College Latin Series Platner's and Monuments of Allyn and Baeon Boston &Chica;;: KYLE MEREDITH PHILLIPS JR. ANCIENT ROME Places and buildings in red date from the republic. METRES 6 100 200 300 400 500 1000 PEDES ROMAN! ANTIQUI 6 600 1000 1600 2000 2600 3000 ALLYN AND BACON'S COLLEGE LATIN SERIES THE TOPOGRAPHY AND MONUMENTS OF ANCIENT ROME WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED Boston ALLYN AND BACON 1911 COPYRIGHT, 1904 AND 1911, BY SAMUEL BALL PLATNER. XortoooD ,1. 8. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. CHRISTIANO HVELSENO TOPOGRAPHIAE VRBIS ROMAE ANTIQVAE MAGISTRO PERITISSIMO S. PREFACE. WHILE the actual excavations in Rome during the past six years have not been so important as those of the preceding five, the study of their results has been continuous and fruit- ful, so that it has seemed best to issue a revised edition of this manual which should be, so far as possible, brought down to date. It is especially unfortunate that the official reports of much of the work done in the Forum have not yet appeared, so that many essential facts are still unknown ; and that the excava- tions on the Palatine' have lagged so sadly. The partial exca- vations of 1906-1908, and some new investigations based on them that have recently been undertaken, may, when com- pleted, revolutionize some of the accepted views about the history and topography of that hill. The most important contribution to the topography of Home since 1904 has been the publication of the third part of the first volume of Jordan's Topographic der Stadt Rom, written by Professor Hiilsen, to whom I wish to acknowledge again my deep obligations ; the minor literature on the subject has increased so greatly that the references in this edition are considerably more numerous than in the first. This increase seems both justifiable and desirable, in spite of the fact that Professor Htilsen intends to issue a new edition of his Nomen- clator Urbis Romae before long. Some of the categorical state- ments of the first edition have been modified, and errors corrected so far as discovered. In general, reference is made to views in conflict with those stated in the text. . Besides the acknowledgments made in the preface to the first edition, I wish to express my indebtedness to Comm. G. T. Rivoira for information concerning the temple of Venus and Roma, and for the use of one of his own illustrations ; to Dr. Esther B. Van Deman for many valuable suggestions and criticisms in general, and in particular for the material con- tained in her work on the Atrium Vestae; and to He IT Baedeker of Leipzig for permission to use his latest map of the Forum. S. B. P. CLEVELAND, July, 1911. FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. THIS book is intended to serve as an introduction to the study of the topography of ancient Rome for students of Roman antiquities and history, and incidentally as a book of reference for those who have any special interest in the monuments which still remain. It contains an outline of the successive stages in the growth of the city, a discussion of the topography of each region and the position of its build- ings so far as this is known, and a somewhat detailed descrip- tion of the more important structures. To facilitate further study, references of two classes have been added: first, to the sources of information in ancient literature and inscriptions, and second, to the most important material in current periodicals and the standard works ou topography. This handbook makes no claim to exhaustiveness or origi- nality ; it is only a compilation from various soxirces, which, it is hoped, will form a useful addition to the working library of the student of Roman antiquities. It will be evident at once to those who know the literature of the subject that I have drawn continually upon the labors of others, especially upon Richter, whose Topographie der Stadt Rom has been practically the basis of the present work, Lanciani, Hulsen, Jordan, Gilbert, Borsari, Boni, and Ashby. As it is mani- festly impossible to indicate in each case the precise amount and kind of indebtedness, I trust that I may be regarded as having discharged my duty by this general acknowledgment of obligation. I desire, however, to express my special grati- tude to that master of Roman topography, Professor Christian Hulsen of the German Archaeological Institute, whose discus- sions of the subject during the past fifteen years have been definitive in almost every case, and whose generosity in the present instance has been most marked. FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. vii In explanation of the usage adopted in this book with respect to capitals and small letters, attention is called to the fact that in the Latin names of places and monuments such ordinary words as via, domus, pons, porta, hortus, templum, etc., occur with great frequency, and that it is very undesirable to write them everywhere with capitals. Therefore, in the interest of consistency, these words are written regularly with small letters, and the distinguishing attributive words usually with capitals, as Sacra via, domus Augustana. Certain names, which have become identified in modern usage with one place or building, are written with capitals to distinguish them from others of the same class, as the Forum, the Rostra, the Curia. In view of its prevalence in ordinary use, the ex- pression " Aurelian wall " has been adopted, although, strictly speaking, it is incorrect. It has also been found convenient in many cases to describe the location of some monument or place in ancient Rome by later or even modern topographical references, in spite of the somewhat violent anachronisms involved. My thanks are due to Professors Hiilsen and Richter, to the C. H. Beck Publishing Company of Munich, and to Messrs. Adam and Charles Black of London, for permission to use illustrative material. In conclusion I wish to acknowledge ray special obligations to the editor-in-chief of this Series, Professor John C. Kolfe of , the University of Pennsylvania, and to Professor Grant Showerman of the University of Wisconsin, both of whom have read all the proof and have made many helpful criticisms and suggestions. They are, however, in no way responsible for any errors either of fact or of citation. S. B. P. CLEVELAND, April, 1904. CONTENTS. LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . LIST OF ABBREVIATED TITLES USED IN FOOTNOTES PAGE ix X xiii I. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ....... 1 II. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA . 11 III. BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS .... 22 IV. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY ... 32 V. THE TIBER AND ITS BRIDGES ...... 75 VI. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS ....... 90 VII. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS 110 VIII. THE PALATINE HILL 129 IX. THE FORUM 167 X. THE IMPERIAL FORA ........ 274 XI. THE CAPITOLINE HILL 291 XII. THE SACRA VIA AND THE VELIA 309 XIII. THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 339 XIV. THE DISTRICT BETWEEN THE FORUM, THE TIBER, AND THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS. REGIONS VIII AND XI . . 393 XV. THE AVENTINE. REGIONS XII AND XIII . . .412 XVI. THE CAELIAN. REGIONS I AND II 428 XVII. THE ESQUILINE. REGIONS III, IV, AND V . . .444 XVIII. THE VIA LATA AND THE PINCIAN HILL. REGION VII . 475 XIX. THE QUIRINAL AND THE VIMINAL. REGION VI . . 484 XX. THE TRANSTIBEKINE DISTRICT. REGION XIV . . . 507 INDEX 521 viii MAPS AND PLANS. \ Ancient Rome . Hulsen, Eomae Veteris Tabula, Berlin, 1901, with slight changes . Frontispiece PAGE The Successive Stages in the Growth of the City .... Hulsen, Eomae Veteris Tabula. Facing 59 Plan of the Palatine, Fig. 17 Eichter, Topographic der Stadt Rom, icith changes. Following 128 Plan of the Forum of the Republic, Fig. 22 Eichter, Topographic. Facing 169 Plan of the Forum of the Empire, Fig. 23 Baedeker's Central Italy. Following 172 Plan of the Imperial Fora, Fig. 59 Eichter, Topographic. Facing 275 Map of the Capitoline, Fig. 62 ... Hulsen. Facing 292 Modern Rome . .... . . . Following 538 ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 1. Fragments of the Marble Plan . Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae 3 2. The Haterii Relief . . . ' . . . Photograph 7 3. Methods of Construction Photograph 28 4. The Septimontium . Bichter, Topographic der Stadt Rom 39 5. The City of the Four Regions . . Bichter, Topographic 42 6. The (so-called) Servian City . . Bichter, Topographic 46 7. Map showing the Terminal Stones of the Pomerium and Customs- barrier . . Hulsen, Bomische Mittheilungen; 1897 61 8. The Insula Tiberina . . . Besnier, L'lle Tiberine dans V Antiquite, Paris, 1902 84 9. Arches of the Claudia and Anio Novus . . Photograph 100 10. The Junction of Seven Aqueducts at the Porta Praenestina Photograph 101 11. The Latest Course of the Cloaca Maxima Bichter, Topographic 108 12. The Wall of Servius, on the Aventine . . Photograph 113 13. The Wall of Servius, on the Quirinal . . Photograph 114 14. The Wall of Aurelian, near the Sessorium . Photograph 1 18 15. The Wall of Aurelian, near the Porta Pinciana Photograph 119 16. The Porta Praenestina Photograph 122 18. Plan of the Domus Liviae . Haugwitz, Der Palatin, Borne, 1901 (after Parker) 135 19. The Area Palatina restored . . . Hulsen- Tognetti 145 20. The Domus Flavia restored . . . Hulsen-Tognctti 151 21. The Northwest Corner of the Palatine . . Photograph 160 24. The Porticus Deorum Consentium . . Photograph 177 25. The Temple of Castor Photograph 181 26. The Temple of Castor restored . . Bichter, Topographic 182 27. The Altar of Caesar Photograph 184 28. The Temple of Caesar restored . Bichter- Schulze, Jahrbuch des Institute, 1889 185 29. The Regia and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina Photograph 187 30. The Ancient Necropolis on the Sacra Via Hulsen- Carter, The Roman Forum 189 ILLUSTRATIONS. xi FIO. PAGE 81. The Temple of Janus . Cohen, Monnaies frappees sous V Empire, Nero, No. 141 191 32. Plan of the Basilica Aemilia . . Hiilsen, Romische Mit- theilungen, 1902 195 33. Architectural Fragments from the Basilica Aemilia Photograph 197 34. The Podium of the Temple of Vesta Noiizie degli Scavi, 1900 201 35. The Peribolus of the Temple of Vesta Notizie degli Scavi, 1900 202 36. Plan of the Temple of Vesta . Notizie degli Scavi, 1900 203 37. Plan of the Atrium Vestae . Van Deman, Atrium Vestae 205 38. Plan of the Regia . . Hillsen- Tognetti, Romische Mit- theilungen, 1902 212 39. The Regia restored . . Hillsen- Schulze, Jahrbuch des Institute, 1899 213 40. Plan of the Precinct of Juturna and the Augusteum Hiilsen- Tognetti, Romische Mittheilungen, 1902 215 41. The Precinct of Juturna . . Notizie degli Scavi, 1901 217 42. The Lacus luturnae ...... Photograph 218 43. The Relief of the Rostra, from the Arch of Constantine . Middleton, Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. I 221 44. The Front of the Rostra restored Richter- Schulze, Jahrbuch des Instituts, 1899 ; Topographie 222 45. The Rear of the Rostra restored . . Hillsen-Tognetti 223 46. Plan of the Rostra and Surrounding Structures Hiilsen, Romische Mittheilungen, 1902 224 47. The Substructures of the Clivus Capitolinus . Photograph 227 48. The Comitium as recently excavated . Hiilsen- Tognetti 234 49. Section of the Comitium . Notizie degli Scavi, 1900 235 50. Shallow Pit, and Vault of the Cloaca Maxima . Photograph 238 51. The Curia and Comitium ..... Photograph 240 62. The Lapis Niger Photograph 242 63. The Archaic Structures under the Lapis Niger .... Bullettino Comunale, 1903 243 54. The Cippus and Inscription Comparetti, U Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro Romano 245 55. Plan and Section of the Career, with changes Middleton, Re- mains of Ancient Rome, vol. I 252 56. The Arch of Septimius Severus . . . Photograph 255 57. Plan of Area of the Forum .... Hulsen-Carter 259 58. The Marble Plutei ... . . . . Photograph 265 59 a. The Forum of Augustus restored . . Hulsen-Tognetti 277 60. The Forum of Augustus . . . . Photograph 278 61. The Column of Trajan Photograph 288 xii ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 62 a. West End of Forum and Capitolium restored . Tognetti 293 63. The Pavement of the Sacra Via . . . Photograph .>10 64. The Sacra Via .... Bullettino Comunale, 1903 311 65. Plan of the Temple of Venus and Roma . . G. L. Rivoira 317 66. The Arch of Titus Photograph 320 67. The Arch of Constantine . Narducci, Sulla Fognatura della Citta di Roma, with changes 321 68. The Interior of the Colosseum .... Photograph 326 69. Sectional Plan of the Colosseum Kna-pp, in Beschreibung der Stadt Horn, Bilderheft 327 70. The Colosseum Photograph 328 71. Section of the Colosseum . Knapp, in Beschreibung der 'Stadt Horn, Bilderheft 330 72. Plan of the Pantheon . Lanciani, Forma Urbis Romae 353 73. The Pantheon . . . . ~* . . . Photograph 354 74. The Interior of the Pantheon . . . . Photograph 356 76. The Hadrianeum % . . . . . . Photograph 361 76. The Porticus Octaviae restored . . . Photograph 372 77. The Saepta lulia . . Lanciani, Forma Urbis Romae 385 78. Plan of the Three Temples beneath S. Nicola in Carcere . Lanciani, Forma Urbis Romae 391 79. S. Maria Egiziaca ...... Photograph 399 80. S. Maria del Sole Photograph 400 81. Plan of the Statio Annonae Lanciani, Forma Urbis Roma# 402 82. Plan of the Circus Maximus . Pauly, Real-Encyclopadie 407 83. The Horrea Galbiana . Lanciani, Forma Urbis Romae 418 84. Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla . . . Photograph 423 85. Plan of the Baths of Caracalla Kiepert-Hulsen, Formae Urbis Romae Antiquae 426 86. Columbarium in the Vigna Codini . . . Photograph 437 87. Plan of the Baths of Titus and Trajan Richter, Topographic (after Lanciani} 454 88. The so-called Auditorium of Maecenas . . Photograph 465 89. Remains of the Amphitheatrum Castrense . Photograph 471 90. Plan of the Baths of Diocletian Kiepert-Hulsen, Formae Urbis Romae Antiquae 495 91. Plan of the Baths of Constantine Lanciani, Forma Urbis Romae 498 92. The Castle of S. Angelo Photograph 517 93. The Mausoleum of Hadrian restored Schulze, Rdmische Mit- theilungen, 1891 519 ABBREVIATED TITLES USED IN FOOTNOTES. AJA American Journal of Archaeology, First Series, 1885-1896 ; Second Series, 1897-. AJP. American Journal of Philology, 1880-. Altmann, Bundbauten W. Altmann, Die Italischen Bundbauten, Berlin, 1906. Ann. d. 1st Annali delV Istituto di Corrispondenza Archeo- logica, Rome, 1829-1885. Antike Denkmdler . Antike Denkmaler herausg. vom kais. Deutschen Archaologischen Institut, Berlin, 1887-. Arch. Am Archaologischer Anzeiger ; Beiblatt zum Jahr- buch des Archaologischen Instituts. Berlin, 1889-. Atti Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche, vol. v, Rbrne, 1904. Babelon, Monnaies . E. Babelon, Monnaies de la Bepublique Bo- maine, 2d ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1885-1886. BC. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Boma, Rome, 1872-. Bull. Crist Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana, Rome, 1863-. Bull. d. 1st Bullettino delV Istituto di Corrispondenza Ar- cheologica, Rome, 1829-1885. Chronogr. a. 354 . . Chronographus anni 354, in : Monumenta Ger- maniae Auctorum Antiquissimorum, vol. ix., 2d ed. (Mommsen), pp. 143-148, Berlin, 1892. GIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863-. Cohen H. Cohen, Monnaies Frappees sous I' Empire, 2d ed., 8 vols., Paris, 1880-1892. Cohen, Med Cons. . Cohen, Monnaies de la Bepublique Bomaine, communemcnt appelees Medailles Consulaires, Paris, 1857. CP. Classical Philology, Chicago, 1906-. CQ The Classical Quarterly, London, 1907-. CB The Classical Review, London, 1887-. EE. Ephemeris Epigraphica, Berlin, 1872-. GA . Gazette Archeologique, Paris, 1875-1889. Gilbert O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt Bom im Altertum, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1890. Hiilsen-Carter . . . Ch. Hiilsen, The Roman Forum. Translated from the second German edition by Jesse Benedict Carter, Rome, 1906. xiii xiv ABBREVIATED TITLES. Jahrb. d. Inst. . . . Jahrbuch des kais. Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts, Berlin, 1886-. JJ. Neue JahrMicher fur Philologie und Pddagogik, Leipzig, 1826-. Jordan H. Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Bom im Alter- thum, vols. I. 1. 2. II., Berlin, 1871-1885 ; vol. I. 3, written by Ch. Hulsen, 1906. Jordan, FUR. . . . H. Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae Eegionum XIV, Berlin, 1874. Lanciani, Ruins . . R. Lanciani, Tjke Ruins and Excavations of An- cient Rome, London, 1897. Melanges lcole Franqaise de Rome. Melanges d'Arche- ologie et d' 1 Histoire, Rome, 1881-. Mem. d. Lincei . . . Memorie della Classe di Scienze Morali, Storiche e Filologiche della R. Accademia dei Lincei, SeY. III., 1877-1884. Middleton .... J. H. Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, 2 vols., London, 1892. Mitt Mittheilungen des kais. Deutschen Archdolog- ischen Instituts ; Romische Abtheilung, Rome, 1886-. Mon. d. Lincei . . . Monumenti Antichi pubblicati per cura della R. Accademia dei Lincei, Milan, 1890-. Mon. Ined Monumenti Antichi Inediti, pubblicati daW Isti- tuto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, vols. I- VI, Rome, 1829-1857. NS. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichita comunicate alia R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome and Milan, 1876-. Pais, Legends . . . E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History, New York, 1905. PBS. Papers of the British School at Rome, London, 1902-. RhM. Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie, Neue Folge, Frankfurt, 1842-. Richter, BR T. . . . O. Richter, Beitrdge zur romischen Topographie, I-IV, Berlin, 1903-1910. Richter, Top. 2 . . . O. Richter, Topographie der Stadt Rom, 2d ed., Munich, 1901. Strong, Sculpture . . Mrs. Arthur Strong, Roman Sculpture, from Augustus to Constantine, London, 1907. TOPOGRAPHY AND MONUMENTS OF ANCIENT ROME. CHAPTER I. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. THE chief sources of information about the topography and monuments of ancient Rome, besides the monuments them- selves, may be divided into two classes, the ancient and the medieval. The ancient sources are: Greek and Latin litera- ture, inscriptions, the Capitoline Plan of the city, the Region- ary Catalogues, and coins and reliefs. The medieval sources are: the Einsiedeln Itinerary, the Mirabilia Romae, and draw- ings, sketches, and views, although most of these belong to the Renaissance. Literary Evidence. The references in Latin literature are of primary importance in giving information as to the position and history of buildings and monuments of every kind. Such references are found in more or less abundance in the writings of every Latin author, but there are some of especial value, the Fasti of ^Ovid, the Naturalis Historia of Pliny, the De Ar- cJu'tectura of Vitruvius, the De Aquis of Frontinus, the De Lin- ' gua Latina of Varro, and the histories of Livy and Tacitus. Among Greek authors, the most useful are Dionysius of Hali- carnassus and Dio Cassius. Inscriptions afford much topographical information both by their content and by their position. Besides the ordinary dedicatory and honorary inscriptions which regularly state the 2 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. purpose of the monument, the name of its builder or restorer, and the date, there are others of great importance, for ex- ample, the so-called Oapitoline Base, 1 a pedestal now standing in the palazzo dei Conservatori. This pedestal and the statue which it supported were dedicated to the emperor Hadrian in 136 A.D. by the vicomagistri of five of the city regions, and on the sides of the base are cut the names of the various officials of the vici, together with the names of the vici themselves. The Monu- mentum Ancyranum, 2 the bronze tablets placed by Augustus on his mausoleum in Rome", which were reproduced at Ancyra in Asia Minor and also at Apollonia, contains an invaluable list of the buildings which Augustus either erected or restored. The fragments of Roman calendars, 3 in their announcements of fes- tivals and religious observances, contain much information with regard to the relative position of temples and shrines. Finally, the inscriptions stamped on tiles and bricks 4 are exceedingly valuable and trustworthy evidence in determining the date of structures in which they are found. The Capitoline Plan (Forma Urbis Eomae). North of the Sacra via and a short distance east of the forum of Augustus, are the remains of a structure, now sometimes called templum Sacrae Urbis, which was probably erected by Vespasian and seems to have been used as a repository for municipal records and archives, particularly the results of the census and survey of the city made in the years 73-T5. 5 Whether erected originally by Vespasian or not, the build- ing seems to have been restored by Severus, 6 and its north wall covered with marble blocks on which was engraved a map or plan of the whole city. This was probably a restoration of that previously existing, which in its turn may have been a 1 CM. vi. 975. 2 OIL. iii. pp. 769-799; Mommsen. Res Gestae divi Augusti, 1883. 8 GIL. i2. passim. * OIL. xv. pt. i. BC. 1892, 93-111 ; Mitt. 1897, 148-160; PI. NH. iii. 66-67. 6 GIL. vi. 935 ; Jordan, I. 3. 5-7. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 3 copy made by Vespasian of an original by Agrippa. The structure itself was incorporated with the temple of Romulus, the son of Maxentius, and made over into the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano between the years 526 and 530. During the years 1559-1565, a large number of fragments of this plan were found at the foot of the wall of the temple, and came into the pos- session of the Farnese family. In 1742 they were transferred j - r ' -.'-> H FIG. 1. FRAGMENTS OF THE MARBLE PLAN. to the Capitoline Museum, where they were fastened to the walls of the main stairway. Soon after the discovery of these fragments, drawings were made of ninety -two of the principal pieces, and as many of the pieces themselves were lost in the transfer to the Capitoline Museum, restorations made from these drawings were put up in their place. These resto- rations were marked with a star. In 1867 a few more fragments were found on the same spot. In 1882 a piece containing a plan of the vicus Tuscus l was 1 2fS. 1882, 23S-238. 4 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. found in the Forum; in 1884 another fragment, 1 also in the Forum; and in 1888 more than one hundred and eighty pieces, 2 mostly small and insignificant, were found behind the palazzo Farnese, which may have belonged to those discovered in the sixteenth century, but they do not appear on any of the draw- ings made at that time. In 1891 about twenty-five fragments 3 were discovered at the foot of the wall of the temple; and recent excavations in the Forum (1899-1901) have brought to light about four hundred pieces* more, mostly very small. In 1903 the fragments were removed to the palazzo dei Con- servatori where the larger part of the plan was reconstructed on the north wall of the garden on its original scale. Of the one thousand and forty-nine fragments that had been found, only one hundred and sixty-seven could be identified with certainty. 5 The wall on which the plan was fastened is still standing, and measures 22 metres in length and 15 in height, and the surface covered by the plan has been estimated at 266 square metres. The blocks of marble varied from 0.70 to 1.18 metres in height, and from 1.70 to 2.25 metres in width, their thick- ness also being unequal. The scale 6 on which the map is drawn varies even within the limits of the same structure, but seems to have been in general 1 to 250. If this scale had been employed throughout, the whole city could not have been rep- resented on this wall, whereas in fact the plan embraces some of the suburbs. This plan was not set up with the north at the top, as is now the custom, but at the bottom. It seems probable that most of the plan was placed so that the southeast 1 NS. 1884, 423. 2 NS. 1888, 391-392, 437, 569; BC. 1888, 386. Mitt. 1892, 267. 4 NS. 1900, 633-634; BC. 1901, 3-21 ; OR. 1899, 234; 1901, 330; 1902, 96. 6 Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche, Rome, 1903, i. 111- 122; Lanciani, Golden Days of the Renaissance in Rome, Boston, 1906, 132: BC. 1902, 347-348; 1903, 380. 6 BC. 1886, 270-274; Ann. d. 1st. 1883, 5-22. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 5 was at the top. 1 This arrangement was not carried out with perfect consistency, and a variation of as much as 45 must be allowed in some of the fragments. Names of public buildings are given, but not always those of streets and squares. The details of buildings are not accurately given, nor is the proper proportion always preserved. Notwithstanding these defects, however, the plan served its purpose well, and its fragments have been of great assistance in identifying existing ruins. 2 The Regionary Catalogues. These are two interpolated forms of the same original document, which was a catalogue of the buildings contained in each of the fourteen regions estab- lished by Augustus. One, which bears no name in the manu- scripts, is known as the UTotitia, and the other is called the Ouriosum TJrbis Romae Regionum XIV cum Breviariis suis. 3 The common original was probably compiled between 312 and 315 A.D. and was itself based on a similar document of the first century. The Notitia dates from some time later than 334, the Curiosum from about 357 A.D. These catalogues differ slightly in details of statement, but are arranged in the same way. They fall into three parts : (1) An enumeration of the principal buildings and monu- ments of each region, beginning with the number and name of the region, followed by the verb continet. After the names of the buildings, follow statistics of the number of via, aedi- culae, vicomagistri, curatores, insulae, domus, horrea, balnea, lacus, and pistrina, and finally a statement of the number of feet in the region. It is still uncertain whether this number refers to the circumference of the region, or to the sum of the 1 BC. 1893, 128-134; 1901, 5; Mitt. 1889, 79, 229; 1892, 267; RhM. 1894, 420. 2 H. Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae regionum xiv, Berlin, 1874; A. Elter, De forma urbis Romae . . . diss. i. ii. Bonn, 1891 ; Hiilsen, Piante icno- grafiche incise in marmo, Mitt. 1890, 46-63. s Preller, Die Regionen der Stadt Rom, Jena, 1846 ; Jordan, II. 1-178, 546- 582; Richter,-rpp. 2 371-391; Merrill, CP. 1906, 133-144. 6 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. street distances within the region, but it probably refers to the former, although the figures are incorrect. In some regions, as the eighth, the list of buildings is com- plete, or nearly so ; but in others it is quite incomplete, so that there has been much dispute as to whether it was intended to include all the noteworthy structures in the regions, or only those along the boundaries. The former is undoubtedly the true hypothesis, but the catalogue seems to have been made up from a map of the city, and not by a man who was actually exploring each district. Most of the omissions can be ex- plained in this way. (2) An appendix without special title, beginning with the number of bibliothecae and obelisci, with their size and situation. This is followed by a list of the pontes, monies, campi, fora, basilicae, thermae, aquae, viae, with their number and names. (3) A second appendix, called Horum Breviarium, which is a concise statement of the number of buildings and monuments in the whole city. In the case of those classes of buildings the numbers of which are given under each region, the totals in the appendix do not agree with the sum of the numbers in the regions. These discrepancies, however, are probably due to the ordinary errors of manuscript tradition. Coins and Reliefs. The frequent representations of build- ings on coins 1 are of value in identifying and dating existing remains. The same thing is true of many reliefs, like that of the Haterii (Fig. 2) 2 in the Lateran Museum, on which are de- picted various structures at the upper end of the Sacra via, and the relief representing the Rostra of Domitian, on the arch of Constantine. 1 E. Babelon, Monnaies de la Republique Romaine, 2 vols., Paris, 1885-1886; H. Cohen, Monnaies frapptes sous V Empire Romaine, 2d ed. 8 vols., Paris, 1880-1892. 2 Ann. d. 1st. 1894,465-510; Mon. d. 1st. v. 7; Helbig, Fiihrer durch die Museen Roms, i 2 . 462-466; G. Spano, Sul rilievo sepolchrale deyli Aterii, Naples, 1906. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. The Einsiedeln Itinerary. 1 As early as the eighth century, the need was felt of something in the nature of a guide-book for pilgrims visiting Home, which should describe the routes through the city to the princi- pal churches and to the ceme- teries outside. An epitome of such an itinerary is contained in a manuscript (No. 326) pre- served in the library of the monastery of Einsiedeln in Switzerland. This manuscript also contains the first known collection of Latin inscriptions. The inscriptions appear to have been copied with care, but the topographical information is full of inaccuracies. The orig- inal itinerary appears to have been based on a map represent- ing the city as a circle, and the method of the author is to give the names of the monuments on the right and left of the travel- ler as he passes along certain streets, which are designated by their terminals. 1 Lanciani, L'ltinerario di Einsie- deln e I'ordine di Benedetto Canonico. Monumenti Antichi pubblicati per euro, delta Reale Accademia del Lincei, i. 1891, 437-152; Jordan, II. 329-356. 646-663; Hiilsen, La Pianta di Roma dell' Anonimo Einsidlense, Rome, 1907. 8 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Eleven routes through the city are described, but there is no mention of the temples of heathen divinities, and in the collec- tion of inscriptions there are none containing the names of these divinities. A map representing the city as elliptical, but probably similar to that which accompanied this Itinerary, is still in existence, 1 and there is no reason to doubt that others like it were in use much earlier. After the Itinerary is a description 2 of the wall of Aurelian, giving the number of its towers, bulwarks, posterns, windows, etc., and these numbers correspond in general with the evidence of the ruins themselves. This description seems to have been taken from one written in the fifth century, and appears, with some variations, in a work by William of Malmesbury, entitled De numero portarum et sanctis Romae, of the seventh century, and again in the Mirabilia of the twelfth. Mirabilia Romae. This is a description of the city, 3 com- piled about 1150, consisting of three parts : I. A classified enumeration of the various monuments, viz., de muro urbis, de portis, de miliaribus, nomina portarum, etc. II. Five legends: (1) De visione Octaviani imperatoris et responsione Sibillae; (2) Quare foetus est caballus marmoreiis ; (3) Quare foetus est equus qui dicitur Constantini ; (4) Quare factum sit Pantheon ; (5) Quare Octavianus vocatus sit Augustus et quare dicatur ecclesia S. Petri ad vincula. III. A Periegesis, or description of the principal monuments and marvels met with in walking from the Vatican through the city and back to Trastevere. This third part was written by the unknown compiler of the whole work ; while the first was taken from some guide-book like the Einsiedeln Itinerary, and the second was a selection 1 Cod. Vat. I960; Hofler, Deutsche Pdpste, i. 324; Hiilsen, I.e. 387. 2. Jordan, II. 578-582. 3 F. M. Nichols, Mirabilia Urbis Romae. An English version, London, 1889; Jordan, II. 357-536, 605-643. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 9 frofn current legends. The chief purpose of the compiler seems to have been to identify the ancient temples, and was one of the consequences of that desire for a reestablishment of the old republic which animated so many Romans in the twelfth century. This book had a very considerable vogue, was issued in a second edition a century later, and incorporated in several other works. The Graphia Aureae Urbis Eomae is a somewhat later recension of the same original, in which the legends, omitting the fifth, have been inserted in the third part, and various additions have been made. Selections l from the Graphia are found in Martin of Trop- pau's (Martinus Polonus) Ohronicon, 1268 ; Fazio degli Uberti's Dittamohdo, about 1360 ; Nicolaus Signorili's De iuribus et excel- lentiis urbis Romae, 1417-1437 ; and in a manuscript called the Anonymus Magliabecchianus, 2 1410-1415. Drawings and Views. Scattered through the libraries of Italy and elsewhere in Europe are many drawings and sketches of the ruins of the ancient buildings of Rome, made by the Italian architects of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. These have been found very useful in identifying or locating monuments which have been nearly or completely destroyed since the time when the drawings were made. The same is true of engravings and, in some cases, of paintings of this period. 3 There are also numerous views 4 of the whole city or portions 1 Jordan, II. 387-100; Bull. d. 1st. 1871, 11-17; CIL. vi. pp. xv-xvi. 2 Ed. Mercklin, Dorpat, 1852. 8 PBS. ii. ; Hiilsen-Carter, 35-46; Jordan, I. 3, notes, passim. 4 List of those known in BC. 1892, 38-40, notes; de Rossi, Piante icnogra- fiche e prospettiche di Roma anteriori al secolo xvi, Rome, 1879; Rocchi, Le piante icnografiche e prospettiche di Roma del secolo xvi, Turin, 1902; Ashby, Un Panorama de Rome par Antoine van den Wyngaerde, Melanges, 1901, 471-486; Egger, Coder- Escurialensit, Ein Skizzenbuch aus der Werkstatt 10 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. thereof, both engraved and painted, beginning with those of Cimabue in the thirteenth century, which have considerable topographical value, in spite of their inaccuracies. Domenico Ghirlandaios, Vienna, 1906; Hiilsen, La Roma Antica di Ciriaco d'Ancona, Rome, 1907; Ehrle, La Pianta di Roma du Perac-Lafrery del 1577, Rome, 1908; Mitt. 1896, 213-226; BC. 1900, 28-32; CR. 1906, 236. CHAPTER II. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA. The Campagna. The city of Rome is situated in the middle of an undulating plain, called the Campagna. 1 It is bounded on the north by the Sabatine mountains, lying north of lake Bracciano and forming the southern limit of the ancient Ciminian forest ; on the east by the high range of the Sabine Apennines ; on the southeast by the Alban mountains ; and on the west by the sea. Directly south of Rome this plain stretches on between the Alban and Volscian mountains and the Mediterranean to Tarracina (Anxur), where the mountains run into the sea. The southern part of this district is covered by the great Pontine Marshes, paludes Pomptinae. The term Campagna is sometimes used to include all of this plain, but it properly belongs only to that portion which lies north of Lanu- vium and Ardea. 1 R. Burn, Rome and the Campagna, London, 1876, 346-444; E. Abbate, Guida della provincia di Roma, 2d ed. 2 vols., Rome, 1894, i. 1-175; T. Ashby, Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna, PUS. i. 127-285 ; iii. 1-212; iv. 1-158; v. 215-432; G. Tomassetti, La Campagna Romano, i. ii., Rome, 1909, 1910; G. Brocchi, Dello stato fisico del. suolo di Roma, Rome, 1820; Raffaele Canevari, Cenni sulle condizioni altimetriche ed idrauliche dell' agro romano, Rome, 1874 (Annali del Ministero di Agricoltura) ; Felice Giordano, Condtzionj topografiche e.fisiche di Roma e della Campagna Romana, Mono- grafia della citta di Roma e della Campagna Romana presentata all' Es- posizione universale di Parigi, 1878; Paolo Mantovani, Descrizione geologica della Campagna Romana, Rome, 1874. Maps: in Abbate's Guida, vol ii., and in Ashby's papers (vid. sup.). Those issued by the Istituto Geografico Militare are in sheets 1 : 100,000, 1 : 50,000, and 1 : 25,000. 11 12 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. The distance from the Sabatine to the Alban mountains is about 60 kilometres ; from Rome to the foot of the Apennines is 25 kilometres, and the distance to the seacoast is about the same. This width decreases as one goes south. From Rome to Tarracina, the southern extremity of this plain, is 95 kilometres. Geological Formation. This plain is of volcanic origin, and was covered during the tertiary period by the sea. The eruption of submarine volcanoes covered the Pliocene clay and marl with a layer of volcanic products to an average depth of more than 30 metres, and this, being more or less stratified by the action of water, formed what is known as tufa. Volcanic forces then elevated the land very considerably, and the sea receded to its present limits. The centre of volcanic activity during this first period is thought to have been at the northern extremity of the plain, around lake Bracciano. After the sea had receded, another centre of volcanic disturbance was formed in the Alban hills, and from their craters igneous products were poured forth which formed deposits of conglomerate at various points, especially near Albano, where the rock is called lapis Albanus, and near Gabii, where it is called lapis Gabinus. From this Alban volcano there issued also streams of lava, the course of one of which can be traced almost to the city of Eome. The surface thus formed was cut and eroded in all directions by the action of the river Tiber, flowing through it from the north, and of the many affluents which streamed into it from the surrounding mountains. The general appearance of the Campagna is that of an undu- lating plain, abounding in hillocks and crossed in all directions by deep ravines and steep cliffs, the height of which .averages about 30 metres. It is estimated that four-fifths of the Cam- pagna consists of hills and one-fifth of valleys. The erosion of the water has produced two types of eleva- tion, one that of a tongue projecting from a plateau between GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 13 two streams which flow together at its end, the other that of an entirely isolated hill with steep cliffs on all sides, due to its having been completely surrounded by water courses. These isolated points afforded exceedingly advantageous sites for the fortified hamlets of the earliest settlers. Whether the volcanoes of this region were active in histori- cal times is still a matter of dispute. Alleged discoveries, beneath volcanic deposits, of material which can be dated as late as the third or fourth century B.C. lack convincing evi- dence of authenticity; but that the slopes of the hills were inhabited before the total extinction of the volcanoes is proved by the discovery of a necropolis near Albano, entirely covered by a layer of peperino. 1 It is probable that all the volcanoes of this district were practically extinct before the date assigned by tradition to the founding of the city of Koine. Some of the craters of these extinct volcanoes are now lakes, notably lake Bracciano (lacus Sabatinus) and lake Martignano (lacus Alsietinus) in the north ; and lake Albano (lacus Albanus) and lake Nemi (lacus Nemo- rensis) in the south. As these lakes are very deep, much of the water which they contain is forced under high pressure through the sides of the crater, and collects in subterranean reservoirs formed between the strata of volcanic deposit. Part of this water is drained off into the Tiber, but much of it, being imable to flow through the impermeable strata, accumulates near the surface of the ground, and can be carried off only by evaporation. In classical times, a complete system of artificial drainage seems to have been provided to dispose of this accumulated water. Remains (3f the ancient cuniculi, or drains, have been found in many parts of the Campagna. This system of drain- age, and the careful cultivation of the soil, must have rendered the whole region comparatively healthy, 2 and accounts for the 1 Abbate, Gtiida, i. 83-84 ; Bull. d. 1st. 1871, 34-40 ; Ann. d. 1st. 1871, 23Sf-279. 2 Jordan, I. 1 148-152. 14 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. fact that the Campagna was thickly covered with villas, even in those districts where now the fever is most dangerous. As is now well known, the germs of this fever are disseminated by a mosquito which breeds in marshy districts. The Tiber. The chief factor in the process of erosion was the Tiber, the principal river of the peninsula, 393 kilometres in length, which rises near Arezzo (Arretiuni) in Etruria, and flows southward to Rome, where it turns westward to the sea. In the period following that of greatest volcanic activity, its channel was many times as wide as at present and its volume of water enormous. At its mouth, some 11 kilometres farther inland than at present, the stream appears to have been nearly 2 kilometres wide. Its course is in general parallel to the main range of the Apennines, and its banks are marked by cliffs and hills of the two types described above (p. 12). At the last great bend of the river toward the sea, its eroding force produced that combination of these two formations which conditioned the material development of the city of Rome. Here the river flowed between the edge of a tableland on the east and a ridge of hills of marine formation on the west. The width of its bed varied greatly, from 2 kilometres at the cam- pus Martius to less than a quarter of that distance between the Aventine and the southern point of the Janiculum. This gradual narrowing of the channel produced a swifter current, and increased the amount of erosion. During the formative period, the river filled the whole space between the tableland on the one side and the hills on the other. As the width of the river grew less, the eroding action of the water which flowed down into it from the higher ground was greatly in- creased. Certain of the hills of Koine, therefore, which now appear completely isolated, like the Palatine and Aventiue, or nearly so, like the Capitoline and Caelian, are so because during this period they were entirely surrounded by the river and exposed GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 15 to its action on all sides ; while the eastern hills, projecting like tongues of land, were not thus surrounded. The Site of Rome. 1 The present topography of the city is in its main features almost the same as when the first settle- ments were made upon that site. The Tiber, now 100 metres in width, flows through the city from north to south, in five reaches : from the point where the Aurelian wall approached the stream, southeast for about 800 metres to the Tarentum ; then almost due west for 1 kilo- metre to a short distance beyond the mausoleum of Hadrian (the castle of S. Angelo) ; then southeast for 2 kilometres to a point opposite the Palatine hill ; then southwest for 1.5 kilo- metres to the Emporium ; and finally south again for 1 kilo- metre to the angle of the Aurelian wall. Where the river approaches most nearly to the Capitoline, it divides and flows round an island about 270 metres in length and 70 metres in greatest breadth. The great bend to the west inclosed the meadows, nearly 1.5 kilometres wide, to which the name of campus Martins was given; and the smaller bend to the east left space on the right bank of the stream for that part of the city which was known as trans Tiberim (Trastevere). East and south of the campus Martius rise the hills which are the characteristic features of the city. The central point is marked by the Palatine, an irregular quadrilateral, about twenty-five acres (10 hectares) in extent, surrounded by steep cliffs except at its eastern angle, where a spur, the Velia, connected it with the Esquiline. The western angle of the hill approaches to within about 300 metres of the river. 1 All previous maps of the ancient city of Rome have been superseded by the following great work : Forma Urbis Romae, consilio et auctoritate Regiae Academiae Lincaeorum . . . edidit Rodolphus Lanciani, forty-six sheets, Milan, Ffoepli, 1893-1901. The best wall-map is Hiilsen, Romae veteris tabula in usum scholarum descripta, 1 : 4250, Berlin, 1901. 16 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. South and southwest of the Palatine lies the Aventine, a hill of similar formation, but somewhat larger. North of the Pala- tine, the Oapitoline now appears as an entirely isolated elevation, and seems always to have been such, although the shoulder of the Quirinal may have approached nearer to it. (See p. 285.) It corresponds closely with the Palatine and Aventine. The remaining hills are quite different, and are all spurs of the eastern plateau, projecting out toward the river, and sepa- rated from each other by depressions of varying length and breadth. The southernmost of these, mons Oaelius, directly east of the Palatine, preserves more of the appearance of an inde- pendent hill, being connected with the high land behind it only by a narrow neck. North of the Caelian is the Esquiline, a large hill consisting of two parts, the main southern portion called mons Oppius, and the smaller northern spur, mons Oispius. North of the Esquiline is another small tongue of land, collis Viminalis ; and beyond this and almost inclosing it, the collis Quirinalis. This long ridge was originally divided into four parts : the collis Latiaris, the southern elevation above the forum of Trajan; the collis Mucialis, from the via di Magnanapoli to monte Cavallo ; the collis Salntaris, from monte Cavallo to the church of S. Andrea; and the collis Quirinalis, from this point east. The first three names passed out of use at an early date, and collis Quirinalis became the proper designation of the whole hill. North of the Quirinal is the collis hortorum, the modern Pincian, which marked the latest stage in the growth of the city, and was never reckoned among the " Seven Hills." The term mons was very rarely applied to the Viminal and Quirinal, which were known as colles (p. 41). On the right bank of the Tiber, the ridge of the Janiculum, in its modern sense, runs almost due north and south for 2 kilometres, coming to an abrupt end at the point where the river makes its great bend to the southeast. Here the hill approaches to within 100 metres of the river. The ridge is separated from the plateau behind by a long depression. At GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 17 the northern end of the Janiculum, the level between the river and the hill stretches out for 1 .5 kilometres, and is bounded on the west by the continuation of the high ground behind the Janiculum. There are now in the city three elevations of artificial ori- gin. One, mons Testaceus (monte Testaccio), southwest of the Aventine and close to the river and ancient warehouses, is com- posed entirely of fragments of earthen vessels in which grain and stores of various sorts were brought to Rome, and rises to a height of 43 metres above the Tiber. Inasmuch as the first of these warehouses (Jiorrea) dated from the last century of the republic, the accumulation of these fragments probably began as early as that date. The two other artificial hills or mounds are in the campus Martius, the monte Giordano and the monte Citorio, 1 respec- tively G and 9 metres in height. Both mounds are formed by the ruins of imperial buildings. (See pp. 365, 370, 379.) The following table 2 gives the altitude of the different hills above the level of the Tiber, which is 6.7 metres above the sea- level at the Eipetta : Aventine (S. Alessio) . 39.22 metres. Capitoline (Aracoeli) 39.30 " Caelian (Villa Mattel) 41.15 " Palatine (S. Bonaventura) .... 43.30 " Esquiline (S. Maria Maggiore) .... 47.75 " Viminal (R.R. station) 50.78 " Quirinal (Porta Pia) 56.35 " Pincian (Porta Pinciana) 66.35 " Vatican (Pope's Gardens) .... 67.30 "' Janiculum (Villa Savorelli) .... -82.30 " The highest point within the Aurelian wall is on the Janicu* lum at the porta Aurelia (Porta di S. Pancrazio), 75 metres above the river. Between the hills are valleys, or rather depressions, which i Richter, Top.* 254 ; Jordan, I. 3. 595, 603. * Lanciani, Ruins, 3. 18 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. form well-defined topographical units. The most important is that lying between the Palatine, the Esquiline, the Quirinal, and the Capitoline, which became the Porum. North of the Forum is a narrow valley, which runs between the ends of the Oppian and Quirinal and then widens. This valley was called the Slibura, and was one of the most thickly settled and disreputable quarters of the city. From it three depressions run eastward and northward between the projecting spurs of the hills. Through the Stibura, with affluents from the slopes on each side, ran a brook * which crossed the Forum, traversed the low ground between the Forum and the river, and emptied into the latter below the island. This brook was walled in at an early date, and became the famous Cloaca Maxima. The low district between the Forum, the Palatine and Capi- toline, and the river comprised the Velabrum and the cattle and vegetable markets (forum Boarium, forum Holitorium). What- ever may be the correct derivation of the word Velabrum, there is no doubt that when the first settlements were made on the surrounding hills, this region was very marshy and to some extent under water, besides being continually subject to inun- dations from the Tiber. After the Forum and the Subura, the most important valley in Rome was that between the Palatine and the Aventine, through which ran a brook called in the middle ages the Marrana, which had its source near the seventh milestone on the via Tuscu- lana, and flowing from the southwest, passed under the line of the Aurelian wall near the porta Metrovia, and through the depression between the Esquiline and the Caelian. The valley between the Palatine and Aventine was called the vallis Murcia, and in late republican and imperial times was completely filled by the Circus Maximus. Still another long valley lies between the Pincian and the 1 Perhaps the Spinon. Cic. de nat. dear. iii. 52 ; Lanciani, Ruins, 29; Pinza, Mon. d. Lincei, 1905, 275. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 19 Quirinal, and through it ran a stream which emptied into one of the two principal swampy ponds of the campus Martius, 1 the Caprae palus. Another brook flowed from the western slope of the Quirinal, near the porta Salutaris, westward across the campus Martius. Topographers are not entirely agreed as to which of these last two streams is the Petronia amnis, 2 which had its source in the Oati fons. The probability is that the southernmost of the two is the original Petronia amnis, and that it may be identified with a stream that now flows under- ground from a source, the Cati fons, beneath a courtyard in the royal palace, just east of the via della Panetteria. North of the Caprae palus lay the second pond, similar but much smaller, known as the Tarentum. West of the Caelian, and at a higher elevation than the others, was another pool, called the Decenniae. Geology of the City. There are three principal formations visible within the circuit of the city itself. The most impor- tant is the volcanic tufa rock, already mentioned, which forms the hills on the left bank of the Tiber and the stratum under- lying the whole region. The low ground and the depressions between the hills themselves and between the hills and the river are covered to a considerable depth with a quaternary alluvial deposit of sand, clay, and gravel, brought down by the Tiber during the period of its greatest activity and volume. This deposit is found also upon the lower slopes of the hills. On the right bank, on the Janiculum and. mons Vaticanus, there is a marine formation belonging to the Older Pliocene period, and consisting mainly of a bluish gray marl, much used for making pottery, and of yellow sea sand, of great value for building purposes. In all of these strata, except the tufa, fossils are found in considerable abundance. *For another view, cf. BC. 1883, 344-258. 2 Fest. 250; Epit. 45; RhM. 1894, 401 ff.; Richter, Top? 225, 285; Jordan, I. 3. 472-474. 20 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Changes in Level. It is certain, from the evidence of actual excavations and from the testimony of classical literature, that some changes in the altitude of the hills and valleys of the city have taken place since early times. 1 These changes have resulted from the tremendous building activity of the empire, on the one hand ; and on the other, from the falling into decay of most of the ancient city during the middle ages, the dump- ing of rubbish in certain localities during long periods, and the building activity of the renaissance. With regard to the changes under the empire, all excavations in Rome show clearly that we have to do, not with structures of one period, but of successive periods, and that it was cus- tomary to erect the later building upon the ruins of the earlier. It is not unusual to find the remains of three or even four structures, one above another. The recent excavations in the Forum have shown this in a most striking way. The level of the Comitiurn, or open area in front of the senate house, in the time of Diocletian, was 4 metres higher than the earliest level of the ground at this point ; and in some parts of the Forum the variation is still greater. With the earth removed by Diocletian in clearing a space for his enormous baths, a mound was formed on the Viminal some 20 metres high, the highest point within the Aurelian wall east of the Tiber, and the construction of the great agger across the Viminal and Esquiline, and its subsequent conversion into part of the gardens of Maecenas must have brought about consider- able changes in level in that region. During this period, how- ever, the relative height of hills and valleys does not appear to have been materially altered except at a few points. During the centuries between the fall of the empire and the renaissance, the history of the city is one of steady destruction, and changes in level were due almost entirely to the accumula- tion of the ruins of ancient structures. These ruins, produced 1 Lanciani, Ruins, 99-104; Destruction of Ancient Rome, chapters ii. xix, and passim* GENEEAL TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 21 either by natural decay or intentional destruction during this long period, must have raised the level of the soil in some parts of the city very considerably. The renewed building activity just before and during the renaissance caused further changes in two ways, by the clearing away of existing ruins for new structures, and by the dumping of vast amounts of rubbish in certain localities. Thus Cardinal Farnese, when building the church of the Gesu in the campus Martius, removed great quantities of earth to the Palatine hill. From the tenth to the sixteenth centuries so much rubbish had been emptied into the Forum that its level was raised nearly 10 metres above the pavement of the empire. The excavations which have been carried on in the city show that the depth of the debris, which has accumulated in these different ways, varies from a few inches to nearly 20 metres. The foundations of the new treasury building on the Quirinal had to be sunk through 12 metres of loose soil, and similar con- ditions have been found in other parts of the city. CHAPTER III. . BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. Building Materials. The principal building materials l em- ployed in Some were the following : Tufa (Tofus ruber et niger). This volcanic product, 2 already mentioned in connection with the formation of the Campagna, is a mechanical conglomerate of scoriae, ashes, and sand, and of varying density. In some districts it presents few signs of stratification, being either loose and friable like earth, or hard- ened into a solid mass by time and pressure. Elsewhere it shows distinct evidence of having been deposited in water and stratified by its action. The color varies from reddish brown to yellow and sometimes gray. Even the hardest varieties make poor building stone when left exposed to the atmosphere, but are sufficiently durable when covered with stucco or cement. Tufa is characteristic of the first centuries of Rome's existence, being the only stone employed during the earliest period. Peperino (lapis Albanus). This, 3 like tufa, is a conglomerate of volcanic ashes and sand, together with fragments of stone, but formed in a somewhat different way, apparently by the action of hot water upon ashes. Thickly scattered through its mass are scoriae in large quantities, which from their resem- blance to peppercorns (piper) have given the current name to the stone. It was quarried in the Alban hills, hence its ancient name, lapis Albanus. It is a much harder and better building stone than tufa, and was very largely employed during the later republic and empire in structures where greater dura- i Middleton, Remains, i. 1-26. 8 Vitr. ii. 7. 1. 2Vitr. ii. 7. 1-2; PI. NH. xxxvi. 166. 22 BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. 23 bility and strength were required than could be furnished by tufa. Sperone (lapis Gabinus). This stone was quarried near Gabii, and is similar in formation to peperino, but it is still harder and more durable. It contains many fragments of lava of varying sizes. It was used like peperino, 1 but apparently not so extensively. Travertine (lapis Tiburtinus). This is the famous limestone 2 of the Sabine hills, the principal quarries of which were, as the name indicates, near Tibur. It also lies in large beds all along the Anio and some other smaller streams in the vicinity. Travertine "is a pure carbonate of lime, very hard, of a beau- tiful creamy color which weathers into a rich golden tint. It is a deposit from running water, and is found in a highly stratified state, with frequent cavities and fissures, lined with crystallized carbonate of lime." 3 Travertine was not intro- duced into general use in the city until the second century B.C., but after that time it was one of the principal materials em- ployed by the Romans, especially for large and magnificent structures like the Colosseum. Lava (silex). Four lava streams * had flowed down from the Alban crater, one of which approached within three miles of the city itself, close to the tomb of Caecilia Metella on the via Appia. From these beds the lava was quarried in large blocks for the pavement of streets, while the smaller pieces were mixed with pozzolana and lime to make concrete and rubble-work. Pozzolana (pulvis Puteolanus). This volcanic sand 5 derives its name from Puteoli, near Naples, where great beds of it exist, although it is also found in large quantities all round Home. It consists chiefly of silica, magnesia, potash, lime, and alumina, and when mixed with lime in the proportion of about 1 Tac. Ann. xv. 43. 4 PI. NH. xxxvi. 168. 2 Vitr. ii. 7. 1-2. 6 yitr. ii. 6. 1. 8 Middleton, Remains, i. 7. 24 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EOME. two to one, forms an hydraulic cement of remarkable strength. The concrete made of this cement and fragments of different sorts of stone was one of the most important materials em- ployed by the Romans, as it rendered possible the enormous vault and dome construction which is so conspicuous in the buildings of the empire. Brick (later, testa, tegula). The Romans made two kinds of brick, 1 the one dried in the sun (later) and the other dried in a kiln (testa, tegula), the principal material in their manufacture being the clay (creta figulina 2 ) which was found in abundance in several places in the vicinity, but especially on the slopes of the Vatican. No examples of unburnt brick now exist, but it was used almost exclusively down to the time of Augustus, and was reasonably durable while carefully protected from the action of the atmosphere. Kiln-dried bricks and tiles (testa, tegula) ex- ist in vast numbers, having been most extensively used in build- ings of every description throughout the empire. The bricks proper are of different shapes, square, oblong, round, and triangular, but the last is the prevailing type, as it suited best the ordinary method of use. Walls and foundations, when not constructed of solid stone, were regularly built of concrete faced with a lining of small stones, tiles, or bricks, which were tailed into the mass behind. The triangular shape was there- fore especially convenient. Tiles (tegulae), which were used in this way in such quantities, were broken or sawed into irreg- ular or triangular pieces. So far as we know bricks proper were never made larger than 22 centimetres square, but the tiles were considerably larger. They were frequently stamped with a round or rectangular seal, 3 which contain some or all of the following indications : the name of the owner or superintendent of the clay-pits or kilns, the actual maker of the brick, the person in charge i Vitr. ii. 3. 2 Varro, RR. iii. 9. 3. Marini, Iscrizioni doliari, Rome, 1884; H. Dressel, in OIL. xv. 1. BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. 25 of the sale of the manufactured product, and the names of the consuls for the year or of the ruling emperor. By means cf these dates, the time of construction or restoration of many Koman buildings has been determined, and it has been pos- sible to arrive at criteria for fixing the period of manufacture of different kinds of bricks. Marble. The use of marble, 1 both native and foreign, began in Borne in the first decade of the first century B.C., and spread with great rapidity. Augustus boasted that he had found the city brick and left it marble ; 2 and under the suc- ceeding emperors the amount of marble of all possible varie- ties which was brought to Rome surpasses our belief. The number of kinds mounts up to about one hundred and fifty, and in spite of centuries of destruction the amount still visible in churches and palaces is almost incredible. With the excep- tion of that quarried at Luna near Carrara, practically all the marble used in Kome was imported. It was rarely used in solid blocks in the construction of an entire wall, but in slabs of varying thickness, with which a wall of other material was lined. These slabs were fastened to the wall with clamps or pins. The term marble, in connection with Koman buildings, is ordinarily not restricted to its exact scientific application, but includes many other stones of a decorative character, such as serpentine, alabaster, and fluor spar, which with granite, basalt, and porphyry, were imported into Rome from every part of the known world, in enormous quantities. Methods of Building. 3 These may be classified as fol- lows : Opus quadratum. 4 There are no traces of the so-called iCorsi, Delle pietre antiche, Rome, 1845; H. W. Pullen, Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles, London, 1894; M. W. Porter, What Rome was built with, London, 1907. 2 Suet. Aug. 28. 8 Middleton, Remains, i. 27-91; A. Choisy, L'Art de bdtir chez les Romains, Paris, 1873; J. Durm, Die Baukunst der Romer, 2d ed., Stuttgart, 1905; Jor- dan, I. 1. 3-24. < Vitr. ii. 8. 6-8. 26 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. polygonal masonry in Rome, and the earliest walls were built of rectangular blocks of tufa, laid in regular courses. To this form of construction the term opus quadratum was applied, whatever the nature of the stone itself. Where brown or yellow tufa or peperino were used, the blocks were usually 2 Roman feet in height and in thickness. The length varied, but in the most perfect examples it is usually 4 feet, just twice the height, and the blocks are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, one course running lengthwise and the next being laid endwise (emplectori). In the earliest opus quadratum of gray tufa the blocks were smaller. Where travertine was the material employed, the blocks were not all cut of the same size, as that would have involved too great a loss. Mortar or cement was used during the earliest period, but only in a thin bed or skin, not to bind the blocks together, but simply to make a more perfect joint. At the close of the re- public and under the empire this use of mortar became infre- quent, and the surfaces of the stone were worked so smooth that the joints are barely discernible. This can be seen in the wall of the podium of the temple of Faustina. At that time it was usual to fasten the blocks together with iron clamps or wooden dowels. The native tufa was the stone first and most exten- sively employed for this sort of construction, but at a compara- tively early date the Romans introduced the custom of using peperino at points where greater strength and durability were required. After the second century B.C. travertine was used for this purpose ; and sometimes alone, to form the whole wall, as in the podium of the temple of Vespasian. Some of the walls of the Colosseum and of the forum Pacis are of tufa, travertine, and peperino. In such cases, the harder stones are regularly used for keystones, springers, voussoirs, jambs, and points where the pressure is greatest. Concrete (structura caementicid). Roman concrete was made of pozzolana and lime, with fragments of stone (caementum) BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. 27 scattered through the mass irregularly or in layers. During republican times these fragments were regularly of tufa, rarely of peperino ; but later, broken brick, travertine, bits of marble, and pumice stone were used, the last in making the great vaults where lightness was especially desirable. This concrete is so remarkable for its cohesiveness that when firmly set it is like solid rock. From the beginning of the first century B.C. it was the principal material used in building walls and foundations, sometimes without, but usually with, a facing of brick or stone. Unfaced concrete was used in foundations and substructures which were not to be seen. It must have been laid in a sort of mould, cast, in other words, while in a semifluid state. Planks were arranged so as to form a wooden box of the re- quired size and shape, and in this successive layers of semifluid cement and fragments of stone were placed. When the mass had hardened, the planking was removed. Traces of these wooden supports are plainly visible in many places, for ex- ample, on the massive foundations beneath the Flavian palace on the Palatine. Far more frequently concrete was faced with stone or brick, and the relative structural value of the two parts varied accord- ing to the total thickness of the wall. Construction of this sort is named according to the kind of facing employed, and the terms which properly refer only to the facing itself are applied to the whole structure. Opus incertum. 1 The concrete is faced with irregular bits of tufa, 6 to 10 centimetres across, with smooth outer surface and cut in conical or pyramidal shape so as to tail easily into the concrete backing. This was the oldest method of facing, and was in vogue during the second and first centuries B.C. A good example of opus incertum of the second century can be seen in the wall at the foot of the scalae Caci on the Palatine. Opus reticulatnm. 2 This is similar to opus incertum, except * Vitr. ii. 8. 1. Cf. The Nation, 1904, 202. Vitr. ii. 8. 1. 28 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. that the small stones are carefully cut with square or lozenge- shaped ends, and are arranged in rows corner to corner, so as to present a perfectly symmetrical appearance, resembling the meshes of a net. This displaced opus incertum almost entirely, m Opus incertum. Opus reticulatum. Opus latericlum. Opus mix turn. FIG. 3. METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION. and was used from the beginning of the first century B.C. to the middle of the second century. Examples are very numer- ous, one of the most accessible being in the house of Germani- cus on the Palatine. Opus testaceum or latericium. This is concrete faced with kiln-dried brick. Therefore, when the term latericium is used, it is to be understood as referring to lateres cocti, equivalent to testae, and not to lateres crudi. There are no examples of fac- BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. 29 ing with sun-dried brick. This method of construction with brick facing was the one most extensively employed throughout the imperial period. The bricks l vary in size, the ordinary dimensions being from 0.20 to 0.62 metre in length, and from 2 to 6 centimetres in thickness. They are either square, rectangular, triangular, or, when made from broken tiles, irregular. (See p. 24.) In simple facings the triangular shape was regularly employed, but at intervals single courses of large square tiles were intro- duced, apparently to strengthen the cohesiveness of the mass. In vaults, arches, and corners, square or rectangular bricks were most frequently used. While it is true that a wall was rarely, if ever, built of solid brick, but always with a concrete filling, the structural value of each part varied widely. For instance, in a wall 60 centimetres thick, the structural importance of the facing would be very slight, while in a wall 30 centimetres thick, a facing of the same dimensions would amount to about half the total volume of the wall, and be an extremely important element. The most perfect opus testaceum belongs to the time of Nero and the first years of the Flavian emperors, and is characterized by the thinness of the cement bed and the thickness of the bricks. After this time the deterioration in the work may be traced by a gradual increase in the thickness of the cement bed and a decrease in that of the bricks. The relative dimensions of the two and the character of the brick itself make it possible to date construction of this sort with a considerable degree of accuracy, even without the direct evidence of the stamps. One of the finest examples of brickwork in Rome is to be seen in the arches of Nero's extension of the aqua Claudia (p. 99) on the Caelian, although this seems to be later than Nero. Opus mixtum. This modern term is used to describe a method of construction which came into use at the end of the third century, in which the ordinary facing of opus testaceum is iVitr. ii. 3; ii. 8. 9-20. 30 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EOME. interrupted at intervals by courses of rectangular tufa blocks, about 26 centimetres long and 10 deep. The earliest example of this work in Rome is said to be in the wall of the circus of Maxentius, built about 310 A.D. ; but frequent examples have been found in Pompeii. 1 All these facings were covered with plaster, so that there was no visible indication of the character of the wall behind. As the tufa or brick had to be laid at the same time as the semifluid concrete backing, it was often necessary, where the wall was of any considerable thickness, to build a wooden cas- ing to prevent the facing from being pushed outward by the pressure of the concrete. This was done in somewhat the same manner as in the case of the massive unfaced foundations, but on a much smaller scale and more easily. The foundations of temples were usually made of a massive outer wall of opus quadratum, and the inner space was then filled solid with concrete. In such cases the stone wall was in itself strong enough to resist the pressure of the concrete until it had set. In many cases this concrete core was entirely un- necessary, as it had ordinarily nothing but the floor of the cella to support. The most striking feature of Roman architecture during the imperial period was the use of the vault or dome in such enormous structures as the baths or the basilica of Constantine. The great strength of Roman concrete was the principal reason for the development of this method of covering very large halls, but it is a mistake to eliminate entirely, as has sometimes been done, the importance of the brick relieving arches which form, as it were, the skeleton of the vault. It is manifestly almost impossible to arrive at complete architectural analyses of these vaults in most cases, and hence their precise character has been the subject of much dispute. Very strong complicated scaffolding and centring must have been necessary in building 1 Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii, its Life and Art, New York, 1899, 37-38. BUILDING MATERIALS AND METHODS. 31 the system of brick arches and in supporting the concrete until it had set. After this had taken place, the whole vault was practically a solid mass, and lateral thrust and pressure were reduced to a minimum. Sun-dried brick (lateres crudi 1 ). While this material has no present importance, since nothing remains of buildings so con- structed, it should not be forgotten that during the republic and even later the ordinary houses in Rome, as well as some public buildings, were built of crude brick and wooden framing. Their unsubstantial character is plainly shown by the reports in classical writers of the great destruction wrought by fire, water, slight earthquake shocks, and natural decay. Plaster or stucco (tectorium 2 ). As has been said, concrete walls faced in these various ways were regularly covered with plaster or stucco of varying thickness. Not infrequently walls of opus quadratuui were treated in the same way, and in later times even marble surfaces were coated with a marble stucco, in order that pigments might be more easily applied. The finest kind of stucco was called opus albarium or caementum marmoreum, and was made of lime and powdered white marble, water or milk, and some albuminous substance. When properly applied it produced a surface in no way inferior to that of marble itself. Other kinds of cement were made of inferior materials, one of them, which was much used for lining water channels on account of its hardness, being made of pozzolana and pounded pottery (testae tunsae) and called opus signinum. iVitr. ii. 3. Vitr. vii. 2-6. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. BY comparing the testimony of classical literature with archaeological evidence and physical conditions, the growth of the city of Rome has been traced from its beginning through certain stages. According to the view that has been generally held six periods are to be distinguished in the topographical history of the city ; namely, (1) the Palatine city, (2) the Septi- montium or " City of the Seven Hills," (3) the city of the Four Eegions, (4) the so-called Servian city, (5) the open city of the Fourteen Eegions, and (6) the city of Aurelian. Recently, however, objections have been raised against the existence of the first two of these stages, and a different theory of the origin of the city has been brought forward, which will be stated on p. 44. The Palatine City. The current view, 1 based on the unan- imous testimony of ancient literature, assigns to the Pala- tine 2 hill the first settlement of that part of the Latin stock which afterward assumed the name of Romans. Physiographi- cally this hill was better adapted for such a settlement than any other in the neighborhood, for its complete isolation made its defence easy, and the nearness of the Tiber gave its settlers all the advantages of river communication with the sea and with the interior. Its area was about 10 hectares (25 acres), which corresponded closely to that of the other Latin settlements in the Campagna. In shape the hill is an irregular rectangle, but at first it was probably more nearly square. The length of the sides averages about 450 metres. 1 For the most recent review of the whole question of the Palatine and earlier stages in the city's growth, cf. Binder, Die Plebs, Leipzig, 1909, 1-170. 2 Schneider, Mitt. 1895, 160-175. 32 HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. 33 The first settlers came from the north, and while they were already divided politically into the three tribes of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, their settlement, and then the hill itself, was called Palatium. 1 This substantive form of its name differ- entiates this hill from all the others on the left bank of the Tiber, except the Capitolium. This latter name, however, was of comparatively late origin, and was applied to the hill after it had really become the capitol of the extended city. The word Palatium, probably connected with the root pa which appears in pasco and Pales, 2 seems to have been applied in its earliest and narrowest sense to the settlement on the eastern half of the hill, while the western part was called Oermalus, 3 which would seem to indicate that originally the Palatine community was divided into two hamlets, occupying the two parts of the hill. However this may be, in its historical development the community is to be regarded as a unit, although the name Cermalus was used in the days of Cicero and Livy. 4 As a part of the Palatine city, although outside its wall, must be reckoned also the ridge or spur stretch- ing out from the middle of the north side of the Palatine toward the Oppian. This was called the Velia, 5 and always retained its distinctive name, although more frequently re- ferred to in literature as the summa Sacra via. 6 At some time, either in this first period or that which followed, the settlement came to be known as Euma, Eoma, probably from the Etruscan gentile name ruma* and its inhabitants as Eomani, 1 BC. 1881, 63-73; Jordan, I. 1. 180-183; Varro, LL. v. 53; Fest. 220; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 51 ; Dionys. i. 32; ii. 1. 2 This etymology is disputed. Cf. JJ. 1907,345; Walde, Lot. Etymolog. Worterbuch. Gilbert, I. 40-41, notes ; Jordan, I. 3. 35-36 ; Plut. Rom. 3 ; Varro, LL. v.54. 4 Cic. ad Alt. iv. 3. 3; Liv. xxxiii. 26. Liv. ii. 7. 6; Asc. in Pis. 52; Gilbert, I. 38-39, 101-109; Jordan, I. 2. 416. Solin. i. 23. 7 Schulze, Zur Oeschichte lateinischer Eigennamen, Berlin, 1904, 218 ff., 580; CR. 1906, 411 ; Pais, Legends, 55. 34 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. The fortification of such a hill was an easy matter. Where the cliff was at all abrupt, and it was decidedly so at almost every point, it was scarped down for about 13 or 14 metres, and there an artificial shelf was cut. On this shelf, and resting against the side of the hill, a tufa wall of opus quadratum was built, which rose somewhat above the top of the hill, so as to form a sort of breastwork. It is possible that some fragments of this earliest wall are still standing (p. 110). To the Palatine settlement all Roman and Greek legends l of the founding of the city go back. On this hill were the casa Komuli, 2 or hut of the mythical founder ; the Lupercal, 3 or cave of the she-wolf which suckled him ; the sacred cornel cherry tree, 4 which sprang from the lance cast by Romulus from the Aventine to the Cermalus ; and the Mundus, or augural centre of the city- templum. All these, although of later origin, bore witness to the antiquity and validity of the legend which assigned the be- ginning of Rome to this spot. In the primitive Roman concep- tion of a city, two things were essential, the dwelling of the king and a shrine where the sacred fire could be kept. In the Pala- tine city, the casa Romuli was naturally the representative of the former, and although we are distinctly told that the temple of Vesta was outside of the pomerium of the early city, it is at least a plausible hypothesis that a primitive Italian deity, Caca, 5 perhaps a goddess of the hearth, had a shrine on the hill, and was displaced by Vesta at a later period (p. 133). In ritual, the festival of the Lupercalia, celebrated on the fifteenth of February, continued to keep the beginnings of the city before the minds of the Romans down to the end of the i Pais, Legends, 43-59. 2 Plut. Rom. 2J; Dionys. i. 79; Notit. Reg. x. ; Gilbert, I. 48. 8 Dionys. i. 32, 79; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 90; Ov. Fast. ii. 421; Cic. ad Fam. vii. 20. 1 ; Gilbert, I. 53-59. 4 Plut. Rom. 3. 6 Serv. ad Aen. viii. 190 ; Reseller, Lexikon der Mythologie, i. 842 ; Mitt. 1895, 163; Wissowa, Religion der Romer, 144; CR. 1905, 233; De Sanctis, Storia dei Romani, ii. 524-^525. Cf ., however, University of Michigan Studies, iv. 234. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. 35 western empire. 1 At this festival the Luperci, a college of priests whose institution dated back to the earliest times, dressed in goatskins and waving leather thongs, ran round the Palatine along a line said to be that of the ancient pomerium, thus performing the ceremony of purification. The rules of augural procedure required that the site destined for a city should be inaugurated as a templum, 2 or rectangular area, marked off from the ager publicus, or outside territory under the control of the city-state. Within this templum the auspices could be taken, and the civil authority, in distinction from the military, was supreme. The formal founding of a city is thus described by Varro : 3 Oppida condebant in Latio Etrusco ritu ut multa, id est iunctis bobus tauro et vacca interiors aratro circumagebant sulcum. Hoc faciebant religionis causa die auspicato, ut fossa et muro essent muniti. Terrain unde exsculpserant/ossa?n vocabant et introrsus iactam murum : post ea qui fiebat orbis, urbis principium, qui quod erat post murum, postmoerium dictum, eoque auspicia urbana finiuntur. The furrow represented the moat; and the earth thrown up by the plough, the wall of the city. The line urbis principium, or pomerium, behind (i.e. within) the mums, marked the limit of the inaugurated district within which auspices could be taken. The word pomerium, 4 which first meant the boundary line itself (certis spatiis interiecti lapides), 5 was soon transferred iDionys. i. 80; Jordan, I. 1. 162; Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. 438-446; Gilbert, I. 83-88. 2 Liv. v. 52; Varro, LL. vi. 53; v. 33; Gell. xiii. 14; Nissen, Templum, 6 ff. 8 LL. v. 143. 4 Mommsen, Das Begriff des Pomeriums, Hermes, 1876, 24-50 ; Rdm. For- schungen, ii. 23-41; F. Wehr, Das Palatinische Pomerium, Briix, 1895; O. Richter, Die alteste Wohnstdtte des Rom. Volkes. Prog., Berlin, 1891 ; Becker, Topographic, 92-108; Jordan, I. 1. 163-175; Gilbert, I. 114-134; Hul- sen, Mitt. 1892, 293; Platner, The Pomerium and Roma Quadrata, AJP. 1901, 420-425; Pais, Legends, 224-234; Carter, .Roma Quadrata and the Septimontium, AJA. 1908, 172-183, and The Pomerium, Rome, 1909 ; Melanges, 1908, 278-280. Tac. JlnH.xii.24. 36 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. to the strip of land between this line and the actual city wall, and was then used in both senses. 1 At a later period it seems to have been still further extended in application and to have been incorrectly used of the strip on both sides of the wall. This is plainly the understanding of Livy when he writes : 2 Pomerium, verbi vim solam intuentes, postmoerium interpretantur esse: est autem magis circamoerium, locus, quern in condendis urbibus quondam Etrusci, qua murum ducturi erant, certis circa terminis inaugu- rate consecrabant, ut neque interiors parte aedificia moenibus c6ntinua- rentur, quae nunc vulgo etiam coniungunt, et extrinsecus puri aliquid ab humano cultu pateret soli. Hoc spatium, quod neque habitari neque arari fas erat, non magis quod post murum esset, quam quod murus post id, pomerium Romani apellarunt. These discrepancies may be due to a very natural confusion of the ceremonial murus with the actual city wall at various periods. In the case of the Palatine city, existing remains of later date show that the first wall must have been built on the slope of the hill, but Tacitus describes in the following passage 3 the line which in his day was regarded as that of the original pomerium, marked out by Romulus : Sed initium condendi et quod pomerium Romulus posuerit, noscere baud absurdum reor. Igitur a foro boario, ubi aereum tauri simulacrum aspicimus, quia id genus animalium aratro subditur, sulcus designandi oppidi coeptus, ut magnam Herculis aram amplecteretur ; inde certis spatiis interiecti lapides per imamontis Palatini ad aram Consi, mox curias veteres, turn ad sacellum Larum ; forumque Romanum et Capitolium non a Romulo, sed a Tito Tatio additum urbi credidere. The site of the ara Herculis (p. 397) is known to have been within a very short distance of the present church of S. Maria in Cosmedin, northwest of the northwest end of the Circus Maximus. The ara Oonsi (p. 404) is also known to have stood at the eastern end of the spina of the circus. With al- 1 Dionys. i. 88; Jordan, I. 1. 163; Gilbert, I. 114-134; Mitt. 1892, 293. 2 i. 44. Ann. xii. 24. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. 37 most equal certainty the Ouriae veteres (p. 130) is to be placed at the northeastern corner of the Palatine, and the sacellum Larum (p. 131) near the northwestern corner. This can hardly have been the line of an original Palatine pomerium, which can only be a matter of conjecture, and Tacitus is evidently describ- ing the course followed by the Luperci in his day. 1 At three points in the circuit, 2 the plough was carefully lifted up and carried for a few feet. These breaks in the furrow marked the position of the three gates required for every settlement by Etruscan ritual. 3 Varro says that one of these gates of the Palatine city was the porta Mugonia, or vetus porta Palati, on the north side of the hill, near the site of the tem- ple of luppiter Stator. This is shown to have been its real position by the contour of the ground as well as by the remains of the pavement of a street (p. 165) leading up the hill at this point, which, although of a much later period, probably rep- resented the early road. It is clear that cattle would have been driven in and out at this gate, and Varro derives the name from their lowing (mugitus). The location of the second gate is unknown, but it may have been somewhere on the south side, perhaps near the scalae Caci. The third gate is described by Varro 4 as follows : Alteram Romanulam ab Roma dictam, quae habet gradus in nova via ad Volupiae sacellum ; and by Festus, 5 who says, Porta Romana instituta est a Romulo infimo clivo Victoriae qui locus gradibus in quadram formatus est. A gate 6 at the foot of the clivus Victoriae (p. 138) must have I . * Plainer, The Pomerium and Roma Quadrata, AJP. 1901, 420-425. 2 Varro, LL. v. 142; Serv. ad Aen. i. 422. *LL.\. 164. 4 LL. v. 164 ; Dionys. ii. 50 ; Fest. 144 ; Solin. i. 24. 5 Fest. 262. Jordan, I.I. 176; Gilbert, I. 112, 121; II. 114-116; BC. 1881, 69-70; Ann. d. 1st. 1884, 203-204; Melanges, 1908, 256-258. The old explanation of porta Romanula as the river-gate, based on a connection between Roma and a sup- posed rumon, a river, must probably be given up (cf. p. 33). 38 TOPOGEAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. been on the west side of the hill, probably not far from the church of S. Teodoro, and this was undoubtedly the porta Eomanula or Eomana. The Palatine city was called in later times Koma quadrata, a name which is explained by Solinus l (from Varro) as follows : Dictaque primum est Roma quadrata, quod ad aequilibrium foret posita. Ea incipit a silva quae est in area Apollinis, et ad supercilium scalarum Caci habet terminum, ubi tugurium fuit Faustuli. The line a silva . . . ad supercilium 2 was the northeast and south- west diagonal of a trapezoidal area which Varro evidently thought had been that inclosed within the walls of the Palatine city. Koma quadrata was also, and first, perhaps, used in the sense of Mundus, or the receptacle 'at the centre of the templum, for Festus 3 states, on the authority of Ennius : Quadrata Roma in Palatio ante templum Apollinis dicitur, ubi reposita sunt quae solent boni ominis gratia in urbe condenda adhiberi, quia saxo munitus est initio in specie m quadratam. This Mundus 4 is supposed to be represented upon a fragment of the Marble Plan, where a small four-sided structure of stone, raised above the ground and approached by steps on two sides, stands in the area Apollinis. The Septimontium, or City of the Seven Hills. The direction in which the Palatine 5 city should expand was indicated by political and topographical conditions. There were other small settlements on some of the surrounding hills, and the second period of the city's history was that of union with such hamlets on the adjacent spurs of the Esquiline and the Caelian. Topo- graphical conditions rendered it almost certain that the control 1 i. 17. Cf. also Melanges, 1908, 271-278. 2 Mitt. 1896, 210-212; AJP. 1901, 420-425; Pais, Legends, 223-234, 257-263. "258. *MM. 1896, 202-204; Pais, Legends, 229-234; Binder, Die Plebs, 43-71. 5 For a hypothetical urbs trimontialis between the Palatine city and the Septimontium, see Melanges, 1908, 249-282. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. 39 of the inhabitants of the Palatine should extend along the ridge of the Velia and across the eastern end of the Forum valley, and that further expansion should take place up the slopes of the Esquiliue. The same conditions obtained with respect to the Caelian, but to a somewhat less marked degree. Aside from the direct testi- mony of these topographical con- ditions, evidence as to the extent of this second city is derived from the festival of the Septimontium itself, and the scattered passages in Latin literature which refer to it or to the city. As the Luper- calia preserved in ritual a remi- niscence of the first Rome, so the Septimontium is believed to have preserved one of the succeeding stage. This festival, 1 in some calendars marked simply as Agonia or Agonalia, was celebrated on the llth of December, even during the empire, and consisted in part of a lustral procession round the Palatine and Esquiline hills, thus corresponding to the Lupercalia. Varro* states that the name Septimontium was given to the city before it was called Rome, but says that the hills were those which the Servian wall afterward inclosed. The real extent of this city is supposed to be described by Festus 8 and Paulus Diaconus, 4 who tell us that the seven monies were the three parts of the Palatine: Palatium, Cermalus, and Velia; the two spurs of the Esquiliue : Oppius and Cispius ; the north- FIG. 4. THE SEPTIMONTIUM. !Fest. 340; Macrob. i. 16. 6; Jordan, I. 1. 199; Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, iii. 1. 113-114; OIL. i. p. 336. 2 LL. v. 41 ; Wissowa, Satura Viadrina, Breslau, 1896, 1-19; Plainer, CP. 1906, 69-80; Pais, Legends, 234-241. 8 348. 341. 40 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. era spur of the Caelian, which was called Sucusa; and the Fagutal. Pagutal is a substantive form from fagutalis, and designated a part of the Esquiline ridge, between the Oppius proper and the extreme western slope, which was known at a later period as the Carinae (Fig. 4). Here was a grove of beech trees, the lucus Pagutalis, 1 in which was a shrine of Jupiter, worshipped under the name of luppiter Fagutalis. Sucusa was confused with Subura, and so appears in our sources. The etymology 2 and origin of the words Oppius and Oispius is obscure, but they may have been derived from the clans dwelling at these points. They were displaced in ordinary usage by the collective term Esquiliae, which, as its form indicates, was a settlement-name, perhaps equivalent to ex-quiliae. The common adjective esqm- linus, in mons esquilimts, would then be analogous to inquilinus, 1 an inhabitant,' and it is a plausible hypothesis that the in- habitants of the Palatium, inquilini, applied the term Esquiliae to the settlements on the opposite hills, which afterward became a part of the city. Sucusa is probably also an ancient Italian settlement-name. The city formed by the union of these topographical units was undoubtedly surrounded by fortifications; that is, the existing wall of the Palatium was connected with the walls of the newly annexed hamlets. No remains of these connecting walls have been found, and it would be remarkable in the highest degree if they had survived the great changes of centuries in the very centre of the city. An obscure passage in Varro 3 mentions a murus terreus Oarinarum, evidently an embankment of earth on the Carinae, and this has been thought by some 4 to be the wall of the Septimontium ; and on the supposition that it ran along the bank of the brook 1 Varro, LL. \. 152; BC. 1905, 189-232. 2 Jordan, I. 1. 183-188; 3. 254; Gilbert, I. 166-169. LL. v. 48. 4 Schneider, Mitt. 1895, 167-178 ; Richter, Top. 2 38 n. Cf. also Melanges, 1908, 274-276. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY- 41 to the Forum valley, the temple of Janus (p. 191), which has been the subject of much discussion, has been explained as the portae belli in this wall. Further evidence that the second period in the city's development was the union of the Palatine and Oppius-Cispius group of settlements, is sometimes thought to be found in the annual struggle for the October horse, described by Festus, 1 in which the Sacra- vienses represent the Palatini, and the Suburanenses their early neighbors and rivals. The City of the Four Regions. Between the Septimontium and the city that, having been inclosed by the Servian wall, became the Rome of the republic, intervened a period of development to which it has been found convenient to give the name of the Four Regions, from its most distinctive feature. In consequence of the reforms which tradition ascribes to Servius Tullius, the inhabitants of the city of Rome were divided into four tribes (tribus), which, although purely political divisions so far as our knowledge of them extends, were doubtless based on the local division into four regions, 2 belonging to the previous period. This local divi- sion remained in force until the time of Augustus. The expansion of the Septimontium took place in two direc- tions, north and south. On the north the added area com- prised the small Viminal 3 hill, next to the Cispius, and the much larger Quirinal immediately beyond, with the adjacent Capitolium. It is to be noted that these two hills were not properly -called montes, 4 but colles, the distinguishing adjectives Quirinalis and Viminalis being added afterward, and that the settlers in this district were called collini, not montani. The collis Quirinalis derived its name 5 from a shrine of the god 1 178. 2 Varro, LL. v. 56. Jordan, I. 3. 372, 394. 4 For apparent exceptions cf. Floras, i. 7 (13), 16; Eutropius, i. 7 (6) ; Clau- dian, de sezt. cons. Hon. 543; CP. 1907, 463-464. 6 Jordan, I. 1. 180. 42 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Quirinus, who appears to have been worshipped there as well as on the Palatine. The settlement on this hill has usually been regarded as largely made up of Sabine elements, but this traditional view has been vigorously combated. 1 Vimi- "Wall and line of Pomerium ___Limits of the Regions O 1,2, Sacraria Argeorum. Site of those bracketed is conjectural FIG. 5. THE CITY OP THE FOUR REGIONS. nalis is of coiirse derived from vimina ' osiers,' which grew abundantly in this region. On the south the rest of the Caelian, comprising the Caelius proper and the Ceroliensis, was added to the. area of the Septi- 1 Binder, Die Plebs, 139-170; Mommsen, History of Home, L 85. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY. 43 montium. A line of fortification must have surrounded the city of the Four Regions, and its probable course may be traced by the contour of the ground. Beginning at the south- west corner of the Capitoline, it ran northeast along the edge of the cliffs of this hill and of the Quirinal to a point where, bending at a right angle, it ran southeast and south across the Quirinal, the Viminal, and the Esquiline, just where the val- leys begin which descend between these hills. At the south- east corner of the Caelian it turned to the southwest round the hill, and thence ran northwest to the Palatine and back to the Capitoline (Fig. 5). The four regions are described by Varro 1 as the Suburana, the Esquilina, the Collina, and the Palatina. Regio I, Subu- rana, comprised the Sucusa, the Ceroliensis, and the Caelius ; Regio II, Esquilina, the Oppius and the Cispius ; Regio III, Collina, the Quirinal and the Viminal ; Regio IV, Palatina, the Palatium, the Cermalus, and the Velia. These four regions met at a common point, probably near the Velia. The Capitoline, although a part of the city, seems not to have been included in any one of the regions, perhaps because it was from the begin- ning regarded as the citadel and religious centre of the whole city, and not as a local division or part. 2 This is implied by the very name Oapitolium, which was deliberately given to the hill as the Capitol, arid was not derived from any existing settlement. The pomerium coincided with the wall, having been extended with each enlargement of the city's area, but after this time it was not extended again until Sulla's dictator- ship. Varro 3 is the chief authority for this division into regions, and in the same connection he describes the shrines known as the sacraria Argeorum, 4 and the ceremonial festival connected l LL. v. 45. 2 Jordan, I. 1. 180. Cf. also Melanges, 1908, 272-274. 8 LL. v. 45^54. which gave rise to the belief among the early Christians that Simon Magus was worshipped here. As a result of the legend that the serpent had been brought by ship from Epidaurus, the island itself was made to resemble a ship. A stone platform was built round it, and upon this a wall was erected which in shape exactly reproduced the 1 Suet. Claud. 25. 2 Sidon. Apoll. Epist. i. 7. 8 Jordan, FUR. 42; Chronogr. a. 354, p. 145; * Varro, LL. vii. 57 ; GIL. vi. 6, 7, 12. 6 OIL. i. 2 p. 309; Liv. xxxiii. 42; xxxiv. 53; Ov. Fast. ii. 193. Vitr. iii. 2. 3. 7 Ov. Fast. i. 293 ; Liv. xxxi. 21. 8 Gilbert, III. 82-84; Jordan, I. 3. 635. Cf. for opposite view, Besnier, op. cit. 249-272. OIL. i. 2 p. 336. w GIL. vi. 567; Justin. Martyr. Apol. i. 26; Jordan, L 3. 636. 86 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. sides of a Roman ship. 1 Before the great changes in the river- bed caused by the building of the new embankments, a con- siderable portion of the travertine stern could still be seen at the east end of the island. An obelisk, fragments of which are in the museum at Naples, is thought to have represented the mast. We have no information as to the time when this curious idea was carried out, but the remains of the walls point to the same period as that of the construction of the pons Fabricius, and it is quite possible that the erection of the two stone bridges was part of the same plan as the building of the ship. Suetonius 2 says that sick slaves were brought to the temple of Aesculapius and left there to be cured, and in general it appears that there was some attempt to reproduce the effect of the great sanitarium at Epidaurus. A statue of Julius Caesar 3 was erected on the island, and we know of a vicu-s Censorius* In the middle ages the island was called insula Lycaonia, 6 for some unknown reason. The Emporium. The first traffic with the seacoast in which Rome engaged was in salt, which was brought by boat from Ostia to the Salinae, 6 or salt warehouses just outside the porta Trigemina, and thence by the via Salaria 7 into the interior. In time other commodities, as wood, wine, corn, and oil, be- gan to be imported by ship, and the Salinae formed the nucleus from which was developed the harbor and warehouse system of Rome. After the city became a metropolis and goods of all descriptions were imported from all parts of the world, the business of this region increased most remarkably. Compara- tively few of the ships that brought wares from over sea sailed up to the city, their cargoes being transferred at Ostia. i Ann. d. 1st. 1867, 389 ff . 2 Claud. 25. 8 Tac. Hist. i. 86. * OIL. vi. 975. 6 Jordan, I. 3. 631. Liv. i. 33 ; PI. NH. xxxi. 89; Solin. i. 8. ' Fest. Epit. 327. THE TIBER AND ITS BRIDGES. 87 The character of the river banks is such that something in the way of wharves or landing-places must have been provided at an early date ; but the first record of anything of this sort is in the year 199 B.C., 1 when the aedileship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and L. Aemilius Paulus was signalized by the building of the porticus Aemilia beyond the porta Trigemina, emporio ad Tiberim adiecto. The term Emporium, 2 mentioned here for the first time, was applied to the bank itself and to the ground stretching back from it for some little distance, which was used as a landing- place, storehouse, and market. In the year 174 B.C. this open Emporium, 3 which extended down the river from the southwest corner of the Aventine, was paved, inclosed with barriers, and provided with flights of steps leading down to the water's edge. These steps rendered a river wall necessary, which was extended as the demands of commerce increased, until the whole bank, for 1 kilometre down-stream from the porta Tri- gemina, had been converted into one long quay. The name portus, 4 in its widest meaning, was applied to the entire harbor, but it was also applied, with limiting adjectives, to different sections of the quay, which were assigned to dif- ferent kinds of goods, as portus vinarius 5 and portus lignarius. 6 Some of these sections seem to have been under the control of private individuals, and to have been called by their names, as the portus Licinii, etc. 7 It is, however, not entirely certain that all these sections of quay were in this region. Excavations 8 carried on along the river since 1868 have brought to light fragments of the -wall and quay and of the steps and paved inclines which led down to the water to facili- i Liv. xxxv. 10. 12. 2 Gilbert, III. 240-243; Jordan, I. 1. 429-434; 3. 171-173. 8 Liv. xli. 27. 8 ; Jordan, FUR. 44. 4 Jordan, 1. 1. 429-430 ; 3. 174. 6 OIL. vi. 9189-9190. 6 Liv. xxxv. 41. i Cassiod. i. 25 ; GIL. xv. 408-412 ; NS. 1892, 347. 8 Bull. d. 1st. 1872, 134-135; BC. 1886, 34-35. 88 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. tate unloading, and a few of the stone corbels, sometimes in the shape of lions' heads, which projected out from the quay and were pierced with holes for mooring-rings. Part of the masonry of this quay is of opus quadratum and belongs to the last century of the republic, but the greater portion is of brickwork l and dates from the time of Hadrian. Under the empire, one of the chief articles of import was marble, and a long stretch of quay, beneath the Aventine and above the Emporium proper, was devoted to its reception. This part was called the Marmorata, a name still preserved in the via della Marmorata. There was also an officina marmoraria. 2 where the stone was worked. In the years of 1868-1870, more than six hundred blocks 8 of unused marble were found scattered over the Marmorata and the Emporium, some of which are still to be seen. Many of them had Greek inscriptions. Besides the Marmorata, another wharf, built for the landing of marbles, was discovered in 1891, about 150 metres above the ponte S. Angelo. 4 This was not a quay, but a stone platform, 26 metres long and 14 wide, pro- jecting into the river at an angle of 40. The convenience of having a landing-place for marble and granite in the upper part of the city is obvious. Outside the porta Trigemina was a column or statue of L. Minucius Augurinus, 5 praefectus annonae in 439 B.C., erected by popular subscription. Navalia. The Navalia, or docks for ships of war, 6 were beyond the porta Flumentana in the campus Martius, opposite the prata Quinctia (p. 508), just west of the modern palazzo Earnese. We do not know when they were first constructed, 1 Ber. d. k. sacks Gesell. 18*8, 137 ff. 2 BC. 1891, 23-36. 8 Ann. d. 1st. 1870, 106-204 ; NS. 1886, 22. * BC. 1891, 45-BO; 1892, 175-178; Mitt. 1892, 322-326. PI. NH. xviii. 15; xxxiv. 21. Liv. iii. 26 ; Plut. Cato Min. 39; Gilbert, III. 146-150; Richter, Top. * 200- 203; Jordan, FUR. 45-46; Jordan, I. 3. 485-486. THE TIBER AND ITS BRIDGES. 89 but it was prior to 338 B.C., for in that year the ships captured at Antium 1 were moored at these docks. The mooring of captured ships here continued to be the custom for nearly two centuries, as those taken from the Macedonians were also brought here in 167. 2 In the middle of the second century B.C. the docks were burned, and rebuilt by the Greek architect Hermodorus. 3 References to them after this date are infre- quent, but in the sixth century Procopius 4 speaks of them as ev ///fo-Tj rrj TrdAct, which probably means that they were within the line of the fortifications of Aurelian. The Navalia in- cluded an arsenal, which seems to have become a sort of museum, and other buildings for various purposes, and must have covered a considerable area. Whether ships were actu- ally built at these docks 5 is a disputed point. In any case, their importance must have declined very rapidly after the second Punic war, as it would no longer have been necessary for Roman ships to sail up the river. In 147 B.C. the Cartha- ginian hostages were detained 6 in the Navalia. A porta Navalis, mentioned by Festus, 7 has been thought by some to be the gate into the inclosure, but without good reason. In 179 B.C. the censor Fulvius built a portions extra portam Trigeminam et aliam post navalia et ad fanum Herculis, 8 and on fragment 61 of the Marble Plan is the inscription NAVALEM- FER. . . . This evidence, together with the passage in Proco- pius already cited, and a bronze of Antoninus Pius, 9 have been used in an attempt 10 to prove the existence of other earlier docks, Navale inferius, just north of the porta Trigemina, and, while this seems probable, no general agreement has been reached. 1 Liv. viii. 14. 6 Serv. ad Aen. xi. 326. 2 Liv. xlv. 42. 6 Polyb. xxxvi. 3. 8 Cic. de Or. i. 62. * Epit. 179; Jordan, I. 3. 486. *Bell. Goth. iv. 22. 8 Liv. xl. 51. Cohen, MM. Imp. ii. 271, No. 17. 10 Hiilsen, Dissertazioni dell' Accademia Pontificia, ser. ii. vol. vi. ; Zeitschr. f. Numismatik, 1899, 32; Jordan, I. 3. 143-145; Merlin, L'Aventin, 121-123. CHAPTER VI. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. Rome's Water Supply. Before the building of the first aqueduct in 312 B.C., the Romans depended for their water supply upon the Tiber and upon wells, springs, and rain water caught and stored in cisterns. 1 The soil was so rich in springs and underground streams that wells could be sunk successfully at any point, and the average depth necessary was only about 5 metres. 2 Such wells (putei) were common from the earliest period, and the recent excavations in the Forum (p. 273) have brought to light upward of thirty, some of which date from the republic. It is therefore improbable that the water of the Tiber itself was ever used very extensively for drinking pur- poses, although certain of the popes of the sixteenth century have left a record of their preference for this substantial beverage. 3 The word fons was employed by the Romans to denote, not only natural springs, but also artificial fountains. The Notitia states that in the fourth century there were in the city twelve hundred and twelve public fountains, of which the great majority must have been of the artificial kind. These fountains were ordinarily in the form of basins (lacus), large and small, or of spouting jets (salientes). The most famous natural springs were the following : fons Oamenarum, 4 the spring of the Muses, which, together with a sacred grove and shrine, was in the vallis Egeriae (p. 432) 1 Frontinus, de Aq. i. 4. 2 Lanciani, Acque, 6. 8 Lanciani, Acque, 3-4. 4 Vitr. viii. 3. 1; Front, de Aq, i. 4; Lanciani, Acque, 11-13; Herschel, Frontinus, 131-132; Jordan, I. 3. 206-208. 90 AQUEDUCTS AND SEWEKS. 91 outside the porta Capena, northeast of the via Appia. This valley is marked by the via della Mola and the brook Marrana, and the fountain itself is usually identified with a spring near the villa Fonseca. Considerable changes have taken place in this region, and there are several springs near by, so that a positive identification seems rather hazardous. Tons Apollinis, 1 the position of which is unknown, but which has been identified with a spring now flowing in the villa Mattei on the Caelian, not far from the fons Camenarum, and also with one near the west end of the Circus Maximus. Fons luturnae, perhaps the most celebrated of all Roman springs, which was discovered in the year 1900 just behind the temple of Castor. Its site and the ruins of the lacus are described on page 214. Aqua Mercurii, 2 a spring which is thought to be one of those now flowing in the gardens of the villa Mattei. Its waters were conducted in an artificial channel through the valley of the Circus Maximus to the Cloaca Maxima. Among the other springs mentioned in literature, which seem to have had a special claim to celebrity, are the Lautolae (p. 192) or hot springs ad lanum geminum, still a puzzle to topographers, and the fons Lupercalis, 3 the earliest of all, which gushed forth from the Lupercal (p. 130) on the slope of the Cermalus. The porta Fontinalis in the Servian wall was named from a spring which may be that now visible in the cortile di S. Felice in the via della Dateria, sometimes called the aqua Fontinalis. 4 Beneath the Career on the slope of the Capitoline is a spring, which perhaps supplied the Arx in the earliest days of the city, and from which the lower part of the Career, the Tullianum, is generally supposed to have derived its name (tuttius = ' a spring'?). This deriva- tion has lately been disputed (p. 252). 1 Front, loc. cit. ; Lanciani, Acque, 13. 2 Ov. Fast. v. 673,- Lanciani, Acque, 9-11. Cf. BC. 1904, 217-230. 3 Lanciani, Acque, 21. * Cf., however, p. 50, note 2. 92 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Rain water was caught in the compluvia of the houses, but there was probably less necessity for its use in Rome than in most cities. Many large cisterns (piscinae) have been found in different parts of the city ; but it is usually difficult to tell whether they were intended only for rain water, or were reservoirs fed by small pipes from a spring or aqueduct. A series of underground cisterns has been found on the Pin- cian, 1 which were made for the villa of the Acilii Glabriones and consist of galleries cut in the tufa rock and intersecting each other at right angles (p. 482). All other cisterns, so far discovered, are constructed in a similar manner. Aqueducts. Springs and cisterns must have proved inade- quate to supply the rapidly growing city, for in 312 B.C. the first of that long series of aqueducts was constructed which has justly been regarded as among the most remarkable and distinctive features of ancient Rome. 2 Our knowledge of their history and general administration is chiefly due to the fortunate preservation of a treatise on the subject, the De Aquis Urbis Romae, by Sextus Julius Frontinus, who was appointed curator aquarum in 97 A.D. and signalized his tenure of office by a complete reform of the system. This work of Frontinus is amply illustrated by the many remains of arches, channels (specus), distributing reservoirs (castella aquae), and pipes of all sizes, which have been preserved. The first of these aqueducts, the Appia, 3 was built in 312 B.C. by the censors Appius Claudius Caecus and C. Plautius Ve- nox. It was fed by springs situated east of Rome, 780 passus 1 Lanciani, Acque, 29-30. 2 The most authoritative works on the water supply and aqueducts of Rome are: Lanciani, / Commentarii di Frontino intorno le Acque e gli Acquedotti, Rome, 1880; Herschel, The Two Hooks on the Water Supply of the City of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus, Boston, 1899; and Ashby, The Builder, 1908, 37, 64, 89, 111, 142, 174, 203, 234 ; JJ. 1909, 246-260. Front. 5, 7, 18, 22, 65, 79, 126; Lanciani, Acque, 34-43; Herschel, 143-146. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 93 (1153 metres) to the left of the via Collatina, between the sixth and seventh milestones, near the Anio. 1 The channel (specus) was subterranean, and entered the city more than 15 metres below the surface, near the temple of Spes vetus, ad Spem veterem (p. 462), just inside the porta Praenestina (Mag- giore). Thence it ran along the south slope of the Caelian, across the depression on the Aventine, to a point approximately halfway between S. Saba and S. Prisca ; then, making a sharp turn to the northwest, it crossed the Aventine and ended at the Salinae, just outside the porta Trigemina. The total length of the channel was 11,190 passus (16.47 kilometres), entirely underground except for a distance of 60 passus (89 metres), where it was carried on arches across the via Appia, outside the porta Capena. Remains of this specus have been discovered at various points on the Aventine along the via di S. Paolo, especially in the old quai-ries near S. Saba. Augus- tus increased the amount of water brought to the city by this aqueduct by building a branch, the aqua Appia Augusta, from some springs a little more than 1 kilometre north of the sixth milestone on the via Praenestina. This joined the old Appia ad Spem veterem. The specus of this branch was entirely subterranean, and 6360 passus (9.18 kilometres) in length. The Anio vetus 2 was begun in 272 B.C. by the censor M'. Curius Dentatus, and finished in 270 by M. Fulvius Flaccus, who with Dentatus had been created duumvir aquis perducendis. The original cost was paid out of spoils taken from Pyrrhus. Its source was the river Anio, 1 kilo- metre above the monastery of S. Cosiinato near Mandela, 17 kilometres above Tivoli. Its course can be traced from the source to Gallicano, but from there to Rome it is uncertain. This aqueduct entered the city ad Spem veterem, at about the present ground level, struck the Servian wall and followed it 1 Cf., however, BC. 1903, 243-248; 1904, 215-232. 2 Front. 6, 7, 9, 18, 21, 92, and freq. ; OIL. vi. 1243, 2345; Lanciani, Acque, 43-58; Herscbel, 146-150. 94 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. to the porta Esquilina. For part of this distance it was built in the agger, and during the modern building operations around the railroad station it was often exposed to view. The specus was subterranean, except for a distance of 221 passus (327 metres) outside the porta Praenestina, where it was carried above ground. Its total length was 43,000 passus (63.64 kilometres). 1 At the second milestone outside the city, a branch, built by Augustus and called the specus Octavianus, led off from the Anio vetus and ran toward the via Latina and the horti Asiniani, probably near the porta Metrovia. The Marcia 2 was begun in 144 B.C. by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, who had been ordered by the senate to repair the two existing aqueducts, Appia and Anio, and to build a third, as the supply of water was insufficient. The completion of the Marcia required five years, and the water was successfully brought to the top of the Capitoline in 140 B.C. This was the first of the high-level aqueducts, its source being about 275 metres above Rome in the Sabine mountains. This source was two or three perhaps those known as the second and third Serena of a series of eight springs which extend along the north side of the Anio, between Arsoli and Agosta, at the base of monte della Prugna and near the thirty- sixth milestone of the via Valeria. The water of all these springs is remarkably clear and cold, and the water of the aqua Marcia was the best brought into Rome in antiquity. 3 The course of the Marcia can be traced from its source to Gallicano, as it winds down the hills, following the Anio to Tivoli, and then bending to the south, crossing the valleys on bridges and passing through the hills in tunnels. This part of its course is practically the same as that of the Anio vetus, the Claudia and the Anio novus. At one point a single bridge, 1 Cf., however, CR. 1902, 336. 2 OIL. vi. 1244-1251; PL NH. xxxvi. 121; Front, passim; Lanciani, Acque, 58-81, 86-102; Herschel, 150-162. 8Vitr. viii. 3. 1; PI. NH. xxxi. 41. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 95 the ponte Lupo, carries all four. From Gallicano the Marcia ran underground to the sixth milestone on the via Latina, and thence to the porta Praenestina on arches which continued to the porta Tiburtiua (porta S. Lorenzo), and to the distributing station on the Viminal. The later aqueducts, Julia and Tepula, ran on these same arches as far as the porta Tiburtina, above the specus of the Marcia, and the stretch between this gate and the porta Praenestina was afterward incorporated into the Aurelian wall. Where these arches began at Roma Vecchia, their ruins are still visible. Within the city the Marcia was carried in pipes from the Viminal to the Capitoline, and above ground to the Caelian. During the reign of Nero, a branch called the rivus Herculaneus l was built, which ran underground from the main aqueduct, a little south of the porta Tiburtina, across the Caelian to the porta Capena. 2 In the villa Wolkonsky some remains of an aqueduct have been found, consisting of tufa blocks pierced with a circular channel, which probably belonged to this branch. 3 This was extended by Trajan to the Aventine. In 212 A.D. Caracalla built another branch, the aqua Antoniniana, 4 nearly 7 kilometres long, from a point near the porta Furba (3 kilometres from the porta S. Giovanni), to carry water to his baths. This crossed the via Appia on the so-called arch of Drusus (p. 434), and near by are ruins of other arches. In 284 A.D. Diocletian restored the Marcia; and afterward the name lovia 5 was applied either to the whole aqueduct, or to the branch Antoniniana. Augustus increased the volume of water of the Marcia by building a short branch 6 from its head to another spring about 1200 metres farther from Eome. This additional supply was i Front. 19. Cf. also p. 101. 2 Cf. Juv. Hi. 11. BC. 1886, 406; 1888, 400; Mitt. 1889, 235. *Not., appendix, 1; OIL. vi. 1245; Lanciani, Acque, 103-106. 6 Lanciani, Acq ue, 106-107. 6 Mon. Anc. iv. 11. 96 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. for use in time of drought, and could be turned into the Claudia instead of the Marcia, if necessary. The total length of the Marcia was 91.3 kilometres. Its specus was under- ground from its source to the point where it emerged at Roma Vecchia, except at a few places where it was carried across valleys on arches. The Tepula 1 was built in 125 B.C. by the censors Cn. Ser- vilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus. It was fed by volcanic springs in the Alban hills between Frascati and Rocca di Papa, 2000 passus (2960 metres) west of the tenth milestone on the via Latina. These springs are now called the Sorgenti dell' Acqua Preziosa. Their temperature is about 63 Fahren- heit, hence the name Tepula. Until the building of the Julia, the Tepula flowed in its own channel, but its course is wholly unknown. The Julia 2 was built in 33 B.C. by Marcus Agrippa. Its source was 2000 passus (2960 metres) west of the twelfth mile- stone on the via Latina, 3 kilometres farther up the Alban hills toward Rocca di Papa than that of the Tepula. The springs are now called II Fontanile degli Squarciarelli di Grotta Ferrata. About 16 kilometres from the city, Agrippa caused the waters of the Tepula and Julia to unite in the pro- portion of one to three, and they flowed in one specus for nearly 7 kilometres. The resultant temperature of the mix- ture was about 53. At the sixth milestone this aqueduct was again divided into two channels, one having three times the capacity of the other, and so brought to the city. The point of division was close to the Marcia where it emerged from its subterranean specus, and all three aqueducts were conducted thence to the city on the same arches. The line may easily be traced, for the piers of the original arches now serve as f ounda- 1 Front. 8,9, 19, 68-69, and passim; Lanciani, Acque, 81-83, 86-98, 101-102; Herschel, 163-164. 2 Front. 9, 18-19, 69, 76, 83, and passim; Lanciani, Acque, 83-98, 102-103 ; Herschel, 164-170. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 97 tions for the acqua Felice, which was constructed in the six- teenth century. The length of the channel of the Tepula is estimated at 17.745 kilometres ; that of the Julia is stated to have been 15,426 passus (22.83 kilometres). Prom the porta Tiburtina, the Marcia and Tepula were car- ried to the main distributing station on the site of the present treasury building, with a branch leading off to another station near the porta Viminalis. The Julia branched off near the porta Tiburtina and was carried to the Esquiline, where in the piazza Vittorio Emanuele can still be seen the remains of the castellum built by Alexander Severus (p. 463). Some of the piers of this branch are still standing in the piazza Guglielmo Pepe, and the foundations of others have been found during excavations in the neighborhood. Most of those now standing measure 2.90 by 2.95 metres at the base. The Virgo l was built by Agrippa to supply his baths in the campus Martius, and was finished June 9, 19 B.C. Its source was several springs near the eighth milestone on the via Colla- tina, and near the present railroad station of Salone. It is said that the name Virgo was given to this aqueduct because its source was pointed out to the soldiers by a girl. As the springs were in a swampy region, their waters were first collected in a stone basin, part of which is still in existence. The course of the aqueduct was toward the porta Praenestina, like so many of the others; but about 1 kilometre from this gate, it bent sharply and ran north for some distance, entering the city under the villa Medici on the Pincian. The first piscina was just east of the piazza di Spagna. Thence it was conducted to the baths of Agrippa. The Virgo was restored by Claudius in 52 A.D. and is now in use, having been rebuilt by Pius V in 1570. At various points in the city portions of the original structure still remain, 2 as in the garden of the palazzo Castel- 1 Front. 10, 18, 22, 70, and passim ; PI. NH. xxxi. 42 ; xxxvi. 121 ; Dio Cass. liv. 11 ; OIL. vi. 1252-1254; Lanciani, Acque, 120-130 ; Herschel, 170-172. 2 SO. 1881, 61-67; 1883, 6-7, 51-32; Mitt. 1889, 269. 98 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. lani, at No. 12 via Nazareno (p. 480), and in the court of the palazzo Sciarra. The length of the Virgo was 14,105 passus (20.88 kilometres), of which 12,865 passus (19 kilometres) were underground. Of the part above ground, not quite half was on masonry substructures, and 700 passus (1036 metres) on arches, for the most part within the city limits. The Alsietina, 1 or Augusta, was built by Augustus about 10 A.D., to supply his naumachia (p. 513) on the right bank of the Tiber. Its source was the lacus Alsietinus, the modern lake Martignano, 33 kilometres from Rome. The water was worthless for drinking purposes, and was only so used in time of drought. No remains of this aqueduct have been found, with the possible exception of one inscription. 2 Its length was 22,172 passus (32.8 kilometres). The Claudia 3 was begun in 38 A.D. by Caligula, and finished in 52 by Claudius. This was the most magnificent of all Roman aqueducts, although not as long as the Anio novus or the Marcia. Its sources were three of the springs in the valley of the Anio, near those of the Marcia, and its course was down this valley to Tivoli, and round monte Bipoli to a point near Gallicano, following closely the line of the Anio vetus. Thence it skirted the hills to a point below Frascati, and crossed the Campagna to the distributing station ad Spem veterem. Domi- tian shortened the course by cutting a tunnel, 5 kilometres long, through monte Affliano. From the springs to the point (Le Capannelle) about 12 kilometres from Rome where the specus finally emerged, the channel was subterranean, except at vari- ous points in the mountains where it was carried across deep val- leys on arches. Where this subterranean specus ended, infra septimum miliarium, a small reservoir was erected, and from here the Claudia ran above ground for 1 kilometre on substruc- 1 Front. 11, 18, 22, 71, 83; Lanciani, Acque, 130-132; Herschel, 173-175. 2 Mitt. 1889, 289. 8 Front, passim ; OIL. vi. 1256-1259, 3866. Cf . Tac. Ann. xi. 13 ; xiv. 22 ; Lanciani, Acque, 133-137,144-162; Herschel, 175-183. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 99 tures, and for about 10 kilometres on the most magnificent arches to be found near Rome. They have an average span of 5.5 metres and a thickness at the crown of nearly 1 metre. The piers are about 2.4 metres thick in elevation, and the height of the whole structure, is more than 27 metres. The original construction of this aqueduct must have been very faulty, for after ten years it fell into disuse and was afterward restored by Vespasian, 1 and ten years later by Titus. For 300 metres south from the porta Praenestina, these arches were made a part of the Aurelian wall. From the castellum, 250 metres northwest of the porta Praenestina, the water of this aqueduct was distributed through- out the city in pipes. Nero built a branch specus from the angle near the porta Praenestina to the great buildings of Claudius on the Caelian. This branch was over 2 kilometres long, and was carried on arches, the arcus Oaelemontani or Neroniani, 2 some of which, as afterward restored, are among the finest specimens of brickwork in the city. These arches have a span of 7.75 metres, and the piers are 2.39 by 2.10 metres in thickness and 16 metres high. Domitian carried the water of the Claudia from the Caelian to the Palatine by means of a lead siphon 30 centimetres in diameter. This Severus replaced by a line of arches across the intervening valley, 43 metres high in the centre and 430 metres long, the ruins of which are still visible. The length of the Clau- dia was 46,406 passus (68.7 kilometres), 3 of which 53.6 kil- ometres were underground. Some ruins of the castellum of the Claudia and Anio novus have been found near the three arches of the railroad tracks. The Anio novus * was built at the same time as the Claudia. Its source was the river Anio at Subiaco, near the forty- l OIL. vi. 1257-1258. OIL. vi. 1259 ; Lanciani, Acque, 152-162. 8 Cf., however, GIL. vi. 1256 = 45,000 passus. 4 Front, passim; PL NH. xxxvi. 122; OIL. vi. 1256; ix. 4051; Lanciani, Acque, 138-162; Herschel, 183-184. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 101 second milestone on the via Sublacensis, but this water was frequently muddy and unfit to drink. A piscina limaria, or basin in which the mud might be deposited, was therefore built at the beginning of the aqueduct ; and four miles below this point, a small auxiliary stream, the rivus Hercu- laneus (cf. p. 95)," was admitted into the main specus. Tra- jan improved the quality of the water more effectively by FIG. 10. THE JUNCTION OF SEVEN AQUEDUCTS AT THE PORTA PRAENESTINA. drawing it from one of the three lakes above Subiaco, which Nero had constructed by building a dam across the Anio, close by his famous villa. The Anio novus paralleled the Claudia throughout its course to Le Capannelle, where both emerged from the ground. From here the Anio novus was carried on the Clau- dian arches above the specus of the Claudia to the castellum, where the water of the two was mixed before being dis- tributed. The length of its specus was 58,700 passus (86.8 102 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. kilometres), 49,300 passus (72.9 kilometres) being under- ground. The Traiana 1 was built by Trajan in 109 A:D., to supply region XIV, trans Tiberim, with drinking water, as the Alsietina was unfit for that purpose. Its sources were sev- eral springs lying to the north and west of the lacus Saba- tinus, the modern lake Bracciano, in the district between Oriolo Bassano and the lake. The water was collected at a point near Vicarello, where the aqueduct proper began. Its length from this point to Rome was 57.7 kilometres. The specus was wholly subterranean, and terminated on the Janiculum in a castellum, which is represented on coins 2 of Trajan. During the later empire it supplied motive power for mills 3 which were built on the slope of the hill. This aqueduct was injured in 537 A.D. by the Gothic general, Vitiges, restored by Belisarius, and afterward by several of the popes. In 1611 Paul V restored it again, increased its volume by admitting the water of lake Bracciano itself, and built the famous Fontana Paolina on the site of the original castellum. It is now called the acqua Paola. The Alexandrina 4 was built in 226 A.D. by Alexander Severus to supply his baths in the campus Martius. The springs which fed this aqueduct, and which partially supply the modern acqua Felice, are situated east of monte Falcone on the via Praenestina, between Gabii and lake Regillus, and about 20 kilometres from Rome. The total length of the channel was 22 kilometres. In 1585 Sixtus V built the acqua Felice in the same region and along nearly the same line. There are many remains of the original Alexandrina up to a point 3 kilometres from the city, but from there its course cannot be traced accurately. It is probable, however, that a piscina, the ruins of which have been found in what was * OIL. vl. 1260; Pol. Silv. 545-546; Lanciani, Acque, 162-168. 2 Cohen, Trai. 20-25. 8 p rO cop. Bell. Goth. i. 19. * Lamprid. Vit. Alex. 25; Pol. Silv. 545-546; Lanciani, Acque, 168-177. 1-1 rH tH s-.g-.aa O 3 TH 3 CO 1 * t-: o TH o ?^ a a OS t-. X X aa SM a a a N * * CO. CO a -d -a a .a .a' .a .a a 0.3 a 8 AM M AM AM ft 8 AM AM M . a .a AS- a ^a .a .a . s . a a a Q,.* A.M taM M ^M CkM ft.* AM AM M M s^ a a 853 S aaaaaaaa gj CO CO tj O TH asa aa .5 g | .s J^ H - j - s ga "s UI g 4S !! a s, oo a oo 13 s8 io .- S3-22 S | S -S.S .2 [103] a| si I a 3 2 ll * -E > ^ ** qj in * 5 ii * sij ,0 G ja 42 -- ^ *- s "-"_/. U c ^ II ^^ p, 3 fe OB -'? o c - ** m mm Us *|| J s 1 2^ 15^ ^rf-g 5 of " s 3 S^ -g-r f 104 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. formerly the vigna Conti, between the porta Maggiore and S. Croce in Gerusalemme, belonged to this aqueduct. According to measurements l taken in the seventeenth century, more than a third (9.7 kilometres) of its channel was above ground. Its ruins are to be seen in the valley of the acqua Bollicante on the via Praenestina. Of the other aqueducts 2 mentioned in the Regionary Cata- logue Annia, Attica, Herculea, Caerulea, Augustea, Ciminia, Aurelia, Damnata, and Severiana nothing certain is known, but they were probably branches, mostly outside the city, or else these names were corruptions of earlier forms, as Herculea for rivus He-rculaneus. Two others, Dotraciana and Drusia, 3 are mentioned elsewhere, and two, the Pinciana 4 and Conclusa, 3 occur in inscriptions. The estimates which are usually given of the amount of water supplied to Rome by these aqueducts have been very greatly exaggerated. 6 They are based upon statements of Frontinus, but these involve many unknown factors, and there is no way of determining the value of his unit, the quinaria, with anything like exactness. The Sewers. The sewerage system 7 of Rome conformed to the natural lines of drainage, and fell therefore into three divisions. The northern division comprised the campus Martius, the Pincian, and the north and west slopes of the Quirinal and the Capitoline. The principal stream of this section, the Petronia amnis (p. 19), and other less important water courses, came down from the hills and emptied into the 1 Lanciani, Acque, 176. 2 Jordan, I. 1. 479-480; II. 223-225; Gilbert, III. 277; Richter, Top* 381. a Pol. Silv. 545-546. 4 OIL. xv. 7259; Lanciani, Acque, 225 n. 5 BC. 1880, 55. 6 Cf . Herschel, 200-215; and Morgan, Water Supply of Ancient Rome, Transactions of Am. Phil. Assoc. 1902, 30-37, and literature there cited. 7 Narducci, Sulla Fognatura, delta Citta di Roma, Rome, 1889; Borsari, Topoyrafia di Roma Antica, 90-96; Jordan, I. 1. 441^52; Gilbert, II. 410-415. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 105 swamps of the campus. The central division comprised the south and east slopes of the Capitoline and Quirinal, the Vimi- nal, the north and west slopes of the Palatine, the Forum, and the Velabrum, a section drained by the brook (p. 18) which came down through the Subuva. The third division comprised the southern part of the city, drained mainly by the streams on either side of the Caelian, which united at the east end of the vallis Murcia, In each of these divisions there was prob- ably one principal collecting sewer, into which others emptied. There is no doubt that the earliest attempts at artificial drainage date from the regal period. The first part of the city to be drained was the Forum valley, and later, as the city grew in that direction, the Subura and the slopes of the Quiri- nal, the Viminal, and the Esquiline. The system was devel- oped with considerable rapidity, and the statement made by Livy, that after the invasion of the Gauls the city was rebuilt so as not to interfere with the existing sewers, is probably true. After the censorship of Appius Claudius and the build- ing of the first aqueduct, renewed activity was displayed in the construction of sewers, and almost none of the existing remains are of earlier date. The rapid growth in population during the first two cen- turies of the empire, the construction of the great baths and new aqueducts, together with the countless small baths and public fountains, and such enormous buildings as the Colosseum and Circus Maximus, necessitated a corresponding increase in the provision for drainage. The system became so elaborate that the city was called urbs pensilis subterque navigata. 1 Re- mains 2 of this great system have been found everywhere throughout the cit-y. In some cases the old channels have been worked into the modern sewers, and in a few cases the old sewers themselves are in actual use. It is out of the ques- tion here to do more than speak briefly of the matter. i PI. NH. xxxvi. 104. Gilbert, III. 291-292 ; Narducci, op. cit. passim. 106 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. The earliest Roman sewer consisted undoubtedly of a natural watercourse, the channel of which was widened and deepened. Later the banks were walled up and the bed of the stream paved, and then the channel was sometimes covered. At a still later period, many sewers were built which did not follow a stream. The dates of the successive steps in construction varied in the case of different sewers. The earliest remains show that the roof was not vaulted, but consisted of flat stones placed on walls which gradually approached each other as they rose. The vaulted roof was probably not used before the fourth century B.C. Existing remains of Roman sewers exhibit two distinct types of construction, those of the republican period being built of opus quadratuin of tufa or peperino, with or without a vaulted roof, and those of the imperial period being built of concrete lined with tiles, and with a gable roof formed of large tiles. Various remains of republican sewers have been found in the campus Martius, all of which appear to have emptied into the main collecting sewer, 1 which has been discovered between the piazzetta Mattei and the Tiber. This is a distance of about 450 metres, and the course of the sewer is a little west of south. The construction points to the same time as that of the circus Flaminius, where this sewer is formed by the union of smaller branches. It is highly probable, therefore, that when the city had extended to this point, a large part of the drainage from the district to the north and east which had flowed into the palus Caprae (p. 19) and thence into the Tiber was provided for by the construction of this system of sewers. The collecting sewer empties into the river opposite the west end of the island, but its mouth was destroyed at the beginning of the last century. Beneath the piazzetta Mattei it is built of peperino with a vaulted roof, and is 3.21 metres high, 1.40 in width, and 9.27 below the street level. Other i Narducci, op. cit. 36-37. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 107 remains of republican sewers have been found in the Corso near S. Carlo and in the via del Seraiuario. Remains of the sewers built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian have been discovered round the Torre Argentina and the Pantheon, those of the Antonines in the piazza di Pietra, and some of a later date round the baths of Diocletian. The main sewer of the south section of the city began in the valley of the Colosseum, following a stream, perhaps the Nodinus, 1 and, passing through the valley between the Pala- tine and the Caelian, united with the Marrana (p. 18). This brook, which had flowed in an irregular course through the Circus Maximus, was converted into a straight sewer, which turned sharply to the left at the west end of the circus and emptied into the Tiber about 50 metres below the Cloaca Maxima. Its channel 2 has been found at various points, especially at the west end of the circus at the corner of the via della Salara and the via della Greca, in the piazza and via di S. Gregorio, and under the arch of Constantine. In the via della Greca the specus of the sewer is 10. 50 metres below the present level. It is built of tufa and vaulted, is 3.40 metres in height, and into it open two smaller sewers, one 1.10 metres and the other 0.86 metre in height, dating from the third century B.C. At a depth of 2.89 metres beneath the modern pavement of the via di S. Gregorio is the pave- ment of an ancient street of the later empire (p. 322), and about 5 metres below this is a much earlier street. Just beneath the pavement of this lower street is the top of the channel of this sewer, which near the arch of Constantine is 1.80 metres high and 1.40 wide, with a vaulted tufa roof (Fig. 67). The Cloaca Maxima. According to tradition, 3 this sewer was constructed by Tarquinius Superbus to drain the Forum. Beginning in the Argiletum, where it collected the waters of 1 Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 52. 2 Narducci, op. cit. 61-63; BC. 1892, 279-282. * Liv. i. 38, 56 ; Dionys. iii. 67. 108 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal, it flowed through the Forum and the Velabrum to the Tiber. The upper part was the line of a natural watercourse, probably the Spinon, and it is undoubtedly true that the first regulation of its flow, and perhaps the protection of its banks by walls, dated from the regal period. Of the existing sewer, however, the oldest part is not earlier than the third cen- tury B.C., while some of it consists of restorations of imperial times. Its earlier form, therefore, is only a mat- ter of conjecture. The Cloaca Maxima J proper ap- pears to have begun at a point near the northwest corner of the forum of Augustus, in the via di Torre dei Conti. Its extreme crookedness is explained principally by the fact that it represents the natural course of the stream ; but at some points, its line seems to have been changed during the empire, on account of the erection of buildings. This apparent condi- tion is sometimes very perplexing. For instance, the bend in the cloaca in the via della Croce Bianca seems to have been necessitated by the erec- tion of the temple of Minerva (p. 283), not earlier than 90 A.D., and yet this 1 Narducci, op. cit. 39-49; Antike Denk- maler, i. 25-28, pi. 37; BC. 1890, 95-102; Mitt. 1891, 86-88. AQUEDUCTS AND SEWERS. 109 portion of the work seems to be earlier than the part nearer the Forum. This whole section, from the beginning to the Forum, is about 200 metres long, and exhibits two forms of construction. From the beginning to the via Alessandrina, it is built entirely of blocks of peperino, laid without mor- tar, vaulted, and paved with pentagonal blocks of lava, the characteristic style of the republican cloaca. Between the via Alessandrina and the Forum, the side walls of the sewer are of peperino, but the roof is of brick-faced concrete. The specus is here 4.20 metres high and 3.20 wide. Eight smaller sewers empty into this section of the Cloaca Maxima, and near its beginning the main sewer from the Quirinal flowed into it from the north. Between the Forum 1 and the river, the best view of the sewer can be had near the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro. The larger part of this section belongs to the republican period, with restorations of later times. The mouth of the sewer, 4.50 metres wide and 3.30 high, is close to the round temple (p. 401) in the forum Boarium. 1 For a description of the Cloaca Maxima within the limits of the Forum, see p. 271. CHAPTER VII. "WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. The Walls of the Palatine. Current views in regard to the early fortifications of Rome have been considerably modified in recent years, and of the existing remains of walls only a very small part, if any, can be assigned to the regal period. Probably the oldest fragment now visible on the Palatine is at the southwest corner of the hill (Jc, Fig. 17) where two small sections of opus quadratum, one of seven courses and one of four, are in situ. The stone is a gray-green tufa, known as cappellaccio, and the blocks vary in size somewhat, those in one section measuring 0.60-0.77 metre in length, 0.25-0.27 in height, and 0.25-0.40 in depth, while those in the other sec- tion measure only 0.35 metre in length, and 0.30 in height. The finish is not perfect, and no mortar or cement is employed. Two courses of stretchers appear to alternate with one of headers. This wall has been assigned by some * to the pre- Servian period ; by others 2 to the end of the regal period, as it corresponds so closely to the masonry in the foundations of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline (p. 297) that were un- doubtedly laid by the last Tarquin ; and by still others 3 to a somewhat later date in the fifth century B.C. In any case it seems most reasonable to suppose that this was, if not the original, at least a restoration of the original Palatine wall, after this had passed the earliest stage of a mere tampart of earth. The method of construction employed in this, as well i Jordan, I. 3. 37. a Delbruck, Der Apollotempel aufdem Marsfeld, Rome, 1903, 13-14. Mon. d. Lincei, xv. 787-788. 110 WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. Ill as in the later walls, is that ordinarily found in central Italy at the same period. At about two-thirds of the distance from base to summit, an artificial shelf was cut into the slope, and the cliff above scarped off. On this ledge, and backing against the cliff, the wall was erected, usually projecting high enough above the summit to form a breastwork. Where the cliff was quite vertical, nothing more than a breastwork was needed. Outside of this earlier wall, at a distance of 0.75 metre, and covering it completely, was a later wall, of which some re- mains exist at various points on the south and west sides of the hill. The material of this wall is a friable brown tufa, quarried on the spot, and cut into blocks about two Roman feet in height and width (0.59-0.60 metre), and from 1 to 1.5 metres in length. On these blocks are masons' marks, and the workmanship is much more careful than in the earlier wall. When the slopes of the Palatine were built over in later times with the enormous substructures of the imperial palace above, and with rows of barracks and storerooms, the wall itself was either destroyed or covered up. It was evidently built to re- place the earlier wall when stronger fortifications were needed. Its structure corresponds very closely to that of the later Ser- vian wall (see below), and it seems to belong to the same gen- eral period, either that immediately following the Gallic invasion, or a somewhat earlier date in the fifth century. The latter is the more probable, for after 390 B.C., when the magnifi- cent structure of the city wall was in process of being com- pleted, it is difficult to understand why the Palatine should have been so strongly fortified. Gates. As Etruscan ritual required (p. 37), three gates gave access to the Palatine city, the porta Mugonia or Cattle- gate, which stood near the arch of Titus, but of which it is im- possible to indicate the exact site ; the porta Komanula (pp. 37, 38) on the west side of the hill, probably where the clivus Victoriae began its ascent to the Nova via ; and a third, un- 112 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. known by name, which was probably on the southern side, in connection with the approach to the hill by the scalae Caci. These gates undoubtedly maintained their original position as long as the walls themselves, but all traces of them have been completely obliterated. The Wall of Servius. 1 During' the last sixty years, con- siderable portions of this great fortification have been dis- covered, and then destroyed. Especially was this the case during the vast improvements carried on in the eastern quar- ter of the city, when almost the whole line of the agger was uncovered. Of the wall of this agger, the largest portions still standing are in the yard of the freight station and in the piazza Fanti. Of the rest of the wall, the most extensive remains are on the Aventine. In different parts of the city different methods of construc- tion were followed, which depended largely upon the nature of the ground traversed. Where the wall followed the slopes of the hills, as it did for most of the distance except between the porta Collina and the porta Esquilina and along the bank of the Tiber, the method was similar to that of the Palatine wall just described. On a ledge cut in the slope, and against the scarped side of the hill, are laid blocks of brown tufa in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, a method known to the Romans as emplecton, without mortar. The edges of the stone are carefully worked, and the blocks are very regular, measuring about 1.50 metres in length, by 0.62 in width, and from 0.55 to 0.59 in height. The thickness of the wall varies from 2 to 3.5 metres. This is illustrated (Fig. 12) in the ruins 2 in the via di porta S. Paolo on the Aventine, where, however, the existing arch has nothing to do with the original wall. This same kind of masonry is also employed in the outer wall 1 See p. 45, Note 2. 2 Ann. d. 1st. 1871, 81 ff. ; Mon. d. 1st. 1871, 11 j Merlin, L'Aventin, 116, 130. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 113 of the agger, and is the most characteristic of the whole forti- fication in its final shape. A second kind of masonry, which has been found at various FIG. 12. THE WALL OF SERVIUS, WITH LATE ADDITIONS. points along the northwest slope of the Quirinal, is illustrated by a section (Fig. 13) excavated in 1909 at the head of the via delle Finanze. 1 This section is 35 metres long, and of varying 1 NS. 1907, 504-510; 1908, 348, 382; 1909, 221-222; EC. 1909, 119-121. 114 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. height, from nine to seventeen courses being preserved. The wall is built in a somewhat irregular emplecton, of blocks of gray-green tufa, 0.55-0.60 metre wide, 0.20-0.27 high, and FIG. 13. THE WALL OF SERVIUS. 0.80-0.90 long. It stands on the native rock, and the lower courses, which were covered up, are roiighly bossed, while those above are carefully finished. The upper courses are also laid with a slight batter. Against the back of this wall was an embankment, and perhaps an inner retaining wall. Where there was an embankment of any sort behind the outer wall, the style of fortification approximated slightly to that employed on the eastern side of the city, between the porta Collina and the porta Esquilina, where the line of the wall crossed the plateau. This was a combination of trench, embankment, and wall, and was called an agger. A very large part of this agger was discovered l in the years 1876-1879, and l BC. 1874, 199-202; 1876, 129-133, 171-172. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 115 destroyed during the building of the railroad station and the laying out of the new quarters on the Esquiline and Virai- nal. The description of Dionysius * was borne out by these excavations. A trench was dug, 30 Roman feet deep and 100 wide, and the earth, thrown up on the inside, formed an embankment of corresponding magnitude, the agger proper. A supporting wall of opus quadratum was then built from the bottom of the trench to the top of this agger, and a second but lower wall on the inside. A paved road ran round the city, just within this inner wall, and also one on the outer edge of the trench. The average thickness of the main wall was about 3.7 metres, that of the wall and the agger together upwards of 15 metres, and the total length about 1300 metres. The best preserved remains of the walls of this agger are in the freight yard of the railroad station, although all traces of the agger itself have disappeared. The quter wall is the char- acteristic opus quadratum of brown tufa. 2 Fifteen metres be- hind it are the remains of the inner retaining wall, consisting of ten courses of gray-green tufa, cut in blocks measuring 0.27-0.30 by 0.60 by 0.75-0.90 metre when laid in stretchers, and somewhat less in length when laid as headers. This inner wall is very similar to that used as an outer wall in the section on the Quirinal just described. Neither the inner nor outer walls were integral parts of the original agger. What method, if any, the Romans adopted in early times to protect the bank of the river between the ends of the Servian wall, we do not know. Many fragments have been found of an embankment of peperino, about 8 metres in height, divided into two parts by a landing-step about 3 metres wide and 3 metres above low-water mark. This embankment may have replaced an earlier parapet of some sort. Servius Tullius is credited by tradition with having sur- rounded Rome with a wall, and this system of fortification has 1 ix. 68. 2 Delbriick, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfeld, 14-16. 116 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. always been called by his name, but in the course of recent in- vestigation it has become clear that, in its final shape at least, it is much later than the regal period. 1 In regard to the rela- tive age of the different parts of the wall, it is generally agreed that the characteristic opus quadratum of brown tufa is later than that of smaller blocks of gray tufa, which in its turn is probably later than the agger proper. In regard to the question of absolute age, there is also a gen- eral agreement that the masonry of brown tufa, as it is laid up in the existing remains, is not older than the fourth century B.C. This conclusion is based principally on the character of the workmanship, the presence of masons' marks, and the date of similar construction in Rome and other Latin towns. Attempts have also been made 2 to draw evidence for the date of the work from the height of the blocks, some of which measure 0.59 metre or 2 Roman feet on the scale of the Attic- Roman foot (0.296 metre), and others 0.55-56 metre or 2 feet on the scale of the earlier Italic foot (0.278 metre), but these attempts cannot be regarded as conclusive in either direction. So far as there is any evidence, the gray tufa wall might be dated anywhere in the fifth century B.C. or in the early part of the fourth, and there is no valid reason why the agger itself should not be as early as the sixth. Those who believe in the reality of a Servian city (p. 45) with some kind of a wall, as- sume that this original fortification was rebuilt from time to time, and that some of the existing gray tufa, and perhaps the brown also, belonged to the fifth century work, but that, as a result of the Gallic invasion, the whole structure was enor- mously enlarged and strengthened, the original line being for the most part preserved. To this reconstruction the later ma- * Richter, Ueber antike Steinmetzzeichen, 39-42; B RT. 1. 15-17 ; Top* 43; Delbriick, loc. cit. ; Pinza, Mon. d. Lincei, xv. 746-754. 2 Richter, BRT. 1. 15-17 ; Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1908, 1421-1422 ; Arch. Am. 1908, 442-443. Cf. Hermes, 1886, 411-423; 1887, 17-27, 79-85; Richter, Top .2 43. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 117 sonry belongs, and to it such passages in literature as that in Livy 1 in regard to the work of 379 B.C. refer. On the other hand, those who believe that there was no per- manent wall round the whole city before the Gallic invasion, assign the construction of the whole so-called Servian wall to the fourth century B.C. and to the early part of the third, and date even the agger and earliest tufa to the beginning of that period. As stated already (p. 45) the first seems the more reasonable view. Gates. Under the palazzo Antonelli in the via Nazionale is a gate, 2 consisting of a single archway, 1.9 metres wide, which may have been a sort of postern in the so-called Servian wall, and just where this wall crossed the via Appia, the recent construction of the Zona Monumentale has again brought to light remains of opus quadratum which are quite probably part of the famous porta Oapena. No traces of any other gates have been found. The Wall of Aurelian. This wall, 3 after having been largely rebuilt by Honorius and having been restored many times dur- ing the intervening centuries, is still the wall of the modern city, although at present little attempt is made to keep it in repair. It was built on a strip of land 19 metres wide, and was so placed that the part inside was 5 metres wide, and that outside 10, thus providing space for two roads round a large part of the circumference of the city. Aurelian incorporated into this line of fortification certain structures already exist- ing, like the supporting wall of the horti Aciliorum round the Pincian, the castra Praetoria, the arches of the Julia, Marcia, Tepula, Claudia, and Anio novus aqueducts, and the amphi- * vi. 31. 1. 2 BC. 1876, 35-36, 123-124; 1887, 52-56; RhM. 1894, 411. 8 BC. 1892, 87-111. For a study of the stamped bricks nsed in this wall, see Supplementary Papers of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, i. 1-86. 118 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. theatrum Castrense, and was thereby spared the labor and ex- pense of constructing anew about one-sixth of the entire circuit. These existing structures were rendered serviceable 1 by the addition of battlements, loopholes, and similar members, while the new wall itself was of two sorts, the quay wall and the FIG. 14. THE WALL OF AURELIAN, NEAR THE SESSORIUM. wall with an inner gallery. Of the original quay wall noth- ing remains ; but Procopius says that it was low and difficult to defend. All the new wall on the east side of the Tiber was built of l EC. 1886, 341; 1892, 104-105. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 119 brick-faced concrete, 3.50 to 4 metres in thickness. The height varied from 8 to nearly 16 metres, according to the configura- tion of the ground. Where the wall was built on a slope, the height outside was often much greater than that inside. At a height of from 2.5 to 3 metres above ground, inside, a gallery Fia. 15. THE WALL OF AURELIAN, NEAR THE PORTA PINCIANA. or passage for the soldiers ran through the entire length of the wall, which opened inward by a series of high arches, six be- tween each pair of towers. The thick curtain wall between this passage and the outside was pierced with narrow slits through which missiles could be thrown. The top of the wall was protected by battlements, propugnacula, of which nothing 120 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. remains. At intervals of about 29 to 30 metres square towers were built, which projected about 4 metres from the outer face of the wall and rose to a considerable height above the battle- ments. In these towers were rooms, 3.20 metres in breadth, the lowest of which was usually on the same level as the gal- lery, of which it formed, iu each case, a part. The outer walls of these rooms were pierced by loopholes. The upper rooms, on the level of the top of the wall, contained five embrasures, three in front and one on each side, thus commanding the wall between each tower and the next. A survey of this wall, the so-called Descriptio Murorum (p. 8), made in 403 A.D. after the restoration by Honorius, gives the number of these towers as three hundred and eighty -one, of which only one, the sixth to the left of the porta Salaria, is still wholly intact. The massive Bastione del Sangallo, a short distance west of the porta S. Sebastian o, was built about the middle of the sixteenth century, when 400 metres of the Au- relian wall were removed to make room for it. Gates. The gates 1 in the Aurelian wall, beginning at the north, were the Flaminia, Pinciana, Salaria, Nomentana, an unnamed gate just south of the castra Praetoria, the Tiburtina, Praenestina, Asinaria, Metrovia, Latina, Appia, Ardeatina, Os- tiensis, Portuensis, Aurelia, and Septimiana. Of these original gates the following have been destroyed at various dates : the Flaminia 2 in 1561, replaced by the modern porta del Popolo; the Salaria in 1871, replaced by the present gate of the same name; the Ardeatina 3 in 1539, to make way for the Bastione del Sangallo; the Portuensis 4 in 1643, when the city limits were moved 500 metres farther north ; the Amelia 5 in 1643, replaced 1 Jordan, I. 1. 353-383. 2 BC. 1877, 207-213; 1880, 169-182; 1881, 174-188. 8 Mitt. 1894, 320-327. * OIL. vi. 1190. 5 A second porta Aurelia (Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 19) , identical with the porta S. Petri of the Descriptio Murorum, and also called porta Cornelia, is placed by some in the quay wall at the east end of the pons Aelius, and by others in WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 121 by the present porta S. Pancrazio ; and the Septimiana * in 1498, when the present porta Septimiana was built. There was probably a gate at or near the point where the Marrana flowed under the wall, and an archway in the angle of the wall at this place is usually identified with the porta Metrovia. The porta Nomentana was closed in 1562 ; the gate just south of the castra Praetoria some time before the ninth century ; and the Asinaria about 1574. The porta Latina, after having been closed since 1827, has just been opened again. The Nomentana and Asinaria are very much alike in construc- tion, both consisting of a central arch, flanked by semicircular towers, and dating from the restoration by Honorius. Only one of the towers of the Nomentana remains standing. The porta Latina 2 is also of the same form, but the central arch is of travertine and the towers stand upon octagonal bases. Over the archway is a row of five windows, and the keystone is orna- mented with the monogram of Christ. The gate dates from Honorius, but additions were made to it in Byzantine times. Four other ancient gates are still in use, the Tiburtina, Praenestina, Appia, and Ostiensis, and one postern (posterula), the modern porta Pinciana. The Tiburtina, the modern porta S. Lorenzo, spans the via Tiburtiua. Its central arch is built of travertine, and over it is a row of six windows. The arch was flanked by two square towers, but one of them was removed by Pius IX in 1869. The towers and arch are the work of Honorius, 3 but the foundations of the towers may belong to the time of Aurelian. Just inside this gate is a second arch, carry- ing the specus of the three aqueducts, Marcia, Tepula, and Julia, which entered the city here. This arch, built by Au- gustus,* is much injured; and even in the fourth century the the fortifications of the mausoleum of Hadrian on the right bank of the river. See Tomassetti, La Campagna, ii. 473; Jordan, I. 1. 375-377; II. 166, 580; Richter, Top 2 . 72 ; Hiilsen, Romae veteris tabula. 1 Spart. Vit. Sev. 19. a PBS. iv. 13. OIL. vi. 1188. < OIL. vi. 12M. 122 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. contour of the ground had been so changed at this point that the bases of the towers of the gate of Aurelian are almost on a level with the spring of the arch of the aqueducts. The porta Praenestina, the modern porta Maggiore, is a double arch of the aqueducts Anio novus and Claudia (p. 99), built by Claudius over the via Praenestina and the via Labicana, FIG. 16. PORTA PRAENESTINA (MAGGIORE). and afterwards incorporated in the wall of Aurelian. It is 32 metres wide and 24 high, and built of travertine, with two principal archways, each 14 metres high and 6.35 wide, and three small gateways, between and on each side of the larger. The piers on each side of the arches have niches with engaged Corinthian columns and an entablature. On the attic, which has three compartments, are three inscriptions, 1 one by l CIL. vi. 1256-1258; Melanges, 1906, 305-318. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 123 Claiidius, and the other two commemorating restorations by Vespasian and Titus. The via Praenestina passed through the north gateway, and the via Labicana through the south. This latter was walled up by Honorius, and a tower erected on each side of the other passage. These towers stood until 1838, and beneath one of them the tomb of Eurysaces (p. 474) was found. The porta Appia, the modern porta S. Sebastiano, consists of an arch of marble, built of blocks taken from some other edifice, perhaps the temple of Mars (p. 432). On each side of the arch are semicircular towers standing on double square bases, the lower one of which is of marble. In the towers are three rows of windows, and over the arch two rows of five win- dows each. On the keystone is the monogram of Christ, with Greek inscriptions. Above the towers and arch are crenelated battlements. The porta Ostiensis, the modern porta S. Paolo, as built originally by Aurelian, was double ; 1 that is, there were two passages, one on each side of the pyramid of Cestius (p. 420), through which passages the two roads that from the porta Trigemina and the vicus Piscinae Publicae passed before uniting. Honorius closed up the gate on the west of the pyramid, and remodelled the other, making it double by erect- ing outside the existing passage the present arch of travertine, with five windows above and a semicular tower on each side. The whole gate is surmounted by crenelated battlements. The porta Pinciana, originally not a porta, but a posterula* enlarged and rebuilt at a later date, perhaps by Honorius, con- sists of an arch of travertine, flanked by two semicircular towers, of which the bases only are of travertine. The threshold of the gate is formed of slabs of travertine, taken from some earlier building, on one of which is a fragmentary inscription. i Mon. d. Lincei, i. 511-513. / * BC. 1892, 102. 124 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Roads. As early as the fourth century B.C., the Romans began to carry out their policy of connecting the different parts of Italy with the capital by means of a system of great roads, or viae. Some of these lines of communication had already existed for a long time, as, for instance, the early road into the Sabine territory, by which the salt trade was carried on, which afterwards became the via Salaria ; but the actual building of stone highways began in the censor- ship of Appius Claudius. These roads were regarded as beginning at the gates in the Servian wall, and gates in the Aurelian wall were afterwards built where the roads crossed its line. The ordinary pavement of these roads consisted of polygonal blocks of lava, of which a stream had flowed down from the Alban hills to Avithin 5 kilometres of the city. These blocks were usually set on a foundation composed of three strata : first, a layer of broken stone (statumen *) ; second, a layer of smaller stones mixed with lime in the proportion of three to one (rudus) ; and third, a layer of cement (nucleus). Where the bed rock was close to the surface of the ground, the statu- men was dispensed with, and on marshy soil it was replaced with piles. The width of these roads varied from 3 to 5 metres, and sometimes, as in the via Appia, there were paved sidewalks on each side of the road itself. This pavement is practi- cally indestructible, and therefore, except where it has been intentionally removed or built over, it exists to a greater or less extent along all the roads, so that their line can usually be determined. In general, the ancient level in Rome and the immediate vicinity was lower than the present, and the old pavement is buried beneath modern streets or buildings. i Cf. Vitr. vii. 1. 5-7; Stat. Silv. iv. 3. 1-43, 40^53. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 125 The principal roads l leading out of Rome at the time when the Aurelian wall was built, were the following: (1) The via Flaminia leading to Ariminum, was built by C. Flaminius, 2 consul in 223 B.C. It began at the porta Fontinalis and ran north by east through the porta Flaminia. The first part of this road, fiom the Capitol to the portions Agrippae, was called the via Lata, and corresponded with the modern Corso. The ancient pavement has been found both within and without the wall. (2) The via Salaria led into the territory of the Sabines, and derived its name from the salt trade. The earliest road, the via Salaria vetus, probably left the city by one of the gates on the Quirinal, the porta Salutaris or the porta Quirinalis, and crossed the line of the Aurelian wall at the porta Pinciana, but it seems to have lost its importance and to have been displaced in ordinary use during the republic by the via Salaria nova, which began at the porta Collina and, passing through the porta Salaria, joined the old road northeast of the city. The line of the Salaria vetus is marked by the modern via di porta Pinciana, and that of the Salaria nova by the present via di porta Salaria, the pavement of both having been found within and without the city. (3) The via Nomentana extended to Komentum in the Sabine territory. It began at the porta Collina, and bending a little to the south of the present via Venti Settembre, passed through the Aurelian wall by the porta Nomentana, and crossed the line of the modern via Nomentana about 450 metres beyond 1 Jordan, II. 230-236. For a complete description of the Salaria, Nomen- tana, and Tiburtina, beyond the city, see T. Ashby, Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna, PBS. iii. 1-212 ; of the Praenestina, Labicana, and Collatina, i. 127-285 ; of the Latina, iv. 3-158 ; v. 215-432. For the Appia, see Ripostelli et Marucchi, La Via Appia, 2d ed., Rome, 1908; Tomassetti, La Campagna Romana, Rome, 1910, ii. HOT ; for the Ardeatina, ib. 409-461 ; for the Aurelia, ib. 463-547. 2 Liv. Epit. xx. 126 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT HOME. the porta Pia. The ancient pavement exists both inside and outside of this gate. (4) The via Tiburtina, earlier called the via Gabina, probably began at the porta Esquilina and ran through the porta Tibur- tina to Tibur. Outside the wall, its course corresponds closely with the modern via di S. Lorenzo, but inside the city it has been entirely built over. (5) The via Praenestina also began at the porta Esquilina, and ran southeast to Praeneste, passing through the porta Praenestina. Within the city its pavement has been found to coincide closely with the line of the via di Principe Umberto and via di porta Maggiore, and it also exists outside the city. (6) The via Labicana, extending to the town of Labicum, branched off to the south from the via Praenestina just inside the porta Praenestina, and its course is easily traced by the pavement. (7) The via Asinaria began at the porta Caelemontana and ran southeast through the porta Asinaria. It appears to have coincided for a short distance outside the wall with the modern via Appia nuova. About a quarter of a mile from the porta Asinaria, the pavement of an ancient road branches off to the north. This may have been the via Tusculana. (8) The via Latina branched off to the east from the via Appia, about half a mile south of the porta Capena, and joined it again at Casilinum. It passed through the Aurelian wall by the porta Latina, its-course within the wall coinciding with the via di porta Latina, where the ancient pavement still exists. (9) The via Appia 1 was built in 312 B.C. by the censor Appius Claudius. This was the oldest and most famous of Eonian roads, connecting the capital with Capua and southern' Italy. It passed through the Servian wall by the porta Capena, and through the wall of Aurelian by the porta Appia. Between i Liv. ix. 29; Stat. Silv. iv. 3. 1-3, 40-55 ; ii. 2. 12. WALLS, GATES, AND ROADS. 127 these gates the old road is a little to the north of the via di porta S. Sebastiano, but its course is distinctly marked. Out- side the city the road is still in use, and the ancient pavement exists, though in a fragmentary condition, for many miles, especially beyond the tomb of Caecilia Metella. (10) The via Ardeatina, 1 extending to Ardea, branched off to the south from the vicus Piscinae Publicae, crossed the Aven- tine between S. Balbina and S. Saba, and passed through the porta Naevia of the Servian wall and the Porta Ardeatina. (11) The via Ostiensis was the great highway from Rome to the seacoast at Ostia. It is a matter of dispute just where the road began to bear this name. The road which passed through the porta Trigemina skirted the west and south slopes of the Aventine, and united with the vicus Piscinae Publicae, which crossed the Aventine just beyond the pyramid of Cestius. This condition of things lasted until the time of Honorius, who caused the two roads to unite within the wall of Aurelian and to pass out through one gate, the porta Ostiensis. Whether or not the whole stretch of road from the Porta Trigemina was called via Ostiensis is uncertain. The ancient pavement exists along the line of the modern via della Marmorata, and outside the gate in the via di S. Paolo. (12) The via Portuensis ran down the right bank of the Tiber to Portus Augusti. This road began at the pons Aemilius and extended southwest through the porta Portuensis. Its ancient pavement exists within the city, in the via di S. Cecilia and via di S. Michele, and also south of the wall, but here it does not correspond with any modern road. (13) The via Aurelia 2 led west and north to the coast towns of Etruria. The Aurelia vetus began at the pons Aemilius, ascended the Janiculum, and crossed the line of the later Aurelian wall at the porta Aurelia. Its pavement has been 1 BC. 1876, 144-146; Mitt. 1894, 318-327. 2 Tomassetti, La Campagna, ii. 463 ff. ; Jordan, I. 1. 378-380; II. 235. 128 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. found within the city, but it does not correspond with any modern street. Outside the gate it follows quite closely the strada Tiradiavoli. In the second century there was a via Aurelia nova, which probably coincided with the via Cornelia for a short distance, and then branched off to the left and joined the Aurelia vetus at some distance west of the city. (14) The via Cornelia ran directly west from the pons Aelius, and then northwest into southern Etruria. Its pavement exists beneath the piazza and church of St. Peter's, but the name Aurelia nova seems to have gradually displaced Cornelia as the designation of this part of the road. (15) The via Triumphalis 1 as it appears to have been called after the third century at least began at the pons Neroni- anus, and ran northwest, crossing the via Cornelia. After the destruction of the pons Neronianus, this road really began at the via Cornelia. Its pavement has been found between the Borgo and the piazza del Bisorgimento, but does not correspond with any modern street. (16) At the porta Tiburtina an ancient road branched off to the south, called the via Oollatina, which coincided for a short distance with the modern vicolo Malabarba. It ran east to Collatia, and was of little importance except for local traffic. It is not mentioned in the Eegionary Catalogue among the twenty-eight viae. Of these, besides those already described, the via laniculensis is unknown, and the rest were branch roads at greater or less distances from the city. 1 For another explanation of this name, see BC. 1908, 125-150. rig.17 THE PALATINE METRES 6 25 IS) 7? 100 \Still unexcauaterf or built ouer Probable approximate site of the I'orta Ro- manula. Ancient stairway (Scalae Caci). Karly cisterns and later masonry. Temple of Magna Mater. Temple of luppiter Stator. Temple of Apollo (Pinza), or of luppiter Vic- tor (Hulsen). Augusteum. Foundations built over in medieval times. Altar to unknown deity. House.of Livia (Germanicus) or of Augustus. . = Substructures of first and second cen- turies. Kxedra of Hadrian. Paedagogium. Domus Gelotiana (?). Temple and Portions of Apollo (Hulsen), or site of Adonaea. Crypto portions. Foundations of Domus Augustana. Additions of Hadrian's time. Ancient cistern. Remains of structures built against the slope of the Palatine. Remains of early walls. Remains of earliest walls. in = Probable site of the temple of Victoria. n = Probable site of Lupercal. o = Lacus luturnae. = Hecent excavations (1907). x = Foundations of structure of Augustan (?) period. So-called Bibliotheca and Academia. CHAPTER VIII. THE PALATINE HILL. The Palatine Hill (p. 32) is an irregular quadrilateral in shape, and about 2 .kilometres in circuit. Its highest point is 43 metres above the Tiber level. A depression, crossing the hill in a northeast to southwest direction, which was filled up or vaulted over during the first century of the empire, divided it into two parts, the Cermalus on the west and the Palatium proper on the southeast ; but the latter name was gradually ex- tended to the whole hill. The spur which projected from the northeast side of the Palatine toward the Esquiline was called the Velia. A considerable part of this hill has not been excavated, and the excavations already made have not been exhaustively carried out. 1 Certain identification of exist- ing ruins is therefore often impossible, and in general it may be said that the topography of the Palatine is in a very unsatis- factory state. The Regal Period. According to the well-known tradition 2 the basket containing Komulus and Kemus was washed ashore at the base of the slope of the Cermalus, at the spot where there grew a fig tree, the ficus Kuminalis, which was afterward miraculously removed to the Comitium. The twins were 1 Jordan, I. 3.29-33. The latest survey and map of the Palatine is the Rilievo Planimetrico e Altimetrico del Palatino, prepared by the Scuola d' Applicazione per gli Ingegneri, and published in NS. 1904, 43-46. Good pop- ular descriptions of the Palatine are: Haugwitz, Der Palatin, seine Ge- schichte und seine Ruinen, Rome, 1901 ; and Cancogni, Le Rovine del Palatino, Milan, 1909. 2 Liv. i. 4; Ov. Fast. ii. 412; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 90; PI. NH. xv. 77; Tac. Ann. xiii. 58. 129 130 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. suckled by a she-wolf, which had her lair in a grotto, or cave, beneath the fig tree. 1 This den was called the Lupercal, and from it issued the famous fons Lupercalis (p. 91). This cave became a sanctuary of some sort, and was at least provided with a monumental entrance, for its restoration is recorded in the Monumentum Ancyranum, 2 and it is mentioned in the Notitia. A shepherd, Faustulus, carried the children to his hut, tugurium Faustuli, 3 on the top of the hill. In later years Romulus lived in a house called the casa Komuli, 4 which may be regarded as identical with the tugurium Faustuli, and was on the southwest corner of the Cermalus, at the top of the scalae Caci. This hut of straw is described as having been preserved in its original form down to imperial times, and hence it is not possible to identify it with any of the ancient tufa buildings on this part of the hill. Varro 5 speaks, however, of an aedes Romuli, which evidently stood in some relation to the casa, and it has been conjectured that the casa may have been inside the aedes. 6 Where Romulus took the famous aus- pices, the spot was marked by a stone platform, the Augurato- rium, and a cornel cherry tree 7 sprang from the lance which the founder of the city hurled across the valley from the Aven- tine. To the earliest period also belonged the curia Saliorum, 8 or assembling place of the Salii, where the sacred trumpet, the lituus, of Romulus was kept. The Ouriae veteres, 9 mentioned by Tacitus as one point in the Palatine pomerium (p. 37), was the earliest sanctuary of the curies. It became too small, and a second structure, the Ouriae novae, 10 was built, probably in the immediate neighborhood, but iDionys. i. 32, 79; Jordan, I. 3. 37-39; Pais, Legends, 43-59, 229-234. 2 iv. 2. s Solin. i. 18. * Dionys. i. 79 ; Plut. Rom. 20. LL. v. 54. 6 Jordan, I. 3. 39-40; II. 268; Gilbert, I. 59; Richter, Top* 134. 7 Plut. Rom. 20. 8Cic. de Div. i. 30; Val. Max. i. 8. 11; Gilbert, I. 140; III. 424; Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung , iii. 427-433. 9 Varro, LL. \. 155; Gilbert, I. 208-213; Jordan, I. 3. 43-44. iFest. 174; Gilbert, I. 196-199, 208-213; II. 126-127. THE PALATINE HILL. 131 seven curies refused to move from the old place of assembly. This Curiae veteres was at the northeast corner of the Palatine, and probably at its foot, very near the line of the Sacra via and the later arch of Constantine. The fourth point mentioned by Tacitus, in the line of the pomerium, was the sacellum Larmn, which, in spite of certain objections, is probably identical with the ara Larum Praestitum, 1 and stood at the northwest corner of the hill, behind the tem- ple of Vesta, where the Nova via bends sharply to the south- west. This shrine had fallen into ruins in Ovid's 2 day, but may have been restored afterward. These monuments were carefully preserved during the repub- lican period and even longer, but their exact location is now only a matter of conjecture. The Earliest Remains. The earliest remains on the Pala- tine lie on the top, and round the slope, of the southwest cor- ner of the hill, that is, the Cermalus, to which tradition assigned them ; but whether or not any of them actually belong to the p re-republican period is somewhat uncertain. Unfortunately the excavations of 1907 were not carried far enough to be de- cisive. Of the so-called wall of, the kings, that is, the original fortification of the Palatine, it is now generally agreed that nothing remains except a few courses 3 of gray-green tufa at the southwest corner of the hill (k, Fig. 17). These blocks are smaller than those of brown tufa in the later Servian wall, and resemble those used in the substructures of the temple of luppiter Capitolinus, and in the ancient cistern on the hill (p. 132) . They are laid up against the rocky slope which was cut away for the purpose (p. 110). Along the west and south sides of the hill are considerable fragments of other walls, of the iRichter, Top* 33 n., with literature there cited ; Mitt. 1905, 119. Fast. v. 129-136. 8 Jordan, I. 3. 37; Delbriick, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfeld, Rome, 1903, 11-12. 132 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. same character as the Servian wall (p. Ill), and presumably not earlier than that. While these remains belong, therefore, to a republican restoration of the Palatine fortifications, some of them perhaps being as late as the fourth century, there is little doubt that they occupy practically the same position as the original wall. Near the remains of the earliest wall is an ancient cistern in the side of the hill, but this is not the Lupercal, as it is commonly called. At the top of the hill, between the temple of Cybele, the house of Livia, and the present gardener's house (between B and the slope of the hill above J, Fig. 17), is a complicated network of walls, foundations, and drains, partially laid bare by the recent excavations. 1 No adequate plan has been pub- lished, and therefore no satisfactory description can be given. 2 Northeast of B (Fig. 17) is a circular cistern, usually regarded as of very early date, 2.8 metres in diameter, and built of tufa lined with stucco. Its top was formed of overlapping rings of stone, and through its centre a later wall of opus quadratum was built. This wall of brown tufa extends southwest to the slope of the hill, and seems to have divided the precinct of Cybele from the higher area on the west. Just below B (Fig. 17) is another cistern, about6 metres in diameter, built of thin blocks of gray-green tufa, and coated on- the outside with clay. A circular flight of steps leads down to the bottom of this cistern, and its roof was probably conical. Among the remains of walls of different periods are the old- est of gray-green tufa, those of a later date of brown tufa with masons' marks, and the most recent of composite construction. These walls run northwest-southeast and northeast-southwest, 1 NS. 1907, 185-205, 264-282, 444-460, 529-542 ; Rendiconti del Lincei, 1907, 669-680; 1908, 201-210; 1909, 249-262; CQ. 1908, 145-147; BC. 1907, 202-205; Pinza, L' Angola sudovest del Palatino, reprinted from Annali della Societa degli Ingeyneri ed Architetti Italiani, 1907. 2 A complete discussion of these remains has been promised by Pinza, BC. 1910, 30. THE PALATINE HILL. 133 and contain drains at different levels, corresponding to the different periods. Some of the walls seem to have served as the foundation of a building, part of which, consisting of blocks of tufa forming a rectangle, is in situ. This is evi- dently a restoration of an earlier structure and suggests the aedes Komuli (p. 130). In the surface of the native rock are numerous circular holes, of varying depth and size, and shallow curved channels run- ning at different angles. The variation in depth seems to be due to the fact that the surface of the rock was cut away to lower the level. Partly under one of the walls is a rectangu- lar grave for inhumation, covered with a slab of brown tufa now broken, and dating 'from the fourth century B.C. These holes and channels are not cremation tombs, as has been thought, but probably were intended to support the framework of the thatched huts of the first settlers on the hill. The ex- istence of one fourth-century grave does not prove that this point was still outside the wall at that time, for exceptions to the law of the Twelve Tables are by no means unknown. Just below the edge of the slope are some remains of ma- sonry of the Augustan period which seem to have formed part of a double colonnade, extending downward in a westerly direction from the higher level round the temple marked F (Fig. 17). This colonnade probably intersected the protected approach to the top of the hill at this point, which is without much doubt the scalae Oaci. Tradition 1 connected this corner with the story of the rob- ber Cacus, whose cave was at the base of the cliff, and who was himself killed by Hercules. In reality, Cacus was an ancient Italic firegod, he and his sister Caca being worshipped as deities of the hearth. This worship of Caca 2 was after- *Ann. d. 1st. 1884, 189-204; Jordan, I. 3. 41-42; Solin. i. 18; Pint. Rom. 20; Liv. i. 7. Mitt. 1895, 163-164; Roscher, Lexikon der Mythologie, i. 842. See p. 34. 134 TOPOGEAPHY OF ANCIENT HOME. ward displaced by that of Vesta, which may explain the ab- sence from the Palatine city of any shrine of the latter god- dess until the time of Augustus. The approach itself is cut in the rock, and appears to have been the bed of a paved road rather than a flight of steps, but this is not entirely certain. It was walled in on both sides, and where it reaches the top of the hill, the travertine foundations of a gate of the imperial period are in situ. This approach did not extend straight down to the valley, but curved round the southwest corner of the hill. The plausible suggestion has been made l that the porta Romanula (p. 38) was at the junction of this scalae and the clivus Victoriae, rather than farther north (A, Fig. 17). The Republican Period. The growth of the city, and the in- corporation of the hills on the east, removed the political and business centre to the Forum valley and diminished greatly the importance of the Palatine. During the republic it became the chief residence quarter of the wealthy, especially the north- east and northwest sides, which overlooked the Forum and the Velabrum. Access to this part of the hill was given by the clivus Victoriae and the clivus Palatinus (p. 165) and by a flight of steps at the north corner, leading up from the Forum behind the temple of Castor (cf. p. 161). 2 Possibly this stair- way was the scalae Anulariae mentioned by Suetonius. 3 Mention is made in extant Roman literature of at least fifteen houses on this hill, built and inhabited by famous citizens of the last century of the republic, among them M. Fulvius, 4 con- sul in 125 B.C. ; Q. Lutatius Catulus, 5 consul in 102 ; M. Livius Drusus, 6 whose house passed into the hands of M. Licinius i CQ. 1908, 145. a NS. 1882, 237-238, pi. xiv. ^ Aug. 72. 4 Cic. pro Domo, 102, 114 ; Val. Max. vi. 3. 1. 6 Varro, RR. iii. 5 ; PI. NH. xvii. 2. e Veil. ii. 14. 3 ; Cic. passim ; Gilbert, III. 418-419. THE PALATINE HILL. 135 Crassus, and was afterward bought by Cicero ; Quintus Cicero; 1 Catiline; 2 M. Aerailius Scaurus ; 3 and Q. Hortensius. 4 The re- mains of one, the domus Liviae or domus Germanici, were brought -> r FIG. 18. PLAN OF THE DOMUS LJVIAE. ic. adAtt. iv. 3. 2. 2 Suet, de Gramm. 17. * PI. NH. xvii. 5; xxxvi. 6; Ascon. in Scaur. 45. 4 Suet. Aug. 72. For all the private houses on the Palatine, cf. Jordan, I. 3. 55-60, 104-105. 136 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. to light by the excavations of 1869. 1 This house is the only well-preserved example of a Roman private dwelling of this period. It has usually 2 been supposed that it belonged to Li via, the mother of the emperor Tiberius, or to her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero. On account of its associa- tions it was not torn down but incorporated into the later imperial residence, while retaining its original form and modest exterior. It stands on one side of the depression which crossed the Palatine, and its first, or ground, floor is on a much lower level than the adjoining palaces of Tiberius and Domitian, the latter of which was built on very lofty foundations. A stairway of travertine leads from the upper level to the passage from which one enters the atrium of the house. This passage is connected with a long cryptoporticus which runs to the palace of Calig- ula. From the upper story another cryptoporticus leads to the Flavian palace and to the chambers under the adjacent temple (F, Fig. 17). The material out of which this house is constructed is con- crete, faced with opus reticulatum. The inner walls were covered with^ stucco and painted. The main hall, or atrium, 13 by 10 metres, was partially roofed over, and from it, on the side opposite the entrance, open three rooms, each about 7 metres deep. The central room, 1 metre wider than the other two, is called the tablinum, or reception room, and was evi- dently the most richly decorated. South of the atrium is the triclinium, or dining room, 8 by 4 metres. All these rooms are paved with black and white mosaic, except the tablinum, where there is also some marble. When this house was first excavated, the wall-paintings were remarkably fresh, but they have faded rapidly since that time. 1 GA. 1888, 128-130; Jordan, I. 3. 60-63. 2 For a very recent theory that this house was the original domus Augus- tana (pp. 143, 146), see BC. 1910, 30. THE PALATINE HILL. ' 137 They belong to the second, or republican, style of Pompeian wall-paintings, 1 and consist of architectural details, columns, architraves, etc., variously enriched, and panels on which are pictures representing scenes from Greek mythology, as Galatea and Polyphemus, and lo and Argus. Back of the triclinium is a row of small bathrooms and household offices. On one side of the atrium, a narrow staircase leads to the upper floor, which was wholly occupied by small chambers, evidently in- tended for sleeping purposes. This part of the house seems to have been restored at various times, especially under Severus and Caracalla. Excavations now going on have disclosed a deep well behind the tablinum on the right, and also the walls of earlier buildings. Beneath the Flavian palace, the walls of another substantial house of this period still exist, having been made use of, wher- ever it was possible, in the foundations of the palace. Com- plete excavations would doubtless show that this was the fate of many such houses on this hill. According to the Regionary Catalogue, there were eighty-nine domus and twenty-six hundred and forty insitlae in region X in the fourth century, although the domus Augustana and the temples occupied so large a portion of the hill, and to provide room for so many dwellings is a most perplexing problem. They were probably crowded very closely together on the lower slopes and at the base of the hill, where many vestiges have recently been found. The development of the Palatine as a residence quarter was accompanied by the erection of temples, the earliest of which date from the beginning of the third century B.C. According to tradition, Romulus vowed a temple to luppiter Stator 2 at the critical moment in the battle between the Romans and the Sabines, when the former had been driven across the Forum valley to the porta Mugonia ; but this temple was never built. 1 Mon. d. 1st. xi. 22, 23 ; Man, Geschichte der Wandmalerei, 167-174, 196-205. *Liv. i. 12, 41; x. 36, 37; Dionys. ii. 50; Plut. Cic. 16; Hermes, 1885, 407- 429; BC. 1902, 35; 1903, 18; CR. 1902, 336; 1905, 75; Jordan, I. 3. 20-23. 138 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. In 294 B.C. the consul M. Atilius Regulus made a similar vow under similar circumstances in a battle with the Samnites, and erected the temple immediately afterward. It stood on the summa Sacra via, outside the porta Mugonia and probably just east of the later arch of Titus. The most recent excavations (see p. 313) seem to show that the massive foundations on which the medieval turris Cartularia was built, belong to a restora- tion of this temple, and that the early structure may possibly have been a little farther northwest. The temple is represented on the relief of the Haterii (Fig. 2) 'as hexastyle. 1 Near it was a statue, either of Oloelia or Valeria. 2 In 295 B.C., at the battle of Sentinum, the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus vowed a temple to luppiter Victor, 3 which was completed within the next two years, but nothing further is known of it, except that the day of dedication was April 13. A number of inscriptions 4 have been found, which show that on this hill there was also a temple dedicated to luppiter Pro- pugnator, and this has sometimes been identified with that of luppiter Victor, but without good reason. The temple of Victoria 5 was said to be older than the city of Romulus itself, but it was really built by L. Postumius Megel- lus in 294 B.C. Almost nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that the stone which represented the Magna Mater was deposited here during the years 204-191, 6 while the temple of the Magna Mater was being completed. There is no record of any restoration/ and its site is a matter of dispute. The ascent to the Palatine on the west side was by the clivus Victoriae, 8 which evidently took its name from this temple. This clivus 9 probably began at the porta Romanula, near the l Mon. d. 1st. v. 7. 2 PI. NH. xxxiv. 28 ; Gilbert, I. 226. Liv. x. 29; GA. 1888, 130; Jordan, I. 3. 50-51 ; CR. 1908, 155. * OIL. vi. 2004-2009. 6 Liv. x. 33 ; Dionys. i. 32. 6 Liv. xxix. 14. i AJA. 1905, 43&440. Jordan, FUR. 37; Fest. 262. BC. 1885, 157-160 ; NS. 1882, 233-238 ; 1886, 51, 123 ; Mitt. 1895, 23-24. Cf ., however, the suggestion on p. 134. THE PALATINE HILL. 139 present church of S. Teodoro. The modern path leads from the entrance north of the church toward the hill, and then turns toward the left and skirting the cliff ascends to the north corner of the hill, where it turns abruptly to the right and passes under the substructures of the domus Gaiana (p. 147). This is the line of an ancient road, of which the pavement is still in existence, and which is usually identified with the clivus Victoriae. There is no sufficient reason for doubting that this is the line of the clivus as it existed after the erection of this part of the palace; but this building must have mate- rially altered the previous conditions and the earlier line of the road. At the point marked m on the Palatine plan (Fig. 17), some fragments of inscriptions 1 were found in the early part of the eighteenth century, which belong to a Victoria. On the sup- position that these fragments were found in situ, the temple of Victoria was placed here on the side hill, 2 near the beginning of the clivus, and the tufa masonry, found during the recent excavations, may have belonged to such a building. Accord- ing to this view, the clivus took its name from a temple at its lower end, rather than from one to which it led, as was usually the case. (Cf. clivus Capitolinus, clivus Salutis, etc.) Another temple on this hill, and one of the most famous in the city, was that of the Magna Mater, or Oybele. 3 In 204 B.C. a Roman embassy brought to Rome from the sanctuary of Cybele at Pessinus the pointed black stone which repre- sented the goddess, and this temple, erected in her honor, was dedicated in 191 by the praetor M. Junius Brutus. It was twice burned, and restored by Metellus in 111 B.C. and by Augustus in 3 A.D., and was standing unharmed in the fourth * OIL. vi. 31059-31060. *BC. 1883, 206-212; Mitt. 1895, 23-24; Jordan, I. 3. 47-50; Melanges, 1889, 197-199; CR. 1908, 155. Cf., however, p. 142. Liv. xxix. 37; xxxvi. 36; Mart.vii. 73; Cic. de Har. 24; Gilbert, III. 104- 107; Jordan, I. 3.51-54. 140 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. century. 1 The stone needle itself was removed by Elagabalus to the lararium of the Flavian palace, where it was probably seen by Bianchini in 1725. 2 Inscriptions 3 relating to the Magna Mater, a portion of a colossal female figure undoubtedly the goddess seated on a throne, and a fragment of a base with the paws of lions, the regular attendants of Cybele, have been found near the podium of the temple marked C on the plan of the Palatine. Other temples 4 built during this period were the aedicula Victoriae Virginia, 5 erected by M. Porcius Cato in 193 B.C. near the temple of Victoria; a temple to luno Sospita, 6 of which nothing further is known ; a third, to Luna Noctiluca ; 7 and a fourth, to Fides, 8 the erection of which is assigned to Roma, the daughter of Ascanius, but which is otherwise unknown. A fifth to Fortuna Huiusce Diei (cf . p. 349), 9 known to have been on the Palatine because of the vicus Huiusce Diei in the inscription on the Capitoline Base, is of unknown date. It was probably in this temple that L. Aemilius Paulus, and afterward Q. Lutatius Catulus, set up statues by Phidias. 10 No trace of these structures remains, nor of the altars or shrines to Dea Febris, 11 Dea Viriplaca, 12 and Venus, 13 which are mentioned as having stood on this hill. On the southwest slope of the hill, toward the Velabrum, is an altar 14 of primitive form, on which is the following inscription : 15 l Mon. Anc. iv. 8; Val. Max. i. 8, 11; Ov. Fast. iv. 347; Obseq. 99; Vop. Vit. Aurel. 1 ; Treb. Poll. Vit. Claudi, 4. Cf. AJA. 1905, 438-440. *Del Palazzo dei Cesari, Rome, 1738, 254. GIL. vi. 3702, 1040. * Jordan, I. 3. 45-47. 6 Liv. xxxv. 9. Ov. Fast. ii. 55. 7 Varro, LL. v. 68. 8 Fest. 269. 9 Jordan, I. 3. 104; Wissowa, Religion der Romer, 211 ; Richter, Top. 2 142. iPl. NH. xxxiv. 54. 11 Cic. de Nat. Dear. in. 63; de Legg. ii. 28. "Val. Max. ii. 1, 6. i Dio Cass. Ixxiv. 3. " J/ztt. 1894, 33; Jahreshefte d. oest. arch. Institute, 1903, 142. . i. 632; vi. 110. THE PALATINE HILL. 141 SEI DEO SEI DEIVAE SAC(ntm) C. SEXTIVS C. F. CALVIN VS PR(aetor) DE SENATI SENTENTIA RESTITVIT This C. Sextius Calvinus was a candidate for the praetorship in 100 B c., and the altar was probably erected soon after that date. It is of travertine, and undoubtedly a copy of the earlier one on which was the original inscription. It had no connection with the altar erected to commemorate the voice heard in the grove of Vesta, announcing the approach of the Gauls, and known as the ara Aii Locutii. 1 The altar of Calvinus is not in situ, as the level of the soil at this point is about 12 metres above that of the republic. At a very much later date, the mad emperor Elagabalus (218-222 A.D.) built a temple of the Sun 2 (Elagabalus) near the domus Augustana, in which he is said to have intended to place the image of the Magna Mater, the sacred fire of Vesta, the palladium and the ancilia. This temple was burned, prob- ably not long after the death of Elagabalus, and it is not men- . tioned in the Notitia. The Notitia mentions a Fortuna Eespiciens, evidently a temple or shrine of this deity in the vicus Fortunae Respicientis of the Capitoline Base. There are on that part of the hill which lies between the domus Augustana, the domus Tiberiana, and the southwest edge the remains of two temples. The first (C, Fig. 17) is between the domus Tiberiana and the scalae Caci, and its ruins 3 consist of a massive podium, made of irregular pieces of tufa and peperino laid in thick mortar, and fragments of columns and entablature. The walls of the podium are 3.84 metres thick (those of the cella were somewhat thinner) on the sides and 5.50 in the rear, but this extraordinary thickness is due to the fact that the ic. de Div. i. 101; Gell. xvi. 17. 2 Lamprid. Vit. HeL 1, 3, 6; Jordan, I. 3. 105-106; MM.1892, 158. *Mitt. 1895, 7-23. * 142 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. rear wall is double, there being an air space, 1.80 metres wide, between the parts. This wall was not faced on the outside with opus quadrature, but only with stucco. The total length of the temple was 33.18 metres, and its width 17.10. It was prostyle hexastyle, and was approached by a flight of steps extending en- tirely across the front. From the rear wall of the cella projects the base of a pedestal, on which an image or statue probably stood. The remaining fragments of columns, capitals, and en- tablature are of peperino, and belong to a building of early date, undoubtedly the oldest of which any considerable remains have been preserved, and there are no traces of any later restoration. The ruins 1 of the other temple (F, Fig. 17) are between the scalae Caci and the domus Augustana, and consist of a podium of concrete, 44 metres long and 25 wide, faced with blocks of tufa. On and around the podium are fragments of columns of tufa and of red granite, and of colored marbles, some of which may have belonged to the temple. The fragment of an altar, now standing on the steps, and dedicated by Cn. Domitius Calvinus, consul in 53 B.C., has nothing to do with the temple. It is generally agreed that of these temples, that at the southwest corner of the hill is either the temple of Victoria 2 or of the Magna Mater, 3 and the evidence now available seems to be distinctly in favor of the latter. The other temple (F) has sometimes been assigned conjecturally to luppiter Victor, but the most recent investigation * is tending to identify it with Augustus's temple of Apollo (p. 144). If this identification be correct, the remains of a rectangular structure (X, Fig. 17) may belong to the library of this temple. The Empire. The Palatine had been the Kome of the kings, but under the republic the political, religious, and financial 1 OA. 1888, 130; Lanciani, Ruins, 138-139. 2 Richter, Top* 136-139. Cf . p. 139. SHulsen, Mitt. 1895, 3-28; 1908, 368-374; Jordan, 1. 3. 48, 51-54. * BC. 1910, 3-41. * THE PALATINE HILL. 143 centre of Roman life was transferred to the Forum. One of the outward signs of the return to monarchy was the fixing of the abode of the emperors upon the Palatine hill. Augustus was born on this hill, ad capita bubula, 1 a street or quarter at its northeast angle, where, after his death, a shrine was erected to his memory. After the death of Julius Caesar, Augustus bought the house of the orator Hortensius, a modest dwelling, which he enlarged in 36 B.C. by purchasing adjacent property. Soon afterward it was struck by lightning, and Augustus began to construct the temple of Apollo at the point where the fire broke out. The house itself was again injured by fire, and rebuilt with the aid of a popular subscription. 2 Besides this house, the Augustan group on the Palatine com- prised the temple and portico of Apollo, the library, and the temple of Vesta. Either before or soon after the death of Augustus, his house was called the domus Augustana, 3 and this name continued to be applied to the imperial residence down to the fourth century. In modern times a distinction has frequently been made be- tween the domus Augustana and the other parts of the com- pleted palace, the former term being limited to that portion which is still covered by the villa Mills ; and this distinction has sometimes been accompanied by the belief that this part was the original house of Augustus. In reality, however, this part dates from the time of Domitian or even later. Domus Augustana denoted the whole imperial residence 4 except the domus Tiberiana (see below), at any given period. Domus Flavia, domus Oommodiana, domus Severiana, are modern terms for the parts erected by these several emperors. After Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 B.C., instead 1 Suet. Aug. 5; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 361. 2 Suet. Aug. 57. Cf . Dio Cass. Iv. 12. 'Mitt. 1889, 185, 256; 1894, 3-36; GA. 1888, 145-147; Melanges, 1889, 189- 191 ; Jordan, I. 3. 63-66, 74-76; GIL. vi. 8640-8652. 4 Joseph. Ant. lud. xix. 1, 15. 144 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. of living in the doraus Publica, the official home of the pon- tifex maximus near the temple of Vesta in the Forum, he pre- sented 1 this property to the Vestal Virgins, and built a new temple to Vesta close to or within 2 his own residence on the Palatine. This temple doubtless of similar form to that in the Forum was destroyed in the fire of 363 A.D., and no cer- tain remains of it have been found. The most magnificent of the buildings of Augustus, on the Palatine, was the famous temple of Apollo, 3 which was vowed in 36 B.C., during the campaign against Sextus Pompeius, be- gun in the same year, and dedicated October 9, 28 B.c. 4 It was built of solid white marble and filled with works of art and treasures of every sort, but as almost no details of its construc- tion are given by classical writers, it is impossible to recon- struct it, except in a general way. It was probably either prostyle hexastyle, or peripteral and octostyle, but in either case the intercolumniations were twice the diameter of the columns. 5 In the area Apollinis stood a colossal bronze statue of Apollo Actius, pouring a libation on an altar before him. Around this altar were grouped four bronze oxen, the work of Myron. The temple was connected with, and perhaps surrounded by, a portions, 6 the main en- trance of which, directly opposite the front of the temple, was formed by an arch, 7 above which stood a famous work of Lysias, Apollo and Diana in a quadriga. The columns of the porticus were of giallo antico, and between them were statues of the fifty daughters of Danaus, 8 while before them iDio Cass. liv. 27; Ov. Fast. iv. 949; Met. xv. 864. 2 GA. 1888, 151-152; BC. 1883, 198-205; Mitt. 1895, 28-37; Altmann, Rund- bauten, 72. f 8GA. 1888, 147-155; Melanges, 1889, 191-197; BC. 1883, 185-198; Mitt. 1890, 76-77; 1896, 193-212; Richter, Top? 148-149, and note; Jordan, I. 3. 66-74. 4 Veil. ii. 81; Dio Cass. liii. 1; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 720. See references in Richter, Top.2 147. Vitr. iii. 3, 4. 6 p rop . jj. 31. 2, 9 ; Veil. ii. 81. 1 PI. NH. xxxvj. 36. 8 p ro p. jj. 31. 3.4. 146 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. were placed equestrian statues of their unfortunate husbands, the sous of Aegyptus. 1 The facade of the temple was orna- mented with bronze statues, and its doors with bas-reliefs rep- resenting the defeat of the Gauls and the death of the children of Niobe. Adjoining the portions, or perhaps forming a part of it, was a library, 2 consisting of two sections, one for Greek and one for Latin books, with medallion portraits of famous authors on the walls. The position of this temple and of the adjacent house of Augustus is now in dispute. According to the view 3 hitherto prevailing, the temple and its porticus stood on the northeast corner of the hill, the site now occupied by the convent and gardens of S. Sebastiano, while the library and house were probably within the area covered by the villa Mills or some part of the domus Flavia. If this be true, all traces of the four buildings have vanished entirely, with the exception of a few portions of the statues of the Danaids, and some archi- tectural fragments which were not found in situ, but in the course of excavations round the villa Mills. According to the most recent theory, 4 all the buildings of Augustus are located on the southwestern part of the hill, and the temple of Apollo is identified with the existing podium (F, Fig. 17) which has been sometimes assigned to the temple of luppiter Victor. The house of Livia is consequently identified with the original domus Augustana, and the tufa foundations between it and the temple with the library. The porticus cannot have sur- rounded the temple, but is supposed to have occupied the space between it and the brow of the hill, and also to have ex- tended a short distance down the slope until it met the scalae Caci (p. 133). Various remains of masonry of the Augustan epoch on the slope of the hill seem to have belonged to such a iSchol. Pers. 2, 56. 2 Melanges, 1889, 199-205; Suet. Aug. 29; Juv. i. 128; Tac. Ann. ii. 37, 83; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 3. 3. 8 Milt. 1896, 193-212; Jordan, I. 3. 64-66. *BC. 1910, 3-41. THE PALATINE HILL. 147 portions. Some grave difficulties inherent in the current view are avoided by the second, and while only a preliminary re- port of the investigation has as yet been published, and a final decision would be premature, the available evidence seems to point distinctly to the southwest part of the hill. Tiberius did not live in the domus Augustana, but built another house for himself, the domus Tiberiana, 1 which adjoined the domus Germanici, and extended north and west from it. 2 This palace was built round a central court, about 100 metres square, and surrounded by a colonnade. It did not extend on the north as far as the clivus Victoriae, and its faqade was probably on the east. Among the apartments which opened off from the central court there seems to have been a famous library, the bibliotheca domus Tiberianae, 3 which was in existence in the fourth century (see p. 162). The site of this house is now occupied by the Farnese gardens, and there is practically noth- ing visible except some substructures on the south side, which belong to the platform, partly natural, partly artificial, on which the palace stood. Between the original walls is a row of chambers of later date, which are cut back into the native tufa and finished with opus reticulatum. They were designed for the use of slaves, soldiers, and palace attendants, as is shown by many graffiti 4 scratched on the stuccoed walls. , At the south corner of the domus Tiberiana is a large oval water tank, or piscina, of peculiar construction, which probably served to contain the fish until they were needed for the emperor's table. Caligula added 5 a wing to the domus Tiberiana on the north, but this extended no farther than the clivus Victoriae, and the vast masses of masonry now existing at this corner of the hill, and sometimes called the domus Gaiana, belong to a much later period, the second and third centuries. A sunken corridor !Tac. Hist. i. 27; Suet. Vit.15; Otho,6; Plat. Galba, 24; OIL. vi. 8653- 8655. 2 G A , isss, 155; Gilbert, III. 178; Jordan, I. 3. 76-79. 8 Gell. xiii. 20, 1 ; Vop. Vit. Probi, 2. * BC. 1894, 94-100. 4 Suet. Cal. 22. 148 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. or cryptoporticus, about 140 metres long, led from the wing of Caligula along the east side of the domus Tiberiana to the house of Livia, and by a branch to the domus Augustana. Its walls were covered with slabs of colored marbles ; its floor was made of mosaic ; while the ceiling was adorned with mosaic and painting. This corridor still exists in a state of partial preservation; but what is left of the mosaic and marble be- longs to the later restorations of the Antonines. Light was admitted through windows in the vaulted roof. It was in a corridor like this that Caligula was assassinated. 1 In order to connect his own residence directly with the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline, 2 Caligula built a ' foot- bridge across the intervening valley, making use of the temple of Augustus and the basilica lulia as piers ; but this ridiculous structure was removed soon after the emperor's death. Not- withstanding the great additions and restorations made by later emperors, all that part of the palace which was west of the area Palatina continued to be called the domus Tiberiana. Of all the ruins of the imperial residence now visible on the Palatine, almost nothing 3 but some foundations and sub- structures belong to the ante-Flavian epoch. The great fire of 64 A.D. destroyed the domus Augustana, and Vespasian therefore began a new palace, which was finished early in the reign of Domitian. It extended southeast from the podium F (Fig. 17), covering the space occupied by the earlier palace and including the area of the Hippodromus, or palace-gardens. The distinctive name, domus Plavia, however, is usually limited to the part lying west of the villa Mills. Between the domus Flavia and the Hippodromus, the ruins of the palace are buried deep beneath the gardens of the villa Mills, and but few rooms are accessible by a passage from the gardens. 4 1 Dio Cass. lix. 29; Suet. Cal. 58. 2 Suet. Cal. 37; Joseph. Ant. lud. xix. 1, 11. 8 Unless the domus Liviae be the first domus Augustana. Cf. p. 146. 4 Excavations on this site are to be continued. THE PALATINE HILL. 149 That Hadrian restored to some extent the imperial residence is shown by the large number of bricks bearing his stamp, and, in particular, he added the great exedra to the Hippo- dromus ; but it was not until the destructive fire of 191 A.D. that repairs on a large scale were necessary. They were carried out by Severus and Caracalla, who enlarged the domus Augustana on the southeast by building an. additional wing on enormous substructures and by erecting the Septizonium, and extended the domus Tiberiana in the same way across the clivus Victoriae to the Nova via. The Domus Flavia. The palace of Domitian 1 was built partly on a rectangular platform, about 150 metres in length and 80 in width, extending northeast and southwest over the depression which originally divided the Cermalus and the Palatium. The private houses which stood here were partly destroyed and partly used as supports for the structure above. One such dwelling of late republican or early imperial date is still accessible beneath the southwest part of the peristyle. The concrete walls of the palace foundations cut directly through the rooms of this house. Besides its walls and vaults, some of the stucco moldings and marble floors remain, but the colored decoration has mostly disappeared. Until further excavations have been made, it will be impos- sible to form any idea of the character or use of the subter- ranean passages and chambers of the domus Flavia, and as nothing remains of the second story, only the plan of the first floor is known. The palace faced northeast, and in front of the faqade was a porticus formed by twenty-two columns of cipollino, standing on the edge of the lofty podium. 2 This 1QA. 1888, 143-163, 211-224, pi. 21, 22, 23, 30; Mitt. 1895, 252-276; Jordan, I. 3. 86-94. 2 For references to the magnificence of this palace, see Martial, i. 70; vii. 56; viii. 36, 39, 60; ix. 13, 79; xii. 15; Stat. Silv. i. 1. 24; iv. 2. 18-25; Pint. Popl. 15. 150 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. porticus also extended a considerable distance toward the south along each side. The northern part of the palace was divided into three rooms, a large aula regia, or throne room, in the centre, and a smaller one on each side. This throne room was 47.3 by 35.5 metres, and on each side were three niches containing colossal statues of basalt. Between these niches, and also at the ends, were sixteen columns of pavonaz- zetto, 8 metres in height. The main entrance was flanked by two columns of giallo antico, the bases and capitals of which were of ivory-colored marble, and the entablature of white marble. Opposite the main entrance was the apse, in which stood the throne, arid on each side of it, as well as on each side of the entrance, were other niches. The walls were covered with colored marbles, the coffered ceiling was gilded, and the floor was paved with rich mosaic ; but of all this mag- nificent decoration only insignificant fragments remain. This is true of the whole palace. The room to the west of the throne room, about 35 by 20 metres, is called the basilica, and is supposed to have been the apartment where the emperor dispensed justice. It ter- minates at the south end in an apse, within which there are traces of a suggestus, or tribunal. Along each side of the hall was a row of six Corinthian columns of marble, which sup- ported a narrow gallery and formed aisles. The original roof of this hall was of timber, but at some later period the side walls were strengthened by massive supporting pillars, and a vaulted roof of concrete constructed. It is probable that there were gilt screens between the columns, which separated the central space from that under the galleries. The room on the east of the throne room is the smallest of the three, and in it, built against the rear wall and approached by two flights of steps, an altar l was found in the last century, 1 Bianchini, Del Palazzo del Cesari, 252. This altar is not to be confused with the stone needle, p. 140. 152 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. which lias since disappeared. Because of this altar, the name lararium was given to the apartment, although there is no further evidence to connect it with the worship of the emperor. South of the lararium are two small chambers and two stair- ways. One of these stairways leads to the upper floor, and the other to a cellar in the unexcavated part of the palace beneath the villa Mills. The central open court, or peristyle, was surrounded by a colonnade, of which the columns themselves were of Porta santa, and the Corinthian capitals and bases of white marble. Over this colonnade was probably l an open gallery, with columns of granite and porphyry. A large part of the inner walls of the corridor was covered with slabs of phengite marble, 2 which, when polished, reflected the image of the passer-by. The rest of the side walls and the pavement were made of the most magnificent colored marbles and porphyry, of which nothing remains but a few fragments. On the west side of the peristyle is a series of nine apart- ments, of which the central room, octagonal in shape, seems to have been an entrance hall or vestibule. The other smaller chambers were probably used for anterooms for footmen, and for cloakrooms. As the eastern portion of the peristyle and that part of the palace which lies beyond have not yet been excavated, it is impossible to say with certainty whether or not the rooms on the east of the peristyle correspond exactly with those on the west. South of the peristyle is another large and imposing apart- ment, which may have served as a state dining-room, commonly called the triclinium or cenatio Iovis. s This room terminates at the south end in an apse, where perhaps the emperor's table was set. From the evidence of the fragments which have been found, it is probable that this room was flanked by two rows of six or eight granite columns, and its decoration was, if 1 The restoration (Fig. 20) shows no such gallery. 2 Suet. Dom. 14. 8 Jul. Capit. Vit. Pertin. 11, but this identification is arbitrary. THE PALATINE HILL. 153 possible, more magnificent than that of the peristyle. Some of the marble pavement of the apse is still in place, but it is of inferior workmanship and dates from a late restoration. On each side of the triclinium is a nymphaeum, or fountain-room. That on the east, although explored in the sixteenth century, is now hidden beneath the villa Mills, and it corresponds to that on the other side. In this room is a large oval core of concrete, which was entirely covered with alabaster. In its sides were niches containing statues, and from its top streams of water gushed out of pipes and flowed in miniature cas- cades into the surrounding channel. Flowers and statues were placed here and there between the streams of water and around the room, and probably caged birds also. The thick wall between this room and the triclinium was pierced with five large openings. South of the triclinium are two rooms (Y, Fig. 17), side by side and curved into hemicycles on the east, with an orienta- tion differing from that of the palace, and corresponding with that of the podium F, with which they may have been con- nected before the building of the palace. They are commonly called the bibliotheca and the academia, names suggested by their shape. In the bibliotheca, which is nearest to the pal- ace, nothing remains but some bits of pavement ; in the other, the academia, there are rows of seats at the curved end, and above them niches for statues, and between the two rooms are portions of marble pavement. The six columns now standing were arbitrarily set up by Rosa in recent years. The platform, or first floor of the palace, rests at this south end upon substructures, which appear to be partly earlier build- ings and partly walls erected for the purpose, and it is certain that there were many apartments on this lower level. Some of them were discovered and stripped of their decorations in the last century, but at present they are almost entirely inac- cessible. Some remains of republican masonry may still be seen. 154 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. The larger part of the Flavian palace still lies buried be- neath the villa Mills. 1 Excavations were made here in 1775 by Guattani, and from the plans and drawings which he has left, together with the little which is now accessible, the gen- eral plan of the southern portion can be made out. The front wall, which is exposed, is curved, and forms a species of exe- dra from which the sports in the circus could be viewed. This exedra, however, has nothing to do with the Pulvinar ad Oircum Maximum (p. 405) built by Augustus. Access to the ruins of this part of the palace is by an entrance from the Hippodromus, where a flight of steps which led to the upper gallery has been broken away. All that can now be seen is a few standing walls and the three rooms north of the peristyle. Its general plan is that of a central court, with the main entrance on the south. This court was surrounded with a colonnade of fifty-six fluted Ionic columns of white marble, supporting a gallery with an- other colonnade of Corinthian columns. From all sides of the peristyle opened apartments of various shapes and sizes, of which the three (x, y, z, Fig. 17) on the north have been excavated. The two outer rooms are octagonal in shape, and all three had domed ceilings and received light from above. There were niches in all these rooms for statues, and the decoration corresponded in beauty with that of the rest of the palace. Many architectural fragments have been found here, as well as some famous works of art. Adjoining the domus Augustana on the southeast, and with the same orientation, is the Hippodromus 2 which has usually, though erroneously, been called the Stadium of Domitian. It is a large open space, 160 metres long and 50 wide, inclosed by a wall and nearly rectangular in shape, except at the south . 1889, 185-187; Jordan, FUR. 144, 163. 2 GA. 1888, 216-224; Melanges, 1889, 184-229; Jahrbuch des Instituts, 1895, 129-143 ; Mon. d. Lincei, v. 16-83, pi. i-iv ; Mitt. 1894, 16-17 ; 1895, 276-283 ; NS. 1877, 79-80, 109-110, 201-204 ; 1878, 66, 93, 346 ; 1893, 31-32, 70, 117-118, 162-163, 358-360, 419 ; Sturm, Das Kaiserl. Stadium, 1888 ; Jordan, I. 3. 94-96. THE PALATINE HILL. 155 end, where there is a slight curve. Within the wall and sur- rounding the entire central area, except at the north end, was a porticus, formed by a row of pillars of brick-faced concrete with engaged half-columns. Pilasters projected from the in- side of the wall directly opposite each pillar, and arches, rest- ing on these pilasters and pillars, supported an upper gallery, which also surrounded the entire court. Columns and pilasters were covered with slabs of Porta santa marble, with bases and capitals of white marble. In the middle of the east side is an enormous exedra with two stories. Its lower floor, which is on a level with the central area, contained three rooms, a large central hall, and two small chambers on either side, one of which appears not to have been finished. In the other the mosaic floor is still in existence. The second floor had only one room, semicircular in shape, with a domed ceiling. The front of this imperial box was decorated with a colonnade of granite, and the back with one of pavonazzetto, as is shown by the mimerous fragments which remain. At the north end of the Hippodromus, is a row of five small chambers with coffered ceilings, which originally supported a balcony, before the erection of the wall with three openings that continued the colonnade on this side. At each end of the longitudinal axis of the central area, which was not paved, is a semicircular piscina or fountain-basin, and on a line be- tween the basins stand the pedestals of statues. Lead pipes, stamped with the name of Domitian, brought water into this area at its northeast corner, about 60 centimetres above its present level, and a stone water-channel encircles the whole area, parallel to the porticus. This Hippodromus was the garden of the Flavian palace, and consisted at first of the central area surrounded by a wall, into which one could look from the windows of the palace. Later emperors made various changes, and it is probable that Hadrian built the great exedra, and Severus the porticus, which may have served to support hanging gardens. These changes 156 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. were the natural result of the additions to the palace, made by these emperors, which shut off the view to the east and south. Although only fragments of the decoration remain, the appearance of the Hippodromus must have been remarkably beautiful, on account of the combination of brilliant marbles and mosaics with flowers and plants of all descriptions. At a much later period, perhaps as late as Theodoric, still further changes were made. Another porticus was built across the Hippodromus from the north end of the exedra, and a wall parallel to this porticus, from the south end of the exedra, thus dividing the whole area into three parts. Within the southern division an elliptical inclosure was erected, the walls of which were tangent to the cross-wall and the colonnade. The masonry of this inclosure is of the latest period, and the walls, although the remains are a metre high, have no solid founda- tions, but rest on the debris of the area. This elliptical wall was strengthened at certain points by spur walls extending to the colonnade. The only entrance to the inclosure was at the south end, where two pedestals from the house of the Vestals were built into the doorway. Openings, somewhat over a metre in width, were made in the wall itself at regular intervals, and within one of these openings is a basin or trough with two com- partments. It is altogether probable that this inclosure was a vivarium, built to contain wild animals, a sort of private menagerie of the emperors. In connection with the Flavian palace, there was also an av\r) 'ASwnSos, 1 which has erroneously been identified with the edifice or space marked AD(XN"AEA 2 on the Capitoline Plan. The extent of this Adonaea (apparently at least 110 by 90 metres) is so great that it seems impossible to find room for it on the Palatine except on the site now occupied by the con- iPhilostr. Vit. Apoll. Tyan. vii. 32; Richter, Top? 155-156; Mitt. 1890, 77; 1896, 206. 2 Jordan, FUR. 44; SO. 1910, 13. THE PALATINE HILL. 157 vent and gardens of S. Sebastiano, where it may well have been if the temple of Apollo (p. 146) belongs on the southwest part of the hill. The av\rj was probably a room in the palace, or perhaps a conservatory. The south front of the Hippodromus, which dates from the time of Severus, seems to have contained several apartments on two floors, the purpose of the whole being apparently to afford a view over the Circus Maximus and the Campagna. The style and material of the masonry show that Hadrian made restorations at some points in thedomus Augustana, and in particular added extensive baths to the palace, to which belong the coffered hall and rooms with hypocausts just east and southeast of the exedra. It is almost impossible, however, to separate with certainty the work of Hadrian and that of Severus, who completed the palace in this direction. It is evident that much the greater part belongs to the latter emperor. As the slope of the hill began just east of Hadrian's addition, it was necessary for Severus, 1 when he wished to extend the palace in this direction, to build out an artificial platform by means of a series of enormous arches and substructures. On this platform the new part of the palace proper rose. These arched substructures extend to some distance from the edge of the hill, and at their extremity the platform is from 23 to 24.5 metres above the valley beneath. They are still among the most imposing ruins of Rome. Of the palace itself almost nothing remains, but the substructures are very complicated in their arrangement of arches, cisterns, and apartments of various sizes, the use of which cannot be made out. At the extreme southeast corner of the hill, Severus con- structed an edifice, called the Septizonium, ut ex Africa ve'ni- entibus suum opus occurreret. 2 This structure stood about 100 i Jordan, I. 3. 98-100. 2 Spart. Vit. Sev. 24 (21); Jordan, FUR. 38; OIL. vi. 1032; Hiilsen, Das Septizonium, Berlin, 1886; BC. 1888, 269-278; Mitt. 1889, 258-259 ; 1910,56-73; Jordan, I. 3. 100-102; Durm, Baukunst der R&mer, 2d ed., 469-474. 158 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. metres east of the end of the existing lofty platform of the palace, and some remains of its north end are beneath the level of the modern via di S. Gregorio. The building was nothing more than a decorative facade, about 100 metres long, 31 high, and 17 deep, the back of which was a plain wall. In this facade were three great niches, flanked by projecting towers, and it appeared to be built in three stories, each of which was ornamented with columns of marble, porphyry, and granite. We are told that Severus intended that the central niche of the Septizonium should be the principal entrance to the Palatium, but that during the absence of the emperor the prefect of the city set up a colossal statue of his master at this very point. Whatever may be the value of this story, it is quite possible that changes in the original plan of the building were intro- duced during its construction. It seems certain that it served no purpose except to form a magnificent architectural member to complete the palace of Severus. No thoroughly satisfactory explanation of the name Septizo- nium has been found. The edifice was not seven stories in height, and the septem zonae may refer to the seven bands formed by the stylobate, the three colonnades, and the three entablatures. 1 A recent suggestion is that Septizonium is a corruption of Septizodium, 2 the house of the seven planets. The main axis of the Septizonium did not correspond with that of the Palatium or of the Circus Maximus, but was per- pendicular to the line of the via Appia, which began directly in front of the central niche. Very considerable portions of this structure were standing at the close of the sixteenth cen- tury, but they were then torn down, and the material employed elsewhere. Directly below the southwest end of the domus Flavia, about halfway up the slope of the hill, are remains of a building, con- 1 Archivf. Lat. Lexikographie, 1892, 272. 2 Maass, Die Tagesgotter in Rom und den Provinzen, Berlin, 1902, 10&-117 ; OIL. viiL 14372. Cf. Mitt. 1910, 68-73. THE PALATINE HILL. 159 sisting of a number of small chambers opening from the north side of a peristyle. The walls of these chambers were lined with marble and stucco, and round the peristyle ran a porticus supported by Corinthian columns of granite, one of which is in situ. While much of the construction is of later date, the origi- nal building was probably in existence when Domitian's palace was erected. The present porticus is entirely a modern resto- ration. Numerous graffiti 1 have been found, incised in the stucco of the chambers, which have been supposed to prove that the building was used as a Paedagogitun, or training school for the pages of the imperial household, 2 but this is somewhat doubtful. In front of this Paedagogium, at a lower level and with a slightly different orientation, are the ruins of a private house, consisting of an atrium, a tablinum, and a triclinium. 3 This house is on the same level as the Circus Maximus, and close to it. It has been identified with a domus Gelotiana, 4 which was incorporated into the palace by Caligula, but the evidence for this identification is inconclusive. The Additions to the Domus Tiberiana. As has been stated above, the additions made to the domus Tiberiana by Caligula did not extend beyond the later clivus Victoriae, and by far the greater part of the enormous mass of masonry at this corner of the Palatine belongs to the later building of the Antonines, especially Severus and Caracalla. These emperors adopted the same method of increasing the available area here as at the op- posite corner of the hill. From the line of the Nova via great arched substructures rose to the height of the hill itself, and on the platform which they supported the additions to the i BC. 1893, 248-260; 1894, 89-94. *Bull. Crist. 1863, 72; 1867, 75; Ann. d. 1st. 1882, 191-220; Jordan, I. 3, 91-93; Hillsen, Das sogenannte Paedagogium auf dem Palatin. Melanges Boissier, Paris, 1903. NS. 1892, 44 ; Mitt. 1893, 289-292. * Suet. Col. 18 ; OIL. vi. 8663. 160 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. palace were erected. The height of the perpendicular from the pavement of the Nova via to the summit of the hill is about 25 metres, so that the fagade of the palace on the side toward the Forum was remarkably imposing. These substruc- tures were filled with story above story of apartments, devoted FIG. 21. NORTHWEST CORNER OF THE PALATINE. partly to the use of palace attendants of all grades, and partly, along the Nova via and the clivus, to shops. This complicated mass of masonry, of concrete faced with tufa and brick, com- prises the remnants of the original structure of Caligula, and the restorations and additions of the two centuries following, which in some parts have a different orientation. Three main tiers of apartments can be distinguished, the lowest opening on the Nova via, which appear to have been shops ; those of the story above opening on the clivus Victoriae, perhaps shops also ; and finally those at the top of the hill. Of the palace proper which towered above the platform, noth- ing remains. Vestiges of elaborate wall-decorations, marble lin- THE PALATINE HILL. 161 ings, and mosaic pavements may still be seen in some of the chambers and passages of the substructures, and a part of a gallery above the clivus Victoriae. Flights of steps connected the different stories, of which the longest, in a good state of preservation, leads from the clivus Victoriae to the top of the hill. Direct access from the Forum to this part of the palace was .afforded by a flight of steps (p. 134) that led up between the temples of Vesta and Castor to the north corner of the hill, and by another flight that led to the same place from a point a little farther east on the Nova via. Another way of approach was by a passage, paved with opus spicatum, or herring-bone brick, 1 which ascended in a zigzag course from behind the tem- ple of Castor along the east side of the bibliotheca divi Augusti, until it joined the first of these flights of steps and the clivus Victoriae (p. 163). The Temple and Library of Augustus. Tiberius commenced and Caligula completed the erection of a temple of Augustus, 2 in which were placed the statues of Augustus, Livia, Claudius, and probably of the later emperors and empresses who were deified. The temple was therefore called by various names, templum divi Augusti, 3 divi Augusti et divae Augustae, 4 tern- plum novum, 5 templum novum in Palatio, etc., and it is alto- gether probable that aedes Caesarum 6 and templum divorum in Palatio 7 refer to the same building. It was burned in the reign of Vespasian or Domitian, 8 and rebuilt by the latter, after which time it was still spoken of as the templum novum tf or . 1900, 74; 1903, 167-170; Mitt. 1902, 74; Hulsen-Carter, 177. 2 Suet. Tib. 47; CaL 21; Dio Cass. Ivi. 46; PI. NH. xii. 94; Tac. Ann. vi. 45; Gilbert, HI. 121-123, 131-133; Jordan, I. 3. 79-86; Lanciani, Ruins, 122-125. 8 Suet. Cal. 22. 6 Suet. Tib. 74. < CIL. vi. 4222. 6 Suet. Galba, 1. i CIL. vi. 2087, 2104; cf., however, Hiilsen in Jordan, I. 3. 81-82. 8 PL NH. xii. 94. Mart. iv. 53. 162 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. tern plum divi August! ad Minervam. 1 Coins 2 of Antoninus Pius indicate a restoration during his reign. Tiberius also erected a library 3 (bibliotheca templi divi August!) in connection with 4 the temple, which was probably injured in the fire which destroyed the temple, for the books appear to have been removed by Domitian and replaced by Trajan. 4 This library may possibly be the same as that which was afterwards called the bibliotheca domus Tiberianae 5 (see p. 147). The position of this temple is defined by the statement that Caligula united the Capitoline and the Palatine by a bridge, super templum divi Augusti transmisso, 6 and it has been gen- erally identified with the building the ruins of which, belong- ing to the period of Domitian and partly known before, have been recently uncovered by the removal of the church of S. Maria Liberatrice. This structure 7 filled the space between the temple of Castor, the vicus Tuscus, and the clivus Victoriae, at a height of about 12 metres above the level of the Forum pavement (Fig. 40). The main facade was toward the vicus Tuscus, and the axis of the building was perpendicular to that street. The front part of the building consists of a vestibule, 32 metres wide and 6 deep, which formed the f aqade, and of a very large rectangular hall behind it. The roof of the vestibule was lower than that of the main hall, and seems to have had no supports originally except at the ends. At a later period six short cross-walls (a'a', Fig. 40) were built in the vestibule. At each end was a colossal semicircular niche. The remains of the front wall of the structure are too scanty to afford any in- i OIL. iii. pp. 859, 861. 2 Cohen, Ant. 797-810. Suet. Tib. 74. 4 Mart. xii. 3 (in Friedlander's ed.). Gell. xiii. 20; Vop. Vit. Prob. 2. 6 Suet. Cat. 22. ''Mitt. 1902, 74-82; 1905, 82-83; PBS. I. 19-25; OR. 1901, 329; 1902, 95, 284; BC. 1903, 199-204, 230-236; Hulsen-Carter, 161-179. THE PALATINE HILL. 163 dication as to the number of doorways between the vestibule and the main hall. This hall was 32 metres wide and about 25 deep, and in its walls were rectangular and semicircular niches, arranged alternately, in which the statues of the deified persons were placed. Above the niches towered the lofty wall of brick, with several rows of sham relieving arches, and sheathed with marble. Its upper part was pierced with win- dows, and the roof was probably of timber. On the north side of the building, toward the temple of Castor, was a portions of brick piers (&'&', Fig. 40) with en- gaged columns on their outer face, which formed a sort of second faqade. From this portions one entrance led into the great hall just described, and another, farther east, into that part of the building which was behind the temple proper. This part consists of a large rectangular hall (H), behind it a sort of peristyle (P) or quadriporticus, and back of that a series of three rooms opening into the peristyle. The first hall is about 21 metres deep by 20 wide, and its walls contain niches, alternately square and semicircular. Doors opened from this hall into the main building, and on the opposite side into a very lofty passage (A), from 3 to 4 metres wide (see p. 161), which ascends gradually, with four turns, to the clivus Victoriae. The second hall, or peristyle, was divided by four brick piers, with columns between them, into a central part and aisles. It is uncertain whether the central space was originally roofed over or not. Doorways opened from the aisles into the temple proper and into the ascending corridor. At the south end of this peristyle were three rectangular rooms, the central one being the largest, 8.5 by 7 metres, and the others smaller, 4.5 by 7, and 4.5 by 5. The south wall is built at an angle with the aiis of the temple, and perpendicular to the line of the clivus Victoriae. It was perfectly solid, so as to cut off the building entirely from the hill on the south and southeast. There is little doubt that this eastern portion of the structure is the bibliotheca attached to the temple, al- 164 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. though this so-called temple itself is far from conforming to the normal type. Beneath the bibliotheca are the remains of a very large piscina (1?), 9 metres wide and 25 metres long, built of brick with steps at each end and niches in the sides, which dates from the time of Caligula, and seems to have belonged to the buildings by which he connected the Palatine and Capitoline. It is oriented according to the line of the clivus Victoriae and infima Nova via. Other fragments of an earlier structure with the same orientation have been found beneath the tem- ple proper, which may have belonged to the first temple of Caligula. The original Nova via 1 ran along the north slope of the Palatine, but probably farther north than the existing line. At the northwest corner of the hill it probably turned toward the south and joined the vicus Tuscus at some point not far from this corner. The erection of the temple of Augustus must have changed the conditions essentially, and the course of the Nova via is now exceedingly doubtful. The existing pavement 2 of this street lies along the south side of the atrium Vestae, but is blocked completely 3 at the corner of the hill by a hall (p, Fig. 40 ; cf . p. 219) in front of the bibliotheca. Dur- ing the imperial period, therefore, it appears that the Nova via had no connection with the temple of Castor or the vicus Tuscus, except through the Forum or the clivus Victoriae. During the Byzantine period the library of the temple of Augustus was converted into the church of S. Maria Antiqua, 4 and various changes were made in the original structure, such as the substitution of granite columns for the brick piers in iCic. de Div. i. 101; ii. 69; Varro, LL. v. 43, 164; vi. 59; Ov. Fast. vi. 396; Liv. i. 41; v. 32; Gilbert, II. 114-117; III. 422-423; Hermes, 1885, 428-429; Pais, Ancient Legends, 272-273. *NS. 1882, 234-238, 413; 1884, 191; CR. 1905, 76. 8J/itt. 1902, 73-74. *PBS. 1. 1-119 (S. Maria Antiqua) ; Mitt. 1902, 82-86; 1905, 84-94; BC. 1900, 299-320; 1903,204-230; Hiilsen-Carter, 168-177. THE PALATINE HILL. 165 the peristyle, the cutting of doors through the niches between the hall and peristyle, and the construction of a sort of choir in the central portion. The walls of the church were covered with frescoes, which have been brought to light by the recent excavations. On the southwest side of the temple of Augustus these excavations l have also disclosed a series of chambers which are bui^t against the side of the hill, and rise to the level of the clivus Victoriae. The lower rooms are of opus quadratum, and the upper of brickwork, and in front of them is a trape- zoidal court surrounded by similar rectangular rooms. These remains form one structure and belong to the buildings repre- sented on the Capitoline Plan as standing here, which appear to be horrea, possibly the horrea Germaniciana of the Notitia? The space bounded on the west and south by the domus Tiberiana and the domus Augustana, of somewhat indefinite extent and use, was called the area Palatina (Fig. 19) . 3 The principal approach to it was by a street which led up from the summa Sacra via through the porta Mugonia. This street is now usually called the clivns Palatinus, but there is no ancient authority for this name. Some believe that the term Sacer clivus (p. 312) was applied to this street as well as to part of the Sacra via, and it has also been identified with the vicus Apollinis of the Capitoline Base. South of the Nova via are traces of pavements at two levels, the earlier dating probably from the beginning of the empire and the later from the period after the fire of Nero. The later street was wider and straighter than the earlier, and was flanked on the west by structures built against the slope of the hill that appear to have been shops. Considerable portions of their walls have recently been excavated. 4 1 CR. 1903, 329; 1904, 139, 331 ; Mitt. 1905, 84. 2 Reg. viii. Cf., however, p. 419. Gell. xx. 1, 1 ; Mitt. 1890, 77. *CR. 1903, 136; 1905, 237; 1909, 61; Mitt. 1905, 119; BC. 1903, 17; Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1905, 428. 166 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT KOME. The exact site of the porta Mugonia (p. 37) cannot be de- termined with certainty, although it was undoubtedly very near the intersection of the Nova via and the clivus Palatinus. Very near the centre of the area Palatina is a mass of medieval masonry, which belonged to the fortifications of the Frangipani family. Near by are traces of buildings of the earliest period, but nothing which can be identified, although it is altogether probable that the Mundus, 1 or augural centre of the city (p. 38), was just here. lOv. Fast. iv. 821; Fest. 157, 258; EE. viii. 283, 12; Mitt. 1890, 76; 1896, 202-204; Jordan, I. 3. 43. CHAPTER IX. THE FORUM. The Topographical Centre of Ancient Rome was the low ground lying between the Palatine, the Velia, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Capitoline. When the Palatine city had extended its boundaries to the adjacent heights, this became the natural meeting-place for trade and political action. These two functions were carefully separated, the political assemblies being held on the Comitium, a small and definitely marked- out area, which lay at the northwest corner of the much larger and undetermined area where the people met for other pur- poses. This was called the Forum, or market-place. 1 Al- though there was no natural line of demarcation between Forum and Comitium, they were kept distinct in use until the middle of the second century B.C. After that date they grad- ually lost their separate identity, and the phrase Comitium et Forum 2 conveyed but one idea. This valley was originally swampy, being the natural basin for the drainage of the surrounding hills. The principal water- course (see p. 18) came down from the Subura, and crossing the Forum flowed through the Velabrum to the Tiber. It is not possible to ascertain the exact elevation of all parts of this district, but the original level of the Comitium appears to have been 9 metres above the sea, or 2.30 metres above the mean level of the Tiber, while that of the travertine pavements in front of the temple of Julius Caesar, on which the altar was built, is 12.62 metres above the sea. This was one of the lowest * Varro, LL. v. 145-146; Fest. 84. 2x ac . Agr. 2 (ac for et). 167 168 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. points in the Forum, in the last century of the republic. The distance from the base of the Capitoline hill, directly in front of the steps of the temple of Saturn, to the east end of the Regia is about 210 metres. The path or road from the ridge of the Velia down to the Forum was called the Sacra via (p. 54), a name that in modern times has been extended to the continuation of this road, which ran through the Forum to the base of the Capitoline. We may distinguish four stages in the development of the Forum, the first extending to the last years of the monarchy, the second to the beginning of the second century B.C., the third to the time of Julius Caesar, and the fourth to the third century. The end of the first period was marked by the beginning of a systematic attempt to drain the swampy ground. This was effected by constructing sewers, and especially the Cloaca Maxima, which at this early time was made by simply walling up the banks of the brook and regulating its flow. The date, to which tradition assigned this drainage, has been confirmed by the discovery of an ancient necropolis (p. 187) on the Sacra via, in front of the later temple of Faustina and just outside the limits of the Forum during this first period. This ne- cropolis ceased to be used in the sixth century. Before this time it had been impracticable to construct any permanent buildings in the centre of the Forum, but rude booths, tabernae, 1 had been erected on both sides of the Sacra via, which were occupied by butchers and fishmongers. There were a few sanctuaries, such as the altars of Saturn and Vulcan at the west end on the slope of the Capitoline, the double archway of Janus on the north side, and the shrine of Vesta at the corner of the Palatine. There must also have been a building in which the senate met on the Comitium. There were clay pits (p. 173) on the north side, from which the material for crude brick was ob- i Liv. i. 35; Dionys. iii. 67; Non. 532. THE FORUM. 169 tained, and tufa quarries, Lautumiae (p. 172), at the base of the Capitoline. There were several springs and pools, two of which, the lacus Curtius and lacus luturnae, continued to exist during historical times. It is possible that the tabernae assumed a more permanent character toward the end of this period. During the second period, the first three centuries of the republic, the Forum became an increasingly important part of the city. The temples of Saturn, of Castor and Pollux, and of Concord were erected and the Eegia, or official house of the pontifex maximus, was built just outside the eastern limits of the Forum proper. The central area was paved, probably in the fourth century, and gladiatorial games and shows of all sorts were celebrated here. C. Maenius, the victor in the battle of Antium, introduced the custom of erecting galleries above the shops, from which these games could be witnessed, and which were called maeniana. 1 We are told that at some time before 310 B.C. the butchers were banished from these shops, and that they were occupied by money-changers and bankers, being thenceforth known as tabernae argentariae. 2 It is pos- sible that this improvement also was due to Maenius. In 210 B.C. the shops on the north side of the Sacra via burned down, and after being rebuilt were called tabernae novae, while those on the south side were known as tabernae veteres, and the two sides of the Forum were distinguished as sub noms and sub veteribus.* On the Comitium, the Rostra and the Graecostasis, or platform on which foreign ambassadors were received, were built during this period. The character and appearance of the Forum was greatly changed at the beginning of the second century B.C. by the erection of the three basilicas, Porcia, Aemilia, and Sempronia, and, fifty years later, of the Opimia. These basilicas added iFest. 134; Vitr. v. 1, 1. 2 Varro, ap. Non. 532; Vitr. v. 1, 1. Liv. xxvi. 27; Varro, LL. vi. 59; Fest. 230; Cic. Acad. ii. 70; Jordan,! 2. 378-383; Gilbert, HI. 202-207. 170 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. greatly to the appearance of the Forum ; but their main object was to afford convenient and sheltered halls where the Romans could meet to transact the steadily increasing business of the capital. The arch of Fabius was built at the east entrance to the Forum, and two or more arches of Janus at other points, while the area was gradually filled with statues of famous citizens. In the latter part of this period considerable changes took place in the Comitium. On the whole, however, the appearance of the Forum in the middle of the first century B.C. must have been decidedly ugly and irregular. In the middle of the second century B.C. the political assemblies of the people had been transferred from the small Comitium to the Forum, a transfer marked a century later by the removal of the Rostra to the Forum itself, which then became in the fullest sense the centre of Rome. The fourth period witnessed the complete rebuilding of the Forum, a process which was just begun by Julius Caesar, and carried out by Augustus and Tiberius. Later emperors did something; but, with the exception of the temples of Vespasian and Faustina, the arch of Septimius Severus, the eight pedestals and columns in front of the basilica lulia, and a few minor changes, chiefly in its central area, the Forum of the empire, which is known to us by its ruins, is the work of Augustus and Tiberius. In its final shape, 1 the area of the Forum was surrounded by the following buildings, beginning at the northwest corner : *For a new triangulation of the Forum, and the elevations of its various points, see NS. 1900, 220-229, with plan. The best handbook for the Forum is Hiilsen, The Roman Forum, translated by J. B. Carter, 2d ed. Rome, 1909. See also H. Thedenat, Le Forum Romain et les Forums imperiaux, 4th ed. Paris, 1908 ; Thedenat et Hoffbauer, Le Forum Romain et la voie sacree ; aspect successif des monuments depuis le IVe siecle jusqu'a nos jours, Paris, 1905. The best description of the excavations of 1899-1904 are by Hiilsen , Mitt. 1902, 1-97; 1905, 1-119. See also Vaglieri, BC. 1903, 3-239; Boni, NS. 1900, passim; Ashby, OR. 1900-1906, and CQ. 1907, passim; BC. 1904, passim; Boni, Atti; Richter, BRT. IV. THE FORUM. 171 the Career, the temples of Concord and Vespasian, which abutted against the substructures of the Tabularium, the porti- cus Deorum Consentiuni in the angle of the clivus Capitolinus, and the temple of Saturn ; on the south side, the basilica lulia, the temple of Castor and Pollux, the lacus luturnae, and the temple of Vesta ; at the east end, the temple of Julius Caesar and the arch of Augustus, and behind them the Kegia, the atrium Vestae, and the arch of Fabius ; on the north side, the temple of Faustina, the basilica Aemilia, the Curia, and the Secretarium senatus. Across the west end stretched the Rostra of the empire, and there were numerous other structures of various sorts which will be described hereafter. After the building of the imperial fora, the old Forum was sometimes distinguished from them by the epithets Bomanum or Magnum. Streets. Until the time of Augustus, the Sacra via passed along the north side of the Regia, and then, bending to the left, continued along the south side of the Forum to the temple of Saturn, where the clivus Capitolinus began. The erection of the temple of the deified Julius necessitated a change, and thereafter the street ran in a straight line from the arch of Fabius to the north corner of the temple of Julius, then turned at a right angle and passed in front of this temple to the temple of Castor, where it turned again at a right angle and ran along the front of the basilica lulia. 1 Besides the Sacra via and clivus Capitolinus, six other ways led into the Forum : the vicus lugarius, between the temple of Saturn and the basilica lulia ; the vicus Tuscus, between the basilica lulia and the temple of Castor ; the flight of steps (p. 161) which led up to the Nova via and clivus Victoriae, between the lacus luturnae and the atrium Vestae ; the street between the temple of Faustina and the basilica Aemilia, the name of which is not known ; the Argiletum, between the 1 For a different view, according to which the road ran along the south side of the Regia, see Melanges, 1908, 236-253. 172 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. basilica Aemilia and the Curia; and, finally, the street be- tween the Curia and the temple of Concord, on which were the quarries (p. 169), and which was itself called Lautumiae in early times and clivus Argentarius 1 under the late empire. This street, which connected the Forum with the porta Fontinalis (p. 50), was the direct means of communication between the Forum and the campus Martius until the imperial fora were built. The ancient pavement has been found beneath what has been until very recently a part of the via di Marf orio, with which it approximately coincided. The vicus lugarius is said to have received its name from an altar of luno luga, quam putarent matrimonium iungere, 2 but it is quite as likely that it was so called because it connected the Forum with the district of the forum Holitorium, or because the makers of yokes had their shops here. The present pave- ment is not ancient, 3 but preserves the line of the street after the building of the basilica lulia. Some earlier foundations, recently discovered 4 beneath the temple of Saturn, show that before the Augustan period this street was a little farther to the southeast. According to tradition, 5 the vicus Tuscus derived its name from a settlement of Etruscans, who either had fled to Home after the repulse of Porsenna at Aricia or had come to the assistance of the Romans against Titus Tatius. A more plausible explanation is that this settlement was composed of the workmen who had come to Koine to build the temple of luppiter Capitolinus. This street connected the Forum and Velabrum, and bore an unsavory reputation. 6 On its east side, directly behind the temple of Castor, stood the temple of i Jordan, 1.2.437-438. 2Fest. 290; Epit. 104; Jordan, I. 2. 468; Gilbert, I. 257-263; HI. 416-417. 8 NS. 1883, 14. < CR. 1902, 94. 6 Liv. ii. 14; Varro, LL. v. 46; Tac. Ann. iv. 65; Serv. ad Aen. v. 560; Jordan, 1. 1. 273-274, 295; I. 2. 469; Gilbert, II. 101-118; III. 416. 6 Plaut. Cure. 482 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 228. 10 10 20 30 40 50 BO 70 80 90 FIG. 23. THE FOE MONS PALAT I NUS OF THE EMPIRK. THE FORUM. 173 Augustus and extensive warehouses (p. 165) ; and the removal of the medieval pavement between the basilica lulia and the temple of Castor exposed to view 1 a unique specimen of street pavement of opus spicatum, or small cubes of brick. This pavement is about 15 metres in length, and is bounded on the west side by a gutter, but on the other it extends be- neath the foundations of the temple, and was therefore laid before this temple was rebuilt by Tiberius. In this street stood a statue of Vortumnus, 2 which tradition assigned to Numa. The Argiletum 3 connected the Forum with the Subura and the eastern section of the city, and was one of the great arteries of communication. Its general character was like that of the Subura (p. 457), but it was also a centre of the book trade. Any number of explanations were given by the Romans for the name, but the most probable is that it was derived from the clay (argilld) which was dug close by. The lower part of it was converted by Domitian and Nerva into the forum Transitorium (p. 282). The Temple of Concord. From the very earliest times an altar of Vulcan stood on the lower slope of the Capitoline, at the northwest corner of the Forum, and the surrounding space was called the area Volcani or Volcanal. 4 This area, a locus sub- structus, was about 5 metres above the level of the Comitium, and from it, before the building of the Rostra, the Roman officials addressed the people. At the edge of this area was also the Senaculum (p. 231), the assembling place of the senate, and a lotos tree, said to be as old as the city itself, was growing here in the time of Pliny. Some remains of very 1 CR. 1899, 466; BC. 1899, 253. (This pavement is now covered.) 2 Prop. iv. 2; Gilbert, III. 416. 8 Varro, LL. v. 157; Serv. ad Aen. viii. 345; Mart. i. 3. 1, 117. 9; Jordan, I. 2. 345, 351; 3. 327; Gilbert, II. 87-92; BC. 1890, 98-102. Lhr.xl.l9; Dionys. ii. 50 ; Fest. 290 ; Gell.iv.5; PI. NH. xvi. 236 ; Jordan, I. 2. 339-341; Gilbert, I. 248-257; Mitt. 1893, 87-88. 174 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. early tufa foundations have been found 1 just behind the arch of Severus, which seem to have belonged to the Volcanal, and traces of a sort of rock platform, 3.95 metres long by 2.80 wide, which had been covered with cement and painted red. Its upper surface is cut by various channels, and in front of it are the remains of a drain made of tufa slabs. This may possibly have been the ara Volcani. It shows signs of having been damaged and repaired. Behind it are steps cut in the rock and leading up to the temple of Concord. In the surface of this rock are cuttings, round and square, which have some resemblance to graves, and are so regarded by some 2 but probably without reason. Although the cult of Vulcan continued here at least down to the early empire, 3 the Volcanal must have been much diminished in size by the encroachment of surrounding buildings, and perhaps at last entirely buried. The first temple of Concord was built by M. Furius Camil- lus in 367 B.C., to commemorate the passage of the Licinian laws and the end of the long struggle between the orders. 4 The space around the temple was then called the area Ooncordiae. The temple was rebuilt in 121 B.C. by L. Opimius, 5 who also erected the basilica Opimia 6 close to the temple on the north, with probably the same orientation. The basilica was removed and the temple entirely rebuilt by Tiberius, and dedicated in 10 A.D. in his own name and that of Drusus as the aedes Con- cordiae Augustae. 7 It was restored at least once afterward, but at an unknown date. Peculiar local conditions led to the adop- tion of a plan which made the structure unique among Roman temples. Instead of the usual proportions, the cella of the Augustan temple was 45 metres wide and only 24 deep, while i CR. 1902, 94; BC. 1902, 25-26, 125-133; 1903, 159-162; Mitt. 1902, 10; 1905, 7-9. 2 Richter, BRT. IV. 15-16. GIL. vi. 457. ) 1.78 metres high and about 3 long by 2 wide. The basin is paved with marble slabs, beneath which are some tufa remains with a different orientation, which belong to the earlier structure. The lower walls of opus reticulatum rise to the same height i BC. 1903, 66. 2 Ov. Fast. i. 706; Dionys. vi. 13; Jordan, I. 2. 371; Lanciani, Acque, 13-14; Herschel, Frontinus, 132-133. 8NS. 1900, 291-295; 1901, 41-144; BC. 1900, 67-74, 285-295; 1903, 166-198; CR. 1901, 139; Mitt. 1902, 67-74; 1905, 81-82; Atti, 530-539. THE FOEUM. 215 216 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. on three sides as the base just mentioned, and this appears to have been the level of the precinct in republican times, corre- sponding to that of the pavements in front of the temple of Castor. On this wall is a ledge about 1.50 metres wide, and round this a later wall of opus incertum, 1.23 metres high, on which is a travertine curbing. There are indications of marble or metal balustrades on this curbing and on the ledge below. At the top the basin measures about 10 metres square. At the northeast and northwest corners of the pavement of the basin are the two springs by which it has always been fed, which are now flowing freely. The whole inner surface of this basin was lined with marble, much of which is in situ. The east side of the basin has been entirely changed by being built over in the fourth century, in order to enlarge the room at the east (e). A number of pieces of a beautifully executed frieze of palmettes were found in the lacus and adjacent parts of the Forum, enough to extend a distance of 15 metres. Other fragments of this or a similar frieze exist elsewhere in Rome. 1 About 4 metres south of the lacus is a group belonging to the precinct, and composed of an altar (ri), a well with marble curb or puteal, and a shrine (o) of the goddess Juturna. The puteal is 0.968 metre high, with decorated plinth and cornice. On the edge of the puteal and on its front is an inscription, 2 which states that it was restored and dedicated by M. Barbatius Pollio, probably the partisan of Marcus Antonius. 3 Close to the front of the puteal is a large slab of marble, and on this was found a marble altar, lying on its face, on which are sculp- tured a male and female figure in the style of the time of Severus. Slab and altar had been used as steps to the puteal, which seems to have been too high for the convenient drawing of water at this later period. The base of the puteal had also been covered up with pozzolana. The level of the spring in this well is the same as that of those in the basin. *Mitt. 1905, 81-82. 2 Mitt. 1902, 70. 8 Cic. Phil. xiii. 3. THE FORUM. 217 . ''"''_" V' 'j .,' '"". -;.-' . :."-.' FIG. 41. THE PRECINCT OF JUTURNA. . * - - . - v i ' Immediately behind and somewhat higher than the puteal is a brick foundation on which stands the aedicula luturnae (o), which consisted of a cella and prouaos, with two marble 218 TOPOGKAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. columns. Of these columns there are no remains. A statue of the goddess undoubtedly stood in the apse of this aedicula, and a fragment of the epistyle was found near by, with the inscription IVTVENAI S. The inclined way from the Forum to the Palatine started near the temple of Vesta, and ascended along the wall of the THE FORUM. 219 atrium (xy), supported by a series of arches, under which are chambers (c, d) opening on the corridor. The room e, with three niches in the east wall, has been enlarged by taking down the wall between the two adjoining chambers, destroying the original west wall, and building out over the lacus, as previously described. In this room and the next (m) there is a pavement of tiles laid over an early one of opus spicatum. On the west side of the corridor are two other rooms (a, 6), and in the corridor itself are three pavements, the earliest of opus spicatum, the next of tiles, and the latest of white and black mosaic. In these rooms have been found many fragments of inscriptions 1 relating to the curatores aquarum and the static aquarnm, or headquarters of the water department of Rome. One of these records a restoration of the static by Fl. Maesius Egnatius Lollianus in 328 A.D., and it is probable that the enlargement just described took place at that time, when the static was in the precinct of Juturna. When this office was first established here is not known. 2 Many remains of sculpture were found here, among them a marble altar in the lacus, similar to that at the shrine, with beautiful reliefs, fragments of the Dioscuri of life size, 3 and a statue of Aesculapius in front of the niche in room e. The large number of medieval potsherds, now stored in room' d, shows that fohe springs were in use at a late date. Immediately south of the aedicula, at a higher level, is a large hall (p) with an apse, which completely blocks the Nova via (p. 164) and probably dates from about the same period as the enlargement of the statio aquarum. In the middle ages this became an oratory. No trace has been found of the sacellum Larum * (p. 131), which is described as being one of 1 NS. 1901, 129-131; BC. 1900, 72; Mitt. 1902, 72-73. 2 For an ingenious suggestion as to the possible use made of these rooms before the establishment of the statio, see JJ. 1902, 370-388. a Mitt. 1900, 338-349. *Tac. Ann. xii. 24; CR. 1905, 76. 220 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. the points in the first pomerium, and is supposed to have stood at this corner of the hill. The Rostra. The Eostra l was the famous platform from which the Roman orators addressed the people. Such a plat- form must have existed from very early times, but the name rostra was applied to it after 338 B.C., when C. Maenius 2 deco- rated the suggestus, either that already in existence or a new one, with the rostra of the ships captured at Antium. This platform stood on the south side of the republican Comitiuin (p. 228), so that from it the speaker could address the people assembled either on the Comitium or in the Forum. 3 It was consecrated as a templum, 4 and on it were placed statues 5 of famous men, in such numbers that at intervals the platform had to be cleared in order to make room for new claimants for the honor. On this Eostra, or close by, was the columna rostrata, 6 a column ornamented with beaks of ships, and erected in honor of C. Duilius Nepos, the victor at Mylae in 260 B.C. The column and its archaic inscription were restored by Augustus or Tibe- rius (or possibly Claudius), and part of the restored inscrip- tion has been preserved. This Eostra kept its place on the Comitium throughout the republic, and was the most distinctive symbol of the old regime. Caesar decided to remove the Eostra to the Forum, but his definite plan seems not to have been carried out, or at least the dedication not to have taken place, until after 42 B.C. 7 Au- gustus seems to have rebuilt the Eostra, incorporating in it part l Jordan, I. 2. 353-356 ; Gilbert, III. 151-155, 172-173. Liv. viii. 14; PI. NH. xxxiv. 20. Varro, LL. v. 155; Diodor. xii. 26; Ascon. in Mil. p. 37. a\6<; at Delphi. It was probably erected in the latter part of the third century. At the west end of the Forum, Augus- tus had erected a column, covered with gilt-bronze, which was called the Milliarium Aureum. 2 On it were engraved the names of the principal cities of the empire, and their distances from the capital. Part of a circular marble plinth has been found here, which may have belonged to this monument ; and it is possible that the Milliarium Aureum stood in a position at the south end of the Rostra corresponding to that of the Umbilicus at the other. 3 Beginning behind the south end of the hemicycle, and ex- tending about 20 metres south, is a row (op, Fig. 46) of eight arched rectangular chambers 4 set on a line parallel with the major axis of the temple of Saturn and forming an angle of 15 with that of the Rostra. The two chambers at the south end were partially built over by the foundations of the arch of Tiberius. The structure is built of opus reticulatum of tufa, and is 20.80 metres long and 2.30 high. The rooms are 1.60 metres high, 1.70 broad, and from 1.50 to 2.15 deep. The in- side walls are covered with opus signinum, and the pavement is of rude brick tesserae, and extended for a distance of 4 metres from the front of the row. Above these rooms is a floor of rammed tufa, edged with tufa slabs (the present upper layer is modern). i Not. Reg. viii. ; Jordan, I. 2. 245. 2 PI. NH. iii. 66; Tac. Hist. i. 27; Dio Cass. liv. 8; Gilbert, III. 173-174. 3 CR. 1900, 237 ; Mitt. 1902, 20. *2fS. 1900, 627-634; SO. 1900, 267-269; 1903, 153-158; CR. 1901, 87-88; Mitt. 1902, 13-16; 1905, 14-15. THE FORUM. 227 FIG. 47. THE SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE CLIVUS CAPITOI-INUS. It seems clear that this row of arches was a sort of viaduct, built to support the clivus Capitolinus when the temple of Saturn was restored by Plaucus in 42 B.C. 1 The enlargement of the temple at that time made it necessary to push the line 1 For arguments in favor of assigning this substructure to the time of Sulla, see EC. 1902, 128; Richter, Geschichte der Rednerbtihne, 8-9. 228 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. of the clivus farther eastj and it was then carried on these substructures. The theory at first advanced 1 that this struc- ture was the rostra of Julius Caesar has been shown to be untenable. In front of these chambers, between the arch of Tiberius and the prolongation of the south wall of the Rostra, are the remains of a room (q, Fig. 46) of trapezoidal shape, with a pavement of white marble. A marble seat encircled three sides of the chamber, and in the middle of the north wall is a door from which a flight of steps led up to the level of the clivus Capitolinus. There are also marks of posts or columns on the pavement. This may possibly have been the so-called schola Xanthi, 2 an office of the scribae, librarii, and praecones of the curule aediles. An epistyle 3 was found on this spot in the sixteenth century, which recorded the erection of this schola by Bebryx Aug. lib. Drusianus and A. Fabius Xanthus, not later than the time of Trajan and perhaps as early as that of Tiberius, and its restoration by a certain C. Avilius Licinius Trosius at the beginning of the third century. The Comitium. The word comitium 4 means the place of assembly (com-eo), and until the middle of the second century B.C. 5 it was the political centre of Rome (p. 170). The changes effected by Caesar and his successors destroyed its previous topographical arrangement, but this can be reconstructed in its main lines. The republican Comitium 6 was a templum or inaugurated plot of ground, approximately 70 metres east and west and somewhat more north and south, oriented according INS. 1900, 627-634; Richter, BRT. IV. 14. 2 Gilbert, III. 161-162; Mitt. 1888, 208-232; 1902, 12-13; BC. 1903, 164. a OIL. vi. 103. * Varro, LL. v. 155. 6 Cic. Lael. 96; Varro, RR. i. 2. 9; Gilbert, III. 138-141. 6 Jordan, I. 2. 261, 318-322, Gilbert, II. 70-74; aud esp. Mitt. 1893,79-94. Cf . also O'Connor, The Graecostasis of the Roman Foriim and its Vicinity, University of Wisconsin Bulletin, 1904, 159-203. For the view that the orientation of the arly Comitium was the same as that of the latest, see Pinza, // Comizio Romano nella Eta Repubblicana, Rome, 1905. THE FORUM. 229 to the cardinal points of the compass. This is also the orien- tation of three sides of the Career, of some of the so-called tabernae on the south side of the forum lulium, the founda- tions of which have been found, of part of the early structures under the lapis niger, and of the early Kegia and domus Publica. The east side of the Career and of the tabernae deter- mines the west and north sides of the Comitium, while its ex- tent toward the east was limited by the brook that came down through the Subura and the Argiletum. In the centre of the north side was the Curia ; on the west were the basilica Porcia and the Career ; on the south were the Eostra and the Graeco- stasis ; and a little farther off was the Senaculum, but the exact position of these three with reference to each other is very uncertain. The area of the Comitium, undoubtedly paved at a very early date, was inclosed, 1 partly by these buildings and partly by railings. The building of the first senate house was ascribed to Tullus Hostilius, 2 and it was regularly called the curia Hostilia. It was restored 3 by Sulla in 80 B.C., and may have been somewhat enlarged, as Sulla is said to have removed the statues 4 of Pythagoras and Alcibiades, which had stood at the corners of the Comitium. This hall was burned in 52 B.C. and rebuilt by Faustus Sulla, 5 and very possibly the enlargement just referred to was really his work. In 45 B.C. Caesar began the erection of a new Curia, 6 the curia lulia, just east of the curia Hostilia and with a different orientation/ We are told that he removed the curia Hostilia, and erected on its site a temple of Felicitas, but this temple was completed and dedicated by Lepidus after Caesar's death, and in 45 B.C. the old Curia was iCic.de Rep. ii. 31. 2 Varro, LL. v. 155; Mem. d. Line. 1883, 1-6. Cic. de Fin. v. 2. < PI. NH. xxxiv. 26. 5 Cic. pro 3ft/. 90; Ascon. in Mil. p. 29; Dio Cass. xl. 49. Dio Cass. xliv. 5 ; xlv. 17 ; xlvii. 19. 7 For the subsequent history of the curia lulia, see p. 238. 230 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. still in use. It is therefore probable that it was not entirely destroyed until the new building was at least partially ready for use, and that the temple of Felicitas occupied only a small part of its site, on its west side. The presence of this temple, with the orientation of the old Curia, would account for the irregular shape of the tabernae of the forum lulium at this point. Of the later history of the temple nothing is known, nor is there any clue to the appearance of the curia Hostilia, except that it was not so large as the curia lulia. On the west side of the Comitium was the basilica Porcia, 1 the first structure of the sort of which we have any record. It was built by Cato the Censor in 184 B.C., and stood in law- tuffdis and next to the Curia, so that its site is very closely determined. It was burned in 52 B.C., at the. same time with the Curia of Sulla, and if not totally destroyed then, it must have been removed during the changes of the following years. The Kostra (p. 220) of the republic occupied a large part of the south side of the Comitium. West of it was the Graeco- stasis, and the relative position of these structures and the gen- eral orientation of the Comitium is further determined by the statement of Pliny 2 that the accensus of the consuls proclaimed the hour of noon when, from the Curia, he saw the sun between the Rostra and Graecostasis, that is, in the south. This Graecostasis 3 was a raised platform, without a roof, on which ambassadors from foreign states awaited their reception in the senate, and from which they could witness the assem- blies of the people. The Graecostadium, 4 a structure evidently of some considerable . xxxix. 44; Ascon. in Mil. p. 29; Plut. Cat. 19; GilbertT, III. 210- 212 ; Mitt. 1893, 84, 91. 2 NH. vii. 212. *Varro, LL. \. 155; Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 13; Jordan, I. 2. 243-244; Gilbert, III. 139-140; Mitt. 1893, 87, 91 ; O'Connor, op. cit. 159-169. , 4 Jul. Capit. Vit. Ant. Pit, 9; Chronogr. a. 354, p. 148; Jordan, FUR. 19; Bull. Crist. 1902, 126; Mitt. 1905, 11-14; O'Connor, op. cit. 169-178. THE FORUM. 231 size, which was restored by Antoninus Pius and again after the fire of Carinus, has usually been identified with the earlier Graecostasis, but it was almost certainly another building. Part of the name occurs on a fragment of the Marble Plan, it is mentioned in the Notitia and Curiosum, and may be referred to by Plutarch. 1 It probably stood just south of the basilica . lulia, and not in the Forum itself. The Senaculum, 2 a building in which the senators assem- bled, presumably before entering the Curia itself, was supra Graecostasim, ubi aedes et basilica Opimia. It must, therefore, have stood on the Volcanal, at the very edge of the Comitium and in front of the earlier temple of Concord and the basilica Opimia. Its position is thus determined within very narrow limits. It must have been removed at the latest when the temple of Concord was rebuilt by Tiberius, but it was probably moved at a still earlier date, along with the Rostra ajjd the Graecostasis. On the Comitium, in front of the Curia, was a puteal, or stone curb, on a spot which had been struck by lightning ; but in the development of the legend of Attus Navius, the belief had become general that his razor and whetstone were buried here. 3 The statue of the famous augur stood on the left side of the steps of the Curia, and near by was the ficns Euminalis 4 (p. 129), which he had caused to be miraculously transplanted from the Lupercal to the Comitium. This fig tree was stand- ing in the time of Nero, when its drying up and reviving was regarded as a prodigy. Near the basilica Porcia and the Career was the columna Maenia, 5 1 De Sollertia Anim. 19 (973 c). 2 Varro, LL. v. 156; Fest. 347; Val. Max. ii. 2. 6; Gilbert, II. 70-71; III. 63 ; Mitt. 1893, 87, 91 ; Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. 913-915. Liv. i. 36; Cic. de Div. i. 33. Conon, Narr. 48; Dionys. iii. 71; PI. NH. xv. 77; Tac. Ann. xiii. 58; Jordan, I. 2. 264, 356-357; Mitt. 1893, 92; Gilbert, III. 138-139. PI. NH. vii. 212; xxxiv. 20; Cic. Div. in Caecil.50; Jordan, I. 2. 345; Mitt. 1893, 84-85; O'Connor, op. tit. 188-189. 232 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. erected in 338 B.C. in honor of C. Maenius, the victor at Antium. Another story l that was current in later times about the origin of this column is certainly false. It stood until the end of the republic, but is not mentioned afterward. Just west of the Curia were the subsellia tribunorum, 2 the wooden benches occupied by the tribunes of the people, which seem not to have survived the republic, being mentioned for the last time in connection with Caesar's triumph in 45. Near these subsellia was the tabula Valeria, 3 usually explained as a painting of the naval battle between the Romans and Carthaginians in 263 B.C., which was placed, we are told, by the victor, Valerius Messalla, in latere curiae. This is interpreted to mean either the wall of the Curia, although it is somewhat difficult to ex- plain how it survived the rebuilding by Sulla, or a sort of sep- arate balustrade which might have surrounded the whole or part of the Curia. A more probable explanation 4 is that the tabula Valeria was an inscription in bronze or marble, contain- ing the provisions of the famous Valerio-Horatian laws con- cerning the office of tribune. Such a tablet might very naturally be set up near their subsellia. Until the recent excavations, the Comitium was buried to a depth of more than 9 metres, but it has now been completely uncovered from the front of the Curia (S. Adriano) in all direc- tions, except on the northwest side. A stratigraphic examina- tion 5 of the area of the Comitium has shown that there are twenty -three strata from the latest pavement to the virgin soil, a depth of 4.04 metres. These twenty-three strata may, how- ever, be assigned to about fourteen main divisions, which in turn represent probably about six successive elevations. These 1 Pseudo-Ascon. ad Cic. Div. in Caecil. 16; Porphyr. ad Hor. Sat. i. 3. 21. 2 Suet. Goes. 78; cf. Cic. pro Sest. 18; Plut. Cat. Min.5; Gilbert, III. 165. 8 Cic. in Vatin. 21; ad Fam. xiv. 2; PI. NH. xxxv. 22; Jordan, 1.2. 330-331; Mitt. 1893, 93; AJP. 1898, 406-412. * CP. 1908, 278-284. &NS. 1900, 317-340; BC. 1900, 274-280; 1903, 125-134; Pinza, II Comizio Romano nella Eta Repubblicana, Rome, 1905. THE FORUM. 233 successive elevations in level are due to human agency ; and while it is not possible to assign an exact duration of time to all of them, they present a vivid picture of the rapid changes which were going on continually in and round the Forum. Besides earth, gravel, sand, and broken tufa, these strata con- tain fragments of all sorts such as potsherds, sacrificial re- mains, votive offerings, and bricks, of all periods. This material, some of which came from buildings that had been burned, was evidently dumped here whenever it was necessary to raise the level of the Comitium. The latest pavement 1 of the Comitium begins at a distance of about 11 metres from the front of the Curia, and extends in a fragmentary condition as far as the lapis niger. It consists of slabs of travertine, very roughly laid, and dates probably from the fourth or fifth century, although some of it may be the Caesarian pavement (see below) raised and relaid. Directly in front of the Curia is a pavement of blocks of Luna marble of the earlv imperial period. This lies about 20 centimetres below the level of the pavement just described, and represents the level of the Comitium as established by Caesar, 13.50 metres above the sea. Between this marble pavement and the later one is a travertine water-channel (1, 2, Fig. 48) 0.42 metre wide, parallel to the front of the Curia, and also a strip of gray marble (3, 4) in which are traces of the holes for marble pilas- ters, 1 metre apart. Between these pilasters there must have been a screen which divided the Comitium into two parts. Be- yond this division the pavement of the Caesarian period was of travertine, and this still exists around the lapis niger, which is embedded in it, and westward to the arch of Severus. Resting partly on the marble pavement and partly on the later travertine, is the circular marble basin (T) 5.26 metres in diameter, which belonged to a fountain. 2 It is made of eight * For these pavements, see NS. 1900, 305-316; EC. 1900, 273-274; 1903, 146- 149; CR. 1899, 233; 1900, 237; Mitt. 1902, 31-39. a BC. 1900, 13-25; CR. 1901, 86-87; Mitt. 1902, 34-35. V. 234 CVRIA FIG. 48. THE COMITIUM. THE FORUM. 235 pieces, and in its centre is an octagonal space in which the foot of the fountain stood. This must have been something like a slender cantharus in shape, and was fed by a lead pipe laid in the water-channel (1, 2). It is generally supposed to date from about the fifth or sixth century, but the workman- ship seems remarkably good for so late a period. At a depth of 0.47 metre below the level of the imperial pave- ment is a small section of a pavement (fc) of perfectly squared slabs of travertine on a foundation of broken tufa. The orien- tation of this pavement is not that of those above it, which correspond with the Curia, but is almost north and south, east and west, like that of the republican Comi- tium ; and this is, in fact, the pavement of the last century of the republic, probably belonging to the time of Sulla. Under it are the remains of a flight of tufa steps (I), 1.24 metres high, leading down to BASIN OF FOUNTAIN. FIG. 49. SECTION OF THE COMITIUM. a still older pavement made of bits of broken tufa. This pavement is 2.40 metres below that of the empire, and extends southeast a distance of 2.64 metres, where it is blocked by a vaulted drain (p, Fig. 49). This drain is built of tufa, is 1.63 metres high, and runs parallel to the front of the Curia, emptying into the sewer of the Argiletum. It appears to have been built in the time of Caesar, when the lines of the Comi- tium were changed. On this lower level was a straight flight of steps, extending 236 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. across the Comitium in an east and west direction, traces of which are visible at several points (dcba, Fig. 48). These steps led up to a sort of suggestus, which seems to have divided the Comitium and Forum, and in which it is difficult to see any- thing else than the early Rostra (p. 220). Almost parallel to these steps, and further to the south, are remains of a wall of tufa blocks (efgJii), quite archaic in appearance, 1 which may have formed the front or retaining wall of the suggestus. The lapis niger and adjacent monuments stand in a niche formed in this suggestus by two cross walls. This flight of steps was afterwards built over, at a higher level, by another flight which was curved instead of straight. Of this curved flight some portions still exist at p'pp'm. The suggestus to which they led covered the earlier, and was paved with tufa blocks, some of which are in situ at H. South of the archaic wall (ghi) is a curved channel (xz) of tufa and opus reti- culatum, which may mark the outer line of the second suggestus. The four " pozzi " (I, II, III, IV, see below) were evidently built in this second platform when it was covered by the pavement which lies at the level of their tops. The possible relations between these successive tribunals and the inclosed monuments are referred to on p. 247. Standing on a layer of earth which covered the late traver- tine pavement is a marble pedestal 2 (S, Fig. 48) 1.26 metres high and 0.80 by 0.85 in width and breadth. On its top are holes for clamps to hold a statue or column. This pedestal was originally dedicated by the officials of a guild of carpen- ters (fabri tignuarii), August 1, 154 A.D., as is shown by the inscriptions on the north and west sides. It was afterward dedicated in the name of Maxentius to Mars Invictus and the founders Romulus and Remus of the eternal city, by a certain Furius Octavianus, on the birthday of the city, April iDelbriick, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfeld, Rome, 1903, 11-12; Mitt. 1905, 30-32. 2 BC, 1899, 213-220; 1903, 134-138; NS. 1900, 303-305; Mitt. 1902, 31. THE FORUM. 237 21, in the year 308 A.D. The two inscriptions which record this dedication are on the south and east sides. This base has some bearing on the question of the lapis niger (p. 247). On the east side of the Comitium, along the Argiletum, are three marble pedestals (PQR, Fig. 48) in situ, one of which (P) is broken, but which was originally of the same size as the others, 1.55 metres high and about 1.30 square. One of these (Q) bears a dedicatory inscription 1 of Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus to the emperor Constantius, and the other (R) the most meagre traces of a similar inscription, probably to the emperor Julianus. In the medieval masonry at the southeast corner of the porch of the Curia were found some inscribed cippi ; and at various points on the Comitium and Forum, both built into later masonry and lying in the midst of the accumulated soil, many inscriptions 2 have come to light, which date all the way from the end of the republic to the end of the empire. At on the late pavement is a large rectangular base of brickwork, but there is no clue to what it supported. At various points in the Comitium, in the stratum lying beneath the republican pavement, are twenty-one small and shallow pits 8 (as I, II, Fig. 48), made of blocks of tufa, and of various shapes, rectangular, pentagonal, and rhombo- trapezoidal. These pits are sometimes covered with stone slabs, but are usually open at the bottom. Similar pits have been found at various points in the Forum, a line of eleven in front of the Rostra (Fig. 57), another line of nine under the Sacra via at the west end of the basilica lulia, several between the arch of Augustus and the temple of Castor, and others south of the lapis niger. Those in the Comitium seem to belong to the Caesarian period, or possibly a few years earlier, while some of the others, like those near the arch of 1 OIL. vi. 31395. 2 For inscriptions found during the excavations 1899-1902, see NS. passim ; BC. 1899, 205-247 ; 1900, 63-74. a NS. 1900, 317; BC. 1900, 60; 1903, 149-150; Mitt. 1902, 58; 1905, 31-35. 238 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Augustus, are as late as that emperor. When discovered, most of the pits on the Comitium were filled with rubbish of the end of the republic, in which were fragments of bones, pot- sherds, etc. According to one explanation, these pits are " pozzi rituali," or receptacles in which the remains of sacrifices were FIG. 50. SHALLOW PIT, AND VAULT OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA. preserved ; according to another, at least as probable, they are simply openings built to facilitate the draining away of rain-water. The curia lulia 1 was dedicated in 29 B.C., at which time 1 Mon. Anc. iv. 1; Dio Cass. li. 22; Gilbert, III. 167-170; Mem. d. Line. 1883, 5-26, and plates; Mitt. 1893, 278-281. THE FORUM. 239 Augustus added to it a sort of annex, called the Ohalcidicum and afterward the atrium Minervae, which seems to have been a repository for records. There was also another annex or part of the senate house, the Secretarium senatus, of which we have no direct evidence before an inscription l of the time of Honorius ; but there is little doubt that this apartment, evi- dently an office for the clerks of the senate, formed part of the structure of Augustus, as it did of that of Diocletian. The first curia lulia was restored by Domitian, 2 burned in the fire of Carinus, and finally rebuilt by Diocletian. 3 This building is the present church of S. Adriano, into which it was trans- formed about 630 A.D. Drawings of the sixteenth century show the condition of the building at that time and the main lines of its original construction. It occupied a rectangular space, 51.28 metres long and 27.51 wide, fronting on the Comitium, and in the rear abutting on the inclosure wall of the forum lulium. Its east side was on the Argiletum. The building consisted of three parts. The Curia proper, or hall in which the senate met, which is the modern church, occu- pied the east end. This hall is 25.20 metres deep and 17.61 wide. Little of the ancient interior remains except the Corin- thian pilasters of marble on each side and at the ends. The exterior can hardly have been imposing. The lower part of the brick-faced facade was covered with 'slabs of colored marble, some of which have been found in sitii, and the upper part with painted stucco, traces of which are visible. 4 The brick cornice is supported by travertine consoles, and above it is a triangular pediment, round which the cornice was con- tinued. The main entrance of Diocletian's Curia was at the top of a flight of steps, 1.60 metres above the imperial pave- ment. Only the foundation of these steps remains. The 1 GIL. vi. 1718; Jordan, I. 2. 256-257. 2 Hieronym. 161. * Chronogr. a. 354, p. 148. * NS. 1900, 48-49, 295-303; EG. 1899, 251-252; 1900, 271-273; 1903, 143-146; CR. 1900, 236-237; Mitt. 1902, 39-41; 1905, 47-52. 240 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. doorway itself was 5.90 metres in height from threshold to architrave, and continued in use until the latter part of the eleventh century, probably after the Norman invasion, when its lower half was walled up with fragments of all sorts, marble and porphyry columns, inscriptions, and the like, and the new threshold was laid 3.25 metres above the earlier. In 1654 the upper part of the original doorway was walled up, FIG. .51. CURIA AND COMITIUM. and a new one cut through above, so that its threshold corre- sponded with the top of the first. This was the doorway of the church which was in use until the recent excavations. The bronze doors themselves were removed to the Lateran by Alexander VII in the seventeenth century. By means of a tunnel cut through the wall (at Y, Fig. 48) portions of the original pavement of colored marbles have been found in situ. After the building had become a church, bodies were buried in niches (loculi) cut in the front wall, seven of which have been found, one containing a skeleton. Other tombs were cut THE FORUM. 241 in the foundation of the steps (Z, Fig. 48), and on this foun- dation and on the Comitium were found three sarcophagi. At the west end of the steps is a well of republican date (U, Fig. 48) 0.69 metre in diameter, in which, besides the usual rubbish, were fragments of stucco decoration in the second Pompeian style, which may have belonged to the curia Hostilia. The west end of the building was occupied by the Secreta- rium, a hall measuring 18.17 by 8.92 metres, with an apse at the north end. This hall became the church of S. Martina, and was completely modernized in the sixteenth century. Through the centre of the building, between the Curia and Secretarium, Cardinal Bonelli cut the modern via Bonella. From the drawings it is not possible to decide with absolute certainty whether this space was taken up by one large hall, divided by rows of columns into a nave and two aisles, or by two smaller rooms, but the former is the more probable. Either this central portion, or rooms shown in the drawings behind S. Adriano, was the Ohalcidicum or atrium Minervae. The Lapis Niger and Adjacent Monuments. 1 At the south edge of the Comitium is a pavement of black marble (Fig. 52), about 4 metres long by 3 wide, and 0.25 to 0.30 metre thick. It has suffered from fire and other injuries, and has been repaired in one place with a block of white marble. The centre of this pavement is 29.50 metres from the Curia, and 19.50 from the arch of Severus, and it lies on the same level as the Caesarian pavement (p. 233) of the Comitium, of which it seems to form a part. On the south and adjacent parts of the east and west sides, it is protected by a rude curb of marble slabs set in travertine sills. As excavations have been made beneath this pavement, it is now supported by an iron frame- work. It has the same orientation as the Curia. 1 For the description of these monuments, see esp. NS. 1899, 129, 151-158; Comparetti, Iscrizione Arcaica del Foro Romano, 1900, 1-13; Mitt. 1902, 22-26; Richter, Top. a 363-367 ; BC. 1903, 108-114. 242 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Underneath this pavement is a group of ancient tufa struc- tures which rest on a pavement of broken tufa, 2 metres below the upper surface of the black marble, and about 1.50 metres FIG. 52. THE LAPIS NIGER. below the level of the travertine pavement of the later repub- lic. This group consists of two parts. That at the east con- sists of a rectangular foundation of one course of tufa, on which rest two bases (A, B, Fig. 53), 2.66 metres long and 1.31 broad, and 1 metre apart, connected at the rear (south) by a course of the same height and 0.435 metre broad. The height of the upper surface of these bases from the pavement is 0.59 metre. In the centre of the rectangle, between the bases, is an open space, 1.20 by 1 metres, where there is no foundation, but a bottom of soil and ashes. On the edge of the foundation, and projecting over this space, is a single tufa block (C), measuring 0.725 by 0.52 by 0.29 metre. The rect- angle formed by these two bases measures 3.64 metres in length and 2.66 in depth. On the bases were pedestals of tufa with curved profiles except at the south, where the ends were cut THE FORUM. 243 off square. Of these pedestals, that on the west base is al- most entirely preserved, but of the other only two blocks re- main. There is no trace of what they supported. Directly F Fip. 53. THE AKCHAIC STRUCTURES UNDER THE LAPIS NIGER. behind them is another platform (D) of tufa, 3.50 metres long and 1.60 wide, with no trace of a superstructure. The orien- tation of this group, ordinarily called the sacellum, differs not 244 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EOME. only from that of the adjacent structures and of the lapis niger, but also from that of the Cpmitium of the republic, being 30 east of north. The straight flight of steps (abc, Fig. 48) was interrupted by this sacellum, the north corner of which pro- jects just across its line. Just east of this structure, and nearly parallel with it, is a wall of four courses of tufa blocks, one of the two retaining walls of the suggestus mentioned on p. 236, which were evidently built to inclose the niche in which these monuments stand. West of this rectangle is the second part of the group. The first and second steps of the suggestus begin again, and ex- tending south from them, on a level with the top of the lowest, are several blocks of very early pavement. West of this pave- ment are traces of what seems to have been the west wall of the niche. On this pavement stands the lower part of a cippus (H) of brown tufa, which has also been broken off at a height varying from 0.45 to 0.61 metre. It is four-sided, each edge being bevelled, and tapers slightly from the bottom, where it measures 0.47 by 0.52 metre. On the four sides and on one of the bevelled edges is part of an archaic inscription in Greek letters, which dates probably from about the beginning of the fifth century B.C. The letters have suffered so little from ex- posure that it is probable that they were covered with stucco and painted red. As nearly as can be judged, from a half to two-thirds of the cippus has been broken off, and as the inscrip- tion is cut in the vertical boustrophedon style, that is, with letters running in different directions in alternate lines, from one end of the cippus to the other, only a few words can be made out with certainty, and no agreement has been reached as to its meaning. 1 From the few words that can be read it is probable that the inscription, perhaps a lex sacrata, refers to some ceremony performed here by the rex, either the real 1 The best discussion of this inscription is by Warren, The Stele Inscription in the Forum, AJP. 1907, 249-272, 373-400. THE FORUM. 245 king, or his successor, the rex sacrorum. The cippus stands in a shallow hollow, cut for it in the surface of the pavement, but it has been slightly displaced. Around it lie some blocks (Fig. 54) of a second pavement, superimposed upon the first, which cover the lower part of the cippus as far as the FIG. 54. THE CIPPUS AND INSCRIPTION. beginning of the inscription. The displacement just men- tioned is probably due to the laying of this second pavement. On the corner of the second step of the suggestus, nearest the pedestals, is a square base, and on it the lower part of a conical column (G, Fig. 53) of yellow tufa, 0.77 metre in diameter at the bottom and 0.69 at the top, which has been broken off at a height of 0.48 metre. Cippus and cone have been broken off at the same level, which corresponds with that of the bed of the late republican pavement (k, Fig. 48). The base of this cone projects beyond the second step, over the second pave- ment which has been rudely hacked away to make room for it. 246 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EOME. North of the broken cone is a square pit (J), inclosed by walls of brown tufa which project 0.90 metre above the level on which these tufa structures stand. The filling between this level and the lapis niger was composed of a layer of sand and gravel from the Tiber, 0.55 metre thick, and above this a layer, 0.40 metre thick, of earth and ashes in which were also many fragments of bones of animals, potsherds, terra cottas, and figu- rines and objects of various sorts made of bronze, 1 dating from the sixth to the first century B.C., and mixed together in the utmost confusion. Although some of these objects may have been originally votive offerings, the character of the stratum in which they are found makes it improbable that we have here a stips votiva. The material in this layer was probably scraped together from the ruins of neighboring buildings when burned, and used with the gravel to cover the tufa structures. Above it was laid a mass of broken tufa, with bits of travertine and fragments of the black marble of which the lapis niger consists. On this was laid the concrete bed of the lapis niger itself. The available evidence of the monuments themselves and the adjacent strata seems to show, with a considerable degree of certainty, that their chronological sequence is as follows : (1) the inscribed cippus, which is surely as old as the fifth and possibly as the sixth century ; (2) the conical column of tufa which also dates from the fifth century ; (3) the sacellum altar and pedestals which in its present form belongs to the period after the Gallic invasion and probably to the latter half of the fourth century ; (4) the pavement of black marble, in re- gard to which there 'are two widely divergent views. Accord- ing to one, 2 it is a part of the Caesarian pavement of travertine (p. 233) which surrounds it, and therefore no later than that, although it may have been laid first in the time of Sulla on 1 NS. 1900, 143-146; Mitt. 1902, 25-26; BC. 1903, 115-123. 2 See Pinza, Studniczka, and Peterson, in works cited below. THE FORUM. 247 the level of his pavement (k, Fig. 48) and afterward raised. It may also have been large enough then to cover the under- lying structures. Confirmation of this view is sought in the presence of fragments of this black marble in the bed beneath. According to the second 1 view, this pavement is not an inte- gral part of the Caesarian, and the fact that it does not cor- respond at all, in extent or orientation, with the monuments beneath, shows that it can not have been laid until the knowl- edge of their exact position had been lost. It is well known from literary and other sources that the emperor Maxentius revived the cult of Komulus, and the discovery of the base (S, Fig. 48) on the Comitium, dedicated to Mars Invictus and to Komulus and Remus, the founders of the city, in the name of Maxentius, makes it easy to suppose that he laid the pave- ment of black marble, to reproduce the lapis uiger of the founder's tomb, as nearly as possible over its original site. Confirmation of this view is also sought in the absence of any mention in the literature of the empire to so striking a monu- ment as this black marble pavement in the most frequented part of the Forum would have been. From a combination of these chronological data with those derived from the walls of the Comitium (p. 236), it would ap- pear that about the middle of the fifth century the Comitium was separated from the Forum by a low platform, on which stood the archaic cippus, the cone, and probably an earlier monument, represented by the existing sacellum of a consider- ably later date. After the destruction of the Curia by the Gauls, the level of the Comitium was raised, and the first plat- form replaced by a higher, that to which the straight flight of steps belonged (cba, Fig. 48). In this platform, which was called the Rostra after 338 B.C., was an irregular niche inclos- ing the monuments in question. Toward the end of the re- public the level of the Comitium was again raised, and the i Mitt, 1902, 30-31; 1906, 44-46. 248 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. straight Rostra built over by that with curved steps (p'pm, Fig. 48). Finally, at the end of the republic, in consequence of the changes made either by Sulla, Faustus Sulla, or Caesar him- self, the level of the Comitium was raised again, perhaps twice in quick succession, and a new pavement laid which also cov- ered the existing Rostra and its niche. This necessitated the destruction of cippus, cone, and sacellum, and the rilling up of the niche. Owing to the incompleteness of the reports as yet published, and the inadequacy of the excavations themselves, all attempts to reconstruct the successive stages of the Comi- tium with greater accuracy in dates and matters of detail, such as the shape and extent of the Rostra at different epochs, must be regarded as purely tentative. The attempt to explain and identify these monuments has given rise to a vast amount of discussion and speculation. 1 Two passages in Dionysius, 2 who wrote in the time of Augustus, state (1) that some say that a stone lion which stood in the chief place in the Forum, near the Rostra, marked the tomb of Faustulus, and (2) that Hostilius was buried in the chief place in the Forum and honored with an inscribed stele. Festus, 3 quoting Verrius Flaccus, a contemporary of Dionysius, says that a niger lapis in the Comitium marks a 1 For a complete review of this literature to 1904, see G. Tropea, La Stele Arcaica del Foro Romano, Oronaca della discussione. Rivista di Storia Antica, 1899, 470-509; 1900, 101-136, 301-359; 1901, 157-184; 1902, 3fr45, 425- 427 ; 1903, 529-534. Also Bursian's Jahresbericht, 1905, 257-280. Brief lists of the more important works in Arch. Am. 1900, 2 n. ; Mitt. 1902, 26 n. ; BO. 1903, 138-139. The most important discussions of these monuments and the remains on the Comitium are : Studniczka, Jahresheft d. oest. Arch. Instituts, 1903, 129-155; 1904, 239-244; Petersen, Comitium, Rostra, Grab des Romulus, Rome, 1904; Comitium und Rostra, Mitt. 1906, 193-210; Hulsen, Mitt. 1905, 29-46 ; Pinza, // Comizio romano nelV eta repubblicana (reprinted from Annali della Societa degli Ingegneri ed Architetti Italiani, 1905), Rome, 1905. See also Delbruck, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfeld, Rome, 1903, 11; AJA. 1909,25-29; (7^.1904,140; 1905,77-78; 1906, 134; Mon. d. Lincei,l$05, 753- 754; Pais, Legends, 15-34; Richter, BRT. IV. 5-13. 2 i. 87; iii. 1. 8177. THE FORUM. 249 locus funestus, set apart according to some authorities for the grave of Romulus, but not used for him, but for Hostilius or Faustulus. Finally two passages in the scholia of Horace, 1 state (1) that Varro said that Romulus was buried post rostra, and (2) that in the opinion of many, Romulus was buried in rostris, and that the statues of two lions were set up on the spot in memory of this, according to the custom of the present day. In consequence of these statements it was natural to connect the pavement of black marble' with the lapis niger, the sacellum with the tomb of Romulus or Faustulus or Hostilius, and the cippus with the inscribed stele erected in honor of Hostilius. The destruction and covering up of the monuments were attributed to the Gauls, but this can not have been the case, for the archaeological evidence shows that this covering can not have taken place before the time of Sulla at the earliest, while the sharpness of the edges of the stone proves that the fracture was soon followed by burial in the earth. Varro might therefore have seen the monuments in his youth. It is also a matter of grave doubt whether the term lapis niger could have been used of a pave- ment, locus nigro lapide stratus. Furthermore the shape of the sacellum is not like that of any known tomb, and there is strong evidence in support of the view that the existing bases are only the lower parts of higher bases which are to be reconstructed with profiles similar to that of the altar erected by Calvinus on the Palatine (p. 141). These bases might still have supported recumbent lions or served as altars. The rectangular structure behind these bases, evidently some- what older than they, seems best adapted for an altar, although some regard it as part of the early Rostra. Every explanation and identification of these monuments is open to some serious objection, but perhaps the least unsatisfactory, although incomplete, is about as follows. The 1 Epod. 16. 13, 14 ; Porphyr. ib.; Comm. Cruq, ib. 250 TOPOGEAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. cippus, with its archaic inscription referring to some sacrifice or ceremony performed by the king, stood here from a very early date, and close beside it was a shrine of some sort, both being regarded with such veneration that they were preserved in a niche when the first platforms for public speakers were built on the edge of the Comitium. In process of time the inscription became unintelligible, and the legend of Komulus, as it gradually developed, became attached to the neighboring shrine, so that it came to be regarded as his tomb, or that of one of his companions. In the fourth century the sacellum was restored or rebuilt, and consisted of two pedestals, of the shape suggested above, in front of a rectangular altar. On these pedestals were the statues of two lions, and a lapis niger formed part of the group, marking the spot as a locus funestus. At the end of the republic, when such notable changes were made in the Comitium, and the Rostra removed to the Forum, the meaning of this whole group had so far faded away in the mists of uncertainty that no hesitation seems to have been felt in partially destroying it and hiding it completely from view. The lions may very likely have been removed bodily, and Dionysius may have seen one of them. The site was undoubtedly marked in some way, either by the existing pavement of black marble, which took the place of the lapis niger, or by another similar pavement, perhaps of greater area. It seems very difficult at present to decide between these two possibilities. The Career. Between the temple of Concord and the Curia, at the foot of the Capitoline, media urbe foro imminens, 1 is the ancient prison of Rome, which, in part at least, is as old as any structure in the city. Above it have been built the small churches of S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami and S. Pietro in Car- cere. This Career consists of two parts. 2 The lower and more i Liv. i. 33. 2 Sallust, Cat. 55 ; Abeken, Mittelitalien, 191-197. THE FORUM. 251 ancient part was a circular chamber, about 7 metres in diameter at the bottom, which is now below the surface of the ground. The walls of this chamber .were built of blocks of tufa, laid in such a way that each successive course projects farther inward than that immediately beneath it. Of the original structure only what appears to be the three lower courses of stone still exists, although it is quite possible that there may be one still lower that is now hidden. If it was ever built up to a top, this chamber must have been about 10 metres high, and have resembled a Mycenean 0o'Aos. The upper part of the structure was removed at some later date and a straight wall of tufa about 5 metres long, differing somewhat from the earlier masonry in construction, was laid across the circle, like a chord, on the Forum side. The chamber was then covered by an exceedingly flat arch of tufa blocks fastened together with iron clamps, in the centre of which is an aperture 0.60 metre in diameter. In the floor is a well, 0.55 metre in diameter and 0.63 deep, which is fed by a spring. From this room a drain leads into the cloaca of the Forum, but it appears to be of very late, even perhaps modern, construction. The upper room is trapezoidal in shape, its longest side, 5 metres in length, being over the straight side of the lower room. The other sides measure 4.95, 4.90, and 3.60 metres in length. The roof is a barrel-vault 5 metres high, in the centre of which is a square opening, apparently at one time the only entrance. On the outside of this chamber is a travertine string course, on which is an inscription 1 recording a restoration in the consulship of C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Kerva. This is generally assigned to the reign of Tiberius. The lower room was called, in classical times, TuUianum, 2 and the whole prison Career simply, the name Oustodia Mamertini not being found until the middle ages. Tullianum 3 is usually 1 GIL. vi. 1539. 2 PI. NH. vii. 212; Fest. 356; Varro, LL. v. 151; cf. also Fest. 264. Jordan, 1. 1. 453-455 ; 2. 323-328 ; Gilbert, II. 74-81 ; Lanciani, Acque, 23-24. 252 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. ' derived from tullius, a spring, and this chamber has usually been supposed to have been a spring-house, built in the regal period, which was afterward made into a prison. The upper room was undoubtedly first built at an early period, but materially changed in the later restoration. Its irregular shape was made necessary by its position between two streets. Ad- joining it are other chambers which have not been excavated and are not accessible. There are many difficulties connected with this ex- planation of the Tullianum as a spring-house, and an attempt has recently been made to prove that it was an ancient tomb. 1 However this may be, there is no doubt that this was the Career of the republic, where so many famous victims were executed and their bodies then thrown out on the scalae Gemoniae A. Opening in floor over the Tulli- (p. 295), which passed close by. anum - At lust this point on the slope CC. Cloaca. J , r FF. Front wall of Career with in- of the hill were the stone-quarries scription. that came to be used as a prison, especially for slaves. They were called Lautumiae 2 (Aaro/u-wx), after those at Syracuse which were used for a similar purpose. It is possible that the unexcavated chambers next to the Career may belong to the prison in lautumiis. 1 BC. 1902, 40-45; Rendiconti del Lincei, 1902, 226-239. 2 Varro, LL. v. 151; Fest. 117; Sen. Contr. ix. 27. 20; Liv. xxvi. 27; xxxii. 26; xxxvii.3; xxxix. 44; Jordan, I. 1. 505-507; 2. 343-345; Gilbert, 11.80; for an erroneous view that the Lautumiae were near the temple of Faustina, cf. NS. 1902, 96; BC. 1902, 31-34; Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1903, 1647. FIG. 55. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE CARCER. THE FORUM. 253 The Arch of Augustus. There were at least three so-called triumphal arches in the Forum, besides the fornix Fabianus (p. 319) at the entrance. We are told that two such arches were erected in honor of Augustus, one 1 in 29 B.C. to commem- orate the victory at Actium, and the other in 19 B.C. on account of the return of the standards which had been captured by the Parthians at Carrhae. 2 This return of the standards is also recorded on a denarius of 18/17 B.C., 3 together with a repre- sentation of a triple arch. The foundations of such an arch have been discovered between the temple of Julius and that of Castor, 4 being laid on the short axis of the former temple and close to it. These foundations consist of travertine blocks on concrete beds, and those of three of the four piers are in situ. The middle piers were 2.95 metres wide, and those at the sides 1.35, thus giving the arch a peculiar appearance. The width of the central archway was 4.05 metres, and that of the side arches 2.55, the breadth of the whole structure being 17.75 metres. The pavement in the central passage is still partially preserved, and some of the marble fragments of the arch have been set in brick beds on the travertine foundations. If the coin referred to above is a fairly accurate representation of this arch, the middle portion was much higher than the sides, and was surmounted by a quadriga. When the temple of Cas- tor was rebuilt by Tiberius, the south part of the arch was largely hidden by the steps of the temple, which were very close to it. The foundations of this arch rest upon the pave- ment of a street, with curbstones of tufa, of the republican period, which ran north and south at this point. Another coin 5 of the period represents a triple arch, but of a different shape; and an inscription 6 cut on a block of Parian 1 Dio Cass. li. 19. * Dio Cass. liv. 8; Schol. Veron. Aen. vii. 606. 8 Eckhel, vi. 101 ; Cohen, Aug. 82. *Jahrb. des Inst. 1889,151-162; Antike Denkmaler,\. 14-15,27-28; Mitt. 1889, 243-244 ; 1905, 76-77. 5 Eckhel, vi. 106; Cohen, Aug. 544. OIL. vi. 873. 254 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. marble, about 3 metres long, which was found close to these foundations, records a dedication to Augustus in 29 B.C. This inscription may have been set in an arch, and it is therefore somewhat uncertain whether the arch which stood on the foundations that have been discovered was erected in 29 or 19. There was no corresponding arch on the other side of the temple of Julius. The Arch of Tiberius. This arch was built by Tiberius l to commemorate the return of the standards which had been cap- tured by the Germans in 8 A.D. at the defeat of Varus. It stood at the northwest corner of the basilica lulia, not spanning the Sacra via, but just north of it. The street was made narrower at this point, and the curb bent toward the south to afford room for the arch. The concrete foundations, 9 metres long by 6.3 wide, have recently been found. 2 The arch was single, and was approached by steps from the level of the Forum. Its foundations blocked up two of the arches (Fig. 46) at the southwest end of the viaduct of the clivns Capitolinus, two of the pits in the line of the street (p. 237), and also the arched opening of a drain built of tufa blocks. Into this drain at this point ran two other drains at an acute angle, and a block of tufa, set in the floor of the archway, served to regulate the flow of the currents. Some architectural fragments of this arch and part of the inscription have been recovered. 8 The Arch of Severus. As the arch of Tiberius stood at the south end of the Rostra, it has been thought probable that another arch stood at the north end; 4 but if so, it must have been removed to make room for the great arch of Severus, which was erected in 203 A.D. in honor of Severus and his two sons, Geta and Caracalla. This dedication is recorded in the 1 Tac. Ann. ii. 41. 2 NS. 1900, 632; BC. 1902, 26-27; 1903, 163; CR. 1901, 329; 1906, 133; Mitt. 1902, 12. GIL. vi. 906; Jordan, I. 2. 211-213. 4 Perhaps that of Drusus, erected in 23 A.D. Cf. Tac. Ann. ii. 83; iv. 9. THE FOKUM. 255 inscription l which is repeated on both sides of the attic. The bronze letters have disappeared, but the matrices remain, and it can be seen that the name of Geta was chiselled away after he was murdered by Caracalla. This arch destroyed the FIG. 56. THE ARCH OF SEFTIMIUS SEVERUS (BEFORE THE RECENT EXCAVATIONS). symmetry of the Forum, and its architecture and sculpture display the marked artistic decadence of the period. The arch is triple, 2 of Pentelic marble, and stands on a foun- dation of travertine, the upper part of which was covered with GIL. vi. 1033. 2 CR. 1899, 233; Mitt. 1902, 21-22. 256 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. marble facing. The lower courses of this foundation are un- finished, and must have been covered either with earth or by the foundation of the steps that always formed the approach to the arch from the Forum side. The level of the Augustan pavement was preserved in this corner of the Forum until a late period, as is shown by the massive concrete base in front of the arch on which is set the pedestal of the equestrian statue of Constantius, dedicated by Naeratius Cerialis, prefect of the city in 354 A.o. 1 The Augustan pavement on which this base stands is 3 metres below that of the pavement of the arch, and 1.40 below that of the lowest steps to the side arches. The arch is 23 metres high, 25 wide and 11.85 deep, the cen- tral archway being 12 metres high and 7 wide, and the side archways 7.80 high and 3 wide. Between the central and side arches are vaulted passages, the ceilings of which are coffered, with rosettes in the coffers. On each face of the arch are four fluted Corinthian columns, 8.78 metres high and 0.90 metre in diameter at the base. These columns stand free from the arch on projecting pedestals, and behind them are corresponding pilasters. An entablature surrounds the arch, and above it is the lofty attic, 5.60 metres in height, within which are four chambers. Over the side arches are narrow bands of reliefs represent- ing the triumphs of Rome over conquered peoples ; and above these bands four large reliefs which represent the campaigns of Severus in the East. 2 In the spandrels of the central arch are winged Victories, and in those of the side arches, river gods. On the keystones of the central arch are reliefs of Mars Victor, and on the pedestals of the columns, Roman soldiers driving captives before them. On top of the arch, in the centre, was originally a chariot in which stood Severus and Victory, escorted by Geta and Caracalla, and on the ends four eques- trian figures ; but of these statues no traces have been found. 1 GIL. vi. 1158, 2 Strong, Sculpture, 297-300. THE FORUM. 257 The Arches of Janus. Besides the temple of lanus Geminus (p. 190), a lanus medius 1 is mentioned by Cicero and Horace and in inscriptions of the second century, and later commen- tators agree with the literary sources in making it the head- quarters of bankers and speculators. They also seem to locate it near the basilica Aemilia. A lanus primus occurs in one inscription, 2 but it is doubtful whether this was in the Forum. The Horatian 3 phrase, haec ianus summus ab imo prodocet, can not be regarded as authority for a lanus summus and a lanus imus. The most probable explanation 4 of these references is that lanus medius was a small single arch which stood in the Forum near the basilica Aerailia; but there is no means of deciding whether medius refers to its position in the Forum, or to its position with respect to other similar arches. Those who take the latter view suppose that these arches stood at the points where the streets entered the Forum ; and, in sup- port of this, point to the two cases of possible iani on the Rostra relief, the remains of an arch across the vicus lugarius (of later date), the presence of such a iantts near the statue of Vortumnus 5 in the vicus Tuscus, and the statements of com- mentators of the later empire. Against this view may be urged the entire absence of any certain reference to other iani in the Forum. 6 The Area of the Forum. After the completion of the sur- rounding buildings, the open area between them, the Forum proper, formed an irregular quadrilateral, which was bounded 1 Cic. de Off. ii. 87 ; Phil. vS. 15; vii. 16 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 18, and Porpkyrion's note ; OIL. vi. 5845, 10027. 2 OIL. vi. 12816. 8 Epist. i. 1. 54. * Cf. Jordan, I. 2. 214-218; Richter, Top. 2 106-107. 6 Hor. Epist. i. 20. 1; cf. Cic. Verr. i. 154 and Asconius' note; Varro, LL. v. 46; Prop. iv. 2. 5; cf. Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1903, 1117. 6 For a third but erroneous view, according to which summus, medius, and imus refer to points on a street, the vicus lanus, which ran along the north side of the Forum, see Bentley, Hor. Epist. i. 1. 54, and Lanciani, BC. 1890, 100; Ruins, 253-254. 258 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. on the east and south by the continuation of the Sacra via. The length of this area, fl-om the foundation wall of the Rostra to the curb of the street in front of the temple of Julius Caesar, is 102 metres ; its width from the steps of the temple of Castor to the basilica Aemilia, 45 metres, and from the curb of the Sacra via in front of the basilica lulia to the edge of the lapis niger. 46 metres. The Forum was paved, partially at least, as early as the fourth or third century B.C. ; but, like the Comitium, its level was gradually raised at successive periods. The present pavement of travertine is usually assigned to the late empire, but, although some of it has un- doubtedly been relaid, it probably represents in general the level established by Augustus. At an average depth of about 0.60 metre beneath this pavement are considerable portions of an earlier one of travertine, which was probably laid by Caesar, 1 and some fragments of the tufa pavement of the republic have been found at various points, part of which is more than 2 metres below the later level. The pavement of the Sacra via is separated from that of the area by a travertine curb (crepido), the raised portion of which is 0.72 metre wide. In this curb, at intervals of from 0.60 to 0.80 metre, are square holes, in which it is probable that the poles which sup- ported awnings were set. We know that shelter of this sort was provided in the Forum, 2 and similar holes are visible in the latest pavement. Like the Comitium, the Forum was incumbered with many statues, honorary columns, and similar memorials. As early as 158 B.c. 3 the censors decreed that all statues of magistrates which had been erected without the sanction of the state should be removed, and from time to time even those that properly belonged there disappeared to make room for others. Almost nothing is known from literary sources about any of the * Cf., however, Richter, BET. IV. PI. NH. xix. 23, 24. s PI. NH. xxxiv. 30. |o ? 3, V ,jr ' 1 --1 on a in m m " ' jij Is) il El , B s A > t-i-fa VU1SOH 260 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. individual statues ; and of the inscriptions which have been recovered, only about one quarter date from a period earlier than that of the Antonines, and the same is true of the existing monuments themselves. On the south side of the area is a row of large cubical pedestals of brick-faced con- crete, once covered with marble, which date from the time of Diocletian. These pedestals supported lofty columns of red and gray granite and pavonazzetto. Two shafts * found lying near by have been set up on the two easternmost pedestals, the missing architectural members being restored in brick. In front of. the Rostra is the columna Phocae, a fluted Corin- thian column of white marble, 1.39 metres in diameter and 13.60 high, on which was placed the statue of Phocas in gilt bronze. The inscription 2 on the marble base states that it was erected in 608 A.D. by Smaragdus, exarch of Italy, in honor of the eastern emperor Phocas. 3 The marble base rests on a square brick pedestal, which was entirely surrounded by flights of nine steps made of tufa blocks taken from other structures. These steps have now been removed from the north and east sides. As the column is far superior in style and execution to the work of so late a period, it must have been taken from some other building and set up by Smaragdus, or else it was already standing here, and the inscription refers only to the erection of the statue of Phocas. The latter seems the more probable, as the brick pedestal is not later than the fourth century, and corresponds in general with those just mentioned. The tufa steps belong to the latest period. In front of the temple of Caesar, and having the same orien- tation, is a rectangular concrete base, measuring 8 by 5 metres, the top of which is at the level of the early imperial pavement. At the northeast corner of this base, 1.70 metres below its upper surface, are the remains of the tufa pavement of the republican i Mitt. 1902, 59-60. * CIL. vi. 1200. 8 Jordan, I. 2. 246; Mitt. 1891, 88-90; 1902, 58-59; 1905, 68; Atti, 577-580. THE FORUM. 261 period. On the south side a covered drain of tufa blocks runs under the base. This drain is at a slightly higher level than the tufa pavement. On the base are seven large blocks of travertine, which, while probably belonging to the original superstructure, do not seem to be in their original position. This has been explained by some as the pedestal of an eques- trian statue of Q. Marcius Tremulus, 1 consul in 306 B.C., which in Cicero's time stood ante Castoris, but had disappeared when Pliny wrote. The existing remains, however, can not have antedated the Augustan epoch, and if restored then in their present dimensions, they can hardly have disappeared in so short a time. A second explanation is that this base is the foundation of the marble monument to the family of Augustus, to which the fragments of the great epistyle, now lying in front of the basilica Aemilia (p. 199), belonged. Very near the centre of the area of the Forum is a large concrete base, 11.80 metres long and 5.90 metres wide, the top of which is 1.50 metres below the level of the latest pavement. This mass, 2.78 metres high, cuts into the main cuniculus (p. 266) and one of the cross-passages, and must therefore have been built after them. On the other hand, the concrete construction can not be later than the end of the first century. In the tops of this base are set three square blocks of travertine in which are holes about 0.44 metre square and 0.15 deep, which seem well adapted to hold supports of some kind, although there is in them no trace of metal or melted lead. This base is undoubtedly the foundation of the pedestal of the Equus Domi- tiani, 2 an equestrian statue of Domitian erected in 91 A.D. in honor of his campaign in Germany. In consequence of the damnatio decreed by the senate after his death, this monument was probably removed, which would explain the entire absence 1 Liv. ix. 43; Cic. Phil.vi. 13; PI. NH. xxxiv. 23; NS. 1904, 106; OR. 1904, 330; BC. 1904, 178-179: Mitt. 1905, 73-74; Atti, 583-584. 2 Stat. Silv. i. 1. 29; CR. 1904, 139, 328-329; BC. 1904, 75-82, 174-178; Mitt. 1905, 71-72 ; Atti, 574-577. 262 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. of any trace of the superstructure. In the east end of the base a hollow block of travertine was found, containing five clay jars like those discovered in the necropolis of the Sacra via (p. 188). In these jars were found sand, stone, pitch, and fragments of tortoise shell, and in one of them a very small piece of quartz with a bit of gold attached to it, but nothing suggestive of funeral gifts. It is quite uncertain whether this deposit represents the contents of early graves, disturbed when this foundation was laid and therefore preserved in this way, or whether it was connected with some ritual attending the inauguration of the statue. In the middle of the area, close to the course of the Cloaca Maxima, is the low pedestal of an equestrian statue, standing directly upon the travertine pavement. This is made of brick on which blocks of travertine and fragments of marble columns were placed, but in spite of its wretched construction it may have been the pedestal of an equestrian statue of the emperor Constantine. 1 It has also been connected with an equestrian statue of Severus 2 that stood somewhere in the Forum. Near the southeast corner of the Eostra lies a square base 3 of white marble, with reliefs on its four sides, and the inscrip- tion Caesarum decennalia feliciter. This was found in front of the Curia in 1547, and in 1500 a similar base had been dis- covered with the inscription Augnstorum vicennalia feliciter. These bases probably supported columns and were set up in 303 A.D. in honor of Diocletian and his colleagues. In this vicinity the remains of several monuments and inscriptions have been found, which record the struggles during the last cen- tury of the western empire. Some of them have been left in the Forum. One consists of a travertine base, supporting a marble block, itself originally the pedestal of an equestrian statue. This block had been set upon end, and the later 1 OIL. vi. 1141 ; Not. Reg. viii. 2 Herodian, ii. 9; Melanges, 1900, 209-222; Mitt. 1905, 74-75. 8 OIL. vi. 1204, 1205, 31262; Strong, Sculpture, 323. THE FORUM. 263 inscription cut transversely across the field of an earlier one that had been erased. This was done in 405 A.D., by vote of the state, to commemorate the victory of Stilicho over Radagaisus. 1 Near by are some fragments of the base of a quadriga, erected in honor of Arcadius and Honorius, to com- memorate their victory over the African rebel, Gildo, in 398 A.D. 2 In 1872 the remains of a long brick structure were found, which extended across the east end of the area of the Forum, just west of the Sacra via. All that was found was destroyed, except the south end of the building, it being supposed that the structure was medieval. It is, however, probable that it belonged to the late empire. 3 In front of the basilica lulia, between the second and third brick bases, beginning at the east, and just beneath the trav- ertine pavement, are the lower courses of brick walls which inclose two rectangular rooms. These rooms were originally paved with marble, but that has been covered over with a pavement of large stamped tiles 4 of the period of Diocletian, or soon after, with an orientation different from that of the building. The third brick base was built over one corner of this structure. The concrete foundation of these two rooms seems to extend south across the main cuniculus (p. 266) to the foundation of the equus Domitiani, and to have been covered with corresponding pavements of marble and tiles. This has been identified as a Tribunal Principatus, 5 but incorrectly. A short distance northeast of the column of Phocas are the two marble plutei, or balustrades, frequently called the anaglypha Traiani, which are generally supposed to have formed part of the Rostra (p. 222), standing either on each side of the ap- proach or at the ends of the platform. They now stand, just as they were found, on rough foundations of travertine which i OIL. vi. 31987. Mitt. 1895, 52-58 ; GIL. vi. 1187, 31256. 8 Richter, BRT. IV. 26-27. * OIL. xv. 1569 a. 2-9. 8 Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1906, 221; CR. 1906, 132. 264 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. rest directly upon the pavement of the area, having evidently been used during the early middle ages as the foundation of some building. These balustrades date from the time of Tra- jan or Hadrian, and are made of several blocks of marble of unequal size. 1 A little modern restoration has been made with pieces of white marble, in order that they may stand firmly. They measure 5.37 metres in length, 1.75 in breadth, and stand parallel to each other, 2.95 metres apart. The inner surfaces of both have the same reliefs, figures of a sheep, swine, and bull, adorned with garlands and fillets, represent- ing the sacrifice of the suovetauriHa. On the outer side of the west pluteus, at the left end, is a platform adorned with rostra in profile, upon which stands a man clad in a toga, attended by lictors. In front of the platform is a group of men, also clad in togas, in the act of applauding. Just to the right of the centre is a platform upon which sits the emperor, and before him stands a woman who seems to hold a child on her left arm, and to be leading another. Several men stand near. At the right end of the platform is a figure of Marsyas with a wine-skin, and a fig-tree on a square base. On the outer side of the other (the east) pluteus, at the left end, is a similar representation of the fig-tree and Marsyas. The central por- tion is occupied by figures of men who are bringing burdens on their shoulders, and throwing them down in a pile in the foreground. The right end of this pluteus has been broken, but there are traces of a platform with a seated figure. The background of each relief is formed by a succession of build- ings and arches, and the general explanation is that these buildings represent the sides of the Forum, as they would appear to a speaker standing between them on the Rostra, while the scenes in the foreground represent Trajan's charity in providing for the support of the poor in various parts of Italy, and his measures for the remitting of taxes on iuheri- i Ann. d. 1st. 1872, 309; Mon. d. 1st. ix. 47, 48. o. 265 The Suovetanrflla. FIG. 58. THE MARBLE PLCTTBI. 266 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. tances already due the imperial treasury. The precise identi- fication of the buildings has given rise to much discussion, 1 and the view just stated is open to serious objections. According to another theory, which has recently 2 been more fully developed, the plutei formed part of some monument erected in honor of Trajan near the tribunal praetorium (p. 268), and the two reliefs represent the buildings on the south side only of the Forum, the statue of Marsyas being repeated on each slab. This explanation has much to commend it. In the centre of the area a system of underground passages (cuniculi) has been found. 3 These passages are about 1.5 metres wide and 2.40 metres high, with tufa walls and a con- crete vault, the crown of which is about 1.5 metres below the latest pavement of the area. These cuniculi themselves date from the Caesarian period. The longest passage, 120 metres in length, extends from the Kostra to the front of the temple of Caesar, and is crossed at right angles by four others. Near the ends of these cross-passages, and in two of them near the middle also, are small, nearly rectangular chambers, with a large block of travertine set in the middle of the pavement. At the intersections of the main and cross-passages, and at two other points in each of the latter, are square shafts in the vaulting, surrounded by slabs of travertine, the angles of which are much worn by ropes. These marks, and others on the trav- ertine blocks in the square chambers, seem to indicate the presence of windlasses and tackle, but whether this machinery was used to move heavy weights over the Forum, or, less prob- ably, the apparatus of gladiatorial games, is quite uncertain. 1 See the latest literature: Petersen, Die Relief schranken aiif dem romi- schen Forum, Abhandl. A. v. Oettingen . . . gewidmet, 1898, 130-143; BC. 1900,145-146; Mitt. 1897,326-327; 1902,21; AJA. 1901, 58-82; Strong, Sculpt- ure, 151-157. 2 AJA. 1910,310-317. *BC. 1902, 27-28; 1903, 101, 271-272; CR. 1902, 94; 1903, 328; 1904, 140; Mitt. 1902, 57 ; 1905, 64-66. THE FORUM. 267 Besides the lacus luturnae there were two other lacus in the Forum. One of these, the lacus Servilius, 1 is mentioned in con- nection with the massacres of Sulla, and is generally supposed to have been near the vicus lugarius. The other, the so-called lacus Ourtius, has recently been found between the column of Fhocas and the equus Domitiani. Three stories were current among the Romans as to the origin of this lacus. 2 One was that at the beginning of- the regal period a chasm suddenly opened in the centre of the Forum valley. When the sooth- sayers asserted that this could be closed only by the sacrifice of that quo plurimum populus Romanus posset, a youth named Curtius leaped in, and the chasm closed over him. Accord- ing to the second story, the swamp was called the lacus Curtius from the Sabine Mettius Curtius, who rode his horse into it when hard pressed by the Romans, and escaped. The third explanation was that the lacus was a spot of ground which had been struck by lightning, and then inclosed by a stone curb, or puteal, by C. Curtius, consul in 445 B.C. The existing remains 3 of the lacus consist of a layer of blocks of brown and gray tufa, forming an irregularly trapezoidal field about 10 metres long and nearly 9 in greatest width, on which is a second layer of blocks of travertine surrounded with a curb. Only part of this layer has been preserved. Its upper surface is on the same level as that of the curb of the shaft of the adjacent cuniculus, for which it has been cut away, and it is clear that this lacus is a restoration of an earlier structure, carried out at the time of the Caesarian changes in the Forum. The level of the travertine layer is 0.60 to 0.80 metre below that of the existing travertine pavement of the Forum. On its curb are marks that indicate the existence of a screen or balustrade, on which, as has been suggested, the famous archaistic relief of 1 Cic. pro Rose. Am. 89; Fest. 290; Sen. de Prov. 3. 7. 2 Varro, LL. v. 148-150; Liv. i. 12; vii. 6; Dionys. ii. 42. 8 OR. 1904, 329-330; 1905, 74; BC. 1904, 181-187; Mitt. 1905, 68-71; Atti, 580-582; Strong, Sculpture, 324-326. 268 TOPOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROME. Mettius Curtius, found near this spot in 1553 and now in the palazzo dei Conservator!, may have stood. On the western part of the lacus are traces of rectangular bases which suggest the arae siccae of Ovid. 1 Into the puteal of the lacus in the time of Augustus people of all ranks were accustomed to throw coins once a year, as an offering for the health of the emperor. 2 It is probable that there had once been a pool or fountain here, which had dried up, and its place was marked by a puteal. The lacus is not mentioned after the latter part of the first century. 3 On the north side of the Rostra there were statues of three Sibyls, which were called the Tria Pata, 4 and, in the later cen- turies of the empire, gave this name to the whole area about the Curia. Still later it was called the Palma Aurea. These statues were said to have been set up originally on the Co- mitium in the time of Tarquinius Priscus, but they afterward disappeared, and were restored by Messalla and Pacuvius Taurus in the time of Augustus. At the east end of the Forum, near the temple of Castor, was the puteal Libonis 5 or Scribonianum, 6 said to have been built by a certain Scribonius Libo on a spot that had been struck by lightning, and represented on a coin of the gens Sempronia. 7 Near the arch of Augustus are six blocks of travertine, with marks indicating the presence of a metal balustrade on their upper surface, which seem to form part of a circular puteal. These have been identified with the puteal Libonis, but with- out sufficient reasons. Near the lacus Curtius was the tribunal praetorium, a sort of i Fast. vi. 401-405. 2 Suet. Aug. 57. 8 PI. NH. xv. 78.