillories, the lirll monarch 
 of the whole univerfe (that is, of China), was called 
 Puon-lu, or Fuen-cu. This, according to feme, was 
 the hrlt man ; but according to Bayer and Mcnze- 
 lius, two of the greateil critics in Chinefe litera- 
 ture that have hitherto appeared, the word iignifies 
 the hlgheji mtiqu'iiy. Puon-ku was fucceeded by Tiene- 
 hoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven. They call 
 him alfo the intelligent heaven, t'le fupreme king of 
 the middle heaven, ijc. According to fome of their 
 hillorians, he was the inventor of letters, and oi the Cy- 
 clic characlers by which they determ.ine the place of the 
 year, iffc. Tieue-h6ang was fucceeded by Ti-hoang 
 (the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and 
 tiight, appointing 30 darys to make one moon, and fix- 
 ed the winter folilice to the iithmoon. Ti-hoang 
 was fucceeded by Gine-hoang (fovereign of men), 
 who with his nine brothers lhared the government a- 
 mong them. They built cities-, and furrounded them 
 ■with walls ; made a dillin^tion between the fovereign 
 and fubjjfts ; inltituted marriage, Sfft. 
 
 The reigns of thefe four emperors make up one of 
 what the Chinefe called ki, " ages," or " periods," of 
 which there were nine before Fo-hi, whom their moil 
 fenhble people acknowledge as the founder of their 
 empire. 
 
 The liiftory of the fecond k'l contradifts almoft eve- 
 ry thing faid of the firH ; for though we have but jull 
 HOW been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built 
 cities furrounded with walls ; yet, in the fuCceeding 
 age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees 
 as it were in nefts. Of the third ki we hear nothing ; 
 ^md in the fourth, it feems matters had been ttill worfe, 
 as we are told that men were then only taught to re- 
 tire into the lioUows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth 
 we have no accounts. Thefe fix periods, according to 
 fome writers, contained 90,000 years ; according to 
 others, 1,100,750. 
 
 In the feventh and eighth k'l, they tell us over again 
 •what they had faid of the firft ; namely, that men be- 
 gan to leave their caves and dwell in houfes, and were 
 taught to prepare clothes, i^c. Tchine-fang, tlie firil 
 monarch of the eighth kl, taught his fubjefts to take 
 off the hair from ilcins with rollers of wood, and co- 
 ver themfelves with the fldns fo prepared. He taught 
 
 them alfo to make a kind of web of their hair, to ferve Chin*; 
 as a. covering to their heads againft rain. They obeyed — — v"""* 
 his orders with joy,' and he called his {\}b]tQi!, people 
 clothed ivith Jk'ins. His reign lafted 350 years ; that 
 of one of his fucceffors, alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi, 
 lafted more than 300 ; and his family continued for 
 12 or 185OOO years. But what is very furprifing, all 
 thefe thoufands and millions ofyears had elapfed with- 
 out mankind^s having any knowledge of fire. This 
 was not difcovered till towards the clofe of this period^ 
 by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difcovery, he 
 taught the people to drefs their viftuals ; whereas be- 
 fore, they had devoured the fieih of animals quite raw, 
 d;ank tlieir blood, and fwallowed even their hair and 
 feathers. He is alfo faid to have been the inventor of 
 fifliing, letters, l^c. 
 
 In the ninth period we find the invei'tlon, or at 
 leaft the oiigin of letters, attributed to one Tfang-hic, 
 wTiO received them from a divine tortoife that carried-" 
 them on his fhell, and delivered tlicm into the handa 
 of Tfang-hie. During this pei-iod alfo, muiic, money, 
 carriages, merchandize, and commer-je, l3c. were in- 
 vented. There are various calculations of the length 
 of thefe hi or periods. Some make the time from 
 Puan-ku to Confucius, who flouriihed about 479 years 
 before Chriit, to contain 279,000 years; others, 
 2,276,000; fome, 2,759,860 years; others, 3,276,000^ 
 and fome no lefs than 96,96-1,740 years. 6 
 
 Thefe extravagant accounts are by fome thought ffbulou* 
 to contain obfcure and imperfeft hints concerning the 
 cofniogony and creation of the world, £5" c. Puon-ku, ^ 
 the firlt emperor, they think, i-eprefents eternity pre- 
 ceding the duration of the world. Tiie fucceeding 
 ones, '^llene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they 
 imagine, iignify the creation of the heavens and earth, 
 and the formation of man. The ten or ages, nine 
 of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations 
 preceding Noah. Tliis may very pofSbly be the cafe j 
 for about 300 years before Chrill, fome Jews travelled- 
 into China, who might have made the Mofaic writings 
 known there. 
 
 What we have now related, contains the fubftance 
 of that part of the Chinefe hiilory which is entirely 
 fabulous. After the nine hi or " ages" already taken- 
 notice of, the ten-th commenced with Fo-hi ; and the 
 hiilory, though Hill very dark, obfcure, and fabulous, 
 begins to grow fomewhat more confiflent and intel- ^ 
 ligible. Fo-hi was born in the province of Shenfi.. Rgitcn of 
 His mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that Fo-hi. 
 province, faw a very large prinX of a man's foot in. 
 the fand there ; and, being furrounded by an iris or 
 rainbow, became impregnated- The child was named 
 Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his country- 
 men elefted king on account of his fuperior merit, 
 and ilyled Tyent-tfe, that is " the fon of heaven." He 
 invented the eight qua, or fymbor^, con filling of three 
 hnes each, which,, differently combined, formed 64cha- 
 radlers tliat were made ufe of to exprefs eveiy thing. 
 To give thefe the greater credit, he pretended that 
 he hiid feen them infcribed on the back of a dragon- 
 horfe (an animal fli aped like a horfe, with the wings- 
 and fcales of a dragon), which arofe from the bottom 
 of a lake. Having gained great reputation among hii 
 countrymen by this prodigy, he is faid to have created' 
 
 niauda.- 
 
CHI 
 
 [ 653 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 Ch'na. mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons. 
 ^"""V— ^ Hence we may affign a reafon why the emperors of 
 China always carry a dragon in their banners. He alfo 
 inltituted marriage, invented mufic, iSc. Having ella- 
 blilhed a prime miniller, he divided the government 
 of his dominions among four mandarins, and died af- 
 g ter a reign of 1 1 5 years. 
 MiiRculous After Fo-hi followed a fucceffion of emperors, of 
 foliiice. whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in 
 the reign of I'm, tlie feventh after Fo-hi, the fun did 
 9 not fet for ten days, fo that the Chinefe were afraid of 
 Hypothefis a general conflagration. This event the compilers of 
 concerniiig theUniverfal Hiilorytake to be the fame with that meu- 
 and Fo-hi" in the book of Jofliua, when the fun and moon 
 
 °' ftood iiiil for about the fpace of a day. F^i, they 
 will have to be the fame with Noah. They miagine, 
 that after the deluge, this patriarch remained fume time 
 with his defcendeuts ; but on their wicked combina- 
 tion to build the tower ©f Babel, he feparated himfelf 
 fV(*m them with as many as he could perfuade to go 
 along with him j and that, Hill travelling eailward, 
 he at laft entered the fertile toiiulvy of China, and 
 laid the foundation of that vali empire. — But, lea- 
 \ing thefe fabulous and conjeftural times, we lhall pro- 
 ceed to give fome account of that part of the Chinefe 
 liiftory, which may be more cejtairJy depended on. 
 
 As the Chinefe, contrary to the practice of al- 
 moft all nations, have never fought to conquer other 
 countries, but rather to improve and content them- 
 felves with their own, their hiltory for many ages 
 farnifhes nothing remarkable. The whole of their 
 emperors, abftrading from thofe who are faid to 
 have reigned in the fabulous times, are comprehend- 
 ed in 22 dynailies, mentioned in the following table. 
 
 1. HyOy containing 
 
 2. S/jang, or Irig, 
 
 3. Che-Wy 
 
 4. 7>«, 
 
 5. Han, 
 
 6. Hetu-hany 
 
 7. Tfm, 
 
 8. Songy 
 
 9- rjty 
 
 to. Ijyangy 
 
 1 1 . Chin, 
 
 1 2 . Siv i, 
 rj. Tivavgy. 
 
 14. Htw-lyangy 
 
 15. Heiv-tangy 
 
 16. Heiv-tfiny 
 
 17. Hew-hun, 
 
 18. Heiv-cbe-Wy 
 
 19. Song, 
 
 20. Liven, 
 2 1. Mingy 
 2 2. Tfng, 
 
 This table is formed according to the accounts of 
 the Jefuit Du Haldc, and is commonly reckoned to be 
 the moft authentic ; but according to the above men 
 
 Empe- ors. 
 
 Before Chrift. 
 
 17 
 
 2207. 
 
 28 
 
 1766. 
 
 35 
 
 J I 22-. 
 
 4 
 
 248. 
 
 25 
 
 206. 
 
 After Chrift. 
 
 2 
 
 220. 
 
 15 
 
 465- 
 
 8 
 
 220. 
 
 5 
 
 479- 
 
 4 
 
 502. 
 
 4 
 
 557- 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 
 20 
 
 618. 
 
 2 
 
 907- 
 
 4 
 
 923- 
 
 2- 
 
 936. 
 
 2 
 
 947- 
 
 3 
 
 951. 
 
 t8 
 
 960. 
 
 9 
 
 1280. 
 
 J. 6 
 
 1368. 
 
 
 1645. 
 
 dynafty of Hya 'did not commence till the year before Ciiuia. 
 Chriil 1357 ; and to accommodate the hiftory to their ' ^r-**-' 
 hypothefij, great alterations muft be made in the dura- ^ 
 tion of the dynallies. _ _ tj,;. -j-.^.. 
 
 The moll interefting particulars of the Chinefe hi- tara. 
 ftory relate only to the incurfions of the Tartars, who 
 at laft conquered the whole empire, and who ilill con- 
 tinue to hold the fovereignty ; though by transfer- 
 ring the feat of the empire to Peking, and adopting 
 the Chinefe language, manners, i^c. Tartary would 
 feem rather to have been conquered by China, than 
 China by Tartary. Thefe incurilons are faid to have 
 begun very early ; even in the time (if the emperor 
 Shun, fucceffor to Yau above mentioned, in whofe 
 reign the miraculous foliiice happened. At this 
 time, the Tartars were repulfed, and obHged to re- 
 tire into their own. territories. From time to time,, 
 however, they continued to threaten the empire with 
 invafions, and the northern provinces were often ac- 
 tually ravaged by the Tartars in the neighbourhood. 
 About the year before Chrift 2 1 3, Shi-whang-ti, ha- 
 ving fully fubdued all the princes, or kings as they 
 were called, of the different provinces, became em- 
 peror of China with unlimited power. He divided the 
 whole empire into 36 provinces ;. and finding the 
 northern part of his domiincns much incommoded by 
 the invafions of the neighbouring barbnrians, he feat 
 a formidable army againft them, which drove them j r 
 fai- beyond the boundaries of China. To prevent Great wa^! 
 their return, he built the fp.mous wall already men- 
 tioned, which feparates China from Tartary. After 
 this, being elated with, his own exploits, he formed U; 
 defign ef making pofterity believe that he himfelf 
 had been the firft Chinefe emperor that ever fat on thc- 
 throne. For this purpofe, he ordered all the hi'lo- 
 rical writings to be burnt, and caufed many ot 
 the learned to be put to death, as already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 What effeft the great wall for fome time had in 
 preventing the invafions of the Tartars, we are not 
 told ; but in the tenth century of the Chridian ara, 
 thofe of Kitan or Lyau got a. footing in China. The Kitan Tav=. 
 Kitan were a people of eaftern. Tartary, who dwelt to tars (l-trl.j 
 the north and north-eaft of the province of Peclieli in Chir-i*. 
 China, particularly in that of Layu-tong lying without 
 tlie great wall. Thefe people having fubdued tlie 
 country between Korea and Kafligar, became much 
 more troublefome to the Chinefe than all the other 
 Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year 
 916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, fecond empe- 
 ror of the 14th Chinefe dynafty called Hxw lyang. in 
 946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the 15th dy'na- 
 fty, being dead, Sheking-tang, his fon-in-law,. rebelled 
 againft Mingt-fong, his fon and fucceffor, whom he de. 
 prived of his crown and life. Tiiis he accomplifhed 
 by means of an army of 50,000 men furniflied by the 
 Kitan. Fi-ti, the fon of Mingt-fong, being unable to 
 relift the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew ; where, 
 ftiutting himfelf up with his family and all his valuable, 
 effefts, he fet fire to the palace and was burnt to- 
 afties. On his death, Sheking-tang affumed the title 
 of emperor; founded the 1 6th dynafty; and changed 
 
 «£ioned hypothefis of the compilers of the Univerfal his name to that of Kaul-fu. But the Kitan general^ 
 Hiftory, who make Tau cotemporary with Jolhua, the refufing to acknowledge him, lie was obliged to pur- 
 
C H I 
 
 china. 
 
 chafe a peace by yielding up to the Tartars i6 cities 
 in the province of Pecheli^ bclides a yearly prefent of 
 300,000 pieces of filk. 
 
 This fubmiffion ferved only to inflame the avarice 
 and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the 
 treaty when lead expeiSlcd, and invaded the empire 
 afrefh. Tfi-vang, the emperor at that time, oppofed 
 them with a formidable army ; but through the treach- 
 ery of his general Lyew-chi-ywen, the Tartars were 
 allowed to take him prifoner. On this, Tli-vang was 
 glad to recover his liberty by accepting of a fmall 
 principality ; while the traitor became emperor of all 
 China, and, changing his name to Kaut-fu, founded 
 the 17th dynaily. The Tartars, in the mean time, 
 ravaged all the northern provinces without oppofition, 
 and then marched into the foulhern. But being here 
 flopped by fome bodies of Chinefe troops, the gene- 
 ral thought proper to retire with his booty Into Tar- 
 tary. In 962, Kaut-fu dying, was fucceeded by his 
 fon In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportu- 
 nity to the eunuchs to raife commotions ; efpecially 
 as the army was employed at a diftance in repelling 
 the invafions of the Tartars. This army was com- 
 manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in fe- 
 -veral battles, and thus reftored peace to the northern 
 provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was flain by his 
 eunuchs, and the emprefs placed his brother on the 
 throne: but Ko-ghey, returning in triumph, was fa- 
 luted emperor by his viftorious army, and the em- 
 prefs being unable to fupport the rights of her fon, was 
 obhged to fubmit, while Ko ghey, afRimiug the name 
 of Tay-tfti, founded the i8th dynady. Ninp years 
 after this, however, the grandees of the empire, fet- 
 ting afide Kong-ti, the third in fucceffion from Tay- 
 tfu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guar- 
 dian, named Chau-qiiang-yu, emperor ; who, alfum- 
 ing the name of Kau-tfu, founded the 19th dynafly, 
 . called Song,) or Tfotig. 
 
 Under this monarch the empire began to recover 
 itfelf ; but the Kitan ftill continued their incurfions. 
 The fucceffors of Kau-tfu oppofed them with various 
 fuccefs ; but at laft, in 978, the barbarians became fo 
 flrong as to lay fiege to a confiderable cicy. Tay- 
 tfong, fuccefTor to Kau-tfu, detached 300 foldieri, 
 each carrying a light in his hand, againft them in the 
 night-time, with orders to approach as near as pof- 
 lible to the Tartar camp. The barbarian?, imagining, 
 by the number of lights, that the whole Chinefe ar- 
 my was at hand, immediately fled, and, falling into 
 the ambufcades laid for them by the Cliinefe general, 
 were almoft all cut to pieces. 
 
 This check, however, did not long put a fl;op to 
 the ravages of the Kitan. In die year 999, they laid 
 liege to a city in the province of Peche-li ; but Ching- 
 tfoug, fuccefTor to Tay-tfong, came upon them with 
 his army fo fuddenly, that they betook themfelves to 
 flight. The emperor was advifcd to take advantage 
 of their confternatlon, and recover the country which 
 had been yielded to them ; but inilead of purfuing his 
 viftory, he bought a peace, by confenting to pay an- 
 nually 100,000 tael (about L. 34,000), and 200,000 
 pieces of filk. The youth and pacific difpofition of 
 Jin-tfong, fucceflcir to Chlng-tfong, revived the cou- 
 rage of the Kitan : and, in 1035, war would have 
 
 C 654 ] 
 
 C H T 
 
 been renewed, had not the emperor condefcended to Chiria 
 as fhameful a treaty as that concluded by his father. ^— v"--^ 
 Two years after, the Tartars demanded reflltutlon of 
 ten cities in the province of Peche-li, which had been 
 taken by Ko-ghey founder of the i8th dynalfy ; upon 
 which Jin-tfong engaged to pay them an annual tri- 
 bute of 200,000 taels of filvcr, and 300,000 pieces 
 of filk in lieu of thefe chics. 13 
 
 From this time, the Kitan remained in peaceable K'tan "^""i- 
 pofieflion of their Chinefe dominions till the.year 1 117. ^'j^" eaflerii. 
 Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being able nti- Xii-urs. 
 ther to bear their ravages, nor by himfeif to put a 
 flop to them, refolved upon a remedy which at laft 
 proved worfe than the difeafe. This was to call in 
 the Niitfhe, Nyu-che, or Eaftern Tartars, to deftroy 
 the kingdom of the Kitan. 'From this he was diffua- 
 ded by the king of Korea, and mod of his own mini- 
 llers ; but, difregarding their falutary advice, he join- 
 ed his forces to thofe of the Nu-che. The Kitan were 
 then every where defeated ; and at lad reduced to 
 fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were forced 
 to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the 
 wed. _ 14 
 
 Thus the empire of the Kitan w-as totally deftroyed, Who 
 but nothing to the advantage of the Chinefe ; for the 
 Tartar general, elated with his conqued, gave ^^^^^^^&i\d 
 name of Kin to his new dominion, aifumed the title ofjnvaJeChi* 
 emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing him- na. 
 felf and enlarging his empire. For this purpofe, he 
 immediately broke the treaties concluded with the 
 Chinefe emperor ; and, invading the provinces of Pe- 
 che-li and Shen-fi, made himfeif mader of the greater 
 part of them. Whey-tfong, finding himfeif In danger 
 of lofmg his dominions, made feveral advantageous 
 propofals to the Tartar ; who, feeming to comply 
 with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by 
 a perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch com- 
 plied : but, on his return, the terms agreed on feemed 
 intolerable to his miniders ; fo that they told him the 
 treaty could not fubfid, and that the mod cruel war 
 was preferable to fuch an ignominious peace. Tne 
 Kin monarch, being informed of all that pafl"<;d, had 
 recourfe to arms, and took feveral cities. Whey- 
 tfong was weak enough to go in perfon to hold a fe- 
 cond conference ; but, on his arrival, was immediate- 
 ly fcized by the Tartar. He was kept prifoner un- They take 
 der a llrong guard during the remaining part of his the cmpe- 
 hfe ; and ended his days in 11 26, in the defert of '""'^ P^'^^'^* 
 Shamo, having nominated his elded fon Kin-tfong to^''* 
 fucceed him. 
 
 Kin-tfong began his reign with putting to death fix 
 miniders of ftate, who had betrayed his father into 
 the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in 
 the mean time purfued their conquefts without oppo- 
 fition. Tliey croffed the Whang-ho, or Ycllov/ River, 
 which an handful of troops might have prevented ; and 
 marching direftiy towards the imperial city, took and i.-jiperial d- 
 plundered it. Then f^ilzlng the em.peror and his con- ty and &no- 
 fort, they carried them away captives : but many of '^itr empe» 
 the principal lords, and feveral of the minliters, prefer- 
 ring death to fuch an ig*ominIou': bondage, killed them- 
 felves. Tne Kin being informed by the emprefs 
 Meng that die had been divorced, they left her be- 
 hind. This proved th? meaa^ of favlng the empire ; 
 
 for 
 
CHI [6 
 
 eiiina. for by her wifdom and prudence llie got the crown 
 placed on the head of Kau-tfong, ninth fou of the em- 
 peror Whey- tfong by his divorced emprefs. 
 
 Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nauking the capital of 
 Kyaiig-nan ; but foon after was obliged to remove it 
 to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made feveral ef- 
 forts to recover fome of his provincs from the Kin, 
 but without effeft. lU tfong the Kin monarch, in the 
 mean time, endeavoured to gain the efteem of hid 
 Chinefe fubjtfts by paying a regard to their learning 
 and learned men, and honouring the memory of Con- 
 fucius. Some time after, he advanced to Nanking, 
 from whence Kau-tfong liad retired, and took it : but, 
 receiving advice that Yo-fi, general of the Song, or 
 fouthern Chinefe, was advancing by long marches to 
 I? the relief of that city, they fet fire to the palace, and 
 ^''"^^F^® retired northward. However, Yo-li arrived time 
 checked. enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fufiFered 
 very much ; and from this time the Kin never dared 
 to crofs the river Kyang. In a few years afterwards 
 the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tributary to 
 the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very 
 ^ diihonourable terms. This fubmiffion, however, was 
 of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the 
 peace ; and, in^'adir^g the fouthern province with a for- 
 midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The 
 king, having approached the river Kyang, near ils 
 mouth, where it is widelt as well as moft rapid, com- 
 manded his troops to crofs it, threatening with his 
 drawn fword to kill thofe who refufed. On recei- 
 ving fuch an unreafonable command, the whole ar- 
 my mutinied; and the king being killed in the be- 
 ginning of the tumiJt, the army -immediately reti- 
 
 18 
 
 They are From this time to the year 1 2 ro, nothing remark- 
 et tacked by able occurs in the Chinefe hiilory ; but this year, 
 Tenghiz- Jenghiz-khan, chief of the weftern Tartars, Moguls, 
 the "kl "^'^of ^^^S^^') quarrelled with Yong-tfi emperor of the 
 Hya. ^ K'" ; 3nd at- the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted 
 at being refufed affiftance againft Jenghiz-khan, threat- 
 ened him with an invafion on the welt fide. Yong-tfi 
 prepared for his defence ; but in 121 i, receiving news 
 that Jenghiz-khan was advancing fouthward with his 
 whole army, he was feized with fear, and made pro- 
 pofals of peact, which were rejected. In T212, the 
 Great w?.ll Mogul generals forced the great wall ; or, according to 
 forcedby {^^^ 
 
 writers, had one of the gates treacheroufly open- 
 kh-m ^'^ them, to the north of Shanfi ; and made incur- 
 
 I * fions as far as Peking the capital of the Kin empire. 
 
 At the fame time the province of Lyau-tong was al- 
 moft totally reduced by feverah KItan lords who had 
 joined Jenghiz-khan ; feveral ftrong places were ta- 
 ken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the Mo- 
 guls. In autumn they laid fiege to the city of Tay. 
 tong-fu ; where, although the governor Hujaku fled, 
 yet Jenghiz-khan met with confiderable refiftance. 
 Having loft a vaft number of men, and being himfelf 
 wounded by an arrow, he was obhged to raife the 
 fiege and retire intoTartary; after which the Kin re- 
 took feveral cities. The next year, however, Jeng- 
 hiz-khan re-entered China ; retook the cities which the 
 Kin had reduced the year before ; and overthrew their 
 armies in two bloody battles, in one of which the 
 ground was ftrewcd with dead bodies for upwards cf 
 fo.ur leagues. 
 
 J) J 
 
 China. 
 
 20 
 
 ] CHI 
 
 The fame year Yong-tfi was flain by his general 
 Hujaku ; and Sun, a prince of the blood, advanced in 
 his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the empire 
 with four armies at once, laid waile the provinces of 
 Shanfi, Honan, Pecheli, and Shantong. In 12 14 Jeng- 
 hiz-khan fat down before Peking ; but inftead of af- 
 faulting the city, offered terms of peace, which were 
 accepted, and the, Moguls retired into Tartary. After 
 their departure, the emperor, leaving his fon at Pe- 
 king, removed his court to Py*?n-lyang near Kay- 
 fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz-khan 
 being offended, immediately fent troops to befiege Pe- 
 king. The city held out to the fifth month of the year^^^^^^^ 
 1215, and then furrendcred. At the fame time the 
 Moguls finilhed the conqueft of Lyau-tong ; and the 
 Song refufed to pay the ufual tribute to the Kin. 
 
 In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to purfue his con- 
 quefis in the weft of Afia, .where he ftaid feven years; 
 during which time his general Muhuli made great 
 progrefs in China againft the Kin emperor. He was ai 
 greatly aflifted by the motions of Ning-tfong ^'^P^*"°^^'^|j"|^gfg"j^g 
 of the Song, or fouthern China; who, incenfed by the^iJ^^ 
 frequent perfidies of the Kin, had declared war againft a^ainll the 
 them, and would hearken to no terms of peace, though Kin. 
 very advantageous propofals were made. Notwith- 
 ftanding this, however, in 1220, the Kin, exerting 
 tliemfelves, raifed two great armies, one in Shenfi, 
 and the other in Shang-ton. The former bafHed the 
 attempts of the Song and king of Hya, who had united ' 
 againft them ; but the latter, though no fewer than 
 200,000, were entirely defeated by Muhuh. In 1221, 
 that officer pafTed the Whang-ho, and died after con- 
 quering feveral cities. j2 ■ 
 
 In 1224, the Kin emperor died ; and was fucceeded Jcnghiz- 
 by his fon Shew, who made peace with the king of U^an de- 
 Hya : but next year, that kingdom was entirely de- j^-"^"^,},,^^^ r 
 ftroyed fby Jenghiz-khan. In 1226, Oktay fon to j^ya ; 
 Jenghiz-Khan marched into Honan, and befieged Kay- 
 Song-fu, capital of the Kin empire ; but was obliged to 
 withdr aw into Shenfi, where he took feveral cities, and 
 cut in pieces an army of 30,000 men. ' In 1227 Jeng- 
 hiz-khan died, after having delired his fons to demaml And dies, 
 a paffage for their army through the dominions of the 
 Song, without which he faid they could not eafily van- 
 qulfh the Kin. 
 
 After the death of that great conqueror, the war 
 was carried on with variouB fuccefs ; but though the 
 Moguls took above 60 important pods in the province 
 of Shenfi, they found it impoffible to force Tong-quan, 
 which it behoved them to do in order to penetrate effec- 
 tually into Honan. In April 1 23 i they took the capi- 
 tal of Shenfi, and defeated the Kin army which came 
 to its relief. Here one of the officers dcfired prince 
 Toley to demand a paffage from the Song through 
 the country of Han chong-fn. This- propofal Toley 
 communicated to hie brother Oktay, who approved of 
 it a& being conformable to the dying advice of Jeng- 
 hiz-khan. Hereupon Toley, having afTtmbled all his 
 forces, fent a meffenger to the Song generals to de- jylyguu 
 maud a paflage through their territories. This, how- quarrel 
 ever, they not only refufed, but put the meffenger to ^'f^^ *^^<^ 
 death; which fo enraged Toley that he fvrore to^°'*^' 
 make them repent of it, and was foon as good as his 25 
 word. He decamped in Angufl 1231 ; and having for- 
 ced th^; p&fTagej, p'lt to the fword the iahabitauts of " 
 
 Wha. 
 
C'l-,ina. 
 
 16 
 
 Capital of 
 the Kin em 
 pire be- 
 fieged. 
 
 CHI [65 
 
 \^'Tia-yang and Fong-chew, two cities in tVe di{lri£l 
 of Han-chong fii. Then having cut down rocks to 
 fill up deep abylTes, and made roads through places 
 almoll inaccefilble, he came and bdleged the city of 
 Han-ehong-fii itfelf. The miferable inhabicants fled 
 to the mountains on his approach, and more than 
 J 00, coo of them periflied. After this, Tclcy divided 
 his forces, confiiling of 30,000 horfe, into two bodies. 
 One of thei'e went v/ellwaid to Mycn-chew : from 
 thence, after opening the paffages of the mountains, 
 they arrived at the river Kyaling, which runs into 
 the great Kyang. This they rroffed on rafts made 
 of the wood of demoIiChed houfes ; and then, march- 
 ing along its banks, feized many important pods. 
 Ac lad, having deflroyed more than 140 cities, towns, 
 or fortreffcs, thuy returned to the army. Tlie fecond 
 detachment feized an important pod in the mountain?, 
 called Ttiutong, fix or feven leagues to the eaftward 
 of Han-chong-fu. On the other fide Oktay advanced, 
 in Oftober, towards Pu-chew a city of Shan-fi ; which 
 being taken after a vigorous defence, he prepared to 
 pafs the Whang-ho. Toley, after furmounting incre- 
 dible difficulties, arrived in December on the borders 
 of Honan, and made a fliew as if he defigned to at- 
 tack the capital of the Kin empire.' On his firll ap- 
 pearance in Honan through a pafTagc fo little fufpeft- 
 ed, every body was filled with terror and adonifh- 
 ment, fo that he proceeded for fome time without 
 oppofition. At lad the emperor ordered his generals, 
 Hota, Ilapua, and others, tp march againft the enemy. 
 Toley boldly attacked them ; but was obliged to retire, 
 ■which he did in good order. Hota was for purfuing 
 him, faying that the Mogul arm.y did not exceed 
 30,000 men, and that they feemed not to have eaten 
 any thing for two or three days. Ilapua, however, 
 was of opinion that there was no occafion for being 
 fo hafty, as the Moguls were inclofed between the 
 rivers Han and Whang-ho, fo that they could not 
 efcape. This negligence they foon had occafion to re- 
 pent of ; for Toley, by a ftratagem, made himfelf 
 rnafler of their teavy baggage; which accident ob- 
 liged them to retire to Tang chew. From thence 
 they fent a meffenger to acquaint the emperor that 
 they had gained the battle, but concealed the lofs of 
 their baggage. This good news filled the court with 
 joy ; and the people who had retired into the capital 
 for its defence, left it again, and went into the coun- 
 try : but, in a few days after, the vanguard of the Mo- 
 guls, who had been fent by the emperor Oktay, appear- 
 ed in the field, and carried off a great number of thofe 
 that had quitted the city. 
 
 In January 1232, Oktay paffing the Whang-ho, en- 
 ^mped in the didrift of Kay fong-fn, capital of the 
 ICin empire, and fsnt his general Suputay to befiege 
 the city. At that time the place was near 30 miles 
 in circumference : but having only 40,000 foldiers to 
 defend it, as many more fronj the neighbouring cities, 
 and 20,000 peafants, were ordered into it ; while the 
 emperor publifhed an affefting declaration, animating 
 the people to defend it to the lad: extremity. Oktay, 
 having heard with joy of Toley's entrance into Ho- 
 nan, ordered him to fend fuccours to Supniay. On the 
 other hand, the Kin generals advanced with 150,000 
 men to relieve the city ; but being obliged to divide 
 their forces in order to avoid in part the great road 
 
 6 ] * C H I 
 
 which Toley had obflrufted with trees, they were China. 
 
 attacked by that prince at a difadvantage, and, after v— «^ 
 
 a faint rtfiitance, defeated witli great flaugliter, and 
 the lofs of both their generals, one killed and the 
 other taken. The emoeror now ordered ihe army at 
 Tong-quan and other fortified places to march to the 
 relief of Kay-fong-fu, They affembled accordingly," 
 to the number of 110,000 foot and 15,000 liorie ; 
 and were followed by vad numbers of people wlio 
 expeftcd by their means to be protected from the 
 enemy. But many of thefe troops having deferted, 
 and the red being enfeebled by the fatigues of their 
 march, they difperfed on the approach of their pur- 
 fuers, v.'ho killed all they found in the highways. Af- 
 ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and fome other 
 confiderable pods ; but were obliged to raife the fieges 
 of Quey-te-fu and Loyang, by the bravery of the go- 
 vernors. Kyang-fliin, governor of Loyang, had only 
 3 or 4000 ioldiers under him, while his enemies were 
 30,000 ilrong. He placed his word foldiers on the 
 walls, putting himfelf at the head of 400 brave men ; 
 whom he ordered to go naked, and whom he led to 
 all dangerous attacks. He invented engines to call 
 large doned, which required but few hands to play 
 them, and aimed fo true as to hit at 100 pace.? dif- 
 tance. When their arrows failed, he cut thofe fliot 
 by the enemy into four pieces ; pointed them with 
 pieciis of brafs coin; and difcharged them from wooden 
 tubes with as much force as bullets are from a muflcet. 
 Thus he haraffid the Moguls for three months fo gvie- 
 voufly, .that they were obliged, notwithdanding. their 
 numbers, to abandon the enterprize. 
 
 Oktay, at lad, notwithflanding his fuccedls, refol- B-avcry of 
 ved to return to Tartary ; and offei-ed the Kin empe- the belieg. 
 ror peace, provided he became tributary, and deli- 
 vered up to him 27 families which he named. Thefe 
 offers were very agreeable to the emperor; but Suputay, 
 taking no notice of the treaty, puflied on the fiegc of 
 the capital with more vigour than ever. By the help 
 of the Chinefe flaves in his army, the Mogul general 
 foon filled the ditch ; but all his effrrts fecmcd only to 
 infpire the beficged with new vigour. The Mogul.; 
 at that time made ufe of artillery, but were unable to 
 make the lead irupreffion upon the city walls. Thty 
 raifed walls round thofe they befiegcd, which they 
 fortified with ditches, towers, and battlements. They 
 proceeded alfo to fap the walls of the city ; but were 
 very much annoyed by the artillery of the befiegcd, 
 efpecially by their bombs, which finking into the gal- 
 leries, and burding under ground, made great havock 
 among the miners. For 16 days and nights the at- 
 tacks continued without intermiffion ; during which 
 time an incredible number of men periflud on both 
 fides r at length, Suputay, finding that he could a8 
 not take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence P^a^^^e con- 
 of conferences being on foot. Soon after, the plat^ue » 
 bi^gan in Kay-fong-fu ; and raged with fuch violence, 
 that, in 50 days, 900,000 biers were carried out, be- 
 fides a valt multitude of the poorer fort who could not 
 afford any. 
 
 In a fhort time, two unlucky accidents occafioned a And bro- 
 renewal of the war ; which now put an end to the^^"' 
 empire of the Kin. Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord, 
 having afliimed the government of fome cities in 
 Kyang-nan, and killed the officer fent to take poffef- 
 
 fjon 
 
China, 
 
 L 6 
 
 «g«in 1 c- 
 ficged, 
 
 C II I 
 
 fion of them, declared for ilie Kin. The emperor 
 unwarily took Gan-yong into his fervice, and gave 
 him the title of P, irujc. Upon this Oktay feiit an en- 
 voy, attended by oiher perfons, to in((uire into the 
 affair; hut the Kin cfacer,-i -killed them al', without 
 being puniflied by the emperor. Suputay, having in- 
 formed hh mailer of all thefe proceedings, was or- 
 dered to continue the war in Honan. Shew- fa now 
 commanded his officers to unite their troops for the 
 defence of the capital ; but before his orders could be 
 obeyed, they were attacked and defeated, one after 
 another, by the Moguls. This obliged him to raife 
 foldiers from among the peafants, for whofe fubfill- 
 ence the people were taxed ,V of the rice they pof- 
 fefled. The city began now to be diftreffed for want 
 of prov^ifions ; and as it was but in a bad pollure of 
 deftncc, the emperor marched with an army againll 
 the Moguls. His expedition proved unfortunate ; for, 
 fending part of his army to befiege a city called Why- 
 chew, it was totally cut in pieces, and Suputay a fe- 
 cond time fat down before the capital. 
 
 On hearing this bad news, the emperor repaffed 
 And taken the Whang-ho, and retired to Quey-te-fu. Here he 
 had not been long before the capital was delivered 
 up by treachery, and Suputay put all the males of the 
 imperial race to death ; but, by the exprefs command 
 of Oktay, fpared the inhabitants, who are faid to have 
 amounted to 1,400,000 famihes. After this difaiter 
 3Z the unhappy monarch left his troops at Quey-te-fu, 
 lumne fu ^"'^ J^^''"'^^ Juning-fu, a city in the fouthern part 
 -» 6 • of Honan, attended only by 400 perfons. Here the 
 dilla nee of the Moguls made him think of living at 
 eafe ; but while he flattered himfelf with thefe vain 
 hopes, the enemy's aimy arrived before the city and 
 invefted it. The garrifon were terrified at their ap- 
 ptoach ; but were encouraged by the emperor, and his 
 brave general Flu-fye-hu, to hold out to the lait. As 
 there were not in the city a fufficient number of men, 
 the women, di-efhd in mens clothes, were emph>yed 
 to carry wood, iiones, and other necefiary materials 
 to the walls. AH their efforts, however, were ineffec- 
 tual. They were reduced to fuch extremities, that 
 for three months they fed on human flcfh 5 kilhng the 
 old and feeble, as well as many prifoners, for food. 
 This being known to the Moguls, they made a general 
 aifault in January 1234. The attack continued from 
 monnng till night; but at laft the affailancs were re- 
 pulfed. _ In this action, however, the Xin loft all their 
 belt ofiicers ; upon which the emperor rel:gned the 
 crown to Cheng-hn a. prince of the blood. Next morn- 
 ing, while the ceremony of inveiling the new em- 
 peror was performifig, the enemy mounted the fouth 
 vvdils, which were defended only by 2oo men 5 and 
 the iouth gate befng at the fame time abandoned, the 
 whole army broke in. They were oppofcd, how- 
 ever, by Hu-fj'c-hu ; who, with 1000 foldiers, conti- 
 rued to light with amazing intiepidity. In the mean 
 time Shew fu, feeing every thing irreparably loil, 
 lodged tlie feal of the empire in a houle ; and then 
 cauting fiieaves of llraw to be fet round it, ordered it 
 to be fet on fire as foon as he was dead. After giving 
 this order be hanged himfelf, and his commands were 
 e-xecuted by h.s domeftics. Hu-fye-hu, who flill con- 
 tinued fighting with great bravery, no fooner heard 
 of the tragical death of the emperor, than he drowu- 
 VoL. IV. Pan IT, 
 
 ?Tiihappy 
 fate of the 
 cnjperor. 
 
 57 ] , CHI 
 
 ed himfelf in the river Ju ; as'did alfo 500 of Iiis mofl China. 
 
 refolute foldieis. The fame day the new emperor, ^— —* 
 
 Cheng-lin, was flaiu in a tumult ; and thus an end was ^ 
 
 put to the domini vn of the Kin Tartars in China. of theTu 
 
 The empire of China was now to he fiiared between empire, 
 the Song, or fouthern Chiuefe, and the Moguls. It 
 had been agreed upon,, that the province of Honan 
 fiiould be dchvered up to the Songas foon as the war was 
 finiflied. But they, without waiting for the expira- 
 tion of the term, or giving Oktay notice of their pro- 
 ceedings, introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu, 35^ 
 Lo-yang, and other confiderable cities. On this the '^^'^^ '^e- 
 Mogul general refolved to attack them; and repaffing J,'^"" ^''^ 
 the Whang-ho, cut in pieces part of the garrifon of th" Ylo- 
 Lo-yang, while they were out in fearch of provilions. guls. 
 The garrifon of Kay-fong-fu likewife abandoned that 
 place ; and the Song emperor degraded the olHcers 
 who had been guilty of thofe irregularities, fending 
 ambafTadors to Oktay, at the fame time, to defire a 
 continuance of the peace. What Oktay's anfwer was 
 we are not told, but the event fhowed that he was 
 not well pleafed; for, in 1235, he ordered his fecond 
 fon prince_ Kotovan, and his general Chahay, to attack 
 the Song in Se-chwen, while others marched towards 
 the borders of Kyang-nan. 
 
 In 1236, the Moguls made great progrefs in the 
 province of Huquang, where they took feveral cities^ 
 and put vail numbers to the fword. This year they 
 introduced paper or fi!k money, which had -formerly 
 been ufed by Chang-tfong, fixth empSror of the Kin. 
 Prince Kotovan forced the paffages into the dillrift of 
 Hang-chong-fu in the province of Shenfi, whicli he 56 
 entered with an army of 500,000 men. Here a ter- Dreadful 
 riBIe battle was fought between the vaft army of che 
 Moguls and the Chinefe troops, who had been driven ■ 
 from the paffages they defended. The latter con- 
 filled only of 10,000 horfe and foot, who were almoit 
 entirely cut off ; and the Moguls loft fuch a number 
 of men, that the blood is faid to have run for two 
 leagues together. After this viftory the Moguls en- 
 tered Sechwen, which they almoil entirely reduced, 
 committing fuch barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000 
 people chofe rather to put an end to their own lives 
 ■than fubmit to fuch cruel conquerors. 
 
 In 1237, the Moguls received a confiderable check 
 before the city of Gantong in Kyang-nan, the fiege of 
 which they were obliged to raife with lofs. In 1238 
 they befieged Lu-chcw, another city in the fame pro- 
 vince. They furroundcd it with a rampart of eaith 
 and a double ditch ; but the Chinefe general ordered 
 Iheir intrenchments to be filled with immenfe quan* 
 titles of herbs lleeped in oil, and then fet on fire 
 while he fhot ftones upon them from a tower feven 
 ftories high. At the fame time a vigorous fally was 
 made ; and the Mogul army being thrown into the 
 utmoll diiorder, were obliged finally to abandon the 
 liege, and retire nortlmards. 
 
 . In 1239, thefe barbaritins were oppofed by a o-e 
 neral called Meng-kong, with great luccefs; who, this 
 and the following year, gained great honour by his 
 exploits. While he hved, the Moguls were never 
 able to make any confiderable progrefs; but his death^ 
 in I 246, proved of the greateit detriment to the Chi- 
 nefe afiairs : and foon after, the Tartars renewed the 
 war with more vigour and fuccefs than ever. In 
 
 4 O 
 
ChJn*. 
 
 37 
 Siege of 
 Ho-chew. 
 
 Moguls de- 
 fcdtcd, and 
 tJjeir enipe. 
 Eor killed. 
 
 39 
 
 Treachery 
 of a Chi- 
 «efe mini- 
 iler. 
 
 CHI [ 658 ] 
 
 1255, tliey re-entered the province of Se-chwen ; but fail to prcdvice a 
 ftill met with vigorous oppoTition in this quarter, be- 
 caufe the Chincfe took care to have Se-chwen funiifla- 
 ed with good troops and generals. Though they 
 were always beaten, being greatly inferior in number 
 to their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities 
 the Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly 
 obliged to withdraw for want of provifions and fo- 
 rage. In 1 259 they undertook the fifge of Ho-chew, 
 a ftrong city to the \yeft of Peking, defended by Vang- 
 kyen, a very able "officer, who commanded a nume- 
 rous garrifon. The fiege continued from the month 
 of February till Auguft ; during which time the Mo- 
 guls loft an immenfe number of men. On the loth 
 of Auguft they made a general affault in the night. 
 They mounted the walls before the governor had in- 
 telligence ; but were foon attacked by him with the 
 utmoft fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, him- 
 felf came to the fcalade ; but his prefence was not 
 fufficient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At 
 " the fame time the fcaling-ladders of the Moguls were 
 blown down by a ftorm ; upon which a terrible flaugh- 
 " ter enfued, and amongft the reft fell the emperor him- 
 felf. Upon this difafter the Mogul generals agreed 
 to raife the fiege, and retire towards Shen-fi. 
 
 On the death of Meng-ko, Hupilay, orKublay Khan, 
 who fucceeded him, laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu, a city 
 not far diftant from the capital of the Song empire. 
 
 At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, diftribu- 
 ted immenfe fums among his. troops; and, having raifed a 
 formidable army, marched to the relief of Vu-chang-fu. 
 Unfortunately the command of this army was com- 
 mitted to the care of Kya-tfe-tau, a man without 
 either courage or experience in war. He was befides 
 very vain and vindiftive in his temper; often ufmg 
 the beft officers ill, and entirely overlooking their me- 
 rit, which caufed many of them to go over to the 
 Moguls. The fiege of Vu-chang-fu was commenced, 
 aud'had continued a confiderable time, when Kya-tfe- 
 tau, afraid of its being loft, and at the fame time not 
 daring to take any eftedual ftep for its rehef, made 
 propofals of peace. A treaty was accordingly con- 
 cluded, by which Kya-tfe-tau engaged to pay an an- 
 nual tribute of about L. 50,000 in filver, and as much 
 in filk; acknowledging Hkewife the fovereignty of the 
 Moguls over the Song empire. In confequence o{ 
 this treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries 
 of the two empires had been fixed, and repaifed the 
 Kyang ; but 1 70 of them having ftaid on the other 
 fide of the river, were put to death by Kya-tfe-tau. 
 
 This wacked minifter totally concealed from the 
 emperor his having made fuch a fhameful treaty with 
 the Moguls ; and the 170 foldiers maffacred by his 
 order, gave occafion to a report that the enemy had 
 been defeated ; fo that the Song court believed that 
 they had been compelled to retreat by the fuperior 
 valour and wifdom of Kya-tfe-tau. This proved the 
 ruin of the empire ; for, in 1260, the Mogul empe- 
 ror fent H^uking to the Chinefe court to execute the 
 treaty according to the terms agreed on with Kya- 
 tfe-tau. The minifter, dreading the arrival of this 
 envoy, imprifoned him near Nanking ; and took all 
 poffihle care that neither Hupilay, iwr Li-tfong the 
 Chinefe emperor, ftiould ever hear any thing of him. 
 It was impoflible fuch unparalleled condu*^ conld 
 
 China. 
 
 4* 
 
 C H I 
 
 r V ar. Hupilay's covutfers in- 
 ceffantly preffed him to revenge himfelf on the Song 
 for their treacherous behaviour ; and he foon pubhlh- 
 ed a manifetlo againft them, which was followed by 
 a renewal of hoftihties in 1268. The Mogul army 
 amounted to 300,000 men; but notwithftanding their 
 numbers, httle progrefs was made till the year 1271. 
 Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in the province of Se- 
 chew, had been befieged for a long time ineffectually ; 
 but this year an Igur lord advifed Hupilay to fend for 
 feveval of thofe engineers out of the weft, who knew 
 how to caft ftones of 150 pounds weight out of their 
 engines, which made holes of feven or eight feet wide 
 in the ftrongett walls. Two of thefe engineers were 
 accordingly fent for ; and after giving a fpecimen of 
 their art before Hupilay, were fent to the army ia 
 1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted their 
 engines againft the city of Fan-ching, and prefently 
 made a breach in the walls. After a bloody conflict 
 the fuburbs were taken ; and foon after the Moguls 
 made themfelves mafters of the walls and gates of the 
 city. Neverthelefs, a Chinefe officer, with only 100 
 foldiers, refolved to fight from ftreet to ftreet. /rhis ^^JP^^^^"*' 
 he did for a long time with the greateft obftinacy, 
 killing vaft numbers of the Moguls ; and both parties 
 are faid to have been fo much overcome with thirft, 
 that they drank human blood to quench it. The Chi- 
 nefe fet fire to the houfes, that the great beams, fal- 
 hng down, might embarrafs the way of their purfuers ; 
 but at laft being quite wearied out, and filled with de- 
 fpair, they put an end to theli own lives. After the 
 taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which had fer- 
 ved at the fiege were tranfported to Seyen-yang. 
 The two engineers pofted themfelves againft a wood- 
 en retrenchment raifed on the ramparts. This they 
 quickly demolifhed ; and the befieged were fo inti- 
 midated by the noife and havock made by the ftones 
 caft from thcfe terrible engines, that they immediate- 
 ly furrendered. 
 
 In 1274, Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en- 
 dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted 
 to the command of the Mogul army. His firft ex- 
 ploits were the taking of two ftrong cities ; after 
 which he pafled the great river Ky-ang, defeated the 
 Song army, and laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu. This city 
 was foon intimidated into a furrender; and Pe-yen, by 
 reftraining the barbarity of his foldiers, whom he 
 would not allow to hurt any body, foon gained the 
 hearts of the Chinefe fo much, that feveral cities fur- 
 rendered to him on the firft fummons. In the mean 
 time the treacherous Kya-tfe-tau, who was fent to op- 
 pofe Pe-yen, was not alhamed to propofe peace on 
 the terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay ; 
 but thefe being rejeded, he was obliged at length to 
 come to an engagement. In this he _ was defeated, 
 and Pe-yen continued his conquefts with great rapi- 
 dity. Having taken the city of Nanking, and fome 
 others, he marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capi- 
 tal of the Song empire. Peace was now again pro- 
 pofed, but rejeded by the Mogul general; and at laft Chinefe 
 the emprefs was conftrained to put herfelf, with ^^r Emprefe 
 fon, then an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen, who im- " 
 mediately fent them to Hupilay. 
 
 The fubmiffion of the emprefs did not yet put an 
 tnd to the war. Many of the chief officers fwore to 
 
 d© 
 
C H T 
 
 [ 659 ] 
 
 c H r 
 
 4a 
 
 ^Diffolution 
 
 of the Song ten'itories 
 empire 
 
 4.'? 
 
 'Reign of 
 Hupilay. 
 
 do their vtmoft to refcue her from the hands of her 
 enemies. In confequence of this refolution they dif- 
 tributed their money among the foldiers, and foon 
 got together an army of 40,000 men. This army at- 
 tacked the city where tJae young emperor Kong- 
 tfong was lodged, but without fuccefs ; after which, 
 and feveral other vain attempts, they raifed one of 
 his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him 
 the name of Twon-tfong. He was but nine years of 
 age when he was raifed to the imperial dignity, and 
 enjoyed it but a very fhort time. In 1277 he was in 
 great danger of peri filing, by reafon of the fhip on 
 board which he then was being call away. The 
 poor prince fell into the water, and was taken up half 
 dead with the fright. A great part of his troops pe- 
 rifhed at that time, and he foon after made offers of 
 fubmilTion to Hupilay. Thefe, however, were not 
 accepted; for, in 1278, the unhappy Twon-tfong was 
 obliged to retire into a little defertilland on the coaftof 
 Quang-tong, where'he died in the 1 1 th year of his age. 
 Notwithitanding the progrefs of the Moguls, vail 
 ftill remained to be fubdued before they 
 could become matters of ail the Chinefe empire. On 
 the death of Twon-tfong, therefore, the mandarins 
 raifed to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at 
 that time but eight years of age. His ai-my confifted 
 of no fewer than 200,000 men ; but being utterly void 
 of difcipline, and entirely ignorant of the art of war, 
 they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor 
 was the fleet more fuccefsful ; for being put in con- 
 fufion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in dan- 
 ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers ta- 
 king him on his flioulders, jumped with him into the 
 fea, where they were both drowned. Moft of the 
 mandarins followed this example, as did alfo the em- 
 prefs and miniffer, all the ladies and maids of honour, 
 and multitudes of others, infomuch that 100,000 people 
 are thought to have perifhed on that day Thus end- 
 ed the Chinefe race of emperors ; and the Mogul dy- 
 nafty, known by the name of Twen, commenced. 
 
 Though no race of men that ever exifted were 
 more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the 
 Moguls ; yet it doth not appear that the emperors of 
 the Ywen dynafty were in any refpeft worfe than 
 their predeceffors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the 
 Chinefe called S/n-tfu, found the way of reconciling 
 the people to his government, and even of endearing 
 himfelf to them fo much, that the reign of his family 
 is to this day ftyled by the Ch.\n&{& the wife govern- 
 ment. This he accompllffied by keeping as clofe as 
 poflible to their ancient laws and cuffoms, by his mild 
 and juft government, and by his regard for their 
 learned men. He was indeed afhamed of the igno- 
 rance and barbarity of his Mogul fubjedls, when com- 
 pared with the Chinefe. The whole knowledge of 
 the former was fummed up in their ikill in managing 
 their arms and horfes, being perfeftly deftitute of 
 every art or fcience, or even of the knowledge of 
 betters. In 1269, he had caufed the Mogul charac- 
 ters to be contrived. In 1280, he caufed fome mathe- 
 maticians fearch for the fource of the river Whang-ho, 
 which at that time was unknown to the Chinefe them- 
 felves. In four months time they arrived in the 
 cou^itry where it rifes, and made a map of it, which 
 
 X 
 
 they prefented to his majefty. The fame year a trea- China, 
 tife on aflronomy was publifhed by his order ; and, in 
 1282, he ordered the learned men to repair from all 
 parts of the empire to examine the ftate of literature, 
 and take mealures for its advancement. 
 
 At his firtt acceffion to the crown he fixed his refi- 
 fidence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shen-fi ; but 
 thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking. 
 Here, being informed that the barks which brought 
 to court the tribute of the fouthem provinces, or car- 
 ried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come 
 by fea, and often fuffered Ihipwreck, he caufed that 
 celebrated canal to be made, which is at prefcnt one 
 of the wonders of the Chinefe empire, being 300 
 leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial 
 barks tranfport with eafe, and at fmall expence, the tri- 
 bute of grain, rice, filks, iffc. which is annually paid 
 to the court. In the third year of his reign Shi-tfu 
 formed a defign of reducing the iflands of Japan, and 
 the kingdoms of Tonkquin and Cochin-china. Beth 
 thefe enterprifes ended unfortunately, but the iiril 
 remarkably fo ; for of 100,000 perfons employed in 
 it, only four or five efcaped with the melancholy news 
 of the deilruftion of the reft, who all perirtied by (hip- 
 wreck. Shi-tfu reigned 15 years, died in the 80th year 44 
 of his age, and was fucceeded by his grandfon. The Moguls dri- 
 throne continued in the Ywen family till the year 1367, ^"^"^ 
 when Shun-ti, the laft of that dynafty, was driven out 
 by a Chinefe named Chu. During this period the 
 Tartars had become enervated by long profperity ; 
 and the Chinefe had been roufed into valour by their 
 fubjeftion. Shun-ti, the reigning prince, was quite 
 funk in floth and debauchery ; and the empire, befides, 
 was oppreffed by a wicked minifter named Ama. In Expioits of 
 June 1355, Chu, a Chinefe of mean extraction, and Chu. 
 head of a fmaU party, fet out from How-chew, paffed 
 the Kyang, and took Tay-ping. He then affociated 
 himfelf with fome other malcontents, at the head of 
 whom he reduced the town of Tu-chew, in Kyano-- 
 nan. Soon after he made himfelf mafter of Nanking, 
 having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In 
 December 1356, he was able to raife 100,000 men, 
 at the head of whom he took the city of U-chew, in 
 the eaft borders of Quang-fi ; and here, affembling his 
 generals, it was refoived neither to commit Haughters 
 nor to plunder. The moft formidable enemy he had 
 to deal with was Cben-yeiv-lyangy ftyled " emperor of 
 the Han." This man being grieved at the progrefs 
 made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raifed a formi- 
 dable army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city 
 of Kyang-fi, which, his antagonift had made himfelf 
 mafter of. The governor, however, found means ' 
 to inform Chu of his danger ; upon which that chief 
 caufed a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which 
 he embarked 200,000 foldiers. As foon as Chen-yew- 
 lyang was informed of his enemy's approach, he raifed 
 the fiege of Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for at- 
 tacking Chu's naval force. An engagement enfued 
 between a part of the fleets, in which Chu proved 
 viftorious ; and next day, all the fquadrons having 
 joined in order to come to a general engagement, 
 Chu gained a fecond viftory, and burnt 100 of the 
 enemy's veffels. A third and fourth engagement hap- 
 pened, in both which Chu gained the viftory ; and iii 
 z the 
 
CHI 
 
 China. 
 
 46 
 
 He is pru- 
 c.P.imetl 
 kins of U. 
 
 [ 660 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 47 
 
 Becomes 
 empeio; of 
 China. 
 
 48 
 Moguls 
 driven be- 
 yend the 
 defert. 
 
 49 
 
 China a- 
 gain con- 
 quered by 
 the Tartars 
 
 the laft, Chen-yew-lyang himfelf was killed, his fon 
 taken prifoner, and his generals obliged to furrender 
 themfelves, with all their forces and veffels. 
 
 In January 1364, Cliu's generals propofed to have 
 him proclaimed emperor ; but this he declined, and 
 at firll contented himfelf with the title of king of U. 
 In February he made himfelf mailer of Vu-chang-fu, 
 capital of Hu-quang ; where, with bis ufual humanity, 
 he relieved thofe in dillrefs, encouTaged the literati, 
 and would allow his troops neither to plunder nor de- 
 ftroy. This wife conduft procured him an eafy con- 
 queft both of Kyang-fi and Hu-quang. The Chinefe 
 fubmitted to him in crowds, and profelfed the greateft 
 veneration and refpeft for his perfon and govern- 
 ment. 
 
 All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negli- 
 gence, never thought of exerting himfelf againft Chu, 
 but continued to employ his forces againft the rebels 
 w^ho had taken up arms in various parts of the empire ; 
 fo that Chu found himfelf in a condition to affume the 
 title of emperor. This he chofe to do at Nanking on 
 the hrft day of the year 1368. After this his troops 
 entered the province of Honan, which they prefently 
 reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now 
 taken the title of Hong-uu., or Tay tfu, reduced the 
 fortrefs of Tong-quan ; after which his troops entered 
 Pecheli from Honan on the one fide, and Shan-tong 
 on the otlier. Here his generals defeated and killed 
 one of Shun-ti's officers; after which they took the city 
 of Tong-chew, and then prepared to attack the capi- 
 tal, from which they were now but 12 miles diftant. 
 On their approach the empei-or fled with all his family 
 beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy- 
 nalty of YvsTcn. In 1370 he died, and was fucceeded 
 by his fon, whom the fucceffor of Hong-vu drove be- 
 yond the Kobi or Great Defert, which feparates China 
 from Tartary. They continued their incurfions, how- 
 ever, for many years ; nor did they ceafe their at- 
 tempts till 1583, when vaft numbers of them were cut 
 in pieces by the Chinefe troops. 
 
 The 2 1 It dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in 
 1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when they 
 were again expelled* by the Tartars. The laft Chinefe 
 emperor was named Whay-tfong, and afcended the 
 throne in 1628. He was a great lover of the fciences, 
 and a favourer of the Chriftians ; though much 
 addifted to the fuperftitions of the Bonzes. He found 
 himfelf engaged in a war with the Tartars, and a 
 pum.ber of rebels in different provinces. That he 
 inight more efFeAually fupprcfs the latter, he refolved 
 to make peace with the former ; and for that end fent 
 one of his generals, named Tweny into Tartary, at 
 the head of an army, with full power to negociate a 
 peace ; but that traitor made one upon fuch fhameful 
 terms, that the emperor refufed to ratify it. Ywen, 
 in order to oblige his mafter to comply with the terms 
 made by himfelf, poifoned his beft and molt faithful 
 general, named Mau-ven-long ; and then dcfired the 
 Tartars to march diredlly to Peking, by a road dif- 
 ferent from that which he took with his army. This 
 they accordingly did, and laid fiege to the capital. 
 Ywen was ordered to come to its relief ; but, on his 
 arrival, was put to the torture and ftrangled; of which 
 the Tartars were no fooner informed, than they raifed 
 the fiege, and returned to their own country. In 163 6, 
 
 the rebels above-mentioned compofed four great ar- China, 
 mies, commanded by as many generals ; which, how- -v— 
 ever, were foon reduced to two, commanded by Li 
 and Chang. Thefe agreed to divide the empire be- 
 tween them ; Chang taking the weftern provinces, 
 and Li the eaftern ones. The latter feized on part of 
 Shen-fi, and then of Honan, whofe capital, named 
 Kay-fong-fu, he laid fiege to, but was repulfed with, 
 lois. He renewed- it fix months after, but without 
 fuccefs; thebefieged choofing rather to feed on human 
 flefii than furrender. The Imperial forces coming 
 foon after to its affiftance, the general made no doubt 
 of being able to deftroy the rebels at once, by break- 
 ing down the banks of the Ytllow kiver ; but unfor- 
 tunately the rebels efcaped to the mountains, while 
 the city was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the in- 
 habitants peril'hed. 
 
 After this difaftar, Li marched into the provinces 
 of Shen-fi and Honan ; where he put to death all the 
 naandarins, exaded great fums from the oflicers in 
 place, and fliowcd no favour to any but the populace, 
 whom he freed from all taxes: by this means he drew 
 fo many to hisinterert, that he thought himfelf ftrong 
 enough to afllime the title of emi)eror. He next ad- 
 vanced towards the capital, which, though well gar- 
 rifoned, was divided into fattions^ Li had taken care 
 to introduce before-hand a number of his men in dif- 
 guife ; and by thefe the gates were opened to him the 
 third day after his arrival. He entered the city in Unhappy 
 triumph at the head of 300,000 men ; whilft the eirv- fate of the- 
 peror kept himfelf Ihut up in his palace, buficd only emperor 
 with his fuperftitions. It was not long, however, be- ^".'.^ '^'^ 
 fore he found himfelf betrayed : and, under the great- 
 eft confternation, made an effort to get out of the pa- 
 lace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was 
 ftill more furprifed to fee himfelf treacheroufly aban- 
 doned by them, and deprived of all hopes of efcaping 
 the infults of his fubjefts. Upon this, preferring death 
 to the difgrace of falhng alive into their hands, he im- 
 mediately retired with his em>prefs, whom he tenderly 
 loved, and the princefs her daughter, into a private 
 part of the garden. His grief was fo great that he was 
 not able to utter a word ; but fhe foon underftood his 
 meaning-, and, after a few filent embraces, hanged 
 herfelf on a tree in a filken ftring. Her hufband liaid 
 only to write thefe words on the border of his veil : 
 *' I have been bafely deferted by my fubjefts ; do 
 what you will with me, but fpare my people." He 
 then cut off the young princefs's head with one ftroke 
 of his fcymitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree, 
 in the 1 7th year of his reign, and 36th of his age. His^ 
 prime minifter, queens, and eunuchs, followed his exam- 
 ple ; and thus ended the Chinele monarchy, to give 
 place to that of the Tartars, which hath continued ever 
 lince. ^ 
 
 It was fome time before the body of the unfortu- 
 nate monarch was found. At laft it was brought be- 
 fore the rebel Li, and by him ufed with the utmoft 
 indignity ; after which he caufed two of Whey-tfong's. 
 fons, and all his minifters, to be beheaded ; but his 
 eldeft fon happily efcaped by flight. The whole empire- 
 fubmitted peaceably to the ufurper, except prince U- 
 fan-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the 
 province of Lyau-tong. This^ brave prince, finding 
 liimfelf unable to cope with the ufurper, invited the 
 
 Tartars 
 
Ihlna. 
 
 China. 
 
 53 
 Climate, 
 
 SI 
 np;e to 
 Liy rcdu- 
 
 CHI [ 66i ] CHI 
 
 Tartars to his affiRance, and Tfong-te their king Im- The cllmalc as well as the foil of this extenfive em- 
 
 mediately joined him with an army of 8o,ooo men. pire is very duTcrent in different parts ; fevere cold be- 
 
 Upon this the ufurper marched directly to Peking; but ing often felt In the northern provinces, whuc tlie in- 
 
 not thinking himfelf fafe there, plundered and burnt habitants of the foulhern ones are fcarce abie to bear foil, and 
 
 the palace, and then fled with the Immenfe treafure the heat. In general, however, the air is accounted produce, 
 
 he had got. What became of him afterwards we are wholefome, and the Inhabitants hve to a great age.— 
 
 not told"; but the youn-r Tartar monarch was imme- The northern and wcftern provinces have many 
 
 diately declared enipero'r of China, his father Tfong- mountains, which In the latter are cultivated,^ but 
 
 te having died abnoit as foon as he fet his foot In that in the noith are barren, rocky, and incapable oi im- 
 
 p.j -j-e. provement. On the mountains of Chcnfi, Honan, Caa- 
 
 * The'new emperor, named Shun-cJA, or Xun-cl/i, be- ton, and Foklen, arc many forefts, abounding with tall, 
 
 gan his reign with i 'w arding U-fan-ghey, by con- ftralght trees, of different kinds, fit for building, and 
 
 fcrring upon hini the title of King ; and affigned him particularly adapted for mafts and fhlp-timbcr. Thefe 
 
 the city of Si-guan-fu, capital of Shen-fi, for his refl- are ufed by the emperor in his private buildings ; and 
 
 dence. This, however, did not hinder U-fan-ghey from thefe forefts enormous trunks are fometimer 
 
 fi-om repenting of his error In calling In the Tartars, or, tranfported to the diftance of more than 300 leagues, 
 
 as he himfelf ufed to phrafe It, " in fending for lions to Qthcr mountains contain quickfilver, iron, tin, copper,, 
 
 drive away dogs." In 1674, he formed a very ftrong gold, and filver. Formerly thefe laft were not allowed 
 
 alliance agalnfl them, and had probably prevailed if to be opened, left the people fhould thereby^ be in- 
 
 Ms allies had been faithful ; but they treacheroufly duced to negleit the natural riches of the foil ; and 
 
 dcfcrted him one after another:' whlcli fo affecled him, it is certain, that, in the 15th century, the emperor 
 
 that he died foon after. In 1681 Ilong-wha, fon to caufed a mine of precious ftones to be fhut, which had 
 
 U-fan-ghev, who continued his efforts againft the been opened by a private pcrfon. Of late, however, 
 
 Tartars, was reduced to fuch ftralts that he put an the Chinefe are lefs fcrupulous, and a great 'trade m- 
 
 end to Ills own life. gol<i is carried on by them. Many extravagant fables are 
 
 During this fpace, there had been fome refiftance told by the Chinefe of their mountains, particularly of 
 
 made to the Tartars in many of the provinces. Two one in Chcnfi which throws out flames, and produces, 
 
 princes of Chinefe extraaion had at different times violent tempefts, whenever anyone beats a drum or 
 
 been proclaimed emperors; but both of them were plays on a mufical Inflrument near it.-In the proyinceof 
 
 Dut to death. In 1682, the whole 1 5 Foklen is a mountain, the whole of which is an idol, 
 
 Tills natural coloflus, for it 
 
 52. 
 
 ir fliani- 
 iVft en- 
 uragcd 
 d then 
 ftcuted. 
 
 overcome and pi 
 
 provinces were fo effecfuahy fubdued, that the em- ftatue of the god Fo. 
 peror Kang-hi, fuccelfor to Shun-chi, determined to appears not to have been the work of art, is of fuch 
 vlfit his native dominions of Tartary. He was ac- an enormous fize, that each of Its eyes is feveral miles 
 companied by an army of 70,000 men, and continued in circumference, and Its nofe extends fome leagues. 54 
 for fome months taking the diverfion of hunting. China has feveral large lakes; the principal^ one is Lakes and 
 This he continued to do for fome years ; and in his that named Poyang-hou, in the province of Kiang-fi.C'^ers.,, 
 journeys took father Verbelft along with him ; by which It Is formed by the confluence of four large rivers, ex- 
 means we have a better defcWption of thefe countries tends near loo leagues in length; and, hkt the fea, 
 
 its waters are ralfed into tempeftuous waves. The em- 
 pire ip watered by an immenfe number of rivers of dif- 
 ferent fizes, of which two are particularly celebrated, 
 viz. the Tang'tfe kiang, or fon of the fca, and Hoang-ho^ 
 or the yelloiv river. The former rifes in the province 
 
 than could pofTibly have been otherwife obtained. 
 This prince was a great encourager of learning and 
 of the Chriftlan religion ; In favour of which laft he 
 publifhed a decree, dated in 1 692. In 1 7 16, however, he 
 revived fome obfolete laws againft the Chrlftlans; nor 
 
 could the Jefults with all their ait preferve the footing of Y iin-nan, and palling through Hou-quang and 
 
 they had got in China. The caufes of this alteration Klang-nan, falls Into the eaftern ocean, after a courfe 
 
 in his refolution are, by the miffionarles, fald to have of 1200 miles, oppofite to the ifland of Tfon-ming, 
 
 been the fianders of the mandarins; but, from the which is formed by the fand accumulated at Its mouth, 
 
 known charafter of the Jefults, it will he readily be- This river is of immenfe fize, being half a league broad 
 
 lieved, that there was fomcthing more at bottom, at Nanking, which is near 100 miles from its mouth. 
 
 This emperor died in 1722, and was fucceeded by his The navigation is dangerous, fo that great num- 
 
 fon Yon-ching; who not only gave no encouragement bers of veffels are loft on it. It runs with a rapid 
 
 to the miffionarles, but perfecuted all Chrift'ians of current, forming feveral iflands in its courfe, which 
 
 whatever denomination, not excepting even thofe of are again carried off and new ones formed m different 
 
 the Imperial race. At the beginning of his reign he places, when the river Is fwcUed by the torrents from 
 
 banlfhed all the Jefults into the city of Canton, and in 
 I 7 '',2 they were banlfhed from thence into Ma-kau, a 
 little Ifland inhabited by the Portuguefe, but fubjeft 
 to China. He died in 1736; but, though the Jefults 
 entertained great hopes from his fucceffor, we have 
 rot heard tliat they have ytt met with any fuccefs. 
 
 Thus we have given an account of the moft memo- 
 rable tranfaftion* recorded In the Chinefe hiftory. It 
 now remains only to defcribe the prefent ftate of the 
 empire and its inhabitants, according^ to the b«ft and 
 lateft accounts. 
 
 the -mountains. Thefe iflands, while they remain, 
 are very ufeful ; producing great quantities of reeds 
 ten or twelve feet high, which are ufed in all the 
 neighbouring countries for fuel. The Hoang-ho, or 
 yellow river, has its name from the yellow colour given 
 it by the clay and fand wafhed down in tht time 
 of rain. It rifes In the mountains which border the 
 province of Te-tchuen on the weft, and after a courfe 
 of near 600 leagues, difcharges Itfelf into the ea{l:ern 
 fea not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It Is very 
 broad and rapid,, bv.t fo fiiallow that It is fc?.rce navi- 
 gable. 
 
G H I 
 
 [ 662 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 Remark- 
 able river, 
 which part- 
 ly finks uii 
 ^«rgr»und 
 
 gaWc. It is very liable to inundationa, often overflow- 
 ing its banks, and deftroying whole villages. For this 
 reafon It has been found neceffary to confine it in fe- 
 veral places by long and ftrong dykes ; which yet do 
 not entirely aafwer the purpofe. The people of Ho- 
 nan, therefore, wbofe land is exceedingly low, have 
 furrounded moft of their cities with ftrong ramparts of 
 earth faced with turf, at tlic diftance of three fur- 
 longs. 
 
 The Chinefe have been at great pains to turn their 
 lakes and rivers to the advantage of copimerce, by pro- 
 raotinganinlandnavigation. Oneof their principal works 
 for this purpole, is the celebrated canal reaching from 
 Canton to Peking, and forming a communication be- 
 tween the foiithern and northern provinces. This canal 
 extends through no lefs a fpace than 600 leagues; but 
 its navigation is interrupted in one place by a mountain, 
 where pafftngcrs are obliged to travel 10 or 12 leagues 
 over land. A number of other canals are met with in this 
 and other provi-ices; moft of which have been execu- 
 ted by the induiu yof the inhabitants of difterent cities 
 and towns, in order to promote their communication 
 v»rith the various parts of the empire. M. Grofter re- 
 marks, that, in thefe works, the Chinefe have " fur- 
 mounted obftacles that perhaps would have difcouraged 
 any other people; fuch, for example, is part of a canal 
 which conducts from Chao-king to Ning-po." Near 
 thefe cities there are two canals, the waters of which 
 do not communicate, and which differ ten or twelve feet 
 in their level. To render this place pafiable for boats, 
 the Chinefe have conftrufted a double glacis of large 
 ftones, or rather two inclined planes, which unite in 
 an acute angle at their upper extremity, and extend 
 on each fide to the furface of the water. If the bark 
 is in the lower canal, they pufti it up the plane of the 
 firft glacis by means of feveral capftans, until it is 
 raifed to the angle, whea by its own weight it glides 
 down the fecond glacis, and precipitates itfelf into 
 the water of the higher canal with the velocity of an 
 an^ow. It is aftoniftiing that thefe barks, which are 
 generally very long and heavily loaden, never burft 
 afunder when they are balanced on this acute angle ; 
 however, we never hear of any accident of this kind 
 happening in the paflage. It is true, they take the 
 precaution of ufmg for their keels a kind of wood 
 which is exceedingly hard, and proper for refilling 
 the violence of fuch an efibrt. 
 
 The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinefe 
 river is related by Father le Couieux, a French miffiona- 
 ry. " Some leagues above the village Che-pai (fays 
 he), the river becomes confiderab y fmaller, although 
 none of its waters flow into any other channel ; and, 
 eight or nine leagues below, it refumes its former 
 breadth, without receiving any additional fiipply, ex- 
 cepting what it gets from a few fmall rivulets, which 
 are ahnoft dry during the greater part of the year. 
 Oppofite to Che-pai it is fo much diminlftied, that, 
 excepting one channel, which is not very broad, I have 
 pafled and repafled it feveral times by the help of a com- 
 mon pole. I was always furprifed to find this river fo 
 parrow and ftiallow in that place ; but t never thought of 
 inquiring into the caufe of it, until the lofs of a bark 
 belonging to a Chtiftian family afforded me an op- 
 portunity. In that place where the river diminifties 
 almoft of a fudden, it flows with great impetuofity ; 
 ■^nd yihcit it refumes its former breadth it is equally 
 
 rapid. At the fixth moon, when the Vv-nter was high Chin'x 
 and the wind ftrong, the bark L have mentioned ar- 
 riving above Che-pai, was driven on a fand-banlc ; for 
 between thefe two places the river is full of moveable 
 fands, which are continually fhifting their fituation. 
 The matter of the boat dropped his anchor until the 
 wind ftiould abate, and permit him to continue his 
 voyage ; but a violent vortex of moveable fand,, which 
 was caft up from the bottom of the river, laid the 
 bark on its fide ; a fecond vortex fucceeded ; then a 
 third ; and afterwards a fourth, which lhattered the 
 bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this 
 bark had been loft, the weather was mild and ferene; I 
 perceived eddies in the current every where around ; 
 which abforbed, and carried to the bottom of the ri- 
 ver whatever floated on the furface; and- 1 cbferved., 
 at the fame time, that the fand was thiown violently 
 up with a \ortical motion. Above thefe eddies the 
 water was rapid, but without any fall ; and in the 
 place below, where the river refumes its ufual courfe, 
 no eddies are to be feen, but the fand is thrown up in 
 the fame violent manner ; and in fome places there 
 , are water-falls, and a kind of fmall iflands fcattered 
 at fome diftance from one another. Thefe ii'laads 
 which appear above the furface of the water, are not 
 folid earth, but confift of branches of trees, roots, and 
 herbs collefted together. I was told that thefe boughs 
 rofe up from the water, and that no one knew the 
 place from whence they came. I was informed, that 
 thefe mafles, which were 40 or 50 feet in extent on 
 that fide on which we paffed, were immoveable, and 
 fixed in the bottom of the river ; that it was dange- 
 rous to approach them, becaufe the water formed 
 whirlpools every where around them ; that, however, 
 when the river was very low, the fifliermen fonretimes 
 ventured to coUeft the buflies that floated on its fur- 
 face, and which they ufed for fuel. I am of opinion, 
 that, at the place of the river which is above Che-pai, 
 the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces 
 up the fand with that vortical motion ; and that it 
 flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine 
 leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs, 
 weeds, and roots, which it waflies down in its courfe, 
 and thus forms thofe iflands which appear above its 
 furface. We know there are feme rivers that lofe 
 themfelves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the 
 earth, and which afterwards arife in fome other place ; 
 but 1 believe theite never was one known to lofe part 
 of its water below its own channel, and again to re- 
 cover it at the diftance of fome leagues." 
 
 It has already been faid, that China is, in general, why ^ 
 a fertile country; and indeed all travellers agree in thisis fubjedl 
 refpedl, and make encomiums on the extent and beauty famines, 
 of its plains. So careful are the hufcandmen of this 
 empire to lofe none of their ground, that neither ia- feitii't^j^. 
 clofure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, fcarce a fmgle tree, 
 are ever to be met with. In feveral places the land 
 yields two crops a-year ; and even in the interval be- 
 tween the harvefts, the people few feveral kinds of 
 pulfe and fmall grain. The plains of the northern 
 provinces yield wheat ; thofe of the fouthern, rice, 
 becaufe the .country is low and covered with water. 
 Notwithftanding all this fertility, however, the inha- 
 bitants are much more frequently afflifted with famine 
 than thofe of the European nations, though the coun- 
 trie« of Europe produce much lefs than China. For 
 
 this 
 
G H I 
 
 na. tKIs two caufes are affigncd. 
 
 the rifuTT crops by drought, hail, inundations, lo- 
 cufts, CSV. in which cafe China cannot like the l"u- 
 ropean coutries be fupplied by importation. This is 
 evident by confidering how it is fituated with regard 
 to other nations. On the north are the MogulTar- 
 tars, a lazy and indolent race, who fubfift principally 
 on the flelh of their flocks ; fowing_ only a little mil- 
 let for their own uie. ' TiJre province of Leatong, 
 which lies to the north-eail, is indeed extremely fer- 
 tile, but too far diftant from the capital and centre 
 of the empire to fupply it with provifions ; and be- 
 lides, all carriage is impratlicable but in the winter, 
 when great quantities of game, and lift), preferved in 
 ice, are fent thither. No corn is brought from Corea 
 to China ; and, though the Japan illands are only 
 three or four days failing from the Chinefc provinces 
 of Kiang-nan and Chc-kyang, yet no attempt was 
 ever made to obtain provifions from thence, whether 
 it be, that the Japanefe have nothing to fpare, or on 
 account of the infults offered by thefe iflanders to 
 foreign merchants. Formofa lies oppofite to the pro- 
 vince' of Fo-kien ; but fo far is that ifland from being 
 able to fupply any thing, that in a time of fcarcity it 
 requires a fupply from China itfelf. The province of 
 Canton is alfo bounded by the fea, and has nothing 
 on the fouth but illands and remote countries. One 
 year, when rice was exceedingly fcarce there, the ern- 
 peror fent for F. Parranin, a Jefuit milTionary, and 
 aflced him if the city of Macao could not furnifb 
 Canton with rice until the fupply he had _ ordered 
 from other provinces Ihould arrive ; but was informed 
 that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruits, herbs, nor 
 flocks; and that it generally got from China what 
 was neceffary for its fubfillence. — The only method, 
 therefore, the Chinefe can take to guard againll fa- 
 mines arifmg from thefe caufes, is to ereft granaries 
 and pubhc magazines in every province and moft of 
 the principal cities of the empire. This has at all 
 times been a principal objeft of care to the public mi- 
 nifters ; but though this mode of rehef Hill takes 
 place in theory, fo many ceremonies are to be gone 
 through before any fupply can be drawn from thofe 
 public repofitories, that it feldom arrives feafonably 
 at the places where it is wanted ; and thus numbers 
 of unhappy wretches perifh for want. 2. Another 
 caufe of the fcarcity of grain in this empire, is the 
 prodigious confumpt of it in the compofition of wines, 
 and a fpirituous liquor called raci. But though go- 
 vernment is well apprized that this is one of the pi-ia- 
 eipal fources of famine throughout the empire, it ne- 
 ver employed means fufficient to prevent it. Procla- 
 mations indeed have frequently been iffued, prohibi- 
 ting the diftillation of rack ; and the appointed offi- 
 j cers will vifit the ftill-houfes and deftroy the furnaces 
 
 if- nothing is given them; but on flipping fome money 
 into their hands, they fhut their eyes, and go fome- 
 where elfe to receive another bribe. When the man- 
 darin himfelf goes about, however, thefe dittillers do 
 not efcape quite fo eaiily, the workmen being whip- 
 ped and imprifoned, after which they are obliged to 
 * below ^^^^ kindof collar called the Cangue* ; the mailers are. 
 "iko^-ja^, °^ likewife obliged to change their habitations and con- 
 ceal therafelves for a fhort time, after which they ge- 
 nerally refumc their operations. It is impoCibk, how- 
 
 [ 663 ] CHI 
 
 J. The dcftruftion of ever, that any method of this klnd_ can prove effec 
 
 Chinar, 
 
 58 
 Immcnfe 
 
 tual in i'uppreffing thefe manufadlories while the li- 
 quors themfelves are allowed to be fold publicly ; and 
 againft this there is no law throughout the empire. 
 Our author, however, juftly obferves, that in cafe of 
 a prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be ob- 
 ligeH to deny themltlves the ufe of thefe luxuries, 
 which would be too great a facriiice for the good of 
 the empire. 
 
 The population o-f China is fo great, in compari ^ uUtion, 
 fon with that of the European countries, that the ac- ^ 
 counts of it have generally been treated as fc'.bulous by 
 the weftern nations; but by an accurate inveftigation 
 of fome Chinefe records concerning the number of 
 perfons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M. 
 Grofier has fhowed that it cannot be lefs than 200 
 milHcns. For this extraordinary population he afligns 
 the following caufes. l . The ftridt obfervance of ii- 
 lial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives' 
 of fraternity, which make a fon the molt valuable pro- 
 perty of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the me- 
 mory of thofe who die without children. 3. The uni- 
 verfal cuftom by which the marriage of children be- 
 comes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The 
 honours bellowed by the itate on thofe widows who 
 do not marry a fecond time. 5. Frequent adoptions, 
 which prevent families from becoming extind;. 6. 
 The return of wealth to its original flock by the dif- 
 inheriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives, 
 which renders them more complaifant to their huf- 
 bands, laves them from a number of accidents when 
 big with child, and conftrains them to employ them- 
 felves in tiie care of their children. 8. The mar- 
 riage of foldiers. 9. The fixed ftate of taxes; which 
 being always laid upon lands, never fall but indireftly 
 on the trader and mechanic. 10. The fmall number 
 of failors and travellers. 1 1 . To thefe may be added 
 the great number of people who refide in China only 
 by intervals; the profound peace which the empire 
 enjoys ; the frugal and laborious manner in which the 
 great live ; the little attention that is paid to the vain 
 and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below one's rank ; 
 the ancient poHcy of giving diftinftion to men and not 
 to families ; by attaching nobility only to employ- 
 ments and talents, without fuflFering it to become he- 
 reditary. And, 12. laftly, A decency of public man- 
 ners, and a total ignorance of fcandalous intrigues and 
 gallantry. %^ 
 
 The government of China, according to the Abbe Unlimited' 
 Grofier, is purely patriarchal^ The emperor is moi^ of thTem 
 unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on pgror. 
 earth; no fentence of death, pronounced by any of- 
 the tribunals, can be executed without his confent, 
 and every verdift in civil affairs is fubjc6l to be rcvifed 
 by him- ; nor can any determination be of force until 
 it has been confirmed by the emperor : and, on the 
 contrary, .whatever fentence he paffes is executed with- 
 out delay ; his edicts are refpefted throughout the em- 
 pire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the 
 difpofal of all offices, nor is there any fucb thing as - 
 the purchafe of places in China ; merit, real or fup- 
 pofed, raifes to an office, and rank is attached to it on- 
 ly. Even the fucceflion to the throne is not altoge- - 
 ther hereditary. The emperor of China has a power 
 of cliQofmg liis own fucceffor without confulting any - 
 
C H T 
 
 Cl'fiia. of Ills nobility ; and can felc£l ons not only from a- 
 ^"^^ nioiig his own children, but even from the body of his 
 people ; and there have been fevtnil initances of his 
 making ufe of this right : and he h as even a power of 
 altering the fucceffion after it has or.ce been fixed, in 
 cafe the perfon pitched upon does not beharve towards 
 him with propt r refpeft. The emperoi can alfo pre- 
 vent the princes of the blood from exerciiing the title, 
 with which, according to the conftitution of the em- 
 pire, they ai'e invefted. They may indeed, notwith- 
 ftanding this, poflefs their hereditary dignity ; in which 
 caCe they are allowed a revenue proportioned to their 
 high birth, as well as a palace, officers, and a court ; 
 but they have neither influence nor power, and their 
 autliority is lower tliaii that of the nieanell manda- 
 
 60 
 
 Mandarins '-The mandarins are of two clafTes, viz. thofe of let- 
 of d ffeient ters, and the inferior fort, (lyled mandarins of arms, 
 dailes. The latter by no means enjoy the fame confideration 
 with the former fort ; indeed in China the literati are 
 highly honouix'd, and to their influence M. Grofier 
 fuppofes that we may in a great meafure afcribe the 
 mildnefs and equ ty of the government ; though he 
 thinks that the balance may incline rather too rairch 
 in their favour. Several degrees, anfwei-ing to thofe 
 of bachelor, licentiate, and do£lor, mull be pafled 
 through before one can attain to the dignity of a man- 
 darin of letters ; though fometimes, by the favour of 
 the emperor, it is conferred on thofe who have attain- 
 ed only the two firft degrees : but even the perfons 
 who have gone through all the thi-ee, enjoy at firfl; 
 only the government of a city of the fecond or third 
 clafs. When feveral vacancies happen in the govern- 
 ment of cities, the emperor Invites to court a corre- 
 fponding number of the literati, whofe names are 
 written down In a lift. The names of the vacant go- 
 vernments are then put into a box, raifed fo high that 
 the candidates are able only to reach it with their 
 hands ; after which they draw in their turns, and each 
 IS appointed governor of the city whofe name he has 
 ilruwu. 
 
 There are eigTit orders of thefe mandarins in China. 
 I. The ca/ac, from v. horn are chofen the mini iters of 
 "ftate, the prcfidcnts of the fupreme courts, and all the 
 fuperior officers among the militia. The chief of this 
 order prcfides alfo in .the empei-or's council, and en- 
 joy; a great ihare of hi;; confidence. 2. The te-hlufe, 
 or man of acknov.ledged ability, is a title bellowed 
 upon every mandarin of the fecond rank ; and frooL 
 thefe are fclected the viceroys and prefidents of the 
 fupreme council In the different provinces. 3. The 
 tchong-tchveo, or fchoel of mandarins, ail as fecretaries 
 to the emperor. 4. T-tclv.en,-tao. Thefe keep in re- 
 pair the harbours, royal lodging-houfes, and barks, 
 which belong to the emperor, unlefs particularly en- 
 gaged In fome other office by his order. 5. The^zw^- 
 p.-tao have the infpeftion of the troops. 6. The tun- 
 tkn-hao have the care of the high-ways. 7. The ho- 
 tao fuperlntend the rivers. 8. I'he Lii-hn infpeft the 
 fea-coafl:s. 
 
 Thus the whole adminiftiT.tion of the Chincfe em- 
 pire is intrulled to the mandarins of letters ; and the 
 homage paid by the common people to every manda- 
 rin In office, almoft equals that paid to the emperor 
 himfelf. This indeed flows from the nature of their 
 
 N°77. 2 
 
 [ 664 1 
 
 C H I 
 
 govtjrnment. In China it is a received opinion that China 
 the emperor Is the father of the whole empire ; that """v-^ 
 the governor of a province Is the father of that pro- - 
 vince ; and that the mandarin who is governor of a 
 city is a.lf() the father of that city. This idea is pro- 
 duCxive of the highell refpecl and fubmiflion, which is 
 not at all leffened by their great number; for though 
 the mandarins of letters amount to moie than 14,000, 
 the fame refpedf is paid to every one of them. 
 
 The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any ' • 
 fhare in the government of the fl;ate ; however, to at- 
 tain to this dignity, it is alfo neceffaty to pafs through 
 the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor of arms. 
 The accomplifliments neceflary for a mandarin of arms 
 are, llrength of body, with ability and readlnefs In per- 
 forming the various military exeicifes, and compre- 
 hending the orders requifite for the profeifion of arms ; 
 an examination on thefe fubjecfs muft be undergone 
 before the candidate can attain the wiflied-for dig- 
 nity. 6r 
 
 The mandarins of arms have tribunals, the members '^"''""■^^ 
 of which are felefttd from among their chiefs; and'i^ '"^^"^ 
 among thefe they reckon princes, counts, and dukes ; -^emi, 
 for all thefe dignities, or fom.ething equivalent to them, 
 are met with in China. The principal of thefe tribu- 
 nals is held at Peking, and confiits of five clalTes. 
 
 1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou-foit. 
 
 2. Of the left wing, or tfa-fou. 3. Of the right wing, 
 or yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or te- 
 hong-foii. 5. Of the advanced guard, or tfien-foii. Thefe 
 five tribunals are fubordinate to one named ioiig'tchi:ig' 
 fou ; the prefident of which is one of the great lords of 
 the empire, whofe authority extends over all the mili- 
 tary men In the empire. By his high dignity he could 
 render himfelf forinldable even to the emperor ; but to 
 prevent this inconvenience, he has for his alftfliDr a 
 mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercifes 
 the funftic i of fuperintendant of arms. He muft al- 
 fo take the advice of two infpeftors who are named by 
 the emperor ; and when thefe four have agreed upon 
 any meafure, their rcfolution muft ftill be Submit- 
 ted to the revifal of an higher court named Ping-pou, 
 which is entirely of a civil nature. The cliief of thefe 
 maiidarina is a general of courfe, whofe powers are e- 
 qulvaknt to thofe of our commanders in chief; and 
 below him are other mandarins who a6t as fubordinate 
 officers. 
 
 Thefe two chiifLS of mandarins compofe what is 
 called the nobility of China ; but as we have already 
 hinted, their office is not hereditary ; the emperor a- 
 lone continues or confers it. They have the piivilege 
 of remonftrating to the emperor, either as individuals 
 or In a body, upon any part of his conducl whicli ap- 
 pears contrary to the intercfts of the empire. Theie 
 remonftranccs are feldom ill received, though the io^c- 
 reign complies with them only when he himfelf thi.iks 
 proper. The number of literary mandarins in China is 
 computed at upwards of 14,000 ; and thofe of arms at 
 18,000; the former, however, are , confidered as the 
 principal body in the empire ; and this preference is 
 thought to damp the military ardour of the nation In 
 general, and to be one caufe of th^t weaknefs in war 
 for which the Chinefe are remarkable. 
 
 The armies of this empire are proportioaed to Its Militarj 
 vail extent and population ; being computed In time force. 
 
 of 
 
C H I 
 
 Ghlna. 
 
 63 
 
 Ufe of fire- 
 arms loft 
 and revi- 
 ved. 
 
 of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts 
 to about twopence half-penny and a meafure of rice 
 per day, though feme of them have double pay, and 
 the pay of a horieman is double that of a foot-foldier; 
 the emperor furniflies a horfe, and the horfeman re- 
 ceives two meafures of fmall beans for his daily fub- 
 fiftence ; the arrears of the army being punctually paid 
 up every three months. 
 
 The arms of a horfeman are, a helmet, cuirafs, lance, 
 and fabre ; thofe of a foot-foldier are a pike and fabre ; 
 fome have fufees, and others bows and arrows. All 
 thefe are carefully infpefted at every review ; and if 
 any of them are found in the leaft rulled, or otherwife 
 in bad condition, the poffelfor is inftantly punifhed ; if 
 a Chinefc, with 30 or 40 blows of a ftick ; or, if a 
 Tartar, with as many laflies. 
 
 Though the ufe of gun-powder is certainly very 
 ancient in China, it appears to have been afterwards 
 totally loft, at leaft fire-arms feem to have been almoft 
 entirely unknown fpme centuries ago. Three or four 
 cannon were to be feen at that time about the gates ef 
 Nanking ; but not a fingle perfon in China knew how 
 to make ufe of them ; fo that, in 1621, when the city 
 of Macdo m.ade a pixfcnt of three pieces of artillery 
 to the emperor, it was found neceflary alfo to fend 
 three men to load them. The utility of thefe wea- 
 pons was quickly perceived by the execution which the 
 three cannon did againft the Tartars, at that time ad- 
 vanced as far as the great wall. When the invaders 
 threatened to return, the mandarins of arms gave it as 
 their opinion, that cannons were the beft arms they 
 could make ufe of againft them. They were then 
 taught the art of cafting cannon by F. Adam Schaal 
 and Verbieft, two Jefuit miffionaries, and their artil- 
 lery was increafed to the number of 320 pieces; 
 at the fame time that they were inftrufted in the me- 
 thod of fortifying towns, and conftrutling fortreffes 
 and other buildings according to the rules of modern 
 architeAure. 
 
 The beft foldiers in China are procured from the 
 three northern provinces, the others being feldom 
 called forth, bi?t allowed to remain at peace with their 
 families ; indeed there is not often occafion for exert- 
 ing their military talents, unlefs it be in the quelling 
 of an infurreftion, when a mandarin or governor ufu- 
 ally accompanies them. They march in a very tu- 
 multuous manner, but want neither fkill nor agility in 
 performing their different evolutions. They, in ge- 
 neral, handle a fabre well, and ftioot very dexterou/ly 
 with bows and arrows. There are in China more than 
 2000 places of arms; and through the different pro- 
 vinces there are difperfed about 3000 towers or caftles, 
 all of them defended by garrifons. Soldiers continu- 
 ally mount guard there ; and on the firft appearance 
 of tumult, the neareft centinel makes a fignal from 
 the top of the tower, by hoifting a flag in the day 
 time, or lighting a torch in the night ; when the 
 neighbouring garrifons immediately repair to the place 
 ^ rounf of ^^^'^^ their prefence is necefTary. 
 
 the -leat 'I'he principal defence of the empire againft a fo- 
 reign enemy is the great wall which feparates China 
 from Tartary, extending more than 1500 miles in 
 length, and of fuch thicknefs tliat fix horfemen may 
 eafily ride abreaft upon it. It is flanked with towers 
 two bow-fhots diftant from one another ; and it is faid 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 C 66s ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 wall 
 
 that a third of the able bodied men in the empire China, 
 were employed in conftrufting it. The workmen — — /— 
 were ordered, under pain of death, to place the ma- 
 terials fo clofely, that not the leaft entrance might be 
 afforded for any inilrument of iron ; and thus the 
 work was conftruaed with fuch folidity, that it is ftill 
 almoft entire, though 2000 years have elapfed fmce it 
 was conftrufted. This extraordinary work is carried 
 on not only through the low lands and valleys, but o- 
 ver hills and mountains ; the height of one of which 
 was computed by F. Verbieft at 1236 feet above the 
 level of the fpot where he ftood. According to F. 
 Martini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches 
 to the mountains near the city of Kin on the yellow 
 river; between which places it meets with no interrupt 
 tion except to the north of the city of Suen in the 
 province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a 
 ridge of hideous and inaccefTible mountains, to which 
 it is clofely united. It is likewife interrupted by the 
 river Hoang-ho ; but for others of an inferior fize, 
 arches have been conftruaed, through which the wa- 
 ter pafles freely. Mr Bell informs us, that it is car- 
 ried acrofs rivers, and over the tops of the hlgheft hills, 
 without the leafl interruption, keeping nearly along 
 that circular range of barren rocks which inclofes the 
 country; and, after running about 1200 miles, endi 
 in impaflable mountains and fandy deferts. The foun- 
 dation confitts of large blocks of ftone laid in mortar; 
 but all the reft is of brick. The whole is fo ftrong 
 and^ well built, that it fcarcely needs any repairs ; and^ 
 in the dry climate in which it ftands, may remain in 
 the fame condition for many ages. Wlien carried o- 
 ver fteep rocks, where no horfe can pafs, it is about 1 5 
 or 20 feet high ; but when running through a valley, 
 or crofiing a river, it is about 30 feet high, with fqnare 
 towers and embrafures at equal diftances. The top is 
 flat, and paved with cut ftone ; and wliere it riies over 
 a rock or eminence, there is an afcent made by an 
 eafy ftone-ftair. " This wall (our author adds) was 
 begun and completely finiihed in the fliort fpace of five 
 years ; and it is reported, that the labourers ftood fo 
 clofe for many miles, that they could hand the mate- 
 rials from one to another. This feems the more pro- 
 bable, as the rugged rocks among which it is built 
 muft have prevented all ufe of carriages ; and neither 
 clay for making bricks, nor any kind of cement, are ' 
 to be found among them." 
 
 The whole civil government of China is manao-ed n *^-^t. 
 by the foUowing courts, i. The emperor's grandSSthI 
 council, compofed of all the minifters of ftate, prefi- civil go- 
 dents; and affeffors of the fix fovereign courts, and of ^^"^"lent 
 three others, to be afterwards mentioned. This is ne- '* 
 vcr affembled but on affairs of thegreateft importance • 
 the emperor's private council being fubftituted to it 
 in all cafes of fmaller moment. 2. The chief of the 
 other courts furnifhes mandarins for the different pro- 
 vinces, watches over their condua, and keeps a journal 
 of their tranfaaions, and informs the emperor of them 
 who rewards or puniflies according to the report he 
 gets. _ _ 
 
 This fecond tribunal, which may be called a kind 
 of civil inquifition, is fubdivided into four others ; the 
 firft entrufied with the care of feleaing thofe who', on 
 account of their learning or other good properties,' are 
 capable of filling the officesof government ; the fecond 
 4 appointed 
 
e H I 
 
 f 66 
 
 66 
 
 Partiality 
 of gDVcrn 
 ment to- 
 wards ;he 
 Chijiefe. 
 
 appointed to take care of the conduA of the mandarins; 
 the third affixing the feab to the diflersnt public-afts, 
 giving the fenls to mandarins, and examining thofe of 
 the different dlfpatches ; while tlv£ fourth, enquires in- 
 to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not ex- 
 cepting the princes of the imperial blood themlelves. 
 The principal fovereJgn court to whicli tliefe fo^ur laft 
 arc fub(n-dinate is called .Lll-poiu 
 
 2. Hou-pou, or the grand treafurer, fuperintends all 
 the finances of the ftate ; is the guardian and protec- 
 tor of the treafures and dominions of the emperor, 
 keeping an account of his revenues, i^c. fupenntend- 
 mg the management and coining of money ; the pub- 
 lic magazines, cuftom-houies ; ar*d, laftly, keeping an 
 exadl regifter of all the families in the empire. To 
 affift this court, 14., others are appointed throughout 
 the different provinces of the empire. 
 
 3. Li'pou, or the court of ceremonies. " It is an 
 undoubted facl (fays M. Grofier), that ceremonies 
 form, in part, the bafe of the Chinefe government. 
 This tribunal therefore takes care to fupport them, 
 and enforce their obfervance ; it infpefts alfo the arts 
 and fciences. It is confulted by the emperor v;hen he 
 defigns to confer particular honours ; takes care of the 
 annual facrifices offered up by him, and even regu- 
 lates the entertainments which he gives either to 
 ftrangers or to his own fubjefts. It alfo receives and 
 entertains foreign ambafladors, and preferves tranquil- 
 lity among the dlffei-ent religious fefts in the empire. 
 It is affifted by four inferior tribunals. 
 
 4. ' Ping-pou, or the tribunal of arms, comprehends 
 in its jurifdiclion the whole militia of the empire ; in- 
 fpeding alfo the fortreffes, maga/anes, arfcnals, and 
 ftore-houfes of every kind, as well as the manufafto- 
 ries of arms both ofTenfive and defenfive ; examining 
 and appointing officers of every rank. It is compo- 
 fed entirely of mandarins of letters ; and the four tri- 
 bunals depending upon it confifl alfo of literati." 
 
 5. The hong-pou is the criminal bench for the whole 
 eiiipire, and is alTilled by 14 fubordinate tribunals. 
 
 6. The cong-peu, or tribunal of pubhc works, fur- 
 veys and keeps in repair the em.peror's palaces, as well 
 as thofe of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings 
 where the tribunals are held, v/ith the temples, tombs 
 of the fovcreigns, and all public monuments. It has 
 befides the fuperintendence of tlic flretts, public high- 
 ways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every tiling relating 
 eitlier to intermd or foreign navigation. Four inferior 
 tribunals aififl in the dilcharge of thefe duties; the 
 hrfl drawing the plans of public works ; the fecond 
 directing the work-fhops in the different cities of the 
 empire ; the third furveying the caufeways, roads, 
 bridges, canals, &c. ; and 'the fourth taking care of 
 the emperor's palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re- 
 ceiving their produce. 
 
 All thefe tribunals are compofed, one half of Chi- 
 nefe, and the other of Tartars ; and on-e of the pre- 
 fidents of each fuperior tribunal is always a Tartar 
 born. None of the courts above defcribed, however, 
 has abfolute authority even in iis own jurifdiftion ; 
 nor can its decifions be carried into execution without 
 the concurrence of another tribunal, and fometimes of 
 feveral others. The fourth tribunal, for inftance, has 
 indeed under its jurifdiftion the whole troops of the 
 ejEnpire ; but the payment of them is eatrufted with 
 
 Chifir,. 
 
 67 
 
 6 ] CHI 
 
 the fecond, while the fixth has the care of the arms, 
 tents, chariots, barks, and flores neceflary for militaiy 
 operations ; fo that nothing relative to thefe can be 
 put in execution without the concurrence of all the 
 tlirec tribunab. _ _ „^ 
 
 To prevent any unlawful combination among theCenfori* 
 tribunals, each has its cenfor appointed. This is an 
 officer whofe duty is merely to watch over the pro- 
 ceedings of the court, witliout deciding upon any • 
 thing himfelf. lie affifts therefore at all aflembhes^ 
 revifes all their ails, and without acquainting the court 
 in the lead v/Ith either h'S fentiments or intentions, 
 immediately informs the emperor of what he jud- 
 ges to be amifs. He likewife gives information of tlie 
 behaviour of the mandarins, either ui the public ad- 
 miniftration of affairs, or in their private conduft ; 
 nay, fometimes he will not fcruple to reprimand the 
 emperor for what he fuppofcs to be erroneous in his 
 conduct. 
 
 Thefe cenfors are never renaoved from their placaa 
 but in order to be promoted ; and thus, holding their 
 offices for life, they have the greater courage to fpeak 
 out when they obferve any impropriety or abufe. 
 Their acciifation is fufficient to fet on foot an inquiry, , 
 which generally leads to a proof ; in which cafe the 
 accufed is difcharged from his office, and never held 
 in any eftimation afterwards. The complaints of. the 
 cenfors, however, are .referred to the very tribunals a- 
 gainfl whofe members they complain ; though, being 
 afraid of an accufation thcmfelves, they very feldom 
 pafs fentence agaiuil the accufers. 
 
 Befides all this, the cenfors alfo form a tribunal of 
 their own, named tou-iche-yuau Its members have a 
 right of remoafirating with the emperor, whenever his 
 own intercft or that of the pubhc renders it neceffary.. 
 They infpeift-airiawyers and military men in pubhc 
 employments. " In fhort (fays M. Grofier), they 
 are, morally fpeaking, placed between the piince and. 
 the mandarins ; between the mandarins and the peo- 
 ple ; between the people and famihes ; between fami- 
 lies and individuals; and they generally unite to the 
 importance of their office incorruptibk probity and 
 invincible courage. The fovereign may, if he pro- 
 ceeds to rigour, take away their fives ; but many of 
 them have patiently fuffered death, rather than betray, 
 the caufe of truth, or wink at abufes. It is not fuf- 
 ficient therefore to have got rid of one, they mull all be 
 treated in the famemanner; thelaft that might be fpared 
 would tread in the fame fieps with no lefs refolution than 
 thofe who went before him. In the annals of no nation 
 do we find an example of fuch a tribunal, yet it appears 
 to be neceffary in all, without exception. We mull 
 not, however, imagine, that the privileges of a cenfor 
 gave him a right to forget fiis duty to his fovereign, 
 or to communicate to the public thofe remarks which 
 be takes the hberty of making to him : were he only 
 to give the leaft hint of them to his colleagues, he 
 would be punifhe^ with death ; and he woyid fhare 
 the fame fate did he, in any of his reprefcntations, 
 fuffer a fingle word, .in confdlent with moderation or 
 refpeft, to efca^e him." 68 
 
 There are ftiU two other courts in. China, both ofTwo court 
 them peculiar to the empire^ which deferve to be ni*^"-^;^^;'^'^^'' 
 tioned. The firfi is that of princes ; and which, in 
 conformity with its title, is compofed of princes only. 
 
C H I 
 
 70 
 
 Of their 
 manlages. 
 
 Clnna. Xn die regifters of this tribvjnal arc iiifcribed tke names 
 
 of all the children of the impevlal faipily as foon as 
 
 they are born ; and to thefe are alfo configned the 
 dignities and titles which the emperor confers upon 
 them. This is the only tribunal where the princes 
 can be tried ; and here they are abfolved or punlflied 
 according to the pleafure of the judges. 
 
 The other tribunal is that of hiftory, called by the 
 Chinefe hm-Hn-r^.'^n. It is compofed of the greateil 
 geniu''es of tlK^empive, and of men of the moil pro- 
 found erudition, Thefe are entrufted with the edu- 
 cation of the heir apparent to the throne, and the 
 compilation and arrangement of the general hiltory of 
 the empire; which laft part of their office renders 
 ihtm formidable even to the emperor himfelf. From 
 this body the m-andarins of the firft clafs, and thepre- 
 69 fidents of the fupreme clafs, arc generally chofen._ 
 Filial i">-y The bafis of all the civil laws of the Chiriefe is fi- 
 the bafis ofjj^j pj(,ty. Every mandarin, who is a governor either 
 ^'1,?"*" of a province or city, muft Inftrud the people afTem- 
 bled round him twice a-month, and recommend to 
 them the obfervance of certain falut$iry rules, which 
 are fummcd up in a few fliort fentences, and fuch as 
 no perfon can ever be fuppofcd capable of forget- 
 
 The Chinefe are allowed only to have one wife, whole 
 rank and age muft be nearly equal to that of their huf- 
 bands; but they are a'lowed to have feveral concubines, 
 whom they mayadm.it into their houfes without any for- 
 mality, after paying the parents a fum of money, and en- 
 tering into a ivrltten engagement to ufe their daugh- 
 ^rs well. Thefe concubines, however, are all in. fub- 
 jeaion to the lawful wife ; their children are confider- 
 ed as hers ; they addrefs her as mother, and can give 
 this title to her only.. A ptrfon that has once been 
 married, whether man or woman, may lawfully marry 
 again, but it is then no longer neceffary to itudy e- 
 quality of age or condition. A man may chooie his 
 fecond wife from among his concubines; and, in all 
 cafes, this new marriage requires very few formalities. 
 A widow is abfolute miftrefs of herfelf, and can nei- 
 ther be compelled by her parents to many again, nor 
 to continue in a ftate of widowhood, contrary to her 
 own inclination. Thofe of moderate rank, hovyever, 
 who have no children, do not enjoy the fame privilege ; 
 as the parents of the former hulband can difpoft of 
 her in marriage, not only without her coufent, but 
 without her knowledge. The law authorifes the dif- 
 pofal of them in this manner, in order to indemnify 
 the relations of the deceafed -hufband for the money 
 they may have coft him. If the wife is left big 
 with child, this cannot take place, until (lie is de- 
 livered ; nor can it be done at all if fhe brings forth 
 a fon. There »re like^^"?^^e two ex-ceptions ; i. when 
 the parents of the widow affign her a proper mainte- 
 nance ; and, 2. if the widow embraces a rehgious life, 
 and becomes a bonzeffc. 
 
 * Divorces are allowed in China in cafes of adultery, 
 mutual diflike, incompatibility of tempers, jealoufy, 
 &c. No huiband, however, can put away or fell his 
 wife until a divorce is legally obtained ; and if this re- 
 gulation be not ftriftly obferved, the buyer and ftUer 
 become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married, 
 privately withdraws herfelf from he« hufband, he may 
 3 
 
 C 667 1 
 
 CHI 
 
 Divorces, 
 unlawful 
 marriases 
 &c. ^ 
 
 immediately commence an a<^lion at law ; by the fen- 
 
 tence of which fhe becomes his flavc, and he is at li- 
 berty to fell her to whom he pleafes. On the other 
 hand, if an hufband leaves his wife for three years, flie 
 is at liberty, after laying her cafe before the manda- 
 rins, to take another hufband ; but if fhe were to an- 
 ticipate their confent, fhe would be hable to a fevere 
 punifliment. 
 
 Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the follow- 
 ing cafes. I. If a young woman lias been betrothed 
 to a young man, and prefents have been given and re- 
 ceived by the parents of the intended hufband and - 
 wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young wo- 
 man another b^ fubflituted of a difagreeable figure ; 
 or if the daughter of a free man marry his flave ; or 
 if any one give his flave to a free woman, pretending 
 to her parents thp.t he is his fon or relation. In all 
 thefe cafes the marriage is null and void ; and all thofe 
 who have had any fnare in making up the n\atch are 
 feverely punifhed. 
 
 3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an 
 alliance wii h any family rdfiding in the province or city 
 of which he is governor. 
 
 4. No Chintfe youth can enter into a ftate of mar- 
 riage daring the time of mourning for his father or 
 mother ; and if promifes have been made before, they 
 ceafe immediately on that event taking place. After 
 the ufua) time of mourning is expired, however, tke 
 parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to 
 thofe of the young man, putting him in mind of his 
 engagement. 
 
 5. Marriage is alfo fufpended when a family expe- 
 riences any fevere misfortune, and even if a near rela- 
 tion were thrown into prifon ; though this may be (et 
 afide, provided the unfortunate perfon give his confent. 
 
 6. Two brothers cannot marry two fitters ; nor is 
 a widower at liberty to marry his fon to the daughter 
 of a widow whom he choofes for his own wife. A 
 man is alfo forbidden to marry any of his own relations, 
 however diilant the degree of confanguinity may be 
 between them. 
 
 In China every father of a family is refponfible for 
 the conduft of his children, and even of his dome- 
 ftics ; all thofe . faults being imputed to him which it 
 was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the 
 power of felling his fon, " provided (fays the law) 
 the fon has a right of felling himfelf." This cuftom, 
 however, is barely tolerated among the iniddling and 
 inferior ranks ; and all are forbidden to fell them to 
 comedians, or people of infamous charafter, or veiy 
 mean ftations. 
 
 In China a fon remains a minor during the whole 
 lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contrafled by 
 his father, thofe from gaming only excepted. Adop- 
 tion is authorifed by law, and the adopted child imme- 
 diately enters into all the rights of a lawful fon ; only 
 the law gives a right to the father of making a few 
 difpofitions in favour of his real .children. The chil- 
 dren, however, whether adopted or not, cannot fuc- 
 ceed to the dignity or titles of their father, though 
 they may to his eilate. The emperor alone can con- 
 fer honours; and even then they muft be reiigned 
 when the perfon attains the age of 70 ; though this 
 refignation is confidered as an advice rather than -a 
 
 4 P 2 law. - 
 
 China. 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 668 I 
 
 C H I 
 
 7* 
 
 Criminal 
 laws in 
 China. 
 
 '3 , 
 Method of 
 
 infli(fling 
 
 the bafti- 
 
 nado. 
 
 law. The will of a father cannot be fet afide in Chi- 
 na on account of any informality ; nor can any mo- 
 ther in this empire make a will. 
 
 Though the Chinefe laws authorlfe flavery, yet the 
 power of the raafter extends only to thofe matters 
 which concern his own fervice ; and he would be pu- 
 nifhed with death for taking advantage of his power 
 to debauch the wife of his flave. 
 
 By the laws of China hufbandmen are exempt from 
 the payment of taxes after he has begun to till the 
 earth to the beginning of harveft. 
 
 In criminal matters every perfon accufed muft be 
 examined before five or fix tribunals ; and whofe en- 
 quiries are diredled not only againft him, but againft 
 his accufer, and the witnelfes that appear in the caufe. 
 He is, however, obliged to remain in prifon during 
 the procefs : " but (fays M. Grolier) the Chinefe 
 prifons are not horrible dungeons like thofe of fo ma- 
 ny other nations ; they are fpacious, and have even a 
 degree of convenience. One of the mandarins is ob- 
 liged to Infpedl them frequently ; and this he does 
 with the greater punftuality-, as he mull anfwer for 
 thofe who are fick. He is obliged to fee them pro- 
 perly treated, to fend for phyficlans, and to fupply 
 them with medicines at the emperor's expence. If 
 any of them dies, he muft inform the emperor, who 
 perhaps will order fome of the higher mandarins to 
 examine whether the former has difcharged his duty 
 faithfully or not. 
 
 The flighteft punifhment In China is th^ baftinado; 
 and the number of blows Is to be determined by the 
 degree of the offender's guilt. Twenty is the loweft 
 mimber; and In this cafe the ptmlfhrneut is confider- 
 ed as having nothing Infamous In it, but being only a- 
 fimple paternal corredlion. In this way the emperor 
 fometlmes orders it to be Inflifted on his corn-tiers ; 
 which does not prevent them from being afterwards 
 received into favour, and as much refpefted as 
 before. Every mandarin may inflift the baftinado 
 when any one forgets to falute him, or when he fits 
 in judgment in public. The inftrument of correftion 
 is called pan-ffee, and Is a piece of bamboo a little flat- 
 ted, broad at the bottom, and pollfhed at the upper 
 extremity, in order to manage it more eafily with the 
 hand; When the puniftiment Is to be Inflifted, the 
 Hiagiftrate fits gravely behind a table, having on It a 
 bag filled with fmall fticks, while a number of petty 
 officers ftand around him, each furnllhcd with thefe 
 fan-tfeeSf and waiting only for his fignal to make ufe of 
 them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little 
 fticks contained in the bag, and throws It into the hall 
 of audience. On this the culprit Is felzed and ftretch- 
 ed out with his belly towards the ground ; his breech- 
 es are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic do- 
 meftic applies five fmart blows with his pan-tfee. If 
 the judge draws another fmall ftick from the bag, ano- 
 ther officer fucceeds, and beftows five more blows ; 
 and fo on until the judge makes no more fignals. 
 When the punifliment is over, the criminal muft throw 
 himfelf on his knees, incline his body three times to 
 the earth, and thank the judge for the care he takes 
 of his education. 
 
 For faults of a higher nature, the canying of a 
 wooden collar, called by the Portuguefe the. caaguey Is 
 
 infiifted. This macliine Is compofed of two pieces of CJu'd^k 
 
 wood hollowed out in the middle, which, when put v— ' 
 
 together, leave fufficient room for the neck. Thefe 74 
 
 are laid upon the fhoulders of the criminal, and join- ^ '^""§1'' 
 . 1 • ,- 1 11 ■ I n '■^^ wooden 
 
 ed together in luch a manner, that he can neither fee coUav. 
 
 his feet nor put his hands to his mouth ; fo that he is 
 incapable of eating without the afliftance of another. 
 This difagreeable burden he Is obliged to carry day 
 and night ; its weight Is from 50 to 200 pounds, ac- 
 cording to the enormity of tlie crime, to which the 
 time of canying it Is alfo proportioned. For rob- 
 bery, breaking the peace, or diiturbing a family, or 
 being a notorious gambler, It is generally carried three • 
 months. During all this time, the criminal Is not al^ 
 lowed to take llielter in his. own houfe, but Is ftationed 
 for a certain fpace of time, either in fome public fquare, 
 the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even of the tri- 
 bunal where he was condemned. On the expiration 
 of his term of punilhment, he is again brought be- 
 fore the judge, who exhorts him in a friendly manner 
 to amend ; and after giving him 20 found blows dif- 
 charges him. 75 
 
 Banifliment Is infliiled for crimes of a nature inferior Bamlh- 
 to homicide, and the duration is often for life, if the 
 criminals be fent into Tartary. Some culprits are 
 condemned to drag the royal barks for three years, 
 or to be branded in the checks with a hot iron, indi- 
 cating the nature of their tranfgreffions. Robbery be- 
 tween relations la more fevtrely puulflied than any 
 other; and that is accounted the m.oft atrocious where 
 younger brothers or nephews appropriate to themfelves 
 beforehand any part of the fucceliion in which they 
 have a right to (hare with their elder brothers or 
 nephews. ^g.,. 
 
 Information cigainft a father or mother, grandfather P inlfh-- 
 or grandmother, uncle or eldeft brother, even though mtnt of 
 the accufation be juft. Is punifhed with 100 blows of 
 the pan-tfee, and three years banifliment. If the. ac- ^g^l" ^l' 
 cufatlon be falfe, it is puniihed with death. Deficit ' 
 ency in proper filial refped to a father, mother, grand- 
 father, or grandmother, is punifhed with 100 blows of 
 the pan-tfee ; abufive language to thefe relations is 
 death by ftrangling ; to itrike them is punifhed by 
 beheading; aud if any one prefumccs to luirt or mahn 
 them, his flelh is torn from his bones with red hot 
 pincers, and he is cut into 1000 pieces. Abufing an 
 elder brother is punifhed with 100 blows of the pan- 
 tfee; ftriking him, witli the puniihraent of exile. ^7 
 
 Homicide, even though accidental, is puniflred with Capital pu- 
 death in China. A rope about fix or feven feet in "iihnnents, 
 length, with a running noofe, is thrown over the cri- 
 minal's head ; and a couple of domeftics belonging to 
 the tribunal pull it ilrongly in different direftions^ 
 They then fuddenly quit It, and in a few moments 
 give a fecoud pull ; a third is feldom neceifary to fi- 
 nifli the bufinefs. Beheading is accounted in China 
 the moft diflionourable of all punlfliments, . and is re- 
 fcrved only for defperate afraffius, or thofe who com- 
 mit fome crime equally atrocious with murder. To be 
 cut in a thoufand pieces Is a punifhment inflitled only 
 uponftate criminals orrebclliousfiibjetts. It is performed 
 by tying the criminal to a poll, fcalping the ikin from 
 the head, and pulling it over the eyes. The. execu- 
 tioner then tears the flefli from dificrent parts of the.*-; 
 
CHI [6 
 
 €h!iia. unhappy wretch's body ; and never quits this horrible 
 ^ V employment till mere fatigue obliges liim to give over: 
 the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous 
 fpeftators, who finifli what he has begun. Though 
 this punifhment, however, has been inflifted by fome 
 emperors with all the dreadful circumftances juft men- 
 tioned, the law orders Qnly the criminal's belly to be 
 opened, his body to be cut into f^veral pieces, and 
 then thrown into a ditch or'river. 
 
 The torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is 
 ufed in China. The former is applied to the hands 
 of feet : for the hands, fmall pieces of weod are ap- 
 plied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal ; 
 his fingers are then tied clofe with cords, and he is 
 left for fome time in that painful fituation. I'he tor- 
 ture for the feet is ftill worfe. An inftrument, con- 
 fiding of three crofs pieces of wood, is provided, that 
 in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The 
 feet of the criminal are then put into this machine, 
 which fqueezes them fo clofe that the ancle bones be- 
 come flat. The extraordinary torture confiils in 
 making fmall gafiies in the body, and then tearing off 
 the Ikin like thongs. I*t is never applied but for 
 fome great crime, luch as treafon, or where the crimi- 
 nal's guilt has been clearly proved, and it is necelTary to 
 make him difcover his accomplices. 
 
 Notwithltanding thefe dreadful punidiments, M. 
 Grofier is at great pains to prove that the laws of the 
 ^8 Chinefe, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme- 
 M. Gro- ly mild. " One law (fays he) will no doubt appear 
 fier's gene- exceedingly fevere and rig-orous ; it inflicts the punilh- 
 tJie Chinefe "^"^"^ of death on thofe who ufe pearls. Thofe who 
 lawf. read the hiftory of China will be apt to fall into cer- 
 tain rniliakcs refpcAing the penal laws of that na- 
 tion. Some of its fovereigns have indulged them- 
 felves in gratifying fanguinary caprices which were 
 not authorifed by the laws, and which have often been 
 confounded with them ; but thefe princes are even yet 
 ranked among tlie number of tyrants, and their names 
 are ttill abhorred and dt;tefted throughout the whole 
 empire. The Chinefe, in their criminal procedure, 
 have a great advantage over all otlier nations : it is 
 almoft impolTible that an innocent man-fhould ever be- 
 come a viflim to a falfe accufation ; in fuch cafes the 
 accufer and witnefTes are expofed to too much danger. 
 The flownefs of the procefs, and the numberlefs re- 
 vrfions it undergoes, are another fafcguard for the ac- 
 cufed. In fliort, no fentence of death is ever carried 
 into execution until it has been approved and con- 
 firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole 
 procefs is laid before him ; a number of other copies 
 are alio made out, both in the Chinefe and Tartar 
 languages, which the emperor fubmits to the exami- 
 nation of a like number of doAors, either Tartars or 
 Chinefe. When the crime is of great enormity, and 
 clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand 
 at the bottom of the fentence, " When you receive 
 this order, let it be executed without delay." In 
 cafes where the crime, though punifhable by death 
 according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary clafs, 
 the emperor writes at the bottom of the fentence, 
 '* Let the criminal be detained in prifon, and exe- 
 cuted in autumn ;" that being the feafon in which 
 they are generally executed, and all on the fame day. 
 The emperor of China never figns an order for the 
 
 )9 ] CHI 
 
 execution of a criminal till he has prepared himfelf by China. 
 
 failmg. Like other monarchs he has the power of ' ^ ' ' 
 
 giving pardons ; but in this refped is much more li- Q^fjf^^ 
 mited tban any other. The only cafes in which the which 
 Chinefe monarch can remit the punifliment inflidledciimes may 
 by law are, i . To the fon of a widow who has not pardon- 
 married again ; 2-. To the heir of an ancient family y'^' 
 3. The defcendents of great men or citizens who have 
 deferved well of their country; and, 4. lailiy. The fons ■ 
 or grandfons of a mandarin, who has become illullri- 
 ous, and diftinguifhe'd himfelf by faithfully difchar- 
 ging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a 
 man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tribu- 
 nal. The fon of a very aged father and mother is 
 pardoned, if private property or the pubhc peace 
 be not hurt by giving him a pardon ; and if the fons 
 of fuch a" father and mother be all guilty, or accom- 
 plices in the fame crime, the youngell is pardoned in 
 order to comfort his parents. 
 
 In China the accufed are always treated with, ten- 
 dernefs and lenity, being accounted innocent until 
 their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty 
 excepted, they are fcarce allowed to want for any thing. 
 A jailor is p'unifhed who behaves rigoroufly towards his 
 priloners ; and the judges mutt hkevvife aniwer at their 
 peril for any additions to the feverity of the law ; de- 
 pofition being the llightell punifhment infiided upon 
 them. 
 
 Subftitution is. fometimes allowed by the laws of 
 China ; fo that the near relation of a guilty per- 
 fon may put himfelf in the criminal's place, pro- 
 vided, however, that the chaftifement be flight, and 
 the accufed his ancient friend. The fons, grand- 
 fons, wife, and brothers of a baniflned Chinefe, are ~al-- 
 lowed to follow him into exile; and the relations of all 
 perfons are permitted to vifit them in prifon, and to 
 give them every aflillance in their power ; to do which 
 good ofiices they are even encouraged, inllead of being 
 prevented. ^ 
 
 Every city in China is divided into different quar-Qf the ci- 
 ters, each of which is fubjetled to the infpeftion of ties and 
 a certain officer, who is anfwerable for whatever paffes ^^eir go- 
 in the places under his jurifdidion. Fathers of fami- 
 lies, as we have already obferved, are anfwerable for 
 the condud of their children and domeitics. Neigh- 
 bours are even obliged to anfwer for one another, , 
 and are bound to give every help and alMance in 
 cafes of robbery, fiie, or any accident, efpecially 
 in the night-time. Ail the cities are furnifhed with • 
 gates, which are barricaded on the commencement 
 of night- Centinels are alfo pofled at certain di- 
 llances throughout the llreets, who flop, all who walkv 
 in the night, and a number of horfemen go round 
 the ramparts for, the fame purpofe; lo that it is almoll 
 impoflible to elude their vigiltnce by favour of the 
 daikntfs. A llridt watch is alfo kept during the day- 
 time; and ail thofe who give any fufpicien by their 
 looks, accent, or behaviour, are immediatly carried be- 
 fore a mandarin, and fometimes even detained until the 
 pleafure of the governor be known. 
 
 Private quarrels do not often happen in. China, and 
 it is rare that they are attended with a fatal iffue. 
 The champions fometimes decide the quarrel with 
 their fifls, but moil frequently refer the cafe to a man- 
 darin, who very often orders them both a found drub- 
 bing, ' 
 
C H I 
 
 I 67 
 
 CVuna. 
 
 Si 
 
 Borrowing 
 cf money. 
 
 Of the Chi 
 pcfc roads. 
 
 bJng. None but nulitary peopk are permitted to 
 wear arms in public ; and this privilege is extended 
 even to them only during the time of war, or wheu 
 they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend 
 a re view. Proftitutes are not allowed to remain vvitliin 
 the walls of a city, or to keep a houfe of their o\ni , 
 even in the fuburbs. They may, however, lodge in 
 the houfe of anotlier ; but that other is accountable 
 for every diHuibance which may happen on their ac- 
 count. 
 
 In all the Chinefe cities, and even in foma of their 
 ordinary towns, there is an oifice where money may be 
 borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the 
 country ; which, however, is no lefs than 30 per cent. 
 Everv pledge is marked with a number when left at 
 the office, and mult be produced wdien demanded ; 
 but it becomes the property of the office if left there 
 a finale day longer than the term agreed upon for the 
 payment of the money. The whole tranlatlion re- 
 mains an inviolable fecret ; not even the name of 
 the perfon who leaves the pledge being inquired 
 after. 
 
 ' Great attention is paid by the adminiftration of 
 China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads 
 are generally very broad, all of them paved in the 
 fouthern provinces, and fome in the northern ; but 
 neither horfes nor carriages are allowed to pafs, along 
 thefe. In many places val eys have been fdled up, and 
 Tbcks and mountains cat through, for the purpofe of 
 TOaklng commodious high ways, and to prefcrve them 
 as nearly ar, poffible on a level. They are generally 
 bordered with very lofty trees, and in fome places 
 ^v;th walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers 
 from going into the fields ; but openings are left in 
 p-roper places, which give a pafTage into crofs roads 
 that lead to different villages. Covertd feats are 
 tt-efted on all the great roads, wdierc travellers may 
 fhelter theinfelves from the inclemency of the '\yea- 
 ther; temples and pagods are alfo frequent, into 
 which travellers are admitted without fcruple in the 
 day-time, but often meet with a refufal in the night. 
 In thefe the mandarins only have a right to reft them- 
 felves as long as they think proper. There is, how- 
 ever, no \vant of inns on the great roads, or even the 
 crofs ones, in China ; but they are ill fupplicd with 
 provifions'; and thofe who frequent them are even obli- 
 ged to carry beds along with them to lleep on, or elfe 
 •take up with a plain mat. 
 
 Towers are erefted on all the roads _of this great 
 empire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-ftafFs, 
 for the convenience "of fignals in cafe of any alarm, 
 Thefe towers are fquare, and generally conftrufted of 
 brick, but feldom exceed twelve feet in height. They 
 cWe buih, however, in fight of one another, and are 
 guarded by foldiers, who run with great fpecd from 
 ■one to another, carrying letters which concern the 
 ■eiftperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is alfo 
 ■conveyed 'by. fignals ; and thus the court is informed 
 with furprifing qnicknefs of any important matter. 
 Thofe which are built on any of the roads conducting 
 to court, are furni/hed with battlements, and have alfo 
 
 o ] CHI 
 
 very large bells of cafl iron. According to law thefe Ohini. 
 towers {hould be only five lys, about half a French v 
 league, diftant from one another. 
 
 There is no pubhc poft-office in China, though fe- Method ©f 
 veral private ones have been eitabiifhed ; but the cou- cnnvey- 
 riers and officers charged with difpatches for the em- 
 pire have only a right to m!ike ufe of tliem. This 
 inconvenience, however, excepted, travellers find con- 
 veyance very eafy from one part of China to ano- 
 ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every 
 city, all of whom are alTociated. under the conduct of 
 a chief, w^ho regulates all their engagements, fixes the 
 price of their labour, receives their hire, and is refpon- 
 fible for every thing they carry. When porters are 
 wanted, he furnilhes as many as may be neceffary, and 
 gives the fam.e number of tickets to the traveller ; who 
 returns one to each porter when they have conveyed 
 their loads to an appointed place. Thefe tickets arc 
 carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them 
 from the money he received in advance. On all the 
 great roads in China there are feveral offices of this 
 kind, which have a fettled correfpondence with others; 
 the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of 
 thefe offices a lift of fuch things as they wifli to have 
 tranfported : this is immediately written down in a 
 book ; and though there fhould be occafion for two, 
 three, or four hundred porters, they are inftantly fur- 
 niffied. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of 
 their chief, and the hire is five pence per hundred 
 weight for one day's carriage. An exa£l regifter of 
 every thing is kept in the office ; the traveller pays 
 the money in advance, after which he has no occafion 
 to give himfelf any farther trouble : on his arrival at 
 the city he defigns, his baggage is found at the cor- 
 refponding office, and every thing is delivered to him 
 with the moft fcrapulous exa^tnefs. 
 
 The cuftom-houfes are here regulated by the gene- (n^jj^.^,^. 
 ral police of the country ; and according to M. Gro- houfes. 
 fier's account, thefe cuftom-houfe officers are the moft 
 civil in the world. They have no concern with any 
 clafs of people but the merchants, whom they take 
 care not to diftrefs by any rigorous exa6tions ; nei- 
 ther, though they have authority to do fo, do they 
 ftop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do 
 they ever require the fmalleft fee from them. Duties 
 are paid either by the piece or the load ; and in the 
 former cafe credit is given to the merchant's book 
 without aflcing any queftions. A mandariri is ap- 
 pointed by tire viceroy of each province to infpetft 
 the cuftom-houfes of the whole diftridt ; and the man- 
 darins have alfo the care of the poft offices. 85 
 
 In former times the only money ufed in China was Money of 
 made of fmall ftiells, but now both filver and copper ^^'^ empire, 
 coin are met with. The latter confifts of round 
 pieces about nihe-tenths of an inch (a) in diameter, 
 with a fmall fquare hole in the middle, infcribed with 
 two Chinefe words on one fide, and two Tartar ones 
 on the other. The filver pieces are valued only by 
 their weight. For the convenience of commerce the 
 metal is'therefore caft into plates of different fizes ; 
 and for want of fmall coin, a Chinefe always carries 
 
 about 
 
 \a) The Chinefe foot is longer by one hundredth part tiian tlie French, and the Inch is divided Into ten parts. 
 
 \ 
 
CHI 
 
 [ 671 
 
 CHI 
 
 eh'ina. 
 
 86 
 
 Of the Chi 
 nefe coiii- 
 
 about him his fcales, weights, and a pair of fcifTars to 
 cut the metal. This operation is performed by put- 
 ting the filver between the fciffars, and then knocicin;^ 
 them againft a Itone till the pieces drop ofL la gi- 
 ving of change, however, people have no rigiit to va- 
 lue filver by the numerical value of copper, this be- 
 ing entirely regulated by the iutrinfic value of the me- 
 tals. Thus, an ounce of filver will fometimes be 
 worth 1000 copper pieces, and fometimes only 800 ; 
 and thus the copper money of China may frequently 
 be fold for more than it would pafs for in commerce. 
 The emperor would lofe much by this recoinage, were 
 he not thf fole proprietor of all the copper mines in 
 China. It is, hov/ever, exprefsly forbidden to employ 
 copper coin in any manufa£ture where it mi^ht be 
 employed as plain copper, and it is alfo forbidden to 
 be fold for the purpofe of melting : but, if the 
 price of the metal has not fallen, the infraftion" of this 
 law is riot ver^' feverely punifhed. On the other 
 hand, if the value of unwrought copper exceeds .'hat of 
 the coin, a quantity of the latter is iffued out to re- 
 ftore the equilibrium. 
 
 To keep up a conftant circulation of all the coin 
 in the empire^ the Chinefe government are attentive 
 to preferve an equihbrium between the propoitional 
 value of the gold and filver ; that is, to regulate the 
 intrinfic value of each in fuch a nnianner that the pof- 
 feffor of filver may not be afraid to exchange it for 
 copper, nor the poffeflbr of copper for filver. The 
 method ufed for tl'-is purpofe is, when filver becomes 
 f(:arce, to make all the payments for fome time in filver; 
 but if copper, to make them all for fome time in that 
 metal only. 
 
 The commerce of China is under the infpeftion of 
 the tribunal of finances ; but ftn this fubjedt the Chi- 
 nefe entertain an opinion quite different from that of 
 the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is 
 only ufeful as far as it eafes the people of their fuper- 
 fluities, and procures them neceflaries. For this rea- 
 fon they confider even that which is carried on at 
 Canton as prejudicial to the interell of the eihpire. 
 
 They take from us (fay the Chinefe) our filks, teas, 
 and porcelain : the price of thefe articles is raifed 
 through all the provinces : fuch a trade therefore can- 
 not be benefic ial. The money brought us by Euro- 
 peans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it, 
 are mere fuperfluities to fuch a ftate as ours. We 
 have no occafion for more bullion than what may be 
 neceffary to anfwer the exigencies of government, and 
 to fupply the relative wants of individuals. It was 
 faid by Kouan-tfe, two thoufand years ago. That the 
 money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any 
 other way than as it is introduced by commerce. No 
 commerce can be advantageous long, but that which 
 confifts in a mutual exchange of things neceffary or 
 ufeful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or 
 money, which has for its objeft the importing of ar- 
 ticles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury, 
 or curiofity, always fuppoles the exiftence of. luxury : 
 But luxury, which is an abundance of fuperfluities 
 among certain clalfes of people, fuppofes the want of 
 neceffavies among a great many others. The mere 
 horfes the rich put to their carriages, the greater will 
 be the number of thofe who are obliged to walk on 
 foot I tlte larger and more magnificent their houfes 
 
 8r 
 
 are, fo much the more confined and ivYctched muft China; 
 thofe of the poor be ; and the more their tables are 
 sovered with a variety of difhes, the more mull the 
 number of thofe iucreafe who are reduced to the ne- 
 ccffity of feeding upon plain rice. Men, united by 
 fociety in a large and populous kingdom, can employ- 
 their induftry, talents, and economy, to no better pur- 
 pofe than to provide necelTarics for all, and procure 
 convenience for fome." 
 
 The only commerce confidered by the Chinefe as Hiftory of 
 advantageous to their empire, is that with RuflTia and tl.etnacic 
 Tartary ; by which they are fupplied with thofe furs withRuffia, 
 fo necelfary in the northern provinces. The difputes 
 concerning the limits of the refpeftive empires of 
 Ruifia and China feem to have paved the way to thia 
 commerce. Thefe difputes were fettled by treaty 
 on the 27th of Auguft 1689, under the reign of Ivaa 
 and Peter Alexiowit/. The chief of the embaffy oa 
 the pait of Ruffia wss Golovin gove-rnor of Siberia j 
 and two Jefuits were deputed on the part of the em- 
 pei'or of China ; and the conferences were held in 
 Latin, with a German in the Ruffian ambalTador's 
 train, who was acquainted with that language. By 
 this treaty the Ruffians obtained a regular and per- 
 manent trade with China, which they had long de- ' 
 fired ; but in return they yielded up a large territory,, 
 befides the navigation of the river Amour. The firft 
 intercourfe had taken place in the beginning of the 
 1 7th century ; at which time a fmall quantity of Chi- 
 nefe merchandize was procured by fome Ruffian mer- 
 chants from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid anU 
 profitable fale of thefe commodities encouraged cer- 
 tain Siberian Wayvodes to attempt a dirc61: and open 
 communication with China. For this purpofe fe- 
 veral deputations were fent to the emperor; and though 
 they failed of obtaining the grant of a regular com- 
 merce, their attempts were attended with fome 
 confequences of importance. Thus the Ruffian 
 merchants were tempted to fend traders occafionally 
 to Peking ; by which means a faint connexion was • 
 preferved with that metropolis. This commerce, how- 
 ever, was at lail interrupted by the commencement of 
 hottilities on the river Amour ; but after the conclu- 
 fion of the treaty in i68g, was refiuued with uncom- 
 mon alacrity on the part of the Ruffians: and the ad- 
 vantages thence arifing were found to be fo confide- 
 rable, that a defign of enlarging it was formed by Pe- 
 ter the Great, ifbrand Ides, a native of the duchy of 
 Holftein, then in the Ruffian fervice, was therefore 
 difpatched to Peking in 1692; by whofe means the 
 liberty of trade, before confined to individuals, was 
 now extended to caravans. In the mean time, pri- 
 vate merchants continued to trade as before, not 
 only with the Chinefe, but alfo at the head quar- 
 ters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of thefe ro- 
 ving Tartars, which was generally ftationed near the 
 confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers between the 
 fouthern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul defert, 
 thus became the feat of an annual fair. Complaints, 
 however, were foon made of the diforderly behaviour 
 of the Ruffians; on which the- Chinefe monarch 
 threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely, 
 and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinefe 
 nor Moguls. This produced another embafTy to Pe- 
 king in 17 1 9, when matters were again adjuiled ta 
 
 the 
 
CHI 
 
 [ 672 1 
 
 C H I 
 
 .China. 
 
 Emperor's 
 revenue. 
 
 tlie fatisfaftion of both parties. The reconciliation, 
 was of no long duration; for the Ruffians having 
 foon renewed their diforderly behaviour, an order for 
 their expulfion was iffued in 1722, and all intercourfe 
 between the two nationsforbidden. The differences were 
 once more made up in 1727, and a caravan allowed to 
 go to Peking once in three yekrs, provided it con- 
 fifted of no more than 100 perfons ; and that during 
 their ftay their expences Ihould not, as formerly, be 
 defrayed by the emperor of China. The Ruffians 
 at the fame time obtained permiffion to build a church 
 within the precinfta of the caravanfary; and that 
 four priefts were allowed to refide at Peking for the 
 celebration of divine fervice ; the fame indulgence 
 being granted to fome Ruffian fcholars, for the pur- 
 pofe of learning the Chinefe language, and qualify- 
 ing themfelves for being interpreters between the two 
 nations. This intercourfe continued till the year 
 1 755 ; fince which time no more caravans have been 
 fent to China. It was firll interrupted by a mifun- 
 derftandlng betwixt the two courts ; and though that 
 difference was afterwards made up, no caravans have 
 been fent ever fmce. The emprefs of Ruffia, fenfible 
 that the monopoly of the fur trade (whleh was entire- 
 ly confined to the caravans belonging -to the crown, 
 and prohibited to individuals) was prejudicial to com- 
 merce, gave it up in favour of her fubjedls in 1762; 
 and the centre of commerce betwixt tiie two nations 
 is now at Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried 
 on by barter. The Ruffians are prohibited from ex- 
 porting their own coin ; finding it more advantageous 
 to take goods in exchange than to receive bullion at 
 the Chinefe flandard. The principal exports from 
 Ruffia are furs of different kinds ; the moll valuable 
 of which.are thofe of fca-otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, 
 .martin?, fables, and ermines ; the greater part of 
 :which are brought from Siberia and the newly difco- 
 vered 'tflands ; but as they cannot fupply ilie demand, 
 "there is a neceffity for importing foreign furs to Pe- 
 terfburg, which are afterwards fent to Kiatka. Vari- 
 ous kinds of cloth are likewife fent to China, as well 
 as hardware, and live cattle, fuch as horfes, camels, 
 &c. The exports from China are, raw and manufac- 
 tured filk, cotton, porcelain, rliubarb, muflc, &c. The 
 government of Ruffia likewife refetves to itfclf the 
 exclufive privilege of purchafing rhubarb. It is 
 brought to Kiatka by fome Bukharian merchants, who 
 have entered into a contravSi to fupply the crown with 
 it in exchange for furs : the exportation of the befl 
 rhubarb Is forbidden under fevere penalties, but yet is 
 procured m fufficient quantities, fometimes by clan- 
 deflinely mixing it with inferior roots, and fometimes 
 by fmugghng it direftly. Great part of Europe is 
 fupplied with rhubarb from Ruffia. 
 
 The revenue of the emperor of China amounts to 
 more than 41 millions Iterling ; and might eafdy be 
 increafed, did the fovereign incline to burden his fub- 
 jeils with new impofitions. The annual expences of 
 government are indeed Immenfe, but they are regulated 
 in fuch a manner as never to be augmented but in 
 cafes of the utmoft neceffity ; it even happens very of- 
 ten that adminiflration makes greater favings every 
 year. When this happens to be the cafe, the furplus 
 ferves to Increafe the general trcafure of the empire, 
 andpvevents the neceffity of new impofitions in time 
 
 of war, or other public Calamities. The greater part Chiaa, 
 of the taxes are paid in kind ; thofe, for inftance, * ' 
 who breed filk worms, pay their taxes in filk, the 
 hufbandmen in grain, the gardeners in fruits, &c. 
 This method, at the fame time that it is exceedingly 
 convenient for the fubjedf, is no way detrimental to 
 the public intcrefl. There are numbers of people every 
 where in the fervice of government, who ai'C thus furnifh- 
 ed with food and clothing ; fo that the commoditicsi coi- 
 lefted as taxes are almoil; confumed in the provinces 
 where they are levied ; what remains is fold for the 
 behoof of the emperor, and the money depofited iji 
 the imperial treafury. The taxes paid in money arife 
 principally from the cufloms and fale of fait (which 
 belongs entirely to the emperor), from the duties 
 paid by velfels entering any port, and from other im- 
 ports on various branches of manufactures. Excepting 
 thefe, the trader fcarcely contributes any thing to the 
 exigencies of the flate, and the mechanic nothing at 
 all; the whole burden of taxation thus falling upon the 
 hufbandman. This burden is regulated in proportion 
 to the extent and fertility of his lands; and the great- 
 eil care has been taken to manage matters fo, that he 
 may neither be overcharged -in the impofition nor 
 haraffed in the levying of the duties. " The regiflering 
 of lands (fays M. Grofier),fo often and ro no purpofe 
 proje£led in France, has been long praftifed in this 
 empire, notwithflanding its prodigious extent." 
 
 The levying of taxes in China is as fimple as the Of the 
 nature of the thing will admit of. The duties levied ^'-^'^'^^ " 
 from towns and villages are carried to cities of the 
 third clafs ; then they are condudled to thofe of the 
 fecond ; then to thofe of the firfl ; and at lafl to the 
 capital. The levying and impofition of taxes Is fub- 
 mitted to the tribunal of finances ; and matters are fo 
 managed, that befides the confumption in each diflrift 
 for difcharging the ordinary expences of government, 
 fomething is left by way of referve for anfwering ac- 
 cidental demands, and to be ready in cafes of neceffity. 
 Tin's fum becomes gradually lefs from the capital to 
 cities of the firfl, fecond, and third clafs. A proper 
 flatement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is 
 referved in the different cities, or contained in the dif- 
 ferent treafuries of the empire, is fubjefted to the ex- 
 amination of the grand tribunal of finances. This re- 
 vifes the whole, and keeps an exaft account of 
 what is confumed, and of whatever furplus may be 
 
 . . . . 90 
 
 Lending money upon intereft has been in ufe in Of lending| 
 
 China for about 2000 years. It has often been abolifh- mo- ey. and 
 ed, and as often eftabliflied. The intereft, as has been deficiencies 
 already hinted, Is no Icfs than 30 J)er cent, and the year -"[£^£^^1^ 
 is only lunar. A tenth part of this Intereft is paid 
 montUy ; and concerning negleiSls of payment, the fol- 
 lowing laws have been cnafted. " However much the 
 debt may have accumulated by months or years, the 
 principal and intereft fhall remain always the fame. 
 Wlioever Infringes tliis law fhall receive 40 blows of a 
 pan-tjee ; or an hundred, if he ufes any artifice to add 
 the principal and intereft together." This law is ex- 
 plained by the foLowing. " Whoever fhall be con- 
 vl£f;ed before a mandarin of not having paid a montli's 
 intereft, fliall receive ten blows ; twenty for two 
 months, and thirty for three ; and in this manner as 
 far as lixty ; that is to fay, to the fixth month. Thej 
 4 debtor y 
 
•China- 
 
 e H r r 673 ] c h i 
 
 debtor is then obhged to pay principal and intereft ; five kinds of feeds already mentioned 
 
 but thofe who obtain payment by uling violence and 
 force, are condemned to receive 24 blov^'S. 
 
 Many Chinefe writers have endeavoured unfuccefs- 
 fuUy to fhow why government fliould allow fuch ex- 
 orbitant intereft to be taken for money ; but the moil 
 fatisfasScory and rational account feems to be, that the 
 
 lally, four 
 
 pieces of cotton-cloth, proper for making drefles, are 
 diftributed to each of the labourers, who aflift in yok- 
 ing the oxen and preparing the feeds*; and the fame 
 prefents are made to 40 other pcrfons who have only 
 been fpedators of the ceremony. 
 " We muft not ffavs M. 
 
 Chins 
 
 . ^ . , . , _ (%s M. Grofier) judge of the Of the pea. 
 
 great intereft of money prevents the ricli from pur- Chinefe psafants from thofe of Europe, efpecially in^""^*- 
 chafing much land ; as landed eftates would only em- what relates to the hghts acquired by education. Free 
 
 9^ 
 
 Agricul 
 
 banafs and impoverlfti them, their produce being fo 
 much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of 
 a family in China is feldom divided ; and it never hap- 
 pens there, as in almoft eveiy other country, that 
 wealth and riches are engroffed by one part of the na- 
 tion, while the other poffefTes nothing. 
 
 Agriculture is by the Chinefe confidered as the firft 
 
 fchools are very numerous in every province of China, 
 and even fome of the villages are not deftitute of this 
 advantage. The fons of the poor are there received 
 as readily as thofe of the rich ; their duties and their 
 ftudies are the fame ; the attention of the mafters is 
 equally divided between tliem ; and from this obfcure 
 fource talents often fpring, which afterwards make a 
 
 ■Hire great- and moft honourable of all profeffions ; fo that in this confpicuous figure on the erand ftag-e of life. No 
 
 ly encou- 
 Taged. 
 
 empire the hufbandman enjoys many and great privi- 
 leges, while the merchant and mechanic are much lefs 
 efteemed. Part of the crop is allowed to be ufed in 
 diftillation ; but if the harvett happens to be bad, this 
 operation is prohibited. In China, the tillage of the 
 earth is not only encouraged by law, but alfo by the 
 perortilling .example of the emperor, who annually tills the earth ly if he be endowed with genius, find himfcTf fully com- 
 wfth^his "'^^^^ "^^^ beginning of fpring in petent for his new employment." 
 
 [own hajKls. ^^^'"^ '"s alv^-^js reckoned to be in the month of Fe- ^ The Chinefe have been greatly reproached with theorofiet' 
 bruary ; but it belongs to the tribunal of mathematics * ^ ^' " ' ' 
 
 9* 
 
 Cereniony 
 of the em- 
 
 thing is more common in China than to fee the foit 
 of a peafant governor of that province in which his 
 father had long toiled in cultivating only a few- 
 acres. The father himfelf, if taken from his plough, 
 and elevated to a fuperior fphere, might, by reviving 
 
 the inftruilion he received in his youth, and efoecial- 
 ;f u„ u„ 1 1 '.1 • ^ ,^ „ .. 
 
 inhuman praftice of murdering their children; but defence of 
 though our author cannot deny that they are guilty ''^'^ Cbincfe 
 of this practice, he excufes them by faying, that " the 
 crime when committed in China is comitionly owing murderi!i<r 
 to the fanaticifm of idolatry ; a fanaticifm which pre- and expo-" 
 vails only among the loweft of the people. It is either ^'"5 
 in obedience to the oracle of a bonze, to deliver them- 
 felves from the power of magic fpells, or to difcharge 
 a vow, that thefe infatuated wretches precipitate their 
 children into the river : they imagine that, by doing 
 fo, tliey ii-.ake an expiatory facrifice to the fpirit of 
 the river. All nations of antiquity almoft have dif- 
 graced themfelves by the like horrid pradlices ; but 
 the emperor offers up to Chang-ti (the fupreme God); the Chinefe are far from countenancing this barbarity 
 after which he and his attendants prepare themfelves on that account. Befides, thefe criminal facrifices are 
 
 never pradifed but in certain cantons of Chir 
 
 to determine the precife day. The tribunal of ceremo 
 nies announces it to the emperor by a memorial ; in 
 which every thing requifite to be done by him is men- 
 tioned with the moft ferupulous exaftnefs. The fo- 
 Tereign then names 12 of the moft illuftriousperfons in 
 his court to accompany him, and to hold the plough 
 after he has performed his pait of the ceremony. 
 Among thefe there are always three princes of the 
 blood, and nine prefidents of fupreme courts ; and if 
 "any of them are too old and infirm to undergo the fa- 
 tigue, the fubftitutes muft be authorifed by the em- 
 peror. The feftival is preceded by a facrifice, which 
 
 by three days fafting and continence. Others are ap- 
 pointed by the emperor, on the evening before the 
 ceremony, to go and proftrate themfelves at the fe- 
 pulchre of his anceftors, and to acquaint them, that, 
 on the day following, he intends to celebrate a grand 
 facrifice. This is oftered up on a fmall mount a few 
 furlongs diftant from the city, which, by the indif- 
 penfable rules of the ceremony, muft be 50 feet in 
 height. The Chang-ti is invoked by the emperor, 
 ■who facrifices under the title of fovereign pontiff, and 
 prays for an abundant harveft in favour of his people. 
 He then defcends, accompanied by the three princes 
 and nine prefidents who are to put their hands to the 
 plough along v>'ith him ; the field fet apart for this pur- 
 pofe being at a fmall diftance-from the mount. Forty 
 
 . na, where 
 
 the people, blinded by idolatry, are the dupes of 
 prejudice, fanaticifm, and fuperftition. — It often hap- 
 pens alfo, that the bodies of thofe children which are 
 feen floating on the water have not been thrown into 
 it till after their death ; and this is likewife the cafe 
 with thofe which are found in the ftreets, or lying 
 near the public roads. The poverty oflthe parents 
 fuggefts this_ difmal refource, becaufe their children 
 are then buried at the expence of the pubhc, Ex- 
 pofing of children in public places is a cuftom tole- 
 rated in China ; and government employs as much vi- 
 gilance to have them carried away in the morning, as 
 it beftows care, on their education. This is certainly 
 giving people intimation to expofe their children in 
 
 ice; 
 thofe 
 
 labourers are ftle<fted to yoke the oxen, and to prepare the night-time, and no doubt encourages the pracl 
 
 the feeds which the emperor is to fow ; and which are but the diAates of humanity are here united to tl 
 
 •of five different kinds, viz. wheat, rice, two kinds of of found policy. No law in China authorifes muti- 
 
 millet, and beans. They are bioright to the fpot in lation : there are indeed eunuchs in the empire, but 
 
 magnificent boxes, carried by perfons of the moft their number is much lefs than what it is generally 
 
 diftinguifiied rank. The emperor then lays hold of fuppofed to be by Europeans, The greater part of 
 
 the plough, and turns up feveral furrows ; the princes of the eunuchs belonging to the emperor and empreffes 
 
 the_ blood do the fam.e, and then the prefidents ; after have no higher employment than that of fweeping the 
 
 which the emperor throws into the furrows tlie courts of }uftice»" 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. , Lik. 
 
China. 
 
 CHI [ 
 
 Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe- 
 king, the metropolis of the Chinefe empire, is furnifh- 
 GazSe of with a gazelle, which circulates into the remoteft 
 Ptkirg, provinces, and which is even confidered by admjni- 
 itration as an effentlal part of the political conibtu- 
 tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an 
 account of all thofe objeas to which the attention of 
 adminlftration is dlreaed. In this gazette may be 
 feen the names of all thofe mandarins who are ftripped 
 of their employments, and the caufes of their dlfgrace; 
 it mentions ulfo the names of all thofe delinquents who 
 are punifhe'd v^lth death ; of the officers appointed to 
 fiU the places of the dlfgraccd mandarins ; the cala- 
 mities which have affiided any of the provinces ; the 
 Belief given by government ; and the expences incur- 
 red by admlnlllration for the fubfiftence of the troops, 
 fupplying the wants of the people, repairing or ereft- 
 ing public works; and, laftly, the remonilrances tnade 
 to the fovereign by the fuptrior tribunals, either with 
 regard to his public declfions or private conduit, and 
 fometlmes even with regard to both. Nothing, _ how- 
 ever, is contained in this gazette that has not imme- 
 diately come from the emperor, or been fubmitted to 
 Ills infpeaion; and immediate death would_ be the 
 confequence of inferting a falfehood in this miniftenal 
 
 06 paper. r - j • c 
 
 Servls of the No law or fentence, as has already been laid, is ot 
 emperor, ^ny force, until the emperor's feal has been affixed to 
 it. This is about 8 inches fquare, and is made of 
 fine jafper, a kind of precious ftone muck efteemed 
 in China ; of which only the emperor is allowed to 
 have a feal. Thofe given to princes as marks of ho- 
 nour are compofed of gold ; the feals of the viceroys 
 and great mandarins, of filver ; while thofe of inferior 
 mandarins and magiftrates are made only of lead or 
 copper. The fize of thofe feals is greater or fmaller 
 according to the rank their polfeffors hold m the tri- 
 bunals or as mandarins ; and when any of them hap- 
 pens to be worn out, intimation muft be fent to the 
 next fuperlor tribunal ; on which a new one is fent, 
 and the old one muft then be deUvered up. The com- 
 mlffion of every infpeaor fent into the provinces muft 
 alfo be confirmed by the em.peror's feal. The duty 
 of thefe officers is to examine into the conduA of 
 governors, magiftrates, and private individuals; and 
 inftances are recorded of emperors themfelves afl'uming 
 the office of iufpedors in fome of the provinces. Thefe 
 officers are not only fuperlor to all the magiftrates, 
 but even to the viceroys of the provinces themfelves. 
 When a fuperlor magiftrate behaves ill to an inferior 
 ene, the former Inftantly becomes the prlfoner of the 
 infpeaor, and Is fufpended from his office until he has 
 cleared hlmfelf from every imputation laid to his 
 charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy 
 his office until the report of the Infpedor has been 
 tranfmitted to the emperor. 
 
 Thefe viceroys are diftinguifhed by the title of JJon^ 
 ■dhv^YS mai.darins of the firft clafs, pof- 
 
 China. 
 
 674 ] CHI 
 
 demands of his diftria. All law-fuks muft be brou^Kt 
 before his tribunal ; and he has the power of pafling * 
 fentence of death, but it cannot be put in execution 
 without being firft carried to the emperor. Every 
 three years he fends to court a report of the condiKft 
 of the mandarins fubordin:ate to him; and according 
 to the contents they are either continued or dlfgraced. 
 Thofe of whom he makes an unfavourable report are 
 puniftied in proportion to their dehnquency ; while, 
 on the other hand, thofe who iKive the good fortune 
 to be well reported, are rewarded in a fimilar propor- 
 tion. , ^^1 
 The nrinclpal mandarins are fometlmes broke and Dcgr.vla- 
 
 BiaiiJarins, 
 &c. 
 
 97 ^ 
 Power of 
 
 the viceroys'""' 
 
 of provin 
 
 power within their diftrias 
 ail the pomp of royal mag- 
 thelr palaces, on the moft 
 a "Tuard of 100 men. A 
 viceroy is the receiver-general of aU the taxes colkaed 
 in the province, tranfmltting them to the capital, af- 
 ter having referved what he judges necefl'ary for the 
 
 feffing an almoft unlimltt; 
 They march abroad with 
 nificence, never quitting 
 trifling occafion, without 
 
 difmiffed from all their employments, while others are jj^^nj^rlnf* 
 only removed fome degrees lower. Thofe who have 
 been degraded ten fteps, run a great rifk of never be- 
 ing employed again. Thefe degraded mandarins are 
 kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, by 
 being obUged to mention it in every pubhc order they 
 iffue forth in their inferior ftation ; thus, " I, fuch a 
 mandarin, degraded one, two, three, is'c. fteps, com- 
 mand and order," iS'c. Over thefe inferior mandarins 
 the infpeaor of the province has a very unHmited au- 
 thority, and can, by his own power, deprive them of 
 their employments for a great offi;nce } nor does he 
 confult the court, excepting where the immediate pu- 
 nifhment of the criminal is not neceffary. Every one 
 of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination, is 
 obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an 
 exaa account of the faults he has committed in the 
 execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belong- 
 ing to any of the four firft clafles, this confeffion is ex- 
 amined at court ; but if it is made by any of the in- 
 ferior ones, it muft be laid before the provincial tri- 
 bunal of the governor. Government, however, is not fa- 
 tlsfied even with this confeffion; inquiry is made into the 
 truth of it, and the condua of the mandarin Is fcru- 
 tinized with the utmoft feverity, the informations be- 
 ing fubjeaed to the tribunal of mandarins ; where they 
 are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of 
 thofe fubjeaed to this pohtical inquifition carefully 
 balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three 
 clafles. The firft confifts of thofe for whom rewards 
 and preferment are intended ; the fecond, for whom 
 gentle reproof and admonition are thought neceffary ; 
 and the third, of thofe who are to be fufpended for 
 fome time, or removed altogether, from their offices. 
 Of thefe laft fome are allowed to continue ; but they 
 receive no falary, and are not only deprived of all 
 their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they 
 have been guilty of any aaion tending to opprefs the 
 people, or to occafion a famine or fcarcity among the 
 lower ranks, their punifhment is not confined to dif- 
 mlffion from their offices, but they are alfo crimi- 
 nally impeached. The family burying-place of every 
 Chinefe is accounted facred ; none dares cut down the 
 trees with which it is overftiadowed until they become 
 decayed with age ; and even then, not until their con- 
 dition has been attefted by a mandarin : but for cer- 
 tain crimes agalnft government or the people, the bu- 
 rying-place of a mandarin is rafed to the foundation. 
 No kind of punllhment, however, ihfliaed on a fa- 
 ther, is fuppofed in the leaft to alfea the charaaer of 
 his fon; and therefore, when the latter is_ aflced by 
 the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps 
 
CHI [ 675 1 CHI 
 
 Cliina. coolly anfwcr, " My father was difgraced for fwch a lias emitted to put it on, the aggj-efTor cfcapcs with 
 
 ■~'v-— ' crime, my grandfather was beheaded for fuch ano- a baftinading. A prince may be put to death by the 
 
 ther," without the acknowledgment being in the emperor's confent; but he efcapes every llighter cor- 
 
 leaft detrimental. On the contrary, by great and poral punifhment by paying a fine. Untitled princes 
 
 important fervices, it is pofllble for him to wipe out have very few privileges fuperior to thofe of common 
 
 thefe ftains from the memory of his anceftors. citizens ; and are generally very poor, unlefs pof- 
 
 Though the empire of China is governed by Tartar feffed of fome lucrative office. Thus they are fome- 
 
 princes, the latter feem to beftow much more care times reduced to the neceflity of accepting the higheil 
 
 Ch?na. 
 
 and attention on the Chinefe than their own natural 
 fubjefts. Should any difpute arife between a Chinefe 
 and Tartar, the former muft have greatly deviated 
 from the rules of juftice, if he is not acquitted even 
 
 pay of a common foldier in the Tartar bands. When 
 they, or any of their children, however, enter into 
 the marriage ftate, the emperor ufually makes them % 
 prefent of loo ounces of filver. He will alfo relieve 
 
 by thofe tribunals which are compofed of half Chinefe them on other occafions, aflift their widows and or* 
 . 1 i^ir rn.-.-^. n->i-.. n:^i,^^ii- fo,.u ^^rr,rr.:n-^A K,r o phans, iffc. but in all this never departs from the moft 
 
 exaft rules of economy ; fo that the mandarins in this 
 refpedl are much lietter than the relations of the fo- 
 vereign himfelf. 
 
 With regard to the ancieht religion of China, F. A- p. Ambt's 
 miot informs us, that, after making every poffible re- account of 
 ty which hurt the interefts of the people ; for which fearch, comparing and reafoning upon his obferva ■ ^^j^. 
 reafon they feldom fall a facrifice to that clafs of petty tions, he at laft concluded, that " the Chinefe are a chinT" ^ 
 tyrants who in other countries prey upon and devour diftind people, who have Itiil preferved the charafteri- 
 them. Every fuperior mandarin is obliged to inform ftic marks of their firft origin; a people whofe primitive 
 ' ' " ' doftrine will be found, by thofe who take the trouble 
 
 and half Tartars. The Highteil fault committed by a 
 Tartar mandarin is always feverely punifhed ; but the 
 punifhment of the greateft is often mitigated if the 
 delinquent be a Chinefe ; and the fame feverity is exer- 
 cifed towards thofe of the miUtary department. Thofe 
 faults, however, are punifhed with the greateft feveri- 
 
 ^ . 59 
 
 trrivileges 
 
 «f princes, 
 &;c. in Chi 
 
 himfelf of the faults of his inferiors, and expofe theni ; 
 nay, he would be punifhed for them himfelf if he did 
 not. 
 
 Very little regard, as we have already had occafion 
 to obferve, is paid to hereditary right in China. Even 
 -the princes of the. blood enjoy no other privilege by 
 birth but that of wearing a yellow girdle ; and the 
 names of their children, with the exadt time of their 
 birth, are infcribed in a yellow book appropriated to 
 that purpofe. Collateral princes are dillinguifhed by 
 an orange girdle, and their qhildren are marked in a 
 book of a red colour. The furnames of the princes 
 
 of invefligating it thoroughly, to agree in its efTential 
 parts with the dodrine of the chofen people, before 
 Mofes, by the command of God himfelf, had configned 
 the explanation of it to the facred records ; a people, 
 in a word, whofe traditional knowledge, when freed 
 from whatever the ignorance or fuperftition of later 
 ages has added to it, may be traced back from age to 
 age, and from epocha to epocha, without interruption, 
 for the fpace of 4000 years, even to the renewal of 
 the human race by the grandlbn of Noah." The 
 im^, or canonical books of the Chinefe, every where 
 
 of the reigning family are determined by the empe- inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being, the author and 
 
 •■ ' " ' ^ preferver of all things. Under him they mention the 
 
 names of Tien, or Heaven ; Chang-tien, or Supreme Hea- 
 ven ; Chang-ti, or Supreme Lord ; and of Hoang-chan-ti, 
 Sovereign and Supreme Lord : " Names (fays M. Gro- 
 fier) correfponding to thofe which we ufe when we 
 
 ror alone ; the reft not being allowed to afTume any 
 name that too much referables thofe of the Moguls or 
 Chinefe. The rank even of the emperor's fons 
 diminifhes one degree every generation^ fo that, at 
 the feventh, only the eldeft branch has a title to 
 
 wear the yellow girdle, the reft being funk into the fpeak of God, the Lord, the Almighty, the Moft 
 rank of plain citizens. An hereditary fovereignty. High " 
 
 however, palTes from one eldeft fon to another ; and 
 this title cannolr be forfeited, unlefs the pofTeffor be 
 guilty of fome crime. In this cafe the emperor ap- 
 points to the fucceffion either one of his younger bro- 
 thers or a coufm ; but thefe muft be always chofen from 
 the fame branch, as the lawful branch cannot be de- 
 prived of its right without the condemnation of all 
 who compofe it. The only hereditary authority of 
 the other princes exifts among thofe troops called the 
 
 According to the Chinefe books, the Supreme Be- 
 ing is the principle of every thing that exiits, and the 
 father of all living ; he is eternal, immoveable, and 
 independent ; his power knows no bounds ; his fight 
 equally comprehends the paft, piefent, and the future, 
 penetrating even into the inmoil receffes of the heart. 
 Heaven and earth are under his government ; all events, 
 all revolutions, are the confequences of his will ; he is 
 pure, holy, and impartial-; wickedueXs offends his 
 
 Tartar bands. There they enjoy, without oppofition, fight ; but he beholds with an eye of complacency the 
 that rank which they derive from their birth, but in ' 
 every thing elfe are on a level with others. They are 
 fubjefted to a military examination at ftated periods, 
 and are always promoted or degraded according to the 
 degree of llfill they exhibit. The fame trial is un- 
 dergone by the heir apparent and his fons ; the only 
 indulgence fliown tliem being, that fchools are ap- 
 pointed for their particular ufe. The princes are 
 likewife indulged with a tribunal appropriated on pur- 
 pofe for them, and before which alone they cap be amend, 
 tried. An infult offered to a prince decorated with The performance of religious worfhip at the pro- 
 t<he yellow girdl? is puniflicd with death ; but if he per and appointed times, has given occafion to the great 
 
 virtuous adions of men. Severe, yetjuft, he punifh- 
 es vice in a ftriking manner even on the throne, and 
 often precipitates from thence the guilty, to place upoa 
 it the man who walks after his own heart, whom he haih 
 raifed from obfcurity. Good, merciful, and full of 
 pity, he relents on the repentance of the wicked ; 
 public calamities, and the irregularities of the feafons, 
 are only falutary warnings, which his fatherly good- 
 ncfs gives to men to induce them to reform aiKi 
 
 exail' 
 
Cluna. 
 
 CHI { 676 
 
 exaflnefs wltli refpeft to the kaleudar, which is re- 
 markable throughout the empire of China ; and all 
 the celebrated emperors have begun their r-eigns with 
 a reformation of it- Our hifloi-ians, howi 
 
 ] 
 
 c H r 
 
 1 01 
 
 Sacrilkes. 
 
 ever, not 
 
 contented with difcovering in the Chinefe religion the 
 fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli- 
 gion, have alfo found in it evident fyniptoms of a 
 knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Chriili- 
 ans. " Among the ancient Chinefe charadters (fays 
 M. Grofier), which have efcaped the ravages of time, 
 we find the following A. According to the diftlonary 
 of Kang-ht, this fignifies union ; according to the 
 Chcue-oum (that book fo highly efteemed in China) A 
 is three united in one ; it derived it from the charac- 
 ters (to enter or penetrate), andji', cne ; whence 
 it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated, 
 or incorporated into one. According to another book, 
 accounted a leai-ned and accurate explanation of the 
 ancient charafters, ' A fignilies ftrift union, harmony, 
 the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it 
 is the union of the three tfa'i (pov/ers, principks, or in- 
 telligences) J for, united, they direft, create, and nou- 
 
 rifli together. The image (three united in one fi- 
 gure) is not fo obfcure in icfelf ; however it is difficult 
 to realon upon it without being deceived ; on this fub- 
 jeft it is difficult to fpeak.'' 
 
 " Father Amiot, fpite of all the objedions which 
 the critics of Europe may make, feems to conjecture, 
 that the charafler A might have been, among the an- 
 cient Chinefe,. the fymbol of the mod holy Trinity ; 
 * and the more fo (he adds), as the anciciit books 
 furniffi a number of texts, which give us reafon to 
 fuppofe them to have been pofTeflfed of fome knowledge 
 ef this lublime myfteiy.' The book Ste-ki^z.^^^ * I'he 
 emperor formerly offered up a folemn facrifice every 
 tlirce years to the Spirit Trinity and Unity, Chln-ftin-yc' 
 The following celebrated text of Laa-tje has long been 
 known in Europe. * Tao is one by natur-e : the firll 
 begot the fecond ; two produced the third ; the three 
 created all things.' 
 
 " F. Amiot quotes another pafTage, which appears 
 to be no lefs fingiilar. ' He who is, as it were, vi- 
 f5ble, and cannot be feen, is named Kh'i ; he who may 
 be heard, yet fpeaketh not to the ears, is called Hi ; 
 he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is 
 pamed 0ml. In vain- do^we interrogate our fenfes re- 
 fpeCting thefe three : our reafon, which alone can give 
 us any fatisfaftion, will tell us that they make only 
 one. Above there is no light; below there is no dark- 
 nefs. He is eternal ; there is no name which can be 
 given him. He refembles nothing that exifts ; he is 
 an Nfmage without figure ; a figure without matter : 
 his light is furrounded by darknefs. If we look up tp 
 him above, we behold no beginning; if we follow him, 
 we difcover no end. From what the T ao hath been 
 at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eter- 
 nal : he is the beginning of wifdom.' The com- 
 mentaries which explain this paffage fpeak in fuch 
 ftrong and precife terms, that F. Amiot forbears to 
 quote them, left he might incur the cenfure of too 
 many iccredulous readers." 
 
 The facrifices of the Chinefe were firfl offered up in 
 the open fields, or on forac mountain,, upon what they 
 call the Tauj, which fignifies a quantity of Itones 
 
 thrown together in a round form, or fimply a round China, 
 
 heap of earth. A double fence, called K'lao, compo- ' 
 
 fed of turf and branches of trees, was raifed around 
 this ; and, in the fpace left between the two fences, two 
 lefTer altars were erefted on the right and left ; upon 
 which, immediately after the facrifice offered up to the 
 Tien, they facrificed alfo to the Cheng, or good fpirits 
 of every rank, and to their virtuous anceltors. The 
 fovereign alone had a right of facrificing .upon this 
 Tan ', and the cuftom of facrificing to inferior fpirits, 
 according to the Chinefe commentators, may be traced 
 even to the days of Fo-hi himfelf. The fame- writers 
 add, that, in addreffmg themfelves to the Chang-ti, they 
 confidered him as the foveieign lord of the univerfe, clo- 
 thed with all that power which was neceffary to fatisfy 
 tliem with regard to the different objedtsof their rtquefts; 
 but that, in t.fferiiig up their prayers' to the inferior 
 objeds of wojfliip, they only implored their protedlion 
 and mediation with the Chang-ti. 
 
 While the empire was confined within narrow bounds, 
 one mountain was fufficient for the facrifices ; but in 
 procefs of time it became neceffary to confecrate four 
 others. Thefe were fituated at the exti-emities of the 
 empire, and were fuppofed to correfpond with the 
 four quarters of the world ; and the prince went fuc- 
 ceffively every year to one of thefe mountains to offer 
 up lacrifices ; taking occafion at the fame time to 
 ffiow himfelf to his people, and to inform himfelf of 
 their wants. This cuftom fubfifted for a long lime ; 
 but at length it was found convenient to add a fifth 
 mountain in the centre of the empire ; and ever fines 
 thefe have been called the five To, or the five moun- 
 tains of facrifice. This method of fubjeding the em- 
 peror to regular annual journies could not but beat- 
 tended with many inconveniences. It was found neceffa- 
 ry on this account to confecrate fome fpot in the neigh- 
 bourhood of his palace, which might be fubttituted for 
 the To upon all occafions when the emperor could irot 
 repair to them. An edifice was therefore ereded, which 
 at once reprefented the Kiao, Tan, and the Hall of An'- 
 cejiors. This laft was a neceffary part of the edifice ; 
 becaufe it was incumbent on thofe who offer ed up fa- 
 crifices, firft to repair to this hall, and acquaint their 
 anceftors with what they were about to perform ; and 
 thither alfo they returned after facrificing, to thank 
 the fame anceftors for the protedion they had received 
 from the Chang-ti ; after which they offered up a 
 facrifice of thankfgiving in honour of them, and per- 
 formed certain other ceremonies to fhow their refped^. 
 The building contained five feparate halls, appropri- 
 ated to different purpofes ; originally it had neither 
 paintings nor ornaments of any- kind, and a ftair-cafe 
 of nine fteps conduded to the principal entrance. Af- 
 terwards, however, it was much more richly orna- 
 mented, each of the five halls being decorated witk 
 columns, over which others were placed that fupported 
 a fecond roof. In fucceeding times it was ftripped of 
 all its ornaments, with a. view to bring back religion 
 to its primitive fimplicity. Its four gates were covered 
 with fine mofs, reprefenting the branches of which 
 the double fence of the ancient Kiao were formed. 
 The ridge of the roof was covered with the fame, and 
 the whole was encompaffed by a canal filled witli 
 water at tlie time of ofFei-ing up the facrifices. To 
 this a fecond building was added, which they called 
 
 the: 
 
China. 
 
 HI [ ^77 ] CHI 
 
 and which wae ufed only for pu- Magical prafiiices, the invocation of fpirit?, and the China- 
 
 art of foretelling events by divination, quickly difFufed — — \— 
 
 104 
 
 Sea of 
 I'ao-fle. 
 
 the tetnple of neatnefs 
 
 rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely 
 eonfecrated to the worfliip of the Chang-ti. 
 
 At prefcnt there are only two temples in Peking, 
 named the Tien-tan and the Ti-tan ; in the conftruftion 
 of which all the elegance of Chinefe architefture is 
 difplayed. Thefe are both dedicated to the Chang^ti, 
 but under different titles } in the one he is adored as 
 the eternal ffir'it ; in the other, as the creator and pre- 
 ferver of the world. The ceremonies of the modern 
 facrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex- 
 ceed the fplendor and magnificence with which thefe 
 folemnities are performed. Some time before the day 
 appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the 
 grandees of the court, and all thofe whom their em- 
 ployments qualify to afGil at th<! folemnity, prepare 
 themfelves by retirement, falling, and continence ; no 
 audience is given by tiie emperor, and the tribunals 
 are entirely (hut ; marriages, funerals, rejoicings, and 
 entertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At 
 lail, on the day appointed, the emperor appears at- 
 tended by an innumerable multitude, and his perfon 
 furrounded by a vafl: number of princes, lords, and of- 
 ficers, while every part of the temple feems to corre- 
 fpond with the magnificence of the fovereign ; all the 
 vafes and utenfils employed in the facrifices are of 
 gold, a^nd cannot be applied to any other purpofe ; 
 even, the inllruments of mufic are of enormous mag- 
 nitude, and never ufed any where elfe. All this gran- 
 deur, however, ferves only to difplay in a more emi- 
 nent manner the humihty and abafement of the mo- 
 narch during his devotion ; at which time he rolls in 
 the duft, and fpeaks of hiinfelf before the Chang-ti in 
 terms of the moft abje<Sl fubmiflion and humiliation. 
 
 The purity of the ancient Chinefe religion has, 
 however, been long contaminated by many idolatrous 
 and fanatical fefts. Among thefe, one named Tao-fse 
 wab founded by a philofopher called X^o-yf/ww or X^zo-//^, 
 '<vho was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced 
 age, leaving to his difciples a book intitled Tao-ts, be- 
 ing a colledlion of 50CO fentences. His morality has 
 a great refemblance to that of Epicurus. It confifts 
 principally in banilhing all vehement defires and paf- 
 flons capable of difturbing the peace and tranquillity 
 of the foul. According to him, the care of every wile 
 man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from 
 grief and pain, and to glide gently down the ftream 
 of life devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this 
 happy ftate, he advifes his followers to banifh all thoughts 
 of the paft, and to abitain from every vain and ufelefs 
 inquiry concerning futurity, as well as all tormenting 
 thoughts of ambition, avarice, &c. It was found by 
 the difciples of this philofopher, however, that all 
 their endeavours to obtain a perfeA tranquillity of 
 mind were vain, as long as the thoughts of death in- 
 tervened ; they therefore declared it poffible to difcover 
 a compofition from which drink m.ight be made that 
 would render mankind immortal. Hence they were 
 led to the ftudy of ehemiftry ; and, like the weftern 
 alchemifis, wearied themfelves in fcarch of the philofo- 
 pher's ttone, until at laft they gave themfelves up to 
 all the extravagancies of magic. 
 
 The defire of avoiding death, together with the 
 credulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly pro- 
 duced a number of converts to the fed of Tao-fse, 
 
 themfelves over the empire, and the imbecillity of the 
 emperors contributed to propagate the deception. 
 Temples eonfecrated to fpirits quickly reared their 
 heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of the 
 moil celebrated of the feft were author ifed to main- 
 tain public worfhip there after the form which had 
 been prefcribed by their raafter. At the fame time 
 they difiributed, and fold at a dear rate, images of tht: 
 imaginary fpirits with which they had peopled the 
 heavens and the earth. Thefe were, by their com- 
 mand, worflilpped as fo many detiies independent of 
 the Supreme Being ; and, in like maimer, feveral of 
 the ancient emperors were invoked as gods. 
 
 Being patron ifed by the emperors of feveral dy- 
 nafties, this fe£h became more and more poweifuL 
 At lall they had the impudence to affix, during the 
 night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city, 
 a book filled with myflic chara6lers and magical figures. 
 At break of day they informed the emperor of the 
 fudden appearance o£ this book, and publicly declared 
 that it was fallen from heaven. This trick eafily im- 
 pofed upon the weak piince. He immediately repair- 
 ed, witli a numerous train, ta the fpot where the fa- 
 cred volume appeared ; and havinjj taken it into his 
 hands in a refpeftful manner, carried it in triumph to 
 his palace, where he fhut it up in a golden box. An- 
 other emperor carried his reverence for the fed to fuclv 
 an height of impiety and extravagance, as to order a 
 celebrated Tao-fse to be publicly worfhipped under the 
 name of Chang-ti. The fed thus patronifed by the 
 princes, and accommodated to the credulity of the 
 vulgar, continued to gain ground in fpite of every op- 
 pofition from the wifer part of the people, and is iliil 
 very powerful in China. At prefent they offer up 
 three different viftims, a hog, a fowl, and a fifh, to a 
 fpirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, fuch 
 as howling, drawing fantattical figures upon paper, ma- 
 king an hideous noife with kettles and drums, are ufed 
 in their incantations j arid though it may readily be 
 believed that they are for the mofl part unfucccfsful) 
 yet their credit is flill kept up by thofe cafes in which 
 they fucceed by accident. 
 
 The chief of the Tao-fse is invefled by government 
 with the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed 
 by his fucceffors : he refides in a fumptuous palace in 
 a town of Kiang-fi ; and the fuperflitious confidence 
 of the people attrads an immenfe number thither from 
 all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be 
 cured of difeafes, others to get an infight into futu- 
 rity. The impoftor diftributes to them fmall bits of 
 paper filled with magical charaders ; and the ignorant 
 wretches depart well fatisfied, without grudging the 
 expence of rheir journey, though ever fo long. 
 
 A flill more pernicious and more widely, diffu fed fed 
 is that of the idol Fo, which came originally from In- {|iippe[.ror 
 dia. The Tao-fse had promifed to the brother of one py. 
 of the emperors of China to introduce him to a com- 
 munication with fpirits. The credulous prince having 
 heard of a great fpirit named Fo, who refided in In- 
 dia, prevailed on his brother to fend an embaffy thi- 
 ther. On the arrival of the ambaffadors, however, 
 they could find only two worfliippers of this deity, 
 both of whom they brought lo China. Siveral images 
 
G H I 
 
 [ 678 ] 
 
 G H T 
 
 Chin*, of Fo were alfo coUefted at the fame time ; and thefe, 
 together with fome canonical books of the Indians, 
 were placed on a white horfe, and carried in proceffion 
 to the imperial city. 
 
 This fuperftition was introduced into China about 
 the 65th year of the Chriftian asra, and foon made 
 vafl progrefs. One of its principal dodlrines is that 
 of the metempfychofiF, or tranfmigration of fouls, of 
 which M. Grofier thinks he was the inventor, and that 
 Pythagoras, who travelled into feveral parts of India, 
 had borrowed the doftrine from him. The account 
 given of him by the bonzes is, that finding himfelf, 
 at the age of 70, oppreffed with infirmities, he called 
 his difciples together, and told them he was unwilling 
 to leave the world without communicating the fecret 
 and hidden myfteries of his doftrine ; which were, in 
 (hort, that all things had proceeded from a. vacuum 
 and nothing, and to that they mult return. This doc- 
 trine produced a correfponding mode of aftlon, or ra- 
 ther of inaftion, in thofe who believed it : for thus 
 the great happinefs of man was made to confift in ab- 
 folute annihilation ; and thereforfi the nearer he could 
 bring himfelf to this ftate during life, the happier he 
 was fuppofed to be. 
 
 The common doftrine, however, which admits of a 
 diftinftion between good and evil, finds more profe- 
 Jytes among the vulgar, whofe fituation in Hfe will not 
 allow them to fpend their time in perpetual idlenefs. 
 According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and 
 the wicked punifhed after death. They fay alfo, that 
 the god Fo came to fave mankind, and to expiate their 
 fins ; and that he alone can procure them a happy re- 
 generation in the life to come. Five precepts aie hke- 
 wife inculcated on thofe who adept this dodlrine : 
 1. Not to kill any living creature. 2. Not to take 
 away the goods of another. 3. Not to pollute them- 
 felves by uncleannefs. 4. Not to lie ; and, 5. Not to 
 drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to 
 perform afts of mercy, to treat their bonzes well, 
 build temples, &c. 
 
 The doftrine of metempfychofis has introduced in- 
 to China an infinite number of idols, who are all wor- 
 fliipped on the fuppofition that the fpirit of Fo has 
 tranfmigrated into the animals they reprcfent. Thefe 
 idols, however, feem not to be worfhipped with great 
 fincerity ; but, like the images of faints in the more 
 fuperflitious countries of Europe, are beaten and thrown 
 in the dirt when their votaries happen not to obtain 
 their defires, which they impute to the obftinacy or 
 weaknefs of the idol. Nay, M. Grofier gives an ac- 
 count of one man, who having ineffeftually paid a fum 
 of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the cure 
 of his daughter, brought a formal accufation againft 
 the idol itfelf ; and in fpite of all that the bonzes could 
 fay in its behalf, got its worlhip fupprefled throughout 
 the province. 
 
 The bonzes of China are reprefented as a moft ava- 
 ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to pradife 
 tbe bonaes. gygry kind of villany, and even to fubjeft themfelvee 
 to the moft intolerable tortures, in order to obtain mo- 
 ney from the compaffion of the public when they can- 
 not get it in any other way ; and an edift of one of 
 ■the emperors is cited by M. Grofier, by which great 
 Bumbprs of their religious houfes were fuppreiled. In 
 
 104 
 Bad cha- 
 
 rader of 
 
 order to perpetuate their feft, they purchafe jonng China, 
 children, whom they take care to inltruA in all the ^r—^ 
 myfteries and tricks of their profeflion \^ but except- 
 ing this, they are in general very ignorant, and few 
 of them would be able to give any tolerable account 
 of the tenets of their own fed. They are not fubjeft 
 to a' regular hierarchy, but acknowledge fuperiors a- 
 mong them whom they call grand bonzes, who have 
 the firft place in all religious afl*emblies at which they 
 happen to be prefent ; and great profit is derived from 
 certain religiqua clubs, both of men and women, at 
 which the bonzes are always called to aflift. Their 
 wealth is Hkewife augmented by pilgrimages to certain 
 places where there are temples more or lefs reverenced, 
 and where a multitude of abfurd ceremonies are per- 
 formed. Thefe bonzes, as may be eafily imagined, arc 
 inveterate enemies to the progrefs of Chriftianity, tell- 
 ing the moft abfurd ftories concerning the miflionaries; 
 as that they pluck out the eyes of their converts to 
 conftrud telefcopes with, &c. The literati, however, 
 and the more fenfible part of the nation, hold them in 
 the greateft contempt. 
 
 We {hall conclude this detail of the Chlnefe reli- rj^jj^ jou* 
 gion with giving an account of one other fuperftition fuperftition 
 which feems peculiar to the nation. It is named /o/zg-- of the/e«^- 
 choui, which fignifies wind and water. By this they 
 mean the lucky or unlucky fituation of a houfe, bury- 
 ing-plaee, &c. If any imprudent perfon has built a 
 houfe clofe to that of a Chinefe, in fuch a manner 
 that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or 
 roof of the former houfe, the proprietor ever after 
 lives in terror of utter ruin and deftrudlion from the 
 malignant influence of that angle. An implacable 
 hatred inftantly commences betwixt the two families, 
 and often gives rife to a law-fuit, which f urn ilhes mat- 
 ter of difcuflion for fome of the fuperior tribunals. 
 If no redrefs can be had at law, however, the Chinefe 
 is then reduced to the neceffity of erefting, on the top 
 of his houfe, an enormous image of a dragon, or fome 
 other monfter, with its mouth gaping towards the angle, 
 and, as it were, threatening to (wallow it up ; after 
 which the apprehenfions of the proprietor begin to 
 fubfide, and tranquillity is reftored to the family. In 
 this manner the governor of Kien-tclmng fecured him- 
 felf from the influence of the church of the Jefuits* 
 which, being built on an eminence, overlooked his pa- 
 lace. Not depending, however, entirely on the good 
 offices of his tutelary dragon, he alfo took the wife 
 precaution of altering his principal apartments, and 
 raifing, at the diftance of 200 paces from the church, 
 a kind of large facade three ftories high. But un- 
 luckily the death of his fucceflbr was attributed to 
 this facade ; for the mandarin being attacked with a 
 diforder in his brcaft, which made him fpit up a white 
 phlegm, this fymptom was thought to be owing to the 
 walls of the facade, which were very white, and whiqh 
 were forthwith painted black. The falutary precau- 
 tion, however, happened to be taken too late ; for the 
 governor died notwithftanding the black colour of the 
 walls. 
 
 " We'fhould never have done (fays M. Grofier), 
 were we to relate all the fuperftitious ideas of the Chi- 
 nefe, refpeding the lucky and unlucky fituation of hoa« 
 fcs^ the tjuarter which doors ought to front, and the 
 
 plaa 
 
C IT r r 679 ] CHI 
 
 CMna. plan and day proper for conftrufting the (loves (n which and fends t)\t bride home to her relatlon«. 
 
 to6 
 Jews and 
 
 M ihoiue- 
 tan'i in 
 
 107 
 Cereimo- 
 nies of 
 marriage. 
 
 they cook their rice." But the objeft on which they 
 employ their greateft care is the choice of the ground 
 and fituation for a burying-placc. Some quacks fol- 
 low no other proftflion than that of pointing out hills 
 and mountains wlu'ch have ''an afpeft favourable for 
 works of that kind. When a Chincfe is pevfuaded 
 of the truth of fuch information, there is no funa 
 which he would not give to be in pofTefTion of the for- 
 tunate fpot. The greater part of the Chinefe are of 
 opinion that all the happinefs and misfortunes of life 
 depend upon the forig-choui. 
 
 A colony of Jews was eftabliftied in China about 
 the year 2c6 B. C. ; but they are now reduced to a 
 fmall number of families at Cai-fonijr, the capital of 
 the province of Hcnan. The Mahometans have mul- 
 tiplied much more than the Jews. It is above 600 
 years fince they fiill entered the empire, where they 
 have formed diiTerent eftablilhments. At firft their 
 number was augmented only by marriages ; but for 
 fome time paft they have been more particularly at- 
 tentive to the extending of their feft and propagating 
 their doftrine. The principal means employed for 
 this purpofe are, to pnrchafe a great number of chil- 
 dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents 
 are glad to part with ; and thefe they circumcife, and 
 afterwards inftru£l in the principles of their religion. 
 During the time of a famine which defolated the pro- 
 vince of Chang- tong, they purchafed more than io,oco 
 of thefe children ; for whom, when grown up, they 
 procured wives, built houfes, and even formed whole 
 villages of them. They are now become fo numerous, 
 that in the places where they refide they entirely ex- 
 clude every i ihabitant. who does not believe in their 
 prophet, and frequent a mofque. 
 
 With regard to the manners of the Chinefe, they 
 bear no refemblance to thofe of any other nation ; and, 
 if we may believe their hiftbrians, they are the fame 
 at this day that tht y were 4000 years ago. The wo- 
 men are condemned almoft to perpetual imprifonment 
 within the precinfts of their own houfes, and are ne- 
 ver feen even by their intended hnfbands before mar- 
 riage. He knows nothing of her looks or perfon but 
 from the account of fome female relation or confident, 
 who in fuch cafes a<fts the part of match-maker; though, 
 if impofed upon either with regard to her age or fi- 
 gure, he can have recourfe to a divorce. The fame 
 matrons who negociate the marriage, alfo determine the 
 fum which the intended hulhand muft pay to the pa- 
 rents of the bride : for in China a father does not give 
 a dowry to his daughter f it is the hufband who gives 
 a dowry to the wife. When the day appointed for 
 the marriage is arrived, the bride is placed in a chair 
 or clofe palanquin, the key of which is committed to 
 the care of a trufty doinellic, who muft deliver it to 
 none but the hufband. The latter, richly dreffed, waits 
 at his gate for the arrival of the proceflion. As foon 
 as it approaches, the key is put into his hands; he 
 eagerly opens the chair, and for the firft time percdve-s 
 his good or bad fortune. If he is contented with his 
 new fpoufe, the bride defcends and enters the houfe, 
 where the marriage is concluded by feafling and mer- 
 riment as in other countries ; but if the bridegroom 
 i« very much difappointed, he fuddenly ihuts the chair, 
 
 To get rid 
 
 of her in this manner, however, cofts a fum equal to 
 what he originally gave in dowry to obtain her. 
 
 The Chinefe women, even of the firft rank, feldom 
 quit their apartment, which is fituated In the mofl: re- 
 tired part of the houfe, and in which they are fecluded 
 from all fociety but that of their domeftics. The book 
 of ceremonies requires that there {hould be two apart- 
 ments in every houfe ; the exterior one for the hufband, 
 the interior for the wife. They muft even be fepara- 
 ted by a wall or wooden partition, the door of which 
 is carefully guarded ; nor is the huftjand at liberty to 
 enter the wife's apartment, or fhe to quit it, without 
 fufficient reafon. According to the fame book, ihe 
 prattling and loquacity of a woman are reckoned fuf- 
 ficient grounds for a divorce. A woman, however, 
 cannot be divorced on any account, if ftie lofes her pa- 
 rents after marriage, or if flie has worn three year-*, 
 mourning for the lofs of her hufband, father, or mo- 
 ther. 
 
 A widow of any rank ab»ve the common, who has 
 children, feldom enters a fecond time into the marriage 
 ftate, though thofe of the ordinary rank generally do. 
 The poorer fort are not at liberty to follow their own 
 inclination; but are fold for the behoof of the parents 
 of the dcceafed. As foon as the bargain is conclu- 
 ded, a couple of porters bring a chair, which is guard- 
 ed by a number of trufty people. In this the widow 
 is fhut up, and thus condufted to her new hufband. 
 
 " Mailers (fays Mr Grofier), for the moft part, are 
 very defirous of promoting marriage among their 
 flaves, whatever Mr Paiv may fay ; who, without any 
 foundation, has ventured boldly to affert the contrary. 
 They have even very ftrong motives to induce them to 
 encourage thefe marriages ; the children produced by 
 them are ftill their flaves ; and befides their becoming 
 new property to them, the fathers and mothers are 
 tlius more ftrongly attached to their fervice." 
 
 Concubinage is tolerated in China, though not au- 
 thorifed by any law. This privilege is granted only to 
 the emperor, the princes of the blood, and mandarins ; 
 and none but the emperor is permitted to have more 
 than one. The common people generally avail them- 
 felves of the toleration granted them in this re- 
 fpeft, and will have two or three concubines if they 
 can afford it. They are, however, careful to excufe 
 themfelves, as well as they can to their wives in this 
 tefpetl, pretending only a defire of having many 
 children, and a number of women to attend their 
 wives. Others, defirous of having a male child, which 
 perhaps their lawful wife cannot have, take a concu- 
 bine for this reafon only, and difmifs her as foon as 
 their willies are accomplifhed : they then permit her 
 to marry whom fhe pleafes, and frequently even "pro- 
 vide a hufband for her themfelves. Thefe concubines 
 are almoft all procured from two cities named Tang- 
 tcheou and Sou-tcheou., where they are educated, and 
 taught finging, dancing, mufic, and every accomplifli- 
 ment fuitable to women of quahty, or which can render 
 them agreeable and pleafmg. The greater part of them 
 are purchafed in other places, to be again difpofed of ; 
 and this is the principal branch of trade carried on by 
 thefe two cities. Unlawful intrigues are feldom heard 
 of in China. Whoever feduces the wife of another 
 
 Ching, 
 
 108' 
 Concubi- 
 nage tole- 
 jated. 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 68 
 
 Cliina. 
 
 is pnninied with death ; and the fame punifliment is 
 generally infltfled on the perfon who debauches a 
 young woman. 
 
 From the accounts we have of the education of chil- 
 ■ dren in China, one might be apt to conchide, that, in- 
 flead of being the ignorant fuperllitious race ah-eady 
 dtfcribcd, they ought to be the moil inteUigent people 
 in tlie world. The book ceremonies diretls the edu- 
 cation of a child to commence as foort as it is born, 
 and defcribes exaAly the qualities which its nurfe 
 ought to have. She mull fpeak little, adlierc ftrldlly 
 to truth,, have a mild temper, behave with affability to 
 her equals, and with refpeft to her fuperiors. The child 
 is taught to ufe the right hand as icon as it can put its 
 hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At fix 
 years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers moll 
 in ufe, and made acquainted with the names of the 
 principal parts of the world ; at feven, he is fepara- 
 ted from his fillers, and no longer allowed to eat with 
 tliem, nor to fit down in their prefence ; at eight, he 
 is inilru£l:ed in the rules of good breeding and polite- 
 nefs; at nine, he ftudies the kalendar; at ten, he isfent' 
 to a public fchool, where he learns to read, write, and 
 call accounts ; from 13 to 15 he is taught mufic, and 
 every thing that he fings confills of moral precepts. It 
 was formerly the cuftom, that all the leffons defigned 
 for the Chinefe youth were in verfe; and it is to this 
 day lamented, that the fame cuftom is not followed, as 
 their education has fince been rendered much more diffi- 
 cult and laborious. 
 
 At the age of 15, the Chinefe boys are taught to 
 handle th'e bow and arrow, and to inount on horfeback ; 
 at 20 they receive the firil cap, if they are thought to 
 deferve it, and they are permitted to wear filk dreffes 
 ornamented with furs ; but before that period they are 
 not allowed to wear any other thing than cotton. 
 
 Another method of initiating children into the 
 principles of knowledge in this empire is, by felefting 
 a number of characters expreffive of the moll common 
 objefts, engraving or painting them feparately on fome 
 kind of fubftance, and, under the thing reprefented, 
 putting the name, which points out to the children the 
 meaning of the word. 
 
 As the Chinefe have no proper alphabet, they re- 
 prefent almofl every thing by different characters. The 
 labour of their youth, therefore, is intolerable ; being 
 obliged to ftudy many thoufand charafters, each of 
 which has a diftinCl and proper fignification. Some 
 idea of their difficulties may be obtained from what we 
 are told by F. Martini, who affures us, that he was un- 
 der the neceflity of learning 60,000 difi'erent charac- 
 ters before he could read the Chinefe authors with to- 
 lerable eafe. 
 
 The book firft put into the hands of the Chinefe 
 children is an abridgment, which points out what a 
 child ought to learn, and the manner in which he 
 fhould be taught. This volume is a colledlion of fhort 
 fentences, confifting of three or four verfes each, "all of 
 which, rhyme ; and they are obliged to give an account 
 in the evening of what they have learned in the day. 
 After this elementary treatife, they put into iheir hands 
 the four books which contain the do6lrines of Confu- 
 cius and Mencius. The fenfe and meaning of the 
 work is never explained to them until they have got by 
 Jjeart all the charafters, that is to fay, the words in the 
 
 N :8. 
 
 o ] C I 
 
 book ; a method no doubt inconceivably difgufting, 
 and calculated utterly to deilroy the genius of a boy, 
 if he has any. While they are getting thefe charac- 
 ters by lieart, indeed, they are likewife employed in 
 learning to form them with a pencih For this pur- 
 pofe they are furnifhed with large leaves of paper, on 
 which are written or printed with red ink very big 
 charaClers ; and all they are required to do is to cover 
 thofe red characters with black ink, and to follow ex- 
 atily their lliapeand figure; which infenfihly accuiloms 
 them to form the different ftrokes. After this they 
 are made to trace other characters, placed under the pa- 
 per on which they write. Thefe are black, and much 
 fmallerthan the other. It is a great advantage to the 
 Chinefe hterati to be able to paint characters well; and 
 on this account they beftow great pains in forming the 
 hands of young jieople. This is of the utmoil confe- 
 quence to literary ftudents in the examinations which 
 they are obliged to undergo before they can be admit- 
 ted to the firft degree. l3u Halde gives a remarkable 
 inftance, viz. that " a candidate for degrees havino-, 
 contrary to order, made ufe of an abbreviation in wri- 
 ting the character tmi, which fignifies- an horfe, had 
 the mortification of feeing his compoiition, though in 
 other refpeCts excellent, lejeCled merely on that ac- 
 count ; befides being feverely rallied by the mandarin, 
 who told him that a horfe could not walk unlefs he had 
 all his legs." 
 
 After the fcholar has made himfelf mafter of the cha- 
 rafters, he is then allowed to compofe ; but the fub- 
 jed of his compofition is pointed out to him only by 
 one word. Competitions are likewife eflablilhed in 
 China, but moft of them are of a private nature. 
 Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the fame 
 name, and who confequently have only one hall for the 
 names 6f their anceftors, agree among themfelves to 
 fend their children twice a month to this hall in order 
 to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives the 
 *fubjeCl of this literary conteft, and adjudges the prize ; 
 but this cofts him a dinner, which he mull caufe to be 
 carried to the hall of com])etition. A fine of about 
 ten pence is impofed on the parent of each fcholar who 
 abfents himfelf from this exercife. 
 
 Befides thefe private competitions, every ftudent is 
 obliged to compete at leaft twice a-year under the in- 
 fpeClion of an inferior mandarin of letters, ftyled H''o- 
 huan. It frequently happens alfo, that the mandarins 
 of letters order thefe ftudents to be brought before 
 them, to examine the progrefs they have made in their 
 ftudies, to excite a fpirit of emulation among them, and 
 make them give fuch application as may qualify them 
 for any employment in the ftatc. Even the governors 
 of cities do not think it below their dignity to take 
 this care upon themfelves ; ordering all thofe ftudents 
 who refide near them to appear before their tribunal 
 once a month : the author of the heft compofition is 
 honoured with a prize, and the governor trt ats all the 
 candidates on the day of competition at his own ex- 
 pence. In every city, town, and village in China, 
 there are fchoolmafters who teach fuch fciences as are 
 known in that countiy. Parents poffeffed of a certain 
 fortune provide mafters for their children, to attend 
 and inllruCl them, to form their minds to virtue, and 
 to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the 
 accuftomed ceremonies, as well as to make them ac- 
 5 quainted 
 
 China. 
 
f lO 
 
 Ill 
 
 Chinefe 
 obiiced by 
 the Tai rai 
 to cut ( fF 
 their hair. 
 
 \ 
 
 CHI [6 
 
 quainted wi'tli the laws and hiftoiy, If their age will ad- 
 ' mitj TJiefe mafters liave for the moft part attained to 
 one or two degrees among the literati, and not unfre- 
 quently arrive at tlic firlt employments of th-e ftate. 
 
 The education of the Chinefe women is conlined to 
 giving them a tafte forfolitude, and accuftoming them 
 to modefty and hlence ; and, if their parents are rich, 
 they are hkewiie inilruftedin fuch accomphfliments as 
 may render them agi-eeable to the other fex. 
 
 There is little diilin£lion in China between the or- 
 dinary drefs of men and women. Rank and dignity 
 are diftinguifhed by certain acceffary ornaments ; and 
 the perfon would be feverely chaftifed who fhould pre- 
 fume to afTume them without being properly authori- 
 fed. The drefs in general confills of a long veil which 
 reaches to the ground. One part of this veft, viz. 
 that on the left fide, folds over' the other, and is fatten- 
 ed to the right by four or five fmall gold orfilver but- 
 tons, placed at a little diftance from one another. The 
 fleeves ai-e v/ide tow:irds tlie fiioulder, growing nairow- 
 er as they approach tlie vmft, where they terminate in 
 the form of a horfe flioe, covering the hands entirely, 
 aiid leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be 
 feen. Round tlieir middle they wear a large girdle of 
 filk, the ends of which hang down to their knees. 
 From this girdle is fufpended a flieath, containing a 
 knife and two of thofe fmall fticks which they ufe as 
 forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers, 
 in fummermade of linen, and in winter of fatin lined 
 with fur, fometimes of cotton, and in fome of the 
 northern provinces of /Idns. Thefe are fometimes co- 
 vered with another pair of white taffety. Their fhirts 
 are always very fhcrt and wide, of different kinds of 
 cloth, according to the feafon. Under thefe they wear 
 a filk net to prevent it from adhering to the llcin. In 
 warm weather they have their necks always bare ; when 
 it is cold, they wear a collar made of filk, fable, or 
 fox's fl-cin, joined to their robe, which in winter is trim- 
 med with iheep's fi<in, or quilted with filk and cotton. 
 That of people of quality is entirely lined with beau- 
 tiful fable fl<ins brought from Tartary, or with the fi- 
 neft fox's fkin, trimmed with fable ; and in the fpring 
 it is lined with ermine. Above their robe they wear 
 alfo a kind of fur-tcut w ith wide fleeves, hut very fliort, 
 which is lined in the fame manner. The emperor 
 and princes of theljlood only have aright to wear yel- 
 low ; certain mandarins have liberty to wear fatin of 
 a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony ; in 
 general they are clothed in black, blue, or violet. The 
 common people are allowed to wear no other colours 
 but blue or black ; and their drefs is always compofed 
 of plain cotton cloth. 
 
 Formerly the Chinefe were at great pains to pre- 
 ferve their hair ; but the Tartars, who fubdued them, 
 f compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and to 
 alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fafhion. 
 Tliis revolution in drefs was not effected without blood- 
 flicd, though the conqueror at the fame time adopted 
 in other refpeds the laws, manners, andcuftoms of the 
 conquered people. Thus the Chinefe are painted as 
 if bald, but they are not fo naturally ; that fmall por- 
 tion of hair which they preferve behind, or on the 
 tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them. 
 This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. -In 
 fummer they v/ear a kind of cap fiiapcd like an invcrt- 
 VoL. IV. Part II. 
 
 8r ] C H I 
 
 ed cone, lined vrith fatin, and covered with ratan or 
 cane very prettily wrought. The top terminates in a 
 point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, v.'hicn 
 fpreads over it, and covers it to the brims. This hair 
 grows between tlie legs of a kind of cow, and is ca- 
 pable of taking any colour, efpccially a deep red. This 
 ornament is much ufed, and any perion who choofes 
 may wear it. 
 
 The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the fame 
 form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red fatin, 
 and covered on the outfide Avith white. A large tuft 
 of the fineft red filk is fixed over it, which is fuffered 
 to hang down of wave with the wind. People of di- 
 ftin£lion generally ufe the common cap when they 
 mount on horfeback or during bad weather ; being 
 better calculated to keep off rain, and fhelter thofe 
 who wear it from the rays of the fun, For winter they 
 have another cap bordered with fable, ermine, or fox's 
 ficin, and ornamented with a tuft of Tilk hke the former. 
 In thefe fur-trimmings they arc very curious, fometimes 
 expending 40 or 50 ounces of filver upon them. 
 
 The Chinefe people of rank never go abroad with- 
 out boots made of fatin or fome other filk, and fome- 
 times of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither 
 heel nor top, and are made to fit the foot with the' 
 grcateft exadnefs. When they travel on horfeback, 
 however, they have others made of the fkin of a cow 
 or horfe made very pliable. Their boot-ftocklngs are 
 of filk ttuff, quilted and hned with cotton, reaching 
 above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a 
 border of velvet or cloth. ^In fummer they wear a 
 cooler kind, and in their houfes a fort of flippers made 
 of filk fluff. The common people are contented with 
 black flippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is alfo 
 a neceffary appendage of the Chinefe drefs, and is reck- 
 oned equally neceffary with the boots. 
 
 The drefs of the women confills of a long robe quite 
 clofe at top, and long enough to cover even their toes, 
 with fleeves fo long that they would hang down upon 
 the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up ; 
 but their hands are feldom feen. The colour of their 
 drcffes is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are 
 generally chofen by thofe advanced in life. The young 
 ladies, like thofe of Europe, make ufe of paint to 
 give a bloom to their completions ; bat this, though 
 not the fame with the kind ufcd in Europe, agj-ees 
 with it in the efl^ft of foon wrinkling the flan. Their 
 general head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in 
 feveral curls, among which are interfperfed fmall tufts 
 of gold or filver flowers. According to Du Plalde, 
 fome of them ornament their heads with the image of 
 a fabulous bird, concerning which many fl;ories are told. 
 This is made of copper or fihxr gilt, its wings extend- 
 ed and lying pretty clofe to the head-drefs, embra- 
 cing the upper part of their temples, while the long 
 fpreading tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the 
 head. Its body Is direfily over the head, and the 
 neck and bill hang down, the former being joined to 
 the body by a concealed hinge, in order that it may 
 play freely, and move about on the leaft motion of 
 the head. The whole bird adheres to the head by 
 means of the claws, which are fixed in the hair. 
 
 ^ Ladies of quality fometimes wear feveral of thefe 
 birds made up into a fingle 6rnam.ent, the workmanflilp 
 of which is very expenfive. Young ladles wear alfo a 
 4 ^ crown 
 
 I 
 
I 
 
 Chira. 
 
 ALftrd cu- 
 flom of pre- 
 venting the 
 feet of fe- 
 male in- 
 fants from 
 growing.. 
 
 Exceffive 
 rerenioni- 
 oufnefs of 
 the Chi- 
 
 Etfc. 
 
 CH I [ 68 
 
 crown made of pafteboard, the fore-part of which 
 rifcs in a point above the forehead, and is covered 
 with jewels. The reft of the head is decorated with 
 natural or artificial flowers, among which fmall dia- 
 mond pins are interfperfed. The head-drefs of the or- 
 dinary clafs of women, efpecially when they are ad- 
 vanced in years, confifts only of a piece of very fine 
 filk wrapped round their heads. 
 
 All authors agree, that an abfurd cuftom prevails 
 throughout China of confining the feet of femalc»in- 
 fants in fuCh a manner that they are never allowed to 
 grow to near their full fize. The fmallnefs of their 
 feet is accounted fuch a valuable beauty, that the Chi- 
 nefe women never think they can pay too dear for it. 
 As foon therefoi-e as a female infant 4s born, the 
 nurfe wraps up its feet in very tight bandages; and 
 this torture muft be endured until their feet have 
 ceafed to grow. So prevalent is the force of cuftom, 
 however, that as the child grows up (he voluntarily 
 fubmits to new tortures in order to accomplifii the 
 purpofe more effcftually. Thus the Chinefe women 
 are deprived almoft entirely of the ufe of their feet ; and 
 are fcarce able to walk, in the moft aukward hobbling 
 manner, for the fhorteft fpace. The ftioe of a full grown 
 Chinefe woman will frequently not exceed fix inches. 
 
 The Chinefe ufe white as the colour proper for 
 mourning ; and though a fon cannot wear this while 
 his father and mother are alive, he can ufe no other 
 for three years after their death ; and ever afterwards 
 his clothes muft be of one colour. The law has for- 
 bidden the ufe of filks and furs to children ; and has 
 even prefcribed the time when they arc firft to wear a 
 cap. This is put upon their heads by the mafter of 
 ceremonies himfelf, who addreffes them in the follow- 
 ing manner : " Confider that you now receive the 
 drefs of thofe v/ho have attained to maturity, and that 
 you ceafe to be children; renounce therefore all child- 
 ifli thoughts and inclinations, afiiime a grave and ferious 
 deportment, apply with refolution to the ftudy of vir- 
 tue and wifdom, and endeavour to merit a long and 
 happy life." " This ceremony (fays M. Grofier), 
 which may appear trifling, is attended with the hap- 
 pleft eff"e£ls. The Chinefe give a kind of importtmce 
 to every thing which can infpire youth with a tafte 
 for morality and a love of good order. It might be 
 ufeful to mankind at every fixed epocha of their lives, 
 to remind them of thofe new duties impofed by each 
 fucceflive change; but, by uniting the folemnity of a 
 public ceremony to this inftruftion, it will make a 
 deeper impreffion, and remain much longer imprinted 
 on their memories." 
 
 Nothing can appear more irkfome to an European 
 than the multitude of ceremonies ufed on all occafions 
 by the Chinefe. An invitation to an entertainment is 
 not fuppofed to be given , with fincerity until it has 
 been renewed three or four times in writing. A card 
 is fent on the evening before the entertainment, an- 
 other on the morning of the appointed day, and a third 
 when evei-y thing is prepared and the guefts ready to 
 fit down to the table. The mafter of the houfe al- 
 ways Introduces his guefts into the hall, where he fa- 
 lutes them one after another. He then orders wine to 
 be brought him in a fmall cup made of filver, porce- 
 lain, or precious wood, and placed upon a fmall var- 
 aiflicd falvcT. He lave hold of it with bath his hands, 
 
 2 ] CHI 
 
 makes a bow to all the furrounding guefts, and advan- 
 ces towards the fore-pai;t of the hall, which generally 
 looks into a large court. He there ralfes his eyes and 
 the cup towards heaven; after which he pours the wine 
 on the ground. He afterwards pours fome wine into 
 a filver or porcelain cup, makes a bow to the moft con- 
 fiderable perfon in company, and then goes to place 
 the cup on the table before him ; for in China every 
 gueft has a table for hinifclf. The perfon for whom 
 he intends this honour, however, generally faves him 
 the trouble of placing the cup ; calls for wine in his 
 turn, and off'ers to place the cup on the mafter's table, 
 who endeavours to prevent him ; with a thoufand apo- 
 logies and compliments according to the rules of Chi- 
 nefe politenefs. A fuperior domeftic condufts the 
 principal gueft to an elbow chair covered with rich 
 flowered filk, where the ftranger again begins his com- 
 plunents, and begs to be excufed from fitting in fuch . 
 an honourable feat, which neverthelefs he accepts of ; 
 and all the reft of the guefts do the fame, otherwife 
 the ceremonial would be gone through with each of 
 them. The entertainment is concluded by fome the- 
 atrical reprefentations, accompanied with the mufic of 
 the country ; which, however, would give but little 
 pleafure to an European. Befides the guefts, a certain 
 number of people are admitted into the court in order 
 to behold thefe theatrical reprefentations ; and even 
 the women are allowed to view them througli a wicket, 
 contrived fo that they may behold them without being 
 feen themfelves. 
 
 The entertainments of the Chinefe are begun, not 
 by eating, but by drinking ; and the liquor they drink . 
 muft always be pure wine. The intendant, or ma'ttre 
 de hold, falling down on one knee, firft invites the 
 guefts to take a glafs ; on which each of them lays 
 hold, with both hanc^s, of that which is placed before 
 him, raifing it as high as his forehead, then bringing it 
 lower down than the table, and at laft putting it to 
 his mouth : they all drink together, and very llowly, 
 taking three or four drauglits. While they are drink- 
 ing, the difhes on each of the tables are removed, and 
 others brought in. Each of the guefl^s has twenty- 
 four fet before him in fucceffion ; all of them fat, and . 
 in the form of ragouts. They never ufe knives in their 
 repafts ; and two fmall-pointed fticks, ornamented 
 with ivory or filver, ferve them inftead of forks. They 
 never begin to eat, however, until they are invited by 
 maltre de hotel ; -And. \.\it fame ceremony muft be 
 gone through every time they are going to take a cup 
 of wine or begin to a new difli. Tov/ards the middle 
 of the entertainment the foup is brought in, accom- 
 panied with fmall loaves or meat-pies. Thefe they 
 take up with their fmall fticks, fteep them in the 
 foup, and eat them without waiting for any fignal or 
 being obliged to keep time with the reft of the guefts. 
 The entertainment, however, continues in other re- 
 fpefts with the utmoft formality until tea is brought 
 in ; after which they retire from table and amufe 
 themfelves in another hall, or in the garden for a ftiort 
 time, -until the defert be brought in. This, like the 
 entertainment itfelf, confifts of 24 diflies, which are 
 made up of fweatmeats, fruits differently prepared, 
 hams and faked ducks which have been baked or drie^d 
 in the fun, with fhell and other kinds of fifh. The 
 fame ceremonies which preceded the repaft are now 
 
 renewed^.. 
 
 Gh'ns, 
 
CHI t 
 
 Chlnj. renewed, and every one fits down at the fame place he 
 occupied before. Larger cups are then brought in, and 
 the mafter invites the guefts to drink more freely. 
 
 Thefe entertainments begin towards evening, and 
 never end till midnight. A fmall fum of money is 
 given to the domeftics ; when every one of the guefts 
 goes home in a chair preceded by feveral fervants, who 
 carry large lanthorns of oiled paper, on which are in- 
 fcribed the quality, and fometimes the name, of the 
 mafter. Without fuch an attendance they yvould be 
 taken up by the girard-; and the day following they 
 never fail to return a card of thanks to the ofiicer. 
 
 Their method of drinking tea is not like that of 
 other nations. A fmall quantity of bohea, fulFicient 
 tc tinge the water and render it palatable (for they 
 drink no green), is taken in the morning, and thrown 
 jnto a veflel adapted to the number in family. This 
 ftands till milk warm ; in which ftate it is kept the 
 whole day, and a cup drank now and then withaut 
 fugar or ^nilk, in order to cxhilerate the fpirits when 
 exhautled by fatigue: and if attrangercall by accident, 
 or a vifitor by appointment, the firfl; thing prefented, 
 after the ufual ceremonies of meeting, is a very fmall 
 pipe filled with tobacco of their own growth and a cup 
 of the tea already mentioned, or of fome fiefii made 
 of better quality, together with fweetmeats, &c. Tea 
 13 the daily beverage in China, and is drank by all 
 ranks of pepple. 
 
 Some change has been made in the ceremonial 'of 
 the Chinefe by the Tartar conqueft, and fome new 
 diihes alfo introduced by the fame means ; and here 
 M. Grofier obferves, that the Tartars are much better 
 cooks than the Chinefe, All their diflies are _ highly 
 fcafoncd; and by a variation in the proportions of 
 their fpicerie!^, they are able to form a variety of diOies 
 out of the fame materials. None of their viands, 
 however, are more efteemed than ftags finews, and the 
 nefts of a particular fpecies of birds, which have the 
 property of giving a moll agreeable relifh to what- 
 ever is mixed with them. Other difhes are introdu- 
 ced at thefe repafts, which would be accounted very 
 difagrceable With us ; fuch as the flefh of wihi horfes, 
 the paws of a bear, and the feet of feveral v/ild ani- 
 mals. The greater part of thefe provifions are brought 
 preferved in fait from Siam, Camboya, and Tartary. 
 
 The wines of China have no refemblance to ours 
 either hi tafte or quality, being procured from_ rice 
 and not from the vine. A particular kind of rice is 
 employed for making them, and the_ grain is lleeped 
 for 20 or 30 days in water, into which ingredients of 
 a different nature are fucceilively thrown : they after- 
 wards boil it; and as foon as it becomes dilfolved by 
 ■the heat, it immediately ferments, and throws up a vapo- 
 rous fcum not unlike new wine, A very pure liquor 
 is found under this fcum, which is drawn off and put 
 into vefTels well glazed : From the remaining lyes an 
 inflammable fpirit is made, Tittle inferior, and fometimes 
 fvcn fuperior, to the European. Anotlier kind of 
 wine is ufed by the Chinefe, or rather Tartars, called 
 kmb-<wins. It is very ftrong, and has a difagreeable 
 fmell ; and the fame may be believed of a kind of fpi- 
 rit diftUled from the fleih of fheep ; though this laft is 
 fometimes ufed by the emperors. 
 , Thefe entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary 
 repails ; tke Chinefe being naturally fober, and thofe 
 }» cafy eircumftances Uving oliiefly on pork, for which 
 
 114 
 
 Chiicfe 
 wines. 
 
 ] C H I 
 
 reafon a great number of hogs arc bred in the countr)'. 
 
 Their fleftr is much eafierf)f digeftlon, and more agree- 
 able to the tafte, than..thofe of Europe. The Chinefe 
 hams are in high eftimation. The common people 
 live very poorly ; being fatisfied, in time of fcarcity, 
 with the fieflr of dogs, horfes, cats, and rats, which 
 laft are fold publicly in the ftreets. , 
 
 There are feveral public feftivals annually celebrated Public fcf. 
 in China. One is that already mentioned, in which 
 the emperor tills the ground with his own hands. This 
 i« alfo celebrated on the fame day throughout the em- 
 pire. In the morning the governor of every city comes 
 forth froni his palace crowned with flowers, and enters 
 his chair am.idft the noife of different inftrumicnts 
 which precede it ; a great number of people attend- 
 ing, as is ufual on all fuch occaiions. The chair is 
 funounded by litters covered with filk carpets, on 
 which are reprefented either fome illuftrious perfons 
 who have fupported and encouraged agriculture, or 
 fome hiftorlcal painting on" the fame fubjeft. The 
 ftreets are hung with carpets, tritunphal arches arc 
 erefted at certain diftances, lanthorns twtvy where dif- ^ 
 played, and all the houfes illuminated. Durino- the 
 ceremony a figure refembllng a cow, made of baked 
 earth, with gilt horns, is carried in proccffion, and of 
 fuch enormous magnitude that 40 men are fcarce fuf. 
 ficient to fupport it. A child follows with one foot 
 naked and the other ftiod, who is called the fpirit of 
 labour and diligence^ and keeps continually beatino- the 
 image with a rod to make it advance. Labourers 
 with their im|)lement3 of huftaandry, march behind ' 
 and the procefiion is clofed by a number of comtdians 
 and people in mall<s. The governor advances towards 
 the eaftern gate, and returns in the fame manner. Tlie 
 cowls then ftripped of its ornaments, a prodigious 
 number of earthen calves taken from its belly and di- 
 ftributed among the people ; after which the laro-e fi. 
 gure is broken in pieces and dlftrlbuted in the lame 
 manner. The cereiirony Is ended by an oration iii 
 praife of agriculture, in which the governor endeavours 
 to excite his hearers to the praftlce of that ufeful art. 
 
 Other two feftivals are celebrated in China with ftill 
 more magnificence than that above defcribed. One c£ 
 them Is at the commencement of the year ; the other is 
 called thcfea/l of lanthorns. During the celebration of 
 the former, all bufinefs, whether private or public, is 
 fufpended, th.e tribunals are fhut, the pofts flopped, 
 prefents_ are given and received, and vifits paid. All 
 the family afl'emble in the evening, and partake of a 
 feaft to which no ftranger is admitted ; though they . 
 become a little more foclable on the following day. 
 
 The feaft of lanthorns ouglit to take place on the 
 15th day of the firft month, but ulually commences on 
 the evening of the 15th, and does not end till that of 
 the 1 6th, At that time every city and village, the 
 fhores of the fea, and the banks of all the rivers are 
 bung with lanthorns of various fhapes and fizes ; fome 
 of them being feen in the courts and windows of the 
 pooreft houfes. No expence Is fpared on this occafion • 
 and fome of the rich people will lay out eight or nlsc 
 pounds fterling on one lantliorn. Some of thefe are 
 very large, compofed of fix wooden frames either neat- 
 ly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine 
 tranfparent filk, upon which are painted flowers, ani- 
 mals, and human figures ; others are blue, and made of 
 a tranfparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a 
 4 R 2 great 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 684 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 China. 
 
 116 
 
 Magnifi- 
 cence i'{ 
 the vice- 
 ro)s. 
 
 gT€at number of wax- candles, are placed in the infide : 
 to the corners of each are fixed ttreamers of filk. and 
 fatin of diflFerent colours, with a curious piece of car- 
 ved work on the top. They are likewife accjuainted 
 with our magic lanthorn. which they fometimcs in- 
 troduce in this fcftival. Befides this, they have the 
 art of forming a fnake 60 or 80 feet in length, filled 
 with lights from one end to the other ; which they 
 caufe twift itfelf into diffeyent forms, and move about 
 as if it was a real ferpent. During the fame feftival 
 all the varieties of the Chinefe fire-works, fo juitly ad- 
 mired, and which, fome time ago at leaft, furpalTed 
 every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe, 
 are exhibited. 
 
 Everj^ public ceremony in China is carefully ren- 
 dered as ftriking as pofiible. A viceroy never quits 
 his palace but with a royal train, drefled in his robes 
 of ceremony, and carried in a chair elegantly gilt,, 
 which is borne upon the fhoulders of eight domellics ; 
 two drummers marching before the guards, and beat- 
 ing upon copper bafons to give notice of his approach. 
 Eight other attendants carry ftandards of wood var- 
 nifhed, upon which are infcribed in large characters all 
 his titles of honour. After thefe come 14 flags with 
 the fymbols of his office ; fuch as the dragon, tyger, 
 phcenix, flying tortoife, &c. Six officers follow, each 
 bearing a piece of board in fhape like a large fhovel, 
 on which are written in large golden characters the 
 qualities of the mandarin himfelf: two others car- 
 ry, the one a large umbrella of yellow filk, and the 
 other the cover in which the umbrella is kept. The 
 firft guards are preceded by two archers on horfeback ; 
 the latter are followed by others armed with a kind of 
 weapons compofed of hooked blades, fixed perpendicu- 
 larly to long poles ornamented with four tufts of filk, 
 placed at a fmall diftance above one another. Behind 
 thefe are two other files of foldiers, fome of whom 
 carry large maces with long handles ; others iron 
 maces in the fliape of a fnake ; others are armed with 
 huge hammers; wliile thofe behind them cany long 
 battle-axes in the fonn of a crefcent : others follow, who 
 have battle-axes of another kind ; and behind thefe 
 are fome with the hooked weapons already defcribed. 
 
 Behind thefe come foldiers armed with triple-pointed 
 fpears, arrows, or battle-axes ; having in front two 
 men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy's 
 feal. Then come twa other drummers to give notice 
 of his approach. Two officers follow, having on their 
 heads felt-hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and 
 each armed with a cane to recommend regularity and 
 good order to the furrounding multitude.. Two others- 
 bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. Thefe again 
 are followed by a number of magiftrates and officers of 
 juftice ; fome of whom carry whips or flat fticks, 
 while others have chains, hangers, and filk fcarfs. 
 Two ftandard-bearers and a captain command this 
 company, which immediately precedes the governor. 
 His chair is furrounded by pages and footmen, and an 
 officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of 
 a fcreen : he is followed by feveral guards differently 
 armed, together with enfigns and other officers, who 
 are alfo followed by a great number of domeftics all 
 on horfeback, carrying various neceffaries for the ufe 
 of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time, 
 inftead of flambeaux, as are cuftomary in Europe, large 
 Jsuithorns, exceedingly pretty^ are carried before himj 
 
 on the tranfparent part of which are written, in very Chins, 
 confpicuous characters, his quality, titles, and rank, y— ^ 
 as mandarin. Thefe are alfo intended to give notice 
 to the paffengers to Hop, and to thofe who are fitting 
 to rife up with refpeft ; for whoever neglects either the 
 one or the other is fure to receive a fevere balHnading. 
 
 The emperor marches v/ith ftill more magnificence, 
 in proportion to hifi fuperior quality. The trumpet.'} 
 ufed in his proceffion are about three feet long, eight 
 inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty 
 much refembling a bell in fliape : tlieir found is pecu- 
 liarly adapted to tlrat of the drums. His cavidcade ia 
 clofed by 2000 mandarins of letters and as many oi 
 arms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the. 
 emperor, travel in barks. Their attendance is thea 
 fomewhat different, but the magnificence almoft the 
 fame. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed 
 a province witli equity are exceedingly great on his> 
 departure from it. He has fcarcely left the capital of 
 the province when he finds on the highv/ay, for the 
 fpace of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certaia 
 diitances, each of which is furrounded with a long, 
 piece of filk tiiat hangs down to tlie earth. On thefe: 
 wax candles are placed even in the open day ; perfumes 
 are burnt upon them ; and they are loaded Virlth a pro- 
 fufion of victuals and various kinds of fruit, while tea 
 and win« are prepared for him on others. The peo- 
 ple throw themfelves on their knees as he paffes, and 
 bow their heads even to the earth ; fome flied tears, or 
 pretend to do fo ; feme prefent him wine and fweet- 
 meats ; others frequently pull off liis boots aad give 
 him new ones. Thefe boots, which he -has perhaps 
 ufed only for a moment, are confidered as a valuable 
 monument : thofe firft. taken oft are preferved in a 
 cage over the gate of the city ; the reft are carefully 
 kept by his friends. 
 
 Hitherto our author, M. Grofier, has fceraed in-Knavifli 
 clined to give a favourable idea of the Chinefe, and to difpofition 
 caufe us look upon them as many degrees fuperior to 
 ourfelves in the praftice of virtue and morality ; but 
 when he comes to give an account of their deahngs in- 
 trade, he is then obliged to confefs that they are as dif- 
 honeft and knavifli a race as any that exifl;. " The moll 
 frequented fairs of Europe (fays he) affijrdbut a faint 
 idea of that immenfe number of buyers and fellers with 
 Avhich the large cities of China are continually crowded. 
 We may almoft fay, that the one half are employed in . 
 over-reaching the other. Jt is, above all, againft ftran- 
 gers that the Chinefe merchants exercife, without any 
 fenfe of fliame, their infatiable rapacity. Of this, 
 F. du Halde gives a ftriking example, M'hich might be 
 fupportedby many others: * The captain of an Englifli 
 veffel bargained with a Chinefe merchant at Canton 
 for feveral bales of filk, which the latter was to provide 
 againft a certain tinie.. When they were ready, the 
 captain went with his interpreter to the houfe of the 
 Chinefe merchant to examine whether they were found, 
 and in good condition. On opening the firft bale, he 
 found it accoi-ding to his wifli, but all the reit were 
 damaged and good for nothing. The captain on this 
 fell into a great paffion, and reproached the merchant in 
 the feverett terms for his difltonefty. The Chinefe, after 
 having heard him for fome time with great coolnefs,. 
 replied, ' Blanie, Sir, your knave of an interpreter: 
 lie afTurcd me that you would not infpeft the bales.' 
 " The lower clafs of people are, above all, very dex- 
 terous 
 
C H 1 
 
 [ 6S5 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 terouoln counterfeitingandadulteratingevery thing they 
 fell. Sometimes you think you have bought a capon, 
 and you receive nothing but (kin; all the reft has been 
 fcooped out, and the place To ingenioudy filled, that 
 the deception cannot be difcovered till the moment 
 you begin to eat it. 'i'hc counterfeit hams of China 
 have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece 
 of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over 
 with a certain kind of earth which is covered with 
 hog's fkin. The whole is fo curioufly painted and 
 prepared, that a knife is neceffary to detedt the fraiid. 
 Mr Ofbeck relates, that having one day obferved a 
 l;!ind man carrying about for fale fom.e of thofe trees 
 called by the Chinefe Fo-kci, he purchafed one, which 
 to appearance had fine double red and white flowers ; 
 but on clofer examination, he found that the flowers 
 were taken from another tree, and that one calyx was 
 fo neatly fitted Into the other, with nails made of 
 bamboo, that he fhould fcarcely have difcovered the 
 deceit, had not the flowers begun to wither. The 
 tree itfelf had buds, but not one open flower. 
 
 " The robbers in China fignalize themfelves alfo by 
 their dexterity and ingenuity, which they difplay in 
 their profeffion. They feldom have recourfc to acts 
 of violence, but introduce themfelves into a houfe 
 either privately or by forming fome connection with 
 the family. It is as difHcult in China to avoid robbery 
 as it is to apprehend the criminal in the rati. If we 
 are defirous of finding among the Chinefe opennefs of 
 temper, benevolence, friendfhip, and, laltly, virtue, we 
 muft not feek for it in cities, but in the bcfom of the 
 country, among that clafs of men who have devoted 
 themfelves to labour and agriculture. A Chinefe ruftic 
 often difcovers moral qualities which would add a luftre 
 to the charafter of men of the mofl exalted rank. It 
 appears that rural life naturally infpires fentiments of 
 benevolence ; by continually receiving the gifts of na- 
 ture, the mind is enlai-ged, and men are infenfibly aecu- 
 ftomed to diffufe them to thofe around them," 
 
 The internal commerce of China is much greater 
 than that of all Europe ; but its foreign trade is by 
 no means equal to that of any of the grand European 
 powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated 
 by the vaft number of canals and rivers with which 
 the country is interfcAed. The Chinefe, however, 
 are not at all fitted for maintime commerce : Few 
 of their vefTels go beyond the flraits of Sunda ; their 
 longelt voyages to Malacca extend only as far as 
 Acheen, towards the ftraits of Batavia, and north- 
 ward to Japan. 
 
 Their commerce with the laft mentioned ifland, con- 
 fidering the articles of exchange which they pi-ocm-e at 
 Camboya or Siam, produces them cent, per cent. Their 
 trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent. 
 Their profit is more confiderable about Batavia ; and 
 the Dutch fpare no pains to invite them to traffic at 
 their fettlements. The Chinefe traders go alfo, tho' 
 not very fi-equently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patau, 
 and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china; from 
 whence they bring gold and tin, together with fome 
 objeiSts of luxury for the table. A great obftacle to 
 the foreign commerce of the Chinefe is their indiffe- 
 rence abont maritiir>e affairs, and the bad conflrudtion 
 of their vefTels. This they themfelves acknowledge ; 
 but fay, th'dt any attempt to remove it would be dero- 
 
 gating from the laws, and fubverting the conflitution China, 
 of the empire. 
 
 The burying-places in China are always fituated at ^ 
 a frnall difkance from a city or town, and generally p/^^g'^"^^, 
 upon fome eminence, having pines or cyprefTes ufually fcribed. 
 planted around them. The form of the tombs is va- 
 rious, according to the different provinces, and the 
 fituation of thofe for whom they are intended. The 
 coihns of the poor are placed imder a fhade covered 
 with thatch, or inclofed in a fmull building of brick 
 in the form of a tomb. The tombs of the rich arc 
 fliaped like a horfe-flioe, w^cU whit«ned, and finifhed 
 with great tafle ; but thofe of the mandarins and peo- 
 ple of quality are much more fumptuous and elegant. 
 A vault is firft conilru£led, in which the coffin is fhut 
 up ; over this vault is raifed a pyramid of earth well 
 beat together, about 12 feet in height and 10 in 
 diameter-. A layer of lime and fand laid over this 
 earth makes a kind of plafter, which renders the whole 
 very durable and folid ; various kinds of ti-ees being 
 planted around it in regular order. Before it is placed 
 a large and long table of white marble, on the middle 
 of which are let a cenfer accompanied with two vafes, 
 and the fame number of candlefticks of exquifite work- 
 manfhip. Befides this, a great number of figures, re- 
 prefenting officers, eunuchs, foldiers, faddled horfes, 
 camels, lions; tortoifes, &c. are ranged round the 
 tombs in dilTerent rows ; which, F. du Halde afTures 
 us, produce a very ftriking efTeft. 
 
 When a Chinefe dies in a province in which he was 
 not born, his children have a right, nay it is their in- 
 difpenfable duty, to tranfport the body to the burying 
 place of their anceftors. A fen, who fhould be wanting 
 in this refpeft, would be difgraced, and his name never * 
 placed in the hall of his anceltors. This is a vail build-, 
 ing, conlidered as common to all the branches of the 
 fame family, and to which they all repair at a certain 
 fcafon of the year. Sometimes they amount to feveu 
 or eight thoufand perfons, whofe fortune, dignity, and 
 rank in fociety, are all very different ; but there no di- 
 flinftion of rank is known ; age only gives prece- 
 dence, and the oldeft always takes place of all the reft, 
 thong-li he fliould be the' pooreft in the company. 
 Tho difhinguiiliing oniarrient of this hall is a long 
 tiible fet againft the wall, upon which is generallv feen 
 the image of one of their anceftors, who has filled- 
 fome office of diftindlion in the empire with honour- 
 to himfelf, or who has been rendered illuflrious by his 
 talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the 
 names of men, women, and children belonging to the 
 family infci-ibed upon tablets, together with their age, 
 the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed 
 at that time. Thefe tablets are ranged in two rows upon 
 fteps, and are only about a foot high each. In the 
 fpring, and fometimes in the autumn, the relations of 
 the deceafed repair to this hall, where the only privi- 
 lege enjoyed by the richeft is that of preparing an en- 
 tertainment, and treatiirg the whole family at their 
 own expences ; but they never allow themfelves to talle 
 a bit of any thing until an offering has been firft 
 made to their anceftors. This does not, however, ex- 
 cufe them from vifiting the real tomb of their an- 
 ceftors once or twice a year, generally in the month 
 of April. At this time tl>ey pluck tlie weeds and 
 buflies from around the tomb^. renew their exprelfious 
 
litnioDies. 
 
 G H r t 
 
 China, of grief* and conclude by placing upon it wine and 
 "•"""v— ' provlfions, which ferve to dine their alTdlants. 
 
 "9 ^ The funeral ceremonies are confidered by the Clii- 
 ninera ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^q. jj^^poj-tant of aay. A few moments 
 after a perfon has expired, he is dreficd out in his 
 richeil attire, and adorned with every badge of his dig- 
 nity ; after which he is placed in the coffin. The 
 preparation of a coffin, in which his body may be ia- 
 clofed after death, is one of the chief objects of at- 
 tention to a Chinefe during his life, and great ex- 
 pence, is often thrown out upon it 4 infomuch that tlie 
 poor will give all tJiey are worth, and the rich expend 
 a thoufand crowns, nay, a fon will fell himfelf for a 
 flave in order to purchafe a coffin for his father. Some- 
 times the coffin, when purchafed with all this labour, 
 and expence, will remain twenty years ufelefs in the 
 family, and is confidered as the moll valuable piece of 
 furniture in his poffiiffion. 
 
 The. manner of interment is as follows : Firft they 
 fprinkle fome lime in the bottom of the coffin ; then 
 thev lay the body in it, taking care to place the head 
 on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it 
 may remain more fleady, and be prevented from fha- 
 king. In this manner the body remains expofed feven 
 days ; but the time may be reduced to three,, if any 
 weighty reafon makes it neceffary ; and, during this 
 interval, all the relations and friends, who are purpofe- 
 ly invited, come and pay their refpects to the decea- 
 fed, the neareft relations even remaining in the houfe. 
 The coffin is expofed in the hall of ceremony, which 
 16 then hung with white, but fome pieces of black or 
 violet coloured filk are here and there interfperfed, as 
 well as fome other ornaments of mourning. Before 
 tlie coffin is placed a table, on which Hands the image 
 ef the deceafed, or a carved ornament infcribed with 
 his name ; and thefe are always accompanied with 
 flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax candles. 
 
 In the mean time thofe who enter the hall are ac- 
 cuftomed to falute the deceafed as if he were Hill in 
 life. They proflrate themfelvcs before the table, and 
 knock their foreheads feveral times againft the earth ; 
 after which they place on the table fome perfumes and 
 wax candles provided for the purpofe. The faluta- 
 tion which they have made to the deceafed is return- 
 ed by the eldett ton accompanied by his brothers. 
 The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which 
 hangs on one fide of the coffin, creeping along the 
 ground until they reach the fpot where thofe ftand 
 whom they are going to falute ; after which, without 
 rifing up, they return to the place from whence they 
 came. The women are alfo concsaled behind the 
 fame curtain, from whence they every now and then 
 fend forth difmal cries. 
 
 After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the 
 funeral proceffion at lalt commences. A troop of men 
 march in a file, carrying different figures made of 
 pafte-board, and reprefenting flaves, lions, tigers, hor- 
 fes, ice. Others follow, marching in two files ; fome 
 of which carry ftandards, fome flags or cenfers filled 
 with perfumes ; while melancholy and plaintive airs 
 are played by others on different mufical inftruments. 
 Thefe muficians immediately precede the coffin, which 
 is covered with a canopy, iii form of a dome, of violet- 
 coloured filk: its four corners are ornamented with 
 tufts of white filk very neatly embroidered, and co- 
 
 ) CHI 
 
 vered at the top with net-work. The coffin Is placed China,; 
 on the bottom of this machine, and Is carried by 64, 
 men. The eldeft fon, clothed in a frock of canvas, 
 having his body bent and leaning on ^ ftaff, follows 
 near the coffin ; and behind him his brothers and ne- 
 phews, but none of them clothed In canvas. Then 
 come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning, 
 and followed by a great number of chairs covered with 
 white ftuff, which .contain the wives and female flaves 
 of the deceafed. Thefe make great ffiow of foirow 
 by their doleful cries ; but M. Grofier obferves, that» 
 in fpite of all they can do, the lamentations of the 
 Chinefe are fo methodical, that an European would be 
 apt to conclude that they were the effeds of art ra- 
 ther than the natural effufions of a mind agitated and 
 opprcffed with grief When they arrive at the bury- 
 ing, place, the coffin is depofited In a tomb approprla- 
 ted for it, not far from which there are tables arran- 
 ged in different halls, and on which the affiftants arc 
 entertained with great fplendor. The entertainment 
 is fometimes followed by frefh marks of homage to the 
 corpfe ; but thefe are often changed into thanks to the 
 elded fon ; who, however, anfwers only by figns. But 
 if the deceafed was a grandee of the empire, a certain 
 number of his relations never leave the tomb for i 
 month or two. There they refide In apartments pur- 
 pofely provided for them, and every day renew their 
 marks of grief In company with the children of the de- 
 ceafed. The magnificence of thefe funeral ceremo- 
 nies Is proportioned to the wealth or dignity of the 
 deceafed. That of one of the brothers of the emperor 
 was attended by 16,000 people, «ach of whom had a 
 particular office affigued him relating to the ceremony, 129 
 
 Mourning continues In China for three years ; andMourai 
 during all this time they are obliged to abflain from 
 the ule of flefh and wine ; nor can they affifl at any en- 
 tertainment of ceremony, orjitend any public alTembly. 
 At firit they are not even permitted to go abroad ; 
 and when they do fo, they are carried In a chair co- 
 vered with a white cloth. Sometimes the filial piety 
 of the Chinefe Is can-led to fuch a length, that they 
 preferve the bodies of their deceafed fathers In their 
 houfes for three or four years ; and thefe who do fo 
 Impofe alfo upon themfelves a great number of other 
 duties, ufing no other feat during the day but a flool 
 covered with white ferge, and no other bed but a plain 
 mat made of reeds, which is placed near the coffin. ^21 
 
 According to M Grofier, the only divei'fions of the Divedin 
 Chinefe are thofe of hunting and fifhing, dancing not ''^ 
 being praftifed, and gaming forbidden by law. Fifh- ^" ^ 
 Ing is confidered by them rather as an objeil of com- 
 merce and induftry than anuiferaent. They catch fifh 
 by various methods ; ufing nets in their great fifher- 
 les, but lines In the private. In certain provinces alfo 
 they ufe a certain kind of bird whofe plumage greatly 
 refembles that of a raven, but with a much longer bill, 
 very fharp and hooked. This method of fifhing is 
 pradifed In boats, of which great numbers may be 
 feen on the river about fun-rifing, with the fifhing- 
 birds perched on their prows. Thefe birds are taught 
 to catch fiffi almoil in the fame manner that dogs pur- 
 fue game. The fiffiermen, after making feveral turns 
 with their boats, beat the water ftiongly with one of 
 their oars. This fervcs as a fignal to the birds, who in^ 
 flantlyplunge into the water, and diving, fwallow as many 
 3 ^ fuidli 
 
China. 
 
 12^ 
 
 { the Chi. 
 iie laa- 
 nage. 
 
 G H I [ 6 
 
 fmall fifli as they can, repairing immediately afterwards 
 to the boat, and carrying a large one by the middle in 
 their bill. The fraall ones are prevented from .paffing 
 into the ilomach by a ring placed on purpofe to con- 
 fine its gullet : and thus the fifherman by ilroaking its 
 neck with the head downwards, makes the bird dif- 
 gorge all thofe fmall fifh it haa fwallowed. When they 
 have done fifhing, the rings are taken off, and the birds 
 allowed to feed. When the filli happens to be too 
 lar.ge for a fmgle bird, the others have lagacity enough 
 to affift it ; one taking it by the tail, another by the 
 head, Sec. and thus they tranfport it to their mailer.^ 
 Another method of filliing, pradltfed only in China,, is 
 as follows : They nail a board, about two fset in breadth, 
 which is covered with a white (hining kind of varnifh, 
 upon the edges of a long narrow boat, from one end 
 to the other. This board is placed in fuch a manner 
 as to flope almoft imperceptibly to the water. It is ufed 
 only in the night-time, and is always turned towards the 
 moon, that the refleftion of light from the luminary 
 may increafe the fplendor of the varnifh. The fiih, in 
 fporting, often mittake this varnifhed board for water ; 
 and endeavouring to throw themfelves into it, fall into 
 the boat. 
 
 The foldiers have a particular method of fifliing 
 with a bow and an arrow ; the latter of which is fixed 
 to the bow by a ilring, both, to prevent it from being 
 loft, and to enable them to draw out the hrti? which 
 the arrow has. pierced : others make ufe of tridents to 
 catch large fifli which are fometimes found in the mud. 
 
 Befides thefe diverfions, the Chinefe have fome ftrol- 
 ling players, but no regular theatres ; they have like- 
 wife muficlans and fingers, but no operas, or indeed 
 any public fpeftacle worthy of notice. 
 
 The language of the Chinefe is not only very an- 
 cient, but, in M. Grofier's opinion, is.ftill fpoken as in 
 the moft early ages without any variation. His reafons 
 for this opinion are, i. We do not perceive in hifto- 
 ry, nor even in the moft fabulous traditions, a fingle 
 fad tending to occafion any doubt of the hnguage 
 fpoken by the ancient Chinefe, being different from 
 that ufed at prefent. 2. China has never changed its 
 inhabitants ; and if revolutions have occafioned any 
 mixture of new languages, it appears that the ancient 
 language has always been predominant, and that the 
 new fettlers have learned and fpoken it, as the Mar- 
 chew Tartars after their conqueft. 3. The moft in- 
 telligent and difcerning of the literati agree, that the 
 firft chapters of the Chou-Iilrig were written under the 
 reign of Yao 2300 years before Chriil ; and in thefe^ 
 feveral fpeeches of the fiift emperors are related word 
 for word ; and it is not probable that the language of 
 thefe princes was different from that of the hiftorian. 
 
 4. A compliment paid to Yao by one of his fubjefts, 
 with the anfwer of that prince, are ftill preferved, as 
 v/ell as two fongs compofcd under the fame reign. 
 
 5. The moft ancient infcriptions in China are all in 
 the language fpoken throughout the empire at this 
 day. 7. The Chinefe have borrowed nothing from 
 other nations ; and their attachment to their own cuf- 
 toms, and to antiquity, muft undoubtedly be very un- 
 favourable to any innovation. The language fpoken 
 by the vulgar, indeed, muft have undergone fome 
 changes ; but thefe may be accounted trivial, aff"e(5ling 
 only the pronunciation j which indeed appears to be 
 
 87 ] C H I 
 
 varied in fome few inftances. It is certain, however, 
 that the Chinefe players aft theatrical pieces which 
 were written 1000 years ago, and that thefe are ftill 
 underftood throughout the empire. 
 
 The language of Ciiina has no alphabet; all the 
 words which compofe it confiil of one fyllable only, 
 and are very few in number. Thefe always remain 
 the fame, and continue monofyllables even when two 
 are joined together, being united in the fame manner 
 as the French words bon and jour are united to form 
 bon-jour. Thefe monofylldbles never form but ona 
 found. When written by an European, they bcgia 
 with the letters ch, tch, f, g, or j, i, h, /, m, n, g, ngj 
 p,f, iSy ou ; the final letters being a, f, /, 0, oi, mi^ 
 
 h gn. The middle of Chinefe words confifts of 
 vowels and confohants producing only one found, and 
 pronounced always as monofyllables. The whole pri- 
 mary words of the language are in number only about 
 330, though fome diftionaries make them 4.84. The 
 fenfe of thefe words, however, is varied by the accerfts 
 and changes of the voice in pronouncing them almoll 
 ad injinitum. Two principal accents are known iti. 
 China ; the p'wgt that is even, without elevating or de- 
 prelllng the voice. This is divided into tjtng, clear, 
 and tcho, obfcure ; or rather open and mute. The ac- 
 cent tfe is fubdivided into tchang, ftiarp, kluy grave, and 
 jou re-entering. The tone is chang when one raifes the 
 voice at the end of a word, as when the negative no is 
 pronounced with great emphafis and force ; it is kiu 
 when one deprefles the voice with an air of timidity. 
 When the accent is jou, the voice is drawn back as it 
 were into the throat ; and the afpiration which takes 
 place on certain words beginning with the letters ^, , 
 />, /, ftill adds to thefe varieties. 
 
 By thefe differences in pronunciation the fignifica- 
 tion of the words is totally changed : thus the word 
 tchu pronounced by lengthening the «, and with a clear 
 tone of voice, fignifies mafter or lord : if it is pronoun- 
 ced in an uniform tone by lengthening the j;, it figni- 
 fies )&oo-.' when pronounced lightly, and with rapidity, 
 it fignifies kitchen; and when articulated with a ftrong 
 voice deprefl'id towards the end, it fignifies a pillar. 
 
 By the conjundlion and modification of thefe dif- 
 ferent monofyllables, a Chinefe can exprefs every thing 
 he has occafion for ; and it may be eafily feen what 
 variety muft refult from this art of multiplying words. 
 The Chinefe language therefore has words expreflive 
 of the fmalleft variation of circumftance, and which 
 cannot be exprcffed in the European languages with- 
 out a circumlocution. Thus, inftead of the five words, 
 calf, bull, ox, heifer, cow, every time that a cow has 
 a calf ftie acquires a new name in the language of 
 this empire ; and ftill another when ftie becomes bar- 
 ren. An ox fed for facrifice has a particular name, 
 which is changed when he goes to the altar. In like 
 manner, a whole dictionary might be compofed of the 
 words that are employed to exprefs the different parts 
 of the emperor's palace, and thofe that are in a manner 
 confecrated- to it; others being employed when the 
 palaces of princes or mandarins are fpoken of. Thus 
 the number of their characters are augmented beyond, 
 all bounds, fo that the greater part of their literati 
 fpend all their lives in ftudying them. 
 
 In the Chinefe there are four different languages, 
 I. The Kou-ouen, or claffical language. This is not 
 
 fpoken . 
 
 €hlna. 
 
Cbina. 
 
 ■C'liinefe 
 Wjiting. 
 
 124 
 
 Of their 
 poetry. 
 
 CUT ^ 
 
 fpoken St prefent, though it is generally b( lievcd to 
 have been the language of the eavly ages. It is fo la- 
 conic, and the ideas arc. fo crowded, that it is very 
 difficult to be underftood ; however, the literati, who 
 can read and underdand it, are much delighted with 
 it. 2. The Oueti-tchang is the language ufed in com- 
 pofitions where a noble and elevated ityle is requlfite. 
 It is never fpoken, but certain fentences and comph- 
 mentary exprcffions are fometimes borrowed fvom it. 
 It approaches near to the laconic brevity and majellic 
 fublimity of th.tKou-ouen, and is equally proper for every 
 kind of fubjeft, excepting only the ambiguities of 
 metaphyfics,and the formal rugged didlion ufed in treat- 
 ing of the abflraft fciences. 
 
 3. The Kouan^ha is the language of the court, of 
 people in office, and of ihe literati. It admits of fy- 
 nonymous expreffions to moderate the brevity of mo- 
 nofyllables ; of pronouns and relatives ; prepofitions, 
 adverbs, and particles; to fupply the want, of cafes, 
 moods, tenfes, and numbers, which have place in other 
 languages. 
 
 4. Hlang-tan is a kind of corrupted language, or 
 provincial diaitft, fpoken by the lower clafles in China; 
 and of which every province, city, and almofl. evtry 
 village, has its owh. Befides the fenfe of the words, 
 which is changed in a great variety of places, they are 
 fo altered by diverfity of pronunciation as to be almoft 
 unintelligible. 
 
 There are five kinds of writing mentioned by the 
 Cliinefe literati ; the mod modern of which is a me- 
 thod of tiacing out the characters with a pencil. This 
 is difficult, and requires much experience; at any rate, 
 it distiguies the chara6lers greatly, and is therefore on- 
 ly ufed in the prefcriptions of phyficians, prefaces to 
 books, and infcriptions of fancy. The tracing of 
 characters with neatnefs and accuracy, however, as we 
 have already had occafion to obferve, is greatly admi- 
 red in China. They are often preferred to the moll 
 elegant painting; and fome will give a moft exorbitant 
 price for a page of an old book, if it happens to be 
 neatly written. They pay particular attention to well- 
 formed charaders even in the mcft common books ; 
 and if any of the leaves happen to fall off, will replace 
 them with the greatell attention. To apply them to 
 any vile purpofe, tread them under foot, &c. would be 
 reckoned an unpardonable violation of decency and 
 politenefs ; nay, it often happens, that workmen, fuch 
 as mafons and joiners, dare not tear a printed leaf of 
 paper fixed to the wall. 
 
 PunAuation was not formerly ufed in China, nor are 
 points as yet employed in works of an elevated ftyle, 
 or fuch as are to be prefented to the emperor. Poe- 
 try is feldom any objeft of attention, though the tafte 
 for it feems to be pretty general in China. Their ver- 
 ification has its rules, and is no lefs difficult than that 
 of other nations. Only the moft harmonious, ener- 
 getic, and pifturefque words, are to be employed, and 
 they muft^ always be ufed in the fame fenfe in which 
 they were ufed by the ancients. Each verfe cm con- 
 tain only a certain number of words; all of vv'hich mull 
 be ranged according to the rules of quantity, and ter- 
 minate in rhyme. The number of verfes in a ftrophe 
 is not determined ; but they muft be uniform, and 
 prefent the fame diftribution of rhym.es. The fmall 
 iiumber of poetical exprtfljons contained in the Chi- 
 
 N° 78. 
 
 [ 688 1 
 
 G H I 
 
 nefe language has rendered it neceffary to extend the po- Chi 
 etical licence to a great length in this refpeft. The Chi- 
 nefe poets are allovi'ed to employ a blank verfe in evc-ry 
 four. They are acquainted with moft kinds of poeti y in 
 ufe among us. They have ftanzas, odes, elegies, id) Us, 
 eclogues, epigrams, fatires, and even boitU rimes. The 
 common people have alfo ballade and fongs peculiar to 
 themfelves. Some of the raoft difii-nguifiied of the 
 literati have even thought it of importance enough to 
 turn the moft celebrated maxims of morality, with the 
 rules of civility, into verfe. Their poetry is feldom 
 difgraced by any kind of obfcenity ; and indeed any 
 fuch thing would be fevertly punifli^d by government. 
 That fevere attention with which every thing tending 
 to corrupt the morals is watched in China, prohibits 
 not only poems of this kind, but likewife romances of 
 all forts. The police, however, permits fuch novels 
 as have an ufeful tendency, and in which nothing is 
 introduced prejudicial to found morality. Every au- 
 thor who writes againft government is puniflied with 
 death, as well as all thofe who have had any hand in 
 the printing or diftribution of his works. 
 
 The art of making pnper and printing have been Clunele 
 long known among the Chinefe. That kind of paper P"^!". 
 now in ufe was fiift manufaftured about 105 years be- 
 fore the Chritlian aera. Before that period they ufed 
 cloth, and various kinds of filk ftuff, Inftead of paper ; 
 and to this day they ftill preferve a cuftom of writing 
 the praifesof the dead upon large pieces of filk, which 
 are fufpended on one fide of the coffin, and carried in 
 funeral proceffions ; and of ornamenting their apart- 
 ments with maxims and moral fenteaces written in the 
 fame manner. In ages ftill more early, they wrote 
 with a kind of ftyle upon pieces of bamboo, or even 
 upon plates of metal. The firft paper was mvented by 
 a mandarin. He took the bark of trees^ hemp, and 
 old pieces of filk-ftufF, boiling them together until they 
 w^ere reduced to a kind of pafte, of which he formed his 
 paper ; which by degrees was brought to perfedion, 
 and the art of whitening and giving it a luftre found 
 out. A great number of different fubftances are now 
 ufed in this empire for making paper ; fuch as the 
 bamboo reed, the cotton ftirub, the bark of the plant- 
 called iou-chu, and of the mulberry tree ; hemp, the 
 ftraw of wheat and rice, parchment, the cods of the 
 filk worm, and feveral other fubftances unknown ia 
 Europe. In this manufaftui-e the baik of trees and 
 ftirubs is ufed, and the woody fubftance of the bamboo 
 and cotton tree, after it lias been macerated and redu- 
 ced to a thin pafte. Moft of the Chinefe paper, how- 
 ever, is attended with the difadvantage of being very 
 fufceptible of moifture, readily attrafts the duft, and 
 worms infenfibly get into it: to prevent which inconve- 
 niences, it is neceffary to beat the books often, and ex- 
 pofe them to the fun. That made of cotton is the 
 prettieft, and lEoft ufed of any. All of them, however, 
 are much fofter and fraoother than ours; which is abfo- 
 lutely neceflary for their method of writing with a pen- 
 cil, in order that it may run with freedom, which it 
 could not do upon ours. It is formed into ftieets of an 
 enormous fize; fo that it would be no difficult matter 
 to procure from the manufa<?;^iies of this empire fheets 
 of paper 30 or 40 feet long. _ jjg 
 
 The Chinefe ink came oiiginally from Corea; and it ink. 
 was not until the year 900, that they hit upon the me- 
 thod 
 
C H I 
 
 China. 
 
 Their me- 
 thoa of 
 .priiuinjr. 
 
 thod of making it to perfedlion. The beft is made 
 in Hoei-tcheou In the province of Klungnan ; but its 
 compolition is a fecret, which the workmen con- 
 ceal not only from fliangers, but from their ftllow- 
 citizens. When a 'Chinefe has occafion to write, 
 he places upon his table a piece of pollfhed marbl", 
 having a cavity at one of its extremities to con- 
 tain a little water. In this he dips the end of h;s 
 Ccike of ink, and rubs it upon the fmooth part of the 
 marble ; and as he preffes more or lefs ItroRgly, the li- 
 quor acquires a deeper or lighter tinge of black. 
 When he has done writing, the ftone is carefully waflv- 
 ed ; for it would be dilhonoured by allowing the leaft 
 fpot to remain. The pencils ufed in writing are com- 
 monly made of the fur of a labbit, and confequently 
 very foft. 
 
 The Chinefe method of printing is exceedingly dif- 
 ferent from ours ; and indeed it would be in a manner 
 in'.polTible to have moveable types for fuch a num- 
 ber of characters as their language requires. Tlie 
 whole work which they intend to print is therefore en- 
 graved upon Hocks of wood ; and their method of pro- 
 ceeding is as follows. 'J'hty fit ft employ an excellent 
 ■writer, who tranfcribes the whole upon very thin paper. 
 The engraver glues each of the leaves of the manufcript 
 upon a piece of plank made of any hard wood : he 
 then traces over with a graver the ftrokes of the wil- 
 ting, carves out the chara£lers in relief, and cuts down 
 the intermediate part of the wood. Thus each page 
 of a book requires a feparate plank ; and the excelTive 
 multiplication of thefe is no doubt a very great incon- 
 venience, one chamber being icarce fufHcient to pre- 
 ferve thofe employed .for a hngle book. The advan- 
 tages are, that the. work is thus free from typographi- 
 cal errors, and the author has no occafion to corre£l 
 the proofs. Thus alfo the bookfellers in Cliina have a 
 •decided advantage over thofe of Europe, as they are 
 able by this method of printing to throw off copies ac- 
 cording to their fale, v.athout running the riik of" being 
 ruined by too large an edition. In this method the 
 beauty of the work-depends entirely upon the ll<iU of 
 the writer prevloufly employed. The engravers are 
 exceedingly dexterous, aii-d imitate every ftroke fo ex- 
 adly, that it is fometimts difficult to dillinguiih a 
 primed work from one that is only written. 
 
 The method of printing in China is not by a prefs 
 Bs in Europe, as neither their wooden planks nor their 
 foft paper could fullain fo much prefTure. They firil 
 place the plank level, and then fix it in that pofition. 
 The printer is provided with two brufhes, and, with the 
 hardeft, daubs the plank with ink ; and one daubing 
 is fufficient for four or five leaves. After a leaf has been 
 adjufted upon the plank, the workman takes the fecond 
 brufh, which is fofter than the former, and of an ob- 
 long figure, and drawsit gently over the paper, preffing 
 it down a little, that it may receive the ink. The degree 
 of prefTure is to be ree;ulated by the quantity ofiiik upon 
 the plank: and in thismannei one man iS able to throw 
 off almoft 10,000 copies a-day. The ink ufed for 
 printing is different from that formerly defcribed, and 
 which is ufed in writing. The leaves, on account of 
 the thinnefs of the paper, are printed only upon one 
 fide ; on which account each leaf of a book is double, 
 fo that the fold ftands uppermoft, and the opening is 
 towards the back, where it is ftitched. Hence the Chi- 
 VoL. IV, Part 11. . 
 
 C 689 ] 
 
 G II I 
 
 nefe books are not cut on the edges, but on the back. China. 
 
 I'hey are generally bound in grey paileboard, which is 
 
 very neat ; and thofe who wifh to have them more "ele- 
 gantly done, get the pafteboard covered with fatiu, 
 flowered taftety, and fometimes with gold and filver 
 brocade. Their books are neitlier gilt nor coloured on 
 the edges like ours. ,^8 
 
 The art of manufafturing filk, according to the beft V'*'^ H"*"" 
 authorities, was communicated by the Chinefe to the^''^,®^ 
 Perfians, and from them to the Greeks. The art has^'"'^ 
 been known in this empire from the remotetl antiqui- 
 ty ; and the breeding of filk- worms and making of filk 
 was one of the employments even of the emprefies in 
 very early ages. 
 
 The moft beautiful filk in the whole empire is that 
 of Tche-kiang, which is wrought by the manufactories 
 of Nat^king. From thefe aie brought all the Huffs 
 ufed by the emperor, and fuch as he diftributes in pre- 
 fents to his nobihty. A great number of excellent 
 workmen are alfo drawn to the manufadlories of Can- 
 ton by the commerce with Europe and other parts of 
 Afia. Here are manufaftured ribbons, ftockings, and 
 buttons. A pair of filk ftockings here coft iiutle more 
 than 6s. fterling. 
 
 The quantity of filk produced in China feems to be 
 almoft inexhauftible I the internal confumption alone 
 being incredibly great, befides that which is exported 
 in the commerce with Europe and the reft of Afia. 
 In this empire all who pofl"efs a moderate fortune wear 
 filk clothes ; none but the lower clafs of people wear- 
 ing cotton ftuffs, which are commonly dyed blue. The 
 principal ftuffs manufaftured by them are plain and 
 fiowered gauzes, of which they make fumraer dreffts, 
 damailc of all colours ; ftriped and black fatins; nap- 
 ped, flowered, ftriped, chnided, and pinked tafteties ; 
 ci-apes, brocades, plufti, diffei-ent kinds of velvet, and a 
 multitude of other ftuffs unknown in Europe, 'i'hey 
 make particular ufe of two kinds ; one named touan- 
 t/e, a kind of fatin much ftronger, but which has lefs 
 luftre, than that of Europe ; the other a kind of taffe- 
 ty, of which they make drawers and linings. It is 
 woven exceedingly clofe, and is yet fo pliable that it 
 may be rumpled and rubbed between the hands with- 
 out any ci tafe ; and even when wafhed like cotton- 
 cloth, it lofes very little of its luftre. They manufac- 
 ture alfo a kind of gold brocades, but of fuch a flight 
 nature, that they cannot be worn in clothes: they are 
 fabricated by wrapping fine flips of gilt paper round 
 the threads of filk. 
 
 Porcelain is another great branch of Chinefe manu-PorSa. 
 fadure, and employs a vaft number of workmen. The 
 fiueft is made in a village called King-te-ching in the pro- - 
 vince of Klang-fi '. Manufadories have alio been erec- 
 ted in the provinces of Fo-kien and Canton, but thcir 
 pi-od uce is not efteemed ; and one which the emperor 
 caufed to be erefted at Peking, in order to be under 
 his own infpc£lion, mifcairied entirely. 
 
 The Chinefe divide their porcelain into feveral claftts, 
 according to its different degrees of finenefs and beauty. 
 The whole of the firft is referved for the ufe of the em- 
 peror, fo that none of it ever comes into the hands of 
 other perfons, unlefs it happen to be cracked or other- 
 wife damaged in fuch a manner as to be unworthy of 
 being prefented to the fovereign. Among that fent 
 to the emperor, however, there is fome porcelain of au 
 ■4 S in- 
 
China. 
 
 130 
 
 Glafs of 
 little efti- 
 
 T3t 
 Medicine. 
 
 Method of 
 difcovering 
 if a man 
 has died a 
 voluntary 
 death. 
 
 Of their 
 
 CHI [69 
 
 inferior quality, which he difpofes of in prefents. Thert 
 is fome doubt, therefore, whether any of the finell 
 Chinefe porcelain was ever feen in Europe. Some 
 value, however, is now put upon the European porce- 
 lain by the Chinefe themfelves. 
 
 The ufe of glafs is very ancient in China, though 
 it does not appear that great value was ever put upon 
 this kind of ware, the art of manufaduring it having 
 been frequently loft and revived again in this empire. 
 They greatly admire the workmanfliip of the Euro- 
 pean cryftal, but prefer their own porcelain, which 
 ftands hot liquors, and is much lefs liable to be broken. 
 The little eftimation in which this fubftance was held, 
 is even mentioned by their own writers in fpeaking of 
 Vhe falfe pearls, mirrors, and other toys which were 
 made in former ages. The remembrance of a very 
 large glafs vefTel, however, which was made in 627, is 
 fiiU prcfcrved; and of which it was faid that a mule 
 could as eafily enter it as a gnat could enter a pitcher. 
 In order to tranfport this monftrous vefTel from the 
 place where it was manufaftured to the emperor's pa- 
 lace, it was neceffary to inclofe it in a net, the four 
 corners of which were fixed to four carriages. The 
 fame indifference with regard to glafs is ftill entertain- 
 ed by the prefent emperors ; however, a glafs-houfe is 
 eftablifhed at Peking, where a number of vafes and 
 other works are made ; and thcfe are fo much the 
 more difficult in the execution, as none of them 
 are blown. This manufadlory, as well as many c- 
 thers, is confidered only as an appendage of the court, 
 defined for the purpofes of pomp and magnificence. 
 
 Moll of the Cliiiiefe medicine is abfolute quackery; 
 their (kill in anatomy is not only very limited, but 
 mixed with fuch a number of falfehoods, as render it 
 in a manner abfolutely ufelefs. Their materia medica 
 confifts moftly of herbs, of which tea is one. To this 
 they afcribe great and wonderful virtues, eipecially if 
 it has been gathered on any of the fummits of a moun- 
 tain called Mong-chan. The only thing regarding 
 ; thisfcience, which merits any attention, is the method 
 they, are faid to pofTefs of difcovering whether a man 
 has hanged or drowned him.felf, or had that violence 
 committed upon him by others. In order to difcover 
 this, the body is firft taken from the earth, and wafh- 
 ^d in vinegar. After this a large fire is kindled in a 
 pit dug on purpofe, fix feet long, three wide, and the 
 fame in depth. This fire is continually augmented, 
 until the furrounding earth becomes as hot as an 
 oven ; the remaining fire is then taken out, a large 
 quantity of wine is poured into it, and it is covered 
 with a hurdle made of ofier twigs, upon which the body 
 is ftretched out at full length. A cloth is thrown over 
 both in the form of an arch, in order that the fteam 
 of the wine may aft upon it in every diredion. At 
 the end of two hours the cloth is taken off ; and if any 
 Wows have been given, they then appear upon the 
 body in whatever llate it may be. The Chinefe like- 
 wife alTert, that if the blows given have been fo fevere 
 as to occafion death, this trial makes the marks ap- 
 pear upon the bones, though none of them fliould 
 be broken or apparently injured. The wine ufed in 
 thefe trials is only a kind of beer made from rice and 
 honey. 
 
 With regard to the mufic of the Chinefe, we- have 
 the. faave iieries rclated-as ,oi the Greeks and Egyp- 
 
 o ] CHI 
 
 tians, viz. that in former ages the muficlans could China, 
 make brute animals leap at the found of their inftru- » ' * ^ 
 ments. Our author, M. Grofier, indeed, does not 
 quote any Chinefe author who afferts that the ancient 
 mufic could nvake trees dance, or ftones arrange them- 
 felves into a city; but he quotes them, alTerting, " that 
 the muficians could call down fuperlor fplrits of e^ery 
 age from the etherial regions; raife up the manes of de- 
 parted beings ; infpire men with a love of virtue ; and 
 lead thera to the praftice of their duty." EtFedts 
 of this fupernatural kind are attributed to the fa- 
 cred mufic by the infpired writers ; as in the cafe of 
 Saul, out of whom an evil fpirit departed at the found 
 of David's harp ; and of Elifha, who was infpired with 
 the fpirit of prophecy at the found of a mufical iurtru- 
 ment. It is probable therefore, that the relations both 
 of the Greeks and Chinefe are founded upon fad,s of 
 this kind : and we cannot from taence infer, that 
 the mufic of early ages was at all fuptrior to that 
 which followed. According to thofe who have em- 
 ployed much time in thefe refearches, the ancient 
 Chinefe were acquainted with the divlfion of the 
 oftave into twelve femitones ; and that before the 
 time of Pythagoras, or even Mercury himfelf : that the 
 lyre of Pythagoras, his invencion of the diatonic te- 
 trachords, and the formation of his grand fyiltm, were 
 merely borrowed from the ancient Chinefe. In fhort, 
 it is m.aintained, that the Greeks, even Pythagoras 
 himfelf, did nothing but apply to ilrings that theory 
 which the Chinefe had before formed, and applied to 
 pipes. 
 
 At prefent the Chinefe are not acquainted with the 
 ufe of our rcufical notes ; they have not that diverfity 
 of figns which dillinguifn the dlfFertnt to?.es, and the 
 gradual elevation or dcpreflion of the voice, nor any 
 thing to point out the various modifications of found 
 to produce harmony. They have only a few charac- 
 ters to mark the principal notes ; and all the airs they*, 
 learn are repeated merely by rote. The emperor 
 Kang-hi was therefore greatly aftonifhed at the facility 
 with which an European could catch and remember 
 an air the firll time he heard it. In 1679 ^^"^ 
 Fathers Grimaldi and Pereira, to play fomc tunes on 
 the harpfichord, of which they had before made hima.^ 
 prefent. He was greatly entertained with their 
 mufic, but altogether artonifhed when he found that 
 F. Pereira could take down a Chinefe air while the 
 muficians were playing it, and then repeat the whole 
 without omitting a fingle note. Having made fe-- 
 veral trials of this kind in order to fatisfy himfelf, he 
 beftowed the higheft encomiums upon the European 
 mufic, and the means furnilhed by it to facilitate and 
 lefTen the labour of the memory. " I muil confefs 
 (fays he) that the European mufic is incomparable, . 
 and that the like of this F. Fercira is not to be found 
 in my whole kingdom." ,54 
 
 The Chinefe have always- diftiuguiflied eight differ- Mufical i-n- 
 ent founds ; and they believe that nature, in order to ftrumenta. 
 produce thefe, formed eight different kinds of fono» 
 rous bodies. The order m which they dillribute thefe- 
 founds, and the intlruments they have contrived to pro- 
 duce them, are, i. The found of flcln produced by 
 drums. 2. That of flone produced by the king. 3. The 
 found of metal by bells. 4. That of baked earth by 
 the huien. ^. Of filk by the kin and che. 6. OF 
 
 wood 
 
Ohinx. 
 
 [ 691 ] 
 
 Of the bamboo by five Inches 
 8. That of a gourd 
 
 Bells of 5m 
 nienfe fize. 
 
 CHI 
 
 wood by the yuy and tchou. 7 
 the koatiy and different flutes, 
 by the cheng. 
 
 The drums were originally compofed of a box made 
 of baked earth, and covered at the extremities with 
 the flcin of fome animal ; but on account of the brit- 
 tleuefs of baked earth, wood was foon fubftituted in 
 its ttead. Greater part of thefe inftruments are fhaped 
 like our barrels, but fome are cylindric. 
 
 Ths inftruments formed of the fonorous Hones are 
 called king, diftinguilhed into tfe-hng and pien-k'mg. 
 The tft-king confifts only ©f one ftone, and therefore 
 produces only one note. The pien-iing confilts of 16 
 ftoneS fufpended together, and thus forming an in- 
 ftrument capable of producing all the tones admitted 
 into the mulic of the ancient Chinefe. They are cut 
 into the form of a carpenter's fquare ; their tone is 
 flattened by diminifhing their thicknefs, and is made 
 (harper by abridging their length. 
 
 The bells in China have always been made of a 
 mixture of tin and copper. They are of different 
 fhapes, and thofe of the ancients were not round, but 
 flatted, and in the lower part refembling a crefcent. 
 An inftrument, correfponding to the ling already 
 mentioned, is compofed of 16 bells of different fizes. 
 Some of their bells ufed on public occafions are of 
 enormous magnitudes. One at Peking is defcribed as 
 134- feet in diameter, 124- In height, and 4.2 In cir- 
 cumference ; the weight being upwards of 1 20,000 
 pounds. It is ufed for announcing the hours or watches 
 of the night ; and its found, which is prodigioufly 
 loud and llrong, has a moft awful effeft In the night- 
 time, by reverberating round the walls and the echo 
 of the furrounding country. There are feveral others 
 llkewife of vaft fize in the fame city ; one of which 
 dcferves greatly to be admired on account of the beau- 
 tiful charafters with which it is covered ; and which 
 are as neat and perfect as if traced out by the hand of 
 the fincfl writer, or formed by means of a ftamp 
 upon wax. F. Ic Comte tells us, that in all the cities 
 of China there are bells for marking the hours and 
 watches of the night. They generally divide the 
 night into five watches, beginning at feven or eight in 
 the evening. On the commencement of the firft they 
 give one ftroke, which is repeated a moment after; and 
 thus they continue for two hours till the beginning 
 of the fecond : they then give two ftrokes, which 
 are repeated at equal intervals till the beginning of the 
 third watch ; and thus they proceed to the fourth and 
 fifth, always increafing the number of the ftrokes. 
 For the fame purpofe alfo they ufe enormous drums, 
 which they beat in a fimllar manner. F. Magaillans 
 mentions one at Peking upwards of 40 feet in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 The inftrument called huten, which is made of baked 
 earth, is highly efteemed by the Chinefe on account 
 of its anciquity. It is diftinguiftied Into two kinds, 
 the great and fmall ; the former being of the fixe of 
 a goo'e's egg ; the latter''of that of a hen's. It has 
 fix holes for the notes, and a feventh for the mouth. 
 
 The lift and tche have been known from the re- 
 moteft antiquity. The kin has feven firings made of 
 filk, and is diftinguiflied into three kinds, differing 
 only iu fize. The body is formed of a kind of wood 
 vainifiied black, and its whole length .about five feet 
 
 136 
 
 liinefc 
 
 C H I 
 
 The c/je is about nine feet in length, has 
 25 ftrings, and is divided into 25 kinds. F. Amlot 
 afiures us, that we have no inftrument In Europe which 
 deferves to be preferred to it. 
 
 The inftruments which emit the found of wood are 
 the tc/jou, the yu, and the tchoung-tou^ The firft is 
 fliaped like a bulhel, and is beat on the infide with a 
 hammer; the fecond, which reprefents a tyger fquat- 
 tlng, is made to found by fcraping its back gently 
 with a rod ; the third is a colledlion of twelve pieces 
 of boards tied together, which are ufed for beating 
 time, by holding them in the right hand, and knock- 
 ing them gently againft the palm of the left. 
 
 Many inftruments are con ftru died of the bamboo. 
 Thefe confift of pipes joined together, or feparate, and 
 pierced with more or fewer holes. The principal of 
 all thefe wind inftruments is the cZi^wg-, which emits the 
 found of a gourd. This is formed by cutting off the 
 neck of a gourd, and referving only the lower part. 
 To this a cover is fitted, having as many holes as are 
 equal to the number of founds required. In each of 
 thefe holes a pipe made of bamboo is fixed, and fliorter 
 or longer according to the tone intended. The mouth 
 of the inftrument is formed of another pipe ftiaped 
 like the neck of a goofe ; which is fixed to the gourd on 
 one fide, and ferves to convey the air to all the pipes 
 it contains. The ancient cheng varied in the number 
 of their pipes ; thofe ufed at prefent have only 13. 
 
 The painting of the Chinefe is undoubtedly inferior ch 
 to that of the Europeans, though we ar e not by any means painting. 
 to judge of the ablHties of the painters of this empire 
 by the performances which are brought to Europe, 
 M. Grofier remarks, that the works of the eminent 
 Chinefe painters are never brought to Canton, becaufe 
 they cannot find purchafers among the European mer-. 
 chants. The latter delight only in obfcene pictures, 
 which are not permitted by government, nor indeed 
 will any artift of charadler execute them, thougli they 
 prevail upon fome of the inferior daubers to gratify 
 them in this relpeift. It feems, however, to be univer- 
 fally agreed, that the Chinefe have no notion of cor- 
 rcctnefs or perfpedlve, and little knowledge of the 
 proportions of the human body, though it cannot be 
 denied that they excel in painting flowers and animals. 
 In thtfe they pride themfclves in a fcrupuloufly exa<ft 
 imitation of nature, infomuch that it is no uncommon 
 thing to hear a painter aflc his pupil how many 
 fcales there are between the head and tail of a 
 carp. 
 
 Painting was formerly much efteemed in China, but 
 has now fallen into difrepute 00 account of its politi- 
 cal inutility. The cabinets and galleries of the em- 
 peror, however, are filled with European paint! ngs^ 
 and the celebrated artlfts Caftiglioni and Attiret were 
 both employed ; but their offer of eredling a fcheol of 
 painting was rejefted, left they ftiould by this means re- 
 vive the taftc for that art which it had been formerly 
 thought prudent to fupprefs. 
 
 Painting in frefco was known in China long before 
 the Chriftian asra ; and, like the Grecians, the Chinefe 
 boaft much of their celebrated painters of antiquity. 
 Thus we are told of a door painted by Fan-hien, which 
 was fo perfeft an imitation, that the people who entered 
 the temple where it was attempted to go out by it, 
 unlefs prevented by thofe who had feen it before. 
 
 4 S 2 The 
 
C H 1 
 
 China. 
 
 [ 69 
 
 T37 
 
 Engraving. 
 
 Sculpture. 
 
 I. ■59 
 Architet- 
 ture. 
 
 The prefent ecnperor has in his park an European vil- 
 lage painted in frei'co, which produces the moft agree- 
 able deception. The rtmaining part of the wall re- 
 prefents a landfcape and little hills, which are fo hap- 
 pily blcHded wiili the diilant mountains, that nothing 
 can be conceived more agreeable. This was the pro- 
 duftion of Cliinefe painters, and execute3 from defigns 
 fketched cut for them. 
 
 Engraving in three, four, or five colours, is very 
 ancient among the Chinefe, and was known in this em- 
 pire long before its difcovery in Europe. 
 
 Sculpture is very little known in this empire ; nor is 
 there a lingle ftatue in any of the fquares or public 
 edifices of Peking, not even in the emperor's palace. 
 The only real ftatuts to be met with in the empire are 
 thofe which, for the fake of ceremonious djllinftion, 
 are ufed to ornament the avenues leading to the tombs 
 ol princes and men of great rank ; or ihofe that 
 arc placed near the emperor's c')ffui, and that of 
 his fons and daughters in the interior part of the vault, 
 where their remains are depofited. 
 
 The Chinefe architeftnre is entirely different from 
 that of the Greeks or Romans ; but neverthelefs has 
 certain proportions of its own, and a beauty peculiar 
 to itfelf. The habitations of the emperor ate real pa- 
 laces, and announce in a ftriking manner the majelly 
 and graudeiu' of the matter who inhabits them. All 
 the mifiionaries who had accefs to the infide of the 
 emperoi's palace at Peking, agreed, that if each of its 
 parts, taken feparately, does not afFord fo much delight 
 to the eye as fome pieces of the grand architeilure of 
 Europe, the whole prefcnts a fight fuperior to any 
 thing they had ever feen before. In the Chinefe ar- 
 chitftture, when a pillar is two feet diameter at the 
 bafe, its height m.uil be 14 feet ; and by meafures 
 of this kind the height of every building is deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Almoft. all the houfes and buildings in China are 
 confi;rn£led of wood. One leafon of tl.is may be the 
 rlread of earthquakes ; but, befides this, fuch buildings 
 are rendered eligible by the heat and dampnefs of the 
 fouthcrn provinces, and the cxccflive cold in the nor- 
 thern, which would render ftone houfes almoft unin- 
 habitable. Even at Peking, where the rains are but 
 of fhort duration, it is found neceflary to cover the 
 fmall marble ftair-cafes belonging to the imperial pa- 
 lace vi'ith pieces of felt : the humidity of the air 
 rooillens and foaks into every thing. During winter 
 the cold is fo exceedingly fevere, that no window can 
 be opened to the north ; and water continues conftantly 
 frozen to the depth of a foot and a half for more than 
 three months. For the fame reafons a variety of 
 llories are not ufed in the Chinefe buildings; as nei- 
 their a fecond nor third ftory would be habitable du- 
 ring the great heats of fummer or the rigorous cold of 
 winter. Though Peking is fituated in the northern 
 part of the empire, the heat there, during the dog- 
 days, is fo intolerably fcorching, that the police obliges 
 tradefnaen and fhopkeepers to flcep in the ojjen air in 
 the piazzas of their houfes, left they (hould be ftifled 
 by retiring into their inner apartments. The habita- 
 tions of people of rank, or of thofe in eafy circum- 
 llances, generally confift of five large courts, inclofed 
 with buildings on every fide. The method of building 
 with feveral ftories v/as, however, followed for feveral 
 
 2 1 CHI 
 
 centuries, when the court refided in the fouthern pro- CTtlnSi 
 vinces; and the tafte for this kind of building was car- 
 ried to fuch an height, that immenfe edifices were 
 erefled from 1 50 to 200 feet in height, and the pii- 
 viUons or towers at the extremities rofe upwards of 
 3^00 feet. This kind of building, however, at 
 length became difgufting ; though, either to pre- 
 ferve the remembrance of it, or for the fake of va- 
 riety, there are ftill fome buildings to be feen feve- 
 ral ftories high in the palaces belonging to the em- 
 peror. T49- 
 A multiplicity of bridges are rendered neceflary in Brdges* 
 China by the vaft number of canals and rivers which 
 interfeft the empire. Anciently, however, the Chinefe 
 bridges were much more ingenious as wtll as magnifi- 
 cent than they are at prefent. Some of them were fo 
 contrived that they could be erefted in one day to 
 fupply the place of others which might happen to be 
 broken down, or for other purpofes. At that time 
 they had bridges which derived their name from their 
 figure ; as refembling the rairihoiu ; dra-zv-brhlges, bridges 
 to move lu'u'h puUies, compafs -bridge. Sec. with many 
 others entirely unknown at prefent. The building of 
 bridges indeed was once a luxurious folly of the em- 
 perors; fo that they were multiplied from whim or ca- 
 price, without any neceflity, and without ufe. Still, 
 however, many of them are extremely beautiful and 
 magnificent. The arches of fome are very lofty and 
 acute, with eafy ftairs on each fide, the fteps of which 
 are not quite three inches in thicknels, for the greater 
 facility of afccnding and defcending : others have no 
 arches, but are compofed of large ftones, foraetimes 
 i8 feet in length, placed tranfverfely upon piles like 
 planks. Some of thele bridges ate conllru61;ed of 
 llone, marble, or brick ; others of wood ; and fome 
 are formed of a certain number of barks joined toge- 
 ther by very ftrong iron chains. Thefe are known 
 by the name of floating bridges, and feveral of 
 them are to be feen on the large rivjrs Kiang and 
 Hoang-ho. 
 
 For feveral centuries the Chinefe have made no pro- SI i^ buHi 
 grcfs in fliip-building. Their vcflels have neither mi- ^"5- 
 zen, bowfprit, nor top maft. They have only a main and 
 fore maft, to which is fometimes added a fmall top-gal- 
 lant-maft. The main-maft is placed almoft in the fame 
 part of the deck as ours ; but the fore-maft ftands 
 much farther forward. The latter is to the former in 
 the proportion of two to three ; and the main-maft; is 
 generally two-thirds of the length of the vefiel. They 
 ufe mats for fails, ftrengthening them with whole 
 bamboos equal in length to the breadth of the fail, and 
 extended a^rcfs it at the diftance of a foot from one 
 another. Two pieces of wood are fixed to the top and 
 bottom of the fail ; the upper ferves as a fail yard ; and 
 the lower, which is about five or fix inches in thick- 
 nefs, keeps the fail ftretched when it is^ necefTary to 
 hoift or lower it. This kind of fail may be folded or 
 unfolded like a fcreen. For caulking their velTels they 
 do not ufe pitch, but a particular kind of gum mixed 
 with lime, which forms a compofition of fuch excel- 
 lent quality, that one or two wells in the hold are fuf- 
 ficient to keep the velTcl dry. They have not yet 
 adopted the ufe of pumps,^ and therefore draw up the 
 water with buckets. Their anchors are made of the 
 hard wood called iron-wood, which they fay is much 
 
 fuperiot* 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 693 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 fuparior to the metal, becaufe the latter fometimes 
 bend, but the former never do. 
 
 The Chinefe pretend to have been thefirft inventors 
 of the mariner's compafs, bat feem to have httle in- 
 clination to improve fuch an important machine : how- 
 ever, they are well acquainted with the art of ma- 
 noeuvring a veflel, and make excellent coalling pilots, 
 though th^y are bad failors in an open fea. 
 
 CHiNA-Root, in the materia medica, the root of a 
 fpecles of Smilax, brought both from the Eaft and 
 Weft Indies; and thence diftlnguidied into oriental 
 and occidental. Both forts are longifli, full of joints, 
 of a pale-rtddilh colour, with no fmrll, and very little 
 rafte. The oriental, wliich is the moft tfteemed, is 
 confiderably harder and paler-coloured than the other. 
 Such (hould be chofen as is frefli, clofe, heavy, and 
 upon being chewed appears full^of a fat unftaous 
 'fuice. It is generally fuppofed to promote infcnfible 
 peripiration and the urinary difcharge, and by its 
 unfluous tjuality to obtund acrimonious juices. China- 
 rot^t was hrft brou^;ht into Europe in the year 1535, 
 and ufed as a fpecific againft venereal and cutaneous 
 dil'ovdevs. With this view it was made ufe of for 
 lome time ; but has long fince given place to more 
 powerful iredicines. 
 
 CniNA-lVare. See Porcelain. 
 
 CHINCA, a fea port town of Peru in South Ame- 
 rica, fituHted in an extenfive valley of the. fame name, 
 in W. Long. 76. o. S. Lat. 1,3. o. 
 
 CHINCOUGH,aconvulfive kind of cough to which 
 children are generally fubjeft. See Mv-mcw^e.- Index. 
 
 CHINESE, in general denotes any thing belonging 
 to China, or its inhabitants. 
 
 Chinese Swanpan. See Swanpan. 
 
 CHINKAPIN. See Fagus. 
 
 CHINNOR, a mufical inftrument among the He- 
 Ixrews, confifting of 32 chords. Kircher has given a 
 figure of it, which is cop ied on Plaie CXXXV. 
 
 CHIN' )N, an ancient town of Tourain in France, 
 remarkaWe for the death of Henry 11. king of Eng- 
 iand, and for the birth of the famous Rabelaib. It is 
 feated on the river Vienne, in a fertile and pleafant 
 country, in E. Long. o. 18. N. Lat. 47. 2. 
 
 CHIO, or Chios, an Aftatic ifland lying near the 
 eoaft of Natolia, oppofite to the peninfula of Ionia. 
 It was known to the ancients by the name of ^thalia, 
 Macris, Pithynfa, &c. as well as that of Chios. Ac- 
 cording to Herodotus, the ifland of Chios was peopled 
 originally from Ionia. It was at firft governed by 
 kings ; but afierwarda the government affumed a re- 
 publican form, which by the diredion of Ifocrates 
 was modelled after that of Athens. They were, 
 however, foon euflaved by tyrants^ and afterwards 
 conquered by Cyrus king of Pcrfia. They joined the 
 other Grecians in the Ionian revolt ; but were fliame- 
 fully abandoned by the Samians, Leibians, and others 
 of their allies ; fo that they were again reduced under 
 the yoke of the Perfians, who treated them with the 
 utmoft feverity. They continued fubje£l to them till 
 the battle of Mycale, when they were reftored to 
 their ancient liberty : this they enjoyed till the 
 downfal of the Perfian empire, when they became 
 lubjeA to the Macedonian princes. In the time of 
 the emperor Vefpafian the ifland was reduced to the 
 
 form of a Roman province ; but the inhabitants were 
 allowed to live according to their own law? under the 
 fuperintendance of a prjgtor. It is nov/ fubjeft to the 
 Turks, and vi called Sc'io. See that article * 
 CHIOCOCCA, in botany : A genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; 
 aiid in the natural method ranking under the 48th 
 order, AggregaU. The corolla is funnel- fhaped and 
 equal ; the berry unilocular, difpermous, inferior. 
 
 CHI0^4ANTHUS, the Snow-drop or Fringi; 
 TREE : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging 
 to the diandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural 
 method ranking under the 44th order, Sepiarla. The 
 corolla is quadriiid, with the fegments very long ; 
 the fruit is a plum. There id but one fpecies parti- 
 cularly defcribed by botanilb, viz. the Virglnica. It is- 
 comraon in Virginia and South Carolina, where it 
 grows by the fides of rivulets. It rifes to the height 
 of ten feet ; the lea'^es are as large as thofe of the 
 laurel, but much thinner. The flowers come out in 
 May, and are of a pure white ; from whence it has 
 the name of the fnoiu-drop tree. They hang down in 
 large branches, and are cut into narrow fegments ; 
 from which it has got its other name of the frlng.'-trse. 
 After the flowers are fallen off,, the fruit appears, which 
 grows to the fize of a floe, having a Itone in the mid- 
 dle. The plants are propagated from feeds fown on a 
 hot-bed, and kept in a ftove. Some have been i-aifed 
 from layers; but this method is very precarious, and 
 thtrefore the other is to be preferred. The feeds mult 
 be procured from Ameiica, for they never come to 
 perfection in this country. 
 
 CHIONE, in fabulous hiftory, was daughter of 
 D;edalion, of whom Apollo and Mercury became 
 enamoured. To enjoy her company. Mercury lulled- 
 her to fleep with his caduceus ; and Apollo, in the 
 night, under the form of an old woman, obtained the 
 fame favours as Mercury. From this embrace Chione 
 became mother of Pliilammon and Autolycus ; the for- 
 mer of whom, as being fon of Apollo, became an ex- 
 cellent mufician ; and the latter was equally notorious 
 for his robberies, of which his father Mercury was the 
 patron. Chione grew fo proud of her commerce with 
 the gods, that flie even preferred her beauty to that 
 of Juno ; for which impiety flie was killed by ths 
 
 goddefs and changed into a hawk. Another of 
 
 the fame name was daughter of Boreas and O.i- 
 thyia, who had Eumolpus by Neptune. She threw 
 her fon into the fea ; but he was preferved by his fu' 
 ther. 
 
 CHIOS. See Chio and Scio. 
 
 CHIOURLIC, an ancient tovn of Tuiky in Eu- 
 rope, and in Romania, with a fee of a Gi-eek bifhop. 
 It is feated on a river of the fame name, in E, Long, 
 7. 47. N. Lat. 41. 18. 
 
 CHIOZZO, an ancient and handfome town of Italy, 
 In the territory of Venice, and in a fmall ifland, near 
 the Lagunes, with a podeila, a bifliop's f.*e, and a 
 harbour defended by a fort. E. Long. 12. 23. N. 
 Lat. 45. 17. 
 
 CHIPPENHAM, a town of Wiltfliii-e, feated on the 
 river Avon. It is a good tlioroughfare town ; has a 
 handfome ftone-bridge over the river, confifting of 
 16 arches J. and fends two members to parliament. 
 
 There 
 
 Chi'ococea 
 .!i 
 
 Ch ppen- 
 ham. 
 
CHI [ 694 1 
 
 ■Cluppjflg. There Is here a manufafture of the beft fuperfine wool- ftance 
 » ' len cloth in England. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 51. 
 25. 
 
 CHIPPING, a phrafe ufed by the potters and 
 ■china-men to exprefs that common accident both of 
 our own ftone and earthen ware, and the porcelain of 
 China, the flying off of fmall pieces, or breaking at 
 the edges. Oar earthen wares are particularly fubje6l 
 to this, and are always fpoiled by it before any other 
 flaw appears in them. Our flone-wares efcape it bet- 
 ter than thefe ; but not fo well as the porcelain of Chi- 
 na, which is lefs fubjeA to it than any other manu- 
 fafture in the world. The method by which the 
 Chinefe defend their ware from this accident, is this : 
 They carefully burn fome fmall bamboo canes to a fort 
 of charcoal, which is very light, and very black ; this 
 -they reduce to a fine powder, and then mix it into a 
 thin pafte, with fome of the varnifh which they ufe 
 for their ware ; they next take the veffcls when dried, 
 and not yet baked, to the wheel ; and turning them 
 foftly round, they, with a pencil dipt in this pafte, 
 cover the whole circumference with a thin coat of it ; 
 after this, the veffel is again dried ; and the border 
 made with this pafte appears of a pale greyifli colour 
 when it is thoroughly dry. They work on it after- 
 wards in the common way, covering both this edge 
 and the reft: of the veffel with the common varnifh. 
 When the whole is baked on, the colour given by the 
 
 C H I 
 
 for if this ia done, they always 
 
 afhes difappears, and the edges are as white as any 
 ► other part; only when the baking has not been fuffi- 
 cient, or the edges have not been covered with the fe- 
 cond varnifhing, we lometimes find a duilcy edge, as 
 in fome of the ordinary thick tea- cups. It may be 
 .a great advantage to our Englifh manufactures to at- 
 tempt fomething of this kind. The willow isiknown 
 to make a very Hght and black charcoal ; but the el- 
 der, though a thing feldom ufed, greatly exceeds it. 
 The young green ftioots of this ftirub, which are al- 
 moft all pith, make the llghtcft and the blackeft of all 
 charcoal ; this readily mixes with any liquid, and might 
 be eafily ufed in the fame way that the Chinefe ufe 
 the charcoal of . the bamboo cane, which is a light 
 hollow vegetable, more refembling the elder fhoots 
 than any other Englifii plant. It is no wonder that 
 the fixed fait and oil contained in this charcoal fhould 
 be able to penetrate the yet raw edges of the ware, 
 and to give them in the fubfcquent baking a fomewhat 
 different degree of vitrification from the other parts 
 of the veffel ; which, though, if given to the whole, 
 it might take off from the true femivitrified ftate of 
 ithat ware, yet at the edges is not to be regarded, and 
 iOnly fer.ves to defend them from common accidents, 
 and keep the'm entue. The Chinefe ufe two cautions 
 in this application ; the firft in the preparation ; the 
 fecond in the laying it on. They prepare the bam- 
 boo canes for burning into charcoal, by peehng off the 
 rind. This might eafily be done with our elder ftioots, 
 which are fo fucculent, that the bark ftrips off with a 
 touch. The Chinefe fay, that if this is not done with 
 their bamboo, the edges touched with the pafte will 
 burft in the baking : this does not feem indeed very 
 probable ; but the charcoal will certainly be lighter 
 made from the peeled fticks, and this is a known ad- 
 vantage. The other caution is, never to touch the 
 veflel with hands that have any greafy or fatty fub- 
 
 about them 
 find the veffel crack ia that place. 
 
 CHIROGRAPH, was anciently a deed which, re- 
 quiring a counterpart, was engroffcd twice on the 
 lame piece of parchment, Cfjunterwife ; leaving a fpace 
 between, wherein was written Chirograph j through 
 the middle whereof the parchment was cut, forae- 
 times ftraight, rometin:5e3 indentedly ; and a moiety 
 given to each of the parties. This was afterwards 
 caWtd (/hicknda, and charta divifa ; and was the fame 
 with what we now call charter-party. See Charter- 
 Pariy. The firft nfe of thefe chirographs, with us, 
 was ui the time of Henry III. 
 
 Chirograph was alfo anciently uftd for a fine: 
 and the manner of engroffmg the fines, and cutting 
 the parchment in two pieces, is ftill retained in the 
 office called the chirtgrapher' s office. 
 
 CHIROGRAPHER of Fines, an officer in the 
 common pleas, who engroffes fines acknowledged in 
 that court into a perpetual record (after they have 
 been examined, and paffed by other officers), and 
 writes and delivers the indentures thereof to the par- 
 ty. He makes two indentures ; one for the buyer,, 
 the other for the feller ; and a third indented piece^ 
 containing the effeA of the fine, and called the foot of 
 the fine ; and delivers it to the cnfios brevium. — The 
 fame officer alfo, or his deputy, proclaims all fines in 
 -court every term, and indorfts the proclamations on 
 
 rit of 
 
 ChlrograiiiU 
 
 II 
 
 Chiron. 
 
 the backfide of the foot ; keeping, withal, th 
 covenant, and the note of the fine. 
 
 CHIROMANCY, a fpecies of divination drawn 
 from the lines and lineaments of a perfon's hand ; by 
 which means, it is pretended, the difpofitions may be. 
 difcovtred. See Divination, 11° 9. 
 
 CHIRON, a famous perfonage of antiquity; ftyled 
 by Plutarch, in his dialogue on muiic, '* The wfe Cen- 
 taur." Sir Ifaac Newton places his birth in the firft; 
 age after Deucalion's deluge, commonly called the 
 Golden Age ; and adds, that he formed the conftella- 
 tions for the ufe of the Argonauts, when he was 88 
 years old ; for he was a pradlical aftronomer, as well 
 as his daughter Hippo : he may, therefore, be faid to 
 have flouriflied in the earlieft ages of Greece, as he, 
 preceded the conqueil of the Golden Fleece, and the 
 Trojan war. He is generally called the fon of Saturn 
 and Phillyra ; and is faid to have been born in Thef» 
 faly among the Centaurs, who were the firft Greeks 
 that had acquired the art of breaking and riding hor- 
 fes : whence the poets, painters, and fculptors, have 
 reprefented them as a compound of man and horfe ; 
 and perhaps it was at firft imagined by the Greeks, as 
 well as the Americans, when they firft fa w cavalry, 
 that the horfe and the rider conftituted the fame ani- 
 mal. 
 
 Chiron was reprefented by the ancients as one of 
 the firft inventors »f medicine, botany, and chirur- 
 gery ; a word which fome etymologlfts have derived 
 from his name. He inhabited a grotto or cave in the 
 foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his wifdom and 
 great knowledge of all kinds, became the moft famous 
 and fiequented fchool throughout Greece. Almoft 
 all the heroes of his tiaie were fond of receiving hia 
 inftru£Hon.s ; and Xenophon, who enumerates them, 
 names the following illuftrious perfonages among hi* 
 difciples; Cephalus,.£lcalapius, Mebnion, Neftor, Am- 
 
 phiaraus. 
 
 Bt/rnry't 
 
 Hi/!. •/ 
 Mufc. 
 
C H I 
 
 [ 
 
 Chiron, phlaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Thefeus, Hip- 
 JChironia. poJitus, Palamedes, Uly fies, Mneftheus, Diomedes, Ca- 
 Itor and Pollux, Machaon and'Podaliriu"^, Antilochus, 
 ^neas, and Achilles. From this catalogue ic appears, 
 that Chiron frequently inftrufted both fathers and 
 fons ; and Xenophon has given a fhort euloginm on 
 each, which may be read in his works, and which re- 
 dounds to the honour of the preceptor. The Greek 
 hiftorian, however, has omitted naming feveral of his 
 fcho-lars, fuch as Bacchus, Phojnix, Cocytus, Aryftaeus, 
 Jafon, and his foil Medeus, Ajax, and Protefilaus. 
 Of thefe we fhall only take notice of fu«h as intereft 
 Chiron more particularly. It is pretended that the 
 Grecian Bacchus was the favourite fcholar of the Cen- 
 taur ; and that he learned of this mafter the revels, 
 orgies, bacchanalia, and other ceremonies of his wor- 
 fhip. According to Plutarch, ic was likewife at the 
 fchool of Chiron that Hercules ftudied mufic, medi- 
 cine, and juftice ; though Diodorus Siciilus tells us, that 
 Linus was the mufic-mafter of this hero. But among 
 all the heroes who have been difciples of this Centaur, 
 no one reflefted fo much honour upon him as Achilles, 
 ■whofc renown he in fome meafure Hiared ; and to 
 whofe education he in a particular manner attended, 
 being his grandfather by the mother*^s fide. Apollo- 
 doTUS tells us, that the ftudy of mufic employed a con- 
 fiderable part of the time which he bellowed upon his 
 young pupil, as an incitement to virtuous aftions, and 
 a bridle to the impetuofity of bis temper. 0he of 
 the beft remains of antique painting now exifting, is 
 a picture upon this lubjeft, dug out of the r-uins of 
 Herculaneum, in which Chiron is teaching the young 
 Achilles to play on the lyre. The death of this phi- 
 lofophic mufician was occafioned, at an extreme old 
 age, by an accidental woimd in the knee with a poi- 
 foned arrow, fhot by his fchekr Hercules at another. 
 Me was placed after his death by Mufaeus among the 
 conftellations, through refped for his virtues, and in 
 gratitude for the great fervices which he had render- 
 ed the people of Greece. Sir Ifaac Newton fays*, 
 in proof of the conftellations being formed by Chiron 
 and Mu'aeus for the. ufe and honour of the Argonauts, 
 that. nothing later than the expedition was delineated 
 on the fphere according to the fame author, Chiron 
 lived till after the Argonautic expedition, in which he 
 had two grandfons. The ancients have not failed to 
 attribute to him feveral writings ; among which, ac- 
 cording to Suidarf, are precepts, v7ro6nx«,', in verfe, 
 compoffd for. the ufe of Achilles ; and a medicinal 
 treatife on the difeafes incident to horfes and other qua- 
 drupeds,. »^'riaTp/;i.ov; the lexicographer even pretends, 
 that it is from this work the Centaur derived his name. 
 Fabricius gives a lift of the works attributed to Chi- 
 ron, and difcufles the claims which have been made 
 for others to the fame writings ; and in vol. xiii. he 
 gives him a diftinguilhed place in his catalogue of an- 
 cient phyficians. 
 
 CHIRONIA, in bo tany : A genus of the monogy- 
 nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the 20th. 
 order, Rotacea. The corolla is wheel-ftiaped ; the 
 piftil declining downwards ; the ftamina placed in 
 the tube of the corolla ; the anthers in their laft 
 ftage fpiral j the feed-cafe bilocular. There are eight 
 
 Chiflel. 
 
 695 ] C H I 
 
 fpecies, of which the frutefcens is the moft remarkable. Chlronomy 
 It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The root 
 is fibrous, and fpreads near the furf?ce of the ground. 1 
 The ftalks are round, and inclining to be ligneous, 
 but are of a very foft texture ; thefe rife from two to 
 three feet high, fending out feveral branches which 
 grow ereft, and are garnifhed with fucculent leaves an 
 inch or more in length, and about an eiglith of an inch' 
 in breadth. At the end of each flioot the flowers are 
 produced, which are tubulous, and fpread open at the 
 top ; they are of a bright red colour ; and when there 
 are a large number of flowers open on the fame plant, 
 they make a fine appearance. The flowers arc produced 
 from June to autumn ; and the feeds ripeh in Oftober. 
 The plants are propagated by feeds, which muft be 
 fown in pots filled with light fandy earth, and plimged 
 in a moderate hot^bed. In fummer they may be in- 
 ured to the open air ; but muft always be ftieltered in 
 winter. 
 
 CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of reprefent- 
 ing any paft traniaftion by the geftures of the body, 
 more efpecially by the motions of the hands: this made 
 a part of liberal education ; it had the approbation of 
 Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the poli- 
 tical virtues.. 
 
 CHIROTONY, among ecdefiaftical writers, de- 
 notes the impofition of hands ufed in conferring prieft- 
 ly orders. However, it is proper to remark, that 
 chirotony originally was a method of eledling mugi- 
 ftrates, by holding up the hand's. 
 
 CHIRURGEON, or Surgeon. See Surgeon. 
 CHIRURGEllY. S ee Surgery. 
 CHISLEY-LAND, in agriculture, a foil of a middle- 
 nature between fandy and clayey land, with a large 
 admixture of pebbles. 
 
 CHISON, KisON, or KissoN, (Judges iv. and v.), 
 a river of GaHlce ; faid to rife in mount Tabor, to run 
 
 •' Chroncl. 
 p, IJI. 
 
 by the town of Nairn, and to fall into the Mcditerra- 
 nean between mount' Carmel and Ptolemais, i Kings 
 xviii. 40. 
 
 CHISSEL, or Chisel, an inftrument much ufed in . 
 fculpture, mafonry, joinery, carpentry, &c. 
 
 There are chiffels of ditf"erent kinds ; . though their 
 chief difference lies in their difl^erent fize and ftrength, 
 as being all made of fteel well fliarpened and tempered : 
 but they have different names, according to the differ- 
 ent ufes to which they are applied; — The chiffels ufed 
 in carpentry and joinery are, i.The former; which 
 is ufed firft of all before the paring-chifiel, andjuft 
 after the work is feribed. 2. The paring-chiffel ; 
 which has a fine fmooth edge, and is ufed to pare off 
 or fmooth the irregularities which the former makes. 
 This is not ftruck with a mallet as the former is, but 
 is prefled with the ffioulder of the workman.. 3. Skew- 
 former : this is ufed for cleanfing acute angles with the 
 point or corner of its narrow edge.- 4. The mortife- 
 chiffel'v which is narrow, but very thick and ftrong, , 
 to endure hard blows, and it is cut fo a very broad ba- 
 fil. Its ufe is to cut deep fquare holes in the woo3 
 for mortifes. 5. The gouge, which is a chiflel with 
 a round edge ; one fide whereof ferves to prepare the 
 v/ay for an augre, and the other to cut fuch wood as 
 is to be rounded, hollowed, &c. 6. Socket- chiflels,_, 
 which are chiefly ufed. by carpenters, &c. have their ; 
 4 {h£ik< 
 
G II I 
 
 [ 696 ] 
 
 GUI 
 
 Chivali-v, 
 
 fhsuk made with a hollow focket at top, to receive h 
 ftrong wooden fprig, fitted into it with a (liouldcr. 
 
 Thcie chifTcIs are dillinguinicd, according to the 
 
 breadth of the blade, into half-inch chiffels, three 
 quarters of an inch chifTcls, &c. 7. Ripping-chilTels; 
 wliich is a focket-chiiTel of an inch broad, having a 
 blunt edge, with no bafil to it. Its ufe is to rip or 
 tear two pieces of wood afunder, by forcing in the 
 blunt edge between them. 
 
 CHITON, in zoology, a genus of the order of ver- 
 mes teilaceae. The nanie c/.nton is from X'-^''> Lvrka., 
 a coat of mail. The fnell is plated, and conli'ls of 
 many parts lying upon each other tranfverfelv : tlie 
 inhabitant is a ipecies of the doris. They are com- 
 mon on the Ihores of Scarborough, Aberdeen, and 
 Liochbroom. See fevera! fpccles leprcfentcd of their 
 natural fize on Plate CXXXVIII. 
 
 CHITTIM (anc. geog.), according to Le Clerc, 
 Calmet, and others, was the fame with Macedonia, 
 peopled by Kittim the fon of Javan and grandfon of 
 Noah. 
 
 CHITTRICK'S MEDICINE FOR THE STONE. ThiS 
 
 medicine was fome years ago kept as a fecret, and had 
 great reputation as a lithontriptic, which indeed it 
 feems in many cafes to deferve. It was difcovcred by 
 Dr Blackvie to be no other than foap-lye ; and the 
 following receipt for ufing it was procured by General 
 Dunbar : ** Take one tea-fpoonful of the ftrongeft 
 foap-lye, mixed in two table-fpoonfuls of fweet milk, 
 an hour before breakfall and at going to bed. Be- 
 fore you take the medicine, take a fup of pure milk, 
 < and immediately after you have fwallowed the medi- 
 cine take another. If you find this agrees with you 
 for two or three days, you may add half as much 
 J more to the dofe." 
 Definition. CHIVALRY, (from cheval, " a horfe) ;" an ab- 
 ftradl term, ufed to txprefs the peculiar privileges, ob- 
 ligations, and turn of mind, with all the other diftin- 
 guiiliing charafteriftics of that order of men who flou- 
 riflied in Europe In the dark ages, durin-g the vigour 
 of the feudal fyllems of government, under the name of 
 Knights, or Knights Errant. 
 Difficulty of afcertain the period at which the order fprung 
 
 tracing the up, and. the circumllances to which its origin was ow- 
 rrisrin of Jng, is no eafy tallc. In the hillory of foclety, fuch 
 chivalry. ^ multiplicity of collateral fafts appear interwoven 
 together, and caufes and efFc£ls run Into each other 
 by a gradation fo imperceptible ; that it is exceedingly 
 difficult, even for the niceft eye, to difcern caufes 
 from their immediate eifcfts, or. to dlfllnguifli to 
 tvhich among a number of collateral circumftances the 
 origin of any particular event is to be referred. The 
 age to which we mull look for the origin of chivalry 
 was fingularly rude and Illiterate. Even the principal 
 events of that period, emigrations, wars, and the efla- 
 bllfhment of fyftems of laws and forms of government, 
 have been but imperfeftly, and In many Inftances un- 
 faithfully, recorded. But the tranlaftions which took 
 place in the ordinary courfe [of civil and domellic life, 
 and which, though lefs ftriking, mud have aKvays pre- 
 pared the way for the more remarkable events, have 
 been generally thought unworthy of tranfmiffion to 
 pofterlty, and have very feldom found an hiftorian. 
 Add to thefe difficulties which oppofe our refearches 
 ox^ this fubjei^, that the nations of Europe were in 
 
 ' W 78. • s 
 
 that age a mixed multitude, confiding of tlhe aborigi- Chivalry, 
 
 nal inhabitants, who, though either fubdued by the nr~~^ 
 
 Roman arms, or at l«;aft compelled to retire to the 
 
 woods and mountains, ftlU oblllnately retained their 
 
 primitive manners and cuftoms ; Roman colonies, 
 
 and fuch of the original inhabitants of the countries in 
 
 which thefe were eftabhfhed, as had yielded not only 
 
 to the arms of the Ro^nans, but alfo to the influence 
 
 of their laws, art? , and manners ; and the barbarians, 
 
 who proceeding from the northern regions of Afia and 
 
 Europe, the wilds of Scythia and Germany, dilTolved 
 
 the fabric of the Roman empire, and made themfelvt-o 
 
 lords of Europe. Amid this confufion of nations, 
 
 Inilitutlons, and cuftoms. It becomes almoil impoffiblc 
 
 to trace any regular feries of caufes and effefts. 
 
 Yet as the hiftory of that period is not entirely un- 
 known to us, and the obfcure and imperfed; records 
 in which it is preferved, while they commemorate the 
 more remarkable events, throw a faint light on the ci - 
 fto'.tis, manners, and ordinary tranfadf ions of the agr ; 
 we can at lead coUeft fome circumdances, wliich, if 
 they did not of thernlelves give rife to the indltution 
 of chivalry, mud certainly have co-operated with o- 
 thers to that end. We may even be allowed, if we 
 proceed with due diffidence and caution, to deduce^ 
 from a confideration of the effeft, fome inferences conr 
 cerning the caufe ; from thofe particulars of its hidory 
 which are known to us, we may venture to carry iina.- 
 ginatlon backwards, under a proper reftraint, to thofe 
 which are hid under the darknefs of a rude and illite* 
 rate age. 3 
 
 Didinftion of ranks appears to be effentlally necef- Biftiti^ti'-n 
 fary to the exidence of civil order. Even in the fim- "f_'"|Jiisi''» 
 pled and ruded- focial edabHfh;nents, we find not ^.^^^^'^f ^j^^ 
 merely the natural didinctlons of weak and ftrong, mdianifiH 
 young and old, parent and child, hufband and wife ; of fociety. 
 thefe are always accoinpanltd with others which owe 
 their indltution to the invention of man, and the con- 
 fent, either tacit or formal, of the fociety among 
 whom they prevail. In peace and in war, fuch di- ' ' 
 dindlions are equally nectfiary: they conftltute an ef- 
 fential and Important part of the nKchanifm of fu- 
 citty. 4 
 
 One of the earlied artificial diHinftions Introduced Tl c early 
 among mankind, is that which fcparates the bold and P''""^"''^ 
 ftcllful warrior from thofe whofe feebleneis of body and , niiii- 
 mind renders them unable to excel In dexterity, dra- tary charac- 
 tagem, or valour. Among rude nations, who are bjjttcr. 
 ImperfcAly acquainted with the advantages of focial 
 order, this diftindf ion is more remarkably eminent than 
 in any other date of fociety^ The ferocity of the 
 human charafter in fuch a period produces ahnod con- 
 tinual hodllltles among neighbouring tribes: the ele- 
 ments of nature, and the brute Inhabitants of the fo- 
 reft, are not yet reduced to be fubfervient to the will of 
 man; and thefe, with other concomitant circumdan- 
 ces, render the warrior, who is equally didinguiflied by 
 cunning and volour, tnore ufeful and rtfpeftable than 
 any other charadler. ^ 
 
 On the fame principles, as the boundaries of fociety ■'^uhordi- 
 are enlarged, and its form becomes more complex, the 
 claffes into which it Is' already didlngulfhed are again ^.^^^j^ 
 fubdivlded. The invention of arts, and the acquifi- troduced 
 tion of piroperty, are the chief caufes of thefe n«w di- intofociety. 
 ftind'ions which now arife among the orders of fociety; 
 
 and 
 
C H I 
 
 order by 
 the ule of 
 cavalry. 
 
 CMvalry. and they extend their influence equally through the 
 '"""'^^ whole fyftem. Difference of armour, and different 
 modes of military difcipline, produce diftinftion of or- 
 ders among thofe who praftife the arts of war; while 
 other circumftances, originating from the fame general 
 caufes, occafion fimilar changes to take place amid the 
 fcenes of peace, 
 
 Thediftinc- None of the new diftindiorffe which are introduced 
 tion intvo- among men, with refpedt to the difciphne and con- 
 duced into dud of war, in confequence of the acquifition of pro- 
 ^^^""{,y^"'^'perty and the invention of arts, is more remarkable 
 - than that occafioned by the ufe of horfes in military 
 expeditions, and the training of them to the evolu- 
 tions of the military art. Fire-arms, it is true, give 
 to thofe who are acquainted with them a greater fu- 
 periority over thofe to whom their ufe is unknown 
 than what the horfeman polTeires over him who fights 
 on foot. But the ufe of fire-arms is of fuch import- 
 ance in war, and the expence attending it fo inconfi- 
 derable, that wherever thefe have been introduced, 
 they have feldom been confined to one particular order 
 in an army ; and therefore they produce indeed a re- 
 markable, though tranfient, diftindion among different 
 nations; but ellablifh no permanent diftinftions in the 
 armies of any one nation. But to maintain a horfe, 
 to equip him with coftly furniture, to manage him 
 with dexterity and vigour, are circumftances which 
 have invariably produced a ftanding and confpicuous 
 diftinftion among the military order, wherever bodies 
 of cavalry have been formed. The Roman equites, 
 who, though they became at length a body of ufurers 
 and farmers- general, were originally the only body of 
 cavalry employed by the ftate, occupied a rcfpedlable 
 rank between the fenators and the plebeians ; and the 
 elegance and humanity of their manners were fuitable 
 to their rank. In ancient Greece, and in the cele- 
 brated monarchies of Afia, the fame diftinftion prevail- 
 ed at a fimilar period. 
 TVIrlitarydu circumftances and principles on which 
 
 tlindiions a-this diftindlion depends are not fuch as muft be con- 
 mong the fined in their influence to one particular nation, or one 
 region of the globe, we may hope to trace their ef- 
 feds among the favage warriors of Scythia and Ger- 
 many, as well as among the Greeks or Romans. 
 Prom the valuable treatife of Tacitus de moribus Get- 
 manorum, we learn, that among the German warriors 
 a diftinftion fomewhat of this nature did adlually fub- 
 fift ; not fo mnich indeed a diftinftion between the 
 -warrior who fought on horfeback and thofe who fought 
 on foot, as between thofe whom vigour of body and 
 energy of mind enabled to brave all the dangers of 
 war, and fuch as, from the imbecility of youth, the 
 infirmities of age, or the natural inferiority of their 
 mental and bodily powers, were unequal to fcenes of 
 liardlhip and deeds of valour. The youth was not 
 permitted to take arms and join his warlike country- 
 men In their military expeditions whenever he himfelf 
 thought proper. There was a certain age before which 
 he could not be invefted with armour. When he had 
 attained that period, if not found deficient in ftrength, 
 adivity, or courage, he was formally honoured with 
 the fhield and the lance, called to the duties, and ad- 
 mitted to all the privileges, of a warrior. 
 
 Another fad worthy of notice refpeding the man- 
 ners of the barbarians of Germany before thev efla- 
 VoL. IV. Part ir. ^ 
 
 [ 697 ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 -ancient 
 -Germans. 
 
 bliflied themfclvcs in the cultivated provinces of the Chivalry, 
 Roman empire is, that their women, contrary to what ~v— - 
 we find among many other rude nations, were treated 
 
 with an high degree of refped. They did not gene- ^ 
 
 en in deeds of valour, but they ?ff.{'^^'^/', 
 u„„....- ... j-ii- bihtyof til 
 
 rally vie with the men x^. .atc^o kji vaium, cut "icy j^^jj^. 
 animated them by their exhortations to diftinguifli ^JonLn a- * 
 themfelves in the field ; and virgins efpecially were mong the 
 confidered with a facred veneration, as endowed with Germans, 
 prophetic powers, capable to forefee events hid in the 
 womb of futurity,' and even to influence the will of the 
 deities. Hence, though domeftic duties were their 
 peculiar province, yet they were not harflily treated 
 nor confined to a ftate of flavety. There appears in- 
 deed a ftriking analogy between the condition of the 
 women among the rude foldiers of Sparta and the, 
 rank which they occupied among the warlike cantons 
 of Germany. Perhaps, indeed, the German were ftiU 
 more honourable than the Spartan women ; as they 
 were taught to wield the magic weapons of fuperftition., 
 which in Greece were appropriated to the priefts. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that, in the foretts of Ger- 
 many at leaft, if not in the more northern regions of 
 Afia and Europe, the conquerors of the Roman em- 
 pire, before they penetrated into its provinces, treated 
 their women with a degree of refped unknown to moil 
 of the nations of antiquity ; that the charader of the 
 warrior was likewife highly honourable, being under- 
 ftood to unite all thofe quahties which were in the 
 higheft eftimation ; and that it was only at a particu- 
 lar age, and with certain forms, that the youth were 
 admitted to bear arms. ^ 
 
 When thofe nations fallied from their deferts and GhangcB \n 
 forefts, over-ran the Roman empire, and eftabliftied ''''^ "^^^^ 
 themfelves in its provinces, the change %vhich took barbarians 
 place on their circumftances was remarkable ; and by after they 
 a natural influence, it could not but produce an equally fettled in 
 remarkable change on their habits, cuftoms, and man- 
 ners. The great outhnes might ftiU remain ; but Sff gave 
 they could not now fail to be filled up in a different life to chi- 
 manner. Here, however, the records of hiftory are ^^^''y- 
 pecuHarly imperfed. We have no Casfar or Tacitus 
 to fupply fads or dired our reafonings ; the Gothic 
 nations had not yet learned to read and write ; and 
 the Romans were fo depreffed under the fenfe of their 
 own mtferies, as to be negligent of the changes which 
 happened around them. But as foon as the light of 
 hiftory begins again to dawn, we find that the leading 
 features of the barbarian charader were not effaced, but 
 only modified in a particular manner, in confequence of 
 their mixing among a more pohfhed people, becoming 
 acquainted with the luxuries of life, and acquiring exten- 
 five power and property. 
 
 Thofe who fought on horfeback now began to be 
 diftinguillied with peculiar honours. The manners of 
 the wan-ior too were become more cultivated, and his 
 fpirit more humane. Leifure and opulence, with the 
 influence of a poliflied people, even though in a ftate 
 of llavery, taught thofe baibarlans to afpire after more 
 refined pleafures and more fplendid amufements than 
 thofe which they had been before fatisfied with. The 
 influence of Chriftianity too, which, though grofdy cor- 
 rupted, was ftin favourable to the focial happinefs of 
 mankind, concurred to polifh their manners and exalt 
 their charader. Hence, in the end of the tentk 
 and in the beginning of the elcvuith century, we fefe 
 4 T knight- 
 
C H I [ 698 ] CHI 
 
 Chivalry, kniglit- errantry, wkh that romantic gallantry, piety, the infidels; to defpife the allurements of cafe and ChvzlTp^ 
 *■ — V — - and humanity, by which it was principally dilliaguifli- fafety ; and to vindicate in every perilous adventure ^^"""^ 
 ed, make its appearance. At the court of every the honour of his charader. The abufe of the fame 
 prince, count, or baron, joufts and tournaments became fpirit provoked the illiterate knight to difdaln the arts 
 the favourite amufem.ents. At thofe entertainments, of induftry and peace ; to efteem himfelf the lole judge 
 fldll in arms, devotion to the fair, and generous cour- and avenger of his own injuries ; and proudly to ne- 
 tcfy, were all at once cultivated. About this period gled the laws of civil^focicty and military difciphne. 
 began the crufades ; and thefe, to which alone fome Yet the benefits of this inlUtution, to refine the tem- 
 have referred the origin of chivalry, though they could per of Barbarians, and to_ iufufe fome principles, of: 
 notgive rife to what was already in exiftence.yet mould- faith, juftlce, and humanity, were itrongly ffch, _ and: 
 ed the form and direacd the'fpiritof the inftitution have been often obferved. The afperity oi national 
 in fuch a manner, as to raife it by a rapid progrefs prejudice was foftened ; and the community of re- 
 from infancy, as it were, to full vigour and maturity, ligion and arms fpread a fimilar colour and generous 
 Its charaftet, as it appeared when fully formed, is emulation over the face of Chriftendorm Abroad, in 
 well defcribed by an eloquent hiltorian in the follow- enterprife and pilgi image ; at home, in martial exer- 
 ino- manner : cife, the warriors of every country were perpetually 
 
 aH!,on, vol. °' Between t'le age of Charlemagne and that of the afTociated ; and impartial talle muft prefer a Gothic 
 vi. p. 26, crufades, a revolution had taken place among the Spa- tournament to the Olympic games of ciaffic antiquity 
 Tiiards, the Normans, and the French, which was gia- Inftead of the naked fpedacles which corrupted the 
 dually extended to the reft of Europe. The fervice manners of the Greeks, and bani^icd from the ftadiura. 
 of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians; the ca- the virgins and matrons, the pompous decoration of 
 valry formed the ftrength of the armies, and the ho- the lifts was crowned with the prefence of chafte and 
 nourable name of or foldier, was confined to the high-born beauty, from whofe hands the conqueror, 
 gentlemen who ferved on ho.rfeback, and were invefted received the prize of his dexterity and courage. The. 
 with the charaaer of knighthood. The dukes and ikill and ftrength th.at were exerted in wreftling and^ 
 counts, who had ufurped the rights of fovereignty, boxing, bear a dittant and doubtful relation to the 
 divided the provinces among their faithful barons : merit of a foldier ; but the tounrimcn!:?, as thoy wete 
 tlic barons diftributed among their vaffals the fiefs or invented in France, and eagerly adopted both in the 
 benefices of their jurifdiaion ; and thefe miiitary te- eaft and weft, prefented a lively image of ihe bufinefs 
 nanta, the peers of each other and of their lord, com- of the field. The fingle combats, the general feirmifli, 
 pofed thei'noble or equeftrian order, wh'eh difdaintd the defence of a pafs or caftle, w^re rehearfed as in 
 to conceive the peafant or burgher as of the fame fpe- adual fervice ; and the conteft, both in real and mi- 
 ] cies with them.felves. The dignity of their birth v/as vnic war, was decided by the fuperlor management of 
 preferved by pure and equal alliances ; their fons alone the horfe and lance. The lance was the proper and. 
 who could produce four quarters or lines of anceftry, peculiar weapon of Jthe knight : his horfe was of a ■ 
 without fpot or reproach, might legally pretend to large and heavy breed ; but this charger, till he was 
 the honour of knighthood; but a valiant plebeian was roufed by the approaching danger, was ufually led by 
 fometimes enriched and ennobled by the fword, and an att^endant, and he quietly rode a pad or palfrey 
 became the father of a new race. A fiugle knight of a more eafy pace. His helmet and fword, his 
 could impart, according to his judgment, the charaaer greaves and buckler, it would be fuperfluous to de- 
 which he received ; and the warhke fovereigns of Eu- fcribe ; but I may remark, that at the period of the 
 rope derived more gbry from this perfonal diftinaion crufades, the armour was lefs ponderous than in later 
 than from the luftre of' their diadem. This ceremony times ; and that, inftead of a maffy cuirafs,_ his breaft 
 was in its origin fimple and prof ine ; the candidate, was defended by an hauberk or coat of mail When- 
 after fome previous trial, was invefted with his fword their long lances were fixed in the reft, the wan-iors . 
 and fpurs; and his cheek or flioulder were touched furioufly fpurred their horfes again ft the foe; and the 
 with a flight blow, as an emblem of the laft affront light cavalry of the Turks and Arabs could feldom.. 
 which it was lawful for him to endure. But fuper- ftand againft the direft and impetuous weight of their 
 ftition mingled in every public and private aaion of charge. Each knight was attended to the field by 
 life: In the holy wars, it fanaified the profeffion of his faithful fquire, a youth of equal birth and fimilar 
 arms ; and the order of chivalry was affimila'ed in its hopes ; he was followed by his archers and men at 
 rights and privileges to the facred orders of priefthood. arms ; and four, or tive, or fix foldiers, were computed 
 The bath and white garment of the novice, were an as the furniture of a complete /«ncf. In the expeditions 
 indecent copy of the regeneration of baptifm : his to the neighbouring kingdoms or the Holy Land, the 
 fword, which- he off'ered on the altar, was bleffed duties of the feudal tenure no longer fubfifted ; the 
 by the minifters of religion ; his folemn reception voluntary fervice of the knights and their followers was 
 was preceded by fafts and vigils ; and he was created either prompted by zeal or attachment, or purchafed 
 a knight in the name of God, of St George, and of St with rewards and promifes ; and the numbers of each 
 . Michael the archangel. He fwore to accompliOi fquadron .were meafured by the power, the. wealth, and. 
 the duties of his profeffion ; and education, example, the fame of each independent chieftain. They were 
 and the public opinion, were the inviolable guardians diftinguilhed by his banner, his armorial coat, and his 
 ©f his oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, cry of war ; and the moft ancient fa».ulies of Europe 
 he devoted himfelf to fpeak the truth ; to maintain rauft feek in thefe atchievemcnts the origin and proof : 
 the right ; to protea the diftreffed ; to praftife cour- of their nobility." 
 
 iePf, a virtue kfs familiar to the ancients ; to purfue The refpeaable author of the Letters on Chivalry 
 
Tlx rcfem 
 blarxc he- 
 twee-! he- 
 
 G H I [ 699 1 
 
 Chtvalry. and Romance, traces, with great Ingenuity and eru- venturers to undertak 
 -" — V— — dition, a llrong refemblance between the manners of 
 the age of chivdry and thofe of the old heroic ages 
 delitieated by Homer. 
 
 There is,fay3he,aromarkabIecorrefpondenQe between 
 the manners of the old heroic times, as painted by their 
 great romancer Homer, and thofe which are repre- 
 r.'icaiKlGo fented to us in the modern bopks of knight-errantry, 
 tl-ic man- ^ which no good account can be given, but by 
 
 another not lefs certain ; that the political Hates of 
 Greece, in the earlieft periods of its ftory, was fimilar 
 in many refpefts to that of Europe, as broken by the 
 feudal fyftem into an infinite number of petty indepen- 
 dent governments. 
 
 Some obvious circumftancesof agreement between the 
 heroic and Gothic manners may be worth putting down. 
 
 1. The military enthufiafm of the barons is but of 
 a piece with the fanaticifra of the heroes. Hence the 
 fame particularity of dcfcription in the accounts of 
 battles, wounds, deaths, in the Greek poet as in the 
 Gothic romancers. Hence that minute curiofity in the 
 difplay of their drefles, arms, accoutrements. The 
 minds of all men being occupied with warlike Images 
 end Ideas, were much gratified by thofe details, which 
 appear cold and unaffeAIng to modern readers. 
 
 We hear much of knights-errant encountering giants 
 and quelliag favages in books of chivalry. Thefe 
 giants were oppreilive feudal lords ; and every lord 
 was to be met with, like the giant, in his ftrong-hold 
 or caftle. Their dependents of a lower form, who imi- 
 tated the violence or their fuperiors, and had not their 
 caflles but lurking places, were the favages of romance. 
 The gi-eater lord was called a giant for his power; the 
 lefs, a favage for his brutality. 
 
 2. Another terror of the Gothic ages was monfters, 
 dragons, and ferpents. Their ftoiies were received 
 in thofe days for feveral reafons : i. From the vulgar 
 belief of enchantments : 2. From their being reported 
 
 . on the faith of ealtern tradition, by adventurers from 
 the holy land : 3- In (lill later times from the ftrangc 
 things told and believed on the difcovery of the new 
 world. 
 
 In all thefe refpeft?, Greek antiquity refembles the 
 Gothic. For what are Homer's Lasflrigons and Cy- 
 clops, but bands of lawlefs; favages, with each of ihem 
 a giant of enormous fize at their head ? And what are 
 the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules, and Thefeus, but 
 knigl.ts-erranJ, tlie exa£l counterparts of Sir Launce- 
 lot and Amadis de Gaul ? 
 
 3. The opprelTions which it was the glory of the 
 knights to avenge, were frequently carried on, as we 
 are told, by the charms and enchantments of tvotiun, 
 Thefe charms, we may fuppofe, are often metapho- 
 rical ; as expreffing only the blandlfhments of the fcx. 
 Sometimes they are taken to be real, the ignorance 
 of thofe ages acquiefcing in fuch conceits. And are 
 not thefe (lories matched by thofe of Calypfo and 
 Circe, the enchantreffes of the Greek poet I 
 
 4. Robbery and Piracy were honourable in both : 
 fo far were they from reflefting any difjrcdit on the 
 undent or modern redrtJfcTs of njorongs. What ac- 
 count can be given of this, but that, in the feudal 
 times, and in the early days of Greece, when govern- 
 ment was weak, antl unable to redrefs the injuries of 
 petty fovereigas, it would be glorious for privaite ad- 
 
 CHI 
 
 this work ; and, If they could Chivalry, 
 accomplifh it in no other way, to pay them in kind by 
 downright plunder and rapine ? 
 
 5. Baftardy was in credit with both. They were 
 extremely watchful over the challity of their own 
 v'omen ; but fuch as they could fcize upon In the ene- 
 mies quarter, were lawful prize. Or if, at any time, 
 they tranfgreffed In this fort at home, the fault wafi 
 covered by an ingenious fidlion. The offspring was 
 reputed divine. Their greatell heroes were the fruit 
 of goddeffes approached by mortals ; juft as we hear 
 of the doughtifcll knights being born of fairies. 
 
 6. With the greatefl. liercenefs and favagcnefs of 
 charafter, the utmofl. generofity, hofpitallty, and cour- 
 tefy, were imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was at 
 once the molt relentlefs, vindi6live, implacable, and 
 the friendliell of men. We have the very fame re- 
 prefentation in the Gothic romances. As In tliofe law- 
 lefs times, dangers and diftrcffcs of all kinds abound- 
 ed, there would be the fame demand for compafllon, 
 gentlenefs, and generous attachments to the unfortu- 
 nate, thofe efpecially of their own clan, as of refent* 
 ment, rage, and animofity agamft their enemies. 
 
 7. Again, the martial games celebrated in ancient 
 ■Greece, on great and folemn occafions, had the fame 
 origin and the fame purpofe as the tournaments of the 
 Gothic warriors. 
 
 8. Laltly, the pafhons for adventures fo natural 
 In their fituation, would be as naturally attended wii;h 
 the love of praife and glory. Hence the fame encou- 
 ragement, in the old Greek and Gothic times, to pa- 
 negyrics and poets. In the affairs of religion and gal- 
 lantry, indeed, the refemblance between the hero and 
 the knight Is not fo ftriking. But the religious cha- 
 radler of the knight was an accident of the times, and 
 no proper efFe£l of his civil condition. And that his 
 devotion for the fair fex fhould fo far furpafs that of 
 the hero. Is a confirmation of the fyftem here advan- 
 ced. For the confideration had of the females in the 
 feudal coiiftitotion, will of itfelf account for thiti defe- 
 rence. It made them capable of fucceeding to fiefs, 
 as well as the men. And does not one fee, on the 
 Inftant, what refpeift and dependence this privilege 
 would draw upon them ? 
 
 It was of mighty confequence who fhould obtain the 
 favour of a rich heirefs. And though, in the ttri£l 
 feudal times, {he was fuppofed to be in ihe power and 
 at the difpofal of her fuperlor lord, yet this rigid 
 Hate of things did not laft long. Hence we find fome 
 diftreffed -damfel was the fptiing and mover of every 
 knight's adventure. She was to be reicutd by his 
 arms, or won by the fame and admiration of his prow- 
 efs. The plain meaning of all which was this : That 
 as, in thele turbulent times, a prote£tor was necelfary 
 to the vveaknefs of the fex, fo t[;e courteous and va- 
 lorous knight was to approve himfelf fully qualified for 
 tliat purpofe. 
 
 It may be obferved, that the two poems of Homer 
 were intended to expofe the mifchiefs and inconve- 
 niences ariling from the political ftate of Old Greece : 
 the Ihady the diifentions that naturally fpring up 
 among independent chiefs ; and the OdyJJ'ey, the info- 
 lerice of their greater fubjecls, mi^vQ efpecially when 
 unreftrained by the prefence of their fovereign. And 
 can any thing more exadly refetr.bls the condition of 
 AfT t the 
 
C H I 
 
 [ ] 
 
 C H I 
 
 'valry. tlie feudal times, when, on occafion of any great cii- 
 "Y"^ terprife, as that of the crufades, the defignsof the con- 
 federate Chriilian ftates were perpetually fruftrated, 
 or interrupted at leall, by the dilfentions of their lead- 
 ers ; and their affairs at home, as perpetually diftref- 
 fed and difordered by the rebellious ufurpations of their 
 greater valfals ? Jerufalem was to the European what 
 Troy had been to the Grecian princes. See the article 
 Knight. 
 
 Chivalry, in law, is ufed for a tenure of lands 
 by knight's fervice ; whereby the kntght was bound 
 to perform fervice in war unto the king, or the mefne 
 lord of whom he held by that tenure. And chivalry 
 was either geneual or fpecial : general, when it was 
 only in the feoffment that the tenant held per ferv't- 
 thtm nnlttare, without any fpecification of fergeantry, 
 efcuage, &c. ; fpecial, when it was declared particu- 
 hrly by what kind of knight fervice the land was held. 
 
 For the better underftanding of this tenure it hath 
 been obferved, that there is no law but is holdea me- 
 diately or immediately of the crown by fome fervice ; 
 and therefore all freeholds that are to us and our heirs, 
 are called feuda, or feoda, "feesj" as, proceeding from 
 the king for fome fmall yearly rent, and the perform- 
 ance of fuch fervices as were originally laid upon the 
 land at the donation thereof. For as the king gave 
 to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large pof- 
 flions for ever, to hold of him for this or that fervice 
 or rent ; fo they in time parcelled out to fuch others 
 as they liked the fame lands" for rents and fervices as 
 they thought good: and thefe fervices were by Little- 
 ton divided into two kinds, chivalry and focage; the 
 firft whereof was martial and militarj^, the other rufti- 
 cal. Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of fervice, 
 ■whereby the tenant was obliged to perform fome noble 
 or militaiy office unto his lord ; and it was of two 
 kinds ; either regal, that is» held only of the king ; or 
 comtHon, where held of a common perfon. That which 
 might be held only of the king was called fervitium, or 
 fergeunlia; and was again divided into ^raW and petit 
 lerjeanty. The grand ferjeanty was where one held 
 lands of the king by fervice, which he ought to do in 
 his own perfon; as, to bear the king's banner or fpear, 
 to lead his hoft, to find men at arms to fight, &c. 
 Petit ferjeanty was when a man held lands of the king, 
 to yield him annually fome fmall thing towards his 
 wars, as a fword, dagger, bow, &c. Chivalry that 
 might be holden of a common perfon was termed fcu- 
 tagium, "efcuage;" that is, fervice of the flaield ; which 
 was either uncertain or certain. 
 
 Efcuage uncertain, was likewlfie two-fold : firft, 
 where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, going 
 in perfon to the king's wars, either himfclf, or fend- 
 ing a fufficient man in his place, there to be main- 
 tained at his expence, fo long as was agreed upon be- 
 tween the lord and his firft tenant at the granting of 
 the fee ; and the days of fuch fervice feem to have 
 been rated by the quantity of land fo holden : as if 
 it extended to a whole knight's fee^ then the tenant 
 Avas to follow his lord 40 days ; and if but to half a 
 knight's fee, then 20 days ; if a fourth part, then 
 10 days, &c. The other kind of this efcuage was cal- 
 led cnflle-'ward, w^ ere the tenant was obliged, by 
 himfclf or fome other, to defend a caftle as often as it 
 liiouM^ come to his turn. And. thefe were called efcur- 
 
 age uncertain; bccaufe it was uncertain how often » 
 man fhould be called to follow his lord to the wars, 
 or to defend a caitle, and what his charge would be 
 therein. 
 
 Efcuage certain, was whefe the tenure was fet at a 
 certain fum of money to be paid in lieu of fuch fervice ; 
 as that a man ftiould pay yearly for every knight's fee 
 20s. for half a knight/s fee los. or fome like rate; 
 and this fervice, becaufe it is drawn to a certain rent, 
 groweth to be of a mixed nature, not merely focage, 
 and yet focage in eflfeft, being now neither perfonal 
 fervice nor uncertain. The tenure called chivalry had 
 other conditions annexed to it : but there is a great 
 alteration made in thefe things by the ftat. 12. Car. 2. 
 c. 24. whereby tenures by knight's fervice of the king,, 
 or any other perfon in capite, &c. and the fruits ami 
 confequences thereof, are taken away and difcharged 
 and all tenures are to be conftrued and adjudged to be 
 free and common focage, &c. 
 
 Court of Chii^alry, a court formerly held before the 
 lord high conftable and earl marfhal of England joint- 
 ly, and having both civil and criminal jurifdiftion : 
 but fince the attainder of Stafford Duke of Bucking- 
 ham under Henry VIIL and the confequent extin- 
 guifhment of the office of lord high conftable, it hath 
 ufually, with refpeft to civil matters, been heard be- 
 fore the earl marfhal only. This court, by ftat. 13, 
 Rich. II. c. 2. hath cognizance of contrafts and other 
 matters touching deeds of arms and war, as well out of 
 the realm as in it. And from its fentences lies an im- 
 mediate appeal to the king in perfon. This court was 
 in great reputation in the times of pure chivalry ; and 
 afterwards during the Englifh connexions wnth the 
 continent, by the tenitories which their princes held 
 in France : but it is now grown almoft entirely out 
 of ufe, on account of the feeblenefs of its jurifdiftion^ 
 and want of power to enforce its judgements ; as it 
 can n.either fine nor imprifon, not being court ofv 
 record. 
 
 L. The civil jurlfdiftion of this court of chivalry, 
 is principally in two points ; the redreffing injuries of 
 honour, and correcting encroachments in matters of 
 eoat armour, precedency, and other diftinftions of fa- 
 milies. As a court of honour, it is to give fatisfac* 
 tion to all fuch as are aggrieved in that point ; a 
 point of a nature fo nice and delicate, that its wrongs 
 and injuries efcape the notice of the common law, 
 and,yet ai"e fit to be redrefled fomewhere. Such, for 
 inftance, as calling a man a caivard, or giving him the 
 lie ; for which, as they are produftive of no imme- 
 diate damage to bis perfon or property, no aftion will 
 lie in. the courts at Weftminfter : and yet they are 
 fuch injuries as will prompt every ma a of fpirit to 
 demand fome honourable amends ; which, by the an- 
 cient law. of the land, was given in the court of chlf 
 valry. But modern refolutions have determined, that 
 how much foever a jurifdiftion may be expedient, yet. 
 no aftion for words will at prefent lie therein. And 
 it hath always been moft clearly holden, that as this. 
 GOiu-t cannot meddle with any thing determinable by 
 common law, it therefore can give no pecuniary fa- 
 tisfaflion or damages ; in. as much as the quantity and: 
 determination thereof is ever of common law cog- 
 nizance. And therefore this court of chivalry can afa 
 moft order reparation in point of honour; as, to. 
 
 compel. 
 
 Ch 
 
C H I 
 
 Chivalry 
 
 il 
 
 Chium. 
 
 C H O 
 
 compel the defendant mendaclum Jtli ipfi imponerey or 
 to take the he that he has given upon himfelf, or 
 to make fuch other fubmiffion as the laws of honour 
 may require. As to the other point of its civil jurijf- 
 diciion, the redrefling of ufurpations and encroach- 
 ments in matters of heraldry and coat armour ; it is 
 the bufinefs of this court, according to Sir Matthew 
 Hale, to adjuil the right and armorial enfigns, beai"- 
 ings, crefts, fupporters, pennons, &c."; and alfo rights 
 of places or pi-ecedence, where the king's patent or 
 a£l of parliament, which cannot be over-ruled by this 
 court, have not already determined it. The pro- 
 ceedings of this court are by petition in a fummary 
 way : and the trial not by a jury of twelve men, but 
 by witneffes, or by combat. But as it cannot impri- 
 fon, not being a court of record ; and as, by the refo- 
 lutions of the fuperior courts, it is now confined to fo 
 narrow and reftrained a jurifdiAioa j it has fallen into 
 contempt. The marfhalling of coat-armour, which 
 was formerly the pride and ftudy of aU the beft fa- 
 milies in the kingdom, is now greatly difregarded ; 
 and has fallen into the hands of certain officers and at- 
 tendants upon this court, called heralds^ who confider 
 it only as a matter of lucre, and not of juftice : where- 
 by fuch falfity and confufion have crept into their re- 
 cords (which ought to be the Handing evidence of fami- 
 lies, defcents, and coat armour), that though former- 
 ly fome credit has been paid to their tellimony, now, 
 even their common feal will not be received as evi- 
 dence in any court of juftice in the kingdom. But 
 their original vifitation books, compiled whe^ pro- 
 grefles were folemnly and regularly made into ev^ry 
 part of the kingdom, to inquire into the ftate of fami- 
 lies, and to regifter fuch marriages and defcents as 
 were verified to them upon oath, are allowed to be 
 good evidence of pedigrees. 
 
 2. As a criminal court, when held before the lord 
 high conftable of England jointly with the earl Mar- 
 fhal, it had jurildidlion over pleas of life and mem- 
 ber, arifing in matters of arms and deeds of war, as 
 well out of the realm as within it. But the criminal 
 as well as civil part of its authority is fallen into en- 
 tire difufe : there having been no permanent high 
 conltable of England (but only pro hac nicsy at coro- 
 nations and the like), fincc the attainder and execu- 
 tion of Stafford Duke of Buckingham, in the 13th year 
 of Henry VIII. ; the authority and charge, both in 
 war and peace, being deemed too ample for a fubjefi; 
 fo ample, that when the chief juftice Fineux was aiked 
 by King Henry VIIJ. how far they extended ? he de- 
 clined anfwering ; and faid, the decilion of that que- 
 fticn belonged to the law of arms, and not to the law 
 of England. 
 
 CHIVES, in botany, are flender thread-hke fub- 
 ftances, generally placed within the bloffom, and fur- 
 rounding the PoiNTALs. They are formed of the 
 woody fubftance of the plant. 
 
 CHIUM MARMOR, in the natural hiftory of the an- 
 cients, the name of a black marble, called alfo the 
 lapis opfidianus. It is very hard, and of a fine black 
 and, befide the many ufes which the ancients put it to, 
 is well known among our goldfraiths by the name of 
 the touchjlone I moft of them being furnifhed with 
 nothing better for this purpofe than a piece of this : 
 fliough the bafaltes, which might be had plentifully 
 
 enough, Is greatly preferable for thofe ufes; any black Chium 
 
 marble, however, that is tolerably hard, will do. qj^qJqI^jj,' 
 
 There is a very fine and elegantly fmooth marble, of 
 
 a compaft texture, and fine gloffy black, but fhowing 
 
 no glittering particles when frefh broken, as moft of 
 
 the black marbles do. It is extremely hard, and cuts 
 
 with difficulty, but is capable of the higheft pqliih of 
 
 any marble. The ancients had it from Ethiopia and 
 
 the ifland of Chios ; we have it from Italy. 
 
 Chium f^inum, Chian Wine, or wine of the growth 
 of the ifland of Chios, now Scio, is commended by 
 Diofcorides as affording good nourilhmenr, fit to drink,, 
 lefs difpofed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue of 
 reftraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in oph- 
 thalmic medicines. Hence Sctibonius Largus dired.* 
 the dry ingredients in collyria for the eyeS to be 
 made up with Chian wine. 
 
 CHIUN, or Chevan, in Hebrew antiquity. "We 
 meet with this word in the prophet Amos, cited in the 
 Afls of the Apoftles. Sc Luke reads the paffage 
 thus : " Ye took up the tabernacle of Molochj* and the 
 ftar of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to 
 worfhip them." The import of the Hebrew is as fol- 
 lows : " Ye have borne the tabernacle of your kings, 
 and the pedeftal (the chiun) of your images, the ftar of 
 your gods, which ye made to yourfelves." The Sep 
 tuagint in all probability read Repham or Revan, in- 
 ftead of Cbiun or Chevan^ and took the pedeftal for a 
 god. 
 
 Some fay that the Septuagint, who made their tranf- 
 lation in Egypt, changed the word Chiun into that of 
 Remphan becaufe they had the fame fignification. 
 M. Bafnage, in his book intitled Jeivifh Antiquities^. 
 after having difcourfed a good deal upon Chion or Rem- 
 phan, concludes that Moloch was the fun, and Chion^ 
 Chiuny or Remphan^ the moon. 
 
 CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn by 
 the ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the pa- 
 tricians, and was the fame in the time of war that the 
 toga was in the time of peace. This fort of gown was 
 called piaa, from the rich embroidery with figures in 
 Phrygian work ; and purpurea, becaufe the grounds- 
 work was purple. The chlamydes of the emperors 
 were all purple, adorned with a golden and embroider- 
 ed border. 
 
 CHLOEIA, iiJ antiquity, a feftival celebrated at 
 Athens in honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name 
 xaow, i. e. Grafs, they facrificed a ram. 
 
 CHLORA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia 
 order, belonging to the odlandria clafs of plants. The 
 calyx is oftophyllous, the corolla monopetalous and- 
 oftofid ; the capfule unilocular, bivalved, and poly- 
 fpermous. 
 
 CHLOROSIS, in medicine, a difeafe, commonly, 
 C7i\[Q^ ihe. green~/icknefs, incident to young girls. See 
 (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine. 
 
 CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of pafte 01; 
 cake prepared of certain ingredients, the bafis of which 
 is cacao. See Cacao. 
 
 The Indians, in their firft making of cliocolate, uftd 
 to roaft the cacao in earthen pots ; and having after- 
 wards cleared it of the huflis, and bruifed it bctwecu 
 two ftones, they made it Into cakes with their hands>- 
 The Spaniards improved this method: when the cacaa- 
 is properly roafted and well cleaned, they pound it in- 
 
C H O [ 70 
 
 '.«f.olitc a mortar, to reduce it into a coarfe mafs, whicl* they 
 "V"-"' afterwards grind on a ftone till it be of the utmoll 
 finenefs : the pafte being fufficiently ground, is put 
 quite hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a 
 very little time. The form of thefe moulds is arbi- 
 trary : the cylindrical ones, holding two or three 
 pounds, are the moft proper; becanfc the bigger the 
 cates are, the longer they will keep. Obferve, tkat 
 thefe cakes are very liable to take any good or bad 
 fcent, and therefore they mufl be carefully wrapt up in 
 •paper, and kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, 
 that the Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great 
 a quantity of cloves and cinnamon, befides other drugs 
 without number, as muflc, ambergreafe. Sec. The 
 grocers of Paris ufe few or none of thefe ingredients : 
 they only choofe the beft nuts, which are called carac- 
 al, from the place from whence they are brought ; 
 and with thefe they mix a very fmall quantity of cin- 
 namon, the frefheft vanilla, and the finell fugar, but 
 very feldom any cloves. In England, tlie chocolate 
 is made of the fimple cacao, excepting that fomsiimes 
 fugar and fometi'nes vaniila is added. 
 
 Chocolate ready made, and cacao pafte, are prohi- 
 bited to be imported from any part beyond the feas. 
 If made and fold in Grrat Britdiu, it pays inland duty 
 IS. 6d. per lb. avoirdupoife : it muft be inclofed in 
 papers containing one pound each, and produced at 
 the excife-office to be ftamped. Upon three days 
 notice given to the officer of excife, private fanailies 
 may make chocolate for their own ufe, provided no 
 "lefs than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at 
 one time. 
 
 The chocolate made In Portugal and Spain is not 
 •tiear fo well prepared as the Englifh, depending per- 
 haps on the machine employed there, viz the double 
 cylinder, which feems very well calculated for exafl 
 triture. If perfectly prepared, no oil appears on the 
 folution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the 
 foreign ; and it alfo may, in fome meafure, depend 
 -on the thicknefs of the p.'-eparation. The folution re- 
 quires more care than is commonly imagined. It is 
 proper to break it duv/n, and diffolve it thoroughly in 
 cold water by milling it with the chocolate Hick. If 
 heat is applied, it fhould be done flowly : for, if fud- 
 denly, the heat will not only coagulate it, but fepa- 
 rate the oil ; and therefore much boiling after it is 
 dlffolved, is hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required 
 by people of weak ftomachs ; but often rejefted for 
 want of proper preparation. When properly prepa- 
 red, it is eafily diffolved ; arul an excellent food where 
 a liquid nutrient vegetable one is required, and is Icfs 
 flatulent than any of the farinacea. 
 
 Mr Henly, an ingenious eleftrician, has lately dtf- 
 covered that chocolate, frefh from the mill, as it cobls 
 in the tin-pans into which it is received, becomes 
 llrongly eleftrical ; and that it retains this property 
 for fvjme time after it has been turned out of the pans, 
 but foon lofes it by handling. The power n^ay be once 
 or twice renewed by melting it again in an iron ladle, 
 and pouring it Into the tin pans as at fit ft ; but when 
 it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable 
 of being revived by fimple melting : but if a frnall quan- 
 tity of olive- oil be added, and vi'ell mixed with the cho- 
 colate in the ladle, its ekAricity will be completely re- 
 
 I 1 C H 0 
 
 ftored by cooling it in the tin pan as before. From Choco'ate 
 this experiment he conjedures, that there is a great af- J^^^ 
 finity between phlogilton and the cleflric fluid, if in- terig^i* 
 deed they be not the fame thing. ^ _/ 
 
 CnocoLATE-Nut Tree. See C^cao. 
 
 CHOENIX, xpnil, an ancient dry meafure, con- 
 taining the 48th part of a tnedimius, or fix buflicls. 
 
 CHOERILUS, a tragic poet of Athens about the 
 64 th olympiad. 'He wrote 1 50 tragedies, of which 
 I 3 had obtained the prize. — An hiftorian of Samos. — 
 Two other poets, one of whom was very intimate 
 with Herodotus. He wrote a poem on the victory 
 which the Athenians had obtained over Xerxes; and on 
 account of the excellence of the com.pofition he recei- 
 ved a piece of gold for each verfe from the Athenians. 
 The other was one of Alexander's flatterers and friends. 
 
 CHOERIN^E, in antiquity, a kind of fea-Oiells, 
 with which the ancient Greeks ufed to give their fuf- 
 frage, or vote. 
 
 CHOIR, that part of the church or cathcdn*! where 
 choirilters fing divine fervice; it is feparated from the 
 chancel where the communion is celebrated, and al- 
 fo from the nave of the church where the people 
 are placed 5 the patron is faid to be obliged to repair 
 the choir of the church. It was in the time of Con- 
 ftantine that the choir was feparated from the nave. 
 In the twelfth century, they began to inclofe it with 
 walls ; but the ancient balullrades have been fince 
 reftored, out of a view to the beauty of arcliitcdture. 
 
 Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to 
 the body of the church, feparated by a grate, where 
 the nuns fing the office. 
 
 CHOISI (Francis Timoleon de), dean of the cathe- 
 dral of Bay LUX, and one of the forty of the French 
 academy, was born at Paris in 1644. In 1685, he was 
 fent with the chevalier de Chaumont to the king of 
 i>iam, and wis ordained prieft in the Indies by the a- 
 pottolical vicar. He wrote a great number of works, 
 in a pohte, florid, and eafy ftyle ; the principal of 
 which are, i. Four dialogues on the Immortality of 
 the Soul, Iffc. 2 Account of a voyage to Siam. 3. An 
 Ecclefiaftical Hiltory, in i I vols, 4to. 4. Life of Da- 
 vid, with an interpretation of the Psalms. 5. Life 
 of Solomon, Iffc. He died at Paris in 1724. 
 
 CHOLEDOCHUS, in anatomy, a term applied 
 to a canal, or duCl, called alfo /Iticius commimis ; formed 
 of the union of the porus bilarius and dudtus cyfticus. 
 The w-ord comes from ^cia.», choler; znA Sip^o/^at, Ire- 
 ce'roe, or corJain. 
 
 The choledochus duftus, paffing obliquely to the 
 lower-end of the duodenum, ferves to convey the bile 
 from the livtr to the inteftines. See Anat. n* 97. 
 
 CHOLER See Bile. 
 
 CHOLERA MOHEUs, a fudden eruption or over- 
 flowing of the bile or biUous matters both upwards and 
 downwards. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine. 
 
 CHOMER, or Omer. See Cqrus. 
 
 CHONDRILLA, in bota-iy, a genus of the poly- 
 gamia equalis order, bel( nging to the lyngenefia clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 4yth order, Compqptes. The receptacle is naked ; the 
 calyx calyculated; the pappus fimple and ftalked; the 
 florets in a manifold feries. 
 
 CHONDR.OPTERYGII, In khthj^logy, a term 
 
 for- 
 
. Chop- 
 Churdi 
 
 II 
 
 Chord. 
 
 C H O 
 
 formfrly applied to the order of fiil^ea now 
 amphibia nantes by Linnasns. See Amphibia. 
 
 CHOP-CHURCH, or Church-chopper, a name, 
 or rather nick-name, given to paifons who make a 
 practice of exchanging laenefices. See Permutation. 
 
 Chop-church occurs in an ancient Iktute as a lawful 
 trade or occupation ; and (ome of the judges fay it 
 was a good addition. Brook holds that it was no occu- 
 pation, but a thing penniffible by law. 
 
 CHOPIN, or Chop IN E, a liquid meafure ufed both 
 in Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint. 
 See Pint and Measure. 
 
 Chopin (Rene), a famous civilian born at Bailleul 
 in Anjou in 1537- He was advocate in the parliament 
 of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with great 
 reputation. He at lad (hut himfelf up in his clofet ; 
 and compofed many works, which have been colled- 
 
 C 703 ] C H O 
 
 called blagc of all the confonances in one and tlie fame 
 chord; (See Consonance.) Moreover, the addition of 
 the diffonance (fee Discord), producing a fourth 
 found fuperadded to the perfedl chord, it becomes in- 
 dilpenfably neceffary, if we would render the chord full, 
 that we fhould include a fourth part to exprefs thi» 
 dilfonance. Thus, the feries of chords can neither 
 be complete nor connected but by means of four 
 parts. 
 
 Chords are divided into perfe£l and imperfeft. The 
 perfea chord \& ih.At ^l'iidx we have lately defcrlbed ; 
 which is compofed of the fundamental found below* 
 of its third, its fifth, and its odave : they are likewifc 
 fubdivlded into major and minor, according as the 
 thirds which enter into their compofition are flat or 
 {harp: (See Interval.) Some authors likewifc 
 give the name perfeS to all chords, even to diffo- 
 
 Chofd. 
 
 ed together, and printed in 6 vols, folio. He died at nances, whofe fundamental founds are below. Im- 
 Paris in 1606. -ptrit^ chords are thofe in which the fixth, inftead of 
 
 CHORAL, fignities any perfon that, by virtue of the fitlh, prevails, and in general all thofe whofe low- 
 
 elt are not their fundamental founds. I'hefe deno- 
 minations, which had been given before the fundamen- 
 tal bals was known, are now moll unhappily applied : 
 thofe of chords dlrcSl and rewrfed, are much more 
 fuitable in the fame fenfe. 
 
 Chords are once more divided into confonances and 
 difTonances. The chords denominated confonances^ 
 are the perfeft chord, and its derivatives; every 
 other chord is a diffonance. 
 
 A table of both, according to the fyllem of M. Ra- 
 mepu, may be fcen in Rouffcau's .Mufi<:al Didionary, . 
 vol. I. p. 27. 
 
 After the table to which our readers have been re- 
 mitted, RoufTeau adds the following obfervations, which 
 are at the fame time fo jull and fo important, that we 
 fhould be very forty if they eicape the reader's atten- 
 tion. 
 
 At the words harmony, fundamental lafs, compof- 
 tion, 8cc. he proinifts to treat concerning the manner 
 of uling all the cliords to form regular harmony; and 
 only adds, in this place, the lubfeqiient reflettions. 
 
 I. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods 
 of inverting the fame chord are in all caies equally 
 eligible for the harm )ny and for the exprelfion. 
 There is not one of thefe different arrangements, but 
 had its proper charafter. Every one feels the con- 
 trail between the foftnefs of the fah'e fifth, and the 
 grating found of the tritone, thouit^h the one of thefe 
 intervals is produced by a method of inverting the 
 other. With the feventh diminifhed, . and the fecond i 
 redundant, the cafe is the fame with the interval of the • 
 fecond in general ufe, and the feventh. Who does 
 not feel how much more vocal and lonorous the fiftli 
 appears when compared with the fourth ? The chord 
 of the great fixth, and that of the lelTer fixth minor, 
 are two forms of the fame fundamental chord; but 
 how much lefs is the one harmonious than the other? 
 On the contrary, the chord of the leffer fixth major is 
 much more pleafing and cheerful than that of the falfe 
 fifth. And only to mention the mofl fimple of all ' 
 chords, refle£l on the majelly of the perfeA chord, 
 the fweetnefs of that which is called the chord of the 
 fixth, and the infipidity of that which is compofed of 
 a fixth and a fourth ; all of them, however, compo- 
 fed of the fanse founds. In general; the redundant 
 7, in»- 
 
 any of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient times 
 admitted to fit and ftrve God in the choir. 
 
 Dugdale, in his hillory of St Paul's Church, fays, 
 thai there were with the chorus formerly fix vicars 
 choral belonging to that church. 
 
 CHORASSAN, or Khorassan, z province of 
 Ptn-fia adjoining to Ufbec Fartary. This was the an- 
 cient Badrin, and the birth-place of Kouli Khan. 
 
 CHORAX, or Charax. See Charackne. 
 
 CHORAZIM, or Choraz IN., (Luke, Matthew), 
 a town of Galilee: whofe wretched incredulity Chrill 
 deplores : now defolate, at two miles diltance from 
 Cajiernaum. 
 
 CHORD, or Cord, primarily denotes a {lender 
 rooe or cordage *. The word is formed of the Latin, 
 chorda, and that from the Greek, a gut, whereof 
 
 ftrings may be made. 
 
 Chord, in geometry, a right line drawn from one 
 part of an arch of a circle to an< ther. Plence, 
 
 Chord of an Arch, is a right line joining the ex- 
 tremes of that arch. 
 
 Chord, in mufic, the unlcm of two or more founds 
 uttered at the fame time, and forming together an en- 
 tire harmony. 
 
 The natural harmony produced by the refonance of 
 a founding body, is compofed of three different founds, 
 without reckoning their odaves ; which form among 
 themfelves the mofl agreeable and perfeft chord 
 that can pofiibly be heard: for which reafon they are 
 called, on account of their excellence, perfeS. chords. 
 Hence, in order to render that harmony com- 
 plete, it is neceffary that each chord fhould at leall 
 confill of three founds. The trio Is hkewife found 
 by muficians to include the perfeftion,. of harmony; 
 whether becaufe in this all the chords, and each in its 
 full perfedion, are ufed ; or, becaufe upon fuch occa- 
 fions as render it improper to ufe them, all, and each 
 in its integrity, arts have been fuccefsfully praftifed 
 to deceive the ear, and to give it contrary perfuafion, 
 by deluding it with the principal founds of each chords 
 in fuch a manner as to render it forgetful of the other 
 founds neceiTary to their completion. Yet the oflave 
 of the principal found, produces new relations, and 
 new confonances, -by the completion of the intervals : 
 th^y coraraoHly add this oaa-ve,. to li-3v.e th€ affem- 
 
C H O [ 704 ] 
 
 Chords intervals, the Hiarps in the higher part, are proper by the firfl 
 
 ., their feveritv to exprefs violent emotion 
 Chorepifco- . , /„ „„j V„ , ir. 
 
 pus 
 
 of mind, 
 
 fuch as anger and the rouglier paffions. On the con- 
 trary, flats in the higher parts, and diminifhed inter- 
 vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart. 
 There are a multitude of fimilar obfervations, of 
 which when a mufician knows h' w to avail himfelf, 
 he may command at will the affedlions of thofe who 
 hear him. 
 
 2. The choice of fimple intervals is fcarcely of lefs 
 importance than that of the chords^ with regard to 
 the ftations in which they ought to be placed. It is, 
 for inftance, in the lower parts that the fifth and oc- 
 tave fhould be ufed in preference ; in the upper parts, 
 the third and fixth are more proper. If you tranfpofe 
 this order, the harmony will be ruined even tho' the 
 fame chords are preferved. 
 
 3. In a word, the chords are rendered ftill more 
 harmonious, by being approximated and only divided 
 by the fmalleft prafticable intervals, which are more 
 fuitable to the capacity of the ear than fuch as are re- 
 mote. This is what we call contrading the harmony, 
 an art which few compofers have flcill and abihties 
 enough to put in practice. The Hmits in the natural 
 compafs of voices, afford an additional reafon for lef- 
 fening the diftance of the intervals, which compofe 
 the harmony of the chorus, as much as poffible. We 
 may affirm, that a chorus is improperly corapofed, 
 when the diftance between the chords iucreafes ; when 
 thofe who perform the different parts are obliged to 
 fcream ; wiien the voices rife above their natural ex- 
 tent, and are fo remotely diftant one from the other 
 that the perception of harmonical relations between 
 them is loft. 
 
 We fay likewife, that an inftrument is in concord 
 when the intervals between its fixed founds are what 
 they ought to be; we fay In this fenfe, that the chords 
 of an inftrnment are true or falfe, that it preferves or 
 does not preferve its chords. The fame form of fpeak- 
 ing Is ufed for two voices which fing together, or for 
 tvvo founds which are heard at the fame time, whether 
 in unlfon or In parts. 
 
 Chords, or Cords, of Mu/ical In/lnmenis, are 
 firings, by the vibration of which the fenfation of found 
 is excited, and by the divifions of which the feveral de- 
 grees of tone are determined. 
 
 CHORDEE, In medicine and furgery, a fympton 
 attending a gonorrhoea, confifting in a violent pain 
 under the frenum, and along the duA of the urethra, 
 during the eredllon of the penis, which Is Incurvated 
 downwards. Thefe eredlions are frequent and invo- 
 luntary. 
 
 CHOREASancti ViTi. See FiTUs's Dance. 
 
 CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient 
 church, about whofe funftlon the learned are ex- 
 tremely divided. The word comes from z^f'^f a re- 
 gion, or little country, and iricM-ro;, a b't/loop, or tmer- 
 
 The choreplfcopi were fufftagan or local ialffiops, 
 holding a middle rank between biftiops and preft)yters, 
 and delegated to exerclfe epifcopal juiifdidlion within 
 certain diftrlfts, when the boundaries of particular 
 churches, over which feparate biftiops prefided, were 
 ,confiderably enlarged. It is not certain when this of- 
 fice was firft introduced : fome trace it to the clofe of 
 
 G H 0 
 
 ccatupy 5 others tell us, that choreptfcopi Chorapifco- 
 
 were not known In the eaft till the beginning of the 
 fourth century ; and in the weft about the year 4^9. 
 They ceafed both In the eaft and weft in the tenth , 
 century. 
 
 CHOREpiscorus Is alfo the name of a dignity ftill 
 fubfifting in fome cathedrals, particularly in Ger- 
 many ; fignifying the fame with chori cplfcopus, or 
 " bilhop of the choir." The word. In this lenie, does 
 not come from yy^'^g^ place, but A.'^of, choir. Sec. In 
 the church of Cologne, &c. the firft chanter is called 
 chorep'ifcopus, 
 
 CHOREUS, xo^f,©-, a foot in the ancient poetry, 
 more commonly c^Wtd trochttus. See Trochee. 
 
 CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a foot con- 
 fifting of four fyllables, whereof the firft and laft arc 
 long, and the two middle ones are ftiort ; or, which 
 is the fame thing. It is made up of a trochatus and 
 iambus : fuch is the word nohilttas. 
 
 CHORION, in anatomy, the exterior membrane 
 which invcils the foetus in the uterus. See Foetus. 
 
 CHOROBATA, or Chorobates; a kind of wa- 
 ter level among the ancients, of the figure of the let- 
 ter T, according to Vitruvius's defcription. 
 
 CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map ot 
 fome country or province. 
 
 Chorography differs from geography, as the de- 
 fcription of a particular country differs from that of 
 the, whole earth; and from topography, as the de- 
 fcription of a country is different from that of a town 
 or diftria. See the articles Geogr,aphy, Topogra- 
 phy, and Map. 
 
 CHOROIDES. or Choroeides, In anatomy, a 
 term applied to feveral parts of the body ; bearing fome 
 refemblance to the chorion. The word is formed from 
 X°g'<>^, chorion, and Ukenejs. 
 
 Choroides is particularly ufed for the Inner mem- 
 brane which Immediately invefts the brain ; fo called 
 as being Intermingled with a great number of blood- 
 veffek, like the chorion: but more ufually denominated 
 the pia mater, or meninx tenuis. 
 
 Plexus or Lacis Choroides, is a knot of veins and 
 arteries In the anterior ventricle of the brain, woven 
 out of the branches of the carotid. 
 
 Choroides is alfo applied to the inner and pofte- 
 rlor tunic ■ of the eye, immediately under the fclerotl- 
 ca. It Is foft, thin, and black ; asd Its inner or 
 concave furface is very fmooth and polifhed. It has 
 its name from Its being interfperfed with veffels. 
 
 CHORUS^, in dramatic poetry, one or more per- 
 fons prefent on the ftage during the reprefentation, 
 and fuppofed to be by-ftanders without any fhare ia 
 the aftion. 
 
 Tragedy in Its origin was no more than a fingle 
 chorus, who trod the ftage alone, and without any 
 adors, finging dithyramblcs or hymns in honour of 
 Bacchus. Thefpis, to relieve the chorus, added an 
 adlor, who rehearfed the adventures of fome of their 
 heroes ; and jEfchylus, finding a fingle perfon too dry 
 an entertainment, added a fecond, at the fame time 
 reducing the finging ^of the chorus, to make more 
 room for the recitatipn. But when once tragedy be- 
 gan to be formed, the recitative, which at firit was in- 
 tended only as an acceffory part to give the chorus a 
 breathing time, became a principal part of the trage- 
 * dy. 
 
 Chorus, 
 
C H O 
 
 Chorus. 
 II 
 
 Chofrnes. 
 
 [ ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 dy. At length, liovvever, the chorus became inferted town of the Romans, where Maurlcius the emperor 
 and Incorporated into the a£lion ; fcmetinies it was to received him kind]y, and fent an army under Narfes, 
 fpeak ; and then their chief, whom they called cory- 
 phacus,- fpoke in behalf of the reft : the iinging was 
 peiiormed by the whole company ; fo that wlien the 
 coryphieus ftruck into a fong, the chorus immediately 
 joined him. 
 
 The chorus fomfetimes alfo joined the aftors In the 
 courfe of the reprefentation, with their plaints and la- 
 
 which fet him again upon the throne. He took Je- 
 rufalem ; after tliis he made himfelf mafter of Libya 
 and Egypt, and carried Carthage. Heraclius fued for 
 peace ; which was oflFered him on condition, That he 
 and his fuhje&sJJjould dmy Jefus Chrijl : Hereupon He- 
 raclius attacked him with fuccefs, and put him to 
 fliafht. His own fon purfaed him, and he was ftarved 
 
 mentations on account of any unhappy accidents that in prifon in 627. 
 befcl them : but the proper fundtion, and that for CHOUCH, in ornithology, the trivial name of a 
 
 which it feemed chiefly retained, was to fhow the In- fpecics of Corvus. 
 
 ttrvals of the a£ls : while the adors were behind the CHOUS, in the eaftern military orders, the title 
 
 fcenes, the chorus engaged the fpedtators; their fongs of the meflengers of the divan of Janifarles. There are 
 
 iifually turned on what was exhibited, and were not feveral degrees of honour in this p»ft. When a perfon 
 
 to contain any thing but what was fuited to the fub- is firft advanced to it, he is called a cuchiiky or little 
 
 and had a natural conneftion with it ; fo that the chotis; after this he Is advanced to be the alloy choiis ; 
 
 chorus conci-irred with the actors for advancing the ac- that is, the mefTenger of ceremonies; and from this, 
 
 tion. In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid afide, having pafTed through the office of pete/ma, or procu- 
 
 and the fiddles fupply its place. M. Dacier looks on rator of the efFefts of the body, he Is. advanced to be 
 
 this retrenchment as of ill confequence, and thinks It the bas choiis. 
 
 robs tragedy of a great part of Its hittre ; he therefore CHOWDER-beer, a provincial phrafe of Devon- 
 judges It neceflary to re-eftablifli it, not only on ac- fhire, denoting a cheap and eafily prepared drink, 
 count of the regularity of the piece, but alfo to cor- highly commended for preventing the fcur\y In long 
 red, by prudent and virtuous refledions, any extrava- voyages, or for the cure of it where It may have been 
 gances that might fall from the mouths of the adors contraded. It is prepared in the following manner : 
 
 when imder any violent paffion. 
 
 M. Dacier obferved alfo, that there was a chorus, 
 orgrex, in the ancient comedy: but this IsfupprelTed 
 in the new comedy, becaufe It was ufed to reprove 
 vices by attacking particular pcrfons ; as the chorus of 
 the tragedy was laid alide to give tlie greater pro- 
 bability to thofe kinds of Intrigue which require fe- 
 
 ;recy. 
 
 Take twelve gallons of water, In which put three 
 pounds and a half of black fpruce : boil It for three 
 hours, and having taken out the fir or fpruce, mix 
 with the liquor feven pounds of melalfes, and jull 
 boil It up ; Itrain it through a fieve, and when milk 
 warm put to it about four fpoonfuls of veil to work 
 It. In two or three days Hop the buno- of the calk ; 
 and In five or fix days, when fine, bottle it for driniving. 
 Chorus, in mufic, is when, at certain periods of Tavo gallons of melaffes are lufficieut for an hogihead 
 a fong, the whole company are to join the finger in of liquor ; but if melafies cannot be procured, t ivaclo 
 repeating certain couplets or verfes. or coarfe fugar will anfwerthe purpofe. 
 
 CHOSE, (Fr.) " a thing iifed in the common CHREMNITZ, the principal of the nine-towns in 
 law with divers epithets ; as chofe local, chofe tranftorvy ITpper Hungary, fituated about 68 miles north-eall 
 and ckoft' in adion. Chofe _ local is fuch a thing as "is of Prefburg, and fubjed to the houfe-of Auftrla. E. 
 annexed to a place, as a m]\l and the like; chofe tran- Long. 19. N. Lat. 48. 45. 
 
 fitory Is that thing which Is moveable, and may be ta- CHRENECllUDA, a term occurring In writeis 
 ken away, or carried from place to place; and chofe of. the middle age, and exprefllng a cuftom of thole 
 in adion is a thing Incorporeal, and only a r/V^/, as an times; but Its fignlficatlon Is doubtful. It is men- 
 obligation for debt, annuity, &c. And generally all tloned in Lege Salica, Tit. 61. which fays, he who kills 
 caufes of fuit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be a man, and hath not wherewithal to fatisfy the law or 
 accounted chofes in adion : and It feems, chofe In ac- pay the fine, makes oath that he has delivered up every 
 tion may be alio called choft in fufpence ; becaufe It thing he was poiTelTed of ; the truth of which mufl be 
 liath no real exiftence or being, nor can-properly be confirmed by the oaths of 12 other perfons. Then he 
 faid to be in our poffeffion. ^ invites his next relations by the father's fide to pay 
 
 CHOSROES I. the Great, kliig of Perfia, after oft" the remainder of the fine, having firil made over 
 his father Cabades, A. D. 532. He made peace with to them all his effeds by the following ceremony. He 
 the Romans ; but broke It the third year, and forced goes Into his houfe, and taking In his hand a fmall 
 juftinian to a difadvantageous peace. Afterward, he quantity of dufl; from each of the four corners, he re- 
 
 was fo fvvclled with his vidories, as to bid the empe 
 ror's ambaflador follow him for audience to Ca;farea : 
 but Tiberius fcnt an army under Juftinian ; who made 
 himftlf mailer of the country, and put Chofroes to 
 death in 586. 
 
 Chosr^es II. His fubjeds put his father Hormif- 
 das in pjnfon, ai;d tlie fr.n upon the throne of Perfia. 
 He ufed his father tenderly at firft; but afterwards 
 
 turns to the door, and with his face Inwards throws 
 the dull with his left hand over his fhoulders upon his 
 neareft of kin. Which done, he ftrlps to his fhirt ; 
 and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over 
 the hedge. His relations, whether one or feveral, are 
 upon this obliged to pay off the compofition for the 
 murder. And If thefe (or any one of them) are not 
 able to pay, iter urn fuper ilium chremcruda, qui pauperior 
 
 caufed him to be put to death. This, together with ejl, jaciat, et ille totam legem componat. Whence it ap- 
 his kilhng fome of the nobility, obliged him to fly: he pears, that chrenecruda jaSare, Is the fame with throw- 
 gavt his horfe the bridle, which carried him into a ir " " 
 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 ing the duft, gathered from the fowr corners of the 
 4 U houfe. 
 
 Chouch 
 
C H R I 706 ] 
 
 Chnfm houfe. Guldallus and Spelman tranflate it virUem 
 11. herbam, *' green grafs," from the German kraut^ 
 y^''^' or from the Dutch o-ro^n, " grecn,"_ and^?n/,Y/, " grafs." 
 
 Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that 
 by this word denotari pur'ijicatioms approhationem., from 
 chrein^ " pure, chafte, clean;" and^fwmz, " to prove 
 fo that it muft refer to the oaths of the twelve jurors. 
 Be this as it will, king Childebert reformed this law 
 by a decree, chap. 11;. both becaufe it favoured of 
 pagan ceremonies, and -becaufe feveral perions were 
 thereby obliged to make over all their effects : De 
 chrenecruda lex quam paganorum tempore obftrvabant, de- 
 inceps nunquam valeat, quia per ipfam cecidit rnultcrwn 
 poteftas. 
 
 CHRISM (from ;>:/"<'•> oil confecrated by 
 
 the blfliop, and ufed in the Romifh andGreek churches, 
 in the adminiftration of baptifm, confirmation, ordi- 
 nation, and extreme unftion, which is prepared on 
 holy Thurfday with much ceremony. In Spain it was 
 anciently the cuftom for the bifhop to take one third 
 of a fol for the chrifm diflributed to each church, on 
 account of the balfam that entered its compofition. 
 
 Du Cange obferves, that there are two kinds of 
 chrifm ; the one prepared of oil and balfam, ufed in 
 baptifm, confirmation, and ordination ; the other of 
 oil alone, confecrated by the bifhop, ufed anciently 
 for the catechumens, and ftill in extreme unftion. The 
 Maronites, before their reconciKation Avith Rome, be- 
 fides oil and balfam, ufed mufk, fafiron, cinnamon, 
 rofes, white frankincenfe, and feveral other drugs men- 
 tioned by Rynaldus, in 1541, with the dofes of each. 
 The Jefuit Dandini, who v/£nt to mount Libanus in 
 quality of the pope's nuncio, ordained, in a fynod held 
 there in 1596, that chrifm for the future fhould be 
 made only of two ingredients, oil and balfam ; the one 
 reprefenting the human nature of Jefus Chrift, the 
 other his divine nature. The aftion of impofing the 
 chrifm is called chrifmation : this the generality of the 
 Romifh divines hold to be the next matter of the fa- 
 cramcnt of confirmation. 
 
 The chrifmation in baptifm is performed by the 
 prieft ; that in confirmation by the birtiop ; that in 
 ordination, &c. is more ufually ftyled unSion. 
 
 Chrism Pence, Chrismatis Denarii, or Chrismales 
 Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to the bifliop by the 
 parifh-clergy, for their chrifm, confecrated at Eafter 
 for the enfuing yearr : this was afterwards condemned 
 as fimoniacal. 
 
 CHRISOM, Chrismale, was anciently the face- 
 cloth or piece of linen laid over the child's head when 
 it was baptized. Whence, in our bills of mortality, 
 children who die in the month are called chrifoms. The 
 time between the child's birth and baptifm was alfo 
 called chrifomus. 
 
 CHRIST, an appellation fynonymous with Mefiah, 
 ufually added to Jefus : and, together therewith, de- 
 nominating the Saviour of the world. See Christi- 
 anity and Messiah. 
 
 The word Xf^^®" figalfie^ anointed, irom Xf"^'-> inungo, 
 '* I anoint." Sometimes the word Chriji is uied fingly, 
 by way of atUonoma/is, to denote a perfon fent from 
 Ged, as an anointed prophet, king, or prieft. 
 
 Order -fof Christ, a mihtary order, founded by Dio^ 
 nyfius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles againft 
 the Moors. — The arms of this order are gules, patri- 
 archal crofs, charged with aupther crofs argent : they 
 
 e H R 
 
 had thcjr vcfiden^e at firfl at Caftromarin > aftcrwavUs Ohrift 
 they removed to the city of Thomar, as being nearer 
 to the Moors of Andalufia, and Eftremadura. _ _ jjjjy, 
 
 Christ is alfo the name of a military order in Li- 
 vonla, inftitutcd in 1205 by Albert bifhop of Riga. 
 The end of this inllitution was to defend the new 
 Chriflians, who were converted every day in Livonia, 
 but were perfecuted by the heathens. They \Tove on 
 their cloaks a fword with a crofs over it, whence they 
 were alfo denominated brothers of the fujord. 
 
 CwRisf-Burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake 
 Dratlfen, and about three Polifh miles from Marien- 
 burgh. . 
 
 CHRiST'Church, a borough-town of Hampfliire, 30 
 miles fouth-weft of Wincheiler, near the fea-coaft. W. 
 Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to 
 parliament. 
 
 CHRisT-Thorn, in botany. See Rhamnus. 
 CHRISTIAN. See Christianity and Chr-i- 
 
 STIANS. 
 
 Mrfl Chris tun King, one of the titles of the king 
 of France. 
 
 The French antiquaries trace the origin of this ap- 
 pellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a 
 letter to Charles Martel, occafionally gave him that 
 title, which his fucceffors have fince retained. 
 
 Christian Religion, that inilituted by Jefus Chrift. 
 See Christianity. i 
 
 CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chriftians. The Origin of: 
 word 16 analogically derived, as other abttrafts from the worA» 
 their concretes, from the adjeftive Chrijlian. This 
 again is derived frorn the name x^TOf, Cbrijlus, froia. 
 the word x?^<---, I anoint. Chrift is called the anointed., ^ 
 from a cuftom which extenfively prevailed in anti- 
 quity, and was originally faid to be of divine inftitu- 
 tion, of anointing perfons in the facerdotal or regal 
 charafter, as a public fignal of their confecration to 
 their important offices, and as a teftimony that hea- 
 ven itfelf was the guarantee of that relation which 
 then commenced between the perfons thus confecra- 
 ted and their fubordinates.. _ 2 
 
 The difciples of Jefus, after the death of their teach-By what 
 er, had for fome time been called Na%arenes, from name the 
 Nazareth in Galilee where he dwelt; which after- apoftles^ 
 wards became the delignation of a particular fcft. J^^'^^g^jf^, 
 They, who adopted the principles and profefTed thced. 
 religion which he taught, were firft diftinguiflied by 
 the name of Chriflians at Antioch. That profefGon, 
 and thofe doflrines, we now proceed to delineate with 
 as much perfpicuity as the limits of our plan will ad- 
 rait, yet with the concifenefs which a work, fo multi- 
 form and extenfive requires. 3 
 
 When a Chriftian is interrogated concerning the Delineation 
 nature and foundation of his faith and practice, his ul- '^'^ Chriflia-. 
 timate reference, his laft appeal, is to the fa£ls, the 
 dodlrines, and the injunftions, contained in the books 
 of the Old and New Teftament. From thefe, there- 
 fore, and from thefe alone, muft every fair account, or 
 the materials of which it is^compofed, be extrafted or 
 deduced. Other formularies, or confeffions of faith, , 
 may, according to the Chriftian, deferve more or lefs 
 attention, as they are more or lefs immediately con- 
 tained or implied in the fcriptures. But whatever is 
 HQt aftually expreffed in, or deduced by fair and ne- 
 ceffary confequence from, thefe writings, muft be re- 
 garded as merely htiman ; and can have no other title 
 
 to 
 
nity. 
 
 Account of 
 
 C U K [ yo 
 
 to oar fiffent and obfervation than what tTiey derive 
 from their conformity with the fcriptures, with the 
 di£\:ates and fech'ngs of a reformed and cultivated 
 mind, or with thofe meafures which are foimd expe- 
 dient and ufeful in human life. But as thofe books, 
 from whence the Chriltian inveftigates his principles of 
 belief and rules of conduft, have been variouHy inter- 
 preted by different profefTors and commentators, thefe 
 diverQties- havt given birth to a multiplicity of diffe- 
 rent feda. It cannot, therefore, be expeded, that 
 any one who undertakes to give an account of Chri- 
 ftianity, fliould comprehend all the writings and opi- 
 nions which have been propagated and exhibited by 
 hiftorical, fyftematical, or polemical authors. Thefe, 
 if at all contained in fuch a work as this, Ihould be 
 ranged under their proper articles, whether fcientiHcal, 
 controverlial, or biographical. It is our prefent bu- 
 fniefs, if pofiible, to confine ourfelves to a detail of fuch 
 fads and dodrines as, in the ftrid and primitive fenfe 
 of the word, are cat/jo/ir, or in other expreffions, to 
 fuch US uniformly have been, and ftill are, recognifed 
 nd admitted by the v/aole body of Chriftlaas. 
 We have already faid that thefe, or at leaft the 
 r'^'whence number of them, appeal to the fcriptures of 
 
 ^edi^iblT^ the Old and New teftament as the ultimate ftandard, 
 the only infallible rule of faith and manners. If you 
 afk them, by what authority thefe books claim an ab- 
 folute right to determine the coniciences and under- 
 flandinga of men wiih regard to what they fliould be- 
 lieve and what they fhould do i they will anfwer you, 
 that all fcripture, whether for dodrine, corredion, or 
 reproof, was given by immediate infpiration from 
 S God. . 
 
 The nature again you interrogate them how thofe books, 
 which \hey call Scrlpiure, are authenticated ? they re- 
 ply, that the evidences by which the Old and New 
 Teftament are proved to be the Word of God, are 
 cither external or internal. The external may again 
 be divided into dired or collateral. The dired evi- 
 dences are fuch as arife from the nature, confiftency, 
 and probability, of the fads; and from the fimplicity, 
 uniformity, competency, and fidelity, of the teftimonies 
 by which they are fupported. The collateral events, 
 are either the fame occurrences fupported by Hea- 
 then teftimonies, or others which concur with and 
 corroborate the hiftory of Chriilianity. Its internal 
 evidences arife either from its exad conformity with 
 the charader of God, from its aptitude to the frame 
 and circuniftances of man, or from thofe fupernatural 
 convidions and affiftances which are impreifed on the 
 mind by the immediate operation of the divine Spirit. 
 Thefe can only be mentioned in a curfory manner in 
 a detail fo concife as the prefent. 
 
 Such fads as are related in the hiftory of his reli- 
 gion, the Chriftian afferts to be not only confiftent 
 each with itfelf, but like wife one with another. Hence 
 it 13, that, by a feries of antecedents and confequen- 
 ces, they corroborate each other, and form a chain 
 ^'hich cannot be broken but by an abfolute fubver- 
 -fion of all hiftorical authenticity. Nor is this all: for, 
 according to him, the fade on which Chriftianity is 
 founded, not only conftitute a feries of themfelves, 
 >)«t are Ukewife in f^eral periods the beft refources 
 for fupplying the chauns in the hiftor)' of our nature, 
 
 7 3 
 
 C H R 
 
 ff its, evi 
 delictus. 
 
 Hf^w Chri 
 ftf'aiiity is 
 ;ft:pported 
 
 and prefervi'ng the tenor of its annals entire. The Chnftia*^. 
 fads themfelves are either natural or fupernatural. '"'^ y- ^ 
 By natural fads we mean fuch occurrences as happen ^ 
 or may happen from the^various opei-ations of mecha- 
 nical powers, or from the interpofition of natural 
 agents wathout higher affillants. Such are all the com- 
 mon occurrences of hiftory, whether natural, biogra- 
 phical, or civil. By fupernatural fads, we mean fuch 
 as could not have been produced without the interpo- 
 fition of Deity, or at leaft of powers fuperior to the 
 laws of mechahifm or the agency of embodied fpirits. 
 Among thefe may be reckoned the immediate change 
 of water into wine, the inftantaneous cure of difeafcs 
 witliout the interventicm of medicine, the rcfufcitation 
 of the dead, and others of the fame kind. In this or^ 
 der of occurrences may likewife be numbered the ex- 
 ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, w'here the 
 perfons by whom thefe extraordinary talents were 
 difplayed could neither by penetration nor conjedure 
 unravel the mazes of futurity, and trace tl^e events of 
 which they fpoke from their primary caufes to then- 
 remote completions So that they muft have been 
 the paflive organs of fome fuperior Being, to whom 
 the whole concatenation of caufes and effeds which 
 operate from the origin to the confumraation of na- 
 ture, was obvious at a glance of thought. ^ 
 
 It has already been hinted, that the fads which we Natural 
 have called natural, not only agree with the analogy fads.^whaf, 
 of human events, and corroborate each other, but in cojjtjij^^e 
 a gr-eat many emergencies nobly illuftrate the hiftory to the elu- 
 of nature in general For this a Chriftian might offer cidati.jn of 
 one inftance, of which philofophy will not perhaps be ^^'^"'"T* 
 able to produce any tolerable folution, without having 
 recourfe to the fails upon which Chriftianity is founded. 
 For if mankind were originally defccnded from one 
 pair alone, how ihould it have happened that long be- 
 fore the date of authentic hiftory every nation had 
 its own diftind language? Or if it be fuppofed, as 
 fome late philofophers have maintained, that man is 
 an indigenous animal in every country ; or, that he 
 was originally produced in, and created for, each par- 
 ticular foil and climate which he inhabits ; ftill it may 
 be demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the 
 immenfe divcrfity, of languages ? Is the language of 
 every nation intuitive, or were they didated by exi- 
 gences, and eftabliihed by convention ? If the laft of 
 thefe fuppofitiohs be true, what an immenfe period of 
 time muft have paffed ? How many revolutions of ma- 
 terial and intelledual nature muft have happened \ 
 What acceffions of knowledge, refinement, civih'za- 
 tixDn, muft human intercourfe have gained before the 
 formation and eftablifhment even of the moft fimple, 
 imperfed, and barbr.rous language ? Why is a period 
 fo vaft, obliterated fo entirely as to efcape the retra»« 
 fped of hiftory, of tradition, and even of fable itfelf? 
 Why was the acquifition and improvement of other 
 arts lo infinitely diftant from that of language, that 
 the sera of the latter i-s entirely loft, whilft we can 
 trace the former from their origin through the vari- g ' 
 ous gi-adations of their progrefs. = This obftu- 
 
 Thefe difficulties, inextricable by all the lights of rity incx- 
 hiilory or philofophy, this more than Cimmerian dark- 
 ncfs, is immediately diffipated by the Mofaij account f^^^. ** 
 of tlie confufiofi of tongues; wifely intended to fepa- count, 
 4 U 2 rate 
 
C H R [ 708 1 C 
 
 Chrift'ia- rate the tribes of men one from another, to replenifh force of each in particalar 
 i-'^y* the furface of the globe, and to give its multiplied in- 
 habitants thofe opportunities of improvement which 
 might be derived fram experiment and indultry, va- 
 rioufly exerted, according to the different htuations in 
 which they were placed, and the different employ- 
 ments which thefe Situations diftated. Thus the time 
 of nature's exiftence is limited to a period within the 
 ken of human intelleft. Thus whatever has happen- 
 ed might have happened during the prefent mode of 
 things ; whereas, if we deduce the origin and diverfity 
 of language from a period fo remotely diftant as to be 
 abfolutely' loft, and entirely detached from all the 
 known occurrences and viciffitudes of time, we muft 
 admit the prefent forms and arrangements of things 
 to have fublifted perhaps for a much longer duration 
 than any mechanical philofopher will allow to be pof- 
 fible. Other inftanccs equally pregnant with convic- 
 tion might be multipKcd ; but, precluded by the limits 
 of our plan, we proceed to a Tingle obfervation upon 
 ^ the fafts which have been termed fupermituniL 
 Miracles, Of thofe changes which happen in fenfible objefts, 
 how con- fenfation alone can be judge. Reafon has nothing to 
 ^"'^'^'^the matter. She may draw conclufions from 
 
 truth of the teftimonles of fenfe, but can never refute them. 
 Chriftiani- If, therefore, our fenfes inform us that fnow is white, 
 in vain would the moft learned and fubtile philofopher 
 endeavour to convince us that it was of a contrary 
 colour. He might confound us, but never could per- 
 fuade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hap- 
 
 pen in fcnfible obje£ls, muft either be real or fallaci- their perfonal diftlndlon. 
 ous. If real, the miracle is admitted ; if fallacious, fame nature and properti 
 
 H R 
 
 See alfo the works of Dr 
 Hard : confult likewife thofe of Newton, Sherlock, 
 Chandler, &c. For the evidences of thofe preternatu- 
 ral fails which have been termed miradcs, the reader 
 may pernfc a fliort bat elegant and conclulVe defence 
 of thefe aftonlfliing phenomena, in anfwerto Mr Hume, 
 by the Rev. George Campbell, D. D. ,t 
 
 It muft be obvious to every refletling mind, that Properties 
 whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion ^yj"'"-'" ^ 
 a priori, or contemplate thofe which have been already '^ij^^^ 
 exhibited, certain fads, principles, or Jcifa, muft be 
 pre-eftabliihed, from whence will reiult a particular 
 fr^me of mind and conrfe of aftion fuitable to the 
 character and dignity of that Being by whom th^ re- 
 ligion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and fitu- 
 ation of thofe agents who are comnranded to obTerve 
 it. Hence CbrijUamty may be divided into crcdcnda 
 or doftrines, and agenda or precepts. \^ 
 
 As the great foundation of his religion, therefore, Chriftia; 
 the Chriftian believes the exiftence and government "^'"^'^'"t' 
 of one eternal and inllnite Effence, which for ever re- 
 tains in itfelf the caufe of its own exiftence,' and inhe- 
 rently pofteffes all thofe perfeclions which are com- 
 patible with its nature : fuch are, its almighty power, 
 omnifclent wifdom, infinite juftice, boundlefs good- 
 nefs, and univerfal prefence. In this indivifible ef- 
 fence the Chriftian recognifes three diftincl fubfift- 
 ences, yet diftinguifhed in fuch a manner as not to be 
 incompatible with eflential unity or fimplicity of be- 
 Nor is their eftential union incompatible with 
 Each of them pofTeifes tlie 
 es to the fame extent. As, 
 
 , there muft be a caufe of deception equally unaccount- 
 
 able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally 
 miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the 
 witneffes be queflioned, the Chriftian anfwers, that 
 they muft be competent, becaufe the fails which they 
 relate are not beyond their capacity to determine. 
 They muft likewife be faithful, becaufe they had no 
 fecular motives for maintaining, but many for fuppref- 
 ling or difguifing, what they teftified. Now the Chri- 
 i ilian appeals to the whole ferles of hlftory and expe- 
 rience, whether fuch a man is or can be found, as will 
 10 offer a voluntary, folcmn, and deliberate facrifice of 
 Prophecy truth at the fhrine of caprice. But fuch fails as after 
 evident hy ^ continuance of time have been found exaftly 
 
 turekide-^' agreeable to predictions formerly emitted, muft fu- 
 pendent of perfede the fidelity of teftimony, and infallibly prove 
 'xu vehicles, ^-jjat the event was known to the Being by whom it 
 was foretold. In vain has it been urged, that prophe- 
 cies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though they 
 may prefigure fubordinate events, yet if the grand oc- 
 currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone 
 fulfil them in their various circumftances, and in their 
 utmoft extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom 
 they were revealed muft have been ailually prefcient 
 of thofe events, and muft have had them in view when 
 the prediilions were uttered. For this fee a learned 
 and ingenioas Dlflertation on the Credibility of Gof- 
 pel-hiftory, by Dr M'Knight ; where the evidences 
 urged by the Chriftian in defence of his tenets, v^-hlck 
 appear detached and fcattered through innumerable 
 volume*, are affembled and arranged in fuch a manner 
 as to derive -ftrength and luftre from the method in 
 which they ai'e difpofed, without dimiuifliing the 
 
 therefore, they are conftituent of one God, if we may 
 ufe the expreffion, there is none of them fubordinate, 
 none fupreme. The only way by which the Chriftian 
 can difcrimlnate them is, by their various relations, 
 properties, and oifices. Thus the Father is faid eter- 
 nally to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally begot- 
 ten of the Father, and the Holy Ghoft eternally to 
 proceed from both. 
 
 This infinite Being, though abfolutely independent 
 and for ever fufficlent for his own beatitude, was gra- 
 cioufly pleafed to create an univerfe replete with in- 
 ferior intelligences, who might for ever contemplate 
 and enjoy his glory, participate his happlnefs, and imi- 
 tate his perfeilions. But as freedom of will is effen- 
 tial to the nature of moral agents, that they may co- 
 operate with God in their own improvement and hap- 
 pinefs, fo their natures and powers are neceffarily li- 
 mited, and by that conftitution rendered peccable 
 This degeneracy firft took place in a rank of intelli- 
 gence fuperior to man. But guilt is never ftationary. 
 Impatient of itfelf, and curfed with its own feelings, it 
 proceeds from bad to worfe, whilft the poignancy ot 
 its torments increafes with the number of its perpe- 
 trations. Such was the lituation of Satan and his apo- 
 ftate angels. They attempted to transfer their tur- 
 pitude and mifery to man ; and were, alas 1 but too 
 fuccefsful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcilc- 
 able principles which operate in his nature. Hence 
 that inexplicable medley of wifdoiu and folly, of rec- 
 titude and error, of benevolence and maligiiity, of ila- 
 cerity and fraud, exhibited through his Whole con- 
 du£l. Hence the darknefs of his underftanding, the 
 depravity of.his wall, the pollution of hi^eart, the ir- 
 
 \ re*galarity 
 
C H R [ 
 
 Chriflli- regularity of h"s afFe£llons, and the abfolae fabverfion 
 ""y- of his whole internal economy. Thefe feeds ofp'.r- 
 * dition foon ripened into overt afts of guilt and horror. 
 All the hoftilitles of nature were confronted, and the 
 whole fublunary creation became a theatre of diiorder 
 and mifchlef. 
 
 Here the Chriflian once more appeals to faA and 
 experience. If thefe things are lo ; if man is the 
 vefTel of guilt and the vifhim of mifery ; he demands 
 how this conftitution of things can b^ accounted for? 
 how can it be fuppofed, that a being fo wicked and 
 unhappy Ihould be the produdtion of an infinitely per- 
 itSt Creator? He therefore infills, that human nature 
 muft have been difarranged and contaminated by 
 fome violent fliock; and that, of confequence, without 
 the light difTuled over the face of things by Chriftianity, 
 all nature muft lemain an infcrutable and inexplicable 
 ftfyftery. 
 
 To redrefs thefe evils, to re-eftablifh the empire of 
 virtue and happinefs, to reftore the nature of man 
 to its primitive rcftttude, to fatisfy the remonftran- 
 ces of infinite juilice, to putify every original or con- 
 tracfted ftain, to expiate the guilt and deftroy the 
 power of vice, the eternal Son of God, vhe fecond Per- 
 fon of the facred Trinity, the Logos or Divine Word, 
 the Redeemer or Saviour of the world, the Immanutl 
 or God with us, from whom Chriftianity takes its 
 name, and to whom it owes its origin, defcended from 
 the bofom of his Father ; alFumed the human nature ; 
 became the reprefentative of man ; endured a fevere 
 probation in that charadler ; exhibited a pattern of 
 perfeft righteoufnefs ; and at laft ratified his doArine, 
 and fully accompllftied all the ends of his miflion, by 
 a cruel, unmerited, and ignominious death. Before 
 he left this world, he delivered the dofttine of human 
 falvation, and the rules of human conduft, to his 
 apoftles, whom he empowered to inftruft the world in 
 all that concerned their eternal felicit}^ and whom he 
 inverted with miraculous gifts to afcertain the reality 
 of what they taught. To them he likewife promifed 
 another comforter, even the Divine Spirit, who (hould 
 relume the darknefs, confole the woes, and purify the 
 ftains, of human nature. Having remained for a part 
 of three days under the power of death, he arofe 
 again from the grave, difcovered himfelf to his dif- 
 ciples, converfed with them for fome time, then re- 
 afcended to heaven ; from whence the Chriftian ex- 
 petts him, according to his promife, to appear as the 
 Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead, from 
 whofe awards there is no appeal, and by whofe fen- 
 tence the deftiny of the pious and the wicked ftiall be 
 eternally fixed. 
 
 Soon after his departure to the right hand of his 
 Father, where, in his human nature, he fits fupreme 
 of all created beings, and inverted with the abfolute 
 adminiftration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace 
 and confolation defcended on his aportles with vifible 
 fignatures of divine |jower and prefence. Nor were 
 his falutary operations confined to them, but extend- 
 ed to all the rational world, who did not by obftinate 
 guilt repel his influences, and provoke him to with- 
 draw them. Thefe, indeed, were lefs confpicuous 
 than at the glorious aera when they were vifibly exhi- 
 bited in the perfons of the apoftles. But though his 
 
 709 ] C H R 
 
 energy is lefs obfervable, it is by no means lefs efFeftual Chnflia- 
 to all the purpofes of grace and mercy. , . 
 
 The Chriftian is convinced, that there is and rtiall 
 cont!;;u;; to be a fociety upon earth, who worrtiip God 
 as revealed in Jefus Chrift; who believe his doftrines ; 
 who obferve his pr.^cepts ; and who fliall be faved by 
 his death, and by the ufe of thefe external means of 
 falvation which he hath appointed. *3 
 
 Thefe are few and fimple. The facraments oi^^^^^^^ 
 baptifm and the eucharift, the interpretation and ap- of Chriftia- 
 piication of fcripture, the habitual exercife of public nity, what, 
 and private devotion, are obvioufly calculated to dif- ^"'^ hovy 
 fufe and promote the interefts of truth and virtue, by j^'f^th^^^*^ 
 fuperinducing the falutary habits of faith, love, and re- end. 
 pentance. 
 
 The Chriftian is firmly perfuaded, that at the con- 
 fumraation of things, when the purpofes of providence 
 in the various revolutions of progreflive nature are, 
 accomplirtied, thfe whole human race fliall once more 
 irt'ue from their graves ; fome to immortal felicity, 
 from the aftual perception and enjoyment of their 
 Creator's prefence ; others to evcrlafting fliame and 
 mifery. _ _ ,4 
 
 The two grand principles of aftion, according to Chriftian: 
 the Chriftian, are. The love of God, vvlilch is the fove- mo.ahty, 
 reign pafiion in every perfeA mind ; and the love of 
 man, which regulates our actions according to the va- 
 rious relations in which we iland, whether to commu- 
 r.ities or individuals. This facred connection can 
 never be totally extinguiflied by any temporary injuny. 
 It ought to fubfift in fome degree even amongft ene- 
 mies. It requires that we fliould pardon the offences 
 of others, as we expe£l pardon for our own ; and that 
 we fliould no farther rcfift evil than is neceflary for the 
 prefervation of perfonal rights and focial happinefs. 
 It diAates every relative and reciprocal duty between 
 parents and children, mafters and fervants, governors 
 and fubje£ls, friends and friends, men and men. Nor 
 does it merely enjoin the obfervation of equity, but 
 likewife infpires the raoft fublime and exteniive chatity, 
 a boundkis and difinterefted effufion of tendernefs for 
 the whole fpecies, which feels their diftrefs and ope- 
 rates for their relief and improvetnent. Thefe celeflitih 
 difpofitions, and the different duties which are their 
 natural exevtioris, are the various gradations by which 
 the Chriftian hopes to attain the perfcftion of his na- 
 ture and the m-oltexquifite happinefs of which it is fuf- 
 ccptible. 15 
 
 Such are the fpeculative, and fuch the pradlical Tins fy- 
 
 principles of Chriftianity. From the former, its vo- ^^^'^^ 
 
 taries contend, that the origin, economy, and revolu- chriftia:i 
 
 tlons of intelligent nature alone can be rationally ex- fuperior in 
 
 plained. From the latter, they alfert, that the na- excel 
 
 ture of. man, whether coniidered in -its individual or ^'^"''^ ' 
 r . , . I , 1 n 1 • 1 • . fi nature, ai 
 
 focial capacity, can alone be conducted to its higheit i^^. gy;. 
 
 perft£lion and happinefs. With tlie determined A- dence of its 
 thtiits they fcarcely deign to expoftulate. For, ac- reality, to 
 cording to them, philufuphers who can deduce the ori- <^therb. 
 gin and conftitution of things from cafaal rencounters 
 or mechanical ncceffity, are capable of deducing any 
 conclufion from any premifes. Nor can a more gla- 
 ring inftance of abfurdity be produced, than the idea 
 of a contingent or felf originated univerfe. When 
 Deifts and other fedlarians upbraid them With myfte- 
 
 rious 
 
 Its 
 
 and 
 
C II R [ 7 
 
 I'!jU3 or incompatible principles, they witlioiit hefita- 
 lion yvmit fucli cavillers to the creed of natural re- 
 ion. They demand why any I'eafoner fhould rc- 
 lufi: to believe ihrcc diftinft fubfiftences in one iiidivi- 
 fible efTence, who admits that a being may be omni- 
 prefent without exteiifion ; or that he can imprefs 
 motion upon other things, whilft he himfelf is necef- 
 fcirily immoveable. They afk the fage, why it fhould 
 be thoufjht more extraordinary, that the Son of God 
 ftould be fent to this world, that he fhould unite the 
 human n^iture to his own, that he fliould fufler and Ais 
 for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an 
 exidcnce whofe felicity is eternal, inherent, and in- 
 finite, fliould have any motive for creating beings ex- 
 terior to himfelf? Is it not, fays the ChrilHan, eqrially 
 -worthy of the divine interpcfition to reftore order 
 and happlnefs where they are loft, as to communicate 
 ithem where they never have been ? Is not infinite 
 c^oodnefs equally confpicuous in relieving mifery as in 
 diffufing happlnefs? Is not the exiftence of wViat we 
 call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infinite- 
 ly perfeft Being, as infcrutable as the mean exhibited 
 by Chriftlanlty for its abolition ? Vicarious punifh- 
 mcnt, imputed guilt and lighteoufnefs, merit or de» 
 merit transferred, are certainly not lefs reconcileable 
 to human reafon, a priori, than the exiftence of vice 
 and puni(hmcnt in the produiVions of infinite wii'dom, 
 power, and goodnefs : particularly when it is confi- 
 dered, that the virtues exerted and difplayed by a 
 perfeft Being in a ftate of humiliation and fuffering, 
 iriuft; be meritorious, and may therefore be rewarded 
 by the refl:Gred felicity of inferior creatures, in pro- 
 portion to their, g^ory and excellence ; and that fuch 
 merit may apply the bleffings which it has deferved, 
 in whatever manntr, in whatever degree^ and to 
 whomfoever it pleafes, without being under any ne- 
 ceflity to violkte the freedom of moral agents, in re- 
 calling them to the paths of virtue and happlnefs by a 
 mechanical and irrefiftible force, 
 ^'"ffibr"* ^'^^ granted to philofophy by the Chriftian, 
 and^pcr-^' ^^^^ "° theory of mechanical nature can be formed 
 hap« at I'.e- without prefiippofing facred and eftablifhed laws from 
 ceffaiy, as which fhe ought rarely or never to deviate, fo in faft 
 fhe tenacioufly purfucs thefe general inftitutions, and 
 from their conftant obfervance refuh the- order and 
 regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the 
 important ends of moral and IntelkAual improvement 
 ■may be uniformly obtained by the fame meaifs. He 
 affirms, that if the hand of God fhould either remain 
 always entirely inviuble, or at lea(t only perceptible 
 in the operation of fecond caufes, intelligent beings 
 would be apt in the courfe of time to refolve the inter- 
 pofitions of Deity into the general laws of mechanifm; 
 to forget bis connection with nature, and confequently 
 their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the 
 ■^iftaces of common ftnfe, and to the unanimous voice 
 of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur- 
 poles of wifdom and benevolence, God may not only 
 control, but has aftually controlled, the common courfe 
 and general operations of nature. So that, as In the 
 Tnaterid world the law of catife and e^e3 is gene- 
 Tally and fcrupuloufly obferved for the purpofes of na- 
 lural fubftftcnce and accommodation j thus fufpenfes 
 end change's of that univerfal law are equally neceflary 
 
 16 
 
 -naturdl 
 
 10 1 C H R 
 
 for the advancement of moral and intelledual perfec- Chriftia- 
 tion. . "'ty- ^ 
 
 But the difciple of Jefus not only contends, that no ^~ 
 fyfttm of R-ligion has ever yet been exhibited io con- chriftianl^ 
 fiftent with itfelf, fo congruous to philofophy and thety not only 
 common fenfe of mankind, as Chriftianity ; he like- expiain* 
 wife avers, that it is infinitely more productive of ^ejjg'^^"^ ' 
 and fenfible confolation than any other religious or confcies the 
 philofophical tenets, which have ever entered into themiferics tl 
 foul, or been a{fplied to the heart of man. For what human na- 
 is death to that mind which confiders eternity as the 
 career of its exiftence ? What are the frowns of for- 
 tune to him who claims an etei-nal world as his inhe- 
 ritance ? What is the lofs of friends to that heart 
 which feels, with more than natural conviilion, that 
 it fliall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, 
 and permanent intercourfe than any of which the pre- 
 feut life is fufceptible r What are the flufluations and 
 viciffitudes of external things to a mind which llrongly 
 and uniformly anticipates a ftate of endleis and immu- 
 table fehcity ? What are mortifications, difappoiut- 
 mcnts, and infults, to a fplrit which is confcious of be- 
 ing the original offspring and adopted child of God j 
 which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro- 
 per time, eflFeftually afTert the dignity and privileges 
 of its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a fpeck of 
 creation, as time is not an inftant in proportion 
 eternity, fuch are the hopes and profpefls of the Chri» 
 ftian it) comparif«n of every fublunary misfortune cr 
 difficuky. It Is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal 
 wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man, 
 that a religion fo worthy of God, fo fuitable to the 
 frame and circumftances of our nature, fo confonant 
 to all the didtates of reafon, fo friendly to the dignity 
 and improvement of intelligent beings, pi-egnant with 
 genuine comfort and delight, fhould be rejected and 
 defpifed. Were there a poffibihty of fufpence or he» 
 fitation between this and any other religion extant, he 
 could freely trull the determination of a queftion fo 
 important to the candid decilion of real vircue and 
 impartial philofophy, ,g 
 
 Mr Gibbon, in his Hiftory of the Decline and Fall Mr Gib- 
 of the Roman Empire, mentions five fecondary caufes ^"'^ 
 to which he thinks the propagation of Chriftianity, p-^JJ * ^hai 
 and all the remarkable circurattancea which attended the prop*- 
 it, may be with good reafon afcribed. He feems to i/atiou of 
 infinuate, that Divine Providence did not aft in a fin- thnftjani- 
 gular or extraordinary manner in diffeminating the re- \[J^iq 
 iigion of Jefus through the world ; and that, if every caufes fr«ra 
 other argument which has been adduced to prove the the opera- 
 facred authority of this religion can be pan ied or re~ 
 futed, nothino- can be deduced from this lource to pre- ^^u^cm$ 
 vent it from fharing the fame fate with other fyftemscunbc dc- 
 of fuperft:Ition. The caufes of its propagatiorj were in duced in 
 his opinion founded on the principles of human nature 
 and the circumftances of focicty. If we afcribe not ^-jy 
 the propagation of Mahomctlfm, or of the dodrines 
 of Zerduil, to an extraordinary interpofition of divine 
 providence, operating by an unperceived influence on 
 the difpofitions of tire human heart, and coivtrouling 
 and confounding the ordinary laws of nature ; nei-* 
 ther can we, upon any reafonable grounds, refei* 
 the promulgation of Chriftianity to fuch an intcf" 
 pofition. 
 
10 
 Ghiife I. 
 
 bferva- 
 ')ns in an- 
 •'if. 
 
 C H R [ 7 
 
 The fceondary caufes to which he arcrlbss thcfe ef- 
 fefts are, I. The inflexible and intolerant zeal of the 
 Chriftians ; derived from the Jewifh religion, but pu- 
 rified from the narrow and unfocial fpirit which, in- 
 ftead of inviting, deterred the Gentiles from embracing 
 the law of Moles. 2. The doftrine of a future life 
 improved by every additional circumilance which could 
 give weight and efficacy to that important truth. 
 3. The miraculous powers afcribed to the primitive 
 church. 4. The pure and auftere morals of the Chri- 
 ftians. 5. The union and difcipline of the Chriftian 
 republic, which gradually formed an independent and 
 increafing ftate in the h^art of the Roman empire. 
 
 In pointing out the connexion between the jfry? of 
 thefe caufes and the effcfts which he reprefents as ari- 
 fmg from it, this learned and ingenious writer obferves, 
 that the i-ehgion of the Jews does not feem to have 
 been intended to be propagated among the Heathens, 
 and that the converiion of profelytes was rather acci- 
 dental than confiftent with tTie purport and the general 
 fpirit of the inftitutions of Judaifm. The Jews were, 
 of confequence, ihidious to preferve therafelves a pe- 
 culiar people. Their zeal for their own religion was 
 intolerant, narrow, and unfocial. 
 
 In Chriftianity, when it made its appearance in the 
 world, all the better part of the predominant fpirit of 
 Judaifm was retained ; but whatever might have a 
 tendency to confine its influence within noiTOW limits 
 was laid afide. Chriftians were to maintain the doc- 
 trines and adhere to the inftitutions of their religion 
 with facred fidelity. They were not to violate 
 their .allegiance to Jefus by entertaining or profcfling 
 any reverence for Jupiter or any other of the Heathen 
 deities ; it was not even necefllar)' for them to comply 
 with the pofitive and ceremonial inftitutions of the law 
 af Mofes, — although thefe were acknowledged to have 
 been of divine origin, The zeal, therefore, which 
 their rehgion inculcated, was inflexible.. It was even 
 Intolerant : for they were not to content themfelves 
 with profeffing Chriftianity and conforming to its laws; 
 they were to labour with unremitting alTiduity, and 
 to expofe themfelves to every difficulty and every dan- 
 ger, in converting others to the fame faith. 
 
 But the fame circumftanccs which rendered it thus 
 intolerant, communicated to it a more liberal and a lefs 
 unfocial fpirit than that of Judaifm. The religion of 
 the Jews was intended only for a few tribes : Chrifti- 
 anity was to become a catholic religion ; its advanta- 
 ges were to be offered to all mankind. 
 
 AH the different fefts which arofe among the pri- 
 mitive Chriftians uniformly maintained the fame zeal 
 for the propagation of their own religion, and the fame 
 abhorrence for every other. The Orthodox, the Ebion- 
 ites, the Gnoftics, were all equally animated with the 
 fame exclufive zeal, and the fame abhorrence of idolatry, 
 which had diftinguiftied the Jews from other nations. 
 
 Such is the generalpurport of what Mr Gibbon advan- 
 ces concerning the influence of the firilof thofe fecondary 
 caufes in the propagation of Chriftianity. It would be 
 uncandid to deny, that his ftatement of fads appears 
 to be, in this inftance, almoft fair, and his deduftions 
 tolerably logical. The firft Chriftians were remarkable 
 for their deteftation of idolatry, and for the generous 
 difinterefted zeal with which they laboured to convert 
 ethers to the feme faith. The firft of thefe principles, 
 
 n ] C H R 
 
 no doubt, eontn*l)atcd to maintain- the xiignity and Chriftia- 
 
 the purity of Chriftianity ; and the fecond to diflcmi- ""^^ 
 nate it through the world. But the faCls which he 
 relates are fcarce confiftent throughout. He feems to . 
 rep'refent the zeal of the firfl Chriftians as fo hot and 
 intolerant, that they coidd have no focial intercourfe 
 with tliofe who flill adhered to the worfhip of Heathea 
 deities. In this cafe, how could they propagate their 
 religion ? Nay, we may even aflc. How could they 
 live i If they could not mingle with the Heathens iu 
 the tranfadlions either of peace or war; norwitnefs the 
 mii riage or the funeral of the deareft friend, if a Hea- 
 then ; nor pradtife the elegant arts of mufie, painting^^ 
 eloquence, or poetry; nor venture to ufe freely ia 
 converfation the language of Greece or of Rome; — 
 it is not eafy to fee what opportunities they coidd have 
 of diffeminating their religious fentiments. If, iii fucu- 
 circumftances, and obferving rigidly fuch a tenor o£ 
 Gondu£t, they were yet able to propagate their religion 
 with fuch amazing fucccfs as they are faid to have 
 done ; they muft fureiy either have praCtifed fome 
 wondrous arts unknown to us, or have been afiifted- 
 by the fupernatural operation of divine power. 
 
 But all the hiftorical records of that period, whether 
 facred or profane, concur to prove, that the primitive- 
 Chriftians ill general did not retire with fuch religious 
 horror from all intercourfe with th^e Heathens. They 
 refuftd not to ferve in the armies of the Roman em» 
 pire -; they appealed to Heathen magiftrates, and fub- 
 mitted refpettfully t© their decifions : the hufband 
 was often a Heathen, and the wife a Chriftian ; or,, 
 again, the hufband a Chriftian, and the wife a Hea- 
 then. Thefe are fadjis fo unlverfally known and belie- 
 ved, that vve need not quote authorities in proof of them. 
 
 This refpedlable writer appears therefore not to have 
 ftated the fafts which he produces under this head 
 with fufhcient ingenuoufnefs } and he has taken care to 
 exaggerate and improve thofe which he thinks ufeful 
 to his purpofe with all the dazzling, delufive colours of. 
 eloquence. But had the zeal of the firft Chriftians 
 been fo intolerant as he reprefents it, it muft have been 
 highly unfavourable to the propagation of their reli- 
 gioo : all their wifhes to make converts would, in that 
 cale, have been counteradled by their unwilhognefs to 
 mix, in the ordinary intercourfe of life, with thofe: 
 who were to be converted. Their zeal, and the libe- 
 ral fpirit of their religion, were indeed fecondary caufes 
 which contributed to its propagation : but their zeal 
 was by no means fo ridiculoufly intolerant as this writer 
 would have us beheve ; if it had, it muff have produ- 
 ced effeds diredly oppofite to thofe which he afcribes 
 to it. V ^ 25 
 
 In illuftrattng the influence of the fecond of thefe fe- Caufeli, 
 condary caufes to which he afcribes the propagation of. 
 Chriftianity, Mr Gibbon difplays no lefs ingenuity than 
 in tracing the nature and the effedf s of the firft. The 
 dodrine of a future life, improved by every additional 
 circumftance which can give weight and eihcacy to that 
 important truth, makes a confpicuous figure in the 
 Chriftian fyftem ; and it is a dodrine highly flattering 
 to the natural hopes and wiflies of the hun^an heart. 
 
 Though the Heathen philofophers were not unac-- 
 qnainted "with this dodrine ; yet to them the fpiritu- 
 ality of the human foul, its capacity of exiftence in a 
 feparate ftate from the body, its immortality, and its 
 
 pro' 
 
C H R 
 
 Chriftla- profpeft of laftiug happinefs in a fiiUire lift, 
 "ify- appeared things poflible^and dcfuable,, than truths fiilly 
 
 ^""^ ellabhihed upon fohd grounds. Tliefe doitrines, Mr 
 Gibbon would perfuade us, had no influence on the 
 moral fentiments and general condu6t of the Heathens. 
 Even the philofophers, who aniufcd themfelves with 
 difplaying their eloquence and Ingenuity on thofe fplen- 
 did themes, did not allow them to influence the tenor 
 of their lives. The great body of the people, . who 
 were occupied in purfuits very different from the fpe- 
 culations of philofophy, and were unacquainted with 
 the queftions difcufied In the fchools, were fcarce ever 
 at pains to refletl whether they conljfted of a material 
 and a fpiritual part, or whether their exiftence was to 
 be prolonged beyond the term of the prefent life ; and 
 they could not regulate their lives by principles which 
 they did not know. 
 
 In the popular fuperftition of the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, the dodlrine of a future Hate was not omitted. 
 Mankind were not only flattered with the hopes of 
 continuing to exiil beyond the term of the prefent life; 
 but different conditions of exiilence were promifed or 
 threatened, in which retributions for their condufl in 
 human life were to be enjoyed or fulfered. Some were 
 exalted to heaven, and aflbciated with the gods .; others 
 were revi'arded with lefs illufl:rious honours, and a 
 
 Chnfl' 
 uity- 
 
 23 
 
 , Obfcrva- 
 
 ^ the Greeks 
 a very faint 
 
 more moderate ftate of happinefs, in Elyfium ; and 
 thofe, again, who by their condu£l in life had not 
 merited rewards, but puniihments, were configned to 
 Tartarus. Such were the ideas of a future ftate which 
 made a part of the popular fuperilition o 
 and Romans. -But they produced only 
 impreffion on the minds of thofe among whom they 
 prevailed. They were not truths fupported by evi- 
 dence ; they were 'lot even plaulible ; they were a tlf- 
 fue of abfurdities. They had not therefore a more 
 powerful influence on the morals, than the more reFnied 
 fpeculations of the philofophers. 
 
 Even the Jews, whofe icligljn and leglflature w;re 
 (Communicated from heaven, Avere in general, till with- 
 in a very fhort time before the propagation of the go- 
 fpel, as imperfcftly acquainted with the doc?Tnne of 
 a future ftate as the Greeks and Romans. Tliis doc- 
 trine made no part of the law of Mofes. It is but 
 darkly and doubtfully infinuated through the other parts 
 of the Old Teftament. Thofe among the Jews who 
 treated the facred fcriptures with the higheft reverence, 
 always denied that fuch a doArlne could be deduced 
 from any thing w-hich thefe taught ; and maintained 
 that death is the -final difl()lution of man. 
 
 The rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and 
 fome other nations not more civilized than they, en- 
 tirtained ideas of a future life, much clearer than 
 thofe of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Jews. 
 
 Chriftianity, however, explained and inculcated the 
 truth of this doftrine in all its fplendor and all its 
 dignity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not abfurd, view 
 of the happinefs of a future life. It conferred new 
 horrors on the place of punifhment, and added new 
 feverity to the tortures to be inflifted, in another world. 
 The authority' on which it taught thefe doArines, and 
 difplayed thefe views, was fuch as to fdence inquiry and 
 doubt, and to command implicit belief. What added to 
 the influence of the do£lrine of afature ftate of exiftence, 
 thusexplainedaaaiaculcatcd, was, that theiirllChriftians 
 
 N<= 78. 4 
 
 L 7>2 ] C H R 
 
 rather confidently propliefied and fmcerely believed that the 
 end of the world, the confumraation of all things, was 
 faft approaching, and that the generation then prefent 
 fliould live to witnefs that awful event. Another clr- 
 cumftance which contributedto render tlie famodoftrlne 
 fo favourable to the propagation of Chriftianity was, 
 that the Hrit Clr.IRIans dealt damnation without re- 
 morfe, and ahnoil without making any (Exceptions, on 
 all who died in the belief of the abfurditles of Heathen 
 fuperftition. TJius taught and improved with thefe 
 additional and heightening circimiftances, this doc- 
 trine, partly by prefenting alluring profpCiTts and ex- 
 citing plealing hopes, partly by working upon the 
 fears of the human heart with reprcfentations of ter- 
 ror, operated in the moft powerful manner in extend- 
 ing the influence of the Chriftian faith. 
 
 Here, too, fads are rather exae-tjerated, and the ' 
 interences Icarce ianly deduced. It muit by contcded, f^^.gj.^ 
 that the fpeculations of the Heathen plillofophers did 
 not fully and undeniably eftabllftr the doctrine of the im- 
 mortality of the human foul; nor can we prefume to af- 
 fert,in contradiciion to MrGibbon,that their arguments 
 could imprefs fuch a convI£lIou of this truth as might 
 influence In a very ftrong degree the moral fent!m>;nts 
 .and conduft. They muft, however, have produced fome 
 influence on thefe. Some of the moft Illuftrlous among 
 the Heathen philofophers appear to have been fo 
 ftrongly imprefled with the belief of the foul's immor- 
 tality, and of a futm-e ftate of retrlbutuin, that their 
 general condu£l was conftantly and in a high degree 
 influenced by that behef. Plato and Socrati s are eminent 
 and Well known inftances. And if, in fuch inftances as 
 thefe, the bel.ef of thefe truths produced fuch confpi- 
 cuoius ciacts ; it might be fairly Inferred, though we 
 Jiad no farther evidence, tffat thofe cliaraclers were far 
 from being hngulur in this refpe^l. It is a truth ac- 
 knowledged as unqueftionable in the hlftory of the 
 arts and icienccs, that wherever any one perfon has 
 cultivated thefe with extraordinary fuccefs, fome among 
 his contemporaries will always be found to have rivalled 
 his excellence, and a number of them to have been en- 
 gaged in the fame purfuits. On this occafion we may 
 venture, without hefitation, to reafon upon the fame 
 principles. When the belief of the iramortahty of 
 tlie human foul p'loduced fuch illuftrlous patterns 
 of virtue as a Plato and a Socrates ; it muft certain- 
 ly have influenced the moral fentiments and con- 
 duct of many others, — although in an inferior degree. 
 We fpeculate, we doubt, concerning the truth of 
 many doftrlnes of Chriftianity; many who profefsthat 
 they believe them, make this profeffion only becaufe 
 they have never confidered ferioufiy whether they be 
 true or falfe. But, notwithftanding this, thefe truths 
 ftltl exert a powerful influence on the fentiments and 
 manners of lociety in general. Thus, alfo, it appears, 
 that the doctrines of ancient philofophy concerning a 
 fucure hfe, and even tlie notions concerning Olympus, 
 
 E'yluun, and Tartarus, whicii made a part of the po- 
 
 pu 
 
 tne ientirnents and 
 
 cerLaui 
 
 T 
 
 inOuence on 
 
 / produce 
 
 s and manners oi tiic ii^atficns in gene- 
 ral. That influence was often indeed inconhderabie, 
 and not always happy ; but Hill it was fomewhat 
 greater than Mr Gibbon feems williu'.i^ to allow. Chri- 
 ftl ans have been loinetnncs at pains to exag'gerate the 
 abfurditles of Pagan fuperftition, in order that the ad- 
 vantages 
 
C H II 
 
 [ ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 Chriftiani- vantages of airlftianity might acquire new value from dodrine of fo much importance, more or Icfs^known Chriftiaii{» 
 
 ^y- being concralted with it. Here we find one who is 
 rather difpofed to be the enemy of Chriftianity, dif- 
 playing, and even exaggerating, thofe abfurdities for a 
 very different purpofe. But the truth may be fafely 
 admitted ; it is only when exaggerated that it can 
 ferve any purpofe inimical to the facred authority of 
 our holy religion. Mr Gibbon certainly reprefents 
 the religious doftrlne of the ancient Gauls, in refpe£t 
 to the immortality of the human foul and a future 
 rtate, in too favourable a light. It is only becaufe the 
 ■whole fyltem of fuperflition which prevailed among 
 thofe barbarians is fo imperfectly known, that it has 
 been imagined to confift of more fublime dodlrines than 
 •thofe of the popular fuperftition of the Greeks and 
 Romans. The evidence which Mr Gibbon adduces in 
 proof of what he afferts concerning thefe opinions 
 of the ancient Gauls, is partial, and far from fatlsfac- 
 tory. They did indeed alTcrt aud believe the foul to 
 be immortal ; but this doctrine was blended among a 
 
 to all around, could not be communicated to them 
 The Pharifees did admit traditions, and fet upon them 
 an undue value ; yet they appear to have been coiifi- 
 dered as the molt orthodox of the difltreut fcAs which 
 prevailed among the Jews : the Sadducees were rather 
 regarded as innovators. 
 
 But though we are of opinion, that this ingenious 
 writer allows to the doftrine of the Greek and Roman 
 philofophers, concerning the immortality of tiie humait 
 foul, as well as to the notions concerning a future rtate, 
 which made a part of the popular fuperititions of thofi 
 nations, lefs influence on the moral fentiments and 
 conduct of mankind than what they really exerted } 
 though we cannot agree with him in allowing the idea* 
 of the immortality of the foul and of a future ftate, 
 which were entertained by the Gauls and fome other 
 rude nations, to have been much fuperior in their na- 
 ture, or much happier in their influence, than thofe 
 of the Greeks and Romans ; and though, in confe- 
 
 number of abfurdities much groifer than thofe which quence of reading the Old Teltament, we are difpofed 
 
 charaderife the popular religion of the Greeks and to think that the Jews knew fomewhat more concernino- 
 
 Romans. The latter was tlie fuperftition of a civilized the immortahty of the human foul, and concerning the 
 
 people, among whom reafon was unfolded and impro- future Itate in which human bein(Ts are deflined to ex- 
 
 ved b) cultivation, and whofe manners were polifhed ilt, than Mr Gibbon reprefents them to havi^ known : 
 
 and hberal ; the former was that of bai-barians, among yet ftill we are very fenfible, and very well pleafed to 
 
 whom reafon was, as it were, in its infancy, and who admit, that life and immortality were brought to 
 
 were ftrangers to the improvements of civilization, light through the gofpel." 
 
 The dodrine of a future life, as it was preached by 
 
 When halty obfervers found that thofe barbarians were 
 not abfolutely itrangers to the idea of immortality, they 
 were moved to undue admiration ; their furprife at find- 
 ing what they had not expeded, confounded their under- 
 ftanding, and ltd tliem to mifconceive and mifreprefent. 
 What vi^e ought to afcrlbe to the favage ferocity of the 
 charaderof thofe rude tribes, has been attributed by mif- 
 take to the influence of their belief of a future ftate. 
 . In the law of Mofes, it mult be allowed, that this 
 dodrine is not particularly explained nor eanieltly 
 inculcated. The author of the Divine Legation 
 of Mofes, &c. has fomided upon this fad an in- 
 genious theory, which we fliall elfewhere have oc» 
 cafion to examine. ITie reafons why this dodrine 
 was not more i^ully explained to the Jews, v/e cannot 
 pretend to affign, at lealt in this place ; yet wc caa- 
 not help thinking, that it was mere generally known 
 
 the lirll Chriftians, was eftablifhed on a more folid ba- 
 ils than that on which it had been before maintained; 
 was freed from every abfurdity ; and Avas, in fliort, 
 fo much improved, that its influence, which, as it 
 was explained by Heathen poets and philofophers, mult, 
 be confelTed to have been in many inftances doubtful, 
 now became favourable only to the interefts of piety 
 and virtue, and to them in a very high decree. It 
 undoubtedly _ contributed to the fuccefsful '^propaga- 
 tion of ChriiUanlty; for it was calculated to attrad 
 and pleafe both the fpeculating philofopher and the 
 fnnple unenhghtened votary of the vulgar fuperftition. 
 The views which it exhibited were diltindt ; and all 
 was plaulible and rational, and demonftrated by the 
 fuUeft evidence. But the happinefs which it promifed 
 was of a lefs fenfual nature than the enjoyments which 
 
 among tlie Jews than Mr Gibbon and the auther of the Heathens expeded on Olympus or in Elyfium • 
 
 the Divine Legation are willing to allow. Though it and would therefore, appear lefs alluring to thofe who 
 
 be not ftrongly inculcated in their code of Ja<usy yet were not very capable of refined ideas, or preferred the 
 
 there is fome reafon to think that it was known and gratifications of the fenfes in the prefent life to every 
 
 generally prevalent among them long before the Baby 
 lonifti captivity ; even in different paffages in the wri- 
 tings of Mofes, it is mentioned or alluded to in an 
 unequivocal manner. In tlie hiltor}' of the patriarchs, 
 it appears that this dodrine was known to them; it 
 appears to have had a ftrong influence on the mind of 
 Mofes himfelf. Was David, was Solomon, a Itranger 
 to this dodrine ? We cannot here defcend to very mi- 
 
 other fpecies of good. If the firlt Chriftians rejoiced 
 in the hope of beholding all the votaries of Pagan ido- 
 latr)' afllided with the torments of hell ia a future 
 ftate, and boafted of thefe hopes with inhuman exul- 
 tation, they would in all probability rather irritate 
 than aiarm thofe whom they fought to convert from 
 that fuperftition: the Heathens would be moved to 
 
 . , •■ r , , . . ' regard with indignant fcorn the preacher who ])retend- 
 
 raite parUculars ; but furely all the efforts of ingenuity ed, .that thcie whom they venerated as gods, heroes, 
 
 mult be inludicient to torture the lacred fcriptures of and wife men, were condemned to a ftate of unfpeak- 
 
 the Old Teftament, fo as to prove that they contain able and lafting torment. Would not every feeling- of 
 
 nothing coHcerning the dodrine of a future ftate any the heart revolt againft the idea, that a parent a child 
 
 vvhere but_ in the writings of the later prophets, and a huft,and, a wife, a friend, a lover, or amiilrefs, but 
 
 Were 
 
 that even in thefe it is only darkly iniinuated 
 the Jews, in the earlier part of their hiftory, fo totally 
 fecluded from all intercourfe with other nations, that a 
 Vol. iV. Part 11, 
 
 lately loft, and Hill lamented, was configned to eternal 
 torments for adions and opinions which they had deem- 
 ed hrghly agreeable to fuperior powers? 
 
 4 X We 
 
C H R 
 
 [ 7H ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 We may conclude, then, with refpeft to the influ 
 ence of this fecondary caufe in promoting the propa- 
 gation of ChrilHanity, that the circumftances of the 
 Heathen world were kfs favourable to that influence 
 than Mr Gibbon pretends ; that the means by which 
 he reprefents the primitive Chriftians, as improving its 
 efficacv, were fome of them not employed, and others 
 nrtherlikely to weaken than to ftrengthen it ; and that 
 tlierefore more Is attributed to the operation of this 
 caufe than it could poflibly produce. 
 Caufe III, The third caufe, the miraculous powers of the pri- 
 mitive church, is with good reafon reprefented as ha- 
 ving' conduced very often to the convIAion of infidels, 
 Mr Gibbon's reafonings under this head are. That nu- 
 merous miraculous works of the moft extraordlnai-y 
 kind were ollentatioufly performed by the fivft Chrifti- 
 ans : that, however, from the difficulty of fixing the 
 period at which miraculous powers ceafed to be com- 
 municated to the Chrlftian church, and from fome 
 other circumftances, there is reafon to fufpeft them to 
 have been merely the pretences of impofture ; but tins 
 (to ufe a phrafe of his own) is only darkly infinuated : 
 and, laftly, that the Heathens having been happily 
 prepared to receive them as real by the many wonders 
 nearly of a fimilar nature to which they were accu- 
 ftom^ed in their former fuperftitlon, the miracles which 
 the firft Chriftians employed to give a fan^ion to their 
 doftrlnes, contributed iii the moft effectual manner to 
 the propagation of Chriftlanity. / 
 Gbfcrva- In reply to what is here advanced, it may be fug- 
 tious in re- gefted, that the miracle^ recorded in the New Tefta- 
 F^y- ment, as having been perfomied by the firft Chriftians 
 
 when engaged in propagating their religion, as well 
 as a number of others recorded by the Fathers, are 
 eftablifiied as true, upon the moft indubitable evidence 
 which human teftimony can afford for any fa£l. An 
 '»Mr/f«wf. ingenious Scotch writer *, who was too fond of em- 
 ploying his ingenuity in undermining truths generally 
 received, has endeavoured to prove, that no human 
 teftimony, however ftrong and unexceptionable, can 
 afford fuflicient evidence of the reahty of a miracle. 
 But his reafonings on this head, which once excited 
 doubt and wonder, have been fince completely refuted; 
 and mankind ftill continue to acknowledge, that though 
 we are all liable to miftakes and capable of deceit, yet 
 human teftimony may afford the moft convincing evi- 
 dence of the moft extraordinai-y and even fupernatural 
 fafts. The reader will not expeft us to enter, in this 
 place, into a particular examination of the miracles of 
 our Saviour, and his apoftles, and the primitive church. 
 An inquiry into thefe will be a capital objeft in ano- 
 ther part of this work (Theology). We may here 
 confider it as an undeniable and a generally acknow- 
 ledged faft, that a certain part of thofe miracles were 
 reaf. Such as were real, undoubtedly contributed, in a ve- 
 ry eminent manner, to the propagation of Chriftlanity ; 
 but they are not to be ranked among the natural and 
 fecondary caufes. 
 
 It is difficult to dlftingulfti at what period miracu- 
 lous giftp ceafed to be conferred on the members of the 
 p.rimitlve church; yet we may dlftingulfti, if we take 
 pains to inquire with minute attention, at what period 
 tjie evidence ceafes to be fatlsfaftory. We can alfo, by 
 confidering the circumftances of the church through 
 the feveral ftages of its hlftoiT? form fome judgment 
 
 concerning the period during which the gifts of pro- Chriftlani- 
 
 phefying, and fpeaking with tongues, and working ^''f^ 
 
 miracles, were moft neceffary to Chriftians to enable " 
 them to affert the truth and dignity of their religion. 
 
 The Heathens wcie no ftrangers to pretended miracles 
 and prophecies, and other feeming interpofitlons of iu- 
 perior beings, difturbing the ordinary courfe of nature 
 and of human affairs : but the miracles to which they 
 were famlHarlfed had been fo often detefted to be tricks 
 of impofture or pretences of mad enthufiafm, that, in- 
 ftead of being prepared to witnefs or to receive accounts 
 of new miracles with eafy credulity, they muft have been 
 in general difpofed to view them with jeaioufy and fuf- 
 picion. Befides, the miracles to which they had 
 been accuftomed, and thofe performed by the apoftles- 
 and the firft preachers of Chriftlanity, were dlre6ily con- 
 tradidory ; and therefore the one could receive no af- 
 fiftance from the other. 
 
 Yet we muft acknowledge, notwithftanding what 
 we have above advanced, that as difagreements with 
 refpe£l to. the principles and inftitutions of their 
 religion very early arofe among Chriftians ; fo they 
 Hkewife fought to extend its influence, at a very early 
 period, by the ufe of pious frauds. Pious frauds, too, 
 appear to' have fometimes ferved the immediate pur- 
 pofes for which they were employed, though eventu- 
 ally they have been highly injurious to the caufe of 
 Chriftlanity. 
 
 We conclude, then, that Chriftianity tuas indebted 
 to the influence of miracles in a confiderable degree for 
 its propagation : but that the real miracles of our Sa- 
 viour and his apoftles, &c. were not among the fecon- 
 dary caufes of its fuccefs: that the Heathens who were 
 to be converted were not very happily prepared for re- 
 ceiving the miracles of the gofpel with blind credulity : 
 that, as it is poffible to difcern between fufRcIent and 
 infufficient evidence, fo it is not more difficult to dlftin- 
 guifli between true and falfe miracles : and, laftly, that 
 falfe miracles were foon employed by Chriftians as en- 
 gines to fupport and propagate their religion, and per- 
 haps not unfuccefsfully ; but were, upon the whole, 
 more injurious than ferviceable to the caufe which they 
 were called in to maintain. _ ^ _ 
 
 The fourth of this feries of fecondary caufes, which this Cauf. 
 author thinks to have been adequate to the propagation 
 of Chriftianity, is the virtues of the primitive Chri- 
 ftians. Thefe he is willing to attribute to other and 
 lefs generous motives, rather than to tlie pure influ- 
 ence of the doftrines and precepts of their rehgion. 
 
 The firft converts to Chriftianity were moft of them 
 from among the loweft and moft worthlefs charafters. 
 The wife, the mighty, and thofe who were diftlnguifli- 
 ed by fpecious virtues, were in general perfeftly fatis- 
 fied with their prefent circumftances and future pro- 
 fpefts. People whofe minds were naturally weak, un-- 
 enlightened, or oppreffed with the fenfe of atrocious 
 guilt, and who were infamous or outcafts from foclety, 
 were eager to grafp at the hopes ^hlchthe gofpel held 
 out to them. 
 
 When, after enlifting under the banner of Chrift, 
 they began to confider themfelves as " born again to 
 newnefs of life ;" remorfe and fear, which eafily pre- 
 vail over weak minds ; felfifh hopes of regaining their 
 reputation, and attaining to the honours and happinefs- 
 of thofe manftons which Jefus was faid to have gone ta 
 
C H R 
 
 [ 7 
 
 Chriftiani- 
 
 OKferva- 
 tions, in an 
 fwer. 
 
 prepare; with a defire to r-aife the honour and extend 
 the influence of the fociety of which they were become 
 members ; all together operated fo powerfully as to 
 enable them to difplay both aclive and paflive virtue in 
 a very extraordinary degree. Their virtues did not 
 flow from the pureft and nobleft fource ; yet they at- 
 tracted the notice and moved the admiration of man- 
 kind. Of thofe who admired, fome were eager to imi- 
 tate ; and, in order to th st, thought it neceffary to 
 adopt the fame principles of aftion. 
 
 Their virtues, too, were rather of that fpecies which 
 excite wonder, becaufe uncommon, and not of effen- 
 tial utility in the ordinary intercourfe of fociety ; than 
 of thofe which arc indifpenfably neceffary to the ex- 
 iftence of- focial order, and contribute to the eafe and 
 convenience of hfe. Such virtues were well calculated 
 to engage the imitation of thofe wlio had failed egre- 
 gioiifly in the praftice of the more focial virtues. 
 
 Thus they prailifed extraordinary, but ufelefs and 
 unfocial, virtues, upon no very generous motives ; and 
 thofe virtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, 
 and induced numbers to embrace their faith. 
 
 We muft, however unwillingly, declare, that this 
 •is plainly an uncandid account of the virtues of the 
 primitive Chriftians, and the motives from which they 
 originated. The focial virtues are ftrongly recom- 
 mended through the gofpel. No degree of mortifica- 
 tion or felf-denial, or feclufion from the ordinary bufi- 
 nefs and amufements of focial life, was required of the 
 early converts to Chriflianity ; fave what was indifpen- 
 fably neceffary to wean them from the irregular habits 
 in which they had before indulged, and which had ren- 
 dered them nuifances in fociety, and to form them to 
 new habits equally neceffary to their happinefs and their 
 ufefulnefs in life. We allow tliat they praftifed vir- 
 tues which in other circumflances would, however 
 fpkndid, have been unneceffary. But in the difficult 
 circumftances in which the firfl Chriftians were placed, 
 the virtues which they praftifed were in the highefl 
 degree focial. The moft prominent feature- in their 
 characler was, "their continuing to entertain fentiments 
 of generous benevolence, and to difcharge fcrupuloufly 
 all the focial duties," towards thofe who exercifed nei- 
 ther charity nor humanity, and frequently not even bare 
 integrity and juftice, in their condu£l towards them. 
 
 It cannot be faid with truth, that fuch a proportion 
 of the primitive Chriftians were people whofe charac- 
 ters had been infamous and their circumftances defpe- 
 rate, as that the chai-a£ler of the religion which they 
 •embraced can fuffer from this circumftance. Nor 
 were they only the weak and illiterate whom the 
 apoftles and their immediate fucceffors converted by 
 their preaching. The criminal, to be fure, rejoiced to 
 hear that h;, might obtain abfolution of his crimes; the 
 mournerwas willing to receive comfort; minds of refined 
 and generous feelings were deeply affected with that 
 goodnefs which had induced the Son of God to fubmit 
 to the punifhment due to fmners : but the fimphcity, 
 the rationality, and the beauty of the Chriftian fyflem, 
 likcwife prevailed in numerous inftances over tlie pride 
 and prejudices of the great and the wife ; in fo many 
 inftances, as are fufiicient to vindicate the Chriftian 
 church from the afperfion by which it has been repre- 
 fented, as be ng in the firft period of its exiftence 
 merely a body of criminals andJdiots. 
 
 15 1 C H R 
 
 The principles, too, from which the virtues of the Chriftian t. 
 
 firft Chriftians originated, were not peculiarly mean and 
 
 felfifh ; nay, they feem to have been uncommonly fu- " 
 blime and difinterefted. Remorfe in the guilty mind 
 is a natural and reafonable fentiment ; the defire of 
 happinefs in every human breafl is equally fo. It is 
 uncandid to cavil againft the firft Chriftians for being, 
 like the reft of mankind, rnfluenctd by thefe fenti- 
 ments : And when we behold them overlooking tem- 
 porary poffefTions and enjoyments, extending their 
 views to futurity, and " living by faith ;" when we 
 obferve them " doing good to thofe who hated them, 
 bleffing thofe who cur fed them, and praying for thofe 
 by whom they were defpitefuUy ufed ;" can we deny 
 their virtues to have been of the moft generous and 
 difinterefted kind? 
 
 We allow, then, that the virtues of the firft Chri- 
 ftians muft have contributed to the propagation of their 
 religion : but it is with pain that we obferve this re- 
 fpeftable writer ftudioufly labouring to m.ifreprefent 
 the principles from which thofe virtues arofe ; and not 
 only the principles from v/hich they arofe, but alfo 
 their importance in fociety. 
 
 The Jifih caufe was the mode of church government Caufe V". 
 adopted by tlie firft Chriftians, by which they were with obfcr- 
 knit together in one fociety; who preferred the church 
 and its interefts to their country and civil concerns. 
 We wifh not to deny, that the mutual attachment of 
 the primitive Chriftians contributed to fpread the in- ^ 
 fluence of their religion; and the order which they 
 maintained, in confequenee of being animated with this 
 fpirit of brotherly love, and with fuch ardent zeal for 
 the gloiy of God, miift no doubt have produced no 
 lefs happy effeCls among them than order and regula- 
 rity produce on every other occafion on which they 
 are ftridlly obferved. But whether the form of church- 
 government, which was gradually eftablifhed in the 
 Chriftian church, was actually the happieft that could 
 poffibly have been adopted ; or whether, by eftabli fil- 
 ing a diftinft fociety, with feparate interefts, within 
 the Roman empire, it contributed to the diffolutlon of 
 that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire. 
 Thefe are fubjefts of difcuffion, with refpeft to which 
 we may with more propriety endeavour to fatisfy our 
 readers elfewhere. 
 
 From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon General 
 has fo fpecioufly advanced concerning the influence of condufion 
 thefe five fecondary caufes in the propagation of the ^j^'^'^'^'"^'"^ 
 gofpel, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude, ^^^^ ^"j^^ 
 That the zeal of the firft Chriftians was not, as lie re- five caufes. 
 prefents it, intolerant : That the do6trine of the im- 
 mortality of the human foul was fomewhal better un- 
 derftood in the heathen world, particularly airo ig the 
 Greeks and Romans and the Jews, than lie rcprefents 
 it to have been ; and had an influence fomewhat iiap- 
 pier than what he afcribes to it : That the additional 
 circumftances by which, he tells us, the firft preachers 
 of Chriftianity improved the effedts of this d( CLrine, 
 were far from being calculated to allure converts : 
 That the heathens, therefore, were not quite fo well 
 prepared for an eager rcceptif n of this doftrine as he 
 would perfuade us they were ; and, of confequence, 
 could not be influenced by it in lo confiderable a de- 
 gree, in their converfion : That real, unqueflionable mi- 
 racles, performed by our Saviour, by his apoftles, and 
 4X2 by 
 
Chriftian 
 
 C H R [71 
 
 Chri{l;ian'- by their fucccflbrs, did contribute fignally to the pro- 
 pagation of Christianity ; but are not to be ranked 
 among the fecondary caufes : Thatweaknefs and Wind 
 zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the 
 fame purpofe not altogether incfFeclually : That though 
 thefe defpicable and wicked means might be in fome 
 inftances fuccefsful ; yet they were, upon the whole, 
 much more injurious than beneficial : That the virtues 
 of the primitive Chriftians arofe from the moft gene- 
 rous and noble motives, and were in tlieir nature and 
 tendency highly favourable to focial order, and to the 
 comfort of mankind in the focial ftate : And, lalUy,. 
 1'hat the order and regularity of church-government, 
 which were gradually cilablifhed among the firft. Chri- 
 ftians, contributed greatly to raaivitain the dignity 
 and fpread the influence of their religion j but do not 
 appear to have disjoined them from their fellow- fub- 
 jt£ls or to have rendered them inimical to the welfare 
 of the ftate of which they were members. 
 
 Upon the whole, the;i, we do not fee that thefe fe- 
 condary caufes were equal to the elfctts that have been 
 afcribed to them ; and it feems undeniable, that others 
 of a fupevior kind co-operated with them. We earneft- 
 3y recommehd to the perufal of the reader a valuable 
 performance of Lord Hailes's, in which he enquires 
 into Mr Gibbon's alTe tions and reafonings, concerning 
 the influence of thefe five caufes, with the utinoft accu- 
 racy of information, (Irength and clearnefs of reafoning, 
 and elegant fimplicity of fl^yle, and without virulence or 
 paflion. 
 
 CHRISTL\NS, thofe who profefs the religion of 
 CHrift : See Ck r i sti an it y and Me s 3 1 ah. — The name 
 Chrijl'um was firft given at Antioch in the year 42 to 
 fuch as believed in Chrift, as we read in the Adls : till 
 that time they were called uijc'iples. 
 
 The firft Chriflians diftinguiflred themfelves in the 
 moft remarkable manner by their conduct and their 
 virtues. '\ \\t faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe- 
 ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor- 
 tations of the Apoflles, who failed not carefully to in- 
 ftru£l them, as perfons who were entering upon an 
 entirely new life. They went every day to the temple 
 ■with one heai-t and one mind, and continued in prayers ; 
 doing nothing different from the other Jews, becaufe 
 it was yet not tim.e to feparate from them. But they 
 made a ftiil greater progrefs in virtue ; for they fold 
 all that they pofitffed, and diftributed their goods in 
 proportion to the wants of their brethren. They tst 
 ihc'tr meat "Mith gladnefs and fingknefs of heart, praifing 
 Gody and having favour with all the people. St Chry- 
 foft®m, examining from what fource the eminent vir- 
 tue of the firft Chriftians flowed, afcribes it principally 
 to their diverting themfelves of their pofleflions : " For 
 *♦ (fays that father) perfons from whom ail that they 
 ♦« have is taken away, are not fubjeft to fin : whereas, 
 ** whoever has large polTeffions, wants not a devil or a 
 ** tempter to draw him into hell by a thoufand ways." 
 
 T>ie Jews were the firft and the moft inveterate 
 enemies the Chriftians had. They put them to death 
 as often as they had it in their power : and when 
 they revolted againft the Romans in the time of the 
 emperor Adrian, Barchochebas, the head of that re- 
 volt, employed againft the Chriflians the moft rigo- 
 rous punilhmcnts to compel them to blafpheme and 
 renounce Jefus Chrift. And we find that, even in 
 the third century,^ they endeavoured to get into their 
 
 6 ] 
 
 G H R 
 
 handa Chrilllan women, in order to fcourge and ftone Chriftiaim 
 them in their fynagoguea. They curfed the Chriftiana — v~~^ 
 folemnly three times a»day In their fynagogues, and 
 their rabbins would not fufFer them to converfe with 
 Chriflians upon any occafion. Nor were they content- 
 ed to hate and deteft them ; but they difpatched emif- 
 faries all over the world to defame the Chriftians, and 
 fpread all forts of calumnies againft them. They ac- 
 cufed them, among other things, of wcrfliipping the 
 fun and the head of an afs. They reproached them 
 with idlenefs, and being an ufelefs race of people. 
 They charged them with treafon, and endeavouring 
 to ereft a new monarchy againft that of the Romans. 
 They aflirmed, that, in celebrating their myflerie?^ 
 they ufed to kill a child and eat its ftefh. They accu- 
 fed them of the moft fliocking incefts, and of intem- 
 perance in ther feafts of charity. But the lives and be- 
 haviour of the firft Chriftians. were fafiicient to refute 
 all that was faid againft them, and evidently demonftra- 
 ted that thefe accufations were mere calumny and the 
 efl^eft of inveterate malice. 
 
 Pliny the younger, who was governor of Pontus and 
 Dithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a 
 very particular account of the Chriftians in that pro- 
 vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Tra- 
 jan, of which the following is an extratl : "I take 
 *' the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every 
 " difficulty which arifes to me. I have never been 
 " prefent at the examination of the Chriftians; for 
 
 which reafon I know not what queftions have been 
 " put to them, nor ia what manner they have beea 
 «• punifhed. My behaviour towards thoi'e who hawe 
 <♦ been accufed to me has been tliis : I have interro- 
 
 gated them, in order to know whether they were 
 *' r-eally Chriftians. AVhen they have confeflt;d it, E 
 ** have repeated the fame queftion two or three 
 " times, threatening' them with death if they did 
 «♦ not renounce this religion. Thofe who have per- 
 «' iifled in their c«nfeflion, have been, by my order, 
 «< led to puniflrment. I have even met with fome 
 «' Roman citizens guilty of this phrenfy, whom, in 
 " regard to their quality, I have fet apart from the 
 «' reii, in order to fend them to Rome. Thefe per- 
 *' fons declare, that their whole crime, if they are 
 ** guilty, confifts in this ; that, on certain days, they 
 
 alfemble before fun-rife, to fing alternately the 
 " praifes of Chrift, as of a God, and to obhge them- 
 <' felves, by the performance of their religious rites, 
 <* not to be guilty of theft, or adultery,, to obferve in- 
 " violably their word, and to be true to their truft. 
 «* This depofition has obliged me to endeavour to in- 
 «' form myfelf ftill farther of this matter, by putting. 
 '* to the torture two of their women-fervants, whom 
 
 they call deaconejfes .- but I could learn nothing 
 *' more from them, than that the fuperftition of thefe 
 " people is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is 
 " aftonifliing." 
 
 There is extant a juftiflcation, or rather panegyric,, 
 of the Chriflians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pa- 
 gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus, 
 written in the year 152, in anfwer to the States of 
 Afia, who had acculed the Chriftians of being the 
 caufe of !"ome ear-thquakes whiclr had happened in that 
 part of ihe world. The emperor advifes them to 
 " take care, left, in torturing and punifliing thofe 
 whom they accufed of Atheifm (meaning the Chri- 
 ftians), 
 
C H R 
 
 [ 7 
 
 ChTlftlars. ftlans), they fhould render them more obftinate, inftead 
 "'V" ' of prevailing upon them to change their opinion ; 
 fince their religion taught them to fuffer with plea- 
 fure for the fake of God." As to the earthquakes 
 ■which had happened, he puts them in mind, " that they 
 themfelves are always difconraf^ed, and fink under 
 fuch misfortunes ; whereas the Chriftians never difco- 
 vered more cheevfulnefs and confidence in God than 
 upon fuch occafions." He tells them, that they pay 
 no regard'to religion, and negleft the worfliip of the 
 Eternal; and, becaufe the Chrillians honour and adore 
 Him, therefore they are jealous of them, and perfe- 
 cute them even to death." He concludes: " Many of 
 the governors of provinces have formerly written to 
 my father concerning them ; and his anfwer always 
 was, that they fhould not be molefted or difturbed, 
 provided they quietly fubmitted to the authority of 
 the government. Many perfons have likevvife con- 
 fulted" me upon this sffair, and I have returned the 
 fam<; anfwer to them all ; namely, that if any one 
 accufes a Chriftian merely on account of his religion, 
 the accufed perfon fliall be acquitted, and the accufer 
 himfelf puni{hed." This ordinance, according to .Eu- 
 fcbius, was publicly fixed up at Ephefus in an alTem- 
 bly of the fhates. 
 
 It is no difficult matter to difcover the caufes of the 
 many perfccutions to which the Chriftians were cx- 
 pofe<l during the three firft centuries. The purity of 
 the Chriftian morality, dire^lly oppofite to the corrup- 
 tion of the Pagans, was doubtlefs one of the mod 
 powerful motives of the public averfion. T"© this 
 may be added, the many calumnies unjuftly fpread 
 about concerning them by their enemies, particularly 
 the Jews. And this oceafioned fo ftrong a prejudice 
 againft them, that the Pagans condemned them without 
 inquiring into their doftrine, or permitting them to 
 defend themftlves. Befides, their worfhipping Jefus 
 Chrift, as God, was contrary to one of the molt an- 
 cient laws of the Roman empire, which exprefaly for- 
 bad the acknowledging of any God which had not 
 been approved by the fcnate. 
 
 But notwithltanding the violent oppofitlon made to 
 the eftablifliment of the Chriftian religion, it gained 
 ground daily, and very foon made a furprifing pro- 
 grefs in the Roman empire. In th€ third century, there 
 were Chriftians in the camp, In the fenate, in the pa- 
 lace ; in Ihort every where, but in the temples and 
 the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the 
 iilands. Men and women, of all ages and conditions, 
 and even thofe of the firft;, dignities, embraced the 
 faith ; infomuth that the Pagans complained that the 
 revenues of tlieir temples were ruined. They were 
 in fuch great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertul- 
 lian expreffes it) were they to have retired into anoth<;r 
 country, they would have left the Romans only a 
 frightful folitude. 
 
 The primitive Chriftians were not only remarkable 
 for the praftice of every virtue ; they were alfo very 
 ' .eminently diftinguiflied by the many miraculous gifts 
 and graces beftowed by God upon them. *' Some 
 of the Chriftians (fays Irenasus) drive out devils, not 
 rn appearance only, but fo as that they never return 
 ■whence it often happ'L'ar-, that thofe who are difpof- 
 feffed of evil Ipirits ci\ibrace the faith and are received 
 into the church. Others know what is to come, fee 
 vifions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal 
 
 5 
 
 17 1 C H R 
 
 the fick by laying their hands on them, and reftore Chriftians. 
 them to perfect health : and we find fome who even — v—"^ 
 
 raife the dead. It is impofiible to reckon up the 
 
 gifts and graces which the church has received from 
 God — what they have freely received they as freely 
 bellow. They obtain thefe gifts by prayer alone, and 
 invocation of the name of Jefus Chrift, without any 
 mixture of enchantment or fuperftition." 
 
 We ftiall here fubjoin the remarkable ftory, atteft* d 
 by Pagan authors themfelves, concerning the Chri/iian 
 Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
 That prince having led his forces againft the Q^iadi, 
 a people on the other fide of the Danube, v;as fuv- 
 rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a dlfadvan- 
 tageous place, and where they could find no water. 
 The Romans were greatly embarraffed, and, being 
 prelTed by the enemy, were obliged to continue un- 
 der arms, expofed to the violent heat of the fun, and 
 almoft dead with thirft; when, on a fudden, the clouda 
 gathered,^ and the rain fell in great abundance. The 
 foldiers received the water in their bucklers and hel- 
 mets, and fatisfied both their own thirft and that of 
 their horfes. Tlie enemy, prefently after, attacked 
 them ; and fo great was the advantage they had ever 
 them, that the Romans muft have been overthrown, 
 had not heaven again interpofed by a violent ftorm of 
 hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy, 
 and obliged them to retreat. It was found after- 
 wards, that one of the legions, which confifted of 
 Chriftians, had by their prayers, which they ofi^ered 
 up on their knees before the battle, obtained this fa- 
 vour from heaven : and from this event that legion 
 was firnam.ed The thundering Legion. See, however, the 
 critlcifm of M.T Moyle on this ftory in his Worls, vol.ii» 
 p. 81 — 390. See alfo Mofljelm^s Chunk Hi/lory ^ vol. 
 
 Such were the primitive Chriftians, whofe religtore 
 has by degrees fpread Itfelf over all parts of the world, 
 though not with equal purity in all. And though, by 
 the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters- 
 have been fuff"ered to poffefs themfelves of thofe places- 
 in Greece, Afia, and Africa, where the Chriftian re- 
 ligion formerly moft flouriftied ; yet there are ftlU fuch 
 lemalns of the Chriftian religion among them as to 
 give them opportunity fufficlent to be converted. 
 For, in the dominions of the Turk in Europe, the 
 Chriftians make two third parts at leaft of the inha- 
 bitants ; and in Conftantlnople itfelf there are above 
 twenty Chriftian churches, and above thirty in Thef- 
 falonica. Philadelphia, now called Ala-floahlr, has no 
 fewer than twelve Chriftian churches. The whole 
 iflarid of Chio is governed by Chriftians ; and fome 
 iflands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Chriftians 
 only. In Africa, befides the Chriftians living in E- 
 gypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the 
 ifland& upon the weftern coafts are inhabited by Chri- 
 ftians ; and the vaft kingdom of Abyffinia, fiippofed 
 to be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, 
 put together, is poiTefled by Chriftians. In Afia, raoit 
 patt of the empire of Ruffia, the countries of Gircaffia 
 and Mingrella, Georgia, and Mount Libanus, are In- 
 habited only by Chriftians* In America, it is notori- 
 ous that the Chriftians are very nnmerons, and fpread 
 over moft parts of that vaft continent. 
 
 Chri:st:ams of St John, a ft£t of Chriftians very nu- 
 merous in Balfaia and the neighbouring towns: they 
 
C H R 
 
 Chriftlans 
 II 
 
 Ghiiflina. 
 
 t 7'8 ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where Sl 
 John baptized, and it was from thence they had their 
 name. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five days ; 
 during which they all go to the bilhop, who baptizes 
 them with the baptifm of Sl John. Their baptifm is 
 alfo performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays : 
 they have no notion of the third Perfon in the Trinity; 
 nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full 
 of charms, &c. Their biflioprics defcend by inheri- 
 tance, as our eftates do, though they have the cere- 
 mony of an eleftion. 
 
 Christians of St 'Thomas, a fort of Chriftians in a 
 peninfula of India on this fide of the Gulf : they in- 
 habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring 
 oountrj' : thefe admit of no images; and receive only 
 the crofs, to which they pay a great veneration : they 
 affirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee God till 
 after the day of judgment: they acknowledge but three 
 facraments, t/.-s. baptifm, orders, and the eucharift : 
 they make no ufe of holy oils in the adir.iniftration of 
 baptifm ; but, after the ceremony, anoint the infant 
 with an unftion compoftd of oil and walnuts, without 
 any benediftion. In the eucharift, they confccrate 
 -with little 'cakes made of oil and fait, and inftead of 
 wine make ufe of water in which raifins have been in- 
 iufed. 
 
 CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the pro- 
 vince of Aggerhuys, fituated on a bay of the fea. E. 
 Long. lo. 15. N. Lat. 59. 30. 
 
 CHRISTIANOPLE, a port- town of Sweden, fitu- 
 ated on the Baltic Sea, in the territory of Blecking, 
 and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 40. 
 N. Lat. 57°. 
 
 CHRISTIANSTADT, a ftrong fortified town of 
 Sweden; fituated in the territory of Blecking and pro- 
 vince of South Gothland. It was built in 1614 by 
 Chrittian IV. king of Denmark, when this province 
 belonged to the Danes ; and finally ceded to the Swedes 
 by the peace of Roflcild in 1658. The town is fmall 
 but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs 
 in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly 
 ftuccoed white. It ftands in a marfhy plain clofe to 
 the river Helge-a, which flows into the Baltic at Ahus, 
 about the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable only 
 for fmall craft of feven tons burden. Englifh veflels 
 annually refort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. 
 The inhabitants have manufadlures of cloth and filken 
 fluffs, and carry on a fmall degree of commerce. E. 
 Long. 14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 30. 
 
 CHRISTINA, daughter of Guftavus Adolphus 
 king of Sweden, was born in 1626 ; and fucceeded to 
 the crown in 1^33, when only feven years of age. This 
 ■princefs difcovered even in her infancy, what (he after- 
 wards expreffed in her memoirs, an invincibL antipa- 
 thy for the employments and converfation of women ; 
 and fhe had the natural aukwardnefs of a man with rc- 
 fpe£l to all the little works which generally fall to their 
 fhare. -She was, on the contrary, fond of violent ex- 
 ■erclfes, an^i fuch amufeme^its as confift in feats of 
 ■ftrength and activity. She had alfo both ability and 
 tafte for abftradled fpeculations ; and amufed hcrfelf 
 with language and t: _ Icieuces, partioula U tl 'it of 
 Jegiflatme and government. She derived hev k ■^■■dge 
 of ancient hiilory from its fource ; and Polybius and 
 Thucydides were her favourite author*. As fhe was 
 
 the fovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not ftrange Chrjftria, 
 that almoft all the princes in Europe afpired to her bed. ""-"^^ — ^ 
 Among others, were the Prince of Denmark, the 
 Eleftor Palatine, the Eleftor of Brandenburg, the King 
 of Spain, the King of the Romans, Don John of Au- 
 ftria ; Sigifmund of Rockocci, count and general of 
 CafTovia ; Staniflaus king of Poland ; John Caffimir hm 
 brother; and Charles Guftavus duke of Deuxs Ponts, 
 of the Bavarian Palatinate family, fon of her father the 
 great Guftavus's fifter, and confequently her firft coufin. 
 To this nobleman, as well as to all his competitors, flie 
 confl:antly refufed her hand ; but fhe cau.red him to be 
 appointed her fucceflbr by the ftates. Political inte- 
 retts, differences 0/ religion, and contrariety of man- 
 ners, furniftied Chriftina with pretences for rtjedling all 
 her fuitors ; biit her true motives were the love of in- 
 dependence, and a ftrong averfion fhe had conceived, 
 even in her infancy, from the marriage yoke. " Dr> 
 not force me to marry (faid flie to the ftates) ; for if I 
 ftiould have a fon, it is not more probable that he ihould 
 be an Aiiguftus than a Nero." 
 
 An accident happened in the beginning of her reign 
 which gave her a remarkable opportunity of difplaying 
 the ftrength and equanimity of her mind. As fhe was 
 at the chapel of the catlle of Stockholm, alTifting at 
 divine fervice with the principal lords of her court, a 
 poor wretch, who was difordered in his mind, came 
 to the place with a defign to afTaiTmate her. This fnan, 
 who was preceptor of the college, and in the full vi- 
 gour of his age, chofe, for the execution of his defign, 
 the moment in which the affembly was performing what 
 in the Swedifh church is called an aS of recolkalon; a 
 filent and ftparate aft of devotion, performed by each 
 individual kneeling and hiding the face with the hand. 
 Taking this opportunity, he rufhed through the crowd, 
 and mounted a balluftrade within which the queen was 
 upon her knees. The Baron Braki, chief juftice of 
 Sweden, was alarmed, and cried out; and the guards 
 crofTed their partifans, to prevent his coming further : 
 but he ftruck them furioufly on one fide ; leaped over 
 the barrier ; and, being then clofe to the queen, made 
 a blow at her with a knife which he had concealed 
 vs'ilhout a ftieath in his fieeve. The queen avoided the 
 blow, and puflied the captain of her guards, who in- 
 ftantly threw himfelf upon the affaflin, and feized him 
 by the hair. All this happened in lefs than a mo- 
 ment of time. The man was known to be mad, and 
 therefore nobody fuppofed he had any accomplices : 
 they therefore contented themfelves with locking him 
 up; and the queen returned to her devotion without the 
 leait emotion that could be perceived by the people, 
 who w^ere much more frightened than herfelf. 
 
 One of the great affairs that employed Chriftina 
 while fhe was upon the throne, was the peace of 
 Weftphnlia, in which many, clafhing interefts were to 
 be rLCoaciled, and many claims to be afcertained. It 
 was concluded in the month of Odober 1648. The 
 fuccefs of the Swedifh arms rendered Chriftina the ar- 
 bitrefs of this treaty ; at leaft 33 to the affairs of Swe- 
 den, to which this peace confirmed the poffeflion of 
 many important countries. No public event of im- 
 portance took place during the reft of Chriflina's 
 reign; for there were ntither wars abroad, nor 
 troubles at home. This quiet might be the effeft of 
 chance } but it might alfo be the effed of a good ad- 
 
 miniflration, 
 
C H R [ 71 
 
 Cfirimna miniftration, and the f?reat reputation of the queen ; 
 
 ^ and the Ijvc her p;ople had for hor ought to lead us 
 
 to this dt termination. Her reign was that of learn- 
 ing and genius. She drew about her, wherever the 
 was, all the dirciugaifhec: charafters of her^time: 
 Grotlus, Pafcal, Bochart, D^fcartes, G-vITcndl, Sau-- 
 maife, Naude, Voffius, Heinfius, Meibom, Scudery, 
 Menage, Lucas, Holftenius, Lainbecius, Bayle, ma- 
 dam bacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts 
 never fail to immortalize the prince who protefts 
 them ; and almott all thefe illuftrious perfons have ce- 
 Lbratfcd Chriftina, either in poems, letters, or litera- 
 ry produdions of fome other kind, the greater part 
 of which are now forgotten. They form, however, 
 a general cry of praile, and a mafs of teftimonials 
 which may be cor.fidered as a folid bafis of reputa- 
 tion. Chriftina, however, may be juftly reproached 
 vith want of tafte, in not properly affigning the 
 rank of all thefe perfons, whofe merits, though Ac- 
 knowledged, were yet unequal ; particularly for not 
 having been fufficlently fenfible of the fuperionty of 
 Defcartes, whom flic dlfgufled, and at lall wholly 
 reglefted. The rapid fortune which the adventurer 
 Miohon, known by the name of Bourdelot, acquired 
 by her countenance and liberality, was alfo a great 
 fcandal to literature. He had no pretenfions to learn- 
 ing ; and. though fptightly, was yet indecent. He 
 was brought to court by the learned Saumaife ; and, 
 for a time, drove literary merit entirely out of it, tna- 
 king learning the objeft of his ridicule, and exading 
 from Chriftina an exorbitant tribute to the weaknefs 
 and inconftancy of her fex ; for even Chriftina, with 
 refpea to this man, (howed herfelf to be weak and 
 inconftant. At laft fhe was compelled, by the public 
 indignation, to banifli this unworthy minion ; and he 
 was no fooner gone, than her regard for him was at 
 an end. She was afhamed of the favour (he had fhown 
 him ; and, in afhort time, thought of him with hatred 
 or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his afcenden- 
 cy over the queen, had fupplanted count Magnus de la 
 Gardie, fon of the conftable of Sweden, who was a 
 relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover^ of Chrif- 
 tina. M. de Motteville, who had feen him ambaf- 
 fador in France, fays, in his memoirs, that he fpoke 
 of his queen in terms fo pafTionate and refpeftful, that 
 every one concluded his attachment to her to be more 
 ardent and tender, than a mere fenfe of duty can 
 produce. This nobleman fell into diigrace becaufe he 
 fliowed an inclination to govern ; while M. Bourdelot 
 feeraed to aim at nothing more than to amufe ; and 
 concealed, under tKe unfufpefted charader of a droll, 
 the real afcendency which he exercifed over the queen's 
 mind. 
 
 About this time, an accident happened to Lhriftma 
 vhich brought her into ftill greater danger than that 
 which has been related already. Having given or- 
 ders for fome fhips of war to be built at the port of 
 Stockholm, fhe went to fee them when they were 
 finhhed ; and as (he w?/ going on board of theni, crofs 
 a narrow plank, with admiral Fleming, his foot flipping, 
 he fell, and drew the queen with him into the fea, 
 which 'in that place was near 90 feet deep. Anthony 
 Steinberg, the queen's firft equerry, inftantly threw 
 bimfclf into the water, laid hold of her robe, and, with 
 fuch afiiftaoce as was given him, got the queen afhore: 
 
 I- 
 
 9 ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 during this accident, her recolleftion was fuch, that 
 the moment her lips were above water, f'^e cried, * ' ' 
 out, " Take care of the Admiral." When flie was 
 got out of the water, fhe difcovered no emotion either 
 by her geftur^ or countenance ; and fhe dined the fame 
 day in public, where fhe gave a humorous account of 
 her adventure. 
 
 But, though at firft fhe was fond of the power and 
 fplendor of royaky, yet fhe began at length to feel that 
 it embarraffed her; and the fame love of indepen- 
 dence and liberty which had determined her againft 
 marriage, at laft made her weary of her crown. As, 
 after her firft difguft, it grew more and more irkfome 
 to her, fhe refolved to abdicate ; and, in 1652, com- 
 municated her refolution to the fenatc. The fenate 
 7.ealoufly remonftrated againft it ; and was joined by 
 the people ; and even by Charles Guftavus^ himfelf, 
 who was to fucceed her : fhe yielded to their impor- 
 tunities, and continued to facritice her own pleafure to 
 the will of the public till the year 1654, and then fhe 
 carried her defign into execution. It appears by one 
 of her letters to M. Canut, in whom flie put great con- 
 fidence, that fhe had meditated this projefl for more 
 than eight years ; and that fhe had communicated it to 
 him five years before it took place. 
 
 The ceremony of her abdication was a mournful fo- 
 lemnity, a mixture of pomp and fadnefs, in which 
 fcarce any eyes but her own were dry. She conti- 
 nued firm and compofed through the whole and, as 
 foon as it was over, prepared to remove into a coun- 
 try more favourable to fcience than Sweden was. 
 Concerning the merit of this adlion, the world has al- 
 ways been divided in opinion ; it has been condemned, 
 alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler 
 and the fage. It was admired, however, by the 
 great Conde ; ** How great was the magnanimity of 
 this princefs (faid he), who could fo eafily give 
 up that for which the reli of mankind are continually 
 deftroying each other, and which fo many through- 
 out their whole lives purfue without attaining!" It 
 appears, by the works of St Evermond, that the abdi- 
 cation of Chriftina was at that time the univerfal to- 
 pic of fpeculation and debate in France. Chriftina, 
 befides abdicating her crown, abjured her religion: 
 but this aft was univerfally approved by one party 
 and cenfured by another ; the Papifts triumphed, and 
 the Proteftants were QfFended. No prince, after a 
 long imprifonment, ever fiiowed fo much joy upon 
 being reftored to his kingdom, as Chriftina did in 
 quitting hers. When flie came to a little brook, which 
 feparates Sweden from Denmark, fhe got out of her 
 carriage ; and leaping to the other fide, cried out in 
 a tranfport of joy, *' At laft I am free, and out of 
 Sweden, whither, I hope, I fhall never return." 
 She difmiffed her women, and laid by the habit of 
 her fex : " I would become a man (faid fhe) ; yet I 
 do not love men becaufe they are men, but becaufe 
 they are not women." She made her abjuration at 
 BiufTels ; where fhe faw the great Conde, who, after 
 his defeftion, made that city his afylum. " Coufin 
 (faid flie)i who would have thought, ten years ago, 
 that we fhould have met at this diftance from our ' 
 countries ?" 
 
 The inconftancy of Chrlftina's temper appeared in, 
 her going continually from place to place : from Bruf- 
 
flina. 
 
 G. H R I J 
 
 ftls flie ^X'ent to Rome ; from Rome to France, and 
 from France fhe returned to Rome again ; after this 
 fhe went to Sweden, where fhe was not very well re- 
 ceived ; from Sweden fhe went to Hamburgh, where 
 fhe continued a year, and then went again to Rome ; 
 from Rome flie returned to Hamburgh ; and again to 
 Sweden, where flie was ftill worfe received than be- 
 fore ; upon which fhe went back to Hamburgh, and 
 from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended an- 
 other journey to Sweden ; but it did not take place, 
 any more than an expedition to England, where 
 Cromwell did not feem well difpofed to receive 
 htr ; and after many wanderings, and many pur- 
 }>ofcs of wandeiing flill more, flie at lafl died at Rome 
 in 1689. 
 
 It mufb be acknowledged, that her journeys to 
 Sweden had a motive of necefTity ; for her appoint- 
 ments were very ill paid, though the flates often con- 
 firmed them after her abdication ; but to other places 
 file was led merely by a roving difpofuion ; and, 
 what is more to her difcredit, fhe always difturbed 
 the quiet of every place flie came into, by exacting 
 greater def<?rence to her rank as queen than fhe had 
 a right to expeft, by her total Hon-conforniity to 
 the CLiftoms of the place, and by continually exciting 
 ruid fomenting intrigues of ftate. She was Indeed al- 
 ways too bufy, even when flie was upon the throne ; 
 for there was no event in Europe in which (he was not 
 ambitious of aiting a principal part. During the trou- 
 bles in France by the faftion called the Fronde^ fhe 
 wrote with great eagernefs to all the interefted par- 
 ties, officioufly offering her mediation to reconcile 
 their interefts, and calm their paflions, the fecret 
 fprings of which it was impofTible fhe fhould know. 
 This was firft thought a dangerous, and afterwards a 
 ridiculous, behaviour. During her refidence in France 
 fhe .gave univerfal difgufl, not only by violating all the 
 cuftpms of the country, but by praAifing others di- 
 reftly oppofite. She treated the ladies of the court 
 with the great^fl: rudenefs and contempt ; when they 
 eame to embrace her, fhe, being in man's habit, cried 
 out, " What a flrange eagernefs have thefe women to 
 kifs me ! is it becaufe I look like a man r" 
 
 But though fhe ridiculed the manners of the French 
 court, fhe was very folicitous to enter into its intrigues. 
 Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma- 
 demoifelle de Mancini niece to cardinal Mazarine ; 
 Chriilina flattered their paffion, and offered her fer- 
 vice. " I would fain be your confident (faid fhe) ; if 
 you love, you muft marry." 
 
 The murder of Monaldefchi is, to this hour, an in- 
 fcrutable myftery. It is, however, of a piece with the 
 rxprefTions conftantly ufed by Chriftina in her letters, 
 with rcfpeft to thofe with whom fhe was offended ; 
 for fhe fcarce ever fignlfied her difpleafure without 
 threatening the life of the offender. " If you fail in 
 your duty, (faid fhe to her fecretary, whom the fent to 
 Stockholm after h-?r abdication), not all the power of 
 the king of Sweden fhall fave your life, though you 
 fhould take fhelter in his arms." A muficlan having 
 quitted her fervice for that of the duke of Savoy, flie 
 was fo tranfported with rage as to difgrace herfelf by 
 thefe words, in a letter written with her own hand ; 
 
 He lives only for me ; and if he does not fing for 
 me. Ire fhall not fing long for any body." 
 N"- 79- 
 
 Chroafla* 
 
 ces. 
 J 
 
 20 ] G H R 
 
 Bayle was alfo threatened for having faid that the Chrifllna 
 letter which Chriftina wrote, upon the revocation of 
 the edift of Nantes, was " a remain of Proteftantifm ;" 
 but he made life- peace by apologies and fubmifFion. > 
 See the article Bavle. 
 
 Upon the whole, flie appears to have been an un- 
 common mixture of faults and great qualities; which, 
 however it might excite fear and refpeft, was by no 
 means amiable. She had wit, tafle, parts, and learn- 
 ing : flie was indefatigable upon the throne ; great in 
 private life ; firm in misfortunes ; impatient of contra- 
 diftlon ; and, except in her love of letters, inconftant 
 in her inclinations. The moft remarkable inflance of 
 this ficklenefs is. That after fhe had abdicated the 
 crown of Sweden, fhe intrigued for that of, Poland. 
 She was, in every adlion and purfult, violent and ar- 
 dent in the highefl degree ; impetuous in her defires, 
 dreadful in her refentmcnt, and fickle in her condiidl. 
 
 She fays of herfelf, that *' fhe was miftruflful, ambi- 
 tious, pafhonate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous, 
 fatyrical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and vio- 
 lent temper, and extremely amorous;" a difpofuion, 
 however, to which, if fhe may be believed, her pride 
 and her virtue were always fuperior. In general, her 
 failings were thofe of her fex, and her virtues the vir- 
 tues of ours. 
 
 Santa-CmusriNA, one of the Marquesas IJlaruh. 
 
 CHRISTMAS-DAY, a feftival of the Chriftlan 
 church; obferved on the 25th of December, in me- 
 mory of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrifl, As to 
 the antiquity of this feilival, the firft footfteps wc find 
 of it are in the fecond century, about the time of the 
 emperor Commodus. The decretal epiflles indeed 
 carry it up a little higher ; and fay that Telefphorus, 
 who lived in the reign of Antonius Plus, ordered di- 
 vine fervice to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn 
 to be fung, the night before the nativity of our Savi- 
 our. However, that it was kept before the times of 
 Conftantine we have a melancholy proof: for whilit 
 the perfecution raged under Dioclefian, who then 
 kept his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other 
 aAs of cruelly, finding multitudes of Chriliians affem- 
 bled together to celebrate Chtift's nativity, command- 
 ed the church-doors where they were met to be fhut, 
 and fire to be put to it, which, in a fhort time, reduced 
 them and the church to afhes. 
 
 ^ CHRISTOPHER'S, St.one of the Caribbeelflands, 
 in America, lying to the norih-wefl of Nevis, and) 
 about 60 miles wefl of Antigua. It was formerly in- 
 habited by the French and Engllfh ; but, in 1713, it 
 was ceded entirely to the latter. In 1782, it was 
 taken by the French, but reflored to Britain at the 
 peace. It is about 20 miles in breadth, and (even 
 in length ; and has high mountains in the middle, 
 whence rivules run down. Between the mountains 
 are dreadful rocks, horrid precipices, and thick woods; 
 and In the fouth-weil part of the ifland, hot fulphureous 
 fprings at the foot of them. The air is good ; the foil 
 light, fandy, and fruitful ; but the ifland Is fubjeft to 
 hurricanes. The produce is chiefly fugar, cotton, gin- 
 ger, indigo, and the tropical fruits. W. Long. 62. 32. 
 N. Lat. 17. 30. 
 
 CHROASTACES, In natural hiftorj^ a genus of 
 pellucid gems, comprehending all thofe of variable co- 
 lours, as viewed in different lights ; of which kinds 
 
 are 
 
[ 7 
 
 Sec Opal, 
 
 C H R 
 
 Aromatic are the opal and the ajler'ta or oculus call 
 -^v '— ' and AsTERiA. 
 
 CHROMATIC, a kind of mullj^which proceeds 
 by feveral femitones in fucceffion. The word is de- 
 rived from the Greek %p^f^«, which fignifies colour. 
 For this denomination fevel-al caufes are affigned, of 
 which none appear certain, and all equally unfatisfac- 
 tory. Inftead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we fhall 
 offer a conjedlure of our own ; which, however, we 
 do not impofe upon the reader as more worthy of his 
 attention than any of the former. Xpo.aa may per- 
 haps not only fi jnify a colour, but that fhade of a colour 
 by which it melts into another, or what the French 
 call nuance. If this interpretation be admitted, it will 
 be highly apphcable to feniitones ; which being the 
 fmalleft interval allowed in the diatonic fcale, will 
 moft eafily run one into another. To find the rea- 
 fons affigned by the ancients for this denomination, 
 and their various divifions of the chromatic fpecies, 
 the reader may have recourfe to the fame article in 
 Rouffeau's Mufical Dictionary. At prefent, that fpe- 
 cies con fills in giving fuch a procedure to the funda- 
 mental bafs, that the parts in the harmony, or at leaft 
 feme of them, may proceed by fe:nitones, as well in 
 rifing as defcending ; which is moft frequently found 
 in the minor mode, from the alterations to which the 
 fixth and feventh note are fubjedted, by the nature of 
 the mode itfelf. 
 
 The fucceffive femitones ufed in the chromatic fpe- 
 cies are rarely of the fame kind ; but alternatively 
 major and minor, that is to fay, chromatic and diatonic: 
 for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or 
 chromatic femitone, and another which is major or 
 diatonic ; a meafiire which temperament renders com- 
 mon to all tones : fo that we cannot proceed by two 
 minor femitones whi'ch are conjunAive in fucceffion, 
 without entering into the enharmonic fpecies ; but 
 two major femitones twice follow each other in the 
 chromatic order of the fcale. 
 
 21 ] C H R 
 
 The mofl certain procedure of the fundamental bafs Chromatic, 
 to generate the chromatic elements in afcent, is alter- " 
 nately to defcend by thirds, and rife by fourths, whilft 
 all the chords carry the third major. If the funda- 
 mental bafs proceeds from dominant to dominant by 
 perfedl cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in 
 defcending. To produce both at once, you inter- 
 weave the perfeft and broken cadences, but at the 
 fame time avoid them. 
 
 As at every note in the chromatic fpecies one rauft 
 change the tone^, that fucceffion ought to be regulated 
 and h"mlted for fear of deviation. For this purpofe, 
 it will be proper to recolleft, that the fpace moft fuit- 
 able to chromatic movements, is between the extremes 
 of the dominant and the tonic in afcending, and be- 
 tween the tonic and the dominant in defcending. Iti 
 the major mode, one may alfo chromatically defcend 
 from the dominant upon the fecond note. This tran- 
 fition is very common in Italy ; and, notwithftanding 
 its beauty, begins to be a little too common amongft us. 
 
 The chromatic fpecies is admirably fitted to exprefs 
 grief and affiaion ; thefe founds boldly ftruck in af- 
 cending tear the foul. Their power is no lefs magi- 
 cal in defcending ; it is then that the ear feems to be 
 pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper 
 harmony, this fpecies appears proper to exprefs every 
 thing : but its completion, by concealing the melody, 
 fdcrifices a part of its expreffion ; and for this difad- 
 vantage, arifing from the fiillnefs of the harmony, it 
 can only be compenfated by the nature and genius of 
 the movement. We may add, that in proportion to 
 the energy of this fpecies, the compofer ought to ufe 
 it with greater caution and parfimony. Like thofe 
 delicate viands, which when profufely adminiftered, 
 immedlaleljA furfeit us with their abundance : as much 
 as they delight us when enjoyed with temperance, fo 
 much do they difguft when devoured with nrodI<T3- 
 lity. 
 
 Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic. 
 
 CHROMATICS; 
 
 THAT part of optics which explains the feveral 
 properties of the colours of light, and of natu- 
 j ral bodies. 
 
 Different Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton, we find no 
 hypothefes hypothefis concerning colours of any confequence. 
 concerning The opinions of the old philofophers, however, we 
 coloursi ^jgji briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiofity 
 of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the 
 • fiiperficles of body. Plato faid that it was a flame if- 
 fuing from them. According to Zeno, it is the firft 
 configuration of matter ; and Ariftotle faid it was that 
 which moved bodies aftually tranfparent. Defcartes 
 afferted, that colour is a modification of light ; but he 
 imagined, that the difference of colour proceeds from 
 the prevalence of the direft or rotatory motion of the 
 particles of light. Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and 
 m.aHy others, thought the differences of colour depend- 
 ed upon the quick or flow vibrations of a certain ela- 
 ftic medium filling the whole univerfe. Rohault ima- 
 gined, that the different colours were made by the 
 rays of light entering the eye at different angles with 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 refped to the optic axis ; and from the phEenoraenofi 
 of the rainbow, he pretended to calculate the precifc 
 quantity of the angle that conftituted each particular 
 colour. Laftly, Dr Hooke, the rival of Newton, ima- 
 gined that colour is caufed by the fenfation of the 
 oblique or uneven pulfe of light ; and this being ca- 
 pable of no more than two varieties, he concluded there 
 could be no more than two primary colours. 
 _ In the year 1666, Sir Ifaac Newton began to invef-Thisfubjcft 
 tigate this fubjedl ; and finding the coloured image of inveftioated 
 the fun, formed by a glafs prifm, to be of an ohlong, 
 and not of a_ circular form, as, accordi^^r to the laws^^^'°"' 
 of refradlon, it ought to be. he began to conjefture 
 that light is not homogeneal ; but that it confifts of rays, 
 fome of which are much more refrangible than others. 
 See this difcovery fully explained and afcertained un- 
 der the article Optics. 
 
 This method of accounting for the different colours 
 of bodies, from their refleding this or that kind of 
 rays moft copioufly, is fo eafy and natural, that Sir 
 Ifaac's fyftem quickly overcame all objeaions, and to 
 4 Y this 
 
.22 C H R O M 
 
 this day continues to be almoft univerfally believed. 
 It is now acknowledged, that the light of the fun, 
 which to us feems ])erft£tly homogeneal and white, is 
 compofed of no fc^vtr than feven different colours, 
 1)1%. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and 
 violet or indigo. A body wliich appeals of a red co- 
 lour, hath the property of refleAing the red rays more 
 powerfvilly than any of the others; and fo of the o- 
 range, yellow, green, &c. A body which is of a 
 black colour, inllead of refleding, ah/orbs all or the 
 greatell part of the rays that fall upon it ; and, on 
 the contrary, a body wliich appears white, refleds the 
 greateft part of the rays indif'criminately, without fe- 
 parating the one from the other. 
 
 The foundation of a rational theory of colours be- 
 ing thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by 
 wii^t peculiar mechanifm in the ftruAure of each par- 
 ticular body it was fitted to refleft one kind of rays 
 more than another? This Sir Ifaac Newton, attributes to 
 the denfity of thefe bodies. Dr Hooke had remarked, 
 that thin tranfparent fubftances, particularly water and 
 foap blown into bubbles, exhibited varioUs colours ac- 
 cording to their thinnefs ; though, when they have a 
 confiderable degree of thicknefs, they appear colour- 
 kfs ; and Sir Ifaac himfelf had obferved, that as he 
 was compreffing two prifms hard together, in order 
 to make their fides (which happened to be a little con- 
 vex) to touch one another, in the place of contaA they 
 3. were both perfeftly tranfparent, as if they had been 
 Colours ap- but one continued piete of glafs. Round the point of 
 peaniigbe- (,Qjjt^a£^^ where the glaffes were a little feparated from 
 glafsplates. each other, rings of different colours appeared. To 
 obferve more nicely the order of the colours produced 
 in this manner, he took two objeft-glafFes ; one of 
 them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re- 
 frafting tclefcope, and the other a large double con- 
 vex one for a telefcope of about 5^0 feet ; and laying 
 the former of them upon the latter, with its plain fide 
 downwards, he prefTed them flowly together; by 
 which means the colours very foon emerged, and ap- 
 peared diftinft to a confiderable difiance. Next to 
 the pellucid central fpot, made by the contadl of the 
 piaffes, fucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The 
 blue was very little in quantity, nor could he difcern 
 any violet in it ; but the yellow and red were very co- 
 pious, extending about as far as the white, and four or 
 five times as far as the blue. The next circuit imme- 
 diately furrounding thefe, confifted of violet, blue, 
 green, yellow, and red : all thefe were copious and 
 vivid, except the green, which was very little in quan- 
 tity, and fcemed more faint and dilute than the other 
 colours. Of the other four, the violet was the leaft in 
 extent ; and the blue lefs than the yellow or red. The 
 third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow, 
 and red.. In this the purple feemed more reddifh than 
 the violet in the former circuit, and the green was 
 more confpicuous ; being as brifk and copious as any 
 cf the other colours, except the yellow ; but the red 
 began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple. 
 The fourth circle confifted of green and red ; and of 
 thefe the green was very copious and lively, inclining 
 on the one fide to blue, and on the other to yellow ; 
 but in this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue, 
 aor yellow, and the red was very imperfed and dirty. 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 All the fucceeding colours grew more and more im» 
 perfeft and dilute, till after three or four revolutions 
 they ended in perfect whitencfs. ^ 
 
 As the colours were' thus found to vary according Suppufe^It© 
 to the different diflances of the glafs- plates from each arife fjv»» 
 other, our author thought that they proceeded from '^^^^^'y* 
 the different thicknefs of the plate of air intercepted 
 between the glaffes ; this plate of air being, by the 
 mere circtimftance of thinnefs or thicknefs, dilpoled 
 to refled or tranfmit this or that parjj^ular colour. 
 From this he concluded, as already obferved, that the 
 colours of all natural bodies depended on their denfi- 
 ty, or the bignefs of their component particles. He 
 alfo conftruAed a table, wherein tlie thicknefs of a 
 plate neceffary to reflc;Ct any particular colour was 
 exprtffed in parts of an inch divided into i,oao,ooo 
 parts. ... S 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, purfuing his difcoveries concern- CdIou-s 157, 
 ing the colours of thin fubftances, found that the fame 
 were alfo produced by plates of a confiderable thick- 
 nefs. There is no glafs or fpeculum, he obferves, 
 how well polifhed foever,. but, befides the light which 
 it refrafts or reflctts regularly, fcatters every way ir- 
 regularly a faint light ; by means of which the polifh- 
 ed furface, when illuminated in a dark room by a. 
 beam of the fun's light, may eafily be feen in all pofi- 
 tions of the eye. It was with this fcattered light that 
 the colours in the following experiments were produ- 
 ced. 
 
 The fun fhining into his darkened chamber through 
 a hole in the fhutter one inch wide, he let the beam 
 of fight fall perpendicularly upon a glafs fpeculum con- 
 cave on one fide and convex on the other, ground to a, 
 fphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and quickfilver- 
 ed over on the convex fide. Then, holding a quire of 
 white paper at the centre of the fphere to which the 
 fpcculums were ground, in fuch a manner as that the 
 beam of light might pafs through a little hole made- 
 in the middle of the paper, to the fpeculum, and thence 
 be reflefted back to the fame hole, he obferved on the 
 paper four or five concentric rings of colours, like 
 rainbows furrounding the hole, very much like thofe 
 which appeared in the thin plates above mentioned, 
 but larger and fainter. Thefe rings, as they grew 
 larger and larger, became more dilute, fo that the fifth, 
 was hardly vifible ; and yet fometimes, when the fun 
 fhone very clear, there appeared faint traces of a fixth 
 and feventh. g 
 
 We have already taken notice, that the thin plates Colours I17 
 made ufe of in the former experiments reflefted fome "efradioa 
 kinds of rays in particular parts, and tranfmitted ^"'^ 
 others in the fame parts. Hence the coloured rings 
 appeared varioufly difpofed, according as they were 
 viewed by tranfmitted or refleifted light ; that is, ac- 
 cording as the plates were held up between the light 
 and the eye, or not. For the better underflianding of 
 which we fubjoin the following table, wherein on one 
 fide are mentioned the colours appearing on the plates 
 by refledled light, and on the other thofe which were 
 oppofite to them, and which became vifible when the 
 glaffes were held up between the eye and the window. 
 We have already obferved, that the centre, when the 
 glaffes were in full contaft, was perfeftly tranfparent. 
 This fpot, therefore, when viewed by reflefted light, 
 
 appeared 
 
7 
 
 General 
 theory of 
 
 o.,io.,,.'-by 
 Sir lla:,> 
 Newton. 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 appeared blaclc, becanfe it tranfmitted all the rays ; 
 and for the fame reafon it appeared white when viewed 
 by tranfmitted light. 
 
 A T I C 
 
 changes of colours in opaque and coloured bodies. 
 
 CoLOVRS hy RefliBi'd 
 
 Black 
 Blue 
 White 
 Yellow 
 Red 
 Violet 
 Blue 
 Green 
 Yellow 
 Red 
 Purple 
 Blue 
 Green 
 Ye 
 Red 
 Green 
 Red 
 
 Greenifh-blue 
 Red. 
 
 1 ceil 
 
 ellow 7 
 ed 5 
 
 Colours ly Tranfmiited 
 Light. 
 White 
 
 YtUowifh-red 
 
 Black 
 
 Violet 
 
 Blue 
 
 White 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Red 
 
 Violet 
 
 Blue 
 
 Green 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Red 
 
 Bluifli-green 
 Red 
 
 Bluifh-green 
 Red. 
 
 The colours of the rin^s produced from reflexion 
 by the thick plates, followed the order of thofe pro- 
 duced by tranfmifilon through the thin ones ; and by 
 the analogy of their phenomena with thofe produced 
 from the thin plates, Sir Ifaac Newton concluded that 
 they were produced in a fimilar manner. For he 
 found, that if the quickfilver was rubbed off from the 
 back of the fpeculum, the glafs alone would produce 
 the fame rln^s, but much more faint than before ; fo 
 that the phenomenon did n®t depend upon the quick- 
 filver, except in as far as, by increafing the refltftion 
 at the back of the glafs, it increafed the light of the 
 coloured rings. He alfo found that a fpeculum of me- 
 tal only, produced none of th.ofe rings ; which made 
 him conclude, that they did not arife from one furface 
 only, but depended on the two furfaces of the plate 
 of glafs of which the- fpeculum was made, and upon 
 the thicknefs of the glafs between them. 
 
 From thefe experiments and obfcrvations, it will be 
 cafy to underftand the Newtonian theory of colours. 
 Every fubflance in nature feems to be tranfparent, 
 provided it is made fufuciently thin. Gold, the moft 
 denfe fubftance we know, when reduced into thin 
 leaves, tranfmits a bluifh-green light through it. If, 
 therefore, we fuppofe any body, .gold, for inllance, to 
 be divided into a vaft number of plates, fo thin as to 
 be almoft perfedlly tranfparent, it is evident that all 
 or greateft part of the rays will pafs through the up- 
 per plates, and when they lofe their force will be re- 
 flefted from the under ones. They will then have 
 the fame number of plates to pafs through which they 
 had penetrated before ; and thus, according to the 
 number of thofe plates through which they are obli- 
 ged to pafs, the objeA appears of this or tliat colour, 
 juft ?s the rin(TS of colours appeared different in the 
 experiment of the two plates, according to their di- 
 ftance from one another, or the thicknefs of the plate 
 of air between them. 
 
 This theory is adopted by Edward HufTty Delaval, 
 xn his Expa-imtntal Inquiry into the caufe of the 
 
 He endeavours to confirm it by a number of experi- ''^1'", 
 ments on the infufions of flowers of different colours ; rimriUMn" 
 but his ftrongell arguments feem to be thofe derived confunia- 
 from the diflcrent tinges given to glafs by metallic niation of it. 
 fubftances. Here he (<bferves, that each metal ^.ivcs a 
 tinge according to its fpeciiic denfity ; the moi'e deiife 
 metals producing the kfs refr-angible colours, and the 
 lighter ones thofe colour-s which are more eafily refran- 
 gible. - Gold, which is the denfefl; of all metals, im- 
 parts a red colour to glafs, whenever it can be divided 
 into particles fo minute, that.it is capable of being 
 mixed with the materials of which glafs is made. It 
 feems indifferent by what means it is reduced to this 
 ftate, nor can it by any means be made to produce a- 
 nother colour. If it if mixed in large maffes without 
 being minutely divided, it imparts no colour to the 
 glafs, but remains in its metallic foi-m. Lead, the me- 
 tal whofe denfity is next in order to that of gold, af- 
 fords a glafs of the colour of the hyacinth ; a gem 
 whofe diftinguifhing charafteriilic is, that it is red 
 with an admixture of yellow, the fame colour which 19 
 ufually called orange. Glafs of lead is mentioned by 
 feveral authors as a compofition proper, without the 
 addition of any other ingredient, for imitating the hy- 
 acinth. Silver, next in denfity to lead, can only be 
 made to communicate a yellow colour to glafs. If 
 the metal is calcined with fulphur, it readily comma- 
 nieates this colour. Leaf-filver laid upon red-hot glafa 
 likewife tinges it yellow. When we meet with au- 
 thors who mention a blue or greenifh colour commu- 
 nicated by filver, the caufe mufl have been, that the 
 filver ufed in fuch proceffes was mixed with coppef. 
 Mr Delaval aifures us, from his own experience, that 
 filver purified by the teft retains fo much copper, that, 
 when melted feveral tiiries with nitre and borax, it al- 
 ways imparted a green colour at the firll and fecond 
 melting ; though afterwards no fuch colour was ob- 
 tainable from it. The only colour produced by cop- 
 per is green. It is indifferent In what manner the 
 copper is prepared in order to tinge the glafs, provided 
 it is eXpofed without any other ingredient to a fuffi- 
 cient degree of heat. If a quantity of falts are added 
 in the preparation, they will, by attenuating the mi::- 
 ture, make the glafs incline to blue, the colour next 
 in order: but this happens only when the fire is mo* 
 derate ; for-, in a greater degree of heat, the redun- 
 dant falts, even thofe of the moft fixed nature, are ex- 
 pelled. It is true, that copper is mentioned by fome 
 writers as an ingredient in red glafs and enamel : but 
 the red, which is the colour of the metal not diffolved 
 or mixed with the glafs, remains only while the com- 
 pofition is expofed to fuch a degree of heat as is too 
 fmall to melt and incorporate it ; for, if it be fuffered 
 to remain in the furnace a few minutes after the cop- 
 per is added, the mafs will turn out green inftead of 
 red. Iron, the metal next in denfity to copper, is apt 
 to be calcined, or reduced to a ruddy crocus, fimilar 
 to that rufl wliich it contrafts fpontaneouOy in the 
 air. In this flate, it requir-es a confiderable degree of 
 heat to diffolve and incorporate it with glafs : till that 
 heat is applied, it retains its ruddy colour : by in- 
 creafing the heat, it paffes through the intermediate 
 coloui-s, till it arrives at its permanent one, which is . 
 blue f this being effedled in the greateft degree of heat 
 4 Y 2 "the 
 
I 
 
 724 
 
 CHROMATIC S. 
 
 liaac's 
 theory dc- 
 fetided by 
 Dr Prieft- 
 ey. 
 
 JO 
 
 His expe- 
 riments. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Mr Can- 
 ton's expe- 
 riments. 
 
 the glafs will htzr, without lofing all colour whatever. 
 Iron vitrified /^r je is converted into a blue glafs. In 
 Ihort, it is indubitable, that iron is the only metal 
 •which will, without any addition, impart to the glafs 
 a blue colour : for copper will not communicate that 
 colour without the addition of a confiderable quantity 
 of falts, or fome other matter that attenuates it ; and 
 the other metals cannot by any means be inade to pro^ 
 duce it at all. 
 
 Thefe are the principal of Mr Delaval's arguments 
 in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton's theory of colours be- 
 ing formed by denfity. Dr Prieftley too hath men- 
 tioned fome which defi-rve attention. It was a 
 difcovery of Sir Ifaac Newton (fays he), that the co- 
 lours of bodies depend upon the thiclcnefs of the fine 
 plates which corapofe their fnrfaces. He hath fhown, 
 that a change of the thicknefs of thefe plates occafions 
 a change in the colour of the body ; rays of a diffe- 
 rent colour being thereby diipofed to be tranfmitted 
 through it ; and confequently rays of a different co- 
 lour refledted at the fame place, lo as to prefent an 
 image of a different colour to the eye. A variation 
 in the denfity occafions a variation in the colour ; but 
 flill a medium of any denfity will exhibit all the co- 
 lours, according to the thicknefs of it. Thefe obfer- 
 vations he confirmed by experiments on plates of air, 
 water, and glafs. He likewife mentions the colours 
 which arife on poliihed Heel by heating it, as likewife 
 on bell-metal, and fome other metalline fubflances, 
 when melted and poured oa the ground, where they 
 may coor in the open air; and he afcribes them to 
 the fcorijE or vitrified parts of the metal, which, he 
 fays, raoft metals, v/hen heated or melted, do continu- 
 ally protrude and fend out to their furfaces, covering 
 them in the form of a thin glaflTy il<in. This great 
 difcovery concerning the colours of bodies depending 
 on the thicknefs of the fine plates which compofe their 
 furfaces, of whatever denfity thefe plates may be, I 
 have been fo happy as to hit upon a method of illu- 
 ftrating and confirming by means of ekftrical explo- 
 fions. A number of thefe being i-eceived on the fur- 
 face of any piece of metal, change the colour of it to 
 a confiderable diftance from the fpot on which they 
 were difcharged ; fo that the whole circidar fpace is 
 divided into a number of concentric rings, each of 
 which confifts of all the prifmatic colours, and perhaps 
 as vivid as they can be produced in any m.ethod what- 
 ever. Upon fhowing thefe coloured rings to Mr 
 Canton, I was agi-eeably furprifed to find, that h-e had 
 likewife produced all the prifmatic colours from all 
 the metals, but by a different operation. He ex- 
 tended fine wires of all the different metals along the 
 furfaces of pieces of glafs, ivory, wood, &c. ; and 
 when the wire was exploded, he always found them 
 ting'ed with all the colours. They are not difpofed 
 in fo regular and beautiful a manner as in the rings I 
 produced, but they equally demonftrate that none of 
 the metals thus exploded difcovers the leafl preference 
 to one colour more than to another. In what manner 
 thefe colours are formed it may not be eafy to conjt'c- 
 tMre. In Mr Canton-s method of producing them, 
 the metal, or the calcined and vitrified parts of it, 
 feem to be difperfed in all direftions from the plate 
 of explofion, in the form of fpheres of a very great 
 variety of dzGs, tinged with all the variety of colours, 
 
 and fome of them fmaller than can be difllnftly feen 
 by any magnifier. In my method of making thefe 
 colours, they feem to be produced in a manner fimi- 
 lar to the production of colours on fteel and other me- 
 tals by heat ; e. the furface is affefted without the 
 parts of it being removed from their places, certain 
 plates or laminte being formed of a thicknel^ proper to / 
 exhibit the refpefhive colours." ^ 
 
 But, however well fupported this doftrine of the Newtoni.-ti 
 formation of colours by denfity may be, we find thetheo y im- 
 fame author (Dr Prieftley), whom we have juft now i^l'^^'^':^ ^^>' 
 feen arguing for it in his hillory of eleftrictty, arguing 
 agalnil it in his hlftory of vifion. " There are (fays 
 he) no optical experiments with which Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton feems to have taken . more pains than thofe rela- 
 ting to the rings of colours which appear In thin plates; 
 and in all his obfervations and invefligations concern- 
 ing them, he difcovers the greateft fagacity both as a 
 philofopher and mathematician ; and yet in no fubjecl 
 to which: he gave his attention, does he feem to have 
 overlooked more important circumftances in the ap- 
 pearances he obferved, or to have been more mifla- 
 ken with regard to their caufes. The former will be 
 evident from the obfervations of thofe who fucceeded 
 him in thefe enquiries, particularly thofe of the Abbe 
 Mazeas.. This gentleman, endeavouring to give a Curious ex= 
 very high pollfii to the flat fide of an objeft-glafs, hap-periments 
 pened to be rubbing it againft another piece of flat ^^^^^ '^'^'^^ 
 and fmooth glafs ; when he was furprifed to find, that ^ °" 
 after this friftion, they , adhered very firmly together, 
 till at lalt he could not move the one upon the other. 
 But he was much more furprifed to obferve the fame 
 colours between thefe plane glaffes that Newton ob- 
 ferved between the convex objedl-glafs of a telefcope 
 and another that was plane. Thefe colours between 
 the phuie glaffes, the Abbe obferves, were in propor- 
 tion to their adhefion. The refemblance between 
 them and the colours produced by Newton, induced 
 him to give a very particular attention to them ; and 
 his obfervations and experiments are as follow': 
 
 *' If the furfaces of the pieces of glafs are tranfpa- 
 rent, and well pollflied, fuch as are ufcd for mirrors, 
 and the preffure be as equal as poffible on every part 
 of the two furfaces, a refiftance, he fays, will foon be 
 perceived when one of them is made to Aide over the 
 other ; fometimes towards the middle, and fometimcs . 
 towards the edges ; but wherever the refinance is felt, 
 two or three very fine curve lines will be perceived, , 
 fome of a pale red, and others of a faint green. Con- 
 tinuing the frlAion, thefe red and green llnt-s increafe 
 in number at the place of contact, the colours being 
 foraetimes mixed without any order, and fometimes dif- 
 pofed in a regular manner. In the lafl cafe, the co- 
 loured lines are generally concentric circles, or ellipfes,. 
 or rather ovals, more or lefs elongated as the furfaces 
 are more or lefs united. Thefe figures will not fail 
 to appear, if the glaffes are well wiped and warmed he.- 
 fore the ftiftion, 
 
 " When the colours are formed, the glaffes adhere 
 with confiderable force, and would always continue fo 
 without any change in the colours. In the centre of , 
 all thofe ovals, the longer diameter of which generally 
 exceeds ten lines, there appears a fmall plate of the 
 fame figure, exaftly like a plate of gold interpofed 
 between the glafTesj and in lUe centre of it there is 
 
 often . 
 
CHROMATICS. 
 
 aften a dark fpot, which abfoibs all the rays of light 
 •xcept the violet; for this colour appears very vivid 
 ^hrough a prifm. 
 
 " If the glafFes are feparated fuddenly, either by 
 Aiding them horizontally over one another, or by the 
 aftion of fire, as will be explained hereafter, the co- 
 lours will appear immediately upon their being put to- 
 gether again, without the leail friction. 
 
 " Beginning by the ilighteft touch, and increafing 
 the preffure by infenfible degrees, there firft appears 
 an oval plate of a faint red, and in the midft of it a 
 fpot of light green, which enlarges by the preffure,- 
 and becomes a green oval, with a red fpot in the 
 centre; and this, enlarging in its turn, difcovers a 
 green fpot in its centre. Thus th« red and the green 
 fucceed one another in turns, affuming different fhades, 
 and having other colours mixed with them, which will 
 be diPtinguifhed prefently. 
 
 _ The greateil difference between thefe colours ex- 
 hibited between plane furfaces and thofe formed by 
 curve ones is, that in the former cafe preffure alone 
 will not produce them, except in the cafe above men- 
 tioned. With whatever force he compreffed them, his 
 attempts to produce the colours were in vain without 
 previous friftion. But the reafon of this plainly was, 
 that without Aiding one of the glaffes over the other, 
 they could not be brought to approach near enough for 
 the purpofe. 
 
 " Having made thefe obfervations with plates of 
 glafs whofe fides were nearly p^irallel, he got two 
 prifms with very fmall refrafting an^es; and rubbing 
 them together, when they were fo joined as to form a 
 parallelopiped, the colours appeared with a furprifmg 
 luftre at the places of contaft, owing, he did not 
 doubt, to the feparation of the rays of light by the 
 prifm. In this cafe, differently coloured ovals appear- 
 ed, but the plate of gold in them was much whiter, 
 and only appeared yellow about its edges. This plate 
 having a black fpot in its centre, was bordered by a 
 deep purple. He could not perceive any violet by his 
 naked eye, but it might be perceived by the help of 
 a lens with a weak light. It. appeared in a very fmall 
 quantity at the confines of the purple and the blue, 
 and feemed to him to be only a mixture of thefe two 
 colours. It was very vifible in each of the coloured 
 rings by inclining the glafles to the light of the moon. 
 Next to the purple and violet appeared blue, orange, 
 red tinged with purple, light green, and faint purple. 
 The other rings appeared to the naked eye to con^ 
 fift of nothing but faint reds and greens; and they 
 were fo fhaded that it was not eafy to mark their ter- 
 minations. That the order of thefe may be compared 
 with Newton's, he gives a view of both in tie follow- 
 ing table: - 
 
 Order of the Colours in th: 
 Plane Glajfes. 
 
 r Black fpot 
 
 Order I. 4 l^S'^' 
 
 I Yellow border 
 
 (_Deep purple 
 
 Order II. 
 
 Blue 
 I Orange 
 Purple 
 
 Order of the Colours in 
 Netut. Ohjcct Claffcs. 
 Black 
 Blue 
 White 
 Yellow 
 Red 
 Violet 
 Blue 
 Gieen 
 Yellow 
 Red 
 
 Order of the Colours In tha 
 Plane Glajfes. 
 
 iGreenifli blue 
 Yellowifh green 
 Purpled red 
 
 Order IV 
 
 Green 
 Red 
 
 Order V. 5 li-^j^^ g'-f « 
 ramt red 
 
 Order VI. \ ^'J'" 
 l_ liight red 
 
 Veiyfaintgreen 
 
 Very faint red. 
 
 Order VII. 
 
 Order of the Colours In 
 Neiut. Objeil Glaffes, 
 Purple 
 Blue 
 Green 
 Yellow 
 Red 
 Green 
 Red 
 
 Greenifh blue 
 Red 
 'Greenifli blue 
 Red 
 
 Greeniih blue 
 Pale red. 
 
 " When thefe coloured glaffes were fufpended over 
 the flame of a candle,, the colours difappeared fudden- 
 ly, though the glaffes flill continued to adhere to one 
 another v/hen they were parallel to the horizon. Whea 
 thev were fuffered to cool, the colours returned by' de- 
 grees to their fotrraer places, in the order of the pre- 
 ceding table. 
 
 " After this the Abbe took two plates much thicker- 
 than the former, in order to obferve at his leifure the 
 adion of fire upon the matter which he fuppofed to 
 produce the colours; and obferved, that as they grew 
 warm, the colours retired to the edges of the glaffes, 
 and there became narrower and narrower till they were 
 reduced to imperceptible lines. Withdrawing the 
 flame, they returned to their place. This experiment 
 he continued till the glaffes were bent by the violence 
 of the heat. It was pleafant, he fays, to obferve thefe 
 colours glide over the furface of the glafs as they 
 were purfued by the flame. 
 
 " At the firft, our author had no doubt but that 
 .thefe colours were owing to a thin plate of air be- 
 tween the glaffes, to which Newton has afcribed them; 
 but the remarkable difference in- the circumftances at- 
 tending tliofe produced by the flat plates, and thofe 
 produced by the obje£l-glaflcs of Newton, convinced 
 him that the air was not the caufe of this appearance- 
 The colours of the flat plates vaniflied at the approach 
 of flame, but thofe of the objefl-glafTes did not. He 
 even heated the latter till that which was next the 
 flame was cracked by the heat, before he could ob- 
 ferve the leafl dilatation of the coloured rings. This 
 difference was not owing to the plane glaffes being lefs 
 compreffed than the convex ones ; for though the for- 
 mer were compreffed ever fo much by a pair of forceps, 
 it did not in the leafl hinder the effedl of the flame. 
 
 *' Afterwards he put both the plane glaffes and the 
 convex ones into the receiver of an air-pump, fufpend- 
 ing the former by a thread, and keeping the latter 
 compreffed by two firings; but he obferved no change 
 in the colours of either of them in the mofl perfeft va- 
 cuum he could make. 
 
 " Notwithflanding thefe experiments feemed to be 
 conclufive againfl the hypothefis of thefe colours be- 
 ing formed by a plate of air, the Abbe frankly ac- 
 knowledges, that the air may adhere fo obflinate- 
 ly to the furface of the glaffes as not to be fepa- 
 rated from them by the force of the pump ; which, 
 indeed, is agreeable to other appearances : but the 
 following experiments of our author make it flill 
 more improbable that the air fhould be the caufe of 
 thefe colours. 
 
 " To .- 
 
yzS C II R O M 
 
 To try the utmoft effeft of heat upon thefe co- 
 loured plates, after warming them gradually, he laid 
 them upon burning coals ; Hut though they were near- 
 ly red, yet when he rubbed them together by means 
 of an iron rod, he obfervcd the farne coloured circles 
 and ovals as before. When he ceafed to prefs upon them, 
 the colours feemed to vanifl-i ; but when he repeated 
 the friftion, they returned, and continued till the pie- 
 rces of glafs began to be red-hot, and their furfaces to 
 "be united by fufion» 
 
 " When the outward furftice of one of his plates 
 of glafs was quickfilvercd, none of thafe colours were 
 vifible, though the glaffes continued to adhere with 
 the fame force. This he afcribed to the ftronger 
 impreffion made on the eye by the greater quantity of 
 light reflefted from the quickfdver. 
 
 " Judging from the refemblance between his ex- 
 periments and thofe of Sir Ifaac Newton, that the co- 
 lours were owing to the thicknefs of fome matter, 
 whatever that was, interpofed between the glaffes, 
 the Abbe, in order to verify his hypothefis, tried the 
 experiment on thicker fubfliances. He put between 
 lu's glaffes a little ball of fuet, about a fourth of a line 
 in diameter, and preffed it between the two furfaces, 
 warming them at the fame time, in order to difperfc 
 •the fuet; but, though he rubbed them together as be- 
 fore, and ufed other foft fubftances befides fuet, his 
 endeavours to produce the colours had no effctl. But, 
 j-ubbing them with more violence in a circular man- 
 lier, he was furprifed, on looking at a candle through 
 them, to fee it furrounded with two or three concen- 
 tric rings, very broad, and with veiy lively delicate 
 colours ; namely, a red inclining to a yellow, and a 
 .green inclining to that of an emerald. At that time 
 he obferved only thefe two colours; but continuing the 
 friftion, the rings afTumed the colours of blue, yellow, 
 and violet, cfpecially when he looked through the 
 gkfTes on bodies direftly oppofed to the fun. If, after 
 having rubb)ed the glafTes, the thicknefs was confide- 
 rablydiminifhed, the colours grew weakerbytranfmitted 
 light, but they feemed to be much ftronger by refledion, 
 and to gain on one fide what they loft on the other. 
 Newtonian " Our author was confirmed in his opinion, that 
 hypothefis there muft be fome error in Newton's hypothefis, by 
 -oppofed. confidering, that, according to his meafures, the co- 
 lours of the plates varied with the difference of a 
 millionth pait of an inch ; whereas he was fatisfied 
 that there muft have been much greater difterences 
 in the diftance between his glafies, when the colours 
 remained unchanged. 
 
 " If the colour depended upon the thicknefs only, 
 he thought that the matter interpofed between the 
 glaffes ought to liave given the fame colour when it 
 was reduced to a thin plate by funple fufion as well as 
 by friftion, and that, in rubbing two plates together, 
 warming them at different times, and compreffmg 
 them with a confiderable force, other colours would 
 have appeared befides thofe above mentioned. 
 
 " Thefe circumftances made him fufpeft, that the 
 different thickneffes of the fubftance interpofed be- 
 tween the glaffes ferved only to make them more or 
 lefs tranfparent, which was an effential condition in 
 the experiment ; aud he imagined that the friftion 
 diffufed over the furface of the thin fubftance a kind 
 q£ matter ou which the colQurs are formed by rtfie.c- 
 
 A T I C S, 
 
 ted light: for when he held the plates (which gave 
 the colours when the fuet was between them) over 
 the flame of a fmall candle, the colours fled with great 
 precipitation, and returned to their place without his 
 being able to perceive the leaft altesarion in the fuet. 
 
 " He was confirmed in his conjtftures, by fre- 
 quently chferving, that when the gkdfes were fepara- 
 ted, at the moment the colours dilappeared, they 
 were covered with the fame greafy matter, and that 
 it feemed to be in the very fame ftate a,s when they 
 were feparated without warming. Befides, having 
 often repeated tlte fame experiment with different 
 kinds of matter, he found that the degree of heat that 
 difperfed the colours was ncit always fufficient to melt 
 it ; which difference was more fenfible ui proportion 
 as the matter interpofed was made thinner. 
 
 " Inftead of the fuet, he fometimes made ufe of 
 Spanifii was, refin, common wax, and the fedimen-t 
 of urine. He began with Sjianifl> wax, on account of 
 its remarkable tranfparency in Mr Haukft)ee's eleftri- 
 tal experiments ; but he had much difficulty in ma- 
 king it fufficiently thin by friction, being often obliged 
 to warm his glaffes, to feize the moment of fufion, 
 which continued but a fliort time, and to hazard the 
 burning of his fingers. 
 
 " The experiment at length fucceeding, the Spa- 
 niOi wax appeared with its opacity and natural colour 
 when it refle6ted the light, but they both difappeared 
 in the tranfmitted light. He obferved tlie fame rings 
 in it as in the fuet ; and indeed he could perceive but 
 little difference between the colours of fuet, Spanilh 
 wax, common wax, or refin; except that this laft fub- 
 ftance did not make the colours fo vivid, oh account 
 of the too great tranfparency of its particles. 
 
 The fediment of urine had fomething more par- 
 ticvdar in its appearance, as its colours were more 
 lively. Holding it above the flame, its colours difap- 
 peared ; and, keeping it in that fituation, there were 
 formed, upon its furface, ramifications, Hke thofe of 
 the hoar-frott, which difappeared as the glaffes grevr 
 cold. There were the fame ramifications both upon 
 the fuet and the wax, but they were not fo confider- 
 able. The glaffes which had Spanifh wax and reiin 
 between them adhered with fo much force, that they 
 could not be feparated 'without the help of fire ; and 
 when they began to grow warm, they feparated with 
 a noife like that of a glafs breaking in the fire, though 
 the glaffes were not broken, and the matter between 
 them was not melted. 
 
 " Separating the glaffes which he firft ufed very 
 fuddenly, he obfei-ved upon their furface very thin 
 vapours, which formed different colours, but preient- 
 ly vanif!' ,d altogether. 
 
 " To try the effed of vapour, he breathed upon 
 one of his plates of glafs, and obferved that the va- 
 pours which adhered to the glaffes fometimes formed, 
 before they were entirely difperfed, a furprifing va- 
 riety of colours. This experiment, he obferves, does 
 not always fucceed at the firft trial. The glafs muft 
 be breathed upon feveral times, and care muft be ta- 
 ken to wipe it every time with one's hand, both to 
 take off the moifture, and alfo to make upon the glafs 
 a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the 
 variety of colours, by making inequaUtits in the thick- 
 neffes of the vapours. It is neceffajy, alfo, that the 
 
 glaffes. 
 
CHROMA 
 
 T 
 
 I C S, 
 
 giafTes on which thefe experiments arc nttide have no 
 quickfilver upon them. 
 
 «' Whea the particles of water which formed this 
 vapour were too thick to exhibit thefe colours, he 
 ftryck them feveral times with his pencil, in order to 
 attenuate them ; and then he faw an infinity of fmall 
 coloured threads which' fucceeded one another with 
 great rapidity. 
 
 *' Putting a- drop of water betweea two pieces of 
 common glafs, he obferved that the compreffion of 
 them produced no colour ; but if, while they were 
 compreffed, the water was made to pafs from one 
 place to another, it left behind it large fpots, red, 
 yellow, green, purple, £ff^. and the fpots afTumed 
 diflFerent colours with a furprifmg rapidity, and pre- 
 flented to the eye a moll beautiful variety of fhades. 
 
 " In order to detennine with greater certainty 
 •whether they were vapours that cauftd the colours in 
 his firft obfervations, he firft breathed upon one of his 
 plates of glafs, and then iiibbed them again ft one ano- 
 ther, when the colours appeai-ed in the farrie order as 
 before, but darker, and difperfed in confufion in the 
 places occupied by the vapours ; but when he made 
 ufe of lire to diffipate the watery particles^ the co- 
 lours refumed their luftre. 
 
 " Newton, having introduced a drop of water be- 
 tween his two objeft-glafTes, obferved, that in pro- 
 portion as the water infmuated itfelf between the 
 glaffes, the colours grew fainter, and the rings were 
 Gontrafted ; and afcribing thefe colours to the thick- 
 nefs of the plate of water, as he afcribed the former 
 to that of the plate of air, he meafured the diameters 
 of the coloured rings made by the plate of water, 
 and concluded that the intervals between the glaffes 
 at the fimilar rings of thefe two mediums were nearly 
 as three to four ; and thence he inferred, that, in all 
 cafes, thefe intervals would be as the lines of tlie re- 
 fraftions of thefe mediums. 
 
 " The Abbe Mazeas, in order to afTure himfelf 
 whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of 
 his glalTes depended upon the thicknefs of the water 
 only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glaffes 
 in a veffel of water, having taken care to wipe and 
 warm them well before he produced his colours by 
 fridlion. The water was a confiderable time in ri- 
 fing as high as the glaffes ; and in proportion as it a- 
 fcended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which 
 feemed to pafs over the matter which he thought 
 produced the colours, without mixing with it ; for 
 beyond this plate of water, he flill perceived the co- 
 lours in the fame place and order, but deeper and 
 darker ; and holding the glaffes* above the flame of a 
 candle, he faw the colours go and come feveral times 
 as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame. 
 He then moiftened both the glaffes more than before ; 
 and rubbing them as ufual, he always faw the fame 
 appearance ; and feizing the moment when the co- 
 lours had difappeared to feparate the glaffes, he al- 
 ways found that they were wet. On this account, 
 he thought that it could not be the water on which 
 tlie colour depended, but fome fubftance much more 
 fenfible to heat. He alfo thought that thefe coloured 
 rings could not be owing to the compreffion of the 
 glaifes; or that, if this circuraflance did contribute aj^y 
 -3 
 
 thing to them, it ferved rather to modify than to ge- 
 nerate them. 
 
 " M. du Tour gjive particular attention to the pre- m. du 
 ceding obfervations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat- Tour's ob- 
 ed the experiments with fome variation of circum- 
 fiances, particularly comparing them with thofe of 
 Sir Ifaac Newton. He is fo far from fuppofmg a plate 
 of air to be neceflary to the foi'mation of thefe co- 
 loured rings, that he thinks the reafon of their not ap- 
 pearing between the flat plates of glafs is the adher- 
 ing of the air to their furfaces ; and that mere pref- 
 fure is not fufEcIent to expel it; except, as the Abbe 
 Mazeas obferved, the rings had before been made in 
 the fame place; in which cafe, fimjile appofition with- 
 out friftion is fufficient; the air, probably, not having 
 had time to apply itfelf fo clofely to the furface of the 
 glafs. The contaA of fome other fubllances, M. du 
 Tour obferves, is not fo prejudicial in this experiment 
 as that of air; for he found, that, if he only gave the 
 plates a flight coating of any kind of greafe, the rings 
 would appear without fridlion. Alfo dipping thera 
 nightly in water, or v/iping them with his finger, 
 would anfwer the fame purpofe. He verified his 
 conjeAures by means of the air-pump: for, dipping 
 two pieces of glafs in water, one «f which had been 
 wiped, and the other not, the former appeared to have 
 no bubbles adhering to it when the air was ejdiaufled, 
 whereas the other had. 
 
 " When one of the glaffes is convex, our author ob- 
 ferves, that the particles of air may more eafily make- 
 their efcape by preffure only ; whereas their retreat 
 is in a manner cut off when they are compreffed be- 
 tween tvvo flat furfaces. The air-pump, he found, 
 was not able to detach thefe particles of air from the 
 furfaces to- which they adhere ; leaving thefe fiat plates 
 for a confiderabk time in an exhauiled receiver, was 
 not fufficient to prepare them fo well for the experi- 
 ment, as wiping them. 
 
 " Befides the obfervations on the colours of thin Experi- 
 plates, it has been feen that Sir Ifaac Newton ima- nunts on 
 gined he could account for the colours exhibited hy'^°|j'"^! 
 thick ones in fome cafes in a firailar manner ; parti- '° * 
 cularly in thofe curious experiments in which he ad- 
 mitted a beam of light through a hole in a piece of 
 pafleboard, and obferved the rings of colours reflefted. 
 back upon it by a concave glafs mirror of equal thick- 
 nefs in all places. Thefe experiments were refumed,, 
 and happily purfued, by the Duke de Chaulnes, who: 
 afcribed thefe colours to the inflc6lion of light*. Chance* 
 led the duke to obferve, that when the nearer furface //fj', 
 of the glafs mirror vv'as clouded by breathing upon it,, 
 fo as lightly to tarnifh it, a white difliifed and vivid 
 light was feen upon the paftcboard, and all the co- 
 lours of the rings became much flronger, and more 
 diflinft. This appearance he made conftant by moi- 
 flening the furface of the mirror with a little milk and 
 water, and fuffering it to dry upon it. 
 
 " In all his experiments upon this fubjecl, he found, 
 that when the rays fell converging on the furface of 
 the mirror, the rings were hardly vifible ; when they 
 fell parallel upon it, as they mull have done in all the 
 experiments of Newton, they, appeared fufficiently 
 diftinil ; but when, by means of a convex lens placed; 
 in the hole of the window, they were made to diverge. 
 
 from 
 
 See Op'- 
 
C H R O M 
 
 from the centre of the fphere to which the mirror was 
 ground, fo that they fell pexpendicularly on the fur- 
 face of the mirror, the colours were as vivid as he could 
 make them. In this cafe he could remove the reflec- 
 ted image to a great didance from the hole, without 
 making the rings difappear ; and he could plainly per- 
 ceive them to arife from their central fpots, which 
 changed their colours feveral times. 
 
 ** The effefl of tarnifhing the mirror convinced him, 
 that thefe coloured rings depended on the firft fur- 
 face of the mirror ; and that the fecond furface, or 
 that which refledted them after they had paffed the 
 firll, only ferved to colleft them and throw them up- 
 on the pafteboard in a quantity fufficient to make them 
 \ifible, and he was confirmed in his fuppofition by the 
 following experiments, 
 
 " He took a plano-convex objctl-glafs, of fix feet 
 focus, and placed it fix feet from the pafteboard with 
 its convex fide towards it. By this means the rays 
 which fell upon that furface, after being refraftcd 
 there, were tranfmitted through the thicknefs of the 
 ^lafs, parallel to one another, and fell perpendicularly 
 on the plane furface that refletled them, and, in their 
 return, would be collefled upon the pafteboard. In 
 thefe pircumftances the rings appeared very diftln£l 
 after he had tarnifhed the convex furface, which in 
 tliis pofition was next to the light. 
 
 " Turning the fame glafs the contrary way, fo that 
 the plane furface was towards the pafteboard, he could 
 perceive none of the rings at the diilance of fix feet ; 
 but they were vifible at the diftance of three feet : 
 becaufe at that diftance the fecond furface refleded 
 the rays by its concavity direftly towards the pafte- 
 board. 
 
 " Thefe two experiments demonftrate the ufe of the 
 fecond furface of the mirror, and fhow-the manner of 
 placing it to moft advantage. Thofe that follow ftiow 
 the ufe of the fa ft fyrface with refpeft to thefe rings ; 
 and he was led to make them by the cafual obfervation 
 above mentioned. 
 
 *' Newton, he obferves, had remarked, that when 
 he made ufe of a mirror of the fame focus with the firft 
 he had ufcd, but of twice the thicknefs, he found the 
 diameter of the rings much fmaller than before. This 
 obfervation the duke thought favourable to his own 
 concluftons ; for if thefe rings depend upon the fit ft 
 furface, the nearer it is to the fecond, which only re- 
 flects the ray tranfmitted from it, the larger they ought 
 to appear upon the pafteboard. 
 
 " To afcertain this faft, he thought of making ufe 
 of two moveable furfaces ; and to make ufe of a mi- 
 crometer to meafure the diftance between them with 
 cxaftnefs. For this purpofe he took a metallic mir- 
 ror belonging to a refledting telefcope, being part of 
 a fphere of ten feet radius ; and he fixed it firm upon 
 a foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame, 
 to which was fattened a thin piece of talc tarniflied with 
 milk and water. The frame that fupported the piece 
 of talc could either be brought into contafh with the 
 mirror, or be removed to the diftance of eight or nine 
 inches from it, and the micrometer fliowed to the ut- 
 moft exadnefs the leafb motion of the frame. 
 
 Having placed this mirror ten feet from the pafte- 
 board, that is, at the diftance of the radius of its ov/n 
 fphere, he obferved the rings to appear very diftind j 
 
 N°79. 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 the form of his mirror being very true : but the dla- ■ 
 meter of the rings upon the pafteboard varied with the 
 diftance of the talc from the mirror; fo that they were 
 very large when the talc was near the mirror, and very 
 fmall when it was placed at the diftance of feven or 
 eight inches. 
 
 " Thefe experiments proved, that the rings were 
 formed by the firft furface, and reflefted by the fe- 
 cond ; but it ftill remained to be determined in what 
 manner they were formed. He imagined, that the 
 fmall pencils of rays that were tranfmitted through 
 the pores of the glafs, or any other tranfparent fub- 
 ftance, might fuffer a kind of inflexion, which might 
 change the cylinder which they formed into a trun- 
 cated cone, either by means of their different degrees 
 of inflexibility, or by the different diftances at which 
 they pafs by the edges of the fmall hole through which 
 they are tranfmitted. Purfuing this idea, he thought 
 of making ufe of fome body, the pores of which were 
 of a known and determined fhape. Inftead, therefore, 
 of the piece of talc, he placed a piece of fine linen 
 in the above mentioned frame, ftretching it as even as 
 pofTible, to make the pores formed by the threads 
 more exact and more permeable by the light ; and he 
 foon found, with great pleafure, that his conjefture 
 was verified : for, inftead of the circular rings which 
 he had before, they were now manifeftly fquare, 
 though their, angles were a little rounded ; and they 
 were coloured as the others, though the light was not 
 very vivid, on account of the quantity that was ftopped 
 by the muflin. 
 
 *' When, inftead of the muflin, he flretched acrofs 
 his frame fine filver wires exaftly parallel, at the di- 
 ftance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole 
 line from one another, without any other wires acrofs 
 them ; inftead of the rings which he had feen before, 
 there was nothing upon the pafteboard but a gleam of 
 white light divided by many fmall ftreaks, coloured 
 in a very vivid manner, and in the fame manner as 
 the rings." 
 
 Th us we have another hypothefis of the formation y^j^Qf}^^^ 
 of colours, namely, by the inflection of light in its theory of 
 paifage out from between the folid and impenetrable colours, 
 particles of which bodies are compofed. It is, how- 
 ever, very difficult, upon the hypothefis either of Sir 
 Ifaac Newton, or that of the Duke de Chaulnes, to 
 give a I'eafon why bodies that are not entirely white, 
 fhould not appear varioufly coloured. For, it appears 
 from Sir Ifaac Newton's experiments, that plates of 
 different denfity are capable of exhibiting the fame 
 colours; and that where a plate is continually varying 
 in denfity, it will produce all the colours. Now it is 
 evident, that the plates of which we fuppofe all na- 
 tural bodies to be compofed, muft be fimilar to one 
 that is perpetually varying in its thicknefs ; for fiippo- 
 fing the plates of which any fubftance is compofed to 
 be of any determinate thicknefs, 9 millionth parts of 
 an inch for inftance ; fuch of the rays as are reflefted 
 from this plate will be red. But if any of them pe- 
 netrate to the depth of of thefe parts, they will 
 be reflected of a violet colour, Sifr. and thus muft al- 
 loy and obfcure the red; and fo of others. If we 
 fuppofe the colours to be produced by inflexion, it 
 will be equally difficult to account for fome particular 
 rays being inflcdled and others not j feeing we ob- 
 3 ferve 
 
i8 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 ferve tliat all of them are capable of being Inflefled 
 by every fubftance whatever, when they pafs very 
 near it. In fome cafes too, colours are produced 
 when the light is neither refrafted nor inflefted, as far 
 as we can judge; and this feems to obfcure the- theory 
 of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men^ 
 tioned. 
 
 As the experiments we are now about to mention 
 are of the greateft importance, and in direft terms 
 Gontradift one of Sir Ifaac Newton's, we fliall give a 
 full account of them, from Prieiiley'shiftory of Vifion, 
 ilfc. with his remarks thereon. 
 One of Sir The experiment in queftion is the eighth of New- 
 Ifaac New- ton's fecond book of Optics : " He (Sir Ifaac Nevv- 
 ton s expe- ton) found, he fays, that when light goes out of air 
 fo u^r d to through feveral contiguous refrafting ' mediums, as 
 be errone- through water and glafs, and thence goes out again 
 ous. into air, whether the refracling furfaccs be parallel or 
 
 inclined to one another, that light, as often as, by con- 
 trary refraftions, it is fo corredled, that it emerges in 
 lines parallel to thofe in which it was incident, con- 
 tinues ever after to be v,rbite: but if the emergent 
 rays be inclined to the incident, the whitenefs of the 
 emerging light will, by degrees, in paffing on from 
 the place of emergence, become tinged at its edges 
 with colours. This he tried by rcfrading light with 
 prifms of glafs, placed within a prifmatic veffel of wa- 
 ter. 
 
 " By theorems deduced from this experiment, he 
 infers, that the rcfraftion of tlie rays of every fort, 
 jTiade out of any medium into air, are known by ha- 
 ving the refraftion of the rays of any one fort ; and al- 
 fo, that the refradlion out of one medium into another 
 is found as often as we have the refraftions out of 
 them both into any third medium. 
 
 " On the contrar}', a Swedifh philofopher (M. Klin- 
 • Swl. genftierna) obferves*, that, in this experiment, the 
 /ibhand. rays of light, after paffing through the water and the 
 vol. x6. glafs, though they come out parallel to the incident 
 p. 300. rays, will be coloured ; but that the fmaller the glafs 
 prifm is, the nearer will the refult of it approach to 
 Newton's defcription. 
 
 *' This paper of M. Klingenftierna, being commu- 
 nicated to Mr Dollond by M. Mallet, made him enter- 
 tain doubts concerning Newton's report of the refult 
 of his experiment ; and determined him to have re- 
 courfe to experiments of his ov^^n. 
 
 " He therefore cemented together two plates of 
 parallel glais, at their edges, fo as to fonn a prifmatic 
 veffel when flopped at the ends or bafes; and the edge 
 being turned downwards, he placed in it a glafs prifm 
 with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the va- 
 cancy with clear water ; fo that the refraftion of the 
 prifm was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa- 
 ter, in order that a ray of light, tranfmitted through 
 both thefe refracting mediums, might be afteCled by 
 the difference only between the two refnsftlons. As 
 he found the v/atcr to refraft moie or kfs than the 
 glafs prifm, be diminifhed or increafed the angle be- 
 tween the glafs plates, till he found the two contrary 
 refraftions to be equal, which he difcovered by view- 
 ing an object through this double prifm. For when 
 it appeai-ed neither raifed nor depreffed, he was fa- 
 tisfted that the refradlions were equal, and that the 
 emergent rays were parallel to the incident-. 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 A T I C S, 
 
 729 
 
 ** Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob- 
 ferves, that the objeft fhould have appeared through 
 this double prifm in its natural colour ; for if the dif- 
 ference of refrangibility had been in all refpe£ls e- 
 qual, in the two equal refraftions, they would have ^9 
 reaified each other. But this experiment fully proved *^*^'?"' . 
 the tallacy of the received opinion, by ihowing the Without re- 
 divergency of the light by the glafs prifm to be al- iradtion or 
 nioll double of that by the water; for the image of 
 the objeft, tliough not at all refracted, was yet as 
 much infe£^ed with prifmatic colours, a? though it had 
 been feen through a glafs wedge only whole angle 
 was near 30 degrees. 
 
 '* This experiment is the very fame with that of 
 Sir Ifaac Newton above mentioned, notwithflanding 
 the refult was fo remarkably different : but Mr Dol- 
 lond affures us, that he ufed all pofTible precaution and 
 care in his procefs; and he kept his apparatus by him, 
 tliat he might -evince the truth of what he wrote, 
 whenever he fhould be properly required to do it. 
 
 *' He plainly faw, however, that if the refrading 
 angle of the water-veffel could have admitted of a 
 fufficient increafe, the divergency of the coloured rays 
 would have been greatly diminiihed, or entirely rec* 
 tified ; and that there would have been a very great 
 refraftion without colour, as he had already produced 
 a great difcolouring without refraftion : but the In- 
 conveniency of fo large an angle as that of the prif- 
 matic veffel muft have been, to bring the light to an 
 equal divergency with that of the glafs plrifm, whofe 
 angle was abotit 60°, made it neceffary to try fomc 
 experiments of the fame kind with fmaller angles. 
 
 " Accordingly he got a v/edge of plate-glafs, the 
 angle of which was only nine degrees ; and, ufing it 
 in the fame clrcumilances, he increafed the angle of 
 the water-wedge, in which it was placed, till the diver- 
 gency of the light by the water was equal to that by 
 the glafs; that Is, till the image of the objeft, though 
 confiderably refrafted by the excefs of the refraftlon 
 of the water, appeared neverthelefs quite free from 
 any colours proceeding from the different refrangibili- 
 ty of the light. 
 
 " Notv.'ithRanding it evidently appeared, I may Defences of 
 fay to almoll all philofophers, that Mr Dollond had 
 made a real difcovery of fomething not comprehended 
 in the optical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton, it did 
 not appear to fo feniible a man, and fo good a ma- 
 thematician, as Mr Murdoch is univerfally acknow- 
 ledged to be. Upon this occafion he interpofed In the 
 defence, as he imagined, of Sir Ifaac Newton; main- 
 taining', that Mr Dollond's pofitions, which he fays, 
 he knows not by what mifhap have been deemed pa- 
 radoxes in Sir Ifaac's theory of light, are really the 
 neccflary confequences of it. He alfo endeavours to 
 fhow, that Sir Ifaac might not be miftaken In his ac- 
 count of the experiment above mentioned. But ad- 
 mitting all that he advances in this part of his defence, 
 Newton mufi have made ufe of a prifm with a much 
 fmaller refracting angle than, from his own account 
 of his experiments, we have any reafon to believe he 
 ever did make ufe of. 
 
 The fa£l probably was, that Sir Ifaac deceived 
 himfelf in this cafe, by attending to what he imagined 
 to be the clear confequences of his other experiments ; 
 and though the light he faw was certainly tinged with 
 4 21 colours, 
 
730 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 colours, and he mufl have feen it to be fo, yet he might 
 imagine that this circumftance arofc from fonie imper- 
 feftion in his prifms, or in the difpofition of them, 
 which he did not think it worth his while to exa- 
 mine. It is alfo obfervable, that Sir Ifaac is not fo 
 particular in his defcription of his prifms, and other 
 parts of his apparatus, in his account of this experi- 
 ment, as he generally is in other cafes, and therefore 
 probably wrote his account of it from his memory 
 only. 
 
 P. 804. " Much has been fald on this experiment ; and it is 
 thought very extraordinary that a man of Sir Ifaac's 
 accurate attention fliould overlook a clrcumftance, 
 the efFeft of which now appears to be fo confiderable. 
 But it has happily occurred to Mr Michell, that, as Sir 
 Ifaac Newton obfervcs he ufed to put faccharum fa- 
 turni into his water to increafe its refraftive power, 
 the lead, even in this form, might increafe the diffi- 
 pative refradlion, as it does in the compofition of glafs; 
 and if fo, that this would account for Newton's not 
 finding the difiipative power of water lefs than that 
 of his glafs prifms, which he otherwife ought to have 
 done, if he had tried the experiment as he fald he 
 did. 
 
 " Accordingly he included a prifm of glafs In wa- 
 ter, as highly impregnated with faccharum faturni 
 as it would bear, the proportion of faccharum to wa- 
 ter being about as 5 to 11. When the image, feen 
 through the water (lb impregnated) and a glafs prifm, 
 was in its natural place, it ftill was coloured, though 
 very little : he thought not more than a fourth part 
 as much as when feen through plain watei-, and the 
 prifm in its natural place ; fo that he had no doubt, 
 but that, if his prifm had had a little lefs of the dlf- 
 perfing power, its errors would have been perfectly 
 corrcfted." 
 
 Befides the experiments of Mr Delaval above 
 related, and which were made on the colours of 
 2T tranfparent bodies, he has lately publifhed an ac- 
 Mr Dela- count of fome made upon the permanent colours of 
 val s expe- ^p^q^g fubftancSs ; the difcovery of which muft be of 
 the colours^^^^ utmcft confequencc in the arts of colour-making 
 of opaque and dyeing. Thefe arts, he obferves, were in very 
 bodies. remote ages carried to the utmoft height of perfection 
 in the countiies of Paosnicia, Egypt, Paleftine, Indi^, 
 &c. and that the inhabitants of thefe countries alfo ex- 
 celled in the art of imitating gems, and tinging glafs 
 and enamel of various colours. The colours ufed in 
 very ancient paintings were as various as thofe now in 
 ufe, and greatly fuperior both in beauty and durabi- 
 lity. The paints ufed by Apelles were fo bright, that 
 lie was obliged to glaze his piftures with a dark-co- 
 loured varnifh, lett the eye ftiould be offended by their 
 exceflive brightnefs ; and even thefe were inferior to 
 what had been ufed among the ancient Egyptians. 
 Pliny complains that the art of painting was greatly 
 decayed in his time ; and the moderns were not fur- 
 niflied with any means of retrieving the art until they 
 began to avail themfelves of experimental obferva- 
 tions. 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 The changes of colour in permanently co!onred bo- f^. 
 dies, our author obferves, are produced by the fame j'^y^' '^^g" 
 laws which take place in tranfparent colourlirfs fub- j ^j^^ (,i,;^;f. 
 fiances ; and the experiments by wlilch they can be ly oa the 
 itiveftlgated coniift chiefly of various methods of uni- divilion of 
 ting the colouring panicles into larger, or dividing '.'^^ '^°'^^V^' 
 them Into fmaller maffes. Sir Ifaac Newton made hlsj.i°g' 
 experiments chiefly on tranfparent fubftances ; and in 
 the few places where he treats of others, ncknowledges 
 his deficiency of experiments. He makes the follow- 
 ing remark, however, on thofe bodies which reflect 
 one kind of light and tranfmlt another, viz. that " If 
 thefe glaffes or Ilquoi-s were fo thick and maflythat no 
 light could get through them, he queftloned whether 
 they would not, like other opaque bodies, appear of 
 one and the fame colour in all pofitlons of the eye ; 
 though he could not yet affirm it from t xperlencs." 
 It was the opinion ot" this great phllofopher, that all 
 coloured matter refledls the rays of light, fome re- 
 fleAIng the more refrangible and others the lefs re- 
 frangible rays more coploufly ; and that this Is not on- 
 ly a true reafon of thefe colours, but likewife the only 
 reafon. He was likewife of opinion that opaque bo- 
 dies refledl the light from their anterior furface by fome 
 power of the body evenly diffufed over and external to 
 it. With regard to tranfparent coloured liquors, he 
 expreflts hlmfclf in the following manner : " A tranf- 
 parent body which looks of any colour by tranfrnitted 
 light, may alfo look of the fame colour by reflefted 
 light ; the light of that colour being reflefted by the 
 farther furface of that body, or by the air beyond it t 
 and then the reflected colour will be dlmlnlflied, and 
 perhaps ceafe, by making the body vei y thick, and 
 pitching it on the back-fide to dlminifli the reflection 
 of its farther fuiface, fo that the light rtflefted from 
 the tinging particles may predominate. In fuch cafes 
 the colour of the rtflefted light will be apt to vary 
 from tliat of the light tranfrnitted." 
 
 To invtftigate the truth of thefe opinions Mr Dela- 
 val entered upon a courfe of experiments with tranf- 
 parent coloured liquors r.nd glafies, as well as with, 
 opaque and femitranfparent bodies. From thefe he 
 difcovered feveral remarkable properties of the colour- 
 ing matter ; particularly, that in tranfpai-ent coloured 
 fubftances It does not refle£l any light ; and when, by 
 intercepting the light which was tranfrnitted, it is hin^ 
 dered from pafTing through fuch fubftances, they do 
 not vary from their former colour to any other, but 
 become entirely black (a). 
 
 This incapacity of the colouring particles of tranf- jsj,, j^j^j 
 parent bodies to refleCl light, being deduced from very icflcdted 
 numerous experiments, may therefore be held as a ge-'^'Y 'i^<^ 'So- 
 nera! law. It will appear the more cxtenfive, if we''|""|.'^^ 
 confider that, for the moft part, the tinging particles ^ '''^ " 
 of liquors or other tranfparent fubftances are extracted 
 from opaque bodies ; that the opaque bodies owe their 
 colours to thofe particles, in like manner as the tranf- 
 parent fubftances do ; and that by the lofs of them 
 they are deprived of their colours. 
 
 For making his experiments, Mr D :1a val ufed fmall 
 
 viah 
 
 (a) Here our author obferves, that he makes ufe of the word colour only to exprefs thofe called primary f 
 fuch a mixture of them as does not compofe whitenefs, or any of the gradatior.s between white and black, 
 fuch as are Cilled by Sir Ifaac Newton, grey, dun, or rulTet brown. 
 
a4 
 
 Apparac".5 
 for niatiiig 
 thefe exj e- 
 riir.cnti. 
 
 The coloiir- 
 inj>- matter 
 cnlv fhows 
 itfelf by 
 tranfmittcJ 
 
 1^ 
 
 Exjeri- 
 ment' to 
 determine 
 the pro- 
 portion of 
 tirgine 
 jnatter. 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 vials of fiint glafs, vvhofe form was a parallelopiped, and 
 their heicrht, exclufive of the neck, about two inches, 
 the bafe about an inch fquare, and the neck two Inches 
 in length. The bottom and three Tides of each of 
 thefe vials was covered with a black varniih ; the cy- 
 lindrical neck, and the anterior fide, except at its 
 edges, being left uncovered. He was careful to avoid 
 any crevices in the varnifh, that no light might be ad- 
 mitted except through the neck or anterior fide of the 
 vials. 
 
 In thefe experiments it is of importance to have the 
 vials perfedlly clean ; and as many of the liquors are 
 apt to depofit a fediment, they ought to be put into 
 the vials only at the time the experiments are to be 
 made. The uncovered fide of the vials ftioulJ not be 
 placed oppofite to the window through which the light 
 is admitted ; becaufe in that fituation the light would 
 be refle£led from the farther fide of the vial ; and our 
 author obferves that fmooth black fubftances refleft 
 light very powerfully. But as it is a principal objeft 
 in the experiment that no light be tranfmitted through 
 the liqunr, this Is bell accompliflied by placing the 
 uncovered fide of the vial in fuch a fituation that it 
 may form a right angle with the window. 
 
 With thefe precautions our author viewed a great 
 number of folutlons, both of coloured metallic falts 
 and of the tinging matter of vegetables ; univerfally 
 obferving, that the colour by reflexion was black, 
 whatever It might be when viewed by tranfmitted light. 
 If thefe liquors, however, are fpread thin upon any 
 white ground, they appear of the fame colour as when 
 viewed by tranfmitted light ; but on a black ground 
 they afford no colour, unlefs the black body be polifh- 
 ed ; in which cafe the refleftion of the light through 
 it produces the fame efi^eft as tranfmiffion. 
 
 The experiments with tinged glaffcs were In many 
 rcfpefts analogous to thofe with tranfparent coloured 
 liquors. For thefe he made fever al parcels of colo Ur- 
 iels glafs, principally ufing one compofed of equal parts 
 of borax and white fand. The glafs was reduced to 
 powder, and afterwards ground, together with the in- 
 gredients by which the colours were imparted. " This 
 method (fays he) of incorporating the tinging particles 
 is greatly preferable to mixing them with the raw ma- 
 terials ; and the glafl"es thus compofed excel moll others 
 In hardnefs, being fcarcely inferior in luftre to real 
 gems." 
 
 The refult of all the experiments made in this man- 
 ner was, that when matter Is of fuch thinntfs, and the 
 tinge fo dilute, that light can be tranfmitted through 
 it, the glafles then appear vividly coloured ; but when 
 they are In larger maffts, and the tinging matter is 
 more denfely dlffufed through them, they appear black; 
 for thefe, as well as the tranfpartnt coloured liquors, 
 fhow their colour only by tranfmiffion. The follow- 
 ing experiments were made with a view to determine 
 the proportion of tinging matter which produces co- 
 lour or blacknefs. 
 
 1. Glafs was tinged green by adding to It -^^ih of 
 Its weight of copper ; and that whether the latter was 
 ufed in Its metal'ic or calcined Hate. 
 
 2. A blue glafs was made by the addition of zaffie, 
 a purple one by manganefe, a red glafs by gold, and 
 yellow glafles by filver and calcined Iron. A yellow 
 glafs refemblirg a topaz was likewife made by the ad- 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 dition of a fmall quantity of charcoal In powder. The 
 
 fame colour was likewife pi'ocured by the addition of 
 wheat-flour, rofin, and feveral other inflammable mat- 
 tei-s. Small pieces of each of thefe glafles being 
 ground by a lapidary, refembled gems of their diffe- 
 rent colours. 
 
 3. Having formed pieces of fuch glafles about two 
 Inches thick, he inclofed them in black cloth on all 
 fides except their farther and anterior furfaces. In 
 this fituation each of them fliowed a vivid colour when 
 light was tranfmitted through them ; but when the 
 pofterlor furface was likewife covered with the cloth 
 to prevent this tranfmiflion, no other colour than black 
 was exhibited by any of them. 
 
 4. When plates of tranfparent coloured glafs, fome- 
 what thicker than common window-glafs, were made 
 ufe of, they always exhibited their colours by tranf- 
 mitted light. 
 
 5. On intercepting the light tranfmitted through 
 thefe coloured plates, they as conflantly appeared black 
 when placed in Inch a diretiion as to form a right angle 
 with the window. 
 
 From thefe phenomena Mr Delaval deduced the 
 following obfervations : i. That the colouring particles 
 do not refieft any light. 2. That a medium, fuch as 
 Sir Ifaac Newton has defcribed, is difl"ufed over both 
 the anterior and farther furfaces of the plates, where- 
 by objeds are equally and regularly refleded as by n, 
 mirror. Hence, when it is faid that light is reflefted 
 by the furface of any fubftance, It fliould be under- 
 llood from this exprelfion, that the refledion is elFedl- 
 ed by the medium dilfufed over Its furface. 
 
 6. When a lighted candle is placed near one of thofe On the re- 
 coloured plates, the flame Is refleded by the medium flcdion of 
 which is diff"ufed over the anterior furface. The image ''S'^"^ of 
 thus reflefted entirely refembles the flame in fize and ^^^^^l^f^^'^^ 
 colour ; being fcarcely diminiflied, and not in the leafl: gi^ff;;,,, 
 tinged by the coloured glafs. 
 
 7. If the plate be not fo Intenfely coloured, or fa 
 maify, as to hinder t!ie tranfinilfion of the light of 
 the candle, there appears a fccondary image of the 
 flame, which is reflcdied by the medium contiguous to 
 the farther furface of the glafs ; and as the light thus 
 refleded pafles through the coloured glafs, it is tinged 
 very vividly. 
 
 8. When the glafs ufed in this experiment Is of a 
 green colour, the image of the flame Is always of a 
 bright green ; and when glafles of other colours are 
 ufed, that of the fecondary flame is always the fame 
 with that of the glafs. 
 
 9. The fecondary image Is lefs than that re|leded 
 from the anterior furface. This diminution Is occa- 
 fioned by the lofs of that part of the light which. Is 
 abfotbed In paflTmg through the coloured glafs. For 
 whenever any medium tranfmits one fort of rays more 
 copioufly than the refl:, it fl:ops a great part of the 
 differently coloured rays. Much more light alfo is loll 
 In paflTing through coloured than tranfparent fubilan- 
 Ci.s. In making thefe obfervations, it is proper to 
 choofc coloured plates of glafs which are not in every 
 part of an equal thicknefs, that the fecondary image 
 may not coincide with that refledled from the anterior 
 furface, and be Intercepted by It. 
 
 10. When the plates are fo thick, and fo copioufly 
 coloured, that the light cannot penetrate to their far- 
 
 4 Z 2 ther 
 
73' 
 
 »8 
 
 Experi- 
 ments on 
 the pure 
 tolourltig 
 particlct. 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 ther furface, they appear intenfely black in whatever 
 direftion they are viewed, and afford no fecondary 
 image, but only refleft, from their anterior furface, 
 the flame, or any other objecls that are oppofed to 
 them. Thefe objefts are reprefented in their own 
 proper colours, and are as free from tinge as thofe re- 
 flecled from quickfilvered glafs, or fpecula made of 
 white metals. 
 
 Hence again it is manlfeft, that the colouring par- 
 ticles do not poiTefs any fhare of reflective power ; 
 for if they had any fliare in this reflexion, they 
 v/ould certainly impart fome fliare of colour to the 
 light they refietied. Hence alfo it appears, that 
 tranfparent coloured bodies, in a folid fl:ate, poffefs no 
 more refletltve power than thofe in a fluid flate. 
 
 Our author next confiders the colouring particles 
 themfelves, pure, and unmixed with other media. 
 In order to procure maffes made up ot fuch particles, 
 feveral tranfparent coloured liquors were reduced to a 
 folid confiftence by evaporation. By employing a 
 gentle heat, the colouring matter may thus remain 
 unimpaired ; and is capable of having its particles again 
 feparated by water or other liquids, and tinging them 
 as before. 
 
 In this ftate the colouring particles rcfleft no light, 
 and therefore appear uniformly black, whatever fub- 
 llance they have been extracted from. In the courfe 
 of his experiments, Mr Delaval made ufe of the in- 
 fufions of brazil wood, logwood, fuftic, turmeric, 
 red faunders, alkanet, fap-green, kermes, and all the 
 other tranfparent coloured liquors he had ti-ied before, 
 amon^ which were infufions of red and yellow flow- 
 ers, without obfcrving the leall variation in the refult. 
 
 Some liquors are apt to become totally opaque by 
 evaporation ; the reafon of which may be the cryftal- 
 lization of faline matters, or the coalefcence of the par- 
 ticles into malTes, diff'ering confiderably in denfity 
 from the menftrua in which they were diffblved. 
 When this opacity takes place, our author has con- 
 ftantly obferved, that they become incapable of enter- 
 hig the pores of wool, fdk, or other matters of that 
 kind, or of adhering to their furface ; and confe- 
 quently unfit for the purpofes of dyeing. This he 
 fuppofts to arife from their increafed bulk ; for the 
 "attrafkive force by which the particles cohere together 
 is weakened in proportion as their bulk increafes ; fo 
 that the degree of magnitude of the colouring par- 
 ticles, which is effential to the opacity of liquors, is 
 inconfiftent with the minutenefs requiiite for dyeing. 
 An inflance of this is given in an infulion of fuftic. 
 Having infufed fome of this wood in fuch a quantity 
 of water, that the latter was faturated with the co- 
 louring particles, he evaporated the liquor to a folid 
 confiftence with an uninterrupted, but very gentle 
 heat. During eveiy part of the procefs the liquor 
 continued tranfparent, and the folid extradl yielded 
 by it tranfmitted a yellow colour when fpread thin, 
 but appeared black when thicker maffes were viewed. 
 Having prepared another pint of this liqour, he eva- 
 porated half the water, and allowed the remainder to 
 become cold. In this ftate it became turbid and 
 opaque.; on filtering, a tranfparent tinfture pafTed 
 through, an opaque fecula remaining on the pa- 
 per. This fecula did not adhere to the paper, 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 but was eafily feparable from it : on being dried, it 
 appeared white with a flight tinge of yellow ; but was 
 neverthelefs foluble in v«ater, and by folution gave a 
 liquid in all refpefts flrailar to the original infulion. 
 " From thefe circumftances (fays he) it appears that 
 a given proportion of water, or a fufficient degree of 
 heat, is requifite to the folution of the colouring par- 
 ticles of fuftic. And experience evinces, that thofe 
 particles which are too grofs to pafs through filtering 
 paper, are incapable of entering the pores or firmly 
 cohering to the furface of bodies. Many ingredients, 
 fuch as the colouring particles of logwood, kermes, 
 and various other matters, are foluble in water in 
 every proportion ; and therefore their infulions are 
 not fubjedl to become opaque or turbid during their 
 evaporation. The folid extrafts obtained by evapo- 
 ration reflect no colour, but are black. 
 
 Our author a'fo formed folid maffes by mixing a 
 fmall quantity of diying oil with pigments which con— 
 fift cliiefly of colouring matter ; as Pruffian blue, in- 
 digo, and fap-green. Thefe paints likewife exhibit 
 their rtfpeftive colours only by tranfmitted light ; ap- 
 pearing entirely black when viewed by refieftion. In- 
 flances of bh\ckncfs arifing from this denlity of the 
 colouring matter raay be obferved in feveral kinds o-f 
 fruits, as black currants, cherries, &c. for the juices of 
 thefe appear red when fpread thin on a white ground, 
 or otherwife viewed by tranfmitted light. 
 
 Mr Delaval's next attempt was to confider the aftion 
 and properties of the colouring particles of opaque 
 bodies themfelves, and the means by which thefe co- 
 lours are produced. Here our author endeavours 
 to prove, that thefe colours of opaque bodies appear 
 on the fame principles as thofe already mentioned, 
 which feem black when very denfe, but fhow their 
 proper tinge when fpread thin upon a white ground. 
 On this fubjeft the following experiments were 
 made. 
 
 1. Grafs, and other green leaves of plants, were di- 
 gefted in reftified fpirit of wine ; by which means a 
 tranfparent green tinAure was obtained.. One of the 
 vials formerly mentioned being filled with this li- 
 quid, it was obferved to tranfmit a vivid green colour; 
 but the other part of the tinfture, which was conti- 
 guous to the uncovered fide of the vial, reflefted no 
 light, and therefore appeared black. 
 
 2. Having poured fojae of the tinfture into a China : 
 cup, the bottom was thereby made to look gixen,, 
 exaftly refembling the colour which had been extract- 
 ed from the leaves. 
 
 3. After the colour had been totally abftradled by 
 the vinous fpirit, the leaves remained apparently un- 
 altered, either as to figure or texture ; but were en- 
 tirely white, or had their whitenefs flightly tinged 
 with brown. 
 
 4. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were alfo digefted 
 in fpirit of wine ; all of which yielded their colouring 
 matter to the fpirit, and became white by being de- 
 prived of it. From moft of thefe flowers, hov.fever, the 
 fpirit acquired either no. tinge at all, or only a very 
 faint one ; but when acidulated, it became red, and 
 by the addition of an alkali appeared blue, purple, or 
 green, according to the quantity of alkali and the na- 
 tuie of the infufion. In thefe ftates, all of them, when 
 
 viewed 
 
viewed by tranfmltted liglit, or poured upon a white 
 ground, fhowed their colours, but univerfally appeared 
 black by refleftion. 
 
 5. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were digefted in 
 water flightly acidulated with nitrous acid. Thus, 
 red infulioiis were obtained, which, by faturatlon with 
 fea-fa!t, might be preferved for many years. 
 
 6. The fame liquors were changed green, bhie, or 
 purple, by the addition of an alkali : but here the 
 cafe was the fame as before ; all of them yielding vi- 
 vid colours by tranfmiffion, but none by refleftion. 
 In making this experiment, care muft be taken to add 
 the alkali veiy gradually ; for if too much is put in 
 at once to the red liquor, the intermediate colours be- 
 tween the red and the green will be wanting. To 
 half an ounce of the red iafulion it is proper to add, 
 at once, only the fmalled quantity that can be taken 
 up on the point of a pen ; i-epeating this addition fiow- 
 !y, until each of the c:)lours be produced. 
 
 7. The flowers, after having been repeatedly mace- 
 rated in acidulated water, loil th^Ir colouring matter, 
 and became white. 
 
 8. Yellow flowers alfo communicated their colours 
 to water and to fpirit of wine. The infufions and 
 tinftures of thefe flowers were fubjefted to the fame 
 experiments as had been employed in the examination 
 of the liquors akeady mentioned ; and appeared yel- 
 low by tranfmitted light, but did not refleft any co- 
 lour. 
 
 9. White paper, linen, &c. may be tinged of any 
 of thefe colours, by dipping them in the infufions ; 
 and the confideration of the manner in which the co- 
 lours are imparted to the linen, affords much infight 
 into the manner in which natural colours are produ- 
 ced. It has already been obferved, that, when the co- 
 louring matter of plants is extracted from them, the 
 folid fibrous parts, thus diveft;ed of their covering, dif- 
 play their natural whitenefs. White linen, paper, 
 &c. are formed of fuch fibrous vegetable matter; 
 which is bleached by diffolving and detaching the he- 
 terogeneous colouring particles. When theie are dyed 
 or painted v/ith vegetable colours, it is evident that 
 they do not differ in their manner of afting on the 
 rays of light from natural vegetable bodies ; both 
 yielding their colours by tranfmitting, through the 
 tranfparent coloured matter, the light which is re- 
 flefted from the white ground. This white matter 
 frequently exifts, without any confiderable mixture, in 
 plants, while they are in a ftate of vegetation ; as cot- 
 ton, white flowers, the pith, wood, feeds, roots, and 
 other parts of feveral kinds of vegetables. When de- 
 cayed trees, &c. have been long expofed to the atmo- 
 fphere, their coloured juices are fometimes fo perfect- 
 ly extrafted, that the fibres appear white. This white 
 matter is not diflinft from the vegetable earth to which 
 
 t See Che- plants are reduced by burning f . Mr Deleval. has 
 n>jjiry-ln- ^.^jj^gj-g^j intcnfely white, by carefully calcining 
 
 29 them, and afterwards grinding with a fmall propor- 
 How aMs tion of nitre, and expofing them to fuch a degree of 
 maybe heat as would caufe the nitre deflagrate with the re- 
 Snlely maining quantity of phlogifton. Lafl;ly, the aflies were 
 ■white. digefted with marine acid, in order to diffolve the fer- 
 ruginous matter diffufed through them, and repeat- 
 edly wafliing the remainder in water. Mixing afhes 
 thus purified with borax,, and applying a vitrifying 
 
 CHROMATICS. 733 
 
 heat, an opaque enamel is obtained, remarkable for 
 its whitenefs. -o 
 Hence it appears, that the earth which forms the White 
 fubftaace of plants is white, and feparable from that '^"■^^^ 
 
 fubltanre which gives to each its -peculiar colour ; that 
 
 oii!y fub- 
 
 whenever it is pure and unmixed, or diffufed through ihmce m 
 colourlefs media, it fliows its native whitenefs ; and is -iiem that 
 the only vegetable matter endowed with a refleftl/e j'^'lf^^^ ''"^ 
 power. It may be difcovered, however, by other ' 
 means than that of burning : thus, rofes may be whiten- 
 ed by expofing them to the vapour of burning ful- 
 phur ; an effeft which cannot be attributed to the vi-- 
 triolic acid, but to the phlogillon contained in that va- 
 pour. This was proved to be the cafe, by expofing 
 feveral kinds of red and purple flowers to the phlogi- 
 ftic vapour iiruing from hepar fulphuris ; and by this 
 every one of them was whitened ; their colour being 
 afterwards reftored by the addition of an acid either 
 mineral or vegetable. 
 
 " Thus (fays Mr Delaval) it appears, that the co- c burin"- 
 louring matter of the flowers is not difcharged or re- matter dii- 
 moved, but only diffolved by the phlogifton; and ^"^^"'^'^^ '■•>' 
 thereby divided into particles too minute to exhibit 
 any colour. In this ftate, together with the vege- 
 table juice in which they are diffufed, tliey form a co- 
 lourlefs tranfparent covering, through which the white 
 matter of the flowers is feen untinged. The colouring 
 particles of plants confitt principally of inflammable 
 matter ; and their folubility in pfdogifton, and union 
 with it, are analogous to the aclion of other inflam- 
 mable bodies upon each other. Thus, ether diifolves 
 all effential and exprelfed oils, animal empyreumatic 
 oils, and refins. Sulphur, camphor, and almoft all fub- 
 ftances abounding in phlogifton, are foluble in oils, ar- 
 dent fpirits, or other inflammable menflrua. The 
 manner in which the red colour of vegetable flowers 
 is reftored, appears to be explicable from known che- 
 mical laws; Wlien acids are applied to the whitened 
 flowers, they unite with the phlogifton which the ful- 
 phur had communicated, and difengage it from the co- 
 loairing particles ; which, being thus extricated, re- 
 fume their original magnitude and hue. A change of 
 the fam« kind is alfo produced by fixed alkah, which, 
 like the acids, has a ftrong attraflion for phlogifton, 
 always changes the whitened flowers to a blue, purjile, 
 or screen colout. 
 
 " In hke manner, the aftion of the rays of light ope- Colours clf«- 
 rates upon coloured bodies. Thus, dyed filk, or other ilroyed by 
 fubftances of that kind, when expofed to the ^"n's ^j^^ [^^1^"^ 
 light, are deprived of their colour in every part on 
 which the rays are allowed to a£l ; whilfl thofe preferve 
 their colour which are defended from the light by the 
 folds of the cloth, or intervention of any opaque body. 
 The colours, thus impaired, may be reftored if acids 
 are applied while the injury is recent ; but they are af- 
 terwards apt to fly off, on account of that volatility 
 which is conftantly imparted by inflammable matter to 
 any other with which it is united." 
 
 Our author now proceeds, at confiderable length, to 
 prove the identity of the folar light and phlogifton : 
 but as recent experiments have fliown that thefe tw« 
 are effentially diftinft, we omit his argumentation up- 
 on this head. The error of his theory in this refpecf, 
 however, does not in the leaft affe6t the doctrine con- 
 cerning colours above laid down : on the contrary, the 
 5.. ' latell - 
 
734 
 
 33 
 
 How to di- 
 ftinguifli 
 thefolurioi.s 
 made by 
 phlogifttm 
 from thofe 
 made by a- 
 cids. 
 
 G H R O M 
 
 lateft experimcnta have determined, tluit phlogifton, in 
 its grofleft form, i>/-z. that of c'f)mmon cliHrcoal, mani- 
 fefts a furprifmg power of wliitenine; various fubftan- 
 ces ; which, according to Mr Delaval's theor}^, pro- 
 ceeds from the power it has of diffolving the colouring 
 matter with wh'ch they a- e impregnated. This fol- 
 vcnt power, accoiuing to our autlior, is manifeft in many- 
 other inftaricco bcfidts thofe already mentioned. Silk 
 is whitened by the phlogiltic vapours of fulphur : and 
 this operation does not appear to differ from the change 
 efFefted on flowers by the fame vapour. The light of 
 the fun is found to be a neceffary and eflential agent 
 in bleaching linen, wax, and various other fubftances ; 
 fome part of the colouring matter which impairs the 
 whitenefs of thefe bodies not yielding to any other 
 folvent. Red flowers are whiteaed by the eletlric 
 fpark, of whofe inflammable nature we cannot entertain 
 the leafl: doubt ; for the fpark itfelf is a bright flame, 
 and yields the fame fmell which all other phlogillic 
 matters impart. The eleftric fpark, in like manner, 
 changes the bhie infufion of turnfole to red (b). The 
 eff"e£ls which it produces on the turnfole, and on red 
 flowers, do not differ from each otlier, except in de- 
 gree only. For when vegetable matter is diffolved. 
 It is changed from blue to red ; and, when farther dif- 
 folved, it is divided into particles too minute to exhi- 
 bit any colour. 
 
 Solutions efFefted by means of phloglilon frequently 
 are wrongly attributed to the operation of fuppofed acid 
 menftina, as feveral kinds of fubftanci.«s are capable of 
 being diffolved indifcriminately both by acids and phlc- 
 giflon. For the purpofe of diftinguiihing, therefore, 
 in any cafe between the aclion of tlie acid folvents and 
 that of the inflammable menflrua, it is proper to exa- 
 mine the nature of the matter by which either of thefe 
 princif)les are furniflied. It appears from various che- 
 mical proceffes, that alkalies are rendered mild, and 
 capable of cryftallizatinn, in proportion as they are 
 united to phlogitlon. The phlogiiHcated alkaline lixi- 
 vium, when faturatcd, is perfe6\ly mild ; and by a 
 flight evaporation is reduced to a concrete cryilaUine 
 mafs, which does not deliqut fce or imbibe the leafl 
 moifiure from the air, aud no longer retains any alka- 
 line property. M. Beaume, by an elegant and Ingeni- 
 ous experiment, has proved the prefence of plilogiilon 
 in mild alkalies, and has fliovvn that tlivjr po*\ er of 
 cr)'ftaUizing depends upon their union with that prin- 
 ciple. He heated in a filver veflel a lixivium of mild 
 alkali, which imparted to the filver a covering or coat- 
 ing of inflammable matter, by which Its furfice v.'as 
 tarn^lied and became black. The lixivium was feveral 
 times poured out of the filver veffel ; and after the fur- 
 face of the metal had been freed ficm the tarnlfh, the 
 lixivium was replaced in it, and again heated, by which 
 the tarniflr was renewed ; and this was repeated till the 
 lixivium no longer communicated any ilain to the fil- 
 ver. The caulllclty of the lixivium was increafcd in 
 proportion as it imparted Its phlogifton to the filver ; 
 and at the end of the procefs the alkali became per- 
 fcftly cauftic, and Incapable of cry ftallizing. 
 
 Our author now goes on to prove, that fixed air is 
 
 34 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 not an acid, nor a compound of air and ph'-ogillon, ai 
 Is now generally believed, but rather entirely of a phlo- 
 giitic nature. Fur an account of his arguments in fa- 
 vour of this opinion,^ fee the article Fixed Air: here 
 we fli ill only conlider his farther expcrimeats on co- 
 lours. 
 
 " From the preceding experiments (fays he) it ap- 
 pears, that the colouring particles of flowers and leaves 
 are foluble In acid, alkaline, and phlogillic menflrua. 
 The other parts of vegetables confifl of materials fimi- 
 lar to thofe which are contained In their flowers and 
 leaves, and undergo the fame changes from the fame 
 caufes. Having extracted from logwood Its colouring 
 particles by repeatedly boiling it in water, the wood 
 was thus deprived of Its yellow colour, and affumed a 
 brown hue fimilar to that of oak-wood. Some pieces 
 of it thus deprived of Its colour were then macerated 
 in aquafortis; and after they had undergone the adllon 
 of that acid, they were wafhed In a fufficlent quantity 
 of water. Tlie wood was thus reduced to white- 
 nefs." 
 
 Here our author obferves, that though moft authors Looucod 
 who treat of colouring fubflances defcrlbe logwood as '^f^*' '^'^ "'''7 
 of a red colour, he was never able to procure any ^- ^ 
 otlicr colour rrom it but yellow, it miparts yellow vvith ^va- 
 and orange colours to diflilled water. Other waters ter. 
 extra£l a red tinge from it by means of the alkali 
 which they contain. Thefe obfervatlons are alfo ap- 
 plicable to the other dyeing woods, kerraes, and va- 
 rious other articles of the materia tincEloria. By a fi- 
 milar treatment, fuflic wood alfo loil its colouring 
 matter, and became white. 
 
 The refults of all the experiments above related are, 
 that the colouring matter of plants does not exhibit 
 any colour by refle£lion, but by tranfmiflion only^ that 
 their folid earthy fubflance Is a white matter ; and 
 that it is the only part of vegetables which is endowed 
 with a reflc6live power ; that the colours of vegetables 
 are produced by the light refledled from this white 
 matter, and tranfmltted from thence through the co- 
 loured coat or covering which Is formed on Its furface 
 by the colouring particles; that whenever the colour- 
 ing matter is either difcharged or divided by foluclon 
 Into particles too minute to exhibit any colour, the 
 folid earthy fubflance is expofed to view, and difplays 
 that wdiitencfs which is its difllnguifliing characle- 
 riflic. 
 
 Mr Delaval next proceeds to examine the coloured Colcnirint? 
 parts of animal fubftances, and finds them exactly fi- matter oi 
 mllar, with regard to the manner in which the colour animal fub- 
 is produced, to the vegetable bodies already treated of. 
 The tinClures and infufions of cochineal and of kerraes 
 yield their colours when light is tranfmltted through 
 them, but fliow none by refle6lIon. On diluting frelh 
 ox-gall with water, and examining it in tlie phials al- 
 ready mentioned, that part of It which was in the ' 
 neck of the phial, and viewed by tranfmitted light, 
 was yellow ; but the anterior furface was black, and 
 refledled no colour. Flefh derives its colour entirely * 
 from the blood, and when deprived of It the fibres and 
 veffels are perfectly white ; as are iikewlfe the mem- 
 branes 
 
 (e) This effecl of the eledlric fpark is now known to be produced, not by its pIilogifl:Ic nature, but by the 
 g-eneratlon of an acid. 
 
 o 
 
CHROM ATICS. 
 
 branes, finews, and bones, wlxen freed from their aque- 
 ous and volatile parts ; in which cafe they are a mere 
 earth, unalterable by fire, and capable of imparting 
 an opaque whitenefs to glafs. 
 Of the CO- examining blood diluted w'th water in one of 
 
 lour of the phials formerly defcrlbed, it tranfmitted a red co- 
 felood. lour, and the anterior furface was almoft, but not en- 
 tirely, black ; for it received a flight hue of brown from 
 fome coagulated particles that were fnfpended in the 
 liquor. In order to procure blood fufficiently diluted, 
 and at the fame time equably and perfedlly dilTolved, 
 he mixed as much cruor with fpirit of fal ammoniac as 
 imparted a bright colour to it. The liquor being then 
 viewed in the phial, that part which was contained in 
 the neck, and tranfmitted the light, appeared of a fine 
 red ; but the antei-ior part reflefting no light, was in- 
 tenfely black. Hence it appears, that the florid red 
 colour of the flefli arifes from the light which is re- 
 fiefted from the white fibrous fubftance, and tranfmit- 
 ted back through the red tranfparent covering which 
 the blood forms on eveiy part of it. 
 
 Blood, when recently drawn, does not affume the 
 appearance common to tranfparent coloured liquors ; 
 for thefe, when too mafly to tranfmit light from their 
 farther furfaces, always appear black ; but blood, when 
 recently drawn, always- fhows a fine red colour, in 
 whatever way it be viewed. This is occafioned by a 
 white matter diuufed through the blood ; and which 
 is eafily feparated from the cruor, by dividing it after 
 coagulation into a number of thin pieces, and wafliing 
 in a fufficient quantity of pure water. Thus the water 
 acquires a red colour, and ought to be changed daily. 
 In a few days it will acquire no more tinge ; and the 
 remaining mafTes of the cruor are no longer red, but 
 white. 
 
 O^heflieils Ir^ i'ke manner, the red colour of the fhells of lob- 
 i.i lobitei-s. fters, after boiling, is no more than a mere fuperfieial 
 covering fpread over the white calcareous earth of 
 which the (hells are compofed,.and may be eafily remo- 
 ved from the furface by fcraping or filing. Before the 
 application of heat, this fuperfieial coveting is much 
 denfer ; infomuch that, in fome parts of the (hell, it 
 appears quite black, being too tliick to admit the 
 palTage of the light to the fhell and back again ; but 
 where this tranfparent blue colour of the unboiled lob- 
 fter is thinner, it conftantly appears like a blue film. 
 In hke manner, the colours of the eggs of certain 
 birds are entirely fuperfieial, and may be fcraped ofF, 
 leaving the white calcareous earth expofed to view. 
 9f fouherf. "^^^ ^^^^ (ame with feathers, which owe their 
 
 colours entirely to a very thin layer of fome tranfpa- 
 rent matter upon a white groimd. Our author afcer- 
 tained this by fcraping off the fuperfieial colours from 
 certain feathers which were ftrong enough to bear the 
 operation ; and thus feparated the coloured layers from 
 the white ground on which they had been naturally 
 fpread. The lateral fibres of the feathers cannot indeed 
 have their furfaces feparated in this manner ; but their 
 •texture, when viewed by a microfcope, feems to indi- 
 cate, that the colours are produced on them by no 
 other means than thofe already related. In the exa- 
 mination of fome animal fubjefts where the colouring 
 matter could not be feparated by chemical meaiis, our 
 author had recourfe to mechanical divifion ; but this 
 can only he employed when the principal part of the 
 
 4 
 
 735 
 
 white fubftance is unmixed with the coloured coat oir 
 covering which is fpread upon its furface. All of them, 
 however, by whatever means their c«')lours could be fe- 
 parated, fliowed that they were produced in the fame 
 manner, namely, by the tranfinifiion of light from a 
 white ground through a tranfparent coloured medium. 
 
 The coloured fubilances of the mineral kingdom are Of the co- 
 very numerous, and belong principally to two clafTes, lours of mi 
 WK. earths and metals. The former, when pure, are "^'^'^^'^ 
 all perfcaiy white, and their colours arife from phlo- 
 giftic or metaUic mixtm-es. Calcareous earths, when 
 induiatud, conftitute marble, and may be tinged with 
 various colours by means of metahic folutions ; all 
 which are fimilur in their nature to the dyes put upon 
 filk, cotton, or linen, and invariably proceed from the 
 fame caufe, viz. the tranfmiffioa of light through a 
 very thin and tranfparent coloured medium. Flints 
 are formed from filiceous earths, and owe their colour 
 to phlogifton. When fufEciently heated, they are ren- 
 dered white by the lofs of the inflammable matter which- 
 produced their colour. When impregnated with, me- 
 tals, they form agates, cornehans, jafper, and coloured 
 cryftals. The coloured gems alfo receive their differ- 
 ent hues from metals ; and all of them may be imita- 
 ted by glafles tinged with fuch phlogiilic or m.etallic 
 matters as enter into the compofition of the original 
 fubftances. 
 
 Thus our author concludes, that the coloured earths, .Of axetais.- 
 gems, &c. exhibit their various tints in the fame 
 manner with other fubftances ; viz. by the tranfmiflTion 
 of light refieded from a white ground. Gur author, 
 however, proceeds farther ; and aflerts, that even the' 
 colours of metals themfelves are produced in the fame 
 manner. 
 
 ^ " Gold (fays he) exhibits a white light, which is 
 tl'nged_ with yellow. I have ufed this expreffion, be- 
 caufe it appears frora experiment that gold reflefts a 
 white hght, and that its ydlow colour is a tinge fuper- 
 added to its whitenefs. I'hc experiment is thus fet 
 forth by Sir Ifaac Newton. Gold in this light (that 
 is, a beam of white light ) appears of the fame yellow 
 colour as in day light; but by intercepting at the lens 
 a due quantity of the yellow-making rays, it will ap- 
 pear vvhitc hke filver, as I have tried; which fiiows,.. 
 that its ycllovvnefs arifts from the excefs of the inter- 
 cepted rays, tinging, that whitenefs with their colour 
 when they are let pafs. 
 
 " I have already ihown, by numerous experiments,, 
 in what manner coloured tinges are produced ; and it 
 uniformly appears, from all thefe experiments, that: 
 colours do not arife from refleaion, but from tranf- 
 mifllon only. A folution of filver is pellucid and co- 
 lourlefs. A folution of gold tranfmits yellow, but re- 
 fleas no colour. This metal alfo, when united with 
 glafs, yields no colour by refleaion, but by tranfmif- 
 fion only. All thefe cu'cumftances feem to indicate, 
 that the yellow colour of gold arifes fi-om a yellow 
 tranfparent matter, which is a conftituent part of that 
 metal ; that it. is equally nu'xed with the white parti- 
 cles of the gold, and tranfmits the light which is re- 
 fleded by them, in hke manner as when filvei is gilt,. 
 or foils are made by covering white metals with tranf- 
 parent colours. But thefe faaitious coverings are 
 only fuperlicial ; whereas the yellow matter of gold is 
 difiufcd thrcugliout the whole ("ubitance of the metal, 
 
 and„ 
 
G H R O M 
 
 and appears to envelope and cover each of the white 
 particlts. In whatfoever manner the yellow matter 
 of gold is united to its white fubftance, it exifts in a 
 rare ftate ; for it bears only the fame projxirtion to 
 the white particles of the gold as that of the yellow- 
 making rays which were intercepted bears to all the 
 other rays comprifed in the white light of the fan. 
 
 " Sir Ifaac Newton has fliown, that when fpaccs or 
 Interftices of bodies are replenifhed with media of dif- 
 ferent denfities, the bodies are opaque ; that thofe fu- 
 perRciesof tranfparent bodies relleA the greateft quan- 
 tity of hght which intercede media that differ moft in 
 their refraftive denfities; and that the refleftions of very 
 thin tranfparent fubftances are coniiderably llronger 
 than thofe made by the fame fubftances of a greater 
 thicknefs. Hence the minute portions of air, or of 
 the rarer mediuiVi, which occupies fpaces void of other 
 matter, refle£t a vivid white light whenever their fur- 
 faces are contiguous to media whofe denfities differ 
 confiderably from their own ; fo that every fmall mafs 
 of air, or of the rarer medium, which fills the pores or 
 interftices of denfe bodies, is a minute white fubftance. 
 This is manifeft in the whitenefs of froth, and of all 
 pellucid colourlefs bodies ; fuch as glafs, cryftal, or 
 falts, reduced to powder, or otherwife flawed : for in 
 all thefe inftances a white light is refiefted from the 
 air or rarer medium which intercede the particles of 
 the denfer fubftances whofe interftices they occupy." 
 
 From thefe principles our author takes occafion to 
 explain the reafon why the particles of metals which 
 yield no colour by incident light when fufpended in 
 their folvents, are difpofed to exhibit colours when 
 feparated from them. Hence alfo we fee why opaque 
 \yhite fubftances are rendered pellucid by being redu- 
 ced to uniform maffes whofe coinponent parts are every 
 where nearly of the fame denfity ; for as all pellucid 
 fubftances are rendered opaque and white by the ad- 
 mixture of pellucid colourlefs media of confiderably 
 different denfities, they are again deprived of their 
 opacity by extricating thefe media which kept their 
 particles at a diftance from each other : thus froth or 
 fnow, when refolved into water, lofe their whitenefs, 
 and affume their former pellucid appearance. In like 
 manner, by proper fluxes, the opaque white earths are 
 reduced to pellucid colourlefs glaffes ; becaufe all re- 
 fledions arc made at the furfaces of bodies differing 
 in denfity from the ambient medium, and in the con- 
 fines of equally denfe media there is no refledion. 
 
 As the calces of metals are enabled to refleft their 
 •colours by the intervention of the particles of air ; fo, 
 when mixed with oil in the making of paints, they al- 
 ways affume a darker colour, becaufe the excefs of the 
 denfity of oil over that of air forms a fenfible difference 
 when comparatively confidered with refpeft to the fpe- 
 ;^ific gravity of the rarer metals. From this caufe 
 perceptibly lefs light is refledled from the molecule of 
 -oil than from thofe of air, and confequeritly the mafs 
 .appears darker. The cafe, however, is different with 
 fuch paints as are formed of the denfer metals ; as ver- 
 milion, minium, &c. : for though oil differs very con- 
 fiderably from air in its fpecific denfity, yet it alfo 
 •differs very much in this refped from the denfer me- 
 taUic powders ; and the moleculae of oil which divide 
 their particles aft upon the light fo ftrongly, that the 
 jrefledion oc-cafioncd by them cannot be diftinguiflied 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 from thofe which are caufed by rarer media. Hence, 
 though wc mix vermilion or minium with oil, the co- 
 lour is not fenfibly altered. 40 
 
 This part of our author's theory, however, feems Obje^txins 
 liable to objedion : for though it be true that the cal-^'^ '^of mc 
 ces of fome metals are denfer than others, yet that is, 
 comparatively fpeaking, but in a very fmall propor- lours, 
 tion ; nor is even t!ie difference of denfity between oil 
 and the calces of the heavier metals at all comparable 
 to that between the denfity of air and oil. Thus, ' 
 tho' the calx of iron may be 10 or 1 1 times more denfe 
 than oil ; yet, as the latter is between 500 and 600 
 times denfer than air, the fmall difference between the 
 oil and metallic calx ought to be imperceptible. la 
 this refpeft, indeed, there are confiderable differences 
 with regard to the oils employed, which cannot be fup- 
 pofed to arife from the mere circumftance of denfity. 
 Thus the colour of vermilion, when mixed with turpen- 
 tine-varnifti, is much brighter than with linfeed-oil ; 
 and yet the difference between tiie denfities of linfeed- 
 oil and turpcntine-varnlfli is very trifling. The mere 
 a£lion of heat hkewife has a furprifing effeft in this 
 cafe. Thus the red calx of iron, called Jcarld oier^ 
 by being only heated a certain degree, appears of a very 
 dark purple, refuming its red colour when cold ; and 
 this variation maybe induced as often as we pi safe by 
 only heating it over the fire in a fliovel. In like man- 
 ner, by gradually heating red lead, it may be made to 
 affume a moft beautiful crimfon colour; which grow- 
 ing gradually darker, becomes at laft almoft quite 
 black. On cooling, if the heat has not been raifed too 
 high, it gradually returns through the fame fliades of 
 colour, until at laft it fixes in its original hue. Thefe 
 immenfe differences in colour cannot by any means be 
 attributed either to the expulfion of air or to an altera- 
 tion in denfity. The fire indeed does certainly ex- 
 pand thefe calces' as well as other bodies; but as the 
 medium interfperfed between their particles is thus al- 
 fo expanded, the colour ought at leaft to remain the 
 fame, if not to become lighter, on account of the fu- 
 perior expanfion of air to that of metal by the fame 
 degree of heat. It would fecm, therefore, that the ac- 
 tion of the elem.ent of firt itfelf lias a confiderable fhare 
 in the produdion of colours ; and indeed its fliare in 
 the operations of nature is fo great, that we might 
 Avell think it ftrange if it fiiould be entirely excluded 
 from this. 
 
 With regard to femipellncid fubflances, which ap- of the co- 
 pear of one colour by incident and another by tranf- lours of re- 
 mitted light, our author likewife endeavours to fhow, ™|Pj;''"'^^ 
 that no refleftion is made by the coloured matter, but " 
 only by the white or colourlefs particles. They con- 
 fift of pellucid media, throughout which white or co- 
 lourlefs opaque particles are difperfed. The latter are 
 difpofed at fuch diftanccs from each otlver, that fome 
 of the incident rays of light are capable of paffuig 
 through the intervals which intercede them, and thus 
 are tranfmltted through the femipellucid mafs. Some 
 forts of rays penetrate through fuch maffes, while 
 others which differ from them in their refvangibility 
 are refietled by the white or colourlefs paiticlcs ; atid 
 from thence are tranfraitted through the pellucid part 
 of the medium which intervenes between the refleding 
 particles and the anterior furface of the mafs. Oa the 
 fame principle oiir author explains the blue colour of 
 
 the 
 
4* 
 
 ■How co- 
 
 I'liirs are 
 
 light. 
 
 e H R O M 
 
 the (lij, the green colour of the fea, ar.d other natu- 
 ral phenomena ; and from his numerous experiments 
 on this fubjeft at lafl, conclades, " that the power by 
 which the feveral rays of light are tranfmitted through 
 traiifmitt^d '^'^^^''^"^ media is inherent in the particles themf^lves, 
 and therefore is not confined to the fui faces of fuch 
 media. For if the tranfmilllve force was exerted at 
 the furface only, the thinner plates of coloured fub- 
 flances would aft upon the rays as powerfully as thick- 
 er mafles. But it appears from experiment, that in 
 proportion as the rays pafs through different thicknef- 
 fes of coloured media, they exhibit colours differing 
 not only in degree, but frequently in fpecies alfo. 
 
 " The fun's light, by which bodies are illuminated, 
 confiUs of all the rays by which a white light is 
 compounded. Thefe rays, in their entire and undi- 
 vided ftate, are incident upon the opaque particles of 
 femipellucid fubftances, and upon the colouring par- 
 ticles of tranfparent-coloured fubftances, whenever 
 thefe media are expofed to the light. When the rays 
 accede to the opaque particles of femipellucid fubftan- 
 ces, fome forts of them ate refledled back from the 
 anterior furface of thofe particles : the other forts of 
 rays, which are not refleAed back, are diverted from 
 the dire£tion which is oppofite to the anterior furface 
 of the opaque particles, and paffing through the in- 
 tervals between the particles, are tranfmitted through 
 the mafs. 
 
 '' When the rays are incident upon the particles of 
 tranfparent-coloured bodies, none of them are reflcdted 
 back ; becaufe the colouring particles are not endowed 
 with any reflexive power: but fome of the rays arc either 
 flopped at the anterior furface of the particles, or are 
 diverted into fuch direftions as render them incapable 
 of paffing towards the farther fide of the mafs ; and 
 confequently fuch rays cannot be tranfmitted. The 
 rays which are not thus intercepted or difperfed, are 
 tranfmitted in the fame manner as thofe which pafs 
 through ft mipellucid media. Thus it is evident, that 
 the coloured rays which arc tranfmitted through femi- 
 pellucid fubftances are hifleded by the opaque particles ; 
 and thof; which are tranimitted through tranfparent- 
 coloured fubflanccs are irificcled by the colouring par- 
 ticles. 1 rom the preceding obfervations likewife it 
 appears, that the particles of <l Huured media infleft 
 the feveral iorts of rays according to the feveral fizes 
 and deniities v{ tlie particles ; alfo in proportion to 
 the i 'fi.r.nmabi'ity of the media which owe their co- 
 lour tn them. ; ?iid it in manifeft that the ti anfmiiTion 
 of coiourtd rays depends upon their inflcdiion. All 
 thefe obfervations are conf;.rmable to Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton's dodtrine, that the rays of light are refledied, re- 
 
 7 
 
 frafted, and itiflefted, by one and the fame principle 
 afting variouHy in various circuraftances." 
 
 The mod remarkable part of Mr Dclaval's dodrlne 
 n that concerning the metals; fur the belter under- 
 Handing of which we fhall premife a fliort abftradt of 
 his general dcftrine concerning white bodies, and the 
 manner in whicli light is refteded by them. "All the 
 niani;cr in earths (he obferves), which in their natural ftate are of 
 'vhich Ii^lit a pure white, confiitute traiifparent coluurlefs media 
 
 I lie 
 
 white 
 
 ' -ties. 
 
 when vitrified with proper fiuxes, or when dilTolvcd 
 in colourlefs rr.enftrua ; and the faline maffes obtain- 
 able from tlieir folutions are tranfparent and colourlefs 
 while thev retain the water which is cfTeutial to their 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 cryftallization, and are not fl-iwed or reduced to pow- 
 der ; but after their pores and interftices are opened 
 in fuch a manner as to admit the air, they become 
 then white and opaque by the entrance of that rare 
 medium. The eartliy particles which form the folid 
 parts of bodies generally exceed the others in denfity ; 
 coiafequently thefe particles, when contiguous to the 
 rare media already mentioned, muft refledl the rays of 
 light with a force proportionate to their denfity. The 
 reflective power of bodies does not depend merely up- 
 on their excefs _of denfity, but upon their difference 
 of denfity with refpeft to the furrounding media. 
 Tranfparent colourlefs particles, whofe denfity is great- 
 ly inferior to that of the media they come between, 
 alfo powerfully reflea all forts of rays, and thereby be- 
 come white. Of this kind are the air or other rare 
 fluids which occupy the interftices of liquors ; and in 
 general of all denfer media into whofe interftices fuch 
 rare particles are admitted. 
 
 " Hence wc may conclude, that white opaque bo- 
 dies are conftituted by the union or contiguity of two 
 or more tranfparent colourlefs media differing confi- 
 derably from each other in their refleftive powers. 
 Of thefe fubftances we have examples in froth, emul- 
 fions, or other imperfeft combinations of pellucid li- 
 quors, milk, fnow, calcined or pulverized fahs, glafs 
 or cryftal reduced to powder, white earths, paper, 
 hnen,^ and even thofe metals which are called white 
 by mineralogifts and chemifts : for the metals juft men- 
 tioned do not appear white unlefs their furfaces be 
 rough ; as in that cafe only there are interftices on 
 their furface fufficient to admit the air, and thus make 
 a refledion of a white and vivid light. 
 
 " But^ the poliftied furfaces of metallic mirrors re- 
 flect the incident rays equably and regularly, according 
 to their feveral angles of incidence ; fo that the re- 
 fltfted rays do not interfere with each other, but re- 
 main feparate and unmixed, and therefore diftinftly 
 exhibit their feveral colours. Hence it is evident, 
 that white furfaces cannot adt upon the light as mir- 
 rors ; becaufe all the rays which are refltaed from 
 them are blended in a promifcuuus and diforderly man- 
 ner. ^ 
 
 " The above-mentioned phenomena give much in-ofthl 
 fight into the nature and caufe of opacity; as they caufe of c 
 clearly fhow, that even the rareft tranfparent colour- 
 lefs fubftances, when their furfaces are adjacent to me- 
 dia differing greatly from them in refraaive power, 
 may thereby acquire a perfea opacity, and may afTuuie 
 a refplendency and hue fo fimilar to that of white u'e- 
 tals, that the rarer pellucid fubilances C£.niiot by the 
 fight be diilinguiilied from the d< ufe opaque m.etals. 
 And this fimiUrity to the furfaces of mttal? occurs 
 in the raie pellucid fubftances, net only wben, fiom 
 the roughnefs of their furfacis, they reie.nble unpo- 
 liflied metals in whiienefs, But alfo ulien, from tfi-ir 
 fmoothnefs, they refemble the pjlilhcd Au-fices of 
 metals. 
 
 " Metals feem to confift entirely of tranfparent mat- 
 ter, and to derive their apparent opacity and lultre 
 folely from the copious rcflcdion of light from their 
 furfaces. The analog- y between the metals and tranf- 
 parent media, as far as refpeds their optical proper- 
 ties, will appear frcm the following confuierations. 
 
 " I. All metals dilTolved in their proper menftrua are 
 5 A tranf- 
 
738 
 
 CHROM ATI CS. 
 
 tranfparent. 2. By the union of two or more tranf- 
 parent media, fubftances are conttitiiied which are fimi- 
 lar to metals in their opacity and luftre, as plumbago 
 and marcafites. 3. The tranfparent fubftances of me- 
 tals, as well as thofe of minerals, by their union with 
 phlo^illon, acquire their ftrong rcllcaive powers from 
 which their luilre and opacity arife. 4. The furfaces 
 of pellucid media, luch as glafs or water, affume a 
 metalHc appearance, when by their fmoothneis, diffe- 
 rence of denlity Vv^ith refpea to the contiguous media, 
 or any other caufe, they are difpofed copioufly to re- 
 flea the. light. . , , 
 
 " From all thefe confiderations it is evident, that 
 ODaq'ie fubftances are conftituted by the union or con- 
 tiguity of tranfparent colouilefs media, differing from 
 one pnother in their refleaive powers ; and that, when 
 the common furface, which comes between fuch me- 
 dia, is plane, equal, and fmootli, it refleas the inci- 
 dent rays equally and regularly as a mirror ; but when 
 the furlace is rough and unequal, or divided into mi- 
 nute particles, it refleas the incident rays irregularly 
 and promifcuoufly in different direaions, and conie- 
 •4^ quently appears white." 
 Theory of From all thefe experiments we can only conclude, 
 cou iirs ftillj]^at tiie theory of colours feems not yet to be deter- 
 sncertain, ^.^^^ certainty ; and very formidable, perhaps 
 
 iinanfwerable, objeaions, might be brought againft 
 every hypothefis on this fubjea that hath been invent- 
 ed. The difcovei-ies of Sir Ifaac Newton, however, 
 are fufficient to juftify the following 
 
 A 
 
 PHORISMS. 
 
 I. All the colours in nature proceed from the rays 
 
 ^^zf There are feven primary colours; which are red, 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. 
 
 3. Every ray of hght may be feparated into the 
 feven primary colours. , , r 
 
 4 The rays of Kght in pafGng through the lame 
 medium have different degrees of refrangibility 
 
 c The difference in the colours of light ariles from 
 its different refrangibility: that which is the leaff re- 
 frangible producing red ; and that which is the molt 
 refrangible violet. . 
 
 6 By compounding any two of the primary colours, 
 as red and yellow, or yellow and blue, the intermediate 
 colour, as orange or green, may be produced. _ 
 
 7 The colours of bodies anfe from their dilpoiitions 
 to riflea one fort of rays, and to abforb the other : 
 thofe that reflea the leaft refrangible rays appearing 
 red ; and thofe that reflea the moil refrangible, vio- 
 let 
 
 8. Such bodies as reflea two or more forts of rays 
 aT)pear of various colours. , . j-r 
 
 Q The whitenefs of bodies arifes irom their dilpo- 
 litlon to reflea all the rays of light promifcuoufly. _ 
 
 10. The blacknefs of bodies proceeds from their in- 
 capacity to reflea any of the rays of hght (c). 
 
 Entertaining ExperimentSj/cmwc/^J on the pre" 
 ceding Principles. 
 
 I. Out of a Jtrgk cclourlcfs ray of light to produce fcvtn 
 other rays, ivh'ich JJoall paint, en a ivhite body, the feven 
 primary colours of nature. 
 
 Procure of an optician a large glafs prifra DEF, Plr.te 
 well poliflicd, two of whofe iides mull contain an angle J^^'XXV, 
 of about fixty-four degrees. Make a room quite dark, 
 and in the window fliutter AB, cut a round hole, about 
 one-third of an inch in diameter, at C, through which 
 a ray of light LI paffing, fiiUs on the prifm DEF: hy 
 that it is refraaed out of the direaion IT, in which 
 it would have proceeded into another GH ; and, fail- 
 ing on the paper MNSX, will there form^ an oblong 
 fpearum PQ^ whofe ends will be femicircular, and its 
 fides fl.i-aight; and if the diftance of the prifm from the 
 paper be about eighteen feet, it will be ten inches 
 long, and two inches wide. This fpearum will ex- 
 hibit all the primary colours : the rays between P and 
 V, which are the moil refraaed, will paint a deep 
 violet ; thofe between V and I, indigo ; thofe between 
 I and B, blue ; thofe between B and G, green ; thofe 
 between G and Y, yellow ; thofe between Y and 
 orange ; and thofe between O and R, being the leaft 
 refraaed, an intenfe red. The colours between thefe 
 fpaces will not be every where equally intenfa, but 
 will inchne to the neighbouring colour : thus the part 
 of the orange next to R, will incline to a red ; that 
 next to Y, to a yello\y : and fo of the refl:. 
 
 II. From two or more of the primary colours, to compofe^ 
 others that JJmll, in appearance, refemhle thofe of the for- 
 mer,. 
 
 By mixing the two homogeneal colours red and 
 yellow, an orange will be produced, fimilar in ap- 
 pearance to that in the feries of primaiy colours ; but, 
 the light of the one being homogeneal, and that of the 
 other heterogeneal, if the former be viewed through a 
 prifm it will remain unaltered, but the other will he 
 refolved into its component colours red and yellow. 
 In like manner other contiguous Komogeneal colours 
 may compound new colours; ashy mixing yellow and 
 green, a colour between them is formed ; and if blue 
 be added, there will appear a green that is the middle 
 colour of thofe three. For the yellow and blue, if 
 they are equal in quantity, will draw the intermediate 
 green equally toward them, and keep it, as it were, in 
 equilibrio, that it verge not more to the one than to 
 the other. To this compound green there may be 
 added fome red and violet ; and yet the green will not 
 immediately ceafe, but grow lefs vivid ; till by adding 
 more red and violet it will become more diluted ; and 
 at lafl;, by the prevalence of the added colours, it 
 will be overcome, and turned into fome anomalous 
 
 colour. r ,1 1 - 1 r 1- 
 
 If the fun's white, compofed of all kinds ot rays, be 
 
 added 
 
 (c) From hence it arifes, that black bodies, when expofed to the fun, become fooner heated than aU 
 
 others. 
 
C H R O M 
 
 added to any homogeneal colour, that colour will not 
 vanifh, nor change its fpecies, but be diluted ; and by- 
 adding more white, it will become continually more 
 diluted. Laftly, if red and violet be mixed, there 
 will be generated, according to their various propor- 
 tions, various purples, fuch as are not like, in appear- 
 ance, to the colour of any homogeneal light ; and of 
 thefe purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new 
 colours may be compofed. 
 
 III. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yellow , and 
 blue, to produce all the other prifmatic colours, and all 
 that are intermediate to them. 
 
 •Fig. 2. Provide three panes of glafs of about five inches 
 fquare ; and divide each of them, by parallel Hues, 
 into five equal parts. Take three (heets of very thin 
 paper ; which you muft paint, Hghtly, one blue, ano- 
 ther yellow, and the third red (d). Then pafte on 
 one of the glafTes five pieces of the red paper ; one-of 
 which muft cover the whole glafs, the fecond only the 
 four lower divifions, the third the three lower, the 
 fourth the two loweft, and the fifth the laft divifion 
 only. On the other two glafles five pieces of the blue 
 and yellow papers muft be pafted in Hke manner. You 
 muft alfo have a box of about fix inches long, and the 
 fame depth and width as the glaffes ; it muft be black 
 on the infide : let one end be quite open, and in the op- 
 pofite end there muft be a hole large enough to fee the 
 glaffes completely. It muft alfo open at the top, that 
 the glaffes may be placed in it conveniently. 
 
 When you have put any one of thefe glaffes in the 
 box, and the open end is turned toward the fun, you 
 will fee five diftinA fhades of the colour it contains. 
 If you place the blue and yellow glaffes together, in a 
 fimilar direftion, you will fee five fliades of green dif- 
 tinftly formed. When the blue and red glaffes are 
 placed, a bright violet will be produced ; and by the 
 red and yellow, the feveral fiiades of orange. 
 
 If, inftead of placing thefe glaffes in a fimilar pofi- 
 
 Mg. 3. tion> yo" pl^ce the fide AB of the yellow glafs againft 
 the fide BD of the blue, you will fee all the various 
 greens that are produced by nature (e); if the blue 
 and red glaffes be placed in that manner, you will have 
 all the poffible varieties of purples, violets, &c. ; and, 
 laftly, if the red and orange glaffes be fo placed, there 
 
 A T I C S. 739 
 
 will be all the intermediate colours, as the marygold, 
 aurora, &c. 
 
 IV. By means of the three primary colours, red, yelloiv, 
 and blue, together ivith light and JJoadc, to produce all 
 the gradations of the prifmatic colours. 
 
 On feven fquare panes of glafs, pafte papers that 
 are painted with the feven prifmatic colours, in the 
 fame manner as in the laft experiment. The colours 
 for the orange, green, indigo, and violet, may be made 
 by mixing the other three. Then with biftre (f), 
 wellndiluted, fhade a ftieet of very thin paper, by lay- 
 ing it light on both its fides. With pieces of this pa- 
 per cover four-fifths of a glafs, of tlie fame fize with 
 the others, by laying one piece on the four loweft di- 
 vifions, another on the three loweft, a third on the 
 two loweft, and the fourth on the loweft divifion only, 
 and leaving the top divifion quite uncovered. When 
 one of the coloured glaffes is placed in the box, toge- 
 ther with the glafs of ftiades, fo that the fide AB of 
 the one be applied to the fide BC of the other, as in 
 fig. 3. the feveral gradations of colours will appear 
 ftiaded in the fame manner as a drapery judicioufly 
 painted with that colour. 
 
 It is on this principle that certain French artifls 
 have proceeded in their endeavours to imitate, by 
 defigns printed in colours, paintings in oil : which 
 they do by four plates of the fame fize, on each of 
 which is engraved the fame defign. One of thefe 
 contains all the fhades that are to be reprefented, and 
 which are painted either black or with a dark grey. 
 One of the three other plates is coloured with blue, 
 another with red, and" the third with yellow; each of 
 them being engraved in thofe parts only which are to 
 reprefent that colour ( g ) ; and the engraving is either 
 ftronger or weaker, in proportion to the tone of co- 
 lour that is to be reprefented (h). 
 
 Thefe four plates are then pafled alternately undei' 
 the prefs, and the mixture of their colours produces a 
 print that bears no fmall refemblance to a painting. 
 It muft be confeffed, however, that what has been hi- 
 therto done of this kind falls far fliort of that degree 
 of perfedlion of which this art appears fufceptible. If 
 they who engrave the beft in the manner of the crayon 
 wei-e to apply themfelves to this art, there is reafon to 
 5 A 2 expecl 
 
 (d) Water-colours muft be ufed for this purpofe : the blue may be that of Pruffia, and very bright ; the 
 red, carmine ; and the yellow, gambooge, mixed with a little faffron. Tliefe colours muft be laid very light 
 and even, on both fides of the paper. 
 
 (e ) In the firft pofition of the glaffes, the quantity of blue and yellow being equal, the fame fort of green 
 was conftantly vifible : but by thus inverting the glaffes, the quantity of the colours being conftantly unequal, 
 a very pleafing variety of tints is produced. 
 
 (f) The biftre here ufed muft be made of foot, not that in ftone. 
 
 (g) When a red drapery is required, it is engraved on the plate affigned to that colour; and fo of yellow 
 and blue : but if one of the other colours be wanting, fuppofe violet, it muft be engraved on thofe that print 
 the red and blue : and fo of the reft. The plates of this kind have been hitherto engraved in the manner of 
 mezzotinto ; but thefe, unlefs they are fliilfully managed, foon become fmutty. Engravings in the manner of 
 the crayon will perhaps anfwer better. _ ... 
 
 (h) The principal difficulty in this fort of engraving arifes from a want of a lliilful management, _ m giving, 
 each plate that precife degree of engraving which Avill produce the tone of colour required. If a bright green 
 is to be reprefented, there ihould be an equal quantity of graving on the red and yellow plates : but if an ohv^ 
 green, the yellow plate fhould be engraved much deeper than the red. 
 
40 C H R O M 
 
 expeft they would produce far more finiflied pieces 
 than we have hitherto feen. 
 
 V. To make Jigures appear of d'lfferent colours fucccf- 
 fively. 
 
 Fig. 4. Make a hole in the window-flmtter of a dark room, 
 through v/hicli a broad beam of hght may pafs, that is 
 to be rcfrafted by the large glafs prifm ABC, which 
 may be made of pieces of mirrors cemented together, 
 and filled with water. Provide another prifm DEF, 
 made of three pieces of wood; through the middle 
 of this there muft pafs an aj^is on which it is to revolve. 
 This prifm m.uft be covered with white paper ; and 
 each of its fides cut through in feveral places, fo as to 
 reprefent different figures, and thofe of each fide fhould 
 Kkewife be different. The infide of this prifm is to be 
 hollow , and made quite black, that it may not refleft 
 any of the fight that pafles through the fides into it. 
 When this prifm is placed near to that of glafs, as in 
 the figure, with one of its fides EF perpendicular to 
 the ray of light, the figures on that fide will appear 
 perfeAly white : but Avhen it comes into the pofition 
 the figures will appear yellow and red ; and when 
 it is in the pofition 2- /, they will appear blue and 
 violet. As the prifm is turned round its axis, the 
 other fides will have a fimilar appearance. If inllead 
 of a prifm a four or five fided figure be here ufed, the 
 appearances will be Hill further diverfified. 
 
 This phenomenoii arlfes from the difi^erent refrangi- 
 billty of the rays of light. For when the fide EF is in 
 the pofition g it is more ftrongly illuminated by the 
 kail refrangible rays ; and wherever they are predo- 
 minant, the obje£l will appear red or yellow. But 
 when it is on the pofition i /, the more refrangible rays 
 being then predominant, it will appear tinged with 
 blue and violet. 
 
 VI. The folar magic lantern. 
 
 Procure a box, of about a foot high, and eighteen 
 inches wide, or fuch other fimilar dimenfions as you 
 fhall think fit; and about three inches deep. Two of 
 the oppofite fides of this box mull be quite open; and 
 in each of the other fides let there be a groove, wide 
 enough to pafs a ftiff" paper or pafteboard. This box 
 muft be faftened againft a window on which the fun's 
 rays fall direft. The reft of the window fiiould be 
 clofed up, that no Hght may enter. Provide feveral 
 fheets of ftifF paper, which muft be blacked on one 
 fide. On thefe papers cut out fuch figures as you 
 fhall think proper : and placing them alternately in 
 the grooves of the box, with their blacked fides to- 
 wards you, look at them through a large and clear 
 glafs prifm ; and if the light be ftrong, they will ap- 
 pear to be painted with the moft lively colours in na- 
 ture. If you cut on one of thefe papers the form of 
 the rainbow, about three quarters of an inch wide, 
 you will have a lively reprefentation of that in the at- 
 mofphere. 
 
 This experiment may be further diverfified, by 
 pafting very thin papers, lightly painted with different 
 colours, over fome of the parts that are cut out : 
 which will appear to change their colours when view- 
 ed through the prifm, and to ftand out from the pa- 
 per, at different diftances, according to the different 
 degrees of refrangibility of the colours with which 
 
 A T I C S. 
 
 they are painted. For greater conrenlence, the prifm 
 may be placed in a ftand on a table, at the height of 
 your eye, and made to turn round on an axis, that 
 when you have got an agreeable profpeft, you may 
 fix it in that pofition. 
 
 VII. The prifmat'ic camera olfcura. 
 
 Make two holes F, /, ia the;; fliutter of a dark Fig. j,; 
 chamber, near to each other ; and agaiaft each hole 
 place a prlfui ABC, and a be, in a perpendicular direct 
 tion, that their fpe£lrums NM may be call on the 
 paper in a horizontal fine, and coincide with each 
 other ; the red and violet of the one being in the 
 fame part with thofe of the other. The paper fiiould 
 be placed at fuch a diftance from the prifms that the 
 fpedrum may be fufnciently dilated. Provide feveral 
 papers nearly of the fame dimenfions with the fpec- 
 trum, crofs thefe papers, and draw lines parallel to the- 
 divlfions of the colours. In tliefe divifions cut out 
 fuch figures as you ihall find will have an agreeable 
 efi^'ft, as flovs'ers, trees, animals, &c. Vv^hen you have 
 placed one of thefe papers in its proper pofition, hang 
 a black cloth or paper behind it, that none of the 
 rays that pafs throui^h may be reflecfed and confufe 
 the phenomenon. The figures cut on the paper will 
 then appear ftrongly illuminated with all the original 
 colours of nature- If while one of the prifms remains 
 at reft, the other be revolved on its axis, the continual- 
 alteration of the colours will afford a pleafing variety ; 
 which may be further increafed by turning the prifm 
 round in different directions. 
 
 When the prifms are fo placed that the two fpec- 
 trums become coincident in an inverted order of their 
 colours, the red end of one faUing on the violet end of 
 the other; if they be then viewed through a third 
 prifm DH, held parallel to their length, they will no 
 longer appear coincident, but in the form of two di- 
 ftinft fpeftrums, pt and nm (fig. 6.), crofling one an- 
 other in the middle, like the letter X : the red of one 
 fpeftrum and the violet of the other, which were co- 
 incident at NM, being parted from each other by a 
 greater refra&ion of the violet to jiand m, than that of 
 the red to n and t. 
 
 This experiment may be further diverfified by ad- 
 ding two other prifms, that firall form a fpedrum in. 
 the fame line, and contiguous to the other ; by which 
 not only the variety of figures,, but the vicifTitude of. 
 colours, will be cdnfiderably augmented. 
 
 VIII. The diatonic fcale of colours. 
 
 The illuftrlous Newton, in the courfe of his in- 
 veftigatlons of the properties of light, difcovered that 
 the length of the fpaces which the feven primary co- 
 lours poflefs in the fpeftrum, exaftly correfponds to 
 thofe of chords that found the feven notes in the dia- , 
 tonic fcale of mufic. As is evident by the following 
 experiment. 
 
 On a paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of Hght be . 
 largely refradled into the fpedlrum AFTMGP, and 
 mark the precife boundaries of the feveral colours, as 
 
 b, c, &c. Draw lines from thofe points perpendicu- 
 lar to the oppofite fide, and you will find that the, 
 fpaces M r/ F, by which the red is bounded ; r g eft 
 by which the orange is bounded ; g p e djhy which 
 the yellow is bounded; ^c. will be in exaft proportion 
 2 to 
 
Eg. 8. 
 
 C H R O M 
 
 to tTie dlvifions of a mufical chord for the notes of an 
 ©£tave ; that is, as the intervals of thefe numbers i , |-, 
 
 y > a J 9 I 
 y> ^> T' r> TTJ 
 
 IX. Colorific mujlc. ^ 
 
 Father Castel, a Frenchman, in a curious book 
 he has publiflied on chromatics, fuppofes the note ut 
 to aniwer to blue in the prifmatic colours ; the note 
 re to yellow, and mi to red. The other tones he re- 
 fers to the intermediate colours ; from whence he con- 
 ftruAs the following gamut of colorific mufic ; 
 
 Ut Blue 
 
 Ut (harp Sea-green 
 
 Re Bright green 
 
 Re fharp Olive green 
 
 Mi Yellow 
 
 Fa Aurora 
 
 Fa fharp Orange 
 
 Sol Red 
 
 Sol fharp Grimfon 
 
 La Violet 
 
 La fharp Blue Violet 
 
 Si Sky blue 
 
 Ut Blue 
 
 This gamut, according to his plan, is to be conti- 
 nued in the fame manner for the following o£lave ; 
 except that the colours are to be more vivid. 
 
 He fuppofes thaf thefe colours, by ftriking the eye 
 in the fame fuccefiion. as the founds (to which he 
 makes them analogous) do the ear, and in the fame 
 order of time, they will produce a correfpondent fen- 
 fation of pleafure in the mind. It is on thefe general 
 principles, which F. Caftel has dllucidated in his trea- 
 tife, that he has endeavoured, though with little fuc- 
 cefs, to eftabhfh his ocular harpfichord. 
 
 The confiruclion of this inilrument, as here ex- 
 plained, will fhow that the effetts produscd by colours 
 by no means anfwer thofe of founds, and that the 
 principal relation there is between them confifts in 
 the duration of the time that they refpeftively affeft 
 the fenfes. 
 
 Between two circles of paftehoard, of ten inches 
 diameter, AB and CD, inclofe a hollow paileboard 
 cylinder E, 18 inches long. Divide this cyhnder 
 into fpaces half an inch wide, by a fpiral line that 
 runs round it from top to bottom, and divide its 
 furfaee into fix equal parts by parallel lines drawn 
 between its two extremities ; as is expreffed in the. 
 figure. 
 
 Let the circle AB, at top, be open ; and let that at 
 bottom, CD, be ckfed, and fupported by an axis or 
 
 A T I C S. 741 
 
 fcrew, of half an inch diameter, which mufl tvirn 
 freely in a nnt placed at the bottom of a box we fliall 
 prefently defcribe. To the axis juft mentioned adjuft 
 a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dia- 
 meter, and that has 1 2 or 15 teeth, which take the 
 endkfs fcrew H. Let this cyhnder be inclofed in a 
 box ILMN (lig. 9.) whofe bafe is fquare, and at 
 whofe bottom there is a nut in which the axis F 
 turns. Obferve that the endkfs fcrew H ,,fhould 
 come out of the box, that it may receive the handle 
 O, by which the cyhnder is to be turned. 
 
 This box being clofed all round, place over it a tin 
 covering A, which mull be perforated in different 
 parts ; from this cover there mufl hang three or four 
 lights, fo placed that they may ftrongly illumine the 
 inlide of the cyhnder. In one fide of this box ( which 
 fhould be covered with pafleboard) cut eight aper- 
 tures, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, of half an inch wide, and ^'S- 9> 
 \ of an inch high ; they mufl be direftly over each 
 other, and the diflance between them mufl be exaftly 
 two inches. It is by thefe openings, which I^ere 
 conefpond to the mufical notes, that the various co- 
 lours analogous to them are to appear ; and which 
 being placed on the pafleboard cylinder, as we have 
 fhown, arc reflefted by means of the lights placed 
 within it. 
 
 It is eafy to conceive, that when the handle O is 
 turned, the cylinder in confequence rifing half an 
 inch, if it be turned five times round, it will fuccef- 
 fively fhow, at the openings made- in the fide of the 
 box, aU thofe that are in the cyhnder itfelf, and which 
 are ranged according to the dire£lion of the inclined 
 lines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the 
 duration of the notes which are to be expreffed, that 
 the apertures on the cylinder are to be cut. Obferve, 
 that the fpace between two of the parallel lines drawn 
 vertically on the cylinder, is equal to one meafure of 
 time ; therefore, for every turn of the cyhnder, there 
 are fix meafures, and thirty meafures for the air that 
 is to be played by this inflrument. 
 
 The I'everal apertures being made in the fide of the 
 cylinder, in conformity to the notes of the tune that 
 is to be expreffed, they are to be covered with double 
 pieces of very tiain paper, painted on both fides with 
 the colours that are to reprefent the mufical notes. 
 
 This experiment might be executed in a different 
 manner, and with a much greater extent ; but as the 
 entertainment would no.t equal the trouble and ex- 
 pence, wc have thought it fufficient to give the above 
 piece, by which the reader will be enabled to judge 
 how far the analogy fuppofed by F. Caflel really 
 exiils. 
 
 Chronic, 
 
 ','hronicle. 
 
 CHRONIC, or chronical, among phyficians, an 
 appellation given to difeafes that continue a long time ; 
 in contradillindion to thofe that foon terminate and 
 are called acute. 
 
 CHRONICLE, in matters of hterature, a fpccies 
 or kind of hiftbry difpofed according to the order of, 
 time, and agreeing in moft refpects with annals. See 
 Annals. 
 
 Parian Chronicle. Site: Arundflian Marbles. Since 
 that article was printed, in which an abftrad was givea 
 
 of Mr Robertfon's doubts and obfervations refpefting 
 the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle, one or two 
 publications have fince appeared in anfwer, but none 
 of them calculated to remove the objedlions or mate- 
 rially to affetl the arguments that had been ftated with 
 fo much learning and ingenuity againfl it. 1 he fol- 
 lowing Uriftures, however, with which the Monthly 
 Reviewers have concluded their critique of Mr Robert- 
 fon's performance, feem to merit conlideration. 
 
 Chro"icIe. 
 
C H R 
 
 Cliroiiiclc. 
 
 Monthly 
 Rsiiieiv , 
 Jan. 1785). 
 
 C 742 ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 On Objeftion I. That the chambers have no certain 
 or unequivocal marks of antiquity, the Reviewers remark, 
 that this feems rather to be. an anfwerto a defender of 
 the infcription, than an objeftion. If a zealous parti- 
 zan of the marble fhould appeal to its charaAers and 
 orthography, as decifive proofs of its being- genuine, it 
 would be proper enough to anfvver, that thefe clrcum- 
 flances afford no certain criterion of authenticity. But 
 in this word certain fculks an unlucky ambiguity. If 
 it means demonftrative, it muft be allowed that no in- 
 fcription can be proved to be certainly genuine from 
 theie appearances ; but if it means no more than high- 
 ly probable, many infcriptions polTefs fufiicient inter- 
 nal evidence to give their claims this degree of cer- 
 tainty. The true queftion is, Has not the Parian 
 Chronicle every mark of antiquity that can be expect- 
 ed in a monument' claiming the age of 2000 years? 
 The letters i"* and K ar^j by Mr R.'s own confeffion, 
 fuch as occur in genuine inlcriptioas ; and to fay in an- 
 Iwer, that an impoftor might copy the forms of thefe 
 letters from other infciiptions, is already to fuppofe 
 the infcription forged, before it is rendered probable 
 by argument. The learned author of the Differtation 
 feems to betray forae doubt of his own conclufion j 
 for he adds, p. 56. " that the antiquity of an infcrip- 
 tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let- 
 ters, becaufe the moft ancient charadlers are as eafily 
 counterfeited as the modern." But this objeftion is 
 equally applicable to all other ancient infcriptions ; 
 and is not to the purpofe, if the prefent infcription has 
 any peculiar marks of impofture in its characters and or- 
 thography. " The characters do not refemble the Si- 
 gean, the Nemean, or the Delian infcriptions." Mr R. 
 anfwers this objeClion himfelf, by adding, " which are 
 fuppofed to be of a more ancient date." The oppofite 
 reafon to this will be a fufficient anfwer to the other 
 objection, " that they do not refemble the Farnefian 
 pillars or the Alexandrian MS." If «' they differ 
 in many refpeCts from the Marmor Sandvicenfe," they 
 may be prefumed to agree in many. " They feem to 
 refemble, more than any other, the alphabet taken by 
 Montfaucon from the Marmor Cyzicenum." Thus it 
 appears that the Parian Chronicle moft nearly refem- 
 bles the two infcriptions, to whofe a^e it moll nearly 
 approaches. 
 
 When Mr R. adds, that the letters " are fuch as 
 an ordinary ilone- cutter would probably make, if he 
 were employed to engrave a Greek infcription, accord- 
 ing to the alphabet now in ufe," he mull be under- 
 flood cum ^rano Jalis. The engraver of a fac fimile 
 generally omits fome nice and minute touches in ta- 
 king his copy ; but, even with this abatement, we dare 
 appeal to any adept in Greek calligraphy, whether the 
 fpecimen facing p. 56, will juftify our author's obfer- 
 vation ? " The fmall letters (o, ©, intermixed 
 among the larger, have an air of afFeCtation and arti- 
 fice." Then has the greater pait of ancient infcrip- 
 tions an air of affedtation and artifice. For the o is 
 perpetually engraved in this diminutive fize; and ^ 
 being of a kindred found, and 0 of a kindred fhape, 
 how can we wonder that all three lliouid be reprefent- 
 ed of the fame magnitude ? In the infcription which 
 immediately follows the marble in Dr Chandler's edi- 
 tion, N° XXIV. thefe very three letters are never fo 
 large as the reft, and often much fmailer j of which 
 
 there are inftances in the three firft lines. vSee alfo Chronicle, 
 
 two medals in the fecond part of Dorville's Sicula, ' ^r—^ 
 
 Tab. XVI. Numb. 7. 9. 
 
 " From the archaifms,fuch as«y ^w.a^naz-, ly Ku/?!Xo/c, 
 Tixpui^ &c. &c. no conclufion can be drawn in fa- 
 vour of the authenticity of the infcription." Yet 
 furely every thing common to it with other infcrip- 
 tions, confeffedly genuine, creates a reafonable pre- 
 fumption in its favour. " But what reafon could there 
 be for thefe archaifms in the Parian Chronicle ? We 
 do not ufually find them in Greek writers of the fame 
 age, or even of a more eariy date." The reafon is, 
 according to our opinion, that fuch archaifms were 
 .then in ufe : this we know from other infcriptions, in 
 which fuch archaifms (or, as our author afterward 
 calls them, barbarifms) are frequent. Nothing can 
 be inferred from the Greek writers, unlefs we had 
 their autographs. The prefent fyflem of orthography in 
 our printed Greek books is out of the queftion. A- 
 gain, "The infcription fometimes adopts and fome- 
 timcs negleCts thefe archaifms, as in lines 4, 12, 27, 
 52, 63, 67." This inconfiftency either is no valid 
 objection, or if it be valid, will demolifh not only al- 
 moft every other infcription, but almoft every writing 
 whatfoever. For example, in the infcription juft 
 quoted, N'^ xxiv. we find toN /Sao-fAs*, ]. 20. and oraM, 
 24. A little farther, N° xxvi. 1. 31. we have 
 
 iT Mctyv>,<7iuc, ^y, 73. Si.. sK Mxj.v»<r<af, and I06. I08. 
 
 iKT Mccyy^c-.cti. The Corcyrean infcription (Montfau- 
 con, Diar. Ital. p. 420.) promifcuoufly ufes fKJavfiJo^ai 
 and iTSKvuioficxi. Ill Englifti, who is furprifed to find 
 has and hgth, a hand and an hand, a ufejul and an ufi- 
 ful, in the works of the fame author ? 'We could pro- 
 duce inftances of this inaccuracy from the fame page, 
 nay from the fame fentence. 
 
 " The authenticity of thofe infcriprions, in which 
 thefe archaifms appear, muft be eftablifhed, before 
 they can be produced in oppofition to the prefent ar- 
 gument." This is, we cannot help thinking, rather 
 too fevere a reftriCtion. If no infcription may be 
 quoted before it be proved genuine, the learned author 
 of the Differtation need not be afraid of being con- 
 futed ; for nobody will engage with him on fuch con- 
 ditions. Perhaps the reverfe of the rule will be thought 
 more equitable ; that every infcription be allowed to 
 be genuine, till its authenticity be rendered doubtful 
 by probable arguments. We will conclude this head 
 with two fhort obfervations. In Selden's copy, 1. 26. 
 was written noH2iN, which the later editors have al- ^ 
 tered to hoihsin, but without reafon, the other be- 
 ing the more ancient way of writing, common in MSS. 
 and fofnctimes found on infcriptions. (See G. Koen's 
 Notes on Gregorius de DialeBis, p. 30.) In 1.. 83. the 
 marble has KaXAtou, for which Palmer wifhed to 
 fubftitute K«\A;oy. Dr Taylor refutes him from the 
 Marmor Sandvicenfe, obferving at the fame time, that 
 this orthography occurs in no other place whatever 
 except in thefe two monuments. Is it likely that two 
 engravers fhould by chance coincide in the fame mif- 
 take, or that the forger of the Parian Chronicle (if it 
 be forged) fliould have feen the Marmor Sandvicenfe, 
 and taken notice of this peculiarity with the intention 
 of afterward employing it in the fabrication of an im- 
 pofture ? 
 
 The 
 
C H R 
 
 t 745 ] 
 
 e H R 
 
 Chronicle. The Reviewers next proceed to confidev, but more 
 
 *~~"'v— — briefly, the other objeftions. 
 
 II. It IS not probable that the Chronicle was engraved 
 for private ufe. l.Becaufe it luas fuch an expence, as few 
 learned Greeks were able to afford. If only a few were 
 aWe to afford it, fome one of thofe few might be wil- 
 linjj to incur it. But let Mr R. confider how Hkely 
 it is that a modern, and probably a needy Greek, fhould 
 be more &ble to afford it in the laft century, than a 
 learned Greek 2000 years ago ! 2. A manufcript is 
 timre readily circulated. Do men never prefer cumbrous 
 fplendor to cheapnefs and convenience ? And if this 
 compofition, inftead of being engraved on marble, had 
 been committed to parchment, would it have had a 
 better chance of coming down to the prefent age ? 
 Such a flying flieet would foon be loft ; or,' if a copy 
 had, by miracle, been prefeived t© us, the objedlions 
 to its being genuine would be more plaufible than any 
 that have been urged againft the infcription. _ What 
 Mr R. fays about the errors to which an infcription is 
 liable, &c. will only prove that chronological infcrip- 
 tions ought not to be engraved ; but not that they ne- 
 ver were. We allow that the cnmmm method of wri- 
 ting in the reign of Ptolemy Philadclphus was not on 
 STONES. But it was comm.on enough to occur to the 
 mind of any perfon who wiflied to leave behind him 
 a mem.orial at once of his learning and magnificence. 
 
 III. This objefl ion, that the marble does not appear 
 to he engraved by pidJic authority, we fhall readily ad- 
 mit, though B^jitley (Diff. on Phalaris, p. 251.) leans 
 to the contrary opinion. In explaining this objcdion, 
 the learned di0ertator obferves, that though the ex- 
 preflion, ap^o^r-'C fA- n-xpat, would lead us to fuppofe that 
 the infcription related to Paros, not a fingl^ circum- 
 ftance in the hiftory of that ifland is mentioned. !^ut 
 this expreffion only fliows that the author was an in- 
 habitant of Paros, and intended to give his readers a 
 clue, or parapegma, by the aid of which they might 
 adjuft the general chronology of Greece to the dates 
 of their own hiltory. " It is as abfurd as would be a 
 marble in Jamaica containing the revolutions of Eng- 
 land." We fee no abfurdity in fuppofing a book to 
 be written in Jamaica containing the revolutions of 
 England. The natives of Paros were not uninterefted 
 in events relating to the general hiftory of Greece, 
 particularly of Athens ; and how^ can we tell whether 
 the author were an inquiUnus or a native of the ifland ; 
 whether he thought it a place beneath his care ; or 
 whether he had devoted a feparate infcription to the 
 chronology of Paros ? 
 
 IV. It has been frequently obferved, that the earlier 
 periods of the Grecian hifiory are involved in darknefs and 
 confufion. Granted. It foUowrs then, that " an author 
 who fhould attempt to fettle the dates of the earlier pe- 
 riods would frequently contradift preceding, and be con- 
 tradifted by fubfequent, writers : that he would natu- 
 rally fall into miilakes; and at bcft could only, hope to 
 adopt the moft probable fyftem. But the difficulty of 
 the tafit, or the impoffibility of fucccfs, ate not fufticient 
 to prove tliat no man has been rafli or mad enough to 
 make the attempt." On the contrary, we know that 
 many have made it. What a number of difcordant 
 opinions has Mr R. himfelf given "Us ftom the ancients 
 concerning the age of Homer ? This confideration will 
 in part obviate another 6bje£lion, that the Parian 
 
 I 
 
 Chronicle does not agree with any ancient author. 
 For if the ancients co^otradlft one another, how could " 
 it follow more than one of them ? and why might not 
 the author, without any imputation of ignorance or 
 rafhnefs, fometimes depart from them all ? If indeed 
 he difae'rees with them when they are unanimou3, it 
 might furnifh matter for fufpicion ; though even this 
 would be far from a decifive argument, unlefs the an- 
 cients were fo extremely unlike the moderns, as never 
 to be fond of fingular and paradoxical pofitions. 
 
 V. This Chronicle is not once mentioned by any writer 
 of antiquity. How many of thofe infcriptions, which 
 are prefervcd to the prefent day, are mentioned by 
 claff.cal authors ? Verrius Fkiccus compofed a Rom;ni 
 kalendar, which, as a monument of his learning and 
 induftry, was engraved on inarble, and fixed in the raoll 
 public pai't of Preneite. Fragments of this very ka- 
 lendar were lately dug up at Prenefte, and have been 
 publifhed by a learned Italian. Now, if the paffagc 
 of Suetonius, which informs us of this circumftancc, 
 had been loft, would the filence of the Latin writers 
 prove that tlie fragments were not genuine remains oi 
 antiquity ? It may be faid that the cafes are not pa- 
 rallel ; for not a fingle author mentions the Parian 
 Chronicle, whereas Suetonius does mention Verrius's 
 Roman kalendar. To this we anfwer, It is dangerous 
 to deny the authenticity of any monument on the 
 flender probability of its being cafually mentioned by 
 a fingle author. We ftiall alfo obferve, that this fa£t 
 of the Hemicyclium of Verrius will anfwer fome part af 
 the Differtator's fecond objeftion; " The Parian Chro- 
 nicle is not an infcription that might have been con- 
 cealed in a private libraiy." Why not? it i^of no 
 extraordinary bulk ; and might formerly have been 
 concealed in a pi'ivate library, or in a private room, 
 with as much eafe as many infcriptions are now con- 
 cealed in very narrow fpaces. But unlefs this monu- 
 ment were placed in fome confpicuous part of the 
 ifland, and obtruded itfelf on the notice of every tra-- 
 veller, the wonder will in great meafure ceafe why it is 
 never quoted by the ancients. Of the nine authors 
 named in p. 109, had any one ever vifited Paros ? If 
 Paufanias had travelled thither, and publifhed his de- 
 fcription of the place, we might perhaps expeft to 
 find fome mention of this marble in fo curious and in- 
 quifitive a writer. But though the infcription exifted, 
 and were famous at Paros, tliere feems no neceffity for 
 any of the authors whofe works are ftill extant to have 
 known or recorded it. If there be, let this learned 
 antagonift point out the place where this mention 
 ought to have been made. If any perfons were bound 
 by a ftronger obligation than others to fpeak of the 
 Parian infcription, they muft be the profeifed chrono- 
 logers : but alas ! we have not the entire works of fo 
 much as a fingle ancient chronologer : it is therefore 
 impoifible to determine whether this Chronicle were 
 quoted by any ancient. And fuppofing it had hten 
 feen by fome ancient, whofe writings ftill remain, why 
 fhould he make particular mention of it Many au- 
 thors, as we know from their remains, very freely co- 
 pied their predeceflbrs without naming them. Others, 
 finding only a coUeftion of bare events in the infcrip- 
 tion, without hiftoricjrl proofs or reafons, might entire- 
 ly ncgleft it, as deferving no credit. Mr R. feems to 
 lay much ftrefs on the preclfe, exact, and particulir 
 
 fpe^- 
 
 Chroniclcr 
 
C II R 
 
 t?hronu-le. fpecificnticn of the events, p. 109. 
 
 v^-"- refiecl, that this abrupt and pofitive method of fpeak- 
 ing is not only ufual, but neceffavy, in fuch fhoit fy- 
 Items of chronology as the marble contains, where e- 
 vents only, and their dates, are fet down, unaccompa- 
 nied by any examination of evidences for and againft, 
 without ftating any computaLion of probabihties, or 
 deduftion of reafons. When therefore a chronological 
 writer had undertaken to reduce the general hiftory of 
 Greece into a regular and confiftent fyitem, admitting 
 that he was acquainted with this infcription, what 
 grounds have we to believe that he would fay any 
 thing about it ? Either his fyftem coincided with the 
 Chronicle or not : if it coincided, he would very pro- 
 bably difdain to prop his own opinions with the un- 
 fupported aflertions of another m.an, v/ho, as far as he 
 knew, was not better informed than himfelf. On the 
 other hand, if he differed from the authority of the 
 marb'e, he might think it a fupcrfluous exertion of 
 complaifance, to refute, by formal demonftration, a 
 writer who had chofen to give no reafons for his own 
 opinion. We fliall pafs hence to 
 
 GbjedionVIL With refpeft to the parachronifms 
 that Mr R. produces, we fliall without helitation grant, 
 that the author of the infcription may have committed 
 fome miftakes in his chronology, as perhaps concern- 
 ing Phldon, whom he feems to have confounded with 
 another of the fame name, &c. But thefe miftakes 
 will not conclude againft the antiquity of the infcrip- 
 tion, unlefs we at the fame time rejeft many of the 
 principal Greek and Roman writers, who have been 
 convifttd of fimilar errors. Vv'^e return therefore to 
 
 Obje6lion VI. Some of the fafls fecm to have been taken . 
 from authors of a later date. We have endeavoured im- 
 partially to examine and compare the paffages quoted 
 in proof of this objeftlon ; but we are obHged to con- 
 fefs, thatwe do not perceiv£ the falnteft traces jof theft 
 or imitation. One example only deferves to be ex- 
 cepted ; to wiilch we (hall therefore pay particular at- 
 tention. 
 
 " Th,e names of fix ; and, if the lacuns are proper- 
 ly fupplicd, the names of twelve cities, appear to have 
 been engraved on the marble, exaftly as we find them 
 in j5!,llan's Various Hiftory. But there is not any 
 imaginable reafon for this particular arrangement. It 
 does not correfpond with the time of their foundation, 
 w ith their fituatlon In Ionia, with their relative impor- 
 tance, or with the order in which they are placed by 
 , other eminent liiftorians." 
 
 The chance of fix names, fays Mr R. being placed 
 by two authors in the fame order, is as i to 720 ; of 
 12, as I to 479,oci,6oo. " It is therefore utterly 
 improbable that thefe nctmes would have been placed 
 in this order on the marble, if the author of the in- 
 fcription had not tranfcribed them fi-om the hifto- 
 xiun." 
 
 On this argument we fiiall obfcrve, i. That the 
 very contrary conclufion might poffibly be juft, that 
 the hlftorlan tranfcribed from the infcription. Yet we 
 fliall grant that in the prefent cafe tliis is Improbable, 
 efpecially if the author of the Various HIitory be the 
 fame -(Elian, who, according to Philoftratus, Vit. So- 
 phift. IT. 31. never quitted Italy in his hfe. But an 
 intermediate writer might have copied the marble, and 
 ^^llan miglit have been indebted to him. zdlv, Wt 
 
 N= 79. 
 
 [ 744 ] C H R 
 
 But he ought to fee no reafon to allow, that the lacuna are properly CKronicle, 
 fupplled. Suppofe we Ihould afiert, that the names v 
 ftood originally thus : Miletus, Ephefus, Erythra;, 
 Clazcraenae, Lebedos, Chios, Phocjea, Colophon, Myus, 
 Priene, Samos, Teos In this arrangemeat, only four 
 names would be together in the fame order with 
 -^llan ; and from thefe Miletus muft be excepted, be- 
 caufe there is an obvious reafon for mentioning that 
 city firft. Three only will then i-emain ; and furely 
 that is too flight a refemblance to be conftrued^ into an 
 imitation. For Paufanias and Paterculus, quoted by 
 our author, p. 154, have both cnum.erated the fame 
 twelve cities, and both agree in placing- the five laft in 
 the fame order ; nay, the fix laft, if Voffias's conjefture 
 that TEUM ought to be inferted in Paterculus after 
 Myimi TEM be as true as it is plaufible. But who 
 im.agines that Paufanias had either opportunity or in- 
 clination to copy Paterculus \ 3dly, Allowing that the 
 names were engraved on the marble exadlly in the or- 
 der that i^lian has chofen, is there no way of folving 
 the phenomenon but by fuppofing that one borrowed 
 from the other? Seven authors at leaft (Mr R. feems 
 to fay more, p. 154, 5.) mention the colonization of 
 the fame cities : how many authors now loft may we 
 reafonably conjetlure to have done the fame? If there- 
 fore the compofcr of the Chronicle and jElian light- 
 ed on the fame author, the former would probably 
 preferve the fame arrangement that he found, becaufe 
 in tranfcribing-a lift of names, he could have no temp- 
 tation to deviate ; and the latter would certainly ad- 
 here faithfully to his original, becaufe he is a notori- 
 ous and fervlle plagiarift. Mr R. indeed thinks, 
 p. 158, that if a fucceeding writer had borrowed the 
 words of the Infcription, he would not have fuppreffed 
 the name of the author. This opinion muft fall to the 
 ground, if it be flrown that ^llan was accuftomed to 
 fupprefs the names of the authors to whom he was 
 obhged. ^!ian has given a lift of fourteen celebra- 
 ted gluttons ; and, elfewhere, another of twenty-eight 
 drunkards (from which, by the way, it appears, that 
 people were apt to eat and drink rather too freely in 
 ancient as well as modern times) ; and both thefe hfts 
 contain exactly the fame names in the fame order 
 with Athcneiis. Now it Is obfervable, that four- 
 teen nam.es may be tranfpofed 87,178,291,200 dif- 
 ferent ways, and that twenty-eight names admit of 
 304,808,344,611,713,860,501,504,000,000 different 
 tranfpofitions. &c. &c. ih.lian therefore tranfcribed 
 them from Athenelis ? yet TElIan never mentions 
 Atheneiis in his Various Hiftory. So that whether 
 J!'lllan copied from the marble, or only drew from a 
 common fource, he might, and very probably would, 
 conceal his authority. 
 
 VI 11. The h'ljlory of the difcovery of the Marbles is 
 obfciire and uifntisfa^hry. 
 
 In p. 169, it is laid to be " related with fufpicious 
 circumfiances, and vvlthcut any of ihofeckar and une- 
 quivocal cviden .'cs which always difcrlminace truth from 
 faUlhood." The qiieftion then is finally decided. If the 
 infcription has not any of thofe evidences which truth 
 always pofleffts, and whicli falfehood aKvays wants, it is 
 moft certainly forged. The learned differlator feems 
 for a moment to have forgotten the modcft charafter 
 of a doubter, and to perfonate the dogmatift. But 
 waving this, we fhall add, that, as far as we can fee, 
 
 no 
 
C H R 
 
 ; ^ronick, no appearance of fraud is difcoverable in any part of 
 ' — the tranfaftion. The hiftory of many infcriptions is 
 related in a manner equally unfatisfa£tory ; and if it 
 could be clearly proved that the marble was dug up at 
 Paros, what would be cafier for a critic, who is deter- 
 mined at any rate to object, than to fay, that it was 
 buried there in order to be, afterward dug up i If the 
 perfon who brought this treafure to light had been 
 charged on the fpot with forging it, or concurring in 
 the forgery, and had then refufed to produce the ex- 
 ternal evidences of its authenticity, we fhould have a 
 right to queftion, or perhaps to deny, that it was ge- 
 nuine. But no fuch objedtion having been made or 
 hinted, at the original time of its difcovery, it is un- 
 reafonable to require fuch teftimony as it is now im- 
 poffible to obtain. " There is nothing faid of it in 
 Sir T. Roe's negotiations." What is the inference ? 
 That Sir Thomas knew nothing of it, or beheved it to 
 be fpurious, or forged it, or was privy to the forgery ? 
 Surely nothing of this kind can be pretended. But let 
 our author account for the circumftance if he can. 
 To us it feems of no confequence on either fide. 
 *' Peirefc made no effort to recover this precious relic ; 
 and from his compcfare he feems to have entertained 
 feme fecret fufpicions of its authenticity." Pierefc 
 would have had no chance of recovering it after it was 
 in the pofleffion of Lord Arundel's agents. He was 
 either a real or a pretended patron of letters ; and it be- 
 came him to affeft to be pleafed that the infcription 
 had come into England, and was illuftrated by his 
 learned friend Selden. John F. Gronovius had, with 
 great_ labour and expence, collated Anna Comnena's 
 Alcxiades, and intended to publilh them. While he 
 was waiting for fome other collations, they were in- 
 tercepted, and the work was publifhed by another. As 
 foon as Gronovius heaixl this unpleafant news, he an- 
 fwered, that learned men were engaged in a common 
 caufe ; that if one prevented another in any publica- 
 tion, he ought rather to be thanked for lightening the 
 burden, than blamed for interfering. But who would 
 conclude from this anfwer, that Gronovius thought the 
 Alexiades fpurious, or not worthy of any regard ? 
 
 Mr R. calculates, that the venders of the marble re- 
 ceived 200 pieces. But here again we are left in the 
 dark, unlefs we knew the precife value of thefe pieces. 
 Perhaps they might be equal to an hundred of our 
 pounds, perhaps only to fifty. Befides, as they at firft 
 bargained with Samfon, Pierefc's fuppofed Jew agent, 
 for fifty pieces only, they could not have forged the 
 infcription with the clear profpeft of receiving more; 
 neither does it appear that they were paid by Samfon. 
 It is fully as reafonable to fuppofe fraud on the one 
 fide as on the other ; and if Samfon, after having the 
 marble in his poffefiion, refufed or delayed to pay the 
 fum ftipulated, he might, in confequence of fiich refu- 
 fal or delay, be thrown into prifon, and might, in re- 
 venge, damage the marble before the owners could re- 
 cover it. We own this account of ours to be a ro- 
 mance ; but it is lawful to combat romance with ro- 
 mance. 
 
 IX. T/je werld has been frequently impofed upon by fpu- 
 rious booh and infcriptions; and therefore ive JJjould be ex- 
 tremely cautious ivith regard to ivhat %ue receive under the 
 •venerable name of antiquity. 
 Vol. IV. Pan U. 
 
 [ 745 1 
 
 C H R 
 
 Much truth isobfervable in this remark. But the C!u-onic!s. 
 
 danger lies in applying fuch general apophthegms to ^""^ 
 
 particular cafes. In the firft place, it muft be obfer- 
 ved, that no forged books will exadlly fuit Mr R.'s 
 purpofe,_ but fuch as pretend to be the author's own 
 hand-writing ; nor any infcriptions, but fuch as are 
 ftill extant on the original materials, or fuch as were 
 known to be extant at the time of their pretended dif- 
 covery. Let the argument be bounded by thefe H- 
 mits, and the number of forgeries will be very much 
 reduced. We are not in poffeflSon of Cyriacus Anco- 
 nitanus's book ; but if we were governed by authority, 
 we ftiould think that the teftimony of Reinefius in his 
 favour greatly overbalances , all that Auguftinus has faid 
 to his prc-judice. The optnion of Reinefius Is of the 
 more weight, becaufe he fufpefts Urfinus of publifti- 
 ing counterfeit monuments. We likewife find the moll 
 eminent critics of the prefent age quoting Cyriacus 
 without fufpicion(;«rW. Ruhnken. inTimxILex. Plat, 
 p. 10. apud Koen, ad Gregor. p. 140.) The doftrine 
 advanced in the citation from Hardouin is exaftly 
 conformable to that writer's ufual paradoxes. He 
 wanted to deftroy the credit of all the Greek and La- 
 tin writers. But infcriptions hung like a mdlftone 
 about the neck of his projeft. He therefore refolved 
 to make fure work, and to deny the genuinenefs of as 
 many as he faw convenient : to effedl which purpofe, 
 he intrenches himfelf in a general accufation. If the 
 author of the dilFertation had quoted a few more pa- 
 ragraphs from Hardouin, in which he endeavours, af- 
 ter his manner, to fliow the forgery of fome infcrip- 
 tions, he would at once have adminittered the poifon 
 and the antidote. But to the reveries of that learned 
 madman, refpefting Greek fuppofititious compofitions 
 of this nature, we fiiall content ourfdves with oppofing 
 the fentiments of a modern critic, whofe judgment oa 
 the fubjeft of fpurious infcriptions will not be difpu- 
 ted. Maffei, in the introdu6lion to the third book, 
 c. I. p. 51. of his admirable, though unfiniflied, work 
 de Arte Critica Lapidaria, ufes thefe words : Infcriptio- 
 tium Grace hquentium commentitias,Ji cum Latinis compa- 
 remusj deprehendi paucas ; neque enini uHum ottmino ejl, in 
 tanfa delacchantiiim filfariorum libidiney monumenti genus, 
 ill quod iijihi minus licere putaverint, Argumento efi, pau- 
 cijfimas ufque in banc diem ab eruditis viris, et in hoc litera- 
 rum genere plurimum verfatis rejedas eje, faljlque dam- 
 natas. 
 
 Booh of Chronicles^ a canonical writing of the 
 Old Teftameut. It is uncertain which were written 
 firft. The Booh of Kings, or The Chronicles, fince they 
 each refer to the other. However it be, the latter 
 is often more full and comprehenfive than the former. 
 Whence the Greek interpreters call thefe two books 
 napaxK^o^Eva, Supplements, Additions, becaufe they con- 
 tain fome circumftances which are omitted in the o- 
 ther hiftorical books. The Jews make but one book 
 of the Chronicles, under the title of Qihre-Haiamim, 
 i. e. Journals or Annals. Ezra is generally believed 
 to be the author of thefe books^. It is certain they 
 were written after the end of the Babylonifti capti- 
 vity and the firft year of the reign of Cyrus, of whom 
 mention is made in the laft chapter of the fecond 
 book. 
 
 The Chronicles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridge- 
 5 ^ raent 
 
C H R 
 
 [ 746 ] 
 
 C H R 
 
 Cbronlcl©^, ment of all the facredliiftory, from the beginning of 
 Chrono- ^.j^^ Jewifh nation to their firft return from the capti- 
 
 ^ ^^P: vlty, taken out of thofe books of the Bible which we 
 ftili have, and out of other annals which the author 
 had then by him. The defign of the writer was to 
 give the Jevys a feries of their hiftory. The firft book 
 relates to the life and propagation of the people of 
 Ifrael from Adam, and gives a punctual and exad ac- 
 count of the reign of JDavid. The fecond book fets 
 
 down the progrcfs and end of the kingdom of Judah, 
 to the very year of their return from the Babylon ilh 
 captivity. 
 
 CHRONOGHAM, a fpecies of falfe wit, confift- 
 ing in tlii;?, that a certain date or epocha is exprelTed 
 by numeral letters of one or more verfes ; fuch is th at 
 which makes the m,otto of a medal ftruck by Goila- 
 vus Adolphus in 1632 : 
 
 ChrlftVs DVXj ergo trlVMphVs- 
 
 CHRO NOLOGY, 
 
 How di- 
 
 Clironolo- 
 ^ un- 
 knswn to 
 the an- 
 cicBts. 
 
 lnaccur?.te 
 methods ef 
 computing 
 time at firft 
 made ufe 
 of. 
 
 TREATS of time, the method of mcafuring its parts, 
 and adapting thefe, when diftinguifhed by proper 
 marks and charafters, to paft tranfa£lions, for the il- 
 kiftratlon of hiftory. This fcience therefore confifts 
 of two parts. The firft treats of the proper meafure- 
 ment of time, and the adjuftment of its feveral divi- 
 fions ; the fecond, of fixing the dates of the various 
 events recorded in hiftory, and i-anging them, accord- 
 ing to the feveral divifions of time, in the order In 
 which they happened. 
 
 Chronology, comparatively fpeaking, is but of mo- 
 dern date. The ancient poets appear to have been en- 
 tirely unacquainted with it ; and Homer, the moft ce- 
 lebrated of them all, mentions nothmg like a formal 
 kalendar In any part of his writings. In the moft 
 early periods, the only meafurement of time wM by 
 the feafons, the revolutions of the fun and moon ; and 
 many ages muft have elapfed before the mode of com- 
 putation by dating events came Into general ufe. Se- 
 veral centuries intervened between the era of the Olym- 
 pic games and the firft hiftorians; and feveral more 
 between thefe and the firft authors of chronology. 
 When time firft began to be reckoned, we find its 
 meafures very Indeterminate. The fucceffion of Juno's 
 priefteftes at Argos ferved Hellanleus for the regula- 
 tion of his narrative ; while Ephorus reckoned his 
 matters by generations. Even in the hiftories of He- 
 roddtus and Thucydldes, we find no regular dates for 
 the events recorded ; nor was there any attempt to 
 cftablifh a fixed era, until the time of Ptolemy Phlla- 
 delphus, who attempted it by comparing and correft- 
 ing the dates of the olympiads, the kings of Sparta, 
 and the fucceftion of the prieftefles of Juno at Ai gos. 
 Eratofthenes and Apollodorus digefted the events re- 
 corded by them according to the fucceffion of the 
 elympiads and of the Spartan kings. 
 
 The uncertainty of the meafures of time In the moft 
 early periods renders the hiftories of thofe times equal- 
 ly uncertain ; and even after the invention of dates 
 and eras, we find the ancient hiftorians very Inatten- 
 tive to them, and Inaccurate in their computations. 
 Frequently their eras and years were reckoned dif- 
 ferently withoat their being fenfible of It, or at leaft 
 ■without giving the reader any information concerning 
 it 5 a circumftanee which has rendered the fragments 
 ©f their works now remaining of veiy little ufe to po- 
 fterity. The Chaldean and Egyptian writers are ge- 
 nerally acknowledged to be fabulous ; and Strabo ac- 
 ijuamts us, that Diodarus Siculus,: and the other early 
 
 hiftorians of Greece, were ill informed and credulous. Ancient hi 
 Hence the difagreement among the ancient hiftorians, ftcrbns not 
 and the extreme confufion knd contradiftton we meet to be ere, 
 with on comparing their works. HcUanlcus and"'^^ ' 
 Acufilaus difagreed about their genealogies ; the lat» 
 ter rejetled the traditions of Hefiod. Timaeus ac- 
 cufed Ephorus of falfehood„ and tl>c reft of the world 
 accufed Tlmseus. The moft fabulous legends were 
 impofcd on the world by Herodotus ; and even Thu- 
 cydldes and Diadorus, generally accounted able hifto- 
 rians, have been convi£l:ed of error. The chronology 
 of the Latins Is ftili more uncertain. The records of 
 the Romans were deftroyed by the Gauls ; and Fablus 
 PIftor, the moft ancient of their hiftorians, was obliged 
 to borrow the greateft part of his information from the 
 Greeks. In other European nations the chronology is 
 ftili more imperfeft and of a later date ; and even in mo- 
 dern times, a confiderable degree of confufion and Inac- 
 curacy has arifen from want of attention in the hiftorians 
 to afcertain the dates and epochs with precifion. ^ 
 
 From thefe obfervations it Is obvious how neceflary a Ufilky of 
 proper fy ftem of chronology muft be for the right under- clironology 
 ftandlngof hittory,andlikewIfe how verydifficult it muft^'^^'f^J;^'''^- 
 be to eftablifti fuch a fyftem. In this, however, feveral 
 learned men have excelled, particularly Julius Afrlca- 
 nus, Eufablus of Cosfarea, George Cyncelle, John of 
 Antioch, Dennis, Petau, Cluviar, Calvifius, Uflier, 
 Simfon Marftiam, Blair, and Playfalr. It Is founded, 
 
 1. On aftronomlcal obfervations, particularly of the 
 eclipfes of the fun and moon, combined with the cal- 
 culations of the eras and years of different nations. 
 
 2. The teftlmonies of credible authors. 3. Thofe 
 epochs in hijlory which are fo well attefted and deter- 
 mined, that they have never been controverted. 4. An- 
 cient medals, coins, monuments, and infcriptlons. None 
 of thefe, however, can be fiifiiclently intelligible with- 
 out an explanation of the firft part, which, we have 
 already obferved, confiders the divifions of time, and 
 
 of which therefore we fliall treat in the firft place. (j 
 
 The moft obvious divifion of time is derived from Of the-dU 
 the apparent revolutions of the celeftial bodies, parti- v'f|-o". 
 cularly of the fun, which by the viciffitudes of day and j^^^ *" 
 night becomes evident to the moft barbarous and ig- 
 norant nations. In ftrlft propriety of fpeech the word 
 day fignifies only that portion of time during which' 
 the fun diffufes light on any part of the earth ; but In. 
 the moft comprehenfible fenfe, it includes the night al- 
 fo, and is called by chronologers a civil day ; by aftro- 
 nomers z..natura\ a ad fonietimes artificial, A^^y. 
 
 By 
 
C H R 0 N 
 
 7 By a civil day is meant the interval betwnxt the 
 
 Civil, fclar,fyjj»g departure from any given point in the heavens 
 defined^* and next return to the fame, with as much more as 
 anfwers to its diurnal motion eallward, which is at the 
 rate of 59 minutes and 8 feconds of a degree, or 
 3 minutes and 57 feconds of time. It* is alfo call- 
 ed a folar day, and is longer than a fJerccd one, info- 
 much that, if the former be divided into 24 equal parts 
 or hours, the latter will confift only of 23 hours 56 
 minutes. The apparent inequality of the fun's mo- 
 tlon, likevvife, arifing from the obliquity of the ecHp- 
 tlc, produces another inequality In the length of the 
 , ; days: and hence the difference betwixt real and ap- 
 
 f parent time, fo that the apparent motion of the fun 
 
 cannot always be a true meafure of duration. Thofe 
 inequalities, however, are capable of being reduced to 
 a general llandard, which furnifhes an exaft meafure 
 throughout the year ; whence arifes the difference be- 
 tween mean and apparent time, as is explained under 
 J the article Astronomy. 
 DifFerent There l>ave been very confiderable differences among 
 ■ways of nations with regard to the beginning and ending of 
 *^^'^^k"'-"'^ their days. The beginning of the day was counted 
 ning ofThe ffoi" funrlfe by the Babylonians, Syrians, Perfiarts, 
 day. and Indians. The civil day of the Jews was begun from 
 
 funrlfe, and their facred one from funfet ; the latter 
 mode of computation being followed by the Athe- 
 nians, Arabs, ancient Gauls, and other European na- 
 tions. According to fome, the Egyptians began their 
 day at funfet, while others are of opinion that they 
 computed from noon or from funrlfe ; and Pliny in- 
 forms us that they computed their civil day from one 
 midnight to another. It is prsbable, however, that 
 they had different modes of computation in different 
 provinces or cities. The Aufonians, the moil ancient 
 inhabitants of Italy, computed the day from mid- 
 night ; and the aftronomers of Cathay and Oighur In 
 the Eaft Indies reckoned In the fiime manner. This 
 mode of compulation was adopted by HIpparchus, 
 Copernicus, and other aftronomers, and is now In com- 
 mon ufe among ourfelves. The ajironomical day, how- 
 ever, as it is called, on account of its being ufed in 
 aflronomical calculations, commences at noon, and 
 ends at the fame time the following day. The 
 Mahometans reckon from one twilight to another. In 
 Strange It^ly, the civil day commences at fome Indeterminate 
 method of point after funfet ; whence the time of noon varies with 
 computa- the feafon of the year. At the fummer folftice, the 
 ^ clock ftrikes 16 at noon, and 19 at the time of the 
 
 winter folftice. Thus alfo the length of each day dif- 
 fers by feveral minutes from that Immediately preceding 
 or following it. This variation requires a confiderable 
 difficulty In adjufting their time by clocks. It Is accom- 
 pllflied, however, by a fudden movement which cor- 
 refts the difference when It amounts to a quarter of an 
 hour ; and this it does fometlmes at the end of eight 
 days, fometimes at the end of 15, and fometimes at the 
 end of 40. Information of all this is given by a print- 
 ed kalendar, which announces, that from the 1 6th of 
 February, for inftance, to the 24th, it will be noon at 
 a quarter paft 18 ; from the 24th of February to the 
 6th of Match, it will be noon at iS o'clock precifely ; 
 from the firft of June to the 1 3th of July, the hour of 
 poon will be at 16 o'clock ; on the 13th of July it 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 747 
 
 tion in 
 Italy- 
 
 will be at half an hour after 16 ; and fo on throttgKout 
 the dilierent months of the year. This abfurd method 
 of meafuring the day continues, notwithflanding feve- 
 ral attempts to fupprefs it, throughout the whole of 
 Italy, a few provinces only excepted. 10 
 The fubdivifions of the day have not been lefs varl- '^''ar'P'f' 
 ous than tlie computations of the day Itfelf. The moft ^f^^j^e daj? 
 obvious divlfion, and which could at no time, nor in 
 no age, be miftaken, was that of morning and evening. 
 In procefs of time the two intermediate points of noon 
 and midnight were determined ; and this divifion In- 
 to quarters was in ufe long before the invention of 
 hours. 
 
 From this fubdivifion probably arofe the method 
 ufed by the Jews and Romans of dividing the day and 
 niglit Into four vigils or watches. The firft began at 
 fun-rifing, or fix in the morning ; the fecond at nine ; 
 the third at twelve ; and the fourth at three in the after- 
 noon. In hke manner the night was divided into four 
 parts; the firft beginning at fix in the evening, the 
 fecond at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourth at 
 three in the morning* The firft of thefe divlfions 
 was called by the Jews the third hour of the day ; the 
 fecond the/i//^; the third the nlnih ; and the fourth 
 the twelfth, and fometimes the eleventh. Another di- 
 vlfion in ufe, not only among the nations above men- 
 tioned, but the Greeks alfo, was thiit which reckon- 
 ed the firft quarter from funfet to midnight ; the fe- 
 cond from midnight to funrlfe ; the third, or morn- 
 nlng watch, fr,om morning to noon ; and the fourth from 
 noon to funfet. it 
 
 It Is uncertain at what time the more minute fub- Invsncioa 
 divifion of the day into hours firft commenced. It 
 does not appear from the writings of Mofes that he " '^^'^ ^ ' 
 was acquainted with It, as he mentions only the morn- 
 ing, mid-day, evening, and funfet. Hence we may 
 conclude, that the Egpytians at that time knew no- 
 thing of it, as Mofes was well lldlled In their learning. 
 According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the 
 knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the 
 Babylonians. It Is probable, however, that the divi- 
 fion was aftually known and in ufe before the name 
 hour was apphed to it ; as Cenforlnus informs us that 
 the term was not made ufe of In Rome for 300 years 
 after Its foundation ; nor was It known at the time 
 the twelve tables were conftrufted. 
 
 The eaftern nations divide the day and night in a 
 very fmgular manner; the origin of which is not eafily 
 difcovered. The Chlnefe have five watches In the night, 
 which are announced by a certain number of ftrokes 
 on a bell or drum. They begin by giving one ftroke, 
 which Is anfwered by another ; and this is repeated at 
 the diftance of a minute or two, until the fecond watch 
 begin, which is announced by two ftrokes ; and fo oa 
 throughout the reft of the watches. By the ancient 
 Tartars, Indians, and Perfians, the day was divided into 
 eight parts, each of which contained feven hours and 
 a half. The Indians on the coaft of Malabar divide Method of 
 the day into fix parts, called najda; each of thefe fixcomputa- 
 parts Is fubdivided into 60 others, called venaigas; t^^*^ ^'°"f^°"f 
 venalga into 60 birpes ; the birpe into 10 kenikans } -^^^^^i^^^^^ 
 the kenlkan into four mattires ; the mattire Into eight 
 kannimas or caigmdes ; which divifions, according to 
 our mode of computation, ftand as follows. 
 
 5 B 2 Najika, 
 
748 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 >3 
 
 DIvifions 
 of the hour 
 into mi- 
 nutes, &c. 
 
 14 
 
 Methods of 
 announcing 
 the hours. 
 
 15 
 
 Invention 
 of inftru- 
 ment$ for 
 this pur- 
 jefc. 
 
 * See Chji- 
 fydra. 
 
 Najika, Venaiga, Birpe, Kenikan, Mattire, Caignode. 
 24min. 24 fee. 4 fee. |-fec. xa-fec. ■^-Q^^'tc. 
 
 The day of the Chinefe is begun at midnight, and 
 ends with the midnight following. It is divided into 
 twelve hours, each dillinguilhed by a particular name 
 and figure. They alfo divide the natural day into 
 ICQ parts, aiid each of thefe into 100 minutes; fo 
 that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the nor- 
 thern parts of Europe, where only two "feafons^ are 
 reckoned in the yetir, the divifions of the day and night 
 are coniidcrably larger than with us. In Iceland the 
 24 hours are divided into eight parts ; the firrt of 
 which commences at three in the morning; the fe- 
 eond at five ; the third at half an hour after eight; the 
 fourth at eleven ; the fifth at three in the afternoon ; tlije 
 fixth at fix in the evening; the feventh at eight, and 
 the laft at midnight. In the eallern part of Turkeilan, 
 the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each of 
 which is diftinguifhcd by the name gf fome animal. 
 Thefe are fubdivided into eight keh; fa that the whole 
 24 hours contain 96 keh. 
 
 The modern divifions of the hour in ufe among us 
 are into minutes, feconds, thirds, fourths, &c. each 
 being a fixtieth part of the former fubdivifion. By 
 the Chaldseans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is di- 
 vided into 1080 fcruples ; fo that one hour contaiiLs 
 60 minutes, and one minute, 18 fcruples. The an- 
 cient Perfians and Arabs- were likewife acquainted 
 with this divifion; but the Jews are fo fond of it, that 
 they pretend to Imve received it in a fupernatural man- 
 ner. " IlTachar (fay they) afcended into heaven, and 
 brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the 
 nation." *» 
 
 The divifion of the day being afcertained, it foon 
 became an. obje£l to indicate in a public manner the 
 expiration of any particular hour or divifion ; as with- 
 out fome general knowledge of this kind, it would be 
 in a great meafure impoflible to carry on bufijiefs. 
 The methods of announcing this have been likewife 
 very diiferent. Among the Egyptians it was cufto- 
 mar}" for the priefts to proclaim the hours like watch- 
 men among us. The fame method was followed at 
 Rome ; nor was there any otlier method of knowing 
 the hours xmtil the year 293 B. C. when Papirius 
 Curfor firft fct up a fun-dial in tlie Capitol. A fimi- 
 lar method is praclifed among the Turks, whofe priefts 
 proclaim from the top of their mofques, the cock- 
 crowing, day-break, mid-day, three o'clock in the af- 
 ternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of 
 worfhip. 
 
 As this mode of proclaiming the hour could not but 
 be very inconvenient, as well as imperfeft, the introduc- 
 tion of an inftrument which every one could have in 
 his pofTeffion, and which might anfwer the fame pur- 
 pofe, mull have been confidered as a valuable acquifi- 
 tion. One of the firft of thefe was the clepfydra or 
 water clock*. Various kinds of thefe were in ufe 
 among the Egyptians at a very early period. The ii> 
 vention of the inftrument is attributed to. Thoth or 
 Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctefibius 
 of Alexandria. It was a common meafure of time 
 among the decks, Indians, and Chaldasans, as well- as 
 the Egyptians, but was not introduced into Rome till 
 the time of Scipio Nafica. The Chinefe aftronomers 
 
 have long made ufe of it ; and by its mean? divided 
 the zodiac into twelves parts ; but it is a very inac- 
 curate meafure of time, varying, not only according to 
 the quantity of water in the veflel, but according to 
 the ftate of the atmofphere. 
 
 The clepfydra was fucceeded by the gnomon or 
 fun-dial. — This, at firft, was no more than a ftile e- 
 rc£led perpendicularly to the horizon; and it was a 
 long time before the principles of it came to be tho- 
 roughly uiiderftood. Tlie invention is with great 
 probability attributed to the Biibylojiians, from whom 
 the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when 
 we know tlwt a fun-dial was already erected at Jeru- 
 laleni. Tlie Chinefe and Egyptians alfo were ac- 
 quainted with the ufe of the dial at a very early pe- 
 riod, and it was confiderably improved by Anaxinian- 
 der or Anaximenes ; one of whom is for that reafon 
 looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of 
 dials, however, were invented and made ufe of in dif- 
 ferent nations long before their introduclion at Rome. 
 The firft ei'ected in that city, as has been already men- 
 tioned, vv'as that by Papirius Curfor; and 30 years 
 after, Valerius Miflala brought one from Sicily, 
 which was. ufed in Ronae for no lefa than 9^9 years,, 
 though conftrufted for a Sicilian latitude, and con-- 
 fequently incapable of fhowing the houi-s exaftly in 
 any other place ; but at laft another was conftrudled' 
 by L. Fhilippus, capable of meafuiing time with great- 
 er accuracy.. 
 
 It was long after the invention of dials before man^- 
 kind began to form any idea of clocks ; nor is it wellr 
 known at what period they were firft invented. A 
 clock was fent by Pope Paul L to Pepin king of 
 France, which at that time was fuppofed to be the 
 only one in the world. A very curious one was alfo 
 fent to Charles the Great from the khalif Plaroun Al- 
 rafchid, which the hiftorians of the time fpeak of with 
 furprife and admiration : but the greateit improvement 
 was that of Mr Huygens, who added the pendulum to 
 It. Still, however, the inftruments for dividing time 
 were found to be inaccurate for nice purpofcs. The 
 expanfion of the materials by heat, and their con_- 
 traftion by cold, would cauie a very pci-ceptible al- 
 teration in the going of an inftrument iii the fame 
 place at different times of the year, and much more 
 if carried from one climate to another. Various me- 
 thods have been contrived to corrcft tliis ; which i-j- 
 deed can be done very effe(2tually at land by a certaiii 
 conftruftion of the pendulum ; but at fea, where a pen- 
 dulum, cannot be ufed, the inaccuracy Is of confe- 
 quence much greater t nor was it thought poflible to 
 correct the errors arifing from thefe caufes in any to- 
 lerable degree, until the late invention of Mr Har- 
 rifon's time-piece, which may be confidered as making 
 perhaps as near an approach to perfeclion as poflible. 
 
 Having thus given an account of the more minute 
 divifions of time, with the methods of meafuring 
 them, we mult now proceed to the larger; which more 
 properly belong to chronology, and which muft be 
 kept on record, as no inftrument can be made to j, 
 point them out. Of thefe the divifion into weeks of g.f weeks, 
 feven days is one of the moft ancient, and probably 
 took place from the creation of the world. Sojue, 
 indeed, are of opinion, that the' week was iiivcated 
 
 fome 
 
C H R O N 
 
 fbme time after for the more convenient notation of 
 ■ time ; but whatever may be in this, we are certain 
 that it is of the higheft antiquity, and even the mod 
 rude and barbarous nations have made ufe of it. It is 
 fingular. indeed that the Greeks, notwithftanding their 
 learning, fliould have been ignorant of this divifion ; 
 and M. Goguet informs us, that they were ahnoit the 
 only nation who were fo. By them the month of 30 
 days was divided into three times 10, and the days of 
 it named accordingly. Thus the 15th day of the 
 month was called the fccond ffth, or fifth of the fe- 
 cond tenth ; the 24th was called the third fourth, or 
 the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was 
 in ufe in the days of Hefiod, and it was not until fe- 
 veral ages had elapfed, that the ufe of weeks was re- 
 ceived into Greece from the Egyptians. The inha- 
 bitants of Cathay, in the northern part of China, were 
 likewife unacquainted with the week of feven days, 
 but divided the year into fix parts of 60 days each. 
 They had alfe a cycle of 1 5 days, which they ufed 
 as a week. The week was likewife unknown to the 
 ancient Perfians and to the Mexicans ; the former 
 having a different name for every day of the month, 
 and the latter making fife of a cycle of 13 days. By 
 almoft all other nations the week of feven days was 
 1 5 adopted. 
 
 Ofhoiidays.^ It is remarkable, that one day in the week has al- 
 ways been accounted as facred by every nation. Thus 
 Saturday was confecrated to pious purpofes among 
 the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuefday by the Afri- 
 cans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Chriftians. 
 Hence alfo the origin of Feria or holidays, frequent- 
 ly made ufe of in Syftems of Chronology ; and which 
 arofe from the following citcvmiftance. In the church 
 of Rome the old ecclcfiaftical year began with Eafter- 
 ■w eek ; all the days of which were called Ferla or Fe- 
 r/rt/i, that is, holy, or facred days ; and in procefs of 
 time the days of other weeks came to be dillinguifli- 
 ed by the fame appellation^ for the two following rea- 
 fons, I. Becaufe every day ought to be holy in the 
 eftimation of a ChriiUan. 2. Becaufe all days are holy 
 A to ecclefiaftics, whofe time ought to be entirely de- 
 
 voted to religious worfhip. — The term iveek is fome- 
 times ufed to fignify feven years,, not only in the pro- 
 phetical writings, but likewife by profane authors ; 
 thus Varro, in his book infcribed Hebdomades, informs 
 us, that he had then entered the 12th week of bis 
 J -J years. 
 
 0F months. The next divifion of time fuperior to weeks, is that 
 of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval 
 with the creation, at leaft in ufe before the flood. As 
 this divifion is naturally pointed out by the revolution 
 of the moon, the months of all nations were origi- 
 nally lunar ; mitil after fome confidarable advances 
 had been made in fcience, the revolutions of that lu- 
 minary were compared with the fun, and thus the li- 
 mits of the month fixed with greater accuracy. The 
 divifion of the year into 12 months, as being found- 
 ed on the number of full revolutions of the moon in 
 that time, has alfo been very general; though Sir John 
 Chardin informs us, that the Perfians divided the year 
 into 24 months; and the Mexicans into 18 months of 
 20 days each. The months generally contained 30 
 days, or 29 and 30 days alternately ; though this rule 
 was far from being without exception. The months 
 
 O L O G Y. 749 
 
 of the Latins confiiled of 16, 18, 22, or 36 days; 
 and Romulus gave his people a year of 10 months 
 and 304 days. The Kamtfchadales divide the year 
 into 10 months; reckoning the time, proper for la- 
 bour to be nine months, and the winter feafon, when 
 they are obliged to remain inaftive, only as one 
 month. 
 
 It has been ?. very ancient cuflom to give names to- 
 the different months of the year, though this appears 
 to have been more modern than the departure of the 
 Ifraelites out o-f Egypt, as they would otherwife un- 
 doubtedly have carried it with them ; but for a con- 
 fideiable time after their fettlement in Canaan, they 
 diftinguifhed the months only by the names of firit, 
 fecond, ^c. After their return from the Babylo- 
 nifh captivity, they adopted the names given to the 
 months by the Chaldaeans. Other nations adopted 
 various names, and arranged the months themfelves ac- 
 cording to their fancy. From this lafl circumilance 
 arifes the variety in the dates of the months ; for as 
 the year has been reckoned from different figns in the 
 eclipticj neither the number nor the quantity of months 
 have been the fame, and their fituation has likewife 
 been altered by the intercalations neceffary to be 
 made. 
 
 Thefe intercalations became neceffary on account 
 of the excefs of the folar above the lunar year ; and 
 the months compofed of intercalary days are like- 
 wife called embol'ifmal. Thefe embolifnial months are 
 cither natural or civU. By the former, the folar and 
 lunar years are adjufted to one another ; and the lat- 
 ter arifes from the defedt of the- civil year itfelf. The 
 ador of the Jews, which always conllils of 30 days, is 
 an example of the natural embolifmal month. 
 
 The Romans had a method of dividing their months 
 into kalends, nones, and ides. The firft was derived 
 from an old word calo, " to call"; becaufe,. at every new 
 moon, one of the lower clafs of priefts affembled the 
 people, and called over, or announced, as many days as. 
 intervened betwixt that and the nones, in order to no- 
 tify the difference of times and the return of feftivals. 
 The 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th of March, May, 
 July, and 0(itober, were the riones of thefe months ; 
 hnt in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th 
 days only. Thus the 5th of January was its nones 
 tlie 4th was pr'idie tioiiartnn; the third, tertio imiarum. 
 Sec. The ides contained eight days' in every month, 
 and were nine days diltant from, the nonts. Thus the 
 15th day of the four months already mentioned was 
 the ides of them ; but in the others the 13th was ac- 
 counted as fuch ; the 1 2th was pridie iduuniy and the 
 iix\.\ ttrtio iduum. The ides were fucceeded by the 
 kalends ; the 14th of January, for iuftance, being the 
 19th kalend of February; the 15th was the i8th ka- 
 lend;, and fo on till the 3 ill of January, which was 
 prid'ic lialcndarum ;. and February I ft was the kalends. r8 
 
 Among the European nations the month is either Aftrononri- 
 aflronomical or civiL The former are meafured by '^^^^^ j^*^'^^^ 
 the motion of the heavenly bodies ; the civil confifts of "^^"'^ 
 a certain number of days fpecified by the laws, or by 
 the civil inftitutions of any nation or fociety. The 
 aftronomical months, being for the moft part regulated 
 by the motions of the fun and moon, are thus divided 
 into folar and lunar, of which the former is fomctlmts 
 alfo called mv7. The aftronomical four mcntl; ■ : : 
 
7S0 
 
 19 
 
 Of years. 
 
 C H R O N 
 
 time wliicK tae fun takes up in pafling through a fign 
 of the ecliptic. The lunar month is perio lical, fyno- 
 dical, llderenl, and civil. The fynodical lunar month 
 is the time that paffes between any conjunftion of the 
 moon with the fun and the conjunftlon following. It 
 includes the motion of the fun eallward during that 
 time; fo that a mean lunation confifts of 2gd. I2h. 
 44' 2'' 8931. The fidereal lunar month is the time 
 of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the 
 .fixed ftars. As the equinoftial points go backwards 
 about 4' in the fpace of a lunar month, the moon muft, 
 in confequence of this retroceflion, arrive at the equi- 
 nox fooner than at any fixed ftar, and confequently 
 the mean fidereal revolution muft be longer than the 
 mean pei'iodical one. The latter confills of 2 yd. yh. 
 43' 4' 6840. The civil lunar month is computed 
 from the moon, to anfwer the ordinary purpcfes of life ; 
 and as it would have been inconvenient, in the com- 
 putation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts 
 of days, they have been compofed of 30 days, or of 
 29 and 30 alternately, as the neareft round numbers. 
 When the month is reckoned from the firfl appearance 
 of the moon after her conjunftion, it is called the 
 month of illumination. The Arabs, Turks, and other 
 nations, who ufe the era of the Hegira, follow this 
 method of computation. As twelve lunar months, 
 however, are 1 1 days lefs than a folar year, Julius 
 Casfar ordained that the month iliould be reckoned 
 from the courfe of the fun, and not of the moon; and 
 that they fhould confift of 30 and 3 1 days alternately, 
 February only excepted, which was to confiil of 28 
 days commonly, and of 29 in leap-years. 
 
 The higheft natural divifion of time is into years. 
 At firft, however, it is probable that the courfe of the 
 fun through the ecliptic would not be obferved, but 
 that all nations would meafure their time by the revo- 
 lutions of the moon. We are certain, at leaft, that the 
 Egyptian year confifted originally of a fingle lunation ; 
 though at length it included two or three months, and 
 was determined by the ftated returns of the feafons. 
 As the eaftern nations, however, particularly the E- 
 gyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themfelves 
 in very early periods to aftronomy, they for.nd, by 
 comparing the motions of the fun and moon together, 
 that one revolution of the former included nearly 12 of 
 the latter. Hence a year of 12 lunatiorts was formed, 
 in every one of which were reckoned 30 days ; and 
 hence alfo the divifion of the ecliptic into 360 degrees. 
 The lunlfolar year, confifting of 360 days, was in ufe 
 long before any rcgula'r intercalations were made ; 
 and hiftorians inform us, that the year of all ancient 
 rations was lunifolar. Herodotus relates, that the 
 Egyptians firft divided the year into 1 2 parts by the 
 alfiitance of the ftars, and that every part confifted of 
 30 days. The Thebans correfted this year by adding 
 five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year 
 was alfo reformed by the Medes and Perfians ; and 
 fome of the Chinefe miflionaiies have informed us, 
 that the lunifolar year was alfo correcfted in China ; 
 and that the folar year was afcertained in that country 
 to very confiderable exaftnefs. The Latin year, before 
 Ntima's correftion of it, confifted of 360 days, of 
 which 304 -were divided into ten months ; to which 
 were added two private months not mentioned in the 
 kalendar. 
 
 6 L O G 
 
 The imperfe<Slion 
 
 Y. 
 
 of this 
 
 method of ctnMptttfirg^ 
 
 ra- Explana- 
 
 time is now vei*y evident. The lunifolar year was 
 about 5.^ days ftiorter than the true folar year, and as 
 much longer than the lunar. Hence the months could 
 not long correfpond with the feafone ; and even in {9 
 fhort a time as 34 years, the winter months would have 
 changed places with thofe of furamer. From this 
 pid variation, Mr Playfair takes notice that a paflage tion of a 
 in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceed- t'^ff^pe in 
 ingly puzzled, may receive a fatisfadtory folution, viz. 
 that " in tlie time of the ancient Egyptian kings, 
 the fun had twice arifen in the place where it had for- 
 merly fet, and twice fet where it had arifen." By 
 this he fuppofes it is meant, " that the beginning of 
 the year had twice gone through all the figns of the 
 ecliptic ; and that the fun had rif .*n and fet twice in 
 every day and month of the. year." This, which fome ' 
 have taken for a proof of moft extravagant antiquity, 
 he further obferves, might have happened in 138 years 
 only ; as in that period there would be a difference of 
 nearly two years between the folar and lunar year. 
 Such evident imperfeclions could not but produce a 
 reformation every where ; and accordingly we find 
 that there was no nation which did not adopt the me- 
 thod of adding a few intercalary days at certain inter- 
 vals. We are ignorant, however, of the perfon who 
 was' the firft inventor of this method. The Thebaa 
 priefts attributed the invention to Mercury or Thoth ; 
 and it is certain that they were acquainted w'th the 
 year of 365 days at a very early period. The length 
 of the folar year was reprefented by the celebrated 
 golden circle of Ofymandyas of 365 cubits circumfe- 
 rence ; and on every cubit of which was infcrlbed a 
 day of the year, together with the heliacal rifings and 
 fettings of the ftars. The monarch is fuppofed to 
 have reigned in the iith or 13th century before the 
 Chriftlan era. 
 
 The Egyptian folar year being almoft fix hours Great E- 
 ftiorter than the true one, this inaccuracy, in procefsgypt^an 
 of time, produced another revolution ; fome circum- ^^^^f'^^^ 
 ftances attending which ferve to fix the date of the dlf- ^y^i^ 
 covery of the length of the year, and which from the 
 above defcription of the golden circle, we may fuppofc 
 to have been made during the reign of Ofymandyas. 
 The inundation of the Nile was annually announced 
 by the heliacal rifing of Slrius, to which the reformere 
 of the kalendar adjufted the beginning of the year, fup- 
 pofing that it would remain immoveable In a num- 
 ber of years, however, it appeared that their fuppofi- 
 tions in this were ill-founded. By reafon of the ine- 
 quality above mentioned, the heliacal rifing of Slrius * 
 gradually advanced nearly at the rate of one day in 
 four years; fo that in 146 1 years it completed a revo- 
 lution, by arifnig on every fucceeding day of the year, 
 and returning to the point originally fixed for the be- 
 ginning of the year. This period, equal to 1460 
 Julian years, was termed the great Egyptian year, or at 
 canicular cycle. From the accoimts we have of the Of the 
 
 time that the canicular cycle was renewed, the time of when 
 ... •' , 11-1 I'' commea- 
 
 its origmal commencement may be gathered with to- 
 
 lerable certainty. This happened, according to Cen- 
 forinus, in the 138th year of the Chriftlan asra. Rec- 
 koning backward therefore from this time for 1460 
 years, we come to the year B. C. 1322, when the fun 
 was in Cancer, about 14 or 15 days after the fummer 
 
 folftice. 
 
C H R 0 N 
 
 folftice, which happened on July 5th. 1 he Egyptians 
 ufed no intercalation till the time of Auguftus, Avhen 
 the correded Julian year was received at Alexandria 
 ~ by his order ; but even this order was obeyed only by 
 the Greelcs and Romans who refided in that city; the 
 f^perilitious natives refufmg to make any addition to 
 the length of a year which had been fo long eftabUfhed 
 14 among them. 
 Uncu-tain- We are not informed at what preciie period the 
 ty of the true year was obferved to confiil of nearly fix hours 
 time when more' than the 365 days. Though the prieils of The- 
 fular'^e^ar '^^^^"^ ^'^^ difcovery, Herodotus makes 
 
 was chico" no mention of it ; neither did Thales, who introduced 
 vercd. the year of 365 days into Greece, ever ufe any intei-- 
 calation. Plato and Eudoxus are faid to have obtain- 
 ed it as a fecret from the Egyptians about 80 years 
 after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece ; 
 which fhowed, that the knowledge of this foraa of the 
 year was at that time recent, and only known to a few 
 13 learned men. 
 Years of 'pj^^ y^^y. ancient Jews was lunifolar ; and 
 
 the Jews, informed by tradition, that Abraham preferved 
 
 in his family, and tranfmitted to pofterity, the Chal- 
 dean foi-m of the year, confifting of 360 days: which 
 remained the fame without any correttion until the 
 date of the era of NabonafTar. The folar year was 
 adopted among them after their return from the Ba- 
 bylonifli captivity ; but when fubjefted to the fuccef- 
 fors of /ilexander in Syria, they were obliged to admit 
 the lunar year into their kalendar. In order to adjuft 
 this year to tlie courfe of the fun, they added at cer- 
 tain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned, 
 and called it Fe Adar. They compofed alfo a cycle 
 of 19 years, in feven of w^hich they inferted the inter-, 
 calary month. This correflion was intended to regu- 
 late the months in fuch a manner, as to bring the 15th 
 of Nifan to the equinottial point ; and likewife the 
 courfes of the feafons and feafts in fuch a manner, that 
 the corn might be ripe at the palfover as the law re- 
 quired. 
 
 We ftiall not take up the reader's time with any 
 further account of the years made ufe of by different na- 
 tions, all of which are refolved at lall into the luni- 
 folar ; it will be fufficient to mention the improve- 
 ments in the kalendar made by the two great reformers 
 Reforma- 0^ i''^» Julius Caefar, and Pope Gregory XIII. The 
 tion of the iavftitutioD of the Roman year by Romulus has been 
 kal.-ndar - already taken notice of; but as this was evidently very 
 cL"ia!'and i™P"r^'^'^> Numa, on. his advancement to the throne, 
 f)ope Gre- undertook to reform it. With a defign to make a 
 gory. complete lunar year of it, he added 50 days to the 
 304 of Romulus ; and from every one of his months, 
 which confifted of 31 and 30 days, he borrowed one 
 day. Of thefe additional days he compofed two 
 months ; calling the one January, and the other Fe- 
 bruary. Various other correftlons and adjuftments 
 were made ; but when Julius Casfar obtained the fove- 
 Teignty of Rome, he found that the months had con- 
 fiderably receded from the feafons to which Numa had 
 adjufted them. To bring them forward to their places, 
 he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days; which, 
 on account of its length, and the defign with which it 
 was fonned, has been called the year of confufion. It 
 terminated on the firft of January 45 B. C. and 
 from this period the civil year and montlis were re- 
 
 O L O G Y. jsi 
 
 gulated by the courfe of the fun. The year of Nu- 
 ma being ten days (hortcr than the folar year, two 
 days were added by Julius to every one of the months 
 of January, Auguft, and December ; and one to Aprilj 
 June, September, and November. He ordained like- 
 wife, that an intercalary day (hould be added every 
 fourth year to the month of February, by reckoning 
 the 24th day, or fixth of the kalends of March, twice 
 over. Hence this year was ftyled blffextik, and alio 
 leap year, from its leaping a day more than a com- 
 mon year. 
 
 The Julian year has been ufed by m.odei-n chronola- 
 gers, as being a meafure of time extremely fimplc and 
 luihciently accurate. It is ftill, however, fomewliat 
 imperfect ; for as tlie true folar year confifts of 365d. 
 5h. 48 454:', it appears that in 131 years after the 
 Julian correiStion, the fun muft have arrived one day 
 too foon at the equinoftial point. During Caefar's 
 reign the vernal equinox had been obferved by Sofige- 
 nes on the 25th of March ; but by the time of the 
 Nicene council it had gone backward to the 21ft. 
 The caufe of the error was not then known ; but in 
 1582, when the equinox happened on theiith of 
 March, it was thought proper to give the kalendar its 
 latl correftion. Pope Gregory XIII. having invited 
 to Rome a confiderable number of mathematicians and 
 allronomers, employed ten years in the examination of 
 their feveral formulas, and at laft gave the preference to 
 that of Aloha and Antoninus I^ehus, who were bro- 
 thers Ten days were now cat off in the month of 
 OAobcr, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the 
 15th. To prevent the feafons from receding in time 
 to come, he ordained that one day fiiould be added 
 evei-y fourth or biffextile year as before ; and that the 
 1600th year of the Chriftian era, and every fourth 
 century thereafter, fliould be a biifextile or leap year. 
 One day therefore is to be intercalated in the years 
 2000, 2400, 2800, &c. but in the other centuries, as 
 1700, 1800, 1900, 2 TOO, &c. it is to be fupprefled, 
 and thefe are to be reckoned as conamon years. Even 
 this correAion, however, is not abfolutely exaft ; but 
 the error mull be very inconhderable, and fcarce 
 amounting to a day and an half in 5000 years. 
 
 The commencement of the year has been deter- Com- 
 mijied by the date of fome memorable event or occur- mencement 
 rence, fuch as the creation of the world, the univerfal of y«ar. 
 deluge, a conjunftion of planets, the incarnation of 
 our Saviour, &c. and of courfe has been referred to 
 different points in the ecliptic. The Chald?ean ajid 
 the Egyptian years were dated from the autumnal 
 equinox. The ecclcfiailical year of the Jews began in 
 tlie fpring ; but, in civil affairs, they retained the epoch 
 of the Egyptian year. The ancient Chiaefe reckoned 
 from the new moon nearefl to the middle of Aquarius ; 
 but, according to fome recent accounts, the beginning 
 of their yeaa- was transferred (B. C. 1 740) to the new 
 moon neareft to the winter folftice. This likewife is 
 the date of the Japanefe year. Dierafchid, or Gem- 
 fchid, king of Perha, obferved, on the day of his pub- 
 lic entry into Perfepolis, that the fun entered into 
 Aries. In commemoration of this fortunate event and 
 coincidence, he ordained the beginning of the year to 
 be removed from the autumnal to the veinal equinox. 
 This epoch was denominated Neuruzy viz. nev/-day ; 
 and is ftill celebiated with great pomp and feftivity> 
 3 (S"ee 
 
CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 (See E POCHs). T)ie ancientj SwediHi year commen- 
 ced at the winter foUlIce, or rather at the time of the 
 fun's appearance in the horizon, after an abfence »f 
 about 40 days. The feaft of this epoch was folemnifed 
 on the 20th day after the foHlice. Some of the Gre- 
 cian ftates computed from the vernal, fome from the 
 autumnal equinox, and otliers from the fummer tropic. 
 The year of Romulus commenced in March, and that 
 of Numa in January. The Turks and Arabs date the 
 year from the 1 6th of July ; and the American In- 
 dians reckon from the firft appearance of the new 
 moon of the vernal equinox. The church of Rome 
 has fixed new-year's-day on the Sunday that corre- 
 fponds with the full moon of the fame feafon. The 
 Venetians, Florentines, and Pifans in Italy, and the 
 inhabitants of Treves in Germany, begin the year at 
 the vernal equinox. The ancient clergy reckoned 
 from the 25th of March ; and this method was ob- 
 ferved in Britain, until the introduftion of the new 
 ftyle (A. D. i 752) ; after which our year commenced 
 25 on the I ft day of January. 
 Of cycles. Befides thefe natural divifions of time arifing imme- 
 diately from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, 
 there are others formed from fome of the lefs obvious 
 confequences of thefe revolutions, which are called cy- 
 cksy from the Greek xtzx®-, a circle. The moll re- 
 markable of thefe are the following. 
 
 I. The cycle of the fun is a revolution of 28 years, in 
 which time the days of the months return again to the 
 fame days of the week ; the fun's place to the fame 
 figns and degrees of the ecliptic on the fame months 
 and days, fo as not to differ one degree in 100 
 years ; and the leap-years begin the fame courfe 
 over again with refped to the days of the week 
 47 on which the days of the months fall. The cycle of 
 Golden the moon, commonly called the golden number, is a re- 
 numter. volution of 19 years; in which time, the conjunctions, 
 oppofitions, and other afpefts of the moon, are within 
 an hour and half of being the fame as they were on the 
 fame days of the months 19 years before. The 
 diSlion is a revolution of 15 years, ufed only by the 
 Romans for indicating the times of certain payments 
 made by the fubjefts to the repubhc : It was ellablifhed 
 by Conftantine, A. D. 312. 
 To find the '^^^ Y^^'^ ^^'^ Saviour's birth, according to the 
 year of any vulgar era, was the 9th year of the folar cycle, the 
 cycle. firft year of the lunar cycle; and the 312th year after 
 his birth was the firft year of the Roman indiftion. 
 Therefore, to find the year of the folar cycle, add 9 to 
 any given year of Chrift, and divide the fum by 28, the 
 quotient is the number of cycles elapfed fince his birth, 
 and the remainder is the cycle for the given year : If 
 nothing remains, the cycle is 28. To find the lunar 
 cycle, add one to the given year of Chrift, and divide 
 the fum by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles 
 elapfed in the interval, and the remainder is the cycle 
 for the given year: If nothing remains, the cycle is 19. 
 Laftly, fubtraft 3J2 from the given year of Chrift, 
 and divide the remainder by 1 5 ; and what remains af- 
 ter this divifion is the indiftion for the given year : If 
 nothing remains, the indiftion is i^. 
 Variation of Although the above deficiency in the lunar circle of 
 the gfjlden an hour and an half every 19 years be but fmall, yet in 
 Slumbers. j^f^ , ^ 
 
 time it becomes fo fenfible as to make a whole natural 
 day in 310 years. So that, although this cycle be of 
 ufe, when tlie golden numbers are rightly plactrd againit 
 the days of the months in the kalendar, as in the Com- 
 mon Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean 
 conjunClions or oppofitions of the fun and moon, and 
 confequently the time of Eafter ; it will only ferve for 
 3 1 o years, old ftyle. For as the new and full moons 
 anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought 
 to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar for the next 
 3 1 o years to come. Thefe numbers were rightly placed 
 againft the days of new moon in the kalendar, by the 
 council of Nice, A. D. 325 ; but the anticipation, 
 which has been neglefted ever fince, is now grown ahnoft 
 into 5 days : And therefore all the golden numbers 
 ought now to be placed 5 days higher in the kalendar 
 for the old ftyle than they were at the time of the faid 
 council ; or 6 days lower for the new ftyle, becaufe at 
 prefent it differs 1 1 days from the old. -50 
 
 In the firft of the following tables the golden numbers To find the 
 under the months ftand againft the days of new moon in ^"^"^^^ 
 the left-hand column, for the new ftyle ; adapted chiefly ' 
 to the fecond year after leap-year, as being the neareft 
 mean for all the four ; and will ferve till the year 1 900. 
 Therefore, to find the day of new moon in any month 
 of a given year till that time, look for the golden num- 
 ber of that year under the defired month, and againft 
 it you have the day of new moon in the left hand co- 
 lumn. Thus, fuppofe it v.'-ere required to find the day 
 of new moon in September 1789; the golden number 
 for that year is 4, which I look for under December, 
 and right againft it in the left-hand column you will 
 find 17, which is the day of new moon in that month. 
 A''. B. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6, 
 were fet one day lower in the table, it would ferve from 
 the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year 
 2199. The table at the end of this fcftion fhows the 
 golden number for 4000 years after the birtli of Chrift, 
 by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at 
 the left-hand, and for the reft to make up that year at 
 the head of the table ; and where the columns meet, 
 you have the golden number (which is the fame both 
 in old and new ftyle) for the given year. Thus, fup- 
 pofe the golden number was wanted for the year 1789J 
 look for 1 700 at the left-hand of the table, and for 89 
 at the top of it j then guiding your eye downward 
 from 89 to over-againft 1 700, you will find 4, which is 
 the golden number for that year. 
 
 But becaufe the lunar cycle of 19 years fometimes 
 includes five leap-years, and at other times only four, 
 this table will fometimes vary a day from the truth in 
 leap-years after February, And it is impoflible to have 
 one more correct, unlefs we extend it to four times 19 
 or 76 years ; in which there ai-e 1 9 leap-years without 
 a remainder. But even then to have it of perpetual ufe, 
 it muft be adpated to the old ftyle ; becaufe, in every 
 centurial year not divifiblc by 4, the regular courfe of 
 leap-years is interrupted in the new ; as will be the 
 cafe in the year 1800. 
 
 2. The cycle of Eajler^ alfo called the Dtonyfian period., Dionyfiaa 
 is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying theP^^'^d, or 
 folar cycle 2 8 by the lunar cycle 1 9. If the new moons '^^'^^ 
 did not anticipate upon this cycle, Eafter-day would 
 
 always 
 
 1 
 
32 
 
 Dominical 
 letter. 
 
 C H R O N 
 
 always be the Sunt^ay next after the firft full moon 
 which follows the 2ift of March. But, on account of 
 the above anticipation, to which no proper regard was 
 had before the late alteration of the ftyle, the eccleiia- 
 ftic Eafter has feveral times been a week different from 
 the true Eafter within this laft century : which incon- 
 venience is now remedied by making the table, which 
 ufed to find Eafter for ever, in the Common Prayer 
 Book, of no longer ufe tlian the lunar difference from 
 the new ftyle vi'ill admit of. 
 
 The carlieft Eafter pofTible is the 22d of March, the 
 lateft the 25th of April. Within thefe limits are 55 
 days, and the number belonging to each of them is call- 
 ed the nmnler of dtreRlon; becaufe thereby the time of 
 Eafter is found for any given year. 
 
 The firft feven letters of the alphabet are commonly 
 placed in the annual almanacs, to ftiow on what days 
 of the week the days of the months fall throughout 
 the year. And becaufe one of thofe feven letters muft 
 neceffarily ftand agalnft Sunday, it is printed in a ca- 
 pital form, and called the dominical letter ; the other 
 fix being inferted in fmall chara£lers, to denote the 
 other fix days of the week. Now, fince a common Julian 
 year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by 7 
 (the number of days in a week) there will remain one 
 day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain the 
 year would conftantly begin on the fame day of the 
 week : but fince one remains, it is plain, that the year 
 muft begin and end on tl:ie fame day of the week ; and 
 therefore the next year will begin on the day following. 
 Hence, when January begins on Simday, A is the do- 
 minical or Sunday letter for that year : Then, becaufe 
 the next year begin? on Monday, the Sunday will fall 
 on the feventh day, to which is annexed the fcventh let- 
 ter G, which therefore will be the dominical letter far 
 all that year : and as the third year will begin on Tuef- 
 day, the Sunday will fall on the fixth day ; therefore F 
 will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is 
 evident, that the Sunday letters will go annually in a 
 retrograde order thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A. And, 
 in the courfe of feven years, if they were all common 
 ones, the fame days of the week and dominical letters 
 would return to the fanxe days of the months. But 
 becaufe there are 366 days in a leap-year, if this num- 
 ber be divided by 7, there will remain two days over 
 and above the 52 weeks of which the year confifts. 
 And therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it 
 will end on Monday ; and the next year will begin on 
 Tuefday, the firft Sunday whereof muft fall on the fixth 
 of January, to which is annexed the letter F, and not 
 G, as in common years. By this means, the leap-year- 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 returning every fourth year, the order of the dominical 
 letters is interrupted ; and the feries cannot return to 
 its firft ftate till after four times feven, or 28 years ; and 
 then the fame days of the months return in order to the 
 fame days of the week as before. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 75J 
 
 
 
 
 §^ 
 
 1 k 
 
 
 
 ^3? 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 pa 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 
 3 
 
 I I 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^7 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 ' 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 \ 6 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 b 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 8 
 
 
 I X 
 
 
 
 1 0 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 . c 
 
 J 
 
 I 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 19 
 
 1 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 c 
 J 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 ,i8 
 
 7 
 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 • 7 
 
 
 — 
 
 \6 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 
 *5 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 : 2 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 I c 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 ^5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 ^7 
 
 6 
 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 '4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 .3i| 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 Vot. IV. Part IT,. 
 
754 
 
 CHRON OLOGY. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 TA-BL^tJhoiving the Golden Number^ (•which is the fame both in the Old and Nlinu Stile), from 
 
 the Chri/iian Era^ to A. D. 4000. 
 
 Years lefs than an hundred. 
 
 Hundreds 
 of 
 Years. 
 
 o 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 
 500 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 900 
 
 1000 
 1 100 
 1200 
 1300 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 1600 
 1700 
 1800 
 
 1900 1 3800 
 2000 j 3900 
 2 1 00 j 4000 
 2200 &c. 
 2300 
 
 2400 
 2500 
 2600 
 2700 
 2800 
 
 2900 
 3000 
 3100 
 3200 
 
 3300 
 
 3400 
 3500 
 3600 
 3700 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 13 
 
 '4 
 
 »5 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 I24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 5° 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 C7 
 
 J / 
 
 c8 
 
 CO 
 
 Jy 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 7' 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 7? 
 
 / J 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 8g 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 ITT 
 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 =. 
 
 ■— 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 = 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 »5 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 '5 
 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 I ? 
 
 I A 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 1 9 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 »3 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 '5 
 
 i6 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 T 0 
 
 ^9 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 < 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 Q 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 / 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 «3 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 '7 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 •9 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 •5 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 '3 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 >7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 3 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 •4 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 •3 
 
 '4 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 !6 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 '9 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Julian^ pc From the multiplication of the folar cycle of 28 
 riod, years into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman 
 indiftion of 15 years, arifes the great Julian period, 
 confifting of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764 
 years before Strauchius's fuppofed year of the creation 
 (for no later could all the three cycles begin together), 
 and it is not yet completed : And therefore it includes 
 all other cycles, 'periods, and eras. There is but one 
 year in the whole period that has the fame numbers for 
 the three cycles of which it is made up : And there- 
 fore, if hiftorians had remarked in their writings the 
 cycles of each year, there had been no difpute about 
 34 Che time of any aftion Recorded by them. 
 To find the The Dionyfian or vulgar era of Chrift's birth was 
 year of the about the end of the year of the Julian period 4713 ; 
 Juhan pe- confequently the firft year of his age, according to 
 ' that account, was the 4714th year of the faid period. 
 Therefore, if to the current year of Chrift we add 
 
 4713, the fum will be the year of the Julian period. 
 So the year 1789 will be found to be the 6502d year 
 of that period. Or, to lind the year of the Julian pe- 
 riod anfwering to any given year before the firft year 
 of Chrift, fubtraft the number of that given year from 
 
 4714, and the remainder will be the year of the JuHan 
 period. Thus, the year 585 before the firft year of 
 Chrift (which was the 584th before his birth) was the 
 4129th year of tl^e faid period. Laftly, to find the 
 
 cycles of the fun, moon, and indidlion for any given 
 year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19, 
 and 15; the three remainders will be the cycles fought, 
 and the quotients the numbers of cycles run fince the 
 beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year 
 of the Julian period, the cycle of the fun was 10, the 
 cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of indiftion 4 ; 
 the folar cycle having run through 1 68 courfes, the 
 lunar 248, aitd the indiftion 314. 
 
 The vulgar era of Chrift's birth was never fettled Year^of ' 
 till the year 527, when Dionyfius Exiguus, a Roman Chria's 
 abbot, fixed it to the end of the 47 1 3th year of the ^lirth whc« 
 Julian period, which was four years too late ; for our^"'^^*^* 
 Saviour was born before the death af Herod, who 
 fought to kill him as foon as he heard of his birth. 
 And, according to the teftimony of Jofephus (^. xvii. 
 ch. 8.), there was an eclipfe of the moon in the time 
 of Herod's laft illnefs ; which eclipfe appears by our 
 aftronomical tables to have been in the year of tlie Ju- 
 lian period 4710, March 13th, at 3 hours paft mid 
 night, at Jerufalem. Now, as our Saviour muft have 
 been born fome months before Herod's death, fince in 
 the interval he was carried into Egypt, the lateft time 
 in which we can fix the true sera of his birth is about 
 the end of the 4709th year of the Julian period. 36 
 
 As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from Era? or E« 
 which aftronomers begin their computations, fo there P^*^^*--! 
 
 » are 
 
CHRON OL OG 
 
 are certain points of time from which hiftorians begin 
 to reckon ; and thefe points or roots of time are called 
 eras or epochs. The moft remarkable eras are, thofe 
 of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building 
 ot Rome, the era of Nabonaflar, the death of Alex- 
 ander, the birth of Chrift, the Arabian Hegira, and 
 the Perfian Jefdegird : All which, together with fe- 
 veral others of lefs note, have their beginnings fixed 
 by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, 
 to the age of the world at thofe times, and to the years 
 before and after the year of Chrift's birth. 
 
 Hiftoric Having thus treated, as fully as our limits will ad- 
 chronology, jnit, of the various divifions of time, we muft now con- 
 fider the fecond part of chronology, to'z. that which 
 more immediately relates to hiftory, and which has 
 already been obferved to have the four following foun- 
 dations : I. Aftronomical obfervations, particular- 
 ly of eclipfes. 2. The teftimonies of credible au- 
 thors. 3. Epochs in hiftory univerfally allowed to be 
 true. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and in- 
 fcriptlons. We fhall confider thefe four principal 
 parts in the order they here ftand. 
 
 755 
 
 38 
 
 I. 
 
 ©f^the'^n' ^^^^ great reafon that the eclipfes of the fun 
 
 and moon. ^"^ moon, and the afpefts of the other planets, have 
 been called public and celeftial charafters of the times, 
 as their calculations afford chronologers infallible proofs 
 of the precife epochs in which a great number of the 
 moft fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So that 
 in chronological matters we cannot make any great 
 progrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe of aftronomic 
 tables, and the calculation of eclipfes. The ancients 
 regarded the latter as prognoftics of the fall of em- 
 pires, of the lofs of battles, of the death of monarchs, 
 l^c. And it is to this fupcrftition, to this wretched 
 ignorance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that 
 hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number of 
 them. The moft able chronologers have collefted 
 them with ftill greater labour. Calvifuis, for example, 
 founds his chronology on 144 eclipfes of the fun, and 
 127 of the moon, that he fays he had calculated. The 
 grand conjundlion of the two fuperior planets, Saturn 
 and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once 
 in 800 years in the fame point of the zodiac, and which 
 has happened only eight times fince the creation (the 
 laft time in the month of December 1603), may alfo 
 furnifli chronology with inconteftable proofs. The 
 fame may be faid of the tranfit of Venus over the fun, 
 which has been obferved in our days, and all the other 
 uncommon pofitions of the planets. But among thefe 
 celeftial and natural charafters of times, there are alfo 
 fome that are named c'lml or artlficialy and which, 
 neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic calculation. 
 
 Such are the folar and lunar cycles ; the Roman 
 indiftion ; the feaft of Eafter ; the biffextile year ; the 
 jubilees ; the fabbatic years ; the combats and Olym- 
 pic games of the Greeks ; and hegira of the Maho- 
 metans, l^c And to thefe may be added the periods, 
 eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient 
 and vcodern. We ftiall only remark on this occafion, 
 that Liie period or era of the Jews commences with 
 the creation of the world ; that of the ancient Romana 
 
 with the foundation of the city of Rome ; that of the 
 Greeks at the eftabhftiment of the Olympic games ; 
 that of Nebuchadnezzar, with the advancement of 
 the firft king of Babylon to the throne ; the Yezde- 
 gerdic years, with the laft king of the Perfian s of 
 that name ; the hegira of the Turks with the flight 
 of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, iifc. The year 
 of the birth of Chrift was the 4713th year of the 
 Julian period, according to the common method of 
 reckoning. Aftronomical chronology teaches us to 
 calculate the precife year of the JuHan period in which 
 each of thefe epochs happened. 
 
 The teftlmony of authors is the fecond principal ^^'^^^ '^^j' 
 part of hiftoric chronology. Though no man what- authors, 
 ever has*' a right to pretend to infallibility, or to 
 be regarded as a facred oracle, it would, however, 
 be making a very unjiift judgment of mankind, to 
 treat them all as dupes or impoftors; and it would be 
 an Injury oftered to public integrity, were we to doubt 
 the veracity of authors univerfally efteemed, and of 
 fadls that are in themfeives right worthy of belief. It 
 would be even a kind of infatuation to doubt that 
 there have been fuch cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome, 
 Carthage, &c. or that Xerxes reigned in Pcrfia, and 
 Auguftus in Rome : whether Hannibal ever wasin Italy ; 
 or that the emperor Conftantine built Conftantino- 
 ple, i^c. The unanimous teftimony of the moft re- 
 fpeftable hiftorians will not admit any doubt of thefe 
 matters. When an hiftorian is allowed to be com- 
 pletely able to judge of an event, and to have no in- 
 tent of deceiving by his relation, his teftimony. is irre- 
 cufable. But to avoid the danger of adopting error 
 for truth, and to be fatisfied of a faft that appears 
 doubtful in hiftory, we may make ufe of the four fol- 
 lowing rules, as they are founded in reafon; 
 
 I . We ought to pay a particular regard' to the 
 teftimonies of thofe who wrote at the fame time the 
 events happened, and' that have not been contradifted 
 by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who 
 can doubt, for example, of the truth of the fails re- 
 lated by admiral Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage 
 round the world ? The admiral faw all the fails there 
 mentioned with his own eyes, and publiftied his book 
 when two hundred companions of his voyage were 
 ftill living in London, and could have contradifteC 
 him immediately, if he had given any falfe or exag- 
 gerated relations. 
 
 2. After the cotemporary authors, we fhould give 
 more credit to thofe who lived near the time the events- 
 happened, than thofe who lived at a diftance. 
 
 3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related by 
 authors that are but little known, can have no weight if 
 they are at variance with reafon, or eftabliftied tradition. 
 
 4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory that is re- 
 lated by modern authors,, when they do not agree a- 
 mong themfeives in feveral cireumftances, nor with 
 ancient hiftorians, who are to be regarded as original 
 fourccs. We ftiould efpecially doubt the truth of thofe 
 brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleafure by fuch 
 as never knew the perfons they are intended for, and" 
 even rnade feveral centuries after their deceafe. 
 
 The moft pure and moft fruitful fource of ancient 
 5^2 liiftorjt 
 
CHRONOLO GY. 
 
 40 
 
 Epochs. 
 
 liiflory IS doubtlefs to be found in the Holy Bible. Let 
 lis here for a monxent ceafe to regard it as divine, and 
 let us prefume to confider it as a common hiftory. 
 Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the 
 Old Teftament, and confider them foraetimes as au- 
 thors, fometimes as ocular witnelfes^ and fometimes 
 as refpeftable hiftorians; whether we refleft on the 
 fimplicity of the narration, and the air of truth that 
 is there canftantly vifible ; or, M'hen we confider the 
 care that the people, the governments, and the 
 learned men of all ages, have taken to preferve the 
 true text of the Bible ; or that we have regard to the 
 happy conformity of the chronology of the holy fcrip- 
 tures with that of profane hiftory : or, if we obferve 
 the admirable harmony that is between thefe books 
 and the moft refpeftable hiftorians, as Jofephus and 
 others : and laftly, when we confider that the books 
 of the holy fcripture furnifti us alone with an accurate 
 liiftory of the world from the creation, through the 
 line of patriarchs, judges, kings, and princes of the 
 Hebrews ; and that we inay, by its aid, form an al- 
 moft entire feries of events down to the birth of 
 Chrift, or the time of Auguftus, which comprehends a 
 fpace of about 4000 years, fome fmall interruptions 
 excepted, and which are eafily fupplied by profane 
 liiftory : when all thefe refleflions are juftly made, 
 we muft conftantly allow that the fcriptures form 
 a book which merits the firft rank among all the 
 fources of ancient hiftory. It has been obje£ied, that 
 this book contains contradiftions ; but the moft able 
 interpreters have reconciled thefe feeming contradic- 
 tions. It has been faid, that the chronology of the 
 Hebrew text and the Vulgate do not agree with the 
 chronology of the verfion of the Septuagint ; but the 
 foundeft critics have (hown that they may be made to 
 agree. It has been obferved, moreover, that the 
 fcriptures abound with miracles and prodigies ; but 
 they are miracles that have really happened : and 
 what ancient ' iftory is there that is not filled with 
 miracles, and other marvellous events? And do we for 
 that rejetl their authority ? Cannot the true God be 
 fuppofed to have performed thofe miracles which 
 Pagan hiftonans have attributed to their falfe divini- 
 ties ? Muft' we pay no regard to the writings of 
 Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabulous re- 
 lations ? 
 
 III. 
 
 Thb epochs form the third principal part of chro- 
 nology. Thefe are thofe fixed points in hiftory that 
 have never been contefted, and of which there can, 
 in fa6t, be no doubt. Chronologers fix on the events 
 that are to ferve as epochs, in a manner quite arbi- 
 trary ; but this is of little confequence, provided the 
 dates of thefe epochs agree, and that there is no con- 
 tradidtion in the fafts themfelves. When we come 
 to treat exprefsly on hiftory, we fliall mention, in our 
 progrefs, all the principal epochs. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Medals,&c. Medals, monuments, and infcriptions, form the 
 fouith and laft principal part of chronology. It is 
 fcarce more than 150 years fince clofe application has 
 been made to the ftudy of thefe ; and we owe to the 
 icclcbrated SpanJaeim the grcateft obligations, for the 
 
 progrefs that is made in this method : his excel- 
 lent work, De prajlantia et ufu numifmatim anti- 
 quorum, has fliown the great advantages of it ; and 
 it is evident that thefe monuments are the moft au- 
 thentic witnelfes that can be produced. It is by the 
 aid of m.edals that M. Vaillant has compofed his judi- 
 cious hiftory of the kings of Syria, from the time of 
 Alexander the Great to that of Pompey : they have 
 been, moreover, of the greateft fervice in elucidating 
 all ancient hiftory, efpecially that of the Romans ; and 
 even fometimes that of the middle age. Their ufe is 
 more fidly fpoken of in the article Medals, What 
 we here fay of medals, is to be underftood equally, in 
 its f(dl force, of ancient infcriptions, and of all other 
 authentic monuments that have come down to us. 
 
 Every reader, endowed with a juft difcernment, 
 will readily allow that thefe four parts of chronolog\'' 
 afford clear hghts, and are excellent guides to con- 
 duft us through the thick darknefs of antiquity. That 
 impartiality, however, which direds us to' give a 
 faithful relation of that which is true and falfe, of the 
 certainty and uncertainty of all the fciences, obliges 
 us here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not in- 
 fallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical 
 demonftrations. In fa£t, with regard to hiftory in 
 general, and ancient hiftory in particular, fomething 
 muft be always left to conje£ture and hiftoric faith. It 
 would be an offence againft common probity, were 
 we to fuffer ourfelves to pafs over in filence thofe 
 objeftions which authors of the greateft reputation 
 have made againft the certainty of chronology. We 
 ftiall extraft them from their own works ; and we 
 hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, or pub- 
 lic profeffor in Europe, who would be mean enough 
 to accufe us of a crime, for not unworthily difguifing 
 the truth. 
 
 I . The prodigious difference there is between the 
 Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chrono- 
 logy, occafions an embarraffment, which is the more 
 difficult to avoid, as we cannot pofitively fay on whiclt 
 fide the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for ex- 
 ample, from the creation of the world to the birth of 
 Abraham, 1 500 years more than the Hebrew and La- 
 tin Bibles, ^c. 2. How difficult is it to afcertain the 
 years of the judges of the Jewiffi nation, in the Bible I 
 What darknefs is fpread over the fucceflion of the 
 kings of Judah and Ifrael l The calculation of time is 
 there fo inaccurate, that the fcripture never marks if 
 they are current or complete years. For we cannot 
 fuppofe that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived ex- 
 aftly 60, 90, 100, or 969 years, without any odd 
 months or days. 3. The different names that the 
 Affyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks, have gi- 
 ven to the fame prince, have contributed not a little 
 to embarrafs all ancient chronology. Three or four 
 princes have borne the name of Alfuerus, though they 
 had alfo other names. If we did not know tliat Na- 
 bucodonofor, Nabucodrofor, and Nabucolaffar, were 
 the fame name, or the name of the fame man, we 
 ffiould fcarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib ; 
 Ozias is Azarias ; isedecias is Mathanias ; Joachas is 
 alfo called Sellum ; Afaraddon, which is pronounced 
 indifferently Efarhaddon and Afarhaddon, is called 
 Afenaphar by the Cuthasans ; and by an oddity of which 
 we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is called 
 5 by 
 
C H R O N 
 
 by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There remain 
 to us but few monuments of the firft monarchs of the 
 world. ^Numberlefs books have been loft, and thofe 
 ■which have come down to us are mutilated or altered 
 by tranfcribers. Tiie Greeks began to write very 
 late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, was of a credu- 
 lous difpofition, and believed all' the fables that were 
 related by the Egyptian priefts. The Greeks were 
 in general vain, partial, and held no nation in efteem 
 but their own. The Romans were ftill more infatu- 
 ated with notions of their own merit and grandeur: 
 their hiftorians were altogether as unjuft as was their 
 fenate, toward other nations that were frequently far 
 more refpedable. 5. The eras, the years, the periods 
 and epochs, were not the fame in each nation ; and 
 they, moreover, began at different feafons of the year. 
 All this has thrown fo much obfcurity over chronolo- 
 gy, that it appears to be beyond all human capacity 
 totally to difperfe it. 
 
 Chriftianity itfelf had fublifted near 1200 yearis, 
 before they knew precifely how many years had 
 paffed lince the biith of our Saviour. They faw 
 clearly that the vulgar era was dcfeftive, but it was 
 a long time before they could comprehend that it re- 
 quired four whole years to make up the true period. 
 Abbe Denis the Little, who in the year 532 was 
 the firft among the Chriftians to form the era of that 
 grand epoch, and to count the years from that time, 
 in order to make their chronology altogether Chri- 
 llian, erred in his calculation, and led all Europe into 
 his error. They count 132 contrary opinions of diffe- 
 rent authors concerning the year in which the Meffiah 
 appeared on the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of 
 them, and all celebrated writers. Among all thefe 
 authors, however, there is none that reckon more 
 than 7000, nor lefs than 3700 years. But even this 
 difference is enormous. I'he moft moderate fix the 
 birth of Chrift in the 4000th year of the world. Tiie 
 reafons, however, on which they found their opinion, 
 uppear to be fufficiently arbitrary. 
 
 Be thefe matters, however, as they may, the 
 witdom of Providence has fo difpofed all things, 
 that there remain fufficient lights to enable us nearly 
 to conneft the feries of events : for in the firft 3000 
 yeais of the world, where profane hiftory is defec- 
 tive, we have the chronology of the Bible to diredl 
 us ; and after that period, where we find more obfcu- 
 rity in the chronology of the holy fcriptures, we have, 
 on the other hand, greater lights from profane au- 
 thors. It is at this period that begins the time which 
 Varro calls hlfloric : as, fince the time of the Olym- 
 piads, the truth of fuch events as have happened 
 fliines clear in hiftory. Chronology, therefore, draws 
 its principal lights from hiftory; and, in return, ferves 
 it as a guide. Referring the reader, therefore, to 
 the article History, and the C^(7r/ thereto annexed, 
 we fhall conclude the prefent article with 
 
 jCuROT^OLOGicALTABL-EcfRcmarf.'able Events, 
 Difcoveries, and InventionSyfrom the Creation to 
 the Tear 1783. 
 
 Bef. Chrift. 
 
 4008 The creation of the world, and Adam and Eve. 
 4007 The birth of Cain, the firll who was born of a 
 woman. 
 
 0 L O Cx Y. 75 
 
 3017 Enoch, for his piety, is ti-anflated to heaven. Before 
 
 2352 The old world is deftroyed by a deluge which thrift, 
 continued 377 days. * 
 
 2247 The tower of Babel is built about this time by 
 Noah's pofterity, upon which God miraculoufly 
 confounds their language, and thus difperfe* 
 them into different nations. 
 
 2207 About this time, Noah is, with great probability, 
 fuppofed to have parted from his rebellious 
 offspring, and to have led a colony of fame of 
 the more tradable into the eaft, and there either 
 he or one of his fucceffors to have founded the 
 ancient Chinefe monarchy. 
 
 2234 The celeftial obfervations are begun at Babylon, 
 the city which firft gave birth to learning and 
 the fciences. 
 
 2188 Mifraim, the fon of Ham, founds the kingdom 
 of Egypt, which lafted 1663 years, down td 
 the conqueft of Cambyfes, in 525 before Chrift. 
 
 2059 Ninus, the fon of Belus, founds the kingdom of 
 Affyria, which lafted above lobo years, and 
 out of its ruins were formed the Affyrians of 
 Babylon, thofe of Nineveh, and the kingdom 
 of the Medes. 
 
 1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when 
 he leaves Haran to go into Canaan, which be- 
 gins the 430 years of fojourning. 
 
 1961 The cities of Sodom and Gomorraare deftroyed 
 for their wickednefs by fire from heaven. 
 
 1856 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins un- 
 der Inachus. 
 
 1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters. 
 
 1 7 1 5 Prometheus firft llruck fire from flints. 
 
 1635 Jofeph dies in Egypt. 
 
 1574 Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God 
 
 firft liigh-prieft of the Ifraelites.' 
 157 1 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and 
 
 adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, who educates 
 
 him in all the learning of the Egyptians. 
 1556 Cecrops brings a colony of Sai'tes from Egypt 
 
 into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens 
 
 in Greece. 
 
 1555 Mofes performs a numbet- of miracles in Egypt, 
 and departs from that kingdom, together with 
 600,000 Ifraelites, befides children, which com- 
 pleted the 430 years of fojourning. They mi- 
 raculoufly pafs through the Red Sea, and 
 come to the defart of Sinai, w^here Mofes re- 
 ceives from God, and delivers to the people, 
 the Ten Commandments, and the other laws, 
 and fets up the tabernacle, and in it the ark of 
 the covenant. 
 
 1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and 
 begins the kingdom of Troy. 
 
 1515 The Ifraelites, after fojourning in the Wilder- 
 nefs forty years, are led under Jofhua into the 
 land of Canaan, where they fix themfelves, 
 'after having fubdued the natives ; and the pe- 
 riod of the fabbati<:al year commences. 
 
 1503 The deluge of Deucalion. 
 
 4496 The council of Amp hiftyons eftablifhed at Ther- 
 mopylae. 
 
 1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece, 
 
 and built the citadel of Thebes. 
 1490 Sparta built by Lacedemon. 
 
 1485 
 
75^ 
 
 Before lAgr 
 Chrift. ^ ^ 
 
 1480 
 1452 
 
 1406 
 
 1344 
 1326 
 
 1325 
 1307 
 
 1300 
 
 1294 
 
 1264 
 
 1252 
 
 1243 
 
 1233 
 1225 
 1204 
 
 1 176 
 1 152 
 1130 
 1 124 
 
 1104 
 
 1 102 
 
 1070 
 105 1 
 1044 
 1008 
 996 
 
 986 
 979 
 974 
 
 9" 
 894 
 
 873 
 869 
 864 
 
 821 
 
 814 
 801 
 
 799 
 786 
 
 779 
 776 
 760 
 
 758 
 754 
 753 
 
 C H R O N 0 
 
 The firft fhip that appeared in Greece was 
 brought from Egypt by Danaua, who arrived 
 at Rhodes, and brought with him hie fifty 
 daughters. 
 
 Troy built by Dardanus. 
 
 The Pentateuch, or five firft books of Mofes, 
 are written in the land of Moab, where he died 
 the year following, aged no. 
 
 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental 
 burning of the woods. 
 
 The kingdom of Mycenae begins. 
 
 The Illhmian games inllituted at Corinth. 
 
 The Egyptian canicular year began July 20th. 
 
 The Olympic games inftituted by Pelops. 
 
 The Lupercalia inftituted. 
 
 The firii colony came from Italy into Sicily. 
 
 The fecond colony came from Italy into Sicily. 
 
 Tne city of Tyre built. 
 
 A colony of Arcadians condufted by Evander 
 
 into Italy. 
 Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 
 The Argonautic expedition. 
 The rape of Helen by Paris, which gave rife to 
 
 the Trojan war, ending with the deftrufltion of 
 
 the city in 1 184. 
 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer. 
 Afcanius builds Alba Longa. 
 The kingdom of Sicyon ended. 
 Thebes built by the Boeotians. 
 The mariner's compafs known in China.- 
 The expedition of the Heraclidae into Pelopon- 
 
 nefus ; the migration of the Dorians thither ; 
 
 and the end of the kingdom of Mycenas. 
 The kingdom of Sparta commenced. 
 The kingdom of Athens ended. 
 David befieged and took Jerufalem.. 
 Migration of the Ionian colonies. 
 The Temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon. 
 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Red Sea to 
 
 fend to Ophir. 
 Samos and Utica in Africa built. 
 The kingdom of Ifrael divided. 
 Jerufalem taken and plundered by Shifhak king 
 
 of Egypt. 
 The prophet Elijah flouriflied. 
 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos. 
 Olympic games reftored by Iphitus and Ly- 
 
 Curgus. 
 
 The art of fculpture in marble found out. \ 
 
 Scales and meafures invented by Phidon.. 
 
 The city of Carthage, in Africa, enlarged by 
 queen Dido. 
 
 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. 
 
 The kingdom of Macedon begias. 
 
 The city of Capua in Campania built.- 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia began. 
 
 The ftiips called Triremes invented by the Co- 
 rinthians. 
 
 The race of kings in Corinth, ended-. 
 
 The era of the Olympiads began. 
 
 The Ephori eftabhfhed at Sparta. 
 
 Syracufe built by Archias of Corinth. 
 
 The government of Athens changed. 
 
 Era of the building of Rome in Italy by Ro- 
 mulus, firft king of the Romans. 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 747 The era of Nabonaffar commenced on the 26th Before 
 of February ; the firft day of Thoth. , Chi ift. ^ 
 
 746 The governraent of Corinth changed into a re- ' 
 public. 
 
 743 fifft war between the Meflenians and Spar- 
 tans. 
 
 724 Mycenae reduced by the Spartans. 
 723 A colony of the MelFcnians fettled at Rhegium 
 in Italy. 
 
 720 Samaria taken, after three years fiege, and the 
 kingdom of Ifrael finiflied by Salmanazer king 
 of Aflyria, who carries the ten tribes into cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 The firft eclipfe of the moon on record. 
 7 1 3 Gela in Sicily buik. 
 
 703 Corcyra, now Corfu, founder of the Corin- 
 thians. 
 
 702 Ecbatan in Media built by Deioces. 
 685 The fecond Meflenian war under Ariftomenes. 
 670 Byzantium (now Conftantinoplc) buik by a co- 
 lony of Athenians. 
 666 The city of Alba deftroyed. 
 648 Cyrene in Africa founded. 
 
 634 Cyaxares befieges Nineveh, but is obliged t» 
 raife the fiege by an incurfion of the Scythi- 
 ans, who remained mafters of Afia far 28 
 years. 
 
 624 Draco pubhftied his inhuman laws at Athens. 
 
 610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal 
 from the Nile to the Red Sea, but was not 
 able to accomplifh it. 
 
 607 By order of the fame monarch, fome Phenician^ 
 failed from the Red Sea round Africa, and re- 
 turned by the Mediterranean. 
 
 606 The firft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. Nineveh deftroyed by Cyaxares. 
 
 600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt^ confults- 
 the priefts of Memphis, acquires the knowledge 
 of geometry, aftronomy, and philofophy ; re- 
 turns to Greece, calculates echpfes, gives ge- 
 neral notions of the univerfe, and maintains 
 that an only Supreme Intelligence regulates 
 all its motions. 
 Maps, globes, and the figns of the zodiac, in- 
 vented by Anaximander, the fcholar of Thales. 
 
 598 Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away cap- 
 tive, by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon. 
 
 594 Solon made Archon at Athens. 
 
 591 The Pythian games inftituted in Greece, andt' 
 tragedy firft adted.. 
 
 588 The firft irruption of the Gauls into Italy. 
 
 586 The city of Jerufalem taken, after a fiege of 
 18 months. 
 
 5,82 The laft captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. 
 
 58 1 The Ifthmian gamea reftored. 
 580 Money firil coined at Rome. 
 57 1 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a fiege oF 
 13 yearsi 
 
 566 The firft cenfus at Rome, when the number of 
 citizens was found to be 84,000 
 
 562 The firft comedy at Athens adted upon a move- 
 able fcaffold. 
 
 559 Cyrus the firft king of Perfia. 
 
 538 The kingdom of Babylon finilhed j. that, city be- 
 
C H R O N O 
 
 Before 
 Chrift. 
 
 ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an 
 edid for the return of the Jews. 
 
 534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews. 
 
 526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and 
 a pubhc library firft founded. 
 
 520 The fecond edidl to rebuild Jerufalem. 
 
 ^15 The fecond temple at Jerufalem is finilhed un- 
 der Darius. 
 
 510 Hippias banifhed from Athens. 
 
 509 Tarquin, the feventh and laft king of the Ro- 
 mans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by- 
 two confuls, and other republican magillrates, 
 till the battle of Pharfalia, being a fpace of 
 461 years. 
 
 508 The firft alHance between the Romans and Car- 
 thaginians. 
 
 507 The fecond cenfus at Rome, 130,000 citizens. 
 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which 
 
 gave occafion to the Perfian invafion of Greece. 
 498 The firft diftator appointed at Rome. 
 497 The Saturnaha inftituted at Rome. 
 
 The number of citizens 150,700. 
 493Tribiines created at Rome; or, in 488. 
 490 The battle of Marathon, September 28th. 
 486 iEfchylus, the Greek poet, firft gains the prize 
 
 of tragedy. 
 483 Queftors created at Rome. 
 481 Xerxes, king of Perfia, begins his expedition 
 
 againft Greece. 
 480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonldas, and 
 
 the fea-fight at Salamis* 
 476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to 
 
 103,000 
 469 The third Meflenian war. 
 
 466 The number of Roman citizens increafed to 
 124,214. 
 
 458 Ezra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with 
 the captive Jews and the veflels of gold and 
 filver, &c. being feventy weeks of years, or 
 490 years before the crucifixion of our Saviour. 
 
 456 The Ludi Seculares firft celebrated at Rome. 
 
 454 The Romans fend to Athens for Solon's laws. 
 
 45 1 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws 
 of the twelve tables compiled and ratified. 
 
 449 The Decemvirs banifhed. 
 
 445 Mili'^^T tribunes, with confular power, created 
 
 at Rome. 
 443 Cenfors created at Rome. 
 441 The battering ram Invented by Artemones. 
 432 The Metonic cycle began July 15th. 
 43 1 The Peloponnefian war began, and lafted 2 7 
 
 years. 
 
 430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifhes about 
 
 this time. 
 A plague over the. known world. 
 Malachi the laft of the prophets. 
 405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lyfander, 
 
 which occafion s the lofs of the city, and ruin 
 
 of the Athenian power. 
 401 The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xeno- 
 
 phon. The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens, 
 
 and democratic government reftored. 
 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among 
 
 the Greeks, believes the immortality of the 
 
 foul, aftateof rewards and punifhraentsj for 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 which, and other fublime doftrines, he is put 
 to death by the Athenians, who foon after re- 
 pent, and eredt to hia memot-y a ftatue of 
 brafs. 
 
 399 The feaft of Ledlifternium inftituted. Catapul- 
 
 tae invented by Dionyfius. 
 394 The Corinthian war begun. 
 390 Rome burnt by the Gauls. 
 387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks 
 
 and Perfians. 
 The number of Roman citizens amounted to 
 
 152,583. 
 
 384 Dionyfius begins the Punic war. 
 
 379 The Boeotian war commences. 
 
 377 A general confpiracy of the Greek ftates againft 
 
 the Lacedemonians. 
 373 great earthquake in Pelononnefus. 
 371 The Lacedemonians defeated by Epaminonda* 
 
 at Leudlra. 
 
 367 Praetors eftablifhed in Rome. The Licinian lavr 
 pafTed. 
 
 363 Epaminondas killed at the battle of Mantinea. 
 359 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved to be 23^ 
 
 49' lO '. 
 358 The Social war began. 
 357 Dionyfius expelled from Syracufe. 
 
 A tranfit of the moon over Mars obferved. 
 356 The faered war begun in Greece. 
 
 Birth of Alexander the Great. 
 343 Dionyfius II. expelled from Syracufe. 
 
 Commencement of the Syracufian era. 
 338 Philip ofMacedon gains the battle of Chxronaea, 
 
 and thus attains to the fovereignty of Greece. 
 335 Thebes taken and rafed by Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 334 The Perfuns defeated at Granicus, May 2 2d. 
 333 They are again defeated at Iffus in Cilicia, 
 Odlober. 
 
 332 Alexander takes Tyre and marches to Jerufalem. 
 331 Alexandria built. 
 
 Darius entirely defeated at Arbela. 
 330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal citict 
 of the Perfian empire. 
 The Calippi period commences. 
 ^28 Alexander paffes Mount Caucafus, and marches 
 into India. 
 
 327 He defeats Porus, an Indian prince, and founds 
 
 feveral cities. 
 326 The famous fedition of Corcyra. 
 324 His family exterminated, and his dominions 
 
 parted by his officers. 
 323 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon. 
 315 Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation. 
 3x1 The Appian way, aqueducts, &c. conftrucled 
 
 at Rome. 
 
 308 The cities of Greece recovered their hberties for 
 a ftiort time. 
 
 307 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities, 
 
 founded by Seleucus. 
 301 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipfus. 
 299 The firft barbers came from Sicily to Rome. 
 294 The number of effective men in Rome amounts 
 
 to 270,000. 
 
 293 The firft fun-dial ereiSled at Rome by Papirius 
 Curfor. 
 
 285 
 
 * 
 
760 C H R O N 
 
 Befoft 285 I>ionyfius, of Alexandna, began his aftronomical 
 , Chnft. gj.^ Monday June 26, being the hrft who 
 
 found the exaft folar year to confill of 365 
 days 5 hours and 49 minutes. 
 The watch-toW'cr of Pharos at Alexandria built. 
 Ptolemy Philadclphus, king of Egypt, employs 
 72 interpreters to tranllate the Old Teflament 
 into the Greek languages, which is called the 
 Septuaglnt. 
 
 284 The foundations of the Achaean republic laid. 
 283 The college and library founded at Alexan- 
 dria. 
 
 282 The Tarentine war begins. 
 280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 
 
 279 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 278,222.. 
 
 269 The firft coining of filver at Rome. 
 265 The number oi Roman citizens augmented to 
 292,224. 
 
 2^64 The hrlt Punic war begins, and continues 33 
 
 years. The chronology of the Arundelian 
 
 marbles compofed. 
 262 A tranfit of Mercuiy over the Bull's horn ; the 
 
 planet being in 23c of ^, and the fun in 29° 
 
 30'. T- 
 
 260 Provincial queftors eftabhfhed at Rome. 
 
 The Romans firft concern themfelves in naval 
 
 affairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at fea. 
 255 Regulus, the Roman conful, defeated and taken 
 
 prifoner by the Carthaginians under Xantip- 
 
 pus. 
 
 252 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 297,897. 
 
 247 Another cenfus. The number of citizens 251,21 2. 
 
 246 The records of China dcltroyed. 
 
 241 Conclufion of the firft Punic war. 
 
 240 Comedies firft afted at Rome. 
 
 237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufeshis fon Han- 
 nibal, at nine years old, to fwear eternal en- 
 mity to the Romans. 
 
 236 The Tartars expelled from China. 
 
 235 Rome at peace with other nations. The tem- 
 ple of Janus ftiut. 
 
 231 Corfica and Sardinia fubdued by the Romans. 
 The firft divorce at Rome. 
 
 230 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Era- 
 tofthenes to be 23° 5 1' 20''. 
 
 224 The Coloffiis at RJiodcs overturned by an 
 earthquake. 
 
 219 The art of furgery introduced at Rome. 
 
 218 Commencement of the fecond Punic war. 
 Hannibal pafles the Alps and invades Italy^ 
 
 216 The Romans defeated atCannas, May 2lil. 
 
 3 14 Syracufe befieged by Marcellus. 
 
 209 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 227,107. 
 
 308 Afdrubal invades Italy j but is defeated and 
 kiUed. 
 
 306 Gold firft coined at Rome. 
 ao2 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama». 
 201 Conclufion of the fecond Punic war. 
 194 Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Ra- 
 mans. 
 
 192 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 
 0 L O G Y. 
 
 191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Ther- Befone 
 
 mopylae. Chnrt. 
 190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the 
 
 fpoils of Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury 
 
 firft to Rome. 
 188 The Spartans obhged to renounce the inftitu- 
 
 tions of JLycurgus. 
 179 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 
 273,244. 
 
 • 173 The Jewiih high-priefthood fold by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes. 
 1 70 Paper invented in China. 
 
 The temple of Jerufaleni plundered by Antiochus. 
 169 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 212,805. 
 
 168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman pro- 
 vince. 
 
 The firft library erecled at Rome. 
 165 The temple of J«rufalem purified by Judas Mac- 
 cabeus. 
 
 1 64 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 .327>C32. 
 
 162 Hipparchus began his aftronomical obfenrations. 
 at Rhodes. 
 
 161 Philofophers and rl^etoriciaas bauiilied from 
 Rome. 
 
 150 The third Punic war commenced. 
 146 Corinth deftroyed. 
 
 Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rafed to the 
 ground by the Romans. 
 
 A remarkable comet appeared in Greece. 
 143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the mooHj 
 
 confifting of 1 1 1,035 days. 
 141 The Nuraantine war commenced. 
 135 The hiftory of the Apocrypha ends. 
 133 Numantia deftroyed by Scipio. 
 124 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 
 ^ 390»736-. 
 
 105 TheCimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans. 
 102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Ma- 
 rius. 
 
 88 Rome befieged by the chiefs of the Marian fao 
 tion. 
 
 82 Sylla created perpetual diftator at Rome. 
 
 69 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizen* 
 
 450,000. ^ 
 66 Catiline's confpiracy. 
 
 55 Julius Casfar makes his firft expedition into Bri- 
 tain. 
 
 Craffus defeated and killed by the Parthians. 
 5 1 Gaul reduced to a Roman province. 
 50 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 320,000. 
 
 48 The battle of Pharfalia^ between Csfar and 
 Pompey> in which the latter is defeated. 
 The Alexandrian library, confifting. of 400,000 
 valuable books, burnt by accident. 
 45 The vrar of Africa, in which Cato kills himfeE 
 
 The folar year introduced by Caefar. 
 44 Caefar, the greateft of the Roman conquerors,, 
 after having fought, fifty pitched battles, and 
 flain 1,192,000 men, is killed in the fenate- 
 houfe by confpirators. 
 42 The republicans defeated at Philippi. 
 
 The battle of. Aftium fought, in which Mark; 
 
 Anthony 
 
C H R O N 
 
 Ahthony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by 
 Oftavius, nephew to Julius Caefar. 
 30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by OAavius, upon 
 which Anthony and Cleopatra put themfelves 
 to death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman 
 province. 
 
 29 A cenfus at Ronne. The number of citizens 
 4,101,017. 
 
 27 Oilavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the 
 title of Auguftus Caifar, and an abfolute ex- 
 emption from the laws, and is properly the 
 firft Roman emperor. 
 The pantheon at Rome built. 
 19 Rome at the height of its glory. 
 
 The temple of Jerufalem rebuilt by Herod. 
 Agrippa conftrudled the magnificent aqueduAs 
 at Rome. 
 
 S A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 
 4,233,000. 
 
 5 The temple of Janus is fliut by Auguftus, as an 
 emblem of univerfal peace, and 
 JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, De- 
 cember 25. 
 
 I The Vulgar Chriftian era commenced from Ja- 
 nuary I. ; the Saviour of the world being then 
 five years of age. 
 
 8 Jefus Chrift difputes with the doctors in the 
 temple. 
 
 14 A cenfus at Rome, 4,037,000 citizens. 
 
 16 Mathematicians and magicians expelled from 
 
 Rome. 
 
 17 Twelve cities in Afia deftroyed by an earth- 
 
 quake. 
 
 27 Pilate made goverrior of Judsea. 
 29 Jefus baptifed in Jordan by John. 
 33 He is crucified at Jerufalem. 
 35 St Paul converted. 
 
 39 St Matthew writes his Gofpel. 
 
 Pontius Pilate kills himfelf. 
 A c();ijun£lion of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mare. 
 
 40 The name of Chrift ians firft given at Antioch 
 
 to the followers of Chrift. 
 
 43 Claudius Caifar's expedition into Britain. 
 
 44 St Mark writes his Gofpel; 
 
 50 London is founded by the Romans : 368, fur- 
 
 rounded by ditto with a wall, fome parts of 
 which are ft ill obfervable. 
 
 5 1 Caraftacus, the Britifli king, is carried in chains 
 
 to Rome. 
 
 52 The council of the Apoftles at Jerufalem. 
 
 55 St Luke writes his gofpel. 
 
 56 Rotterdam built. 
 
 59 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers 
 to death. 
 
 — Perfecutes the Druids in Britain. 
 
 Chrlftianity introduced into Britain. 
 61 Boadicia, the Britifti queen, defeats the Romans ; 
 but is conquered foon after by Suetonius, go- 
 vernor of Britain. 
 •i^2 St Paul is fent in bonds to Rome — writes his 
 
 epiftles between 51 and 66. 
 €3 The A&s of the Apoftles written. 
 
 A great earthquake in Afia. 
 5^4 Rome fet on fire, and burned forfix daysj upon 
 Vol. IV. Fart IL 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 which began (under Nero) the firfl pcrfecu- 
 tion againft the Chriftians. 
 
 65 Many prodigies feen about Jerufalem. 
 
 66 St Peter and St Paul put to death. 
 
 70 While the faftious Jews are deftroying one ano- 
 ther with mutual fury, Titus, the Roman ge- 
 neral, takes Jerufalem, which is rafed to the 
 ground, and the plough made to pafs over it. 
 
 73 The philofophers bauifhtd from Rome by Vef- 
 pafian. 
 
 79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum de- 
 
 ftroyed by an eruption of Vefuvius. 
 
 80 The Capitol and Pantheon at Rome deftroyed 
 
 by fire. 
 
 83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian. 
 
 85 Julius Agricola, governor of South-Britain, to 
 
 protect the civilized Britons from the incur- 
 fions of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts 
 between the rivers Forth and Clyde ; defeats 
 the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Gram- 
 pian hills ; and firft fails round Britain, which 
 he difcovers to be an illand. 
 
 86 The Capitoline games inftituted by Domitian. 
 88 The fecular games celebrated at Rome. 
 
 93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary deftroyed 
 
 by the Chinefe. 
 The Evangelift John baniftied to Patmos. 
 
 94 The fecond perlecution of the Chriltians under 
 
 Domitian. 
 
 96 St John the Evangelift wrote his Revelation— 
 
 his Gofpel in 97. 
 103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province. 
 105 A great earthquake in Afia and Greece. 
 107 The third perfecution of the Chriftians under 
 
 Trajan. 
 
 114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province. 
 A great earthquake in China. 
 
 115 Aliyria fubdued by Trajan. 
 
 An infurrettion of the Jews, who murder 
 
 200,000 Greeks and Romans. 
 A violent earthquake at Antioch. 
 
 1 20 Necomedia and other cities fvvallowed up by an 
 
 earthquake. 
 
 121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all 
 
 the fouthern parts of Scotland ; upon which 
 the emperor Adrian builds a wall between 
 Nevvcattle and Carlifle ; but this alfo proving 
 inefteftual, PoUius Urbicus, the Roman gene- 
 ral, about the year 1 34, repairs Agricola's forts, 
 which he joins by a wall four yards thick. 
 
 130 Jerufalem rebuilt by Adrian. 
 
 132 The fecond Jewilh war commenced. 
 
 135 The fecond Jtwifti war eitds, when they were 
 all baniftied Judea. 
 
 139 Juftin writes his firft apology for the Chriftians. 
 
 141 A number of herefies appear about this time. 
 
 146 The worftiip of Serapis introduced at Rome. 
 152 The emperor Antoninus Pius ftops the perfecu- 
 tion againft the Chriftians. 
 An inundation of the Tyber, and an earth- 
 quake at Rhodes. 
 
 163 The fourth perfe-cution of the Chriftians, under 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 
 
 166 The Romans fent ambafladoi'S to China. 
 
 5 D i4$ 
 
762 
 
 After 
 Chrift. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 16S 
 188 
 191 
 203 
 
 205 
 209 
 218 
 
 222 
 
 225 
 
 236 
 
 241 
 250 
 252 
 
 253 
 258 
 260 
 
 261 
 262 
 
 273 
 274 
 
 276 
 277 
 284 
 
 287 
 289 
 
 291 
 
 297 
 
 303 
 306 
 
 312 
 313 
 
 3H 
 
 321 
 323 
 
 328 
 
 A plague over the known world. 
 
 The Capitol at Rome delltoyed by lightning. 
 
 A great part of Rome deftroyed by fire. 
 
 The fifth perfccution of the Chriilians, under 
 Severus. 
 
 An earthquake in Wales. 
 
 Severus's wall in Britain built. 
 
 Two comets appeared at Rome. The courfe 
 of the raoft remarkable from eafl; to weft. 
 
 About this time the Roman empire begins to 
 decline. The Barbarians begin their irrup- 
 tions, and the Goths have annual tribute not 
 to mole ft the empire. 
 
 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at 
 Rome. 
 
 The fixth perfecution of the Chriftians, under 
 Maximin. 
 
 The Franks firft mentioned in hiftory. 
 
 The feventh perfecution, under Decius. 
 
 A dreadful peftilence broke out in Ethiopia, 
 
 and fpread over the world. 
 The eight perfecution, under Gallus. 
 Europe ravaged by the Scythians and Goths. 
 The ninth perfecution, under Valerian. 
 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor, king of 
 
 Perfia, and flead alive. 
 The Scythians ravaged the Roman empire. 
 The temple of Diana at Ephefus burnt. 
 A great plague throughout the Roman empire. 
 Earthquakes in Europe, Afia, and Africa, and 
 
 three days of darknefs. 
 The Romans took Palmyra. 
 Silk firft brought from India ; the manufaftory 
 
 of it introduced into Europe by fome monks, 
 
 551; firft worn by the clergy in England, 
 
 ^^34- 
 
 Wines firft made in Britain. 
 The Franks fettled in Gaul. 
 The Dioclefian era commenced Auguft 29th, 
 
 or September 17th. 
 Caraufius proclaimed emperor of Britain. 
 A great comet vifible in Mefopotamia for 29 
 
 days. 
 
 Two emperors and two Czefars march to defend 
 the four quarters of the empire. 
 Alexandria deftroyed by Dioclefian. 
 The tenth perfecution, under Dioclefian. 
 Conftantine the Great begins his reign. 
 Cardinals firft began. 
 Peftilence all over the Eaft. 
 Cycle of induftion began. 
 
 The tenth perfecution ends by an edi£l of Con- 
 ftantine, who favours the Chriftians, and gives 
 full liberty to their religion. 
 
 Three biftiops, or fathers, are fent from Britain 
 to aflift at the council of Aries. 
 
 Crucifixion abolifhed. 
 
 Obfervation of Sunday enjoined. 
 
 The firft general council at Nice, when 318 fa- 
 thers attended, againft Arius, the founder of 
 Arianifm, where was compofed the famous Ni- 
 cene Creed, which we attribute to them. 
 
 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from 
 Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter cal- 
 led Couftantinople. 
 
 330 A dreadful perfecution of the Chriftians in Per- After 
 
 fia, which latts 40 years. Chrift, 
 
 331 Conftantine orders all the heathen temples to be ' 
 
 deftroyed. 
 
 334 300,000 Sarmatians revoked from their ma- 
 fters. 
 
 341 The gofpel propagated in Ethiopia by Fou- 
 mentius. 
 
 344 Neccrefarea ruined by an earthquake. 
 
 351 The heathens firft called Pagans. 
 
 358 An hundred and fifty cities in Afia and Greece 
 
 overturned by an earthquake. 
 360 The firit monailery founded near Poiftiers ia 
 
 France, by Martin. 
 
 363 The Roman emperor Julian, furnamed the A- 
 
 poftate, endeavours in vaia to rebuild the tem- 
 ple of Jerufalem. 
 
 364 The Roman empire is divided into the eaftern, 
 
 (Conftantinople the capital) and weftern (of 
 which Rome continued to be the capital), each 
 being now under the government of difterent 
 emperors. 
 
 373 The Bible tranflated into the Gothic language. 
 376 The Goths fettled in Thrace. 
 379 The cycle of Theophilus commenced. 
 390 A fiery column feen in the air tor 30 days. 
 400 Bells invented by biftiop Pauhnus, of Lampag- 
 nia. 
 
 4c I Europe over-run by the Goths under Alaric. 
 404 Another irruption of the Goths. 
 
 The kingdom of Caledonia or Scotland revives 
 under Fergus. 
 406 Third irruption of the Goths. 
 
 The Vandals, Alans,- and Suevi, fpread into 
 France and Spain, by a conceffion of Honorius, 
 emperor of the Weft. 
 
 408 The Chriftian religion propagated in Perfia. 
 
 409 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, Au 
 
 guft 24th. 
 
 412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain. 
 
 413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alface. 
 
 414 The kingdom of Thouloufe founded by the Vi- 
 
 fagoths. 
 
 417 The Alans extirpated by the Goths. 
 
 419 Many cities in Paleftine deftroyed by an earth- 
 
 quake. 
 
 420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower 
 
 Rhine, under Pharamond. 
 
 421 The Salique law promulgated. 
 
 426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home, 
 withdraw their troops from Britain, and never . 
 return ; advifing the Britons to arm in their 
 own defence, and truft to their own valour. 
 
 432 The gofpel preached in Ireland by St Patrick. 
 
 444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns. 
 
 446 The Britons now left to themfelves, are greatly 
 
 haralTcd by the Scots and Fi&s, upon which 
 they once more make their complaint to the 
 Romans (which they intitle, 7 Groans of 
 the Britons), but receive no affiftance from that 
 quarter. 
 
 447 Attila (furnamed the Scourge of God) with his 
 
 Huns ravage the Roman empire. 
 449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the Sax- 
 ons iato Britain; againft the Scots and Pifts. 
 
C H R O N 
 
 Aftf-f The ci'ty of Venice founded. 
 
 Dh ith The Saxons having repulfed the Scots and Pi£ts, 
 
 ^ invite over more of their coinitrynnen, and be- 
 
 gin to ellabhfli themfelves in Kent, under 
 Hengiil. 
 
 476 The wcitern empire is tiniflied, 523 years after 
 the battle of Pharfalia ; upon the ruins of 
 which feveral new ftates arifc in Italy and o- 
 ther paits, confiftingof Goths, Vrindals, Huns, 
 and other barbarians, under whom literature 
 is extinguiflied, and the works of the learned 
 are deftroyed. 
 
 480 A great earthquake at Conftantinople, which 
 lafted 40 days. 
 
 493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths. 
 
 496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Chriftia- 
 nity begins in that kingdom. 
 
 506 The Jtwifli talmud publiflied. 
 ^ 508 Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Bri- 
 
 tons. 
 
 510 Paris made the capital of the French dominions. 
 515 Conftantinople befieged by Vitalianus, whofe 
 
 fleet i? burnt by a fpeculum of brafs made by 
 
 Proclus. 
 
 5 16 The computing of time by the Chriftian era is 
 introduced by Dionyfuis the monk. 
 
 5 1 7 Five years drought and famine in Paleftinc. 
 
 519 A bearded comet appears. 
 
 529 The codex of Juftinian, the eaftern emperor, is 
 publifhed. 
 
 534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africji comes 
 to an end, after having continued 105 years. 
 
 536 The manufacture of filk introduced at Conftan- 
 tinople by two Indian monks. 
 
 540 Antioch deftroyed by the Perfians. 
 
 541 Bafdius the laft conful elefted at Rome. 
 
 542 Antioch rebuilt. 
 
 543 An earthquake all oyer the world. 
 
 550 An earthquake in Paleftine and Syria. 
 The kingdom of Poland founded. 
 
 551 An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great 
 
 commotion in the fea. 
 553 The empire of the Goths in Italy deftroyed by 
 Narfes. 
 
 A great earthquake at Conftantinople. 
 557 Another violent earthquake at Conftantinople, 
 Rome, &c. 
 
 A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and 
 Africa, which continues near fifty years. 
 
 568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy. 
 
 569 The Turks firft mentioned in hiftory. 
 The exarchate of Ravenna begins. 
 
 575 The firft monarchy founded in Bavaria. 
 
 580 Antioch deftroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 581 Latin ceafed to be fpoken about this time in 
 
 Italy. 
 
 584 The origin of fiefs in France. 
 
 588 The-city of Paris deftroyed by fire. 
 
 589 Rome overflowed by the Tiber. 
 
 593 The Gafcons eftabliihed themfelves in the coun- 
 try called by their name. 
 
 596 John of Cenftantinople aflumiCS the title of uni- 
 
 verfal biiliop. 
 
 597 Auguftin the monk comes into England with 
 
 forty monks. 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 599%,A dreadful peftilencc in Africa. Af 
 
 604 St Paul's church in London founded. ^' 
 
 605 The ufe of bells introduced into churches. 
 
 606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the 
 
 conceflions of Phocas, emperor of the Eaft. 
 
 622 Mahomet, the falfe prophet, flies from Mecca 
 to Medina, in Arabia, in the 44th year of his 
 age, and loth of his miniftry, when he laid the 
 foundation of the Saracen empire, and from 
 whom the Mahometan princes to this day claim 
 their defcent. His followers compute their 
 time from this era, which in Arabic is called 
 hegira, i. e. " the Flight." 
 
 628 An academy founded at Canterbury. 
 
 632 The era of Jefdegird commenced June 16th. 
 
 637 Jerufalem is taken by the Saracens or followers 
 of Mahomet. 
 
 641 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the 
 grand library there burnt by order of Omar 
 their caliph or prince. 
 
 643 The temple of Jerufalem converted into a Ma- 
 hometan mofque. 
 
 653 The Saracens noiv extend their conquefts on e- 
 very fide, and retaliate the barbarities of the 
 Goths and Vandals upon their pofterity. 
 They take Rhodes, and detlroy the famous Co- 
 ' lolfus. 
 
 Fngland invaded by the Danes. 
 660 Organs firft ufcd in churches. 
 663 Glafs invented by a bifhop, and brought into 
 
 England by a BenediAine monk. 
 669 Sicily invaded, and Syracufe deftroyed by. the 
 
 Saracens. 
 
 685 The Britons, after a brave ftruggle of near 153 
 years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and 
 drove into Wales and Cornwall 
 
 698 The Saracens take Carthage, and expel the Ro- 
 mans from Africa. 
 
 700 Cracow built, and the firft prince of Poland C- 
 lefted. 
 
 704 The firft province given to the Pope. 
 
 713 The Saracen3"^Gonquer Spain. 
 
 714 France governed by Charles Martel. 
 
 718 The kingdom of the Ailurias in Spain founded 
 
 by Pclagio. 
 
 719 Chriftianity promulgated in Germany. 
 
 726 The controverfy about images begins, and oc* 
 
 cafions many infurreftions in the eaftern em- 
 pire. 
 
 727 Tax of Peter's pence begun by Ina king of 
 
 Weftcx. 
 
 732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Tours. 
 735 Inftitution of the office of Pope's Nuncio. 
 746 Three years peftilence in Europe and Afia. 
 
 748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrifl 
 
 began to be ufed in hiftory. 
 
 749 The race of Abbas become caliphs of the Sara- 
 
 cens, and encourage learning. 
 The empire of the Saracens divided into three. 
 
 752 The exarchate of Ravenna aboliflied by Aftol- 
 phus king of the Lombards. 
 
 755 Commencement of the Pope's temporal domi- 
 nion. 
 
 762 The city ot Bagdad upon the Tigris, is made the 
 capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Abbas. 
 
 5 D 3 762 
 
764 C H R O N 
 
 After 17^2 Burials, which formerly ufed to be in highways,, 
 Chnft. permitted in towns. 
 
 ^""^ 7<)2 An academy founded in Paris.. 
 
 ^94 The Huns, extirpated by Charlemagne. . 
 797 Seventeen days of unufual darkntfs.^ 
 Soo Charlemagne, king of France, , begins the em- 
 pire of Germany, afterwards called the Weft- 
 ern empire ; gives the prefent names to the 
 winds and months ; endeavours to rellore learn- 
 ing in Europe, but mankind are not y<;t difpo- 
 fed for it, being fokly engroffed in military 
 enterprizes. 
 
 SxDi A great earthquake in France, Germany, and 
 Italy. 
 
 807 Jan. 31. Jupiter eclipfed by the moon. March 
 
 17. A large fpot feen on the fun for eight 
 days. 
 
 808 The firft defcent of the Normans on France. 
 
 825 The obliquity. of the ecHptic obferved by Btni- 
 
 mula to be 23'' 55'. 
 
 826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his 
 
 fubjefts, for being a Chriftian. 
 The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded, 
 
 832 Painters baniihed out of the eaftern empire. 
 
 836 The Flemings trade to Scotland for fifh. 
 
 840 The Scots and Pids have a. decifive battle, in 
 which the former prevail, and both kingdoms 
 are united by Kenneth, which begins the fe- 
 cond period of the Scottifh hiftory. 
 
 842 Germany feparated from the empire of the 
 Franks. 
 
 856 An earthquake over the greatell part of the 
 
 known world. 
 861 Ruric the firft prince of Ruffia began to reign. 
 864 The Danes begin their ravages in England. 
 
 867 Chriftianity propagated in Bulgaria. 
 
 868 Egypt becomes independent on the caliphs of 
 
 Bagdad. 
 
 872 Bellaand clocks firR ufed in Conftantinople, 
 
 873 France dillreffed by locufts and peftilence. 
 
 874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. 
 Scotland invaded by the Danes. 
 
 875 A bearded comet appears in France. 
 
 878 Alfred, the. Great, after fubduing the Danifia in- 
 vaders (againft whom he fought 56 battles by 
 fea and Mnd), compotes his body of laws ; di- 
 vides England into counties, hundreds, ty- 
 things; in 890 erefls county-courts, having 
 founded the univerfity of Oxford in 886. 
 
 860 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by A1-- 
 bategni to be 23° 35'. 
 
 889 The Hungarians fettled near the Danube, 
 
 891 The firft land-tax in England. 
 
 895 The monaftery of Cluny founded. 
 
 905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China. 
 Rome taken by the Normans. 
 
 91 1 The obliquity of the ecliptic, obferved by The- 
 
 bit to be 23° 33' 30". 
 
 912 The Normans eftablifli themfelves in Normandy. 
 
 913 The Danes become makers of England.; 
 91 5 The univerfity of Cambridge founded. . 
 923 Fiefs eftablifhed in France. 
 
 925 Sigefroi elefted firft marquia of Brandenburg. > 
 928 The marquifate of Mifnia eftabliflved. 
 3, 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 937 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation Afte-: 
 into feven kingdoms. Clm^ 
 
 941 Arithmetic brought into Europe. ^ 
 
 961 Candia recovered from the Saracens. 
 
 967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens. 
 
 969 The race of Abbas extinguifhed in Egypt. 
 
 975 Pope Boniface VII. is depofed and banifhed for 
 his crimes.. 
 
 977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the 
 Bulgarians for ten years.. 
 The Bohemians fubdued by Otho. 
 979 Coronation oath firft ufed in England. 
 
 Juries firft inftituted in ditto. 
 985 The Danes under Sueno invaded England and - 
 Scotland. . 
 
 987 The Carlo.vingian race in France ended. 
 
 991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into^ Eu- 
 rope by the Saracens from Arabia ; letters of 
 the alphabet were hitherto ufed. 
 
 993 A great eruption of Mount Vefuvius. 
 
 995 England invaded by the Danes and Norwegians^ 
 
 996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective. 
 999 Boleflaus, the firft king of Poland. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Aboul' 
 Wafi and Abu Hamed to be 23° 35'. 
 
 1000 Paper made of cotton rags was in ufe ; that of 
 linen rags in 1170 : the manufa6lory introdu- 
 ced into England at Deptford, 1588. 
 
 1002 The emperor Henry aflumed the title of king 
 of the Romans. 
 
 1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time 
 
 in a new manner of architeflure. 
 
 1006 A plague in Europe for three years. 
 
 1007 A great eruption of Vefuvius. ^ 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Alba- 
 trunius to be 23^ 35'. 
 
 1014 Sueno the Dane becomes mafter of England. 
 Sept. 28. Almoft all Flanders laid under water 
 
 by a ftorm. 
 
 1015 Children forbidden by law to be fold by their 
 
 parents in England. 
 1017 Rain of the colour of blood, for three days 'm- 
 Aquitaitj. 
 
 IG22 A new fpecies of mufic invented by Aretin. 
 
 1035 Togrul-Beg, or Tangrolipix, the Turkifh ful- 
 tan, eftabhfhes himfelf in Korafan. 
 The kingdoms of Caftile and Arragon. began. 
 
 1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with va- 
 rious fuccefs, are about this time driven out of * 
 Scotland, and never again return in a hoftile 
 manner. 
 
 Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake. 
 1 04 J The Saxon line reftored under Edward the 
 Confeffor. 
 
 IG43 The Turks become formidable and take poffef- 
 fion of Perfia. 
 The Ruffians come, from Scythia, and land, in 
 Thrace. 
 
 1054 Leo IX. the firft pope that kept up an army. 
 
 1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the em- 
 
 pire of the Saracens. 
 1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant 
 Macbeth at Dunfinnan, and marries the princefs 
 Margaret, fitter to Edgar Atheling. 
 
 1061 
 
After 
 
 Ghrift. 
 
 C H R O N 
 
 Xo6i Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by 
 a parliament held in Forfar. 
 
 1065 The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens. 
 
 1066 The conqueft of England by William (furnamed 
 
 the Baftard) duke of Normandy, in the battle 
 of Haftings, where Harold is flain. 
 1070 The feudal law introduced into England. 
 
 1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope, 
 
 quarrel about the nomination of the German 
 bi(hops. Henry, in penance, \valks barefooted 
 to the pope towards the end of January. 
 
 1076 Juftices of the peace firft appointed in England. 
 An earthquake in England. 
 
 Afia Minor, having been two years under the 
 power of Solyman, is from this time called 
 Turky. 
 
 lo8a Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order 
 of William, from a furvey of all the eftates in 
 England, and finilhed in io86. 
 The Tower of London built by ditto, to curb 
 his Englifh fubjefts ; numbers of whom fly to 
 Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or 
 Englifh language, are protedled by Malcolm,- 
 and have lands given them. 
 
 Id86 The order of Garthufians eftablilhed by Bruno. 
 
 1090 The dynafty of Bathineens or AiTaffins begins 
 in Irak, and continues for i i 7 years* 
 
 J 09 1 The Saracens in Spain, being hard preffed by 
 the Spaniards, call to their afliftance Jofeph 
 king of Morocco ; by which the Moors get 
 poffeflioa of all the Saracen dominions in 
 Spain. 
 
 1096 The firft crufade to the Holy Land is begun un- 
 der feveral Chriilian princes, to drive the ia- 
 fidels from Jerufalem. 
 
 1098 The order of St BenediA inftituted. 
 
 1099 Jerufalem' taken by the crufaders ; Godfrey e- 
 
 le£led king of it ; and the order of knights of 
 
 St John Inftituted. 
 IJIO Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes, 
 
 dies in England, where he had been permitted 
 
 to refide as a fubjeft. 
 Learning revived at Cambridge. 
 Writing on paper made of cotton common about 
 
 this time. 
 
 1 1 18 The order of the Knights Templars inftituted, 
 to defend the Sepulchre at Jerufalem, and to 
 protedt Chriftian ftrangers. 
 
 H 19 Bohemia ere6led into a kingdom. 
 
 1132 The kingdom of Portugal began. 
 
 M37 The pande& of Juftlnian found in the ruina of 
 Amalphi. 
 
 1141 The faflions of the Guelphs and Gibellines pre- 
 vailed about this time. 
 
 1 143 The Koran tranflated into Latin. 
 
 1 144 The Peripatetic philofophy introduced into Ger- 
 
 many. 
 
 1 151 The canon law coUefted by Gratian, a monk 
 
 of Bologna. 
 I154 Ghriftianity introduced into Finland. 
 1 156 The city of Mofcow in Ruffia founded. 
 II 60 The order of the Carmelites inftituted. 
 1 1 63 London bridge, confifting of 19 fraall arches, 
 
 firft built of ftode. . 
 
 1 181 
 
 1182. 
 
 0 L O G Y. 
 
 1 i 64 The Teutonic order of religious knights begins 
 
 in Germany. ^ 
 1 1 7 I The dynafty of Fatemites ended in Egypt ; the 
 fovereigns of this country henceforth called 
 Sultans. 
 
 1 1 72 Henry II. king of England (and firft of the 
 Plantagenets), takes poffeffion of Ireland; which,- 
 from that period, has been governed by an 
 Englifh viceroy, or lord lieutenant. 
 1 1 76 England is divided by Henry into fix circuits, 
 
 andjuftice is difpenfed by itinerant judges. 
 it79 The uaiverfity of Padua founded. 
 1 1 «o Glafs windows began to be ufed in private houfes 
 in England. 
 
 The laws of England are digefted about this 
 
 time by GlanviUe. 
 Pope Alexander IIL compelled the kings of 
 England and France to hold the ftirrups of his 
 faddle when he mounted his horfe. 
 1 1 83 7000 Alblgenfes maflacred by the inhabitants 
 of Berry. 
 
 1 186 A conjunftion of all the planets at funrife Sep- 
 
 tember 16. The Sun in 30" »Pl J Jupiter in 
 a° 3' j Venus in 3° 49' } Saturn in 8'^ 6' | 
 Mercury in 4° lo' ; Mars, 9" b' ; tail of the 
 Dragon, 18° 23' sQ;. 
 
 1 1 87 Jerufalem taken by Saladln. 
 
 1 192 The battle of Afcalon, in Judea, in which Ri- 
 chard, king of England, defeats Saladin's ar- 
 my, confifting of 300,000 combatants. 
 
 1 194 Dleu et mon Droit y firft ufed as a motto by Ri- 
 
 chard, on a viftory over the French. 
 
 1 1 95 Denmark and Norway laid wafte by a dreadful 
 
 tempeft. 
 
 1 198 Inftitution of the order of the Holy Trinity. 
 1200 Chimnies were not known in England. 
 
 Surnames now began to be uled ; firft amon j 
 the nobility. 
 Univerfity of Salamanca in Spain founded. 
 1 204 Conftantinople taken by the French and Venc- 
 tiansw 
 
 The Inquifition eftabliftied. 
 The empire of Trebizond eftabliihed. 
 I2g8 London incorporated, and obtained their firft 
 
 charter for elefting their Lord Mayor and 0° 
 
 ther magiftrates from king John. 
 The order of Fr aires Minores eftabhftied. 
 The pope excommunicates king John. 
 
 1209 The works of Ariftotle imported from Conftan- 
 
 tinople into Europe. 
 The filk manufafture imported from Greece in- 
 , to Venice. 
 
 1210 The works of Ariftotle condemned to be burnt 
 
 at Paris. 
 
 The emperor Otho excommunicated by the 
 pope. 
 
 Violent perfecution of the Albigenfes. 
 
 1 2 15 Magna Charta is figned by. king John and the 
 
 barons of England. 
 Court of common pleas eftabliftied. 
 Orders of the Dominicans and Knights Hofpi- - 
 
 tallers founded. 
 The doftrine of tranfubftantiatioh introduced. 
 
 1216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of 
 
 Scotland I 
 
Clirill. 
 
 C H R 0 N 
 
 Tcot'and cKcom.^uniCate i by the pope's le- 
 gate. 
 
 1 220 AftronoJT.y and geography brought into Europe 
 by Vhe Moors'. 
 
 1222 A great earthquake in Germany. 
 
 1223 A cornet of extraordinary magnitude appeared 
 
 in Denmark. 
 
 1226 A league formed againft the Albigenfes by the 
 
 French king and many prelates and lords. 
 
 1227 The Tartars, under Gingis-Kan, emerge from 
 
 the northern parts of Afia, over-run all the 
 Saracen empire, and carry death and defola- 
 tion wherever they march. 
 
 1228 The univerfity of Thouloufe founded. 
 
 i 230 The kingdom of Denmark dilirelfed by pefti- 
 lence. 
 
 The kingdoms of Leon and Caflile united. 
 Pruflia fubdued by the Teutonic knights. 
 Univerfity of Naples founded. 
 1 23 1 The Almageft of Ptolemy tranOated into L^tin. 
 1233 The Inquilition, begun in 1204, is now truiled 
 to the Dominicans. 
 The houfes of Lr,Pdon, and other cities in Eng- 
 land, France, and Germany, lliU thatched with 
 ftraw. 
 
 1238 The univerfity of Vienna founded. 
 
 1239 A writing of this year'o date on paper made of 
 
 rags ftill extant. 
 1241 The Hanfeatic league formed. 
 
 Tin mines difcovered in Germany. 
 J 245 A clear red ftar, like Mars, appears in Capricorn. 
 
 1250 Painting revived in Florence by CiiTiabue. 
 
 1 25 1 Wales fubdued, and Magna Charta confirmed. 
 1253 The famous allronomical tables are compofed 
 
 by Alonfo king of Caftile. 
 
 1256, The ordcr'of the Auguilines eftablifhed. 
 
 1258 The Tartars take Bagdad, which finiflies the 
 empii-e of the Saracens. 
 
 1260 The fed of Flagellantcs appeared in Italy. 
 
 1:63 Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with 
 160 fail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth 
 of the Clyde ; but they ar,e cut to pieces by 
 Alexander III. who recovers the weftern iflcs. 
 
 1 264 The commons of England firft furamoned to par- 
 liament about this time. 
 
 I 268 The Tartars invade China. 
 
 1269 The Hamburgh company incorporated in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cozah 
 Nafirodrii to be 25° 30'. 
 1272 The academy of Florence founded. 
 12 7 3 The empire of the pr-efent Auftrian family be- 
 ir'ms in Germany. 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cheou- 
 king in China to be 230 33' 39", 
 1274 The fir ft commei-clal treaty betwixt England and 
 Flanders. 
 
 1279 King Edward renounced his right to Normandy. 
 The mortmain acl palfed in England. 
 Lewellyn, prince of Wales, defeated and killed 
 by Edward I. who unites that principality to 
 England. 
 A great peftllence in Denmark. 
 8000 French murdered at the Sicilian vefpers. 
 Academy de la Crufca founded. 
 
 1282 
 
 1290 
 1291 
 
 1293 
 
 1294 
 1298 
 
 O L 0 G Y. 
 
 1284 Edward II. born at Caernarvon, it the fiift prince 
 of Wales. 
 
 iZ^S Alexander III. king of Scotland, dies, and that 
 kingdom is difputed by twelve can-iidates, who 
 fubrait their claims to the arbitration of Ed- 
 ward king of England ; which lays the foun- 
 dation of a long and defolating war between 
 both nations. 
 The univerfity of LIfijoa founded. 
 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the 
 crufades. 
 
 There is a regular fucceflion of Englifh parlia- 
 ments from this year, being the 2 2d of Ed- 
 ward I. 
 
 Parhaments eftablifhed in Paris, 
 The prefent Turkilh empire begins in Bithynia 
 
 under Ottoman. 
 SiKxr-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great 
 luxury. 
 
 Tallow candles fo great a luxury, that fplinters 
 of wood were ufcd for lights. . 
 
 Wine iold by apothecai-ies as a cordial. 
 
 The Scots defeated by the Englim at Falkirk. 
 1299 An earthquake in Germany. 
 
 Spedacles rnvtnttd by a monk of Pifa. 
 
 The year of jubilee inftituted by Boniface VIII. 
 1302 The mariner's compafs invented, or impi'oved, 
 by Giovia, of Naples. 
 
 I'he univerfity of Avignon founded. 
 
 1307 The beginaing of the Swifs cantons. 
 Coal firlt ufed in England. 
 
 1308 The popes remove to Avignon in France for 
 
 70 years. 
 
 13 10 Lirrcoln's inn fociety ellablifhed. 
 
 The knights of St John take poffeffion of the 
 ifle of Rhodes. 
 
 1314 The battle of BarjQpckburn, between Edward II. 
 
 and Robert Bruce, which eilabhfhes the latter 
 on the throne of Scotland. 
 The cardinals fet fire to the conclave andfeparate. 
 A vacancy in the papal chair for two years. 
 
 1 3 15 Germany afflifted with famine and peftllence. 
 13 19 The univerfity of Dublin founded. 
 
 1320 Gold firft coined in Chrifteadom ; 1344 ditto ia 
 
 England. 
 An earthquake in England. 
 1323 A great eruption of Mount JEtm. 
 13-5 The firft treaty of commerce betwixt England 
 
 and Venice. 
 
 1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne. 
 1332 The pope accufed of herefy. 
 
 1336 Two Brabant weavers fettle at York, which, 
 
 fays Edward III. may prove of great benefit 
 to us and our fubjefts. 
 
 1337 The firtt comet whofe courfe is defcribed with 
 
 an aftronomical exadnefs. 
 Europe infefted by locufts. 
 1340 Heralds college inftitutcd in England. 
 
 Copper-money firft ufed in Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 1344 The firft cieation to titles by patents ufed by 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 1345 Edward III. has four pieces of cannon, which 
 
 gained him the battle of Crefly. 
 1347 The- battle of Durham, in which David, king 
 of Scots, is taken prifoner. 
 
 1349 
 
 Afrer 
 Chnih 
 
After 
 
 Chrift. 
 
 , C H R O N 
 
 1349 The order of the Garter inllituted in England 
 by Edward III. altered in 1557, and confilts 
 of 26 knights. 
 
 I 352 The Turks firft enter Europe. 
 
 1353 Afia and Africa defolated by locuHs. 
 
 1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as In 
 
 England. 
 
 1356 The battle of Poiflicrj, in which king John of 
 France and his fon are taken prifoners by Ed- 
 ward the Black Prince. 
 1 3 J 7 Coals firft. brought to London. 
 1358 Arms of England and France firft quartered by 
 Edward III. 
 Univerfity of Cologne founded. 
 Tamerlane began to reign in Perfia.. 
 1362 The law pleadings in England changed from 
 French to Englifli as a favour of Edward III. 
 to his people. 
 The military order of Janizaries eftablilhed a- 
 mong the Turks. 
 1365 The univerfities ol Vienna and Geneva founded. 
 
 1369 John WicklifFe an Engliihman begins to call in 
 
 q'jeRicn the dodlrints of the church of Rome 
 about this time, whofe loliowers are called 
 Lollards. 
 
 1370 The oiTice of grand vizir eftabliflied. 
 I 377 Inundation of the fea in Flanders. 
 1378 Greenland difcovered by a Venetian. 
 
 1 38 1 Bills of exchange firft. ufed in England. 
 
 1384 The firft aft of navigation in England ; no 
 
 goods to be exported or imported by Englifti- 
 
 men in foreign bottoms. 
 
 1386 A company of linen weavers from the Nether- 
 
 lands efl;ablifhed in London. 
 Windfor caftle built by Edward III. 
 
 1387 The fiift Lord High Admiral of England infti- 
 
 tuted. 
 
 1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotfpur and 
 
 the earl of Douglas. 
 Bombs invented at Venloo. 
 1 39 1 Cards invented in France for the king's amufe- 
 ment. 
 
 1399 Wtltminfter abbey rebuilt and enlarged — Weft- 
 minfter-hall ditto. 
 Order of the Baih inftituted at the coronation 
 of Henry IV. renewed in 1725 ; confifting of 
 38 knights. 
 
 1402 Tamerlane defeats and takes prifoner Bajazet 
 
 the Turkifti fnltan. 
 1405 The Canary ifiands difcovered by Bathencourt 
 
 a Norman. 
 
 1410 Guildhall, London, built. 
 
 Painting in oil-colours invented at Bruges by 
 John Van-eyck. 
 
 141 1 The univerfity of St Andrew's in Scotland 
 
 founded. 
 
 1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe. 
 1415 The battle of Agincourt gained over the French 
 
 by Henry V. of England. 
 
 1420 The ifland of Madeira difcovered by the Portu- 
 
 guefe. 
 
 142 1 The revenue of England amounted to L. 55, 754. 
 1428 The fiege of Orleans, the firft; blow to the Eng- 
 lifli power in France. 
 
 1431 A great earthquake at Lifbon. 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 1432 Great Inundations in Germany. 
 
 Hi 7 -^^^ obhquity of the ecliptic obfervcd by Ulug 
 
 Beg to be 23 ' 30' 17".' 
 1440 Printing inventtd by L. Kofter at Haerlem in 
 
 Holland ; brought into England by W. Cax- 
 
 ton, a mercer of London, 1471. 
 1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome. 
 
 Tile lea breaks in at Djrt in Holland, and 
 
 drowns lOO.OCO people. 
 
 1453 Conftantinople taken by the Turks, which ends 
 
 the eafttrn empire, 1 123 years from its dedi- 
 cation by Conftantine the Great, and 2206 
 years from the foundation of Rome. 
 
 1454 The univerfity of Glafgowin Scotland founded. 
 1457 Glafs firft raanufadured in England. 
 
 1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Pur- 
 bachius and Regiomontanus to be 23' 29'. 
 "473 The ftudy of the Greek language introduced 
 into France. 
 
 1477 The univerfity of Aberdeen in Scotland founded. 
 1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Cafl:Ile. 
 
 1482 The coaft. of Guinea difcovered by the Portu- 
 
 guefe. 
 
 A court of Inquifition erefted in Seville. 
 
 1483 Richard III. king of England, and laft: of the 
 
 Piantagenets, is defeated and killed at the 
 battle of Bofworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII. 
 which puts an end to the civil wars between 
 the houfes of York and Lancafter, after a con- 
 tell of 30 years, and the lofs of 100,000 men. 
 i486 Henry eftabhfiies fifty yeomen of the guards, 
 the firft; (landing army. 
 
 1489 Maps and fea charts firft brought to England 
 
 by Barth. Columbus. 
 
 1490 William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the 
 
 Greek language into England. 
 
 The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the 
 native Spaniards, are entirely fubdued by Fer- 
 dinand, and become fubjefts to that prince on 
 certain conditions, which are ill obferved by 
 the Spaniards, whofe clergy ufe the Inquifition 
 in all its tortures ; and in 1609, near one 
 million of the Moors are driven from Spain to 
 the oppofite coaft. of Africa, from whence they 
 originally came. 
 1492 America firft difcovered by Colurabus, a Ge- 
 noele, in the fervice of Spain. 
 
 The Moors expelled from Granada, which they 
 had poflelTed upwards of 800 years. 
 
 1495 The venereal difeafe introduced into Europe. 
 
 1496 The Jews and Moors baniftied out of Portugal. 
 
 1497 The Portuguefe firft fail to the Eaft Indies by 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope. 
 South America difcovered by Amerlcus Vefpu- 
 fius, from whom it has its name. • 
 
 1499 North America difcovered, for Henry VII. by 
 
 Cabot, a Venetian. 
 
 1500 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany in- 
 
 to fix circles, and adds four more in 1512. 
 Brazil difcovered by the Portuguefe. Florida 
 
 difcovered by John Cabot, an Engliftiman. 
 Painting in chiaro obfcuro difcovered. 
 A great plague in England. 
 1505 ShiiingB firft coined in England, 
 
 15.07 
 
 767 
 
 After 
 Chrift. 
 
76S 
 
 Alter 
 Chrift. 
 
 G H 11 
 
 1507 The ifland of Madagafcar difcovered by the 1544 
 
 Portuguefe. ^545 
 1509 Gardening introduced into England from the 
 
 Netlierlands, from whence vegetables were 1547 
 
 imported hitherto. 
 ;i£^io The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Wer- 1548 
 
 nenus to be 23=' 28' 30". ''549 
 1:5 1 3 The battle of Flowden, in which James IV. 
 
 king of Scotland is killed, with the flower of 1550 
 
 his nobility. 
 
 T514 Cannot buUets of Hone ftill in nfe. ^55^ 
 
 1515 The firft Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala. 
 The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of 
 
 Caftile by Ferdinand. 
 
 15 16 The kingdom of Algiers feized by BarbarolTa. 1554 
 IJ17 Martin Luther began the Reformation. 
 
 Egypt is conquered by the Turks. ^555 
 The kingdom of the Mamalukes in Egypt over- 1558 
 thrown by the Turks. 1560 
 'IjiS Difcovery of New Spain, and the Straits of 
 
 Magellan. 1 56 1 
 
 152 1 Henry VIL for his writings in favour of pope- 1563 
 ry, receives the title of Defender of the Faith ^5^5 
 from his Holinefs. 
 ii^zz Rhodes taken by the Turks. 1566 
 The firft voyage round the world performed by 
 a fhip of Magellan's fquadron. 1568 
 
 1526 The inquifition eftablifhed in Portugal. 
 Lutheranifm eftablifhed in Germany, 
 
 1527 Rome taken and plundered by the Imperial 1569 
 
 army. ^ 5 7 
 
 1528 Poper}' abolifhed in Sweden. 
 
 J 529 The name of Protellant takes its rife from the 1572 
 reformed protelting againll the church of 
 Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany. 
 
 3_530 Union of the Proteftants at Smallcalde, Decem- 
 ber 22d. 1576 
 Secretary of State's office eftablilhed in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 0:531 A great earthquake at Lifbon. ^578 
 
 1532 The Court of Seflion inftituted in Scotland. 
 
 1533 Infurreftion of the Anabaptifts in Weltphalia. 1579 
 
 1534 The reformation takes place in England, under 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 BarbarolTa feized on the kingdom of Tunis. 
 '535 '^^^^ Reformation introduced into Ireland. 
 
 The fociety of Jefuits formed. i <;8o 
 
 *539 '^^^ EngHfh edition of the Bible authori- 
 fed ; the prefent tranflation finifhed 1611. 
 About this time cannon began to be ufed in 
 fhips. 
 
 Six hundred and forty -five religious houfes fup- 
 
 prefTed in England and Wales. 158 1 
 
 1540 The variation of the compafs difcovered by Se- 1582 
 
 baftian Cabot. 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Coper- 1583 
 
 nicus to be 23° 28' 8". 
 Society of the Jefuits eftablifhed, September 27. 
 1543 Silk ftockings firft worn by the French king ; 
 
 firft worn in England by queen Eliz. 1561 ; the 15^? 
 
 ftecl frame for weaving invented by the Rev. 
 
 Mr Lee, of St John's College, Cambridge, 1589. 1588 
 Pins firft ufed in England, before which time 
 
 the ladies ufed flcewers. 
 Iron cannon and mortars made ill England. 
 If «©. 
 
 O N O L O G Y. 
 
 Good lands let in England at one /hilling per acre. 
 
 The famous council of Trent begins, and conti- 
 nues 18 years. ^ 
 
 Firft law in England eftabliflitng the intereft of 
 money at 10 per cent. 
 
 The Reformation gained ground in Poland. 
 
 Lords Ueutenants of counties inftituted in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Horfe guards inftituted In England. 
 
 The bank of Venice eftabliftied about this time. 
 
 Books of geography and aftronomy deftroyed 
 
 in England, as being infeited with magic. 
 The book of Common Prayer eftablifhed in 
 
 Englaad by aft of ParHament. 
 The kingdom of Aftracan conquered by the 
 
 Ruffians. 
 
 The Ruffian company eftablifhed In England. 
 Queen Ehzabcth begins her reign. 
 The reformation In Scotland completed by John 
 Knox. 
 
 Livonia ceded to Poland. 
 Knives fii-ft made in England. 
 Revolt of the Low Countries. 
 Malta attacked by the Turks. 
 The 39 articles of the church of England efta- 
 bUftied. 
 
 Queen Mary impnfoned in England. 
 
 Liberty of cxercifing the reformed religion 
 
 granted to the Low Countries. 
 Royal Exchange firft built. 
 The ifland of Cyprus taken by the Turks. 
 They are defeated at Lepanto. 
 The great maffacre of Proteftants at Paris. 
 A new ftar in Caffiopieia obfei-ved by Cornelius 
 
 Gemma. It appeared in November, and dif- 
 
 appeared in March. 
 The exercife of the Proteftant religion authorl- 
 
 fed in France. This toleration followed by a 
 
 civil war. 
 
 The firft treaty of alliance betwixt England and 
 
 the States General, January 7th. 
 The Dutch fhake off the Spanifh yoke, and the 
 
 republic of Holland begins. 
 Englifh Eaft-India company incorporated — efta- 
 
 bliflied 1600. 
 
 Turky company Incorporated. 
 
 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage 
 
 round the world, being the firft Enghfh cir- 
 
 cumnaviorator. 
 Parochial regifter firft appointed in England. 
 The kingdom of Portugal feized by Philip of 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Copper money firft ufed in France. 
 
 Pope Gregory introduces the New Stile In Ita- 
 ly ; the 5th of Odober being counted 1 5. 
 
 Tobacco firft brought from Virginia into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The firft propofal of fettling a colony In Ame- 
 rica. 
 
 Maiy queen of Scots Is beheaded by order of 
 EHzabeth, after 18 years Imprifonment. 
 
 The Spanifh Armada deftroyed by Drake and 
 other EngUfh admirals. 
 
 Henry IV. paffes the edid of Nantes, tolera- 
 ting the Proteftants. 
 
 1588 
 
 After 
 
 Chrift. 
 
C H R O N 
 
 After 1588 Duelling witli fmaU fwords introduced into 
 Clirift. England. 
 
 Coaches firft introduced into England ; hackney 
 act 1693 ; increafed to 1000 in 1770. 
 
 1590 Band of pcnfioncrs inilituted iu England. 
 Telefcopes invented by Janfen, a fpediacle ma- 
 ker in Germany. 
 
 1591 Trinity college, Dublin, founded. 
 1593 A great plague in London. 
 1594. The Jefuits expelled from France. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Byr- 
 gius to be 23° 30'. 
 
 1595 The fame obferved by Tycho-Brache to be 
 
 2f 29' 25". 
 
 1596 A great earthquake at Japan. 
 
 1597 Watches firft brought into Eng'land from Ger- 
 
 many. 
 
 1598 The edid of Nantes by Henry IV. of France. 
 
 1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges. 
 
 1603 Queen Elizabeth (the lall of the Tudors) dies, 
 
 and nominates James VI. of Scotland as her 
 fucceffor ; which unites both kingdoms under 
 the name of Great Britain. 
 
 1605 The Gunpowder-plot difcovered at Weftmin- 
 
 fter ; being a proje6l to blow up the king and 
 both houfes of Parliament. 
 
 1606 Oaths of allegiance firll adminiftered in England. 
 
 1608 Colonies fent from England to Virginia. 
 
 1609 The independency of the United States ac- 
 
 knowledged by Spain. 
 
 1610 Galileo, of Florence, firtl difcovers the fatel- 
 
 lltes about the planet Jupiter, by the telefcope, 
 lately invented in Germany. 
 Henry IV. is murdered at Paris by Ravaillac, 
 xi prieft. 
 
 Thermometers invented by Diebel, a Dutchman. 
 
 161 1 Baronets firll created in England by James I. 
 
 May 22. 
 
 An earthquake at Conftantinople ; 200,000 
 pcrfons died there of the plague. 
 
 16 1 2 TJie north-weft pafTage to China attempted in 
 
 vai.i by the Englifh. 
 1 614 Napier of Marchellon, in Scotland, invents the 
 logarithms. 
 
 Sir Hugh Middleton brings the new river to 
 London from Ware. 
 161 6 The firft permanent fettlement in Virginia. 
 
 1 619 W. Harvey, an Enghftiman, confirms the doc- 
 
 trine of the circulation of the blood, which 
 had been firft broached by Servetius, a French 
 phyfician, in 1553. 
 
 1620 The broad filk raanufaAure from raw filk, in- 
 
 troduced into England. 
 Barbadoes difcovered by Sir William Courteen. 
 Navarre united to France. 
 Copper-money firft introduced in England. 
 
 1621 New England planted by the Puritans. 
 
 The two parties of Whigs and Tories formed in 
 England. 
 
 1622 The Palatinate reduced by the Imperialifts. 
 
 1623 The knights of Nova Scotia inftituted. 
 
 1624 MalTacre of the Enghfh at Amboyna. 
 
 1625 King James dies, and is fuccecded by his fon, 
 
 Charles I. 
 Vol, IV. l^ART XL 
 
 0 L O G Y. 769 
 
 1 625 The ifland of Barbadoes, the firft; Englifh fettle- After 
 
 ment in the Weft Indies, is planted. ChrA. 
 
 1631 The tranfit of Mercury over the fun's diflc, firft ' * ' 
 
 obferved by Gaflendi. 
 V A great eruption of Vefuvlus. 
 
 1632 The battle of Lutzen, m which Guftaviia Adol- 
 
 phus, king of Sweden, and head of the Pro- 
 teftants in Germany, is killed. 
 
 1633 Gahleo condemned by the Inquifition at Rome. 
 Louifiana difcovered by the French. 
 
 1635 Province of Maryland planted by Lord Balti- 
 
 more. 
 
 Regular pofts eftablifiied from London to Scot- 
 land, Ireland, &c. 
 
 1636 A tranfit of Mercury over-the fun's diflc obfer- 
 
 ved by Cafline. 
 
 1639 A tranfit of Venus over the fun's diflc, firft ob- 
 
 ferved by Mr Horrox, November ZAth. O. S. 
 3h 15' P. M. 
 
 1640 King Charles difobliges his Scottifti fubjefts; oa 
 
 which their army, under general Lcfley, en- 
 ters England, and takes Newcaftle, being en- 
 couraged by the malecontents in England. 
 
 The maffacre in Ireland, when 40,000 Englifh 
 Protellants were killed. 
 
 The independency of Portugal recovered hj 
 John duke of Braganza. 
 
 1642 King Charles impeaches five refraftory mem- 
 
 bers, which begins the civil wars in England. 
 
 1643 Excife on beer, ale, &c. firft impofed by par- 
 
 liament. ~ 
 Barometers invented by Torricelli. 
 
 1648 A new ftar obferved in the tail of the Whale by 
 
 Fabricius. 
 
 1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at Whitehall, 
 
 January 30, aged 49. 
 Pendulums firft applied to clocks by Huygens. 
 
 1651 The fed called ^miters appeared in England. 
 
 1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hone 
 
 eftabliftied. 
 
 1654 Cromwell affumes the proteilorflitp. 
 
 The air-pump invented by Otto Guerlcke uf 
 Magdeburg. 
 
 1655 The Englifh, under Admiral Penn, take Jamaica 
 
 from the Spaniards. 
 One of Saturn's fatellites obferved by Huygens. 
 1658 Cromwell dies, and isfucceeded In the protei^or- 
 fhip by his fon Richard. 
 
 1660 King Charles IL Is reftored by Monk, comman- 
 
 der of the army, after an exile of twelve years 
 in France and Holland. 
 The people of Denmark, being opprelTed by the 
 nobles, furrender their privileges to Frederic III 
 who becomes abfolute. 
 
 1 66 1 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Heve- 
 
 lius to be 23'-' 29' 7". 
 
 1662 The Royal Society eftabliflied at London by 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 1 663 Carolina planted : 1728, divided into two feparate 
 
 governments, 
 Pruffia declared independent of Poland. 
 J 664 The New Netherlands in North America con- 
 quered from the Swedes and Dutch by the 
 Englifh. 
 
 i E 1665 The 
 
CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off 1689 
 ' 68, coo perfons. 1690 
 
 The magic lantern indented by Kircher. 
 
 1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. and 1691 
 
 continued three days, in which were deftroyed 
 13,000 houfes and 400 ftreets. 
 Tea lirft ufed in England. 
 
 1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Eng- 1692 
 
 lifh the New Nethei-lands, now known by the 
 names of Pennfylvania, New York, and New 
 Jerfey. 
 
 1668 ditto, Aix la Chapelle. 
 
 St James's Park planted, and made a thorough- 
 fare for public ufe by Charles II. 
 
 1669 The ifland of Candia taken by the Turks. ~ 
 
 1670 The Englifh Hudfon's Bay company incorpora- 1693 
 
 ted. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Men- 
 goli to be 23° 28' 24' . 
 1672 Louis XIV. over-runs great part of Holland, 
 
 when the Dutch opened their fluices, being de- 1694 
 termined to drown their country and retire to 
 their fettltments in the Eaft Indies. 
 African company eftabliflied. 1696 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Richer 1 699 
 to be 230 28' 54". ' 
 
 1677 The micrometer invented by Kircher. 1700 
 
 1678 The peace of Nimeguen. 
 The habeas corpus aft palTed. 
 
 A ftrange darknefs at noon-day, Jan. T2. 170T 
 1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearnefs 
 to our earth alarmed the inliabitants. It con- 
 tinued vifible from Nov. 3. to March 9. 1702 
 William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for 
 planting Pennfylvania. 
 1683 India ftock fold from 360 to 500 per cent. 
 1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is fucceeded by 
 
 his brother James II. I/Oj 
 The Duke of Monmouth , natural fon to Charles II. 
 raifes a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle 1 704 
 of Sedgmore and beheaded. 
 The edift of Nantes is revoked by Louis XIV. 
 and the Proteftants are greatly diftrelTed. 
 x686 The Newtonian philofophy publilhed. 
 1687 The palace of Verfailles, near Paris, finilhed by 1706 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 3;688 The Revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5'. 
 King James abdicates, and retires to France, 
 December 3. 1707 
 King William and Queen Mary, daughter and 
 fon-in-Iaw to James, are proclaimed Februa- 1708 
 ry 16. 
 
 Vifcount Dundee ftands out for James in Scotland, 
 but is killed by General Mackay at the battle 
 of Killycrankie; upon which the Highlanders, 1709 
 wearied with repeated misfortunes, difperfe. 
 
 Smyrna deftroyed by an earthquake. 
 3689 The land-tax paffed in England. 
 
 The toleration-aft paiTed in ditto. 1710 
 
 Several bifhops are deprived for not taking the 
 oaths to William. 
 
 William Fuller, who pretended to prove the 
 Prince of Wales fpurious, was voted by the 
 commons to be a notorious cheat, impoftor, and 
 ialle accufe£. 
 
 Epifcopacy aboliflied in Scotland. 
 
 The battle of the Boyne, gained by William a- 
 
 gainft James, in Ireland. 
 The war in Ireland finifhed, by furrender of 
 
 Limerick to William. 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Flam- 
 
 ftead to be 23° 28 32". 
 The Englifh and Dutch fleets, commanded by 
 
 Admiral Ruffel, defeat the French fleet off 
 
 La Hogue. 
 
 The mafTacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Jan. 31. 
 O. S. 
 
 Earthquakes in England and Jamaica, Septem- 
 ber 8. 
 
 Hanover made an eleft orate of the empii-e. 
 Bayonets at the end of loaded muflcets firll ufed 
 
 by the French againil the confederates in the 
 
 battle of Turin. 
 Bank of England eftabliflied by King William. 
 The firft pubHc lottery was drawn this year. 
 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William 
 
 reigns alone. 
 Stamp duties inftituted in England. 
 The peace of Ryfwick. 
 
 The Scots fettled a colony at the ifthmus of Da- 
 rien in Amei'ica, and called it Caledonia. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign. 
 
 King James II. dies at St Germains in the 68th 
 year of his age. 
 
 PrufTia ercfted into a kingdom. 
 
 Society for the propagation of the gofpel in fo- 
 reign parts eftablifhed. 
 
 King William dies, aged 50, and is fucceeded by 
 Queen Anne, daughter to James II. who, with 
 the Emperor and States General, renews the 
 war againil France and Spain. 
 
 The French fent colonies to the MifRfippi. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Bian- 
 chini to be 23° 28' 25". 
 
 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by Admiral 
 Rooke. 
 
 The battle of Blenheim won by the Duke of 
 Marlborough and allies agalnft the French. 
 
 The court of Exchequer inftituted in England. 
 
 The treaty of Union betwixt England and Scot- 
 land, figned July 22. 
 
 The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough and- 
 the allies. 
 
 The lirft Britifli parliament. 
 
 The allies defeated at Almanza. 
 
 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by General 
 Stanhope. 
 
 The battle of Oudenarde won by Marlborough. 
 
 and the allies. 
 Peter the Great, czar of Mofcovy, defeats 
 
 Charles XI I.. at Poltowa, who flies to Turky. 
 The battle of Malplaquet wen by Marlborough 
 
 and the allies. 
 Queen Anne changes the Whig miniftry for 
 
 others more favourable to the inter eft of her 
 
 brother the late Pretender. 
 The cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt 
 
 by Sir Chriftopher Wren in 37 years, at one 
 
 mQlion expence, by a duty on coals. 
 The Englifh South-fea company began. 
 
 1712 Duke 
 
After 1712 
 
 Chrift. 
 
 — > 1713 
 
 1714 
 1715 
 
 1716 
 
 1718 
 1719 
 
 1720 
 
 1724 
 
 1727 
 
 1733 
 1736 
 
 1737 
 1738 
 
 1739 
 -1743 
 
 C H R O N O 
 
 Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun killed in a 1 743 
 duel in Hide-Park. ' 1744 
 
 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, 
 Nova Scotia, New Britainj and Hudfon's Bay, 1745 
 
 .in North America, were yielded to Great Bri- 
 tain ; Gibraltar and Minorca, in Europe, were 
 alfo confirmed to the faid crown by this treaty. 
 
 Queen Anne dies, at the age of 50, and is fuc- 174^ 
 ceeded by George I. 
 
 Intereft reduced to five per cent. 1 747 
 
 Louis XIV. dies, and is fucceeded by his great- 1 748 
 grandfon Louis XV. the late king of France. 
 
 The rebellion in Scotland begins in September 
 under the Earl of Mar, in favour of the Preten- 1 749 
 der. The aftion of Sheriffmuir, and the fur- 
 render of Prefton, both in November, when the 
 rebels difperfe. 
 
 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Lou- 1 750 
 ville to be 23° 28' 24". 1751 
 
 The Pretender married the princefs Sobiellca, 
 grand-daughter of John Sobieflci, late king of 
 Poland. ■ 1752 
 
 An aft paffed for feptennial parliaments. 
 
 Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to 1753 
 the duke of Savoy. 
 
 The MIffifippi fcheme at its height in France. 
 
 Lombe's filk-throwing machine, containing 1 754 
 26,586 wheels, erefted at Derby: takes up 
 one- eighth of a mile ; one water-wheel moves 
 the reft; and in 24 hours it works 3 1 8,504,960 ^755 
 yards of organzine filk thread. 
 
 The South- fea fcheme in England begun April 7. 
 was at its height at the end of June, and quite 1756 
 funk about September 29. 
 
 A great earthquake in China. 
 
 An earthquake in Denmark. 
 
 King George dies, in the 68th year of his age; 
 and is fucceeded by his only fon, George II. 
 
 Inoculation firft tried on criminals with fuccefs. 
 
 Ruffia, formerly a dukedom, is now eitabliflied ^757 
 as an empire. 
 
 The aberration of the fixed ftars difcovered and 
 accounted for by Dr Bradley. 
 
 KouU Khan ufurps the Perfian throne, conquers 
 the Mogul empire, and returns with two hun- 
 dred thirty-one millions Sterling. 
 
 Several public-fpirited gentleman begin the fet- 
 tlement of Georgia in North America. 
 
 The Jefuits expelled from Paraguay. 
 
 Capt. Porteous having ordered his foldiers to 
 fire upon the populace at an execution of a 
 fmugglcr, is himfelf hanged by the mob at E- 1 75^ 
 dinburgh, 
 
 A tranfit of Mercury obferved by Caffini. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane at the mouth of the Gan- 
 ges, Oft. 10. 
 
 Weftminfter-bridge, confiRing of 15 arches, be- 
 gun ; finifhed in 1750, at the expence of 
 389,0001. defrayed by parliament. 
 
 The order of St Januarius eftablifhed at Naples. J 759 
 
 Letters of marque iffued out in Britain againft 
 Spain July 2\. and war declared. Oft. 23. 
 
 The empire of Indoftan ruined by Kouli Khan. 
 
 An mtenfe froft in Britain. 
 
 The battle of Dettingen won by the Englifh and 
 allies in favour of the Queen of Hungary. 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 A dreadful plague in Sicily. 
 
 War declared againft France. — Commodore An- 
 fon returns from his voyage round the world. 
 
 The allies lofe the battle at Fontenoy. 
 
 The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the 
 Pretender's army defeated by the Duke of 
 Cumberland at CuUoden, April 16. 1746. 
 
 Britifti Linen Company erefted. 
 
 Lima deftroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 Kouli Khan murdered. 
 
 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which a re- 
 ftitution of all places taken during the war was 
 to be made on all fides. 
 
 The intereft; on the Britifti funds reduced to 
 3 per cent. 
 
 Britifli herring-fifhcry incorporated. 
 
 The colony of Nova Scotia founded. 
 
 Earthquake in England. 
 
 Frederic prince of Wales, father to his prefent 
 
 majefty, died. 
 Antiquarian fociety at London incorporated. 
 TJie new ftile introduced into Great Britain; the 
 
 3d of September being counted the 1 4th. 
 The Britifh mufeum erefted at Montague-houfe. 
 Society of arts, manufaftures, and commerce, 
 
 inftituted in London. 
 A dreadful eruption of mount ^tna. 
 A great earthquake at Conftantinople, Cairo, 
 
 &c. Sept. 2d. 
 Qu^ito in Peru deftroyed by an earthquake, 
 
 April 28th. 
 Lilbon deft;royed by an earthquake, Nov. ill. 
 146 Englifhmen are confined in the black hole 
 
 at Calcutta in the Eaft Indies by order of the 
 
 nabob, and 123 found dead next morning. 
 Marine fociety eftablifhed at London. 
 The King of Pruflia commenced hoftiHties in the 
 
 month of Auguft in Saxony. Defeats the Au- 
 
 ftrians at Lo. 
 
 Damien attempted to aflafllnate the French king. 
 
 The King of Pruflia invades Bohemia. Defeats 
 the Auftrians at Reichenbcrg, April 21ft, and 
 at Prague, May 6th. Repulfed by Count Daun 
 at Kolin, June 1 Sch. 
 
 The allies defeated by the French at Haftenbeck, 
 July 26th. 
 
 Convention of Clofter Seven, Sep. 8th. 
 
 The King of Pruflia defeats the French and Au- 
 ft-rians at Rolbach, Nov. 5. The Pruffians de- 
 feated near Breflaw, Nov. 2 2d, The Auftrians 
 defeated at Lifla, Dec. 5th. 
 
 Senegal taken by the Britifh, May ift. They 
 take Louifbourg, July 27th. 
 
 The King of Pruflia defeats the Rufllans at 
 Zorndorf, Auguft 25th. Is defeated by Count 
 Daun at Hoch-kirchen, Oft. 14th. 
 
 Goree taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 29th. 
 
 Attempt to aifaflinatc the King of Portugal, 
 Dec. 3. 
 
 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec, 
 
 which is gained by the Britifti. 
 The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at 
 
 Bergen, April 13th. 
 Gaudaloupe taken by the Britifii, May ifl;. 
 King of Pruflia defeated by the Ruflians at Cu- 
 
 nerfdorf, Aug. 1 2th. 
 
 5 E 2 1759 The 
 
C H R O N 
 
 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admh-al Hawke, 
 
 Nov. 20th. 
 
 Balbec and Ti ipoli dellroyed by an earthquake, 
 Dec. 5 th. 
 
 1760 King George II. dies Oftober 25th, in the 77th 
 
 year of his age, and 13 fucceeded by his prefent 
 majc-fty, who, on the 2 2d of September 1761, 
 married the princefs Charlotte of Mecklenburgh 
 Strelitz. 
 
 Blackfriarsj-bridge, confifling of 9 arches, be- 
 gun; finifhed 1770, at the expence of i52,>!!.*«l, 
 to be difchargcd by a toll. 
 
 A tranfit of Venus over the fun June 6th. 
 
 Earthquakes in Syria Oft. 13th. 
 
 The King of Pruffia defeats the Auftrians at 
 Torgau Nov. 3d. 
 1-761 Pondicherry taken by Col, Coote Jan, 15th. 
 
 Belleifle furrendeied to the Britifh Feb. 4th. 
 *762 War declared againft Spain. 
 
 Peter III. emperor of RulSa, is depofed, impri- 
 foned, and murdered, 
 
 American philofophical fociety eftablifhed in Phi- 
 ladelphia. 
 
 George Auguftus Frederic, prince of Wales, 
 
 born Aug. 12th. 
 Martinico furrendered to the Britifh Feb. 4th. 
 Havannah furrendered to ditto Aug, 12th. 
 Manilla taken by ditto 0€t. 6th. 
 
 1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great 
 
 Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, conclu- 
 ded at Paris February icth; which confirms to 
 Great Britain the extenfive provinces of Cana- 
 da, Eafl and Wefl Florida, and part of Loui- 
 fiana, in North America ; alfo the iflands of 
 Granada, St Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, 
 in the Well Indies. 
 The Jefuits e.*ipelled from France. 
 
 1764 The parliament granted 1 0,000 1. to Mr Har- 
 
 rifon for his difcovery of the longitude by his 
 
 time-piece. 
 Famine and pellilence in Italy. 
 An earthquake at Lifbon. 
 
 1765 His majelly's royal charter paffed for incorpora- 
 
 ting the fociety of artiils. 
 An afl pafTfd annexing the fovereignty of the 
 ifland of Man to the crown of Great Britain. 
 
 1 766 April 2 1 ft, a fpot or macula erf the fun, more than 
 
 thrice the bignefs of our earth, paffed the fun'^s 
 centre. 
 
 The American ftamp-aft repealed March i8th. 
 A great earthquake at Conftantinople. 
 The Jefuite expelled from Bohemia and Den- 
 mark. 
 
 J767 The Jefuits expelled from Spain, Venice, and 
 Genoa, April 2d. 
 Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earthquake. 
 The Proteftants tolerated in Poland Nov. 2d. 
 J 768 Academy of painting eftablifhed in London. 
 
 The Turks imprlfon the Ruflian ambaffador, and 
 declare war againft that empire. 
 The Jefuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and 
 Parma. 
 
 1769 Paoli fled from Corfn^a June 13th. The iiland 
 then reduced by the French. 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 1770 An earthquake at St Domingn. 
 
 1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, In his majcfty^s fltip 
 
 the Endeavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a ' 
 voyage round the world, having made feveral 
 important difcoveries in the Southfeas. 
 An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from the 
 coafts of the Cafpian Sea to the frontiers of 
 China. 
 
 1772 The King of Sweden changes the conftitution 
 
 from arillocracy to a limited monarchy. 
 The Pretender marries a princefs of Germany, 
 grand-daughter of Thomas late Earl of Aylef- 
 bury. 
 
 The Emperor of Germany, Emprefs of Ruftia, 
 and the King of Pruffia, ftrip the King of Po- 
 land of a great part of his dominions, which 
 they divide among themfelves, in violation of 
 the moft folemn treaties. 
 
 1773 Captain Phipps is fent to explore the North 
 
 Pole; but having made 81 degreed, is in danger 
 of being locked up by the ice, and his attempt 
 to difcover a paflage in that quarter proves 
 frultlefs. 
 
 The Englifh Eaft India company having, by con- 
 queft or treaty, acquiied the extenfive pro- 
 vinces of Bengal, Orix'i, and Bahar, contain- 
 ing 15 millions of inhabitants, gieat i^regula- 
 rities are committed by their fervants abroad 
 upon which government interferes, and fends 
 out judges, 8cc. for the better adminiflration 
 of juftice. 
 
 The war between the Ruffians and the Turks 
 proves difgraccful to the latter, who lofe the 
 iflands in the Archipelago, and by the fsa are 
 every where unfuccefsful. 
 
 The fociety of Jefuits fuppreffed by the Pope*s 
 bull Auguft 25th. 
 
 1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Ruffians and 
 
 the Turks. 
 
 The Britilh parliament having pafrtd an aft lay- 
 ing a duty of 3d. J)er pound upon all teas im- 
 ported into America, the coloniRs, coiifidering 
 this as a grievance, deny the right of the Britilh 
 parliament to tax them. 
 
 The American colonies fend deputies to Philaf 
 delphia, who affume the title of T^he Coagrefs of 
 the TJj'trteen United Provinces^ and all the powers ■ 
 of government. 
 
 1775 The American war commences. Action at^ 
 
 Bunker's Hill June 7th. 
 The Spaniard's land near Algiers and are de- 
 feated July 8th. 
 
 1776 The congrefs declare the United Siatesof Ame- 
 
 rica independent' of the crown and parliament 
 of Great" Britain. 
 The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at 
 Long-Ifland Auguft 27th. 
 I7'77 Philadelphia taken by the Britifli OA. 3d. 
 
 General Biirgoyne with his army furreuder to 
 the Americans. 
 1779 A moft extraordinary eruption of Vcfuvius Au- 
 guft 8th. 
 
 The fiege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards 
 July 8th. 
 
 1 78* 
 
 After 
 
 Chrift. 
 
C H R O N 
 
 AfV.cr 1780 Jan. f4t>i, 6 h. A.M. the thermometer fufpend- 
 Chrift. ed in the open air at Glafgow, flood at 460 be- 
 
 v~"~~ low o. 
 
 The Spanifh fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney 
 Jan. i6tb. 
 
 Charlefton furrendered to the Britifh May i 2th. 
 A dreadful infnrre£tiou in London, and riots in 
 
 muny other places of the ki'igdom. 
 A great number of Britifh ihips taken by the 
 
 combined fle.-ts of France and Spam. 
 Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Cam- 
 den. 
 
 A- dreadful hurricane in the Leeward Iflanda 
 Oa. 9th. 
 
 An extraordinary ftorm of wind in England. 
 War declared againlt the Dutch Dec. 20th. 
 
 1781 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and 
 Britifh fleets near the Dogger B'ank Aug. 5. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis with his army furrender to the 
 united forces of France and America OA. i 8th. 
 
 1782 Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards Februa- 
 ry 4th. 
 
 The Erendt fleet under De Grafle defeated 
 
 O L O G Y. 773 
 
 and almoft deftroyed by Admiral Rodney After 
 April 1 2th. ^ ^ ' ^ 
 
 The Spanifh floating batteries before Gibraltar ~ * • 
 rtirely deftroyed Sept. 12th. 
 J783 I Jminaries of a general peace figned. Ame- 
 rica declared independeui Jan. 20th. 
 
 A dreadful earthquake, attended with many exi- 
 traordinary circumftances, in Italy and Sicily. 
 
 The fun obfcured by a kind of fog during the 
 whole fummer. 
 
 A volcanic eruption in Iceland furpafling any. 
 thing recorded in hiitory. The lava fpouted 
 up in three places to the height of two miles- 
 perpendicular, and continued thus for two 
 months ; diuing which time it covered a traft 
 of 3600 fquare miles of ground, in fome places 
 more than )oo feet deep. 
 
 A large meteor appears to the northward of 
 Shetland, and takes its direction fouthwardj 
 with a velocity little inferior to tlxat of the 
 earth in its annual courfe round the fun. Its 
 tra£l. obferved for more than 1000 miles. 
 
 IChro.Mome- CHRONOMETER, in. general, denotes any in- 
 ter, flrument or. machine ufed in meafuriug time ; fuch are 
 
 '^t dials, clocks, watches, iffc. See Dial, iffc. 
 
 The term chronometer, however, is generally ufed 
 in a more limited fenfe, for a kind of clock fo contri- 
 ved as to meafure a fmall portion of time with great 
 exaftnefs, even to the fixteenth part of a fecond : of 
 fuch a one there is a defcription in Defagulier's ex- 
 perimental philofophy, invented by the late injgemotis 
 Mr George Graham ; which muft be allpvved to be 
 of great ufe for meafuring fmall portions of time in 
 aflroiiomical obfervations, the time of the fall of bo- 
 dies, the velocity of rimning waters, iffc. But long 
 fT)aces of time cannot be meafurcd by it with fuffiicient 
 exaftnefs, unlefs its pendulum be made to vibrate in 
 a cycloid ; becaufe, otherwife it is liable to err conii- 
 derably, as all clocks are which have fliort pendulums 
 that fwing in large arches of a circle. 
 
 There have been feveral machines contrived for 
 pieafuring time, under the nam.e of chrouomciers, up- 
 on principles tery different from thofe on which decks 
 and watches are conflrufted. 
 
 Plate CXXXVI. fig. i • reprefents an air-chronome- 
 ter, which is conftru6tcd in the following manner. Pro- 
 vide a glafatube of about an inch in diameter, and three 
 or f ur feet long: the diameter of the inlide of this tube 
 muft be precifely equal in every part : at the bottom 
 muft be a fmall hole, clofely covered with a valve. In 
 the tube place a piflon E, fig. 2. which Is made to fit 
 it exa6tly, and muft be oiled, that it may m.ove in the 
 tube with the greatcft freedom : in this piflon there 
 is a cock that ihuts quite clofe; and from the top of It 
 there goes a cord F, which pafTes through the handle 
 G. The cock of the pifton being clofed, it is to be 
 kt down to the bottom of the tube, and being then 
 drawn up to the top, the air will then rufli in by the 
 valve at the bottom of the tube, and fupport the pif- 
 ton. You are then to turn the cock, fo as to make a 
 sery faiaU vent ; and the air painag fluwly througU 
 
 that vent, the pifton w-ill gradually defccnd, and'fliow Chronome-i 
 the hour, either by lines cut in the tube with a dia- ^^J' ^ 
 mond, or marked with paini, or by fmall flips of pa- 
 per painted on tlie glafs.. If this chronometer fliould 
 go too faft or too flow, it may be ealily regulated by 
 altering the pofition of the cock In the pifton, as it is 
 on that the whole depends. 
 
 If, inftead of marking the tube, you would have 
 tlie time fhown. by a dial, it may be ealjly effeftedby 
 placing an axis to which the hand of the dial is fixed, 
 direftly ever the tube, and winding the ftring to 
 which the pifton is joined round that axis ; for then,, 
 as the pifton- dcfcend.s, the r.xis will gradually turn- 
 the hand, and ftiow the hour; but it muft be obferved, 
 that as the defcent of the pifton is not conttantly re- 
 gular, on account (jf the decreaf'e of reiiftance from 
 the quantity of the lul^jacent air as the pifton defcends^, 
 the axis therefore muil not be a regular cylinder, but 
 conical hke the fufee of a vv'atch, ,as in fig. 3. by which-; 
 means the motion of the hand of the dial will be con-- 
 ftant and regular. , 
 
 Fig. 4. reprefents a lamp-chronometer. It confifts 
 of a chamber lamp A, which is a cyhndrical veffel a- 
 bout three inches high, and one inch diameter, placed.; 
 in the ftand B. The infide of this veffel muft be every, 
 v.^here • exadly of the fame diameter. To the ftand 
 B is fixed the handle C,. which fupports the frame 
 DEFG, about 12 inches high, and four wide. This 
 frame is to be covered with oiled paper, and divided, 
 into twelve equal parts by horizontal lines ; at the 
 end of which are wrote the numbers for the hours^o 
 from I to 12, and between the horizontal lines are.; 
 diagonals that are divided into halves, quarters, iffc^^ 
 On the handle B, and dole to the glafs, is fixed the. 
 ftyle or gnomon H.. Now, as the diftance of the 
 ftyle from the flame of the lamp is only half an inch^., 
 if the diftaftce of the frame from the (lyle is only fijt . 
 inches, then, while the float that contains the light, 
 defcends, by the decreafe of the oil, one inch, the ■ 
 
 fhadow.' 
 
C H R 
 
 [ 
 
 Chronome- fliadow of the ftyle on the frame will afcend twelve 
 ^^J' inches, that is, its whole length, and /how by its pro- 
 Chryfa. gfeffion the regular increafe of the hours, with their 
 
 * I y feveral divifions. It is abfolutely neceflfary, however, 
 that the oil ufed in this lamp be always of the fame 
 fort and quite pure, and that the wick alfo be con- 
 'ftantly of the fame fize and fubftance, as it is on thefe 
 •circumftanccs, and the uniform figure of the veffel, 
 that the regular progrefs of the fliadow depends. 
 
 Chronometer, among muficians, an inftrument 
 invented by Loulie, a French mufician, for the pur- 
 pofe of msafuring time by means of a pendulum. The 
 ■form of the inftrument, as defcribed by him, is that of 
 an Ionic pilafter, and is thus defcribed by Malcolm in 
 his Treatife of Mufic, p. 407. — " The chronometer 
 'Confifts of a large ruler or board, fix feet or 72 inches 
 long, to be fet on end ; it is divided into its inches, 
 and the numbers fet fo as to count upwards ; and at 
 every divifion there is a fmall round hole, through 
 whofe centre the line of divifion runs. At the top of 
 this ruler, about an inch above the divifion 72, and 
 perpendicular to the ruler, is iiiferted a fmall piece of 
 wood, in the upper fide of wliich there is a groove, 
 hollowed along from the end that ftands out to that 
 which is fixed in the ruler, and near each end of it a 
 hole is made : through thefe holes a pendulum cord . is 
 drawn, which runs in the groove : at that end of the 
 cord which comes through the hole furtheft from the 
 ruler, the ball is hung; and at the other end there is 
 a fmall wo6den pin, which can be put in any of the 
 lioles of the ruler : when the pin is in the upmoft hole 
 at 72, then the pendulum from the top to the centre 
 of the ball muft be exaftly 72 inches ; and therefore, 
 whatever hole of the ruler it is put in, the pendulum 
 ■will be juft fo many inches as that figure at the hole 
 denotes. The manner of ufing the machine is this : 
 The compofer lengthens or fhortens his pendulum, till 
 one vibration be equal to the defigned length of his 
 bar, and then the pin Hands ait a certain divifion, 
 •\i'hich marks the length of the pendulum ; and this 
 number being fet with nhe cHff at the beginning of 
 the fong, is a direftlon for others how to ufe the 
 chronometer in meafuring the time according to the 
 compofcr's defign : for with the number is fet the 
 note, crotchet, or minim, whofe value he v/ould have 
 the vibration to be ; which in brifk duple time is belt 
 a minim or half bar, or even a whole bar, when that 
 is but a minim; and in flow time a crotchet. In 
 triple time, it would do well to be the third part or 
 "half, or fourth part of a bar; and in the fimple triples 
 that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And if, in 
 every time that .is allegro, the vibration is applied to 
 a whole or half bar, praftice will teach us to fubdi- 
 vide it juftly and equally. Obferve, that, to make 
 this machine of unlverfal ufe, fome canonical meafure 
 •of the divifions muft be agreed upon, that the figure 
 -may give a certain direction for the length of, the 
 pendulum. 
 
 CHROSTASIMA, in natural hiftory, a genus of 
 pellucid gems, comprehending all thofe which appear 
 of one fimple and permanent colour in all lights ; fuch 
 are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyft, 
 iapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia- 
 ;ivioND, -Carbuncle, B'c. " 
 
 sCHRYSA, {anc. geog.), a town of Myfia, on the 
 
 774 I - C H R 
 
 finus- Adramyttenus ; extinft in Pliny's time : it had Chryraltg 
 a temple of Apollo Smintheus (Homer, Strabo). The — ~V~— 
 country of the fair Chryfeis, who gave firft rife to the 
 quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles. 
 
 CHRYSALIS, or AuRELiA, in natural hiftory, a 
 ftate of reft and feeining infenfibility, which butter- 
 flies, moths, and feveral other kinds of infefts, muft 
 pafs through before • they arrive at their winged or 
 moft perfeft ftate. 
 
 In this ftate, no creatures afford fo beautiful a va- 
 riety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pafs through 
 this middle ftate without one exception, The figure 
 of the aurelia or chryfalis generally appi-oaches to that 
 of a cone, or at ieaft the hinder part of it is in this 
 fhape ; and the creature, while in this ftate, feeras to 
 have neither legs nor wings, nor has any power of 
 walking. It feems indeed to have hardly fo much as 
 life. It takes no nourifhment in this ftate, noV has it any 
 organs for taking any ; and indeed its pofterior part is 
 all that feems animated, this having a power of giving 
 itfelf fome motions. The external covering of the 
 chryfalis is cartilaginous, and confiderably large, and 
 is ulually fmooth and gloffy : but fome few of them 
 have a few hairs,; fome are alfo as hairy as the cater- 
 pillars from which they are produced ; and others 
 are rough, and, as it were, fhagreencd all over. 
 
 In all of thefe there may be diftinguiflied two fides; 
 the one of which is the back, the other the belly of the 
 animah On the anterior part of the latter, there 
 may always be diftinguiflied certain Httle elevations 
 running in ridges, and refembling the fillets wound 
 about mummies : the part whence thefe have their 
 origin, is efteemed the head of the animal. The other 
 fide, or back, is fmooth, and of a rounded figure in 
 moft of the chryfalifes ; but fome have ridges on the 
 anterior part, and fides of this part ; and thefe ufually 
 terminate in a poini, and make an angular appearance 
 on the chryfalis. 
 
 From this difference is dr-awn the firft genei-al dif- 
 tinftion of thefe bodies. They are by this divided into 
 two claftes ; the round and the angular kinds. The 
 firft are, by the Fi-ench naturalifts, called fews ; fi-om 
 the common cuftom of calling the chryfalis of the filk- 
 worm, which is round, by this name. ^ 
 
 There is foi-nething moix regular in this diftindion 
 than might at firft be conceived ; for the divifion is 
 continued from the fly-ftate : the rounded chryfahfes 
 being almoft all produced by the phalena or moths ; 
 and the angular ones by the papUios, or day-flies. 
 There ai-e feveral fubordinate diltincfions of thefe 
 kinds ; but, in general, they are kfe tWfferent from 
 one another than the caterpillars from whei-ice they are 
 produced. 
 
 The head of thofe of the fii^ft clafs ufually termi- 
 nates itfelf by two angular parts, which fland feparate 
 one from the other, and refemble a pair of horns. 
 On the back, eminences and marks are difcovei-ed, 
 which imagination may for-m into eyes, nofe, chin, 
 and other parts of the human face. 
 
 There is a great variety and a great deal of beauty 
 in the figures and arrangement of the eminences and 
 fpots on the other part of the body of the chryfalifes of 
 different kinds. It is a general obfervation, that thofe 
 chryfalifes which are terminated by a Angle horn, af- 
 ford day-butterflies of the kind of thofe which have 
 
 buttoned 
 
G H R 
 
 hryfalis. buttoned antennse, and whofe wings, in a ftate of reft, 
 cover the under part of their body, and which ufe all 
 their fix legs in walking, thofe of many other kinds 
 ufmg only four of them. Thofe chryfalifcs which are 
 terminated by two angular bodies, and which are co- 
 vered with a great number of fpines, and have the fi- 
 gure of a human face on their back in the greateft 
 perfedlion, afford butterflies of the day-kind ; and of 
 that clafs the chara£lers of which are, their walking 
 on four legs, and ufing the other two, that is, the an- 
 terior part, in the manner of arms or hands. The 
 chryfalifes which have two angular bodies on their 
 heads, but fhorter than thofe of the preceding, and 
 whofe back fhows but a faint flcetch of the human face, 
 and which have fewer fpines, and thofe lefs fharp, 
 always turn to that fort of butterfly the upper wings 
 of which are divided into fegments, one of which is 
 fo long as to reprefent a tail, and whofe under wings 
 are folded over the upper part of the back. A careful 
 obfervation will eilabliflii many more rules of this kind, 
 which are not fo perfeft as to be free from all excep- 
 tions ; yet are of great ufe, as they teach us in gene- 
 ral what fort of fly we are to expeft from the chryfalis, 
 of which we know not the caterpillar^ and therefore 
 can only judge from appearances. 
 
 Thefe ai-e the principal differences of the angular 
 chryfalifes ; the round ones alfo have their different 
 marks not lefs regular than thofe. 
 X The greater number of the round chryfalifes have 
 the hinder part of their body of the fig\ire of a cone ; 
 but the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane 
 bafe, is ufually bent and rounded into a fort of knee : 
 this is ufually called the head of the chryfalis ; but 
 there are alfo fome of this kind, the head of which is 
 terminated by a nearly plane furface : fome of the 
 creeping ten-legged caterpillars give chryfahfes of this 
 kind, which have each of them two eminences that 
 feem to bring them towards the angular kind. 
 
 Among the angular chryfalifes there are fome whofe 
 colours feem as worthy our obfervation as the fhapes 
 of the others. Many of them appear fuperbly clothed 
 in gold. Thefe elegant fpecies have obtained the 
 name of chryfalis and aurelia^ which are derived from 
 Greek and Latin words, fignifying gold ; and from 
 thefe all other bodies of the fame kind have been cal- 
 led by the fame names, though lefs, or not at all, in- 
 titled to them. As fome kinds are thus gilded all 
 over, fo others are ornamented with this gay appear- 
 ance in a more fparing manner, having only a few 
 fpots of it in different places on their back and belly. 
 Thefe obvious marks, however, are not to be de- 
 pended upon as certain charafters of diftinftion: for 
 accidents in the formation of the chryfalis may alter 
 them ; and thofe which naturally would have been 
 gilded all over, may be fometimes only fo in part ; 
 and either thefe or the others may, by accident, be fo 
 formed, as to fiiow nothing of this kind at all, but be 
 only of a- dufl<y brown. Thofe, however, which have 
 neither filvcr nor gold to recommend them to your 
 eyes, do not want other colours, and thofe beautifully 
 variegated. Some of them are all over of an elegant 
 green, as is the chryfalis of the fennel-caterpillar; 
 others of an elegant yellow ; and fome of a bright 
 greenifli tinge, variegated with fpots of a fliining 
 black :, we have a very beautiful inilance of this laft 
 
 [ 775 1 
 
 C H R 
 
 kind in the chryfalis of the elegant cabbage -caterpillar. Chryf?.!!?. 
 The general colour of the chryfalis of the common v™"^ 
 butterflies, however, is brown. 
 
 Some are alfo of a fine deep black ; and of thefe 
 many are fo fmooth and gloffy, that they are equal to' 
 the finefl: Indian japan. The common caterpillar of 
 the fig-tree gives an inftance of one ,pf thefe moft. 
 beautiful gloffy ones ; the caterpillar of the vine af- 
 fords another of thefe fine black chryfahfes. 
 
 The rounded chryfalifes do not afford any thing of 
 that variety of colouring fo remarkably beautiful in 
 the angular ones; they are ufually of a duflcy yellow, 
 in different fliades, and are often varioufly fpottcrl 
 with black : but thefe, as well as all other chryfalifes, 
 before they arrive at their fixed colour, pafs through 
 feveral other temporary ones ; fome being of a diffe- 
 rent colour when firfl: produced from the caterpillar, 
 from what tliey are a few days afterwards ; and fome 
 varying fo greatly, though only in degree, as not to 
 be diftinguifliable, even by the mofl; converfant eye, 
 from what they were when firfl; produced. The 
 green rough caterpillar of the cabbage has a chryfalis 
 which is green at firfl: ; and from that gradually goes 
 through all the fliades of green to a faint yellow, 
 which is its laltiiig colour ; and one of the oak cater- 
 pillars yields a chryfalis beautifully fpotted with red at 
 its firfl; appearance ; but thefe fpots change to brown 
 for their fixed colour: the third day from their for- 
 mation ufually fixes their lafting colours ; and if they 
 are obferved to turn black in any part after this time, 
 it is a fign that they are dead or dying. 
 
 The feveral fpecies of infedls, as a fly, fpider, and 
 an ant, do not differ more evidently from one ano- 
 ther in regard to appearance, than do a caterpillar, 
 its chryfalis, and a butterfly produced from it ; yet it 
 is certain, that thefe are all the produdl of the fame 
 individual egg; and nothing is more certain, than 
 that tht creature which was for a while a caterpillar, 
 is, after a certain time, a chryfalis, and then a but- 
 terfly. Thefe great changes produc-jd in fo fudden a 
 manner, feem like the metarnorphofes i-ecorded in the 
 fables of the ancients ; and indeed it is not improbable 
 that thofe fables firft took their origin from fuch 
 changes. 
 
 The parts being diftinguifliable in the chryfalis, we 
 eafily find the difterence of the fpecies of the fly that 
 is to proceed from it. The naked eye fliows whether 
 it be one of thofe that have, or of thofe that have not,, 
 a trunk ; and the aflifl;ance of a mierofcope fliows the 
 antennas fo diftinftly, that we are able to difcern whe- 
 ther it belongs to the day or night clafs ; and often to 
 what genus, if not the very fpecies : nay, in the plu- 
 mofe horned kinds,, we may fee, by the antennae, 
 whether a male or female phalasna is to be produced 
 from the chryfahs ; the horns of the female being in 
 this ftate evidently narrower, and appeariiig lefs ele- 
 vated above tlie common furface of the body, than 
 thofe of the male. 
 
 All thefe parts of the chryfalis, however, though 
 feen very diftinftly, are laid clofe to one another, an'd 
 feem to form only one mafs; each of them is covered 
 with its own peculiar membrane in this ftate, and all. 
 are furrouoded together by a common one ; and it is 
 only through thefe that we fee them ; or rather we 
 fee on thefe the figures of all the parts moulded within,. 
 
 and- 
 
G H R [ 776 ] 
 
 CIiryfaIi-\ and thtt-efore It requires attetitiola to dillinguiih them, in all the 
 """y^ The chryfalis is foft when firll produced, and is wet- 
 ted on the front with a vifcous liquor; its fkin, though 
 Very tender at firft, dries and hardens by degrees : 
 but this vifcous liquor, which furrounds the wings, 
 legs, Off. hardens almoll immediately; and in confe- 
 quence faftenr. all thofe Umbs, cifr. into a mafs, which 
 were bfefore loofe from one another : this liquor, as 
 it hardens, lofes its tranfparence, and becomes brown; 
 fo that it is only while it is yet moiil that thefe parts 
 are to be feen diftincA, 
 
 It is evident from the wholfc, that the chryfalis Is 
 ho other than a butterfly, the parts of which are hid 
 under certain membranes which fallen them together; 
 and, when the limbs are arrived at their due ilrength, 
 they become able to break through thefe membranes, 
 and then expand and aiTange themfelves in their pro- 
 per order. 
 
 The firft; raetamorphofis, therefore, differs nothing 
 from the fecond, except that the butterfly comes from 
 the body of the caterpillar in a weak ft ite, with limbs 
 unable to perform their offices, whereas it comes from 
 the chryfalis perfe6l. 
 
 M. Reaumur has given us many curious obferva- 
 tions on the ftruAure and ufes of the feveral cover- 
 ings that attend the varieties of the caterpillar-kind in 
 this ftate. 
 
 The creatures in general remain wholly immove- 
 able in this ftate, and feem to have no buflnefs in it 
 but a patient attendance on the time when they are 
 to become butterflies ; and this is a change that can 
 happen to them, only as their part«, before extremely 
 foft and weak, are capable of hardening and becoming 
 firm by degrees, by the tranfpiration of that abundant 
 humidity which before kept them foft : and this is 
 proved by an experiment of M. Reaumur, who, inclo- 
 fmg fomc chryfalifes in a gkfs tube, found, after fome 
 time, a fmall quantity of water at the b(^ttom of it ; 
 which could have come there no other way, but from 
 the body of the mclofed animal. This tranfpiration 
 depends greatly on the tempevatvu-e of the air; it is 
 increafed by heat, and diminifhed by cold ; but it has 
 alfo its peculiarities in regard to the feveral fpecies 
 of butterfly to which the chryfalis belongs 
 
 C H R 
 
 former, tlie i]<in opening at the back, and Chryfa) 
 
 Hljlity of 
 JnfsSis, 
 vol. i. 
 
 p. a. — 28 
 
 According to thefe obfervations, the time of the 
 duration of the animal in the chryfalis ftate muft be, 
 in different fpecies, very different ; and there is in- 
 deed this wide difference in the extremes, that fome 
 
 the animal making its way out in tiiis fliape. If a ca- 
 terpillar, wheu about to throw off this laft fl<in, be 
 throv/n into fpirits of wine, and left there for a few 
 days, the membranes within will harden, and the 
 creature may be afterwards carefully opened, and the 
 chryfalis taken out, in which the form of the tender 
 butterfly may be traced in all its lineaments, and its 
 eyes, legs, ilfc. evidently feep. It is not neccffaiy,, 
 however, to feize upon this exa£l time for proving 
 the exittence of the chryfalis or butterfly in the cater- 
 pillar : for if one of thefe animals be thrown into fpl- 
 rlt of wine, or into vinegar, fome days before that 
 time, and left there for the flefli to harden, it may af- 
 -terwards be diffefted, and all the lineaments of the 
 butterfly traced out in it; the wings, legs, antennas, 
 being as evident here, and as large, as in the chry- 
 falis. 
 
 It is very plain from this, that the change of the 
 caterpillar into chryfalis is not the work of a moment; 
 but is carrying on for a long time before, even from 
 the very hatching of the creature from the egg. The 
 parts of the butterfly, however, are not difpofed ex- 
 aftly in the fame manner while in the body of the ca- 
 terpillar, as when left naked in the form of the chry- 
 falis : for the wings are proportionally longer and 
 narrower, being wound up into the form of a cord ; 
 and the antennas are rolled up on the head; the trunk 
 is alfo twifted up and laid upon the head ; but this in 
 a very different manner from what it is in the pcrfctl 
 animal, and very different from that in which it lies 
 within the chryfalis ; fo that the firft formation of the 
 butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro- 
 per change of the difpofition of its parts, in order to 
 its being a chryi'alis. The very eggs, hereafter to be 
 depofited by the butterfly, arc alfo to be found not 
 only in the chryfalis, but in the caterpillar itfelf, ah>* 
 ranged in their natural, regular order. They are in- 
 deed in this ftate very fmall and tranfparent ; but af- 
 ter the change into the chryfalis, they have their pro- 
 per colour. 
 
 As foon as the feveral parts of the butterfly, there- 
 fore, are arrived at a fl:ate proper for being expofed 
 to the more open air, they are thrown out from tJie 
 body of the caterpillar furrounded only with their 
 membranes ; and as foon as they are arrived after 
 this at a proper degree of ftrength and folidity, they 
 labour to break through thefe thinner coverings, and 
 
 fpecies remain only eight days In this ftate, and others to appear In their proper and natural form. ^ The 
 eight months. ^ _ " ^ j— -i- - n.--~ 
 
 We know that the caterpillar changes its il<In four 
 or five times during its living in that ftate ; and that 
 all thefe Iklns are at firft produced with it from the 
 egg, lying clofely over one another. It parts with, 
 or throws off all ' thefe one by one, as the butterfly, 
 which Is the real animal, all this time within, grows 
 more and more pcrfeft In the feveral firft changes. 
 When it throws off one, it appears in another flvin ex- 
 aftly of the fame form 5 but at its final change from 
 this appearance, that is, when it throws off the laft 
 fldn, as the creature within Is now arrived at fuch a 
 
 time of their duration in this ftate of chryfalis is very 
 uncertain, fome remaining in It only a few days, 
 oihers feveral months, and fome almoft a year In ap- 
 pearance. But there is a fallacy In this that many are 
 Hot aware of. It is natural to think, that as foon as 
 t\ie creatiu-e has inclofed itfelf in its fiitll, be that of 
 what matter it will, it undergoes its change Into the 
 chryfalis ftate. And this is the cafe with the gene- 
 ralitv : yet there are fomc which are eight or nine 
 months in the fhell before they become chryfalifes ; fo 
 that their duration in the real chryfalis ftate is much 
 fliorter than it naturally appears to be. M. Reaumur 
 
 degree of perfeftion as to need no farther taking of carefully watched the auriculated caterpillar of the 
 
 nourifliment, there is no farther need of teeth, or any oak in its feveral clianges, and particularly from its 
 
 of the other parts of a caterpillar. The creature, in . chryfalin, which is of this laft kind, into the fly ; and 
 
 this laft change, proceeds in the very fame manner as has given an account of the method of this as an In- 
 
 N=8o. 4 fiance 
 
C H R [ . 
 
 ftancc of tlie general courfe of nature in thefe opera 
 — tions. 
 
 The membranes which envelope the Creature in 
 this chryfalis ftate are at firft tough and firm, and im- 
 mediately toucli the feveral parts of the inclofed ani- 
 mal ; but by degrees, as thefe parts harden, they be- 
 come covered, fume with hairs, and others with fcales. 
 Thefe, as they continue to grow, by degrees fall off 
 the feveral particular membranes which cover the 
 parts on which they are placed, to a greater diftance, 
 and by degrees loofen them from the limbs. This is 
 one reafon of thofe membranes drying and becoming 
 brittle. 
 
 The middle of the upper part of the corselet is 
 ufually marked with a line which runs in a longitudi- 
 nal diredlion ; and this part is always more elevated 
 than the reft, even in the conic kinds, which are no 
 otherwife angular. This line is in fome very bold and 
 plain ; in others, it is fo faint as not to be diftinguifhable 
 without glaffes ; but it is always in the midll of that 
 line that the Ihell begins to open. The motion of the 
 head of the butterfly backwards firft occafions this 
 crack; and a few repetitions of the fame motion open 
 it the whole length of the line. 
 
 The clearing itfelf, however, entirely, is a work 
 of more time in this cafe, than is the paffing of the 
 chryfalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that 
 cafe there is a crack fufEciently large in the Mn of the 
 back, and the whole chryfalis being loofe comes out 
 at once. But in this cafe, every particular limb, and 
 part of_ the body, has its feparate cafe ; and thefe are 
 almoft inconceivably thin and tender, yet it is necef- 
 fary that every part be drawn out of them before it 
 appear naked to the open air. As foon as all this is 
 clfected, and the animal is at full hberty, it either con- 
 tinues fome time upon the remains of its covering, or 
 creeps a Httle way diftant from it, and there refts. 
 The wings are what we principally admire in this crea- 
 ture. Thefe are at this time fo extremely folded up, 
 and placed in fo narrow a compafs, that the creature 
 feems to have none at all : but they by degrees ex- 
 pand and unfold themfclves ; and finally,' in a quarter 
 of an hour, or half an hour at the utmoil, they appear 
 at their full fixe, and in all their beauty. The man- 
 ner of this fudden unfolding of the wings is this : the 
 fmall figure they make when the creature firft comes 
 out of its membranes, does not prevent the obferving 
 that they are at that time confiderably thick. This is 
 owing to its being a large wing folded up in the niccft ' 
 manner, and with folds fo arranged as to be by no 
 means fenfible to the eye, for the wing is never feen 
 to unfold ; but, when obferved in the moft accurate 
 manner, feems to grow under the eye to this extent. 
 When the creature is firft produced from the fhell, it 
 is every where moift and tender; even its wings have 
 no ftrtngth or ftiff"nefs till they expand themfelves ; 
 but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other 
 parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident 
 prevents the wings from expanding at their proper 
 time, that is, as foon as the creature is out of its ftiell, 
 they never afterwards are able to extend themfelves ; 
 but the creature continues to wear them in their con- 
 trafted and wholly ufelefs ftate ; and very often, when 
 the wings are in part extended before fuch an accident 
 happens, it ftops them in a partial extenfion, and the 
 Vol. IV. Part II. 
 
 777 
 
 Chryfan- 
 themum. 
 
 1 C H R 
 
 creature muft be contented to pafs its whole life with Chryfalii 
 them in that manner. 
 
 M. Reaum.ur has proved, that heat and cold make 
 great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly 
 from its chryfalis ftate : and this he particularly tried 
 with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in 
 veflels in warm rooms, and in ice-houfes ; and it feem- 
 ed wholly owing to the haftening or retarding the eva- 
 poration of the abundant humidity of the animal in the 
 chryfalis ftate, that it fooner or later appeared in the 
 butterfly form. He varniftied over fome chryfalifes, 
 in order to tiy what would be the efFecl of thus whoUy 
 preventing their tranfpiration ; and the confequence 
 was, that the butterfly came forth from thefe two 
 months later than their natural time. Thus was the 
 duration of the animal in this ftate lengthened; that is. 
 Its exiftence was lengthened : but without any advan- 
 tage to the creature, fince it was in the time of its 
 ftate of inaaion, and probably of infenfibility. 
 
 Though this was of no confequence, Mr Reaumur 
 deduces a hint from it that feems to be of fome ufe. 
 He obierves, that hens eggs, of which we make fo 
 many ufes, and eat in fo many forms, are properly a 
 fort of chryfahs of the animal ; their germ, after they 
 are impregnated by the cock, containing the young- 
 animal alive, and waiting only a due degree of warmth 
 to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. E^ffs 
 tranfpire notwithftanding the hardnefs of their ftieUs • 
 and when they have been long kept, there is a road 
 found near one of their ends, between the flieU and 
 the internal membrane ; this is a mark of their beinfr 
 ftale, and IS the effed of an evaporation of part uf 
 their humidity : and the fame varnifh which had been 
 ufed to the chryfahs, being tried on eggs, was found to 
 preferve them tor two years, as frefh as if laid but the 
 lame day, and fuch as the niceft palate could not di- 
 ftinguifli from thofe that were fo. See Eggs. 
 
 It is not yet known how much ferther this ufeful 
 fpeculation might be carried, and whether it mijrht 
 not be of great ule even to human life, to invent fome- 
 thmg that fliould aa in the manner of this varnifti, by 
 being rubbed over the body, as the aih^^ did of old. 
 and the favages of the Weft Indies do at this time 
 without knowing why. But to return to the infeft 
 which are the fubjeas of this article ; their third ftate, 
 that in which they are winged, is always very fl,ort 
 and feems deftmed for no other adion but the propa' 
 gation of the fpecies. See Papilio 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM, corw-maricold : A ge- 
 nus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the 
 fyngenefia clais of plants ; and in the natural method 
 ranking under the 49th order, ComJ^o/^t^. The re- 
 ceptacle IS naked; the pappus marginated, or confift- 
 ing only of a border ; the calyx hemifphedcal and im- 
 bricated, with the marginal fcales membranaceous. 
 There are 19 fpecies, of which the following are the 
 mol remarkable: X The ferotinum is a native "f 
 Noith America. The roots of this plant creep far 
 under the furface, and fend up ftrong ftalks more^than 
 four_ feet lugh, garniflied with long fawed leaves end" 
 mg in points ihefe ftalks divide upward into many 
 imaller ; each being terminated by a large, white, ra- 
 diated flower, which appears in the end of AuPuft or 
 September 2. The coronarium hath been loiTg cul- 
 Uvated m the gardens on account of the beauty of its 
 5 r flowers. 
 
C H R [ 778 ] C H R 
 
 Clwyfan- flowers. It grows to the height of three feet, with a ftronger terms of the fatal neceffity of every thing, 
 
 themum /mde upricrht ftalk divided into numerous branches, nor more pompoully of the liberty ot man, than tfte 
 
 'i ffarnifhecl with pinnated leaves, and crowned with ele- Stoics, Chr>'fippu9 in particular. He was fo confider- 
 
 r_2^!!l' gant compound flowers of different colours and pro- able among them, as to eOabhlh it into a proverb^ 
 
 The varieties are, fingle and double flow-ers 
 
 perties. . ^ 
 
 of a cream colour; yellow; yellow and white; brim 
 ftone-colourcd ; fiftular, or quilled ; or thofe with 
 finely jagged leaves, and flowers of all the above co- 
 lours and propei-ties. All the varieties begin flower- 
 ing in July : the flowers are exceedingly numerous, 
 and exhibit a conftant fucceflion of full bloom till No- 
 vember; and both fingle and double are fucceeded by 
 abundance of feed. 3. The putefcens is a native of 
 the Canary iflands. It rifes with a fiirubby fl;alk near 
 tv/o feet high, dividing into many branches, w.hich 
 are garnifhed with pretty thick fucculent leaves, of a 
 greyifli colour, cut into many fegments. The flowers 
 come out from the wings of the leaves, growing upon 
 naked footftalks fingly, which greatly refemble thofe 
 of chamomile. There is a fucceffion of flowers on the 
 fame plant for the greatefl: part of the year, for which 
 it is chiefly efl;eemed. This plant will perfedl feeds in 
 Britain when the feafons are favourable. 
 
 Cvhure. The flril kind multiphes very fafl; by_ its 
 creeping roots, and will thrive in any foil or fituation. 
 The ficond may be raifed in abundance from feed, ei- 
 ther in a hot-bed or warm border, in the fpring, for 
 tranfplanting ; alfo by cuttings and flips of their 
 branches in autumn. The latter method is praftifed 
 only for the propagation of the fine doubles, for_ an 
 early bloom the following fr.mmer ; and the befl. time 
 to perfoi-m it is in September, or early in Oftober. 
 Cut off at that time a quantity of the robuft fide 
 fhoots, from three to fix inches long, without flowers; 
 divefl: them of the lower leaves, and plant many of 
 them together in large pots, within an inch or two of 
 - their tops, and two or three inches apart, give fome 
 water, and place them in the ftiade during the hot 
 weather : by the end of 0£lober they will be rooted, 
 when the pots are to be removed either into a gteen- 
 hoiife or garden-frame, for the winter ; but the latter 
 is the mofl: eligible, where they may enjoy the full air 
 in mild weather, and have occafional ftielter from 
 froll. In April they may be tranfplanted fingly into 
 borders, and fome in pots. The plants thus raifed will 
 flower a month or fix weeks fooner the fucceeding 
 fummer than thofe raifed in the fpring from feed ; but 
 as they foon become barren, it is proper to have al- 
 ways a quantity of plants raifed from the feed. The 
 third fort may be raifed either from feeds or cut- 
 tings, but requires to be flieltered in the green -houfe 
 in winter. 
 
 CHRYSES, the priefts of Apollo, father of Afty- 
 nome, called from him Ghryfeis. When Lyrneflias was 
 taken and the fpoils divided among the conquerors, 
 Chryfeis fell to the fliare of Agamemnon. Chryfes 
 upon this went to the Grecian camp to fohcit his 
 daughter's reftoration ; and when his prayers were 
 fruitlcfs, he implored the aid of Apollo, who vifited 
 the Greeks with a plague, and obliged them to reftore 
 Chi-yfeis. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philofopher, born at So- 
 ios in Cilicia, was difciple to Cleanthus, Zeno's fuc- 
 cc'for. He wrote many books, fevferal of which re- 
 lated to logic. None of the philofophers fpoke in 
 
 that if it had not been for Chryfippus, the porch^ had 
 never been. Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero 
 relates, that he had colleded fo many arguments in fa- 
 vour of the fccptical hypothefi?, that he could not an- 
 fwer them himfelf; and thus had furniihed Carneades, 
 their antagonifl;, with weapons againft them. There is 
 an apophthegm of this philofopher preferved, which 
 does him honour. Being told that fome perfons fpoke 
 ill of him, " It is no matter (faid he), I will live f» 
 that they fliall not be believed." 
 
 CHRYSIS, or GOLDEN-FLY, in natural hi (lory : A 
 genus of infefts belonging to the order of hymenop- 
 tera. The mouth is armed with jaws, but has no pro- 
 bofcis; the antennae are filiform, bent, and confift of 
 1 2 articulations ; the abdomen is arched, with a fcale 
 on each fide ; the anus is dentated, and armed with a 
 fling; the wings fie plain; and the body appears as if 
 gih. There are feveral fpecies ; but the ignita, or 
 flaming chryfis, is beautified with the molt refplendent 
 colours. The fore-part of its head is green and gold^. 
 and the hinder of a lovely azure. The thorax is like- 
 wife azured over, with a mixture of green, and termi- 
 nates at its extremity with fliarp points on both 
 fides. The abdomen is green and gold before, and of 
 a coppery-red behind, imitating molten copper highly 
 pohflied. The whole infed is dotted on its upper part> 
 which gives it a great refplendency of colour. The. 
 antenna: are blacTc, and legs green intermixed with 
 gold. This fpecies dwells in holes of walls between 
 the ftones, and in the mortar that cements them. It 
 is often feen ifliiing from fuch holes, where it nefiles 
 and performs its work. The larvae, which refemble 
 thofe of the wafp, Ukewife inhabit the holes of de- 
 cayed walls. 
 
 CHRYSITRIX, in botany : A genus of the dioe- 
 cia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. 
 In the hermaphrodite the glume is two-valved, the 
 coroUae from chaff numerous and brifl:ly ; many fliami- 
 na, one within each chaff ; one piftillum. The male is 
 the hermaphrodite ; there is no piftillum. 
 
 CHRYSOBALANUS, cocoa plum: A genus 
 of the monogynia order, belong^ing to the icofan- 
 dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the 36th order, Pomacea. The calyx is quin- 
 quefid, the petals five ; plum-kernel five-furrowed, 
 and five-valved. There is only one fpecies, the icaco,. 
 which is a native of the Bahama iflands and many o- 
 ther parts of America, but commonly grows near the 
 fea. It rifes with a ftirubby ftalk eight or nine feet 
 high, fending out feveral fide-b-ranches, which are co- 
 vered with a dark brOwn baric. The flowers are white, 
 and are fucceeded by plums like damfbns ; fome blue, 
 fome red, and others yellow. The ftone is fliaped like 
 a pear, and has five longitudinal furrows. The plums 
 have a fweet lufcious tafte, and are brought to the 
 tables of the inhabitants, by whom they are much e- 
 fteemed. 
 
 CHRYSOCOMA, goldy-locks : A genus of the 
 polygamia sequahs order, belonging to the fyngenefia 
 clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 49th order, Cam^ofttie. The receptacle \% 
 
 Chfva*^ 
 
 'I 
 
 Chryfo* 
 corns. 
 ^— ^ 
 
•Chryfo- 
 mela. 
 
 C H R [ 
 
 Chryfofo- naked ; the pappus fimple ; the calyx hemiTpherlcal 
 and imbricated ; the ftyle hardly longer than the flo- 
 rets. There are nine fpecies, the moft remarkable of 
 which are, the linofyris, the coma aurea, and the cor- 
 nua. Thefe are herbaceous flowering perennials, grow- 
 ing from one to two feet high, ornamented with nar- 
 row leaves, and compound flofcular flowers of a yellow 
 colour. They are eafily propagated by dividing the 
 roots or by cuttings ; but the two laft require to be 
 flieltered in the green-houfe in winter. 
 
 CHRYSOGONUM, in botany: A genus ef the 
 polygamia neceflaria order, belonging to the fyngene- 
 fia clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking 
 under the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is 
 paleaceous ; the pappus mon©phyllous, and trident-. 
 ed ; the calyx pentaphyllous; the feeds wrapped up 
 each in a tetraphyllous calyculus, or little cup. 
 
 CHRYSOLARUS (Emanuel), one of thofe learn- 
 ed men in the 14th century who brought the Greek 
 literature into the weft. He was a man of rank ; 
 and defcended from an ancient family, faid to have 
 removed with Gonftantine from Rome to Byzantium. 
 He was fent into Europe by the emperor of the eafl: 
 to implore the affiftance of the Chriftian princes. He 
 afterwards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and 
 Rome ; and died at Conftantinople, in 1 41 5, aged 47. He 
 wrote a Greek grammar, and fome other fmall pieces. 
 
 CHRYSOLITE, or yellowish-green topaz ; 
 a precious fl;one of a grafs green colour, found in the 
 Eaft Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in Au- 
 vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyfliire in 
 England. Some are likewife found with volcanic la- 
 vas, as in the Vevarals, where fome large lumps have 
 been feen of 20 or 30 pounds weight ; but it is re- 
 markable, that fome of thefe chryfolites are partly de- 
 compofcd into an argillaceous fubfl.ance. All chry- 
 folites, however, arc far from being of the fame kind. 
 The oriental is the fame with the peridot, and diff'ers 
 only by its green hue from the fapphires, topazes, and 
 rubies of the fame denomination. This becomes elec- 
 tric by being rubbed ; has a prifmatic form of fix, or 
 fometimes of five ftriated faces ; and does not lofe its 
 colour or tranfparency in the fire, which the common 
 chryfolite often does; becoming either opaque, or 
 melting entirely in a ftrong heat. The inftant it melts, 
 it emits a phofphoric light like the bafis of alum and 
 gypfeous fpai ; with borax it produces a thin colour- 
 lefs glafs. Its fpecific gravity is between 3.600 and 
 ^.700 ; according to Briflbn it is 2.7821, or 2.6923 ; 
 and that of the Spanlfh chryfolite 3.0989. 
 
 The fubftance of this precious ftone is lamellated m 
 the direftlon of the axis of its primitive form: but the 
 chryfolite from Saxony Is foliated in a perpendicular 
 direftlon to the fame axis. The chryfolite of the an- 
 cients was the fame gem which is now called /q^ax, and 
 the name of itfelf indicates that it ought to be fo. 
 S*liny fays that the colour of the chryfolite is yellow 
 like gold. . . . 
 
 CHRYS0LiTE-P<3/?tf, 3 kind of glafs made xn imita- 
 tion of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of 
 prepared cryftal with ten ounces of red -lead, adding 12 
 ■grains of crocus martis made with vinegar ; and then 
 baking the whole for 24 hours, or longer, in a well 
 lyted cucurbit. 
 
 CHRYSOMEL.A, in zoology, a genus of infeas 
 
 779 ] C H R 
 
 belonging to the order of coleoptera. The antemi* ^^fy^*' 
 are fliaped like bracelets, and thicker on the outfide ; P ^ - 
 
 and neither the breaft nor the elytra are marglnated. chryfopra«- 
 There are no lefs than 122 fpecies enumerated by Lin- fus. 
 na;us, principally diftinguiftied by differences in their >— — v-~^ 
 colour. They are to be found almoll every where, in 
 woods, gardens, &c. Their progreffivc motion is 
 flow ; and fome when caught emit an oily liquor of a 
 difagreeable fmell. The glittering colours with which 
 feveral fpecies of chryfomelae are adorned, and which 
 feera to exhibit the brilliancy of gold and copper, have 
 occafioned their bearing that pompous name. Ttte 
 larvae of thefe infefts have in general an oval body, ra- 
 ther oblong and foft ; on the fore-part of which arc fi- 
 tuated fix feet, which are fcaly, as is alfo the head. 
 They prey upon the fubftance of leaves, rejefting the 
 fibrous part. Thofe of the leaping chryfomelae infeft 
 the cotyledons and tender leaves of plants. Of this 
 genus is that very pernicious infeft called by the coun- 
 try people the turnip Jly, which infefts turnips and 
 many crops in the garden, deftroying cften whole 
 fields while in their feedling leaves. In very hot fum- 
 mers they abound to an amazing degree, and, as you 
 walk in a field or in a garden, make a pattering like 
 rain, by jumping on the leaves of the turnips or Cab- 
 bages. See Plate CXLIX. 
 
 CHRYSOPHYLLUM, or bully-tree: A ge- 
 nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentan- 
 dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the 43d order, viz. Dumofa. The corolla 
 is campanulated, decemfid, with the fegments alter- 
 nately a Httk patent. The fruit is a ten-feeded ber- 
 ry. There are two fpecies, the cainito and glabrunn, 
 both natives of the Weft Indies. The firft rifes 30 or 
 40 feet high, with a large trunk covered with a browrt 
 bark, and divides into many flexible (lender branches, 
 which generally hang downward, garniflied with fpear- 
 (haped leaves, whofe under fides are of a bright ruflet 
 colour. The flowers come out at the extremities of" 
 the branches, difpofed in oblong bunches, which arc 
 fucceeded by fruit of the fize of a golden pippin, that 
 are very rough to the palate, and aftrlngent ; but when 
 kept fome time mellow, as is praftlfed here with med- 
 ial s, they have an agreeable flavour. The fecond fort 
 never rifes to the height of the firft, nor do the trunks 
 grow to half the fize ; but the branches are flender and 
 garniftied with leaves like thofe of the firft. The flow- 
 ers come out in clufters from the fide of the branches, 
 which are fucceeded by oval fmooth fruit about the 
 fize of a bergamot pear. This contains a white clam- 
 my juice when frefti ; but after being kept a few days, 
 it becomes fweet, foft, and delicious. Inclofed are 
 four or five black feeds about the fize of thofe of a pom- 
 kin. Both thefe plants are frequently prefeived in 
 gardens where there are large floves, and are propaga- 
 ted by feeds, but the plants can never bear the opea 
 air in this country. 
 
 CHRYSOPLENIUM, in botany : A genus of the 
 digynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 12th order, Succuknta. The calyx is quadrifid or 
 quinquefid, and coloured ; no corolla ; the capfule bi- 
 roftrated, unilocular and polyfpermous. 
 
 CHRYSOPRASUS,orCHRvsopr.ASJUs,the loth 
 of the precious ftones mentioned in the Revelations, as 
 5 F 2 forming 
 
 ft 
 
C H R [78 
 
 Chrylbpra. forming the foundation of the heavenly Jeruialem. 
 Chryfo- "^^^ chryfoprafiu8 is by mineralogifts reckoned to be a 
 ftotn. " variety of the chryfollte, and by Cronftedt called the 
 U— vellowifb green and cloudy topa%. He conjefturcs that it 
 may perhaps be the fubftance which ferves as a matrix 
 to the chryfollte ; as chofe that he had feen were like 
 the^ clear veined quartz, called in Sweden mllh cryjlal, 
 which is the firfl. degree of cryftallization. 
 
 The chryfoprafus, according to M. Magellan, is of 
 a green colour, deeper than the chryfolite, but with a 
 yellowifli tinge inclining to blue like the green leek. 
 M. Achard fays that it is never found cryftallized, 
 and that it is femitranrparetit. By others it is rec- 
 koned among the quaitz, and its colour is fuppofed to 
 be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine 
 blue glafs when melted with borax, or with fixed al- 
 kali. Mr Achard, however, found the glafs of a deep 
 yellow when the fufion was made with bor?x; and 
 that it really contains fome calx of copper inftead of 
 cobalt. Mr Dutens fays, that fome gold has been 
 found in this kind of ftone : but this laft belongs in all 
 probabihty, fays M. Magellan, to another clafs of 
 fubftances, viz. the vitreous fpars. 
 
 To the latter belongs moft probably the aventurine, 
 whofe colour is generally a yellow-brown red ; though 
 fometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenilh, 
 than to the red. Thefe ftones are not quite tranfpa- 
 rent : fome indeed fhine with fuch a brilliancy, as to 
 render them of confiderable value, but they are very 
 rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glafs 
 of various colours, with which powder of gold has 
 been mixed ; and thefe imitated aventurincs fo fre- 
 quently excel the native ones in fplendor, that the e- 
 fteem of the latter is now much lowered. With re- 
 gard to the chryfoprafus, its name from ^paa-of^ fhows 
 it to be of a greenifh-blue colour, hke the leaves of a 
 leek ; it only differs from the chryfolite in its bluifh 
 hue. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM (St John), a celebrated pa- 
 triarch of Conftantinople, and one of the moft admired 
 fathers of the Chriftian church, was born of a noble 
 family at Antioch, about the year 347. He ftudied 
 rhetoric under Libavius, and philofophy under Andra- 
 gathus: after which he fpent fome time in folitude in 
 the mountains near Antioch ; but the aufteritieshe en- 
 dured having impaired his health, he returned to An- 
 tioch, where he was ordained deacon by Meletius. 
 Flavian, Meletius's fucceffor, raifed him to the office 
 of prcfbyter five years after ; when he diftlnguifhed 
 himfelf fo greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained 
 the furname of Go/den mouth. Neftarius patriarch of 
 Conftantinople, dying in 397, St Chryfoftom, whofe 
 fame was fpread throughout the whole empire, was 
 chofen in bis room by the unanimous confent of both 
 the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius 
 confirmed this eleftion, and caufed him to leave An- 
 tioch privately, where the people were very unwilling 
 to part with him. He was ordained bifhop on the 
 26th of February 398 ; when he obtained an order 
 from the emperor againft the Eunomians and Monta- 
 nlfts ; reformed the abufes which fubfifted amongft his 
 clergy ; retrenched a great part of the expences in 
 which his predeceffors had lived, in order to enable 
 him to feed the poor and build hofpitals; and preached 
 with the utmoft zeal againil the pride, luxury, and 
 
 o 1 C H U 
 
 avarice of the great. But his pious liberty of fpeech Chryftal 
 procured him many powerful enemies. He differed „. . 
 tvith Theophilus of Alexandiia, who got him depofed . " ' 
 and banifhed ; but he was foon recalled. After- this, 
 declaiming againft the dedication of a ftatue erefted to 
 the emprefs, ftie banifhed him into Cucufus in Arme- 
 nia, a moft barren unhofpitable place ; afterwards, a& 
 they were removing him from Pttyus,. the foldierat 
 treated him fo roughly, that he died by the way, A.D. 
 407. The beft edition of his works is that publlflied 
 at Paris in 1718, by Montfaucon. 
 
 CHRYSTAL. See Crystal. 
 
 CHUB, or GHUBB, in ichthyology. See Cypri- 
 
 NUS. 
 
 The reforts of this fifh are eafily found ; for they^ 
 are generally holes overfhaded by trees, and this fifh. 
 will be feen floating in fuch almoft on the furface of 
 the water in a hot day in great numbers. They are. 
 but a poor fifh for the table, and are very full of bones;., 
 but they entertain the angler very much,, and are of 
 the number of thofe that are eafily taken. The bell 
 manner of fifhing for him is thus : prepare a very 
 ftrong rod of a fufficient length ; fix to the hook a 
 grafshopper ; place yourfelf fo as to be perfeAly ou^ 
 of fight of the fifti, and drop in the bait about twa 
 feet from the place where a large chub lies ; if he does- 
 not fee the angler he very feldom fails biting, and is 
 immediately taken ; but he is fo ftrong a fifti that he 
 fliould be taken out carefully, after a great deal o£ 
 playing, otherwifethe tackle will be in danger; a beetle, 
 or any large fly, vi-ill anfwer the purpofe in the place 
 of a grafshopper ; and if none of them ai e to he had,, 
 the method of fiftiing muft be altered, and the lius 
 be long enough for fiibing at the bottom. In March., 
 and April this fifli is to be caught with large red 
 worms ; in June and July with flies, fnails, and cher- 
 ries; but in Auguft and September the proper bait is 
 good cheefe pounded in a mortar, with fome faflfron, 
 and a little butter ; fome make a pafte of cheefe and 
 Venice turpentine for the chub in winter, at which; 
 feafon this fifli is better than at any other ; the bones- 
 are lefs troublefome in this feafon, and the flefti is more 
 firm and better tafted ; the row is alfo well flavoured iix- 
 general. The angler muft keep his bait for this fifli at 
 the bottom in cold weather, and near the top in hot, 
 and the fifh will bite eagerly. 
 
 CHUBB (Thomas), a noted polemical writer, 
 born at Eaft Harnham, a village near Salifbury, 
 1679. He was put apprentice to a glover at Salifr 
 bury, and afterwards entered into partnerfliip with a 
 tallow-chandler. Being a man of ftrong natural parts,, 
 he employed all his leifure in reading ; and though a 
 ftranger to the learned languages, became tolerably 
 verfed in geography, mathematics, and other branches 
 offcience. His favourite ftudy was divinity; and he 
 formed a little fociety for the purpofe of debating up^. 
 on religious fubjeils, about the time that the Trini- 
 tarian controverfy was fo warmly agitated between 
 Clarke and Waterland. This fubjeft,. therefore, fall^ 
 ing under the cognizance of Chubb's theological afr 
 fembly, he at their requeft drew up and arranged his. 
 fentiment3 on it, in a kind of differtation ; which was, 
 afterward publiflied under the title of ■ The Supremacy 
 of the Father ajferted, &c. In this piece Mr Chubb 
 ftiowed great talents in reafoning j and acquired fo 
 
 much. 
 
C H U [ 
 
 ehudleigh much reputation, that the late Sir Jofeph Jekyl, ma- 
 !i , fter of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his 
 ^. converfation : but though he is faid to have been 
 
 tempted to remain with him by the offer of a genteel 
 allowance, he did not continue with him many years ; 
 but chofe to return to his friends at Salifbury. He pub- 
 liflied afterward a 4to volume of tra6ls, which Mr Pope 
 informs his friend Gay, he " read through with admi- 
 ration of the writer, though not always with appro^ 
 bation of his doctiine." He died a lingle man in the 
 <58th year of his age, and left behind him 2 vols, of 
 pofthumous trafts, in which he appears to have had 
 little or no belief in revelation. But however licen- 
 tious his way of thinking may be deemed, nothing ir- 
 regular or immoral has been fairly imputed to him in 
 his life and adlions. ^ 
 
 CHUDLEIGH (Lady Mary), was born in 1656, 
 and married to Sir George Chudleigh, baronet, by 
 whom fhe had feveral children : her poems and effays 
 have been much admired for delicacy of ftyle. She 
 died in 1710 ; and is faid to have written feveral dra- 
 0Utic pieces, which, though not printed, are preferved 
 ixi the family. 
 
 CHUPMESSAHITES, a f^a among the Maho- 
 metans, who believe that Jefus Chrift is God, and the 
 true MefTiah, the Redeemer of the world ; but with- 
 out rendering him any public or declared worrtiip. The 
 word in the Turkifh language fignifles proteSior of the 
 Chrijlians. Ricaut fays, there are abundance of thefe 
 ChupmefTahites among the people of fafiiion in Tur- 
 key, and fome even in the feraglio. 
 
 CHURCH, has different fignifications, according 
 to the different fubjefts to which it is applied. 
 
 1. It is underllood of the coUtdlive body of Chri- 
 ftians, or all thofe over the face of the whole earth 
 who profefs to believe in Chriit, and acknowledge him 
 to be the Saviour of mankind. This is what the an- 
 cient writers call the catholic or un'iverfal church. Some- 
 tinnes the word church is confidered in a more exten- 
 five fenfe, and divided into feveral branches ; as the 
 church militant, is the afTenr.bly of the faithful on 
 earth ; the church triumphant, that of the faithful al- 
 ready in glory ; to which the Papids add the church 
 patient ; which, according to their dodli-ines, is that of 
 the faithful in purgatory. 
 
 2. Church is applied to any particular congregation 
 of Chriftians, who alTocIate together and concur in the 
 participation of all the inftitutions of Jefus Chrifl, with 
 their proper paftors and minifters. Thus we read of the 
 church of Antioch, the church of Alexandria, the 
 church of Theffalonica, and the Jike. 
 
 3. Church denotes a particular fe£l of Chriflians 
 diftinguilhed by particular doftrines and ceremonies. 
 In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romifli church, the 
 Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of 
 England, &c. 
 
 The Latin or Weftern church, comprehends all the 
 churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north, 
 and all other countries whither the Romans carried 
 their language. Great Britain, part of the Nether- 
 lands, of Germany, and of the North, have been fe 
 parated from hence everfince the time of Hen. VIII. ; 
 and conftitute what we call the Reformed church, and 
 what the Roraanifts call the weftern fchifm. 
 
 The Greek or Eaftcra chuich, comprehends the 
 
 laity. 
 
 781 ] G H U 
 
 churches of all the countries anciently fubjeA to the 
 Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their Ian- * 
 guage was carried ; that is, all the fpace extended from 
 Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence into 
 Egypt. This church has been divided from the Ro- 
 man, ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas. 
 
 The GalUcan church, denotes-the church of France, 
 under the government and direftion of their refpeiSlivc 
 bifhops and paftors. This church has always enjoyed 
 certain fi-anchifes and immunities ; not as grants from 
 popes, but as derived to her from her firft original, 
 and which (he has taken eare never to relinguifti. 
 Thefe liberties depend upon two maxims ; the firft, 
 that the pope has no authority or right to command: 
 or order any thing either in general or in particular,, 
 in which the temporalities and civil rights of the king- 
 dom are concerned the fecond, that notwithftanding 
 the pope's fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiritual, 
 yet in France his power is limited and regulated: by the 
 decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that 
 realm.. 
 
 4. The word church is ufed to fignify the body of 
 ecclefiaftics, or the clergy, in contradiftinftion to the 
 
 See Clergy. 
 
 5. Church is ufed for the place where a particular 
 congregation or fociety of Chriftians affemble for the 
 celtbi'ation of divine fervice. In this fenfe churches 
 ar-e varioufly denominated, according to the rank, 
 degree, difcipline, &c. as Metropohtan church, Pa- 
 triarchal church. Cathedral church. Parochial chirrch, 
 Collegiate church, &c. See Metropolis, Patri- 
 arch, &c. 
 
 In ecclefiaftical writers, we meet with grand church, 
 for the chief church of a place \ particulaiiy in the 
 Gi-eek liturgy, for the church of St Sophia at Con- 
 ftantinople, the fee of the patriarch, founded by Coa- 
 ftantine, and confecrated under Jultinian. It was at 
 that time fo magnificent, that Juliinian is faid to have 
 cried out in the confecration thereof," ■ a' ' 2o;o,«{iv; 
 I have outdone thee, Solomon. The. dome,, which is faid 
 to have been the firft that was built, is 330 feet diame- 
 ter. 
 
 The firft church publicly built by the Chriftians,,. 
 foiTiC authors maintain to be that of St Saviour at 
 Rome, founded by ConHantine ; others contend, that 
 feveral churches abroad, called by the name of St Peter 
 Vi'vus, were built in honour of that apoiile during his 
 life-time. 
 
 Church, with regard to architeclure, Daviler de- 
 fines a large oblong edifice, in form of a ftiip, with 
 nave, choir, ifles, chapel, belfry, &c. See each part 
 under its proper head. 
 
 Church, Simple,, is that which has only a nave and 
 a choir. 
 
 Church with IJles, that which has a row of porti- 
 cos, in form of vaulted galleries, with chapels in its 
 circumference. 
 
 Church in a Greek cr of s, that where, the. length of 
 the traverfe part is equal to that of the nave ; fo called 
 becaufe moft of the Greek churches are built in this 
 form. 
 
 Church in a Latin crofs, that whofe nave is longer 
 than tli»e crofs part, as in moft of the Gothic churches.. 
 
 Church in Rotundo, that whofe plan is a perfedt.. 
 circle, in imitation of the Pantheon, 
 
 Church. 
 
C H U [78 
 
 For the form oF the ancient Greek cliurches, when 
 they had all their parts, it was as follows : firft was a 
 porch, or portico, called the vaunt-nave, ts-povaof : this 
 was adorned with columns on the outfide, and on the 
 infide fiirrounded with a wall ; in the middle whereof 
 was a door, through which they palfed into a fecond 
 portico. The firft of thefe porticos was deftined for 
 the energument, and penitents in the firft ftage of 
 their repentance ; the fecond was much longer, defti- 
 ?ied for penitents of the fecond clafs, and the catechu- 
 mens, and hence called v»p8r?, ferula, becaufe thofe 
 placed in it began to be fubjeft to the difcipline of the 
 church. Thefe two porticos took up about one 
 third of the fpace of the church. From the fecond 
 porticoj they pafled into the nave, ^^^s". which took up 
 near another third of the church. In the middle, or 
 at one fide of the nave, was the ambo, where the dea- 
 cons and priefts read the gofpel, and preached. The 
 nave was deftined for the reception of the people, who 
 here afiifted at prayers. 
 
 Near the entrance of this was the baptiftery or font. 
 Beyond the nave was the choir, x"P"^' fet with feats, 
 and round : the firft feat on the right, next the fanftu- 
 ary, being for the chantor, or choragus. 
 
 From the choir they afcended by fteps to the fanc- 
 tuaiy, which was entered at three doors. The fanc- 
 tuary had three apfides in its length ; a great one in 
 the middle, under which was the altar, crowned with 
 a baldachin, fupported hj four columns. Under each 
 of the fmall apfides, was a kind of table or cupboard, 
 in manner of a beaufet. 
 
 Though, of the Greek churches now remaining, few 
 have all the parts above defcribed, moft of them having 
 'been reduced to ruins or converted into mofques. 
 
 High-CHURCH was a denomination originally given 
 to thofe otherwife called Nonjurors, who refufed to ac- 
 knowledge the title of William III. to the crown of 
 Great Britain, under a notion that James II. though 
 excluded, was ftlU their rightful fovereign. This ap- 
 pellation was given them, becaufe they entertained 
 high notions of the dignity and power of the church, 
 and the extent of Its prerogative and jurifdiftion. And 
 thofe, on the contrary, were called loiv-cJmrch men, 
 who difapproved of the feceffion and obftinacy of the 
 nonjurors, diftinguiftied themfelves by their moderation 
 toward diffenters, and were lefs ardent in extending the 
 jimits of church authority. The denomination of 
 high-church meen is now more generally applied to all 
 who form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the 
 authority and jurifdifiion of the church, and who 
 would raife it to an abfolute independence pn all hu- 
 man power. 
 
 CnuRCH-Ale. See WmrsuN-Ale. 
 
 CnuRCH-Reeves, the fame with CauRCH-lVardens. 
 
 CfivRCH-Scot, or Churcheffetf a payment or contri- 
 bution, by the Latin writei-s frequently called pri- 
 tniiia feminum ; beiag, 2Si firft, a certain meafure of 
 wligat, paid to the prieft on St Martin's day, as the 
 firft fruits of harveft» This was enjoined by the laws 
 ofkiiig Malcolm IV. and Canute, c. 10. But after 
 this, Church-fcot came to fignify a referve of corn-rent 
 paid to the fecular priefts, or to the religious ; and 
 fometimes was taken in fo general a fenfe as to include 
 poultry, or any other provifion that was paid in kind 
 , ro tlie religious. See Tithe. 
 
 2 1 C H U 
 
 CHURCH-lVardens [ecclefia guardiani), in the Eng- Churcliill. 
 lilh ecclefiaftical polity, are the guardians or keepers 
 of the chureh, and reprefentatlves of the body of the 
 parifh. They are fometimes appointed by the mini- 
 fter, fometimes by the parifh, fometimes by both toge- 
 ther, as cuftom direfls. They are taken, in favour of 
 the church, to be, for fome purpofes, a kind of corpo- 
 ration at the common law ; that is, they are enabled, 
 by that name, to have a property in goods and chat- 
 tels, and to bring aftions for them, for the ufe and 
 profit of the parifh. Yet they may not wafte the 
 church goods, but may be removed by the parifli, and 
 then called to account by aftions at common law : but 
 there is no method of calHng them to account but by 
 firft removing them ; for none can legally do it but 
 thofe who are put in their place. As to lands or other 
 real property, as the church, churchyard, &c. they 
 have no fort of intereft therein ; but if any damage is 
 done thereto, the perfon only or vicar fhall have the 
 adion. Their office alfo is to repair the church, and 
 make rates and levies for that purpofe : but thefe are 
 recoverable only in the ecclefiaftical courts. They 
 are alfo joined with the overfeers in the care and 
 maintenance of the poor. They are to levy a fhilling 
 forfeiture on all fuch as do not repair to church on 
 fundays and holidays ; and are empowered to keep 
 all perfons orderly while there ; to which end it has 
 been held that a church-warden may juflify the pul- 
 ling off a man's hat, without being guilty of either as 
 affault or a trefpafs. There are alfo a multitude of 
 other petty parochial powers committed to their charge 
 by divers afts of parliament. 
 
 CHURCHILL (Sir Winfton), the father of the 
 great duke of Marlborough, was defcended from an 
 ancient and honourable family in Dorfetfhire. He 
 was born at Wotton Glanvile in that county in 1610; 
 and educated at St John's college at Oxford. He en- 
 gaged in the caufe of his unfortunate fovereign Cha. I. 
 for which he fuffered feverely in his fortune ; and 
 having married, while young, Elizabeth, the daughter 
 of Sir John Drake of Aftie in Devonfhire, Ihe was forced 
 to feek a refuge in her father's houfe, when Mr Chur- 
 chill's misfortunes left him none that he could call his 
 own ; and there moft of his children were born. After 
 the reftoration, he was eleded a burgefs to ferve in 
 parliament for the borough of Weymouth ; and, in 
 1669, his majefty was pleafed to confer on him the 
 honour of knighthood. The next year he was made 
 one of the commiflioners of claims in Ireland ; and 
 upon Ills return from thence, was conftituted one of 
 the clerks comptrollers of the green-cloth : but wri- 
 ting a kind of political effay upon the Hiilory of 
 England, which gave great offence to the parliament, 
 he was, in 1678, difmiffed from his poft. He was, 
 however, foon reftored to it again ; and hved to fee 
 his eldeft furviving fon raifed to the peerage, and the 
 reft of his children in a fair way to promotion. He 
 died in 1688. 
 
 Churchill (John), Duke of Marlborough, artd 
 prince of the holy Roman empire, a moft renowned 
 general and ftatefman, was born at Afhe in Devon- 
 ihlre in 1650. He was eldeft fon of Sir Winfton 
 Churchill, who carried him to court while very young, 
 and where he was particularly favoured by James 
 duke of York, afterwards king James II. when only 
 1 twelve 
 
C H U [ 7 
 
 GliHreJiiU, twelve ym^ of ege. In 1666, he waa made an enfigrt 
 V — of thtj guards during the firli Dutch war } aad after- 
 wards improved himielf grtatly in the n\ilitary art at 
 Tangier. In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the duke 
 of Monmouth who commanded a body of auxiharies 
 in the French fevvice, and was foon after made a cap- 
 tain in the duke's own regiment. At tlie fiege of Ki- 
 ineguen, which happened in that campaign, he diitin- 
 guiflied himfelf fo much that he was taken notice of 
 by the celebrated marflial Turenne, who beftowed on 
 him the name of the han(/fome Englijlman. — In 1673, 
 he was at the fiege of Maeftricht, where he gained 
 fuch applaufe, that the king of France made him a 
 public acknowledgment of his fervice ; and the duke 
 of Monmouth, who had the dirt ftion of the attack, 
 told king Charles IT. that he owed his life to Mr 
 Churchill's bravery. In 1681, he married Sarah daugh- 
 ter and co-heirefs (with her filler the countefs of 
 Tyrconnel) of Richard Jennings Efq; of Sandrich, in 
 HertfordfViire. The diike of York recommended him 
 in a very particular manner to the king ; who, in 
 1682, created him baron of Eymouth in the county 
 of Berwick in Scotland, and made him colonel of the 
 third troop of guards. A little after king James's ac- 
 ceffion, he was created baron Churchill of Sandrich in 
 the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general 
 of his majefty's army in the weft ; where, when the 
 duke of Monmouth came to furprife the king's army, 
 while the earl of Feverfham and the majority of the 
 officers were in their beds, he kept the enemy in 
 play, till the king's forces had formed themfelves, and 
 thereby faved the whole army. When James (ho wed 
 an intention of ellabliOiing the catholic religion in 
 Britain, lord Churchill, notwithftanding the great ob- 
 ligations he owed him, thought it his duty to abandon 
 the royal caufe ; but even then did not leave him 
 without acquainting him by letter with the reafon of 
 his fo doing. Lord Churchill was gracioufly received 
 by the prince of Orange ; and was by him employed 
 firft to re-aifemble the troop of guards at London, 
 and afterwards to reduce fome lately raifed regiments, 
 and to new-model the army : for which purpofe he 
 was inverted with the rank and title of lieutenant-ge- 
 neral. In 1689, he was fwom one of the privy coun- 
 cil, and one of the gentlemen of the king's bed-cham- 
 ber ; and on the 9th of April following, was raifed 
 to the dignity of earl of Malborough in the county of 
 Wilts. He^aflifted at the coronation of their majefties ; 
 and was foon after made commander in chief of the 
 Englifh forces fent over to Holland ; and here he firft 
 laid the foundation of that fame which was afterwards 
 fpread over all Europe. In 1690, he was made ge- 
 neral of the forces fent to Ireland ; where he made 
 the ftrong garrifons of Cork and Kinfale piifoners of 
 war. The year following, king William ihovired the 
 good opinion he had of his condutl, by iending him 
 to Flanders to put all things in readinefs, and to draw 
 the army together againft his arrival. In 1692, he 
 was difmifled from all his employment:; ; and, not 
 long after, was with fome other peers committed to 
 the tower on an accufation of high treafon ; which, 
 however, was afterwards found to be a falfe and ma- 
 licious rep'ort, the authors of v/hich were puniftied. 
 Marlborough was foon reftored to favour, and in 1698 
 was appointed governor to- the earl of Gloucelier. ; 
 
 S3 ] C H U 
 
 with this extraordinary compliment from king William, Churcfiili. 
 " My lord, make him but what you are, and my ne- v— ^ 
 phew will be all I wifh to fee him." The fame day 
 he was again fwom one of the privy council ; and in 
 July following was declared one of the lords juftices of 
 England, for the adminiftration of the government, in 
 which gi'eat truft he was three times fucceffively in the 
 king's abfence. In 1701 he was appointed general of 
 the foot, commander in chief of the Enghih forces^ 
 and ambaffador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at 
 the Hague. Upon the acceflion of queen Anne to 
 the thron«i he was elefted into the order of the gar- 
 ter, declared captain-general of all her majefty's forces, 
 and fent ambaflador extraordinary and plenipotentiary 
 to tloUand. After feveral conferences about a war, 
 he put himfelf at the head of the army, where all the 
 other generals had orders to obey him. His exploits 
 in the field have been taken notice of under the ar- 
 ticle Britain, n° 349 — 370: we ftiall therefore only 
 take notice in this place, of the rewai'ds and honours^ 
 conferred upon him for thefe exploits. After his firft 
 campaign he was created marquis of Blandford and 
 duke of Marlborough, with a penfion of L. 5000 out 
 of the poft-ofiice, to devolve for ever upon thofe en- 
 joying the title of Duke of Marlborough. In 1 703^ 
 he met Charles III. late emperor, going to Spain, who 
 prefented him with a fword fet with diamonds. la 
 1704, having forced the enemy's hues at Schellenberg, 
 he received a letter of thanks, from the emperor Leo- 
 pold, written with his own hand ; an honour feldom 
 done to any but fovereign princes. After the battle 
 of Blenheim, he received congratulatory letters froca 
 moft of the potentates in Europe, particularly from the 
 States General, and from the emperor, who defired 
 him to accept of the dignity of a prince of the empire, 
 which with the queen's leave was conferred upon him 
 by the title of Prince of Mildenhe'm in the province of 
 Sivabia, After the campaign was ended, he vifited 
 the court of Prufiia, where he laid fuch fchemes as 
 fufpended the difputes with the Dutch about king 
 William's eftate ; which wile condudi caufed the whole 
 confederacy to acknowledge that he had done the 
 greateft fervice polFible to the commoji caufe. Upon 
 his return to England, the queen, to perpetuate his 
 memor)'-, granted the intereft of the crown in the 
 honour and manor of Woodftock and hundred o£ 
 Wotton to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705 
 he made a tour to Vienna, upon an invitation of the- 
 emperor Jofeph ; who highly carelTed him, and made 
 him a grant of the lordlhip of Mildenheim. After 
 the campaign of 1708, the fpeaker of the houfe of 
 commons was fent to Bruffels on purpofe to compli- > 
 m.ent him; and on his return to England he was again 
 complimented in the houfe of lords by lord chancellor 
 Cowper. All his fervices, however, and all the ho- 
 nours conferred upon him, were not fufficient to prc- 
 ferve him from being difgraced. After the change of 
 the miniftry in 1 7 1 o, his intereft daily declined ; and 
 in 1712, on the firft day of the new year, he was re- 
 moved from all his places. Finding all arts ufed to 
 render him obnoxious in his native country', he vifited 
 his principality of Mildenheim, and feveral" towns in 
 Germany ; after which he retiu'ned to England, and 
 arrived there on the day of tiie queen's death. After 
 being welcomed by the nobility and foreign miniftera, 
 
 he. 
 
c H u r 7S4 ] 
 
 ChurcluU. he attended on king George I. in Ins public entry till 1 can get at it.' 
 ' V " through' London, who appointed him captain-general, 
 colonel of the lirft regiment of foot-guards, one of the 
 conimiflioners for the government of Chelfea hofpital, 
 and mafler-general of the ordnance. Some years be- 
 fore his death, he retired from public bufinefs. He 
 died at Windfor-lodge in 1722, aged 73 *, leaving be- 
 liind him a very numerous poilerity, allied to the no- 
 bleft and greateft families in thefe kingdoms. Upon 
 his demife all parties united in doing honour or rather 
 juftice to his merit, and his corpfe was interred the 
 ■9th of Auguft following, with all the folemnity due 
 to a perfon who had deferved fo highly of his country, 
 in Weftminfter-abbey. The noble pile near Wood- 
 llock, which bears the name of Blenheim-houfe, may 
 be juftly ftyled his monument : but without pretending 
 •to the gift of prophecy, one may venture to foi-etel, 
 that his glory will long furvive that ftrufture ; and 
 that fo long as our hittories remain, or indeed the 
 ■hiftories of Europe, his memory will live and be the 
 boaft of Britain, which by his labours was raifed to be 
 the firft of nations, as during the age in which he lived 
 he was defervedly eftecmed the fjHl of men. If he had 
 foibles, as thefe are infeparable from human nature, 
 they were fo hidden by the glare of his virtues as to be 
 fcarcely perceived or were willingly forgotten. A 
 certain parafite, who thought to pleafe Lord "Boling- 
 broke by ridiculing the avarice of the Duke, w-as ftopfc 
 fhort by his Lordfliip ; who faid, " He was fo very 
 great a man, that I forget he had that vice." 
 
 Out of a variety of anecdotes and teftimonies con- 
 cerning this illuftrious perfonage, colleAed in the new 
 edition of the Biographia Britan?iica, the following fe- 
 leftion may ferve to illullrate more particularly his dif- 
 pofition and manners. 
 
 One of the firft. things which he did, when very 
 young, was to purchafe a box to put his money in ; 
 an indication this of the economical, not to fay ava- 
 ricious, temper that accompanied him through life. 
 Dr Jofeph Warton relates, that, on the evening of an 
 important battle, the duke was heard to chide his fer- 
 Tant for having been fo extravagant as to light four 
 candles in his tent when Prince Eugene came to confer 
 with him. Mr Tyers, on the other hand, men- 
 tioned a circumftance which, if well founded, re- 
 dounds to his grace's generoiity ; though in a diffe- 
 rent refpeft it is much^to his difcredit : It is, that 
 during the rebellion 1715 he fentL. 10,000 to the 
 earl of Mar. We confider the ftory as only a tradi- 
 tional report, which, has not in itfelf any great degree 
 of probability ; and therefore we are by no means con- 
 vinced of its truth. The late Mr Richardfon junior, 
 the painter, hath recorded a pleafing inftance of the 
 duke's cah'nnefs of difpofition ; for which, indeed, he 
 was always remarkable. " The duke of Marlborough 
 (fays the writer), riding out once vs'Ith Commilfary 
 Marri^t, near the commiffary's houfe in the counti-y, 
 it began to. rain, and the duke called for his cloak ; 
 Marriot having his put on by his fervant immediately. 
 The duke's fervant not bringing the cloak, he called 
 for it again ; but the man was ftill puzzling about the 
 ilraps and buckles. At Taft, it raining now very haid, 
 the duke called again, and allced him, * what he was 
 about that he did not bring his cloak i" ' You muft 
 ftay (grupibles the ftllovv), if it rains cats and dogs, 
 
 N° 80. 
 
 G H U 
 
 The duke only turned to Marriot, Chvirjliill. 
 and faid, ' I would not be' of that fellow'*- temper." — — v*"— ' 
 The duke of Marlborough (adds Mr Richardfon) did 
 by nature and confticution, what Seneca judged by 
 philofophy ought to be done, ^/id ejl quare ego fervi 
 met hilarius refponfum, ct contumacioraH "vultum, jlagellis 
 et compedibns expiem ? 
 
 Dr Swift, 'in one of his letters to Stella, relates the 
 following particulars concerning the duke of Marl- 
 borough. " I was early this morning with fecretaty 
 St John, and gave him a memorial to get the queen's 
 letter for the hrft-fruits, who has promifed to do it in 
 a very few days. He told me • he had been with the 
 duke of Marlborough, who was lamenting his former 
 wrong fteps in joining with the Whigs, and faid he 
 was worn out with age, fatigue, and misfortunes.' I 
 fwear it pitied me ; and I really think they will not do 
 well in too much mortifying that man, although in- 
 deed it is his own fault. He is covetous as hell, and 
 ambitious as the prince of it : he would fain have been 
 general for life, and has broken all endeavours for 
 peace, to keep his greatnefs, and get money. He 
 told the queen * he was neither covetous nor ambitious.* 
 She faid, ' if flie could have conveniently turned about, 
 fhe would have laughed, and could hardly forbear it in 
 his face.' He fell in with all the abominable meafurea 
 of the late miniftry, becaufe they gratified him for 
 their own defigns. Yet he has been a fuccefsful gene- 
 ral, and I hope he will con-tinue his command." 
 
 Various charafters have been drawn of the duke of 
 Marlborough ; moft of which we fhall omit, as either 
 already fufdciently known, or as not meriting particu- 
 lar notice. That which is given of him by Dr Swift, 
 in his " Hitlory of the four laft years of the queen," 
 has all the malignity and meannefs of a party pamph- 
 let. It is even fo foohft as to infinuate, that the 
 duke's military accomplifhments were problematical, 
 and that he was deilitute of perfonal courage. Mr 
 Macpherfon's charafter of his grace is very elaborate- 
 ly compofed, and difplays no fmall degree of ability 
 and penetration ; though it is not, perhaps, entire- 
 ly free from prejudice. The hiflorian conliders it 
 as a faft, that lord Churchill, at the time of the 
 Revolution, had a defign of placing his unfortunate 
 mailer king James II. a prifoner in the hands of his 
 rival the prince of Orange. But this ftory muft be 
 regarded as wholly unworthy of credit. It is found- 
 ed upon fuggeftions and informations fo groundlefs, 
 and even ridiculous, that it cannot deferve a formal 
 refutation. On the other hand, Mr Macpherfon has 
 done juftice to the duke of Marlborough's profecution 
 of the war in Flanders, and hath fhown that he con- 
 duced ic upon the principles of found wifdom and good 
 policy. 
 
 There are two teftimonies to the honour of the 
 duke's memory, by two celebrated noble writers, which 
 cannot be paflcd over. One is by lord Bolingbroke, 
 in his letters on the Study and Ufe of Hiftory. 
 Speaking of the confternation railed among the allies 
 of the grand confederacy by the death of king Wil- 
 liam, and of the joy which that event gave to the 
 French, his lordihip obferves, that " a ftiort time 
 ftiowed how vain the fears of fome and the hopes of 
 others were. By his death, the duke of Marlborough 
 was raifed to the head of the army, and indeed of the 
 2 corf. 
 
c H tr [7 
 
 Churchill, confederacy : where he, a new, a private man, a fub- 
 V. — jg(C^^ acquired, by merit and by management, a more 
 deciding influence than high birth, confirmed autho- 
 rity, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given 
 to king William. Not only all the parts of that vaft 
 machine, the grand aUiance, were kept more corapaA 
 and entire, but a more rapid and vigorous motion was 
 given to the whole : and, inftead of languifhing out 
 difaftrous campaigns, we faw every fcene of the war 
 full of aftion. All thofc wherein he appeared, and 
 many of thofe wherein he was not then an aftor, but 
 abettor however of their aftion, were crowned with 
 the mod triumphant fuccefs. I take, with pleafure, 
 this opportunity of doing juftice to that great man, 
 whofe faults I knew, whole virtues I admired ; and 
 whofe memory, as the greateft general, and as the 
 greateft minifter, that our country, or perhaps any 
 other, has produced, I honour." 
 
 The other teftimony to the duke's accomplifliments 
 IS by the earl of Chefterfield, in his Letters to his Son. 
 ** Of all the men (fays his lordflrip) that ever I knew 
 in my life (and I knew him extremely well), the late 
 duke of Marlborough poflefled the graces in the high- 
 eft degree, not to fay engrofled them : and indeed 
 he got the moft by them ; for I will venture (contrary 
 to the cuftom of profound hiftorians, who always af- 
 fign deep caufes for great events) to afcribe the better 
 half of the duke of Marlborough's greatnefs and riches 
 to thofe graces. He was eminently illiterate ; wrote 
 bad Engli/h, and fpelled it ftill worfe. He had no 
 fliare of what is commonly called parts-; that is, he 
 had no brightnefs, nothing {hining in his genius. He 
 had, moft undoubtedly, an excellent good plain under- 
 ftanding, with found judgment. But thefe alone would 
 probably have raifed him but fomething higher than 
 they found him ; which was page to king James II. 's 
 queen. There the graces protefted and promoted 
 him : for while he was an enfign of the guards, tlie du- 
 chefs of Cleveland, then favourite miftrefs to king 
 Charles II. ftruck by thofe very graces, gave him 
 L.5000; with which he immediately bought an an- 
 nuity for his life of L.500 a-year, of my grandfather 
 Halifax ; which was the foundation of his fubfequent 
 . fortune. His figure was beautiful ; but his manner 
 was irrefidible, by either man or woman. It was by 
 this engaging graceful manner that he was enabled, 
 during all his war, to connect the various and jarring 
 powers of the grand alliance, and to carry them on to 
 the main object of the war,"notwithftanding their pri- 
 vate and feparate views, jealoufies, and wrongheaded- 
 neffes. Whatever court he went to (and he was often 
 obliged to go himfelf to fome tefty and refraftory ones), 
 he as conftantly prevailed, and brought them into his 
 meafures. The penfionary Heinfius, a venerable old 
 minifter, grown grey in bufinefs, and who had go- 
 verned the republic of the United Provinces for more 
 than 40 years, was abfolutely governed hy the duke 
 of Marlborough, as that republic feels to this day. 
 He was always cool ; and nobody .ever obferved the 
 leaft variation in his countenance : he could refufe more 
 gracefully than other people could grant ; and thofe 
 who went away from him the moft diffatisfied as to the 
 fubftance of their bufinefs, were yet perfonally charmed 
 with him, and in fome degree comforted by his man- 
 ner. With all his gentleuefs and gracefulnefs, no man 
 Vol. IV. Part I-I. 
 
 5. ] C H U 
 
 living was more confcious of his fituation, nor main- Clmrchiir. 
 tained his dignity better." ' v ^ 
 
 A perufal of the above paffage will convince us of 
 the frivolous turn of the earl of Chefterfield's mind. 
 His lordflrip, in his zeal to exalt the duke of Marl- 
 borough's external accompliAiments, either forgets or 
 depreciates the far greater talents of which he was 
 pofffcffed. There is an obfervation upon the fiibjcft in 
 the Britifn Biography, with which we entirely concur. 
 *' That the duke of Marlborough (fays the writer) 
 was eminently diftinguiftied by the gracefulnefs of his 
 manners, cannot be queftioned : but the earl of Che- . 
 fterfield appears to have attributed too much to their 
 influence, when he afcribes — the better half of the 
 duke of Marlborough's greatnefs and riches to thofe 
 graces. That the uncommoti gracefulnefs of his man- 
 ners facilitated his advancement, and contributed to 
 the- fuccefs of his negociations, may readily be admit- 
 ted ; but furcly it muft have been to much higher qua- 
 lities that he owed the efteem of king William and of 
 prince Eugene, his reputation throughout all Europe, 
 and his many viftories and conquefts. It was not by 
 a polite exterior that he obtained his laurels at Schel- 
 lenberg, at Oudenarde, at RamiUies, and at Blen- 
 heim." 
 
 How much the duke of Marlborough has been ce- 
 lebrated by our potts, is well known by Addifon'3 
 " Campaign," and PhiHps's " Blenheim." Mr Ad- 
 difon, in his Rofamond, has properly affumed another 
 and voluntary occafion of paying a fine compliment to 
 his grace's military exploits, and the glory by which 
 they would be followed. Upon the duke's removal 
 from his places, an ode was infcribed to him by Mr 
 Somerville, animated with all the zeal of whiggifii en- 
 thufiafm, and containing fome paffages that are truly 
 poetical. Another ode, not much inferior in fpirit, 
 was addrt fl'ed to his grace, on occafion of his embark- 
 ing for Oltend in the year 1712. 
 
 The duke of Marlborough's Scots title of Baron 
 Eymouth, being to heirs-male, died with himfelf; but 
 his Engli(h title going to his daughters and their heirs- 
 male, went into the Spencer family, who retain their 
 own furname of Spencer. 
 
 Churc h I LI, (Charles), a celebrated fatirift, the 
 fon of Mr Charles Churchill curate and lefturer of 
 St John's, Weftminfter, was educated at Weftminfter 
 fchool, and received fome applaufe for his abilities from 
 his tutors in that famous feminary. His capacity, 
 however, was greater than his application, fo that he 
 acquired the character pf a boy that could do good if 
 he would. As the flighteft accounts of perfons fo 
 noted are agreeable, it may not be amifs to obferve, 
 that having one day got an exercife to make, and 
 from idlenefs or inattention having failed to bring it 
 at the time appointed, his mafter thought proper to 
 chaftife him with fome feverity, and even reproached 
 his ftupidity : what the fear of ftripes could not effjft, 
 the fear of fhame foon produced, and he brought his 
 exercife the next day, finiflied in fuch a manner, that 
 he received the public thanks of all the mailers. Still, 
 however, his progrefs in the learned languages was 
 but flow ; nor is it to be wondered at, if we confider 
 how difficult it was for a ftrong imagination, fuch as 
 he was poffeffed of, to conform and walk tamely for- 
 ward in the trammels of a fchool education : minds 
 5 G like 
 
C H U [ 7S6 ] C H U 
 
 CTinrcTiiTJ. i;ke his are ever ftarting afide after new pnrfults ; de- merit is inconteAahle, and others praifed that were 
 
 of eii)bracin'T a mnltiplicity of amufing objefts ; that time in no degree of efteem with the judicious. "'"'^ 
 
 ' -CI- n- jjjg jjgj^j, performance was his Apology to the Criti- 
 cal Revieivers. This work is not without its peculiar 
 merit ; and as it was written againft a fet of critics 
 whom the world was willing enough to blame, the 
 public read it with their ufual indulgence. In this 
 performance he fliowed a particular happinefs of 
 throwing his thoughts, if we may fo exprefs it, inta 
 poetical paragraphs ; fo that the fentence fwells to the 
 
 f'i'OUS 
 
 eager to come at the end, witliout the painful invefti- 
 gation of the means. In fliort, for want of proper 
 fliill in thcfe languages, he was rejefted from Oxford, 
 whither his father had fent him ; and probably this 
 might have given occafion to the frequent inveAives 
 we find' in his works againft that moft refpeftable 
 univerlity. Upon his return from then<:e, he^gain ap- 
 plied to his ftudies in Weftminfter fchool, where, at 17 
 
 years of age, he contrafted an intimacy with a lady, break or conclufion, as we find in profe 
 
 10 whom he was married, and their mutual regard 
 for each other continued for fcveral years. At the 
 nfnal age of going into orders, Mr Churchill was or- 
 dained by the late bilhop of London, and obtained a 
 fmall curacy in Wales of L. 30 a-year. Thither he 
 carried his wife : they took a fmall houfe ; and he 
 palTed through the duties of his ftation with affiduity 
 and cheerfulnefs. Happy had it been for him had 
 he continued there to enjoy the fruits of piety, peace, 
 and fimplicity of manners. He was beloved and e- 
 Iteemed by his pariftiioners ; and though his fermons 
 were rather above the level of his audience, they were 
 commended and followed. But endeavouring to ad- 
 vance his fortune, by keeping a cyder cellar, it in- 
 volved him in difficulties which obhged him to leave 
 Wales and come to London. His father dying foon 
 after, he ftepped into the church in which he had of- 
 ficiated ; and, in order to improve his income, which 
 fcarcely produced L. 100 a-year, he taught young la- 
 dies to read and write Enghfli at a boarding- fchool, 
 kept by Mrs Dennis, where he behaved with that de- 
 cency and dv.'eorum which became his profeffion. His 
 method of living, however, bearing no proportion to 
 his income, he contrafted feveral debts in the cily ; 
 which being unable to pay, a jail, the terror of indi- 
 gent genius, feeraed ready to complete his misfortunes: 
 but from this ftate of wretchednefs he was relieved 
 bv the benevolence of Mr Lloyd,, father to the poet 
 of that name. l^.'Iean while, Mr Lloyd, the fon, wrote 
 a poetical epilile called the Jldor ; which being read 
 and approved by the public, gave the author a diftin- 
 guifhed place among the writers of his age. This 
 induced Mr Churchill . to write the. Rofciad. It firft 
 came out without the author's name ; but the juftnefs 
 of the remarks, and the feverity of the fatire, foon 
 excited public curiofity. Though he never difowned 
 his having written this piece, and even openly gloried 
 
 But while his writings amufed the town, his aftions 
 difgufted it. He now quitted his wife, with whom 
 he had cohabited many years ; and refigning his gown 
 and all clerical funilions, commenced a complete man 
 of the toivtii got drunk, frequented ftews ; and, giddy 
 with falfe praife, thought his talents a fufficient atone- 
 ment for all his follies. In fome meafure to palliate 
 the abfurdities of his conduft, he now undertook a 
 poem called Night, written upon a general fubjeft in- 
 deed, but upon falfe piinciples; namely, that what- 
 ever our follies are, we (hould never attempt to con- 
 ceal them. This, and Mr Churchill's other poems, 
 being fhown to Dr Johnfon, and his opinion being 
 afiied, he allowed them but little merit ; which be- 
 ing told to the author, he refolved to requite thia 
 private opinion with a public one. In his next poem, 
 therefore, of the Ghojl, he has drawn this gentleman, 
 under the charadler of Pompofo ; and thofe who 
 difliked Mr Johnfon allowed it to have merit. Mr 
 Johnfon's only reply to Churchill's abufe was, " that 
 he thought him. a (hallow fellow in the beginning, 
 and could fay nothing worfe of him ftill." The 
 poems of Night and the Gholt had not the rapid fale 
 the author expefted ; but his Prophecy of Famine 
 foon made ample amends for the late paroxyfm in his 
 fame. In this piece, written in the fpirit of the fa-- 
 mous North Briton, he exerted his virulent pen againft 
 the whole Scotch nation ; adopting the prejudices of the 
 mob, and dignifying fcurrility by the aid of a poetia 
 imagination. It had a rapid and extenfive fale, as 
 prophefied by Mr Wilkes ; who faid, before its pub- 
 lication, that he was fure it muft take, as it was at 
 once perfonal, poetical, and pohtical. After its ap- 
 pearance, it was even afferted by his admirers, that 
 Mr Churchill was a better poet than Pope. This 
 exaggerated adulation, as it had before corrupted his 
 morals, began now to impair his mind : feveral fuc- 
 
 in It ; yet the public, unwiUing to give fo much merit ceeding pieces were pubhilhed, which, being written 
 
 to one alone, afcribed it to a combination of wits : without effort, are read without pleafure. His Gc- 
 
 nor were Meffrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Colman, left tham. Independence, The Times, feem merely to have been 
 
 unnamed upon this occafion. This mifplaced praife written by a man who defired to avail himfelf of the avi- 
 
 foon induced Mr Churchill to throw off the mafic, and dity of the public curiofity in his favour, and are rather 
 
 the fecond edition appeared with his name at full aimed at the pockets than the hearts of his readers. — Mr 
 
 length. As the Rofciad was the firft of this poet's Churchill died in 1764, of a miliary fever, with which he 
 
 performances, fo many are of opinion that it is the was feized at Boulogne in France, whither he had gone 
 
 beft.'' In it we find a very clofe and minute difcuffion on a vifit to Mr Wilkes. After his death his poems were 
 
 nf the particular merit of each performer ; their de- collefted and printed together in two volumes 8vo. 
 
 feds pointed out with candour, and their merits CHURCHING of women after child-birth,, 
 
 praifed without adulation. This poem, however, took its rife from the Jewifh rite of purification. In 
 
 feems to be one of thofe few works which are injured the Greek church it was limited to the fortieth day 
 
 by fucceeding editions: when he became popular, after delivery ; but in the weftern parts of Europe no 
 
 his judgment began to grow drunk with applaufe ; certain time is obferved. There is an office in the li- 
 
 and we find, in the latter editions, men blamed whofe turgy for this purpofe. 
 
 CHURCHt 
 
C H U 
 
 t 7B7 1 
 
 C H U 
 
 Churchyard CHURCHYARD, a piece of ground adjoining to a 
 II church, fet apart for interment or burial of the dead. 
 
 ^ ^^y'^- In the church of Rome they are bleffed or coafe- 
 
 " crated with great folemnity. If a churchyard, which 
 has been thus confecrated, fliall afterwards be polluted 
 by an)-^ indecent adion, or profaned by the burial of an 
 infidel, an heretic, an excommunicated or unbaplized 
 perfon, it mud be reconciled; and the ceremony of the 
 reconciliation is performed with the fame folemnity as 
 that of the bleffing or confecration. 
 
 Churchyard (Thomas), a poet who flourifhcd in 
 the reigns of Henry VIII. Edward VI. queen Mary 
 and queen Elizabeth, was born at Shrewfbury ; and in- 
 herited a fortune, which he foon exhaufted in a fruitlefs 
 attendance on the court, by which he only gained the 
 favour of btii g retained a domelHc in the family of 
 lord Surrey ; when, by his lordlhip's encouragement, 
 he commenced poet. Upon his patron's death, he be- 
 took himfelf to arms ; was in many engagements ; was 
 frequently wounded, and was twice made prifoner. He 
 publifhed 12 pieces, which he afterwads printed toge- 
 ther in one volume, under the tide o{ Churchyard's Chips; 
 and alfo the tragedy of Thomas Moubray duke of Nor- 
 folk. He died in 1570. 
 
 CFIURLE, Ceok-le, or Carl, in the Saxon times, 
 fignified a tenant at .will, who held of the thanes on 
 condition of rent and fervice. They were of two forts : 
 one rented the eltate like our farmers : the other tilled 
 and manured the dcmefncs, and were called plough- 
 men. See Ceorle. 
 
 CHURNING, in country affairs, the operation of 
 inaking butter by agitating milk in a well known vef- 
 fel called a churn. For accelerating this operation, a 
 correfpondent in the Bath Society Papers recommends 
 a little diRilled vinegar to be poured into the churn; and 
 the butter will be produced in an hour afterwards. 'He 
 acknowledges, however, that his experiments have not 
 as yet afcertained the exaft quantity of the acid wliich 
 is neceffary to the proper effed, nor the precife time 
 of its being mixed with the cream. But he appre- 
 hends a table fpoonful or two to a gallon of cream will 
 be fufficient ; nor would he recommend it to be applied 
 till the cream has undergone fome confiderable agi- 
 tation. His firfl trial was after the churning had been 
 going ferward half a day : whether he obferyed the 
 fame rule afterwards, he does not fay ; but all his trials 
 proved Xuccefsful, the butter being uniformly obtained 
 in.sibout.an hour after the mixture. 
 
 CHUS, or Cbufch, (Bible.) It is a tradition of an 
 ■ancient flanding, that the Chus of the Scriptures de;- 
 notes Ethiopia, and Chtifchi an Ethiopian : the Septua- 
 gint and Vulgate conitantly tranflate it fo ; and in 
 •this they are followed by moft interpreters, and by Jo- 
 fephus and Jerome. And yet what Bochart urges to 
 the contrary is of no inconfiderable weight, from Eze- 
 kiel xxix. 10. in which the two oppofite extremes of 
 Eg>'pt are defigned ; and therefore Chus^ which is op- 
 pofite to Syene, muft be Arabia : but this is more 
 ftrongly pointed out by Xenophon, by whom Ethiopia 
 is faid to be the fouth boundary of Cyrus's empire ; 
 and Herodotus diftinguifhes between the Ethiopians of 
 Afia and Africa, conjoining the former with the Ara- 
 bians. 
 
 CHYLE, In the animal economy, a m.ilky fluid fe- 
 
 creted from the aliments by means of digedlur 
 Anatomy, p. 734, 735. 
 
 CHYLIFICATION, the formation of the chyle, or 
 the aft whereby the food is changed into chyle. 
 
 The chyle has by forae authors been thought to have 
 a great refemblance in its nature and chemical analyfis 
 to milk. The fubjeft, however, hath as yet been but 
 little inquired Into. See the article Milk. 
 
 CHYME, or CHYMUS, in the common fignlficatlon 
 of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is 
 incrafiated by concoftion ; under which notion it com- 
 prehends all the humours fit or unfit for prefervlng 
 and nourlihing the body, whether good or bad. It 
 frequently Imports the fincft part of the chyle, when fe- 
 parated from the fasces, and contained In the iafteal 
 and thoracic duft. 
 
 CHYMISTRY. See Chemistry. 
 CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch natu- 
 ralifts as have employed their time in Inveftigatlng the 
 properties of plants from their talle and fmell. 
 
 CHYMOSIS, in medicine, the aft of making or 
 preparing chyme. The word comes from x^f'-'"^\f'i''-ui>^ 
 of x}^-, fundo, " I melt." Chyraofis, according to lo:ne, 
 is the fecond of the concoftions made in the body; be- 
 ing a repeated preparation of the moft. impure and 
 grofs parts of the chyle, which being rejefted by the 
 lafttals, is imbibed by the meferalcs, and thence car- 
 ried to the liver, to be there elaborated, purified, and 
 fubtilized afrefli. It Is of this, according to Rogers, 
 that the animal fpirits are formed. 
 
 Chymosis Is alfo a diftortion of the eye-lids, arlfing 
 from an inflammation ; alfo an inflammation of the 
 tunica cornea In the eye. 
 
 CHYTLA, in antiquity, a liquor made of wine and 
 oil, and fomelimes ufed in divination.. 
 
 CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a feftival In ho*, 
 nour of Bacchus and Mercury, kept on the 1 3th o* 
 the month Anthefterion. 
 
 CHYTRIUM (anc. geog.), a place In lonia^ in 
 which formerly ftood Clazomcne 5 the Clazomenians, 
 through fear of the Perfians, removing from the conti- 
 nent to an adjacent ifland (Paufanias). Alexander re- 
 duced the illand, by a mole or caufeway, to a peniii- 
 fula. 
 
 CHYTRUS (anc. geog.), an Inland town of Cy- 
 prus, to the north of Citium ; famous for its excellent 
 honey. 
 
 CI ANUS Sinus, (anc. geog,), a bay of BIthynIa, 
 named from the town and river CIus. 
 
 CIBAL^, or CrBALis, (anc. geog.), a town of 
 Pannonia Inferior, on an eminence, near the lake Hi- 
 ulka, to the north-weft of Sirmium ; the country of 
 the emperor Gratian, where he was brought up to rope- 
 making : a place rendered famous for the furprifal and 
 defeat of Licinius by Conftantine. 
 
 CIBBER (CoUey), a celebrated comedian, drama- 
 tic writer, and poet laureat to the king, was born at 
 London in 1671. His father Caius Gabriel Cibber, 
 ,was a native of Holftein, and a fl<ilful ftatuary, who 
 executed the baflb relievo on the pedeftal of the mo- 
 nument, and the two "admired figures of lunatics over 
 the piers of the gate to Bethlem Hofpital in Moor- 
 fields. Colic V, who derived his Chriftlan name from 
 the furname of nis mother's family, was intended for 
 5 G 2 the 
 
 See Cliylifis*. 
 tion. 
 
 Cilber. 
 
Cibber 
 »l 
 
 Cibdelc- 
 firacia. 
 
 C I B C 788 1 QIC 
 
 the church, but betook himfelf to the ftagc, for which er furface, frequent m Germany and England; and 
 he conceived an early inclination ; and he was fome the feventh is the brownifh-white friable cibdeloflra- 
 time before he acquired any degree of notice, or even cium, with a dully furfsice, found in fevcral parts of 
 t.^ TT . r n. rr_ • Ireland, as well as Germany. 
 
 CIBORIA, in antiquity, the large hullc of Egyp- 
 tian beans, which are faid to have been fo large as to 
 ferve for drinking-cups ; whence they had their name 
 ciborkim, fignifying a cup, in the Egyptian langua<re. 
 
 CIBORIUM, in ecclefiailical writers, the covering 
 for the altar. This covering is fupported by four high 
 columns, and forms a kind of tent for the eucharift, in 
 the "Romifh churches. Some authors call it turns gejla- 
 
 a competent falary. His firfl elTay in writing, was 
 the comedy of Love's hift Shift, afted in 1695, which 
 met with fuccefs : as did his own performance of the 
 charadler of the fop in it. From that time, as he 
 fays himfclf, *• My mufe and my fpoufe were fo 
 equally prolific, that the one was fcldom the mother 
 of a child, but in the fame year the other made 
 me the father of a play. I think we had a dozen of 
 each fort between us ; of both which kinds fome died 
 
 Ciboria 
 
 .1) 
 Cicada. 
 
 ^ -. . ^ „„ , „^ ^^^^ v-i. iiyw.v. vj.v_vi tin, ivunniii (.iiuicucb. ijuiiic ciuLnurs Utiu It Turns gejia~ 
 
 in their infancy, and near an equal nnmber 'of each toria and others pyxis; but the pyxis is properly the 
 were alive when we quitted the theatre." The box in which the eucharift is preierved. 
 
 Carelefs Hujband, afted in 1704, met w ith great ap 
 plaufe, and is reckoned his beil play ; but none was 
 of more importance to him than the Non-juror, afted 
 in 17 1 7, and levelled aga'nfl the Jacobites. This laid 
 the foundation of the mifundcrftanding between h'Va 
 and Mr Pope, raiftd him to be the hero of the Duncia.d, 
 and made him poet laureat in 1730. He then quitted 
 the llage, except a few occafional performances; and 
 died in 1757. Cibber neither fucceedcd in ailing nor in 
 writing tragedy ; and his odes were not thought to>par- 
 take of the genius or fpirit.he fliowed in his comedies. 
 
 His fon Thcophlhts, alfo a comic sfhor after him, was 
 born during a great rtorm in 1703 ; and after paffing 
 a life of extravagance, diilrefs, and perplexity, pe- 
 rifhed in another ftorm in 1758, in the paflage be- 
 tween Dubhn and England. Tlieophilus mairied the 
 filler of Thomas Auguftin Arne, the famous muiical 
 coinpofer ; who became a celebrated tragic aftrefs, 
 and whofe honour was facrificed to her hufband's ex- 
 travagance 
 
 CIBUSfe RiALis,m antiquity, an entertainment pe- 
 cuhar to a funeral ; for which purpofe, l.(*ins, parfley, 
 lettuce, bread, eggs, lentils, and falts were in ufe. 
 
 CICADA, the Frog-hopper or Flea-Locust, 
 in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to the order ^"^^^^<' 
 of hemiptera. The beak is inflefted ; the antennae are 
 fetaceous ; the four wings are membranaceous and de- 
 flefted ; and the feet, in moft of the fpecies, are of the 
 jumping kind. The fpecies are fifty-one. The larvae 
 of feveral of this genus evacuate great quantities of a 
 frothy matter upon the branches and leaves of plants, 
 in the midft of which they conftantly refide, probably 
 for fhelter againft the fearch of other animals, to which 
 it_ would become a prey. Nature has afforded this 
 kind of defence to infefts whofe naked and foft bodies 
 might otherwife very eafily be injured ; perhaps alfo 
 the moifture of this foam may ferve to fcreen it from 
 the fultry beams of the fun. On removing the foam, 
 you difcover the larva concealed underneath ; but it 
 does not long remain uncovered. It foon emits frefh 
 
 r'TT'TMrr rvnr a /-t a • 1 , -n /- '""6 "'"-"''cicu. n loon emits irem 
 
 r^rrV: ^^^^^^ \" "^fural hiftory ; a genus of foam, that hides it from the eye of obfervation. It is 
 
 fpars debafed by a very large admixture of earth : 
 they are opaque, formed of thin crufts, covering ve- 
 getables and other bodies, by way of incruftations. 
 
 Of this genus we have the following fpecies : i. A 
 greyifli- white one, with a rough furface. 2. A whi- 
 tifh- brown one : ^both thefe are friable. 3. A hard, 
 pale-brown kind, which is the ofteocolla of the {hops. 
 
 4. The whitifh-grey kind, with a fmooth furface: 
 this is the unicornu foihle and ceratites of authors. 
 
 5. The whitiflr-brown corralloide kind. 
 CIBDELOSTRACIA, in natural hiftory, terrene 
 
 fpars, deftitute of all brightnefs and tranfparence, 
 formed into thin plates, and ufually found coating over 
 the fides of fifFures, and other cavities of ftones, with 
 congeries of them of great extent, and of plain or 
 botroyide furfaces. 
 
 Of thefe there are ufually reckoned feven kinds: 
 the firft is the hard, brownifh-white cibdeloftracium, 
 
 in the midft of this foamy fubftance the larva goes 
 through its metamorphofis into a chryfalis and perfeft 
 infeft. Other larv«, whofe bodies are not fo foft, run 
 over plants without any manner of defence, and efcape 
 from infefts that might hurt them, by the nimblenefs 
 of their running, but efpecially of their leaping. 
 
 The chryfalids, and all the larvas that produce them, 
 differ little from each other, only that the former have 
 the rudiments of wings, a kind of knob at the place where 
 the wings will afterwards be in the perfed infedt. As 
 to other rcfpeas, the chryfaHdswalk, leap, and run over 
 plants and trees; as do the larva and the frog-hopper, 
 which they are to produce. At length they throw off 
 their teguments of chryfalids, flip their laft flough, and 
 then the mfeft appears in its utmoft ftate of perfeftion. 
 The male alone isthen endowed with the facuhyof fing- 
 ing, which it exercifes not with its throat, but with an or- 
 gan fituated under the abdomen. Behind the legs of 
 
 found m Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitifh t\e male are obfervea two a^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 cibdelottraaum, with tlun crufts, and a fmoother fur- difcover feveral cavities, feparated by various meml 
 
 face found alfo nr the Harts-forefts ur Germany : the branes. The middle contain, a fcaly uiangle tI 
 
 third IS the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with vigorous mufcles give motion to anoth r membrtr 
 
 numeix^us very thin crufts, f^)und in ftxbterranean ca- which alternately becomes concave and Convex The 
 
 Se wtitfiS ?nr?".P"'KT7-^ air agitated by this membrane, is moclified;:rthin tS 
 
 the toLrth lo the white, light, and friable cibdelo- other cavities ; and by the help of this fonorous inftru- 
 
 llracium, found alfo m Germany, but very rarely in any ment, he amoroufly folicits L foiKue X p^^ 
 
 in almoft all^partsofthew^^^^^^^ irg,t^d contt^^^^^^^^ 
 
 tdh,fnable,cruftaceotisabdcIoftrac.um, with a rough- tide fun° Its lively and ani^led i j^^ 
 
 5- ^ country. 
 
C I c 
 
 I 7S9 ] 
 
 C I c 
 
 Ckatricula country people, a prefage of a fine fummer, a plenti- 
 ^.^11^^. ful harveft, and the fure return of fpring. The cicadjE 
 jjjfjt,, have a head almoO: triangular, an oblong body, their 
 U— y— — I wings faftigiated or in form of a roof, and fix legs with 
 which they walk and leap pretty brifkly. In the fe- 
 males, at the extremity of the abdomen are feen two 
 large laminae, between which is inclofed, as in a fheath, 
 a fpine, or lamina, fomewhat ferrated, which ferves 
 them for the purpofe of depofiting their eggs, and 
 probably to fink them into the fubftance of thofe 
 plants which the young larvae are to feed upon. 
 
 CICATRICULA, among natural hlftorians, de- 
 notes a fmall whitifli fpeck in the yolk of an egg, fuppo- 
 fcd to be the firft rudiments of the future chick. 
 
 CICATRIX, in furgery, a little feam or elevation 
 of callous flefh rifing on the Hcin, and remaining there 
 after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly 
 called a fear, 
 
 CICATRIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which 
 aflill nature to form a cicatrix. Such are Armenian 
 bole, powder of tutty, &c. 
 
 Cicatrizants are otherwife called ejcharoticsy epuhticsy CIcca 
 incarnatives, a^g/utinants, &c. c'cer * 
 
 CICCA, in botany ; a genus of the tetrandria or- ' j 
 
 der, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants. The ^ 
 male calyx is tetraphyllous ; there is no corolla : the 
 female calyx triphyllous ; no corolla ; four ftyles ; the 
 capfule quadricoccous, or four berried. 
 
 CICELY, in botany, the Englifli name of a fpecies 
 of chasrophyllum. See Ch^rophyllum 
 
 CICER, or Chick-Pea, in botany: A genus of 
 the decandria order, belonging to the d^adelphia clafs 
 of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under 
 the Paplionacea, or 3 2d order. The calyx is quinque- 
 partite, as long as the corolla, with its four uppermoft 
 fegments incumbent on the vexiUum : the legum.en is 
 rhomboidal, turbid, and difpermous. There is but one 
 fpecies, which produces peafe lhaped like the cbmmoa • 
 ones, but much fmaller. They are much cultivated in 
 Spain, where they are natives, being one of the ingre- 
 dients in their olios; as alfo in France ; but arc rarelf 
 known in Britain. 
 
 END OF THE FOURTH VOLUME. 
 
 ; 
 
OMISSION. 
 
 By an accident tke following Explanations were omitted at their proper place, viz. at the end of 
 
 Part I. -of Chemistry, p. 455. 
 
 Plate CXXXIII. fig. i. Hiows the figure of the ftill 
 recommended by Dr Black ; the bottom formed in fuch 
 a manner as to go into his furnace. A, the body ; 
 B, the head ; C C, the tube conveying the fteam into 
 the worm ; D F, the figure of the worm ; E, the worm- 
 tub. 
 
 Fig. 2. A head taller than the common, proper for 
 rectifying ardent fpirits. 
 
 Fig. 3. Another kind of ftill for a common furnace, 
 having a concave bottom for receiving the flame. A, 
 the body ; B, the head. 
 
 Fig. 4. Papin's digefter. See Chemistry. n''567. 
 A, the body ; B B, the crofs-bars ; C D, the fcrevv ; 
 E, the lid. 
 
 Fig. 5. The outer cafe of Dr Black's furnace with- 
 out the luting. A, the body ; B, the feet ; I G, the 
 opening at top. 
 
 Fig. 6. C, the grate of the fame, with four projec- 
 tions, having holes in them to faften it by nails to the 
 infide of the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 7. A crooked funnel for putting matters into 
 a retort without touching the fides or neck. 
 
 Fig. 8. Dr Black's furnace put together in readl- 
 nefs for chemical operations. A, the mouth ; B, the 
 chimney ; C, the door of the a(h-hole. E, the regi- 
 fters for admitting air. 
 
 Fig. 9. A fedlion of the fame, fhowing its infide 
 ilrufture. F, the top-cover ; G, the body, with part 
 
 of the grate ; D, the receptacle for the aflies ; C, its 
 door ; E, the regifters. 
 
 Fig. I o. An iron fupport for a crucible. 
 
 Fig. II. The figiu-e of a crucible. 
 
 Plate CXXXIV. fig. i. Dr Boerbaave^ portable 
 furnace. See Chemistry, n^'6oo. 
 
 Fig. 2. Macquer's melting-furnace. AA,'the door of 
 the afh-plt ; B, the fpace betwixt the top of the a(h- 
 plt and fire-place ; D C, the bars ; G H E F, the fire- 
 place ; I, the funnel, illitd, 2d n^ 605. 
 
 Fig. 3. Dr Lewis's portable furnace fitted with a 
 ilill. Ibid, xv 6o\, 601, 
 
 Fig. 4. Shows the figure of retorts of different kinds. 
 
 A, the body ; B, the neck. 
 
 Fig. 5. A matrafs and alembic head, with a cucur- 
 bit and alembic head made of one piece. A, the body; 
 
 B, the long neck of the matrafs ; C, the alembic head. 
 A, the body of the cucurbit ; B, the head ; C, an 
 opening In the head for putting in the matter to be 
 diftilled ; D, a glafs ftopple fitted to the opening juft 
 mentioned ; E, the opening of the cucurbit mouth. 
 
 Fig. 6. The pelican and cucurbit, now In difufe. A, 
 the body of the pehcan ; B, the head ; C, an opening 
 fitted with a ftopple ; DD, the arms. A, the body of 
 the cucurbit ; B, the head ; C, the neck ; D, the 
 fpout. 
 
 Fig. 7. A row of adopters or aludels. 
 
 Fig. 8. Dr Lewis's lamp-furnace. Ibid, n'' 6 1 1 . 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 127. col. I. line 10. Vorjllntjiones, rczdjlatjlcnes, 
 col. 2. 1. 2C. For Sloppo, read Hoppo. 
 
 In the Notes on Chemistry. 
 
 N° 55. Y or partly the preffufe, read partly by the prejfure. 
 109. For exjiccation, read extrication. 
 140. For the noiv exlfletice, read nonex'i/lencek 
 I ^y. ¥oY coming, read derived. 
 223. For continuation, read combination. 
 
 423. For attejlation of the denfity, read alteration of the denfity. 
 559. For frigidity, read fragdlty. 
 904. For phloglftlc acul, read phofphoric acid. 
 922. Y or fublimes charcoal, read fublimes ivlth charcoal, 
 927. For continued lulth, read combined ivlth. 
 122 J. For curious mercurhts, r^iiiA. curious mercuries. 
 1398. For general vljion, read general dlvljion. 
 Page 452. col. 1,1. 20. from the top. For " HH," read " CE." 
 
 1. 23. from the top. For " E," read " D." 
 1. 25. For " DD," read " E." 
 col. 2. 1. 3 I. from the top. For " fig. 7. and 8." read " fig. 8. and 9.'* 
 On the margin of col. i. under note 2d 602, Infert *' Plate^ CXXXIII. lig. 5, 8, 9/' 
 Page 454, col. 2. on the margin. For " fig. 8." read " Plate CXXXIV. fig. 8." 
 
 *^* In the Syftemof Chemistry, though an Appendix is added containing the more recent difcoveries in 
 that Science ; yet as feme others occurred ftill later, it was found neceffary to infert them in the Index, whu.e 
 they are to be found under the articles NitrC) Pho^korus., Sugar, Tartar, aiKi F egetalles. 
 
 4 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR placing the PLATES of VOL. IV. 
 
 Plate 
 
 Page 
 
 CXII to face 
 
 40 
 
 CXIII 
 
 57 
 
 CXIV 
 
 80 
 
 cxv - - - - 
 
 84 
 
 CXVI 
 
 96 
 
 CXVIL 
 
 100 
 
 CXVIII. 
 
 J04 
 
 CXIX. 
 
 108 
 
 GXX. 
 
 1 12 
 
 CXXI. 
 
 141 
 
 GXXII. 
 
 - 144 
 
 GXXIII. 
 
 148 
 
 CXXIV. - . . 
 
 149 
 
 The whole-flieet Chemical Table 
 
 
 Plate 
 
 
 CXXV. 
 
 169 
 
 CXXVI. 
 
 172 
 
 CXXVII. 
 
 237 
 
 CXXVIII. 
 
 264 
 
 CXXIX. 
 
 300 
 
 CXXX. 
 
 305 
 
 CXXXI. 
 
 308 
 
 CXXXII. 
 
 - 437 
 
 CXXXIII. 
 
 441 
 
 CXXXIV. 
 
 455 
 
 CXXXV. 
 
 740 
 
 cxxxvi. 7 
 
 
 CXXXVII.j" 
 
 773 
 
 
 558 
 
 [In. all, 26 Plates.]