EX BIBLIOTHECA 
 FRANCES A. YATES 
 
4 
 
SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ART 
 
 BY LORD LINDSAY 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES— VOL. I. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 LONDON 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET 
 1885 
 
Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh. 
 
 Jit CBHEK 
 L58RAR/ 
 
NOTICE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In acceding to a very generally expressed desire that 
 I should allow my husband's work on Christian Art to 
 be reprinted, I feel it my duty to explain why no addi- 
 tions or corrections have been made in the New Edition, 
 for it might easily be supposed that Lord Crawford had 
 made some preparation for the revisal and continuance 
 of a work which he fully intended some day (had time 
 been granted him) to complete. From the announce- 
 ment of this intention in the Advertisement prefixed to 
 this volume, it might be expected that the result of such 
 preparation should now be made public ; but many 
 occupations of a graver character absorbed my husband's 
 time and attention, and though occasionally he returned 
 to the old and well-loved subject, he never had either 
 leisure or opportunity to throw himself into it with the 
 zest of early days ; his thoughts being continually drawn 
 to those theological and philosophical studies which 
 engrossed his later years. I have in my possession 
 many notes, corrections, and suggestions, that would 
 probably have been made use of by Lord Crawford in 
 revising and developing his work, but as they stand 
 they are so incomplete and fragmentary — wanting in 
 
vi NOTICE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 the accuracy of research and analysis to which he 
 would so carefully have subjected them, that I have 
 thought it better and juster to himself and the public 
 to reproduce the volumes without alteration, calling the 
 attention of kind readers to the fact that when they 
 were written no work of the kind had yet appeared. 
 
 This book might well be termed a Pioneer, showing 
 the way, rousing the energies, and smoothing the diffi- 
 culties of those who ably and worthily followed on the 
 same path. The labour and research it entailed were 
 very great, and the difficulty of obtaining and verifying 
 evidence, especially at that early time of unawakened 
 interest, was often extreme ; the result in consequence 
 being frequently incomplete, and even at times, in 
 matters of detail, incorrect, as viewed by the light of 
 more recent discoveries. No one was more fully aware 
 of this than Lord Crawford himself, and the knowledge 
 that so many great and able works had been given to 
 the world on these subjects perhaps in some degree 
 lessened his desire again to turn his attention to his 
 own book. " The ground," he used to say, " has now 
 been cut from under my feet." 
 
 New and fair buildings have been erected on his 
 foundations, but I think I may be allowed to say that 
 the spirit and feeling of true Christian Art has never 
 been more nobly and worthily set forth than in what 
 Lord Crawford styles, in an Introductory Note, these 
 " ' Sketches ' merely — an attempt to prepare the way 
 for something better." 
 
NOTICE TO SECOND EDITION. vii 
 
 As such I have therefore determined to leave them, 
 feeling that, though there may be many more complete 
 guides, more technical exponents of the quality and 
 style of painters, these volumes will still teach many, 
 as they have hitherto done, to love and reverence, and 
 to appreciate the greatness of purpose and singleness 
 of heart which characterised the early days of those 
 arts which bear so important a part in the civilisation 
 and happiness of this work-a-day world. It is pleasant 
 to me as such to place them once more in the hands 
 of the public. 
 
 MARGARET CRAWFORD & BALCARRES. 
 
 47 Brook Street, 
 
 December 1885. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The volumes now published comprise a portion only of my 
 projected work on Christian Art ; I publish them separately 
 in consequence of the interest newly awakened in the subject, 
 and in the hope that, however imperfect, they may be found 
 useful both to artists and amateurs at the present moment. 
 
 I had intended prefixing a General Introduction, but, after 
 much consideration, have postponed it till the work shall be 
 concluded, under the conviction that this will be to the ulti- 
 mate advantage of all parties. I feel the less scruple in thus 
 postponing it, inasmuch as the reader will find a series of 
 Memoranda respecting the Ideal, the Character and Dignity 
 of Christian Art, and the Symbolism and Mythology of Christ- 
 ianity, preliminary to the work itself, and also a General 
 Classification of Schools and Artists in accordance with the 
 principle on which the work is based ; and these may to a 
 certain extent supply the place of the Introduction in question. 
 
 With regard to the principle alluded to, I feel myself in 
 rather an embarrassing position. Even if published complete, 
 as a whole, under existing circumstances, the ' 'Sketches" 
 would labour under the disadvantage of being the fragment 
 merely of a scheme too extensive for any single hand to exe- 
 cute, and dependent moreover on a Central Principle as yet 
 unrecognised, on the perception and recognition of which by 
 others I rest my sole hope of seeing it accomplished in detail. 
 No portion, it is evident, of such a scheme can be rightly and 
 fully comprehended without due apprehension of that Central 
 Principle ; and I take the liberty, therefore, in the hope of 
 creating a clearer mutual understanding between the reader 
 and myself, and of anticipating various objections that may 
 collaterally arise, to refer the reader to an Essay lately pub- 
 lished by me, entitled Progression by Antagonism}- in which the 
 principle in question is set forth and illustrated. 
 
 1 London : John Murray, 1846. 
 
x ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 I will only add that these " Sketches " are addressed in 
 letters to a young amateur artist, presumed to have recently 
 started for Italy, and that, in spite of an insensible transition 
 into the ideal in my view of the character thus addressed, I 
 cannot forego the pleasure of inscribing them to the friend 
 in whose society I have spent many a happy day in exploring 
 the pictorial treasures of Umbria and the Apennine, and for 
 whose use they were originally designed, 
 
 Sir COUTTS LINDSAY, Bart. 
 
 Haigh, November 1st, 1846. 1 
 
 1 I have been urged to expunge 
 the word "Sketches" from the title- 
 page of these volumes, and term them 
 at once a History. Two reasons op- 
 pose themselves to this : First, that a 
 history of Art, worthy of the name, 
 would require a knowledge of the 
 details of Architecture, Sculpture, and 
 Painting, far more intimate and scien- 
 tific than I possess ; Secondly, that 
 the documentary evidence, on which 
 alone such a history could be based, 
 is as yet very defective, although 
 every day is adding to the store. 
 The reader will therefore receive these 
 volumes as "Sketches" merely — an 
 attempt to prepare the way for some- 
 thing better. 
 
 Before concluding, let me acknow- 
 ledge a debt of warm and affectionate 
 gratitude to Mile. Felicie de Fauveau 
 of Florence — the friend of the very 
 dear relatives to whose suggestion and 
 encouragement this work mainly owes 
 its origin — whose society added the 
 charm of enthusiasm and genius to 
 the happy company with which, six 
 years ago, I revisted many of the 
 most interesting cities and districts of 
 
 Central Italy — whose suggestions, let 
 me add, have since been most useful 
 to me in guiding my researches and 
 qualifying my judgment — and whose 
 kindness will, I trust, absolve me for 
 thus introducing her name without 
 having sought the permission which 
 her delicacy might have withheld. 
 As a sculptress, Mile, de Fauveau's 
 fame is firmly established by her 
 " Francesca da Rimini," 1 her " S. 
 George and the Dragon," 2 and other 
 works, among which I may specify a 
 recent bust of H.R.H. the Due de 
 Bordeaux. She is also about to exe- 
 cute another of the beautiful Grand- 
 Duchess Olga, of Russia, the Emperor 
 having visited her studio and com- 
 manded one during his recent visit 
 to Italy. It is to be regretted when 
 the noble in birth as well as spirit are 
 compelled through political reverses 
 to depend on genius for their bread, 
 but human nature is exalted by it, 
 and Art is a gainer, for the spirit of 
 reverence which inspires the Jacobite 
 or the Carliste is precisely that which 
 wings the Artist to the gates of 
 heaven. 
 
 1 In the possession of M. le Comte de 
 Portales, Paris. It is described in Count 
 A. Raczynski's Histoire de V Art Moderne 
 
 en Allemagne, torn. ii. p. 623. 
 
 2 In the possession of Lord Ellesmere. 
 
MEMORANDA, touching 
 
 I. THE IDEAL, AND THE CHARACTER AND 
 DIGNITY OF CHRISTIAN ART 
 
 II. THE SYMBOLISM OF CHRISTIANITY 
 
 HI. THE MYTHOLOGY OF CHRISTIANITY 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SCHOOLS AND 
 ARTISTS 
 
I. 
 
 THE IDEAL, 
 
 AND 
 
 THE CHARACTER AND DIGNITY OF 
 CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
 # # # * 
 
 The perfection of Human Nature implies the union of beauty 
 and strength in the Body, the balance of Imagination and 
 Reason in the Intellect, and the submission of animal passions 
 and intellectual pride to the will of God, in the Spirit. 
 
 Man was created in this perfection, but Adam fell, and 
 with the Fall the original harmony ceased, the elements of 
 being lost their equipoise; Spirit, Sense and Intellect, with 
 the two elements of Intellect, Reason and Imagination, have 
 ever since been at variance, and consequently every production 
 of man partakes of the imperfection of its parent. 
 
 Nevertheless the Moral Sense, although comparatively 
 deadened, still survives, witnessing to what is pure, holy and 
 fitting; and the struggle between Imagination and Reason 
 (marvellously overruled) still reveals to the calm intelligence 
 the vision of Truth immortal in the heavens — of Truth in the 
 Abstract or Universal, inclusive both ' of particular truth and 
 of that beauty which, being antithetically opposed to it, is 
 falsely deemed its enemy — in a word, of the Ideal, that point 
 of union between God and Man, Earth and Heaven, which, 
 crushed and crippled as our nature is, we can recognise and 
 strive after, but not attain to. Nevertheless it is in thus 
 striving that we fulfil our duty and work out our salvation. So 
 long as we keep the Ideal in view, we rise — from Sense to 
 vol. i. b 
 
2 THE IDEAL, AND THE CHARACTER 
 
 Intellect, from Intellect to Spirit. But the moment we look 
 away from it we begin to lose ground and sink — from Spirit 
 to Intellect, from Intellect to Sense — with this difference, that 
 whereas we ascended slowly and with difficulty, yet bearing 
 with us everything worth retention that we had culled in the 
 regions we had left behind — the breezes of a purer and yet 
 purer atmosphere ever fanning our brow — so we sink more 
 rapidly, our backs once turned to the light, and the gross 
 vapours from below overpowering us more and more with their 
 stupifying influence. 
 
 This is an universal law of humanity, exemplified in every 
 walk of life, and by the personal experience, more or less, of 
 every individual. 
 
 But the history of Man in the aggregate — or, to speak at 
 present more restrictively, of the human race from Noah 
 downwards — affords the most striking and instructive illus- 
 tration of it ; and an enquiry into its operation is the surest 
 test whereby to judge of our progress towards perfection, and 
 to refute the calumny that we stand no higher in the scale of 
 being now, than we did in the days of Pericles or Sesostris. 
 
 Man is, in the strictest sense of the word, a progressive 
 being, and, with many periods of inaction and retrogression, 
 has still held, upon the whole, a steady course towards the 
 great end of his existence, the re-union and re-harmonizing of 
 the three elements of his being, dislocated by the Fall, in the 
 service of his God. 
 
 Each of these three elements, Sense, Intellect and Spirit, 
 has had its distinct development at three distant intervals, and 
 in the personality of the three great branches of the human 
 family. 
 
 The race of Ham, giants in prowess if not in stature, 
 cleared the earth of primeval forests and monsters, built cities, 
 established vast empires, invented the mechanical arts, and 
 gave the fullest expansion to the animal energies : — 
 
 After them, the Greeks, the elder line of Japhet, developed 
 the intellectual faculties, Imagination and Reason, more 
 especially the former, always the earlier to bud and blossom ; 
 poetry and fiction, history, philosophy and science, alike look 
 back to Greece as their birthplace ; on the one hand they put 
 a soul into Sense, peopling the world with their gay mythology, 
 on the other they bequeathed to us, in Plato and Aristotle, 
 the mighty patriarchs of human wisdom, the Darius and the 
 
AND DIGNITY OF CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
 3 
 
 Alexander of the two grand armies of thinking men whose 
 antagonism has ever since divided the battle-field of the human 
 intellect : — 
 
 While, lastly, the race of Shem, the Jews, and the nations 
 of Christendom, their locum tenentes as the Spiritual Israel, 
 have, by God's blessing, been elevated in Spirit to as near 
 and intimate communion with Deity as is possible in this 
 stage of being. 
 
 Now the peculiar interest and dignity of Art consists in 
 her exact correspondence in her three departments with these 
 three periods of development, and in the illustration she thus 
 affords — more closely and markedly even than literature — to 
 the all-important truth that men stand or fall according as they 
 look up to the Ideal or not. 
 
 For example, the Architecture of Egypt, her pyramids and 
 temples, cumbrous and inelegant but imposing from their 
 vastness and their gloom, express the ideal of Sense or Matter 
 — elevated and purified indeed, and nearly approaching the 
 Intellectual, but Material still ; we think of them as of natural 
 scenery, in association with caves or mountains, or vast periods 
 of time ; their voice is as the voice of the sea, or as that of 
 " many peoples," shouting in unison : — 
 
 But the Sculpture of Greece is the voice of Intellect and 
 Thought, communing with itself in solitude, feeding on beauty 
 and yearning after truth : — 
 
 While the Painting of Christendom — (and we must remember 
 that the glories of Christianity, in the full extent of the term, 
 are yet to come) — is that of an immortal Spirit, conversing with 
 its God. 
 
 And as if to mark more forcibly the fact of continuous 
 progress towards perfection, it is observable that although 
 each of the three arts peculiarly reflects and characterises one 
 of the three epochs, each art of later growth has been preceded 
 in its rise, progress and decline by an antecedent correspondent 
 development of its elder sister or sisters — Sculpture, in Greece, 
 by that of Architecture — Painting, in Europe, by that of Archi- 
 tecture and Sculpture. If Sculpture and Painting stand by 
 the side of Architecture in Egypt, if Painting by that of 
 Architecture and Sculpture in Greece, it is as younger sisters, 
 girlish and unformed. In Europe alone are the three found 
 linked together, in equal stature and perfection. 
 
 You will not now be surprised at my claiming superiority 
 
4 THE IDEAL, AND THE CHARACTER 
 
 for Christian over Classic Art, in all her three departments. 
 If Man stand higher or lower in the scale of being according 
 as he is Spiritual, Intellectual or Sensual, Christian Art must 
 excel Pagan by the same rule and in the same proportion. 
 
 As men cannot rise above their principles, so the artists of 
 Greece never rose above the religious and moral sentiments of 
 the age. Their Ideal was that of youth, grace and beauty, 
 thought, dignity and power; Form consequently, as the ex- 
 pression of Mind, was what they chiefly aimed at, and in this 
 they reached perfection. Do not for a moment suppose me 
 insensible to Classic Art — the memories of Greece and of the 
 Palatine are very dear to me — I cannot speak coldly of the 
 Elgin marbles, of the Apollo, the Venus, the Dying Gladiator, 
 the Niobe, the Diana of Gabii, the Psyche of Naples — which 
 comes nearer the Christian ideal than aught else of Grecian 
 growth. But none of these completely satisfy us. The 
 highest element of truth and beauty, the Spiritual, was beyond 
 the soar of Phidias and Praxiteles ; it is true, they felt a want — 
 they yearned for it, and this yearning, stamped on their works, 
 constitutes their undying charm. But they yearned in vain 
 — Faith, Hope and Charity, those wings of immortality, as yet 
 were not. 
 
 Herein then lies our vantage — not in our merit, not our 
 genius, but in that we are Christians, that we start from a 
 loftier platform, that we are raised by communion with God 
 to a purer atmosphere, in which we see things in the light 
 of Eternity, not simply as they are, but with their ulterior 
 meanings, as shadows of deeper truths — an atmosphere which 
 invests creation with the glow of love, and its human denizens 
 with a beauty and expression of its own, a ray of heaven 
 beaming on the countenance, especially of woman, which mere 
 beauty of intellect or feeling, the highest charm attainable by 
 Greece, can never rival. It is not, in a word, symmetry of 
 Form or beauty of Colouring, apart or conjoined, that is 
 required of us and that constitutes our prerogative, but the 
 conception by the artist and expression to the spectator of the 
 highest and holiest spiritual truths and emotions, — and in this 
 the vantage of the Bible over the Iliad is not more decided 
 than that of Christian over Classic Art — than the depth, 
 intensity, grandeur, and sweetness of the emotions at the 
 command of Christian artists, as compared with those elicited 
 by the ancients. Few will dispute this who have ever soared 
 
AND DIGNITY OF CHRISTIAN ART. 5 
 
 into the symbolic heaven of a Lombard or Gothic Cathedral — 
 renewed their vows of chivalry before the S. George of Don- 
 atello — or shared the cross and the palm, the warfare and the 
 triumph of the Church of all ages in the sympathy of the 
 Spirit, while contemplating the old Byzantine heads of Christ, 
 the martyrdoms of the Lombard Giotteschi, the Paradises of 
 Fra Angelico, the Madonnas of Perugino, Leonardo and 
 Bellini, the 'Dispute' of Raphael, and the Last Judgments 
 of Orcagna and Michael Angelo. 
 
 And yet these too are but aspirations after the Ideal, 
 glimpses of that truth and beauty which the soul seeks after, 
 and of which the prototype exists but in heaven. The Ideal 
 is to us as a bright particular star which we fancy we shall 
 grasp if we reach the top of the mountain, and so we still toil 
 on, up and still upwards for ever; love, if it be true love, 
 supplying the motive to persist, even though the higher we 
 ascend the more distant it appears, the more hopeless our 
 pursuit. 
 
 Such is the Ideal, such its influence on the Artist. No 
 work of genius has ever been produced apart from that influ- 
 ence, and nothing in either of the three branches of Art has 
 ever come fully up to its requisitions. Woe to the artist or 
 the man when he begins to be satisfied with himself, when he 
 ceases to exclaim, " Ancora imparo !" — And as for the union 
 of the sister arts in one glorious pile, in that peculiar perfection, 
 harmony, and interdependency, which the mightiest artists have 
 dreamed of and longed to realize, it remains, and must ever 
 remain a dream — unless it indeed be, that, in the life to come, 
 our intellectual as well as our moral faculties are to receive 
 their full expansion in the service of our Maker, and Michael 
 Angelo, Leonardo and Donatello be destined to build, paint 
 and sculpture temples to God's glory, with the materials of 
 that brighter world, throughout Eternity. 
 
 Meanwhile we may at least observe — with the deepest 
 reverence — that the three Arts, considered in a Christian sense, 
 as a manifestation of the Supreme Being through the Intellect 
 of Man, His Image, present a sort of earthly shadow of the 
 ineffable and mysterious Trinity in Unity in Its relations with 
 the Material Universe, — Architecture symbolizing the Father, 
 known to us chiefly by the harmony and proportion of what 
 we term His attributes; Sculpture the Son, the Incarnate 
 Form or Outline (so to speak) of the Invisible and Infinite ; 
 
6 
 
 THE IDEAL. 
 
 Painting the Holy Spirit, the smile of God illumining creation : 
 While the Three Arts are One in essence, co-equal and con- 
 genial, as manifested by the inseparable connection and 
 concord observable throughout the whole history of their 
 development, and by the greatest artists in every age of 
 Christendom having almost invariably excelled in all three 
 alike. There is no impiety, I trust, in vindicating this analogy. 
 
II. 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS, 
 
 PARTLY OF NEW, PARTLY OF PRIMEVAL SIGNIFICANCE, 
 
 THE 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICAL LANGUAGE OF 
 THE UNIVERSAL CHURCH DURING THE 
 EARLY AGES. 
 
 [I have merely noticed those of more frequent occurrence, and in their 
 simplest and primary meaning. For fuller information the reader may 
 consult the 'Roma Subterranea' of Aringhi, Rome, 2 torn. fol. 165 1 ; 
 the ' Osservazioni sopra i Cimiteri de' SS. Martiri ' of Boldetti, Rome, 
 fol. 1720; and the ' Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellungen der Alten 
 Christen' of Dr. Fred. Munter, Altona, 2 torn. 4to, 1825. The 
 volume entitled « Iconographie Chretienne — Histoire de Dieu,' by M. 
 Didron, published at Paris, 4to, 1843, * s commencement merely 
 of a series of similar works which will probably exhaust the subject 
 of early Christian symbolism and personification.] 
 
 Heaven is symbolized by the segment of a circle, sometimes 
 of pure blue, sometimes edged with the three colours of 
 the rainbow : — 
 
 The Universe — by a globe or sphere, usually of deep blue : — 
 God the Father — by a hand issuing from the preceding symbol 
 
 of Heaven, Ezek. ii. 9 ; viii. 3 : — 
 God the Son — by the monogram ^, formed of the initial 
 letters of the name Christ, in Greek ; 
 
 — by the Cross, although more correctly the symbol of 
 salvation through the atonement ; 
 
 — by a rock, 1 Cor. x. 4 ; Exod. xvii. 6 ; 
 — by a lamb, Isaiah, lvii. 7, — frequently with a glory and 
 carrying a cross ; 
 
8 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 — by a pelican, Psalm cii. 6 ; 1 
 — by a vine, John xv. i, etc. ; 
 
 — by a lamp or candle, as "the light of the world," 
 John ix. 5 ; 
 
 — and by the ' piscis,' or 1 vesica piscis,' as it has been 
 ungracefully termed — a glory encircling the whole body of 
 Our Saviour, shaped like a fish and suggested by the word 
 t\6vs J acrostically formed from the initial letters of the 
 titles of Our Saviour, 'Irja-ovs Xptarrbs Qeov vlb<s, Sw-nJ/), — 
 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour :' — 
 God the Holy Ghost — by the dove, usually bearing the olive- 
 branch ; 
 
 — by water, either issuing from the beak of the dove, 
 or rising as a fountain from a vase, as the " well of water 
 springing up into everlasting life," John iv. 14; 
 
 — and by a lamp or candlestick — seven of which, ranged 
 to the right and left of the altar, in the old mosaics, signify 
 the gifts of the Spirit, Rev. i. 12; iv. 5 : — 
 The Holy Trinity — by the three-coloured rainbow encircling 
 Our Saviour, the visible Form or Image of the Deity, and 
 who sometimes is represented seated upon it, Ezek. i. 28 ; 
 Rev. iv. 3 ; 
 
 — by three beams of light radiating from the head of 
 Christ ; 
 
 — and by the extension of the thumb, fore and middle 
 fingers of Our Saviour's hand, as held up in giving the 
 benediction : 2 — 
 
 1 The mediaeval interpretation of 
 this symbol is given as follows by Sir 
 David Lindsay of the Mount, Lion 
 King (nephew of the poet), in his 
 MS. ' Collectanea, ' preserved in the 
 Advocates' Library, Edinburgh : — 
 ' ' The Pellican is ane foule in Egipt, 
 of the quhilkis auld men sayis that the 
 litill birdis straikis thair fader in the 
 face with thair wingis, and crabis him 
 quhill [till] he slayis thame. And 
 quhen the moder seis thame slane, 
 scho greitis [weeps] and makis grit 
 dule thre dayis lang, quhill scho 
 streikis hirself in the breist with hir 
 neb [beak,] and garris the blude 
 skayle [flow] vpone hir birdis, quhair- 
 throw thai restoir and turnis to lyf 
 agane. Bot sum folkis sayis thai ar 
 
 clekkit swownand [hatched swoon- 
 ing], lyk as thai war bot [without] 
 life, and that thair fader haillis [heals] 
 thame agane with his blude. And 
 this maner haly kirk beiris witnes, 
 quhair our Lord sayis that he is maid 
 lyk the Pelican." 
 
 2 This is the Latin or Western 
 form of blessing ; with the Greeks, 
 as described by M. Didron and con- 
 stantly seen in the works of Byzantine 
 artists, " L'index s'allonge comme un 
 I, le grand doigt se courbe comme un 
 C, ancien sigma des Grecs, le pouce et 
 l'annulaire se croisent pour faire un X, 
 et le petit doigt s'arrondit pour figurer 
 un C. Tout cela donne IC-XC, mono- 
 gramme Grec de Jesus Christ, (Tt/o-ouC 
 X/hot6C.)" — Icon, de Dieu, p. 212. 
 
TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 9 
 
 Paradise — by a mountain, in conformity with the traditions of 
 
 almost all nations : — 
 Satan — by the serpent : — 
 
 The Obedience and Atonement of Christ — by the Cross, some- 
 times plain, sometimes richly gemmed, occasionally with 
 roses or flowers springing from it : — 
 The Course of Human Life — by the Sun and Moon : — 
 The Church, in her Catholic or general character — by a moun- 
 tain, as typified by Paradise, and in allusion also to Da?i. 
 ii. 34 :— 
 
 The Church Militant — by a female figure standing, with her 
 hands raised in prayer; 1 
 
 — by the vine, as " brought out of Egypt," Psalm lxxx. 
 8 ; Isaiah v. i , etc. ; 
 
 — and by a vessel in full sail — an emblem originally 
 heathen, but naturalized and carried out into the most minute 
 and fanciful particulars by the ancient Fathers : — 
 
 The Church Triumphant — by the New Jerusalem, the city of 
 the Apocalypse, Rev. xxi, and Ezek, xlvii, — frequently identi- 
 fied with the original Paradise in Eden : — 
 
 The Two Covenants, the Old and New Testament — by the 
 "wheel in the middle of a wheel," Ezek. i. 16 sqq. : — 
 
 The Sacrament of Baptism — by water poured on the Cross by 
 the dove : — 
 
 The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper — by ears of corn or 
 loaves, and grapes or vases of wine : — 
 
 The Apostles — by twelve sheep or lambs, usually represented 
 issuing from the cities of Our Saviour's birth and death, 
 Bethlehem and Jerusalem, and approaching a central lamb, 
 figurative of Christ, standing on the Mount of Paradise : — 
 
 The Evangelists — by the four mystic animals described in 
 Rev. iv. 7 ; Ezek. i. io, x. 14, — the angel being usually 
 assigned to S. Matthew, the lion to S. Mark, the ox to 
 S. Luke, and the eagle to S. John ; and by the four rivers 
 issuing from the Mount of Paradise, " to water the earth," 
 Gen. ii. 10 : — 
 
 The Faithful — by sheep, as under the charge of the Good 
 Shepherd, Christ, John x. 14; xxi. 15, 16, 17, etc.; 
 
 — by fish, as caught in the net of the Gospel, Mat. xiii. 
 47, Mark i. 17, Ezek. xlvii. 9, and new-born in baptism; 
 
 — by doves or other birds, denizens of a loftier and purer 
 
 1 This was in later times identified with the Virgin. 
 
10 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 element, either eating grapes or ears of corn, as figurative 
 of the Eucharist, or drinking from the vase and fountain, 
 emblematical of Christ, or holding branches of olive in 
 their beaks, and reposing on the Cross ; 
 
 — by stags at the well or water-brook, Psalm xlii. 2 • 
 — by date-trees or cedars, trees of righteousness planted 
 by the waters and bearing fruit in their season, Psalm i. 3, 
 xcii. 12, Isaiah lxi. 3, Jerem. xvii. 8 ; 
 
 — and by little children or genii sporting among the vine- 
 leaves, or plucking the fruit, — and after death, with the 
 wings of Psyche, or the butterfly : — 
 Sanctity — by the nimbus, a circlet of glory round the head, a 
 most ancient symbol, being common to the religions of India, 
 Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome, from the latter of which 
 it was adopted by the early Christians ; in the case of 
 ordinary Saints the nimbus presents a plain gold field, but 
 within that of Our Saviour the three bands of the rainbow 
 were frequently introduced, in concentric circles — as also 
 the monogram ^, but this was gradually reduced to the 
 three rays, symbolical, like the rainbow, of the Trinity, as I 
 have shown infra, p. 266, — and these were continued long 
 after the nimbus had shrunk to a thin line of gold and dis- 
 appeared : — 
 
 Faith — by the various emblems, above noticed, as symbolical 
 
 of the Faithful : — 
 Hope — by the anchor, Heb. vi. 19 : — 
 Charity — by a heart : — 
 Purity — by the lily : — 
 Incorruptibility — by the rose of Sharon : — 
 Watchfulness — by the cock : — 
 
 Victory — by the palm-branch, Rev. vii. 9, or a wreath or crown, 
 such as was given to the conqueror in the arena, 1 Cor. ix. 
 25, etc. :— 
 
 Peace — by a branch or leaf of olive, borne by the dove, sym- 
 bolical either of the Holy Spirit or of the believer, accord- 
 ing to circumstances : — 
 
 The Resurrection — by the phoenix, and the peacock, which 
 loses its rich plumage in winter and recovers it in spring : — 
 
 Eternity — by a ring or circle, of peace, glory, etc., according 
 to the emblematical import of the material of which it is 
 composed, and within which are frequently inserted the 
 symbols of Our Saviour, the Church, etc. : — 
 
TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 ii 
 
 And finally, Eternal Life — by the mystic Jordan, the " river 
 which maketh glad the City of God," formed by the junc- 
 tion of the four evangelical streams, descending from the 
 Mount of Paradise, and in which souls, in the shape of 
 children, are sometimes seen swimming and sporting, pre- 
 cisely as they figure in the mystic Nile, in the tombs of 
 the Pharaohs. — Ezek. xlvii, and Rev. xxii. i, 2. 
 
 The preceding symbols were varied at pleasure, in endless 
 combination, as may be seen passim on the tombs of Ravenna 
 and of the Catacombs, in the old Byzantine mosaics, etc. 
 They were superseded, in great measure, more especially in 
 Europe, towards the sixth and seventh centuries, by a new 
 description of symbolism, of Persian and Teutonic origin, the 
 parent collaterally of our modern heraldry. The ancient sym- 
 bolism revived, in more than its original depth and complica- 
 tion of meaning, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but 
 only for a moment, and although a few of the symbols have 
 been perpetuated to the present time, the majority are now 
 totally forgotten, West at least of the Adriatic. The Trans- 
 figuration, in the church of S. Apollinare in Classe, at Ravenna, 
 described at page 268 of the present volume, may be referred 
 to as an example of the early style, and the great mosaics of 
 S. Clemente and of S. Giovanni Laterano at Rome {infra, 
 pages 276 and 331), as specimens of the comparatively 
 modern revival. 
 
 In connection with Christian symbolism I may mention 
 the mystical value and appropriation of Colours as a very 
 interesting subject, as yet insufficiently illustrated. More has 
 been asserted on this question than (I fear) can be fairly 
 proved, but I have little doubt that a distinct system had 
 been defined and generally accepted previous to the Con- 
 fusion of Tongues and the general Dispersion, — at least, the 
 correspondence and agreement on this point between nations 
 very widely apart from each other in race and residence is 
 too close occasionally for explanation otherwise. Neverthe- 
 less but little of this symbolism (although largely sanctioned 
 in the Mosaic writings) appears in early Christian art. White 
 indeed, as the colour of innocence, specially fixed (as it were) 
 in the Bible, is the prevailing garb of Apostles, Martyrs, etc. 
 
12 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 in the ancient Mosaics, and blue and red that of Our Saviour 
 — but even these are frequently varied ; and although the 
 colours used by the Roman Catholic church in the vestments 
 of her clergy are of very ancient prescription, it does not 
 appear that in Art, properly so called, any fixed law or tradi- 
 tion, founded on symbolism, controlled their distribution. It 
 was in later times only, and when the influence of the Teutonic 
 and Scandinavian blood had asserted itself in Europe, that 
 this symbolism was introduced, and even then but partially, — 
 and it seems ever to have been closely connected with heraldry, 
 in which indeed it still survives at the present day. 
 
 The symbolical language of the hand, or of signs, is 
 another interesting subject, the investigation of which on an 
 extended scale (which should include America) might throw 
 perhaps more light on ancient art than that of the symbolism 
 of colours, since examples of it may be noticed in many of 
 the old mosaics (and even occasionally) if I mistake not, in 
 the works of Giotto and the Giotteschi — and it extensively 
 prevailed among the ancient Greeks and Etruscans. I may 
 refer, in proof of this, to the volume of the learned Canon 
 Andrea de Jorio, entitled ' La Mimica degli Antichi investigata 
 nel gestire Napoletano,' Naples, 8vo, 1832. 1 
 
 Another most interesting work might be written on the 
 symbolism and legendary history of mute nature, mute but 
 animated — of flowers,, plants, and trees, — a subject, however, 
 only collaterally and in a minor degree associating itself with 
 Christian art. It forms, in fact, a department by itself, 
 distinct alike from art and from poetry, strictly so called, and 
 well worthy of exploration. And this exploration too should 
 be a comprehensive one, including the symbolism of the 
 ancients 2 and of the extra-European world, — and Christendom 
 need not shrink from the comparison. In nothing, indeed, 
 is her superiority more manifest. The rose, for instance — the 
 flower of Venus, blushing with the blood of Adonis, the 
 
 1 The ' Arte de' Cenni, con la quale A curious series of woodcuts, repre- 
 
 formandosi favella visibile, si tratta senting the combinations of the fingers 
 
 della muta eloquenza, che non e altro by which numbers were expressed 
 
 che un facondo silentio, ' by Giov. by the Orientals, from one to nine 
 
 Bonifacio, Vicenza, 4to, 1616, is (in thousand, may be found, with illustra- 
 
 spite of its alluring title) a mere tive observations, at p. 268 of Pierius' 
 
 commonplace-book of the conven- ' Hieroglyphica, ' Basil, fol. 1575. 
 
 tional language of the poets — although 2 This has been treated of in a 
 
 far from destitute of merit as such. learned work by M. Dierbach. 
 
TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 13 
 
 darling of the Graces, the symbol of worldly pleasure and of 
 the frailty of a life too brief for its enjoyment — 
 
 " Cogliam la rosa in sul mattino adorno 
 
 Di questo di, che tosto il seren perde, — 
 Cogliam d' amor la rosa, amiamo or quando 
 Esser si puote riamato amando !" 
 
 — what is it but a weed in comparison with the rose of 
 Christendom, the type of the freshness of maiden purity, that 
 sprang up out of persecution, when the holy maiden of Beth- 
 lehem, " blamed with wrong and sclaundered with fornication," 
 as narrated by Mandeville, " was demed to the Dethe, and as 
 the Fyre beganne to brenne aboute hire, sche made hire 
 Preyers to oure Lord, that as sche was not gylty of that 
 Synne, that he wold helpe hire, and make it to be knowen to 
 alle men, of his mercyfulle grace. And whan sche hadde 
 thus seyd, anon was the Fyer quenched and oute, and the 
 Brondes that weren brennynge becomen red Roseres, and the 
 Brondes that weren not kyndled becomen white Roseres, 
 fulle of Roses. And theise weren the first Roseres and Roses, 
 bothe white and red, that ever ony man saughe. And thus 
 was this Mayden saved be the Grace of God." 1 And this is 
 but one among many Christian legends of the rose, once the 
 theme of universal song, sweeter far than that which hushed 
 the very breeze into attention in the gardens of Armida. 
 
 Admitting all that has been said, and truly said, and 
 rightly insisted upon, respecting the adoption of Pagan rites 
 and ceremonies into Christianity, it is equally true that our 
 ancestors touched nothing that they did not Christianize ; 
 they consecrated this visible world into a temple to God, of 
 which the heavens were the dome, the mountains the altars, 
 the forests the pillared aisles, the breath of spring the incense, 
 and the running streams the music, — while in every tree they 
 sheltered under, in every flower they looked down upon and 
 loved, they recognised a virtue or a spell, a token of Christ's 
 love for man, or a memorial of his martyrs' sufferings. God 
 was emphatically in all their thoughts, and from such, what- 
 ever might be their errors, God could not be far distant. — It 
 would be well for us could we retain that early freshness in 
 association with a purer and more chastened creed, but this 
 may scarcely be. The world rolls on, and the Universal, like 
 
 1 ' Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville, Knight,' p. 84, edit. 1727. 
 
14 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 the Individual man, grows in years and in experience, and at 
 fifty he offers God a" service more acceptable than at twenty- 
 five, inasmuch as it is a " reasonable " and a comprehensive 
 one ; but, there is no denying it, as Reason ripens the flowers 
 of Imagination fade, the freshness of morning dies away, and 
 as he nighs the Western Ocean he looks wistfully backward, 
 and sighs for the breeze of Eden which he has left behind. 
 But still his course is forward — his good steed, Hope, bears 
 steadily on, and the shadow of his lance, the legacy of his 
 wisdom, lengthens as he moves ; and still, as he descends 
 towards that far-spread Ocean, the Islands of the Blest rise 
 loftier and distincter to his view, as the sun of his career sinks 
 behind them. We must allow no turning back, then — no 
 compromise of the ground we have won ; we are men, not 
 children, we tilt with spears, not straws ; and yet it may be 
 pardoned if we remember with a tender yearning the days of 
 our youth, when life was love and the waters of the heart 
 were sweet within us, and thus remembering, we should 
 humbly pray, that, with the experience and fixed purposes of 
 manhood God may yet preserve in our hearts some tincture 
 of that childlike faith and simple earnestness which Our 
 Saviour loved, and in which our fathers, the objects too often 
 of our scorn — to whom the rose and the lily were dear, not 
 for their mere beauty and fragrance, but as the types of that 
 love and innocence which accomplished our salvation — were 
 such proficients. 
 
III. 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY, 
 
 LEGENDS OF THE PATRIARCHS, SAINTS, ETC., 
 THE MATERIALS OF CHRISTIAN ART 
 DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 1 
 
 [Selected from the mass with the view of familiarizing the student with the 
 outline of the popular creed of early Christendom. They may be 
 arranged under the following heads : — • 
 
 I. Of the Universe — Earth, Hell, Purgatory, Heaven, etc. 
 II. Of the Heavenly Hierarchies. 
 
 III. Of the Fall of Lucifer and his Angels. 
 
 IV. Of the Death of Adam. 
 V. Of the Death of Cain. 
 
 VI. Of the Sethites. 
 
 VII. Of Nimrod, the inventor of Idolatry, and of the Trial of Abraham. 
 VIII. Of Orpheus. 
 IX. Of the Sibyls. 
 
 X. Of the Nativity, the Dedication, and the Marriage of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary. 
 
 XI. Of the Nativity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ in the Cave 
 at Bethlehem. 
 
 1 There are various collections of 
 the Lives of the Saints, from the un- 
 finished 'Acta Sanctorum' of the Bol- 
 landists — already extending to fifty- 
 three folio volumes, ending with the 
 middle of October — to the more 
 manageable yet still bulky compilations 
 of Ribadaneyra and Alban Butler. 
 But these latter writers, more especially 
 Butler, completely destroy the interest 
 of the old legends by the apologizing 
 tone and lurking distrust with which 
 they narrate them, — Butler, indeed, 
 constantly explains them away. For 
 the purposes of art, the 'Lombardic 
 
 History, ' or ' Golden Legend ' (as it 
 is indifferently termed) of James de 
 Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, re- 
 peatedly published in different lan- 
 guages, including a version by Caxton, 
 during the fifteenth century, is excel- 
 lent ; but I would recommend in pre- 
 ference the ' Catalogus Sanctorum ' of 
 Peter de Natalibus, Bishop of Aqui- 
 leja, a portable folio, printed at Venice 
 and Vicenza in 1493, and which gives 
 the legends succinctly and in the best 
 taste, without moral reflections — in 
 short, with all the simplicity and faith 
 of childhood, exactly as they were 
 
i6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 XII. Of the Magi or Wise Men, commonly called the Three Kings of 
 the East. 
 
 XIII. Of the Flight into Egypt. 
 
 XIV. Of the Blessed Virgin's Vigil by the Cross. 
 XV. Of Our Saviour's Descent into Hell or Hades. 
 
 XVI. Of the Composition of the Apostles' Creed. 
 XVII. Of the Death and Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 XVIII. Of Simon Magus and S. Peter. 
 XIX. Of the Origin, Invention, and Exaltation of the Cross ; of the 
 Conversion • of Constantine and Helen, and of the Political 
 Establishment of Christianity. 
 XX. Legends of Martyr Saints : — 
 
 1. Of S. James the Greater. 
 
 2. Of S. Cecilia. 
 
 3. Of S. Catherine. 
 
 4. Of S. George. 
 
 5. Of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. 
 
 6. Of S. Ursula and the Eleven Thousand Virgins. 
 
 7. Of S. Christopher. 
 
 XXI. Legends of Ascetic or Monastic Saints : — 
 
 1. Of S. Mary Magdalen. 
 
 2. Of the Fathers of the Desert : — 
 
 i. Of S. Paul the Proto-hermit. 
 
 ii. Of the Temptations of S. Antony, 
 hi. Of S. Hilarion. 
 
 iv. Of S. John of Lycopolis. 
 
 v. Of S. Macarius, S. Ammon, S. Serapion, etc. 
 
 3. Of St. Jerome. 
 
 4. Of St. Martin. 
 
 credited at the time. 1 I may add that 
 the first and second books of the His- 
 tory of Normandy by Ordericus Vitalis 
 (published at large in the ' Scriptores' 
 of Duchesne, and translated in the 
 collection of ' M^moires Historiques ' 
 of M. Guizot), contain the legends of 
 the Apostles, Evangelists, early,Popes, 
 etc., narrated in a very pleasing 
 manner. The ' Vitae Sanctorum ' of 
 Lipomanus (Lovanii, 2 torn. fol. 1571), 
 differ from the preceding compilations 
 in giving the original narratives (the 
 Greek being translated) instead of the 
 popular legends. In this point of 
 view it is a very useful compilation. 
 Respecting the beneficial moral effect 
 of these legends on the popular mind 
 of Europe, especially of the lower 
 
 classes, during the middle ages, see 
 M. Guizot' s ' Hist, de la Civilisation 
 en France,' torn, ii, pp. 38 sqq. The 
 ' Essai sur les L^gendes Pieuses du 
 Moyen Age,' of M. Alfred Maury 
 {Paris, 8vo. 1843), is a most interest- 
 ing and learned disquisition, but his 
 views of Scriptural history, miracles, 
 etc., are those avowedly of the 
 rationalist German school. Lastly, 
 Mrs. Jameson has done much by 
 her two very interesting volumes on 
 ' Sacred and Legendary Art ' (pub- 
 lished in 1848) to familiarize her 
 countrymen not only with the noble 
 works of early Italian art, but with 
 the origin and progress of the great 
 revival at present going on in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1 There is also a very convenient ' Leg- at Venice in 1622, a small thick quarto, 
 gendario,' translated from the Spanish and editions of this description are very 
 ' Flos Sanctorum ' of Villegas, and printed numerous. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 17 
 
 5. Of St. Benedict. 
 
 6. Of St. Bruno. 
 
 7. Of St. Bernard. 
 
 XXII. Legends of National and Local Saints. 
 
 XXIII. Table of Symbols or Emblems of the more popular Saints. 
 
 XXIV. Floating Legends. 
 
 XXV. Of the Signs which shall precede the Second Coming of Our 
 Lord. 
 
 XXVI. Of the Last Judgment.] 1 
 
 I. Of the Universe — Earth, Hell, Purgatory, 
 Heaven, etc. 
 
 According to the popular belief of the middle ages the 
 Universe lay folded (as it were) in concentric circles around 
 Hell, situated in the centre of the Earth, the place of punish- 
 ment being divided into circles and abysses corresponding to 
 the particular crimes of man, — Satan, seated on his burning 
 throne, presiding over them; punishment there was eternal. 
 A little above Hell lay Purgatory, where souls destined for 
 ultimate beatification were purged or cleansed. Above Pur- 
 gatory was Limbo, a place neither of joy nor suffering, the 
 abode of unchristened babes and of virtuous men, whether 
 Jews or Gentiles, who had died before Christ's atonement and 
 resurrection, and from which Our Saviour, on descending into 
 Hades, reclaimed and liberated the spirits of Adam and Eve, 
 the patriarchs, etc., and conducted them into Paradise. 2 The 
 surface of the Earth was divided into the three continents, 
 Paradise being understood still to exist in the remote East, as 
 the abode of the disembodied spirits of the just, — elevated on 
 a lofty mountain answering to the Mount Meru of the Hindoos, 
 the Elburz of the Persians, the Olympus of the Greeks, the 
 Asgard of the early Scandinavians, etc., 3 walled in, however, 
 and inaccessible to embodied spirits, a bridge communicating 
 between it and heaven. The Earth was engirdled by the 
 three remaining elements of Water, Air, and Fire, each of the 
 four being peopled (independently of man and of the races 
 subject to him) by its own peculiar creation of Elves, Gnomes, 
 
 1 Various legends, here omitted, 
 will be detailed at large, in connection 
 
 „ with the frescoes that illustrate them, 
 in the following pages. 
 
 2 The only heathen ever promoted 
 from Limbo to Paradise was the Em- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 peror Trajan, who obtained this grace 
 through the intercession of the pope, 
 S. Gregory the Great. 
 
 3 Even the Mount Zion of the 
 Jews, in its mystic or Christian sense, 
 associates itself with these. 
 
 C 
 
i8 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Fairies, Sylphs, Naiads, and other similar beings, answering to 
 the Satyrs, Fauns, Nymphs, Oreads, Dryads, etc., of Classic 
 mythology. Beyond the region of Fire, continually soaring 
 upwards, succeeded the spheres of the seven planets, Luna, 
 Mercury, Venus, Sol, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, all of them 
 influential, singly and in conjunction, on the character and 
 destinies of man — the Firmament, or Eighth heaven, of stars, 
 forming the signs of the zodiac — the Crystalline, or Ninth 
 heaven, of pure ether — and the Primum Mobile, a void — the 
 whole continually revolving round the Earth, and encompassed 
 in their turn by the Empyrean, the first work of creation and 
 the residence and throne of God, who reigned there in the 
 personality of Jesus Christ, surrounded by the Angels in their 
 nine orders, and attended by the Virgin and S. John " the 
 Baptist, the Apostles, Evangelists, Martyrs and Saints, the 
 Patriarchs, Adam and Eve, etc., offering perpetual worship and 
 observance. — See the ' Historia Scolastica ' of Peter Comestor, 
 the ' Margarita Philosophica ' of Albert ab Eyb, or almost any 
 of the early chronicles. 
 
 Many, however, of the above details and even parts of the 
 grand outline varied at different periods, and I will merely add 
 that much and minute information concerning the popular 
 notions of the universe may be found in the very interesting 
 volume by Mr. Wright, entitled 'St. Patrick's Purgatory, an 
 Essay on the Legends of Purgatory, Hell, and Paradise, current 
 during the middle ages.' These might perhaps be investigated 
 still further, in connection with the various Oriental mytholo- 
 gies and cosmogonies, and would thus form a most interesting 
 chapter in the history of religion. The notion for instance of 
 a purgatorial fire is extremely ancient, and the tortures de- 
 picted in the paintings of the Buddhists so strongly resemble 
 those of the Byzantine or mediaeval representations of Hell, 
 that one would suppose them to be directly copied from them, 
 were not the Buddhist doctrine sufficient of itself to have sug- 
 gested them. Mr. Upham has illustrated them throughout 
 from Dante. — History and Doctrines of Buddhism, pp. 106 sqq. 
 
 II. Of the Heavenly Hierarchies. 
 
 The heavenly host is divided (according to ecclesiastical 
 authorities) into three hierarchies, and each hierarchy into 
 three orders, nine therefore in all. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 19 
 
 To the Upper hierarchy belong the Seraphim, Cherubim 
 and Thrones, dwelling nearest to God and in contemplation 
 rather than action, and to whom appertain, severally and 
 distinctively, perfect love, perfect wisdom, and perfect rest ; 
 
 To the Middle hierarchy — the Dominations, Virtues and 
 Powers,— to whom are committed the general government 
 of the Universe, the gift of miracles in the cause of God, and 
 the office of resisting and casting out devils ; 
 
 To the Lower — the Principalities, Archangels and Angels, 
 — entrusted with the rule and ordinance of nations, that of 
 provinces or cities, and that of individuals of the human 
 race, — every man being attended by two angels, the one 
 evil, persuading him to sin, for the exercise of his faith, the 
 other good, suggesting righteousness and truth and protecting 
 him from the former : — 
 
 While the whole nine Orders are paralleled with the 
 officers who at various distances surround the throne of a 
 king, the vicegerent of God on earth, — the three of the 
 Upper hierarchy corresponding to the Councillors, Assessors 
 and Chamberlains that immediately attend his person ; the 
 three of the Middle, to the Princes, Nobles and Judges 
 entrusted with the general government of his kingdom ; and 
 the three of the Lower to the Prefects, Bailiffs and Magistrates 
 who conduct its local affairs. 
 
 See the tract ' De Coelesti Hierarchia,' with the comments 
 by George Pachymer, the Byzantine historian, and Father 
 Corderius, in the first volume of the works attributed to 
 Dionysius Areopagita, edit. Antv. 2 torn. fol. 1634, — and 
 the ' Catalogus Sanctorum ' of Peter de Natalibus. The 
 origin indeed of these ideas is far more ancient than the 
 pseudo-Dionysius, and probably than the Christian era, and 
 must be sought for apparently in the remote East, among the 
 Chaldeans and Medo-Persians. 
 
 The student of heraldry need not be reminded of the 
 fanciful analogies that abound in the old writers, between 
 the nine orders of angels and the nine precious stones, the 
 nine degrees of dignity, the nine articles of gentleness, the 
 nine virtues of chivalry, the nine vices contrary to gentlemen, 
 etc. etc. 
 
20 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 III. Of the Fall of Lucifer and his Angels. 
 
 " Quhen God, the plasmatour of all, 
 Into the hevin Emperiall 
 Did creat all the angels bricht, 
 He made ane angell maist of micht, 
 To quhome he gaif preeminence 
 Above thame all in sapience ; 
 Because all other he did prefer, 
 Namit he was bricht Lucifer. 
 He was sa plesant and sa fair, 
 He thocht himself without compair, 
 And grew so gay and glorious 
 He gan to be presumptuous, 
 . And thocht that he wald set his seat 
 Into the North, 1 and mak debait 
 Agane the majeste divyne :" 2 — 
 
 But the particulars of his rebellion, as usually conceived in 
 the middle ages, are set forth with more minuteness in the 
 ancient Mysteries, of which I may refer especially to that 
 printed by Mr. Wright among the ' Chester Plays/ entitled 
 the ' Fall of Lucifer,' and written in the fourteenth century. 3 
 It opens with the converse of the Deity with Himself, 
 while creating the heaven and the angelic orders, 
 
 " Each one with other, as it is right, 
 To walk aboute the Trinitie," 
 
 and of whom Lucifer and Lightborn are the first and the 
 brightest. God places Lucifer next his throne, and warning 
 him to be lowly and humble, departs, leaving it vacant. After 
 awhile Lucifer begins, 
 
 " * Aha ! that I am wondrous bright, 
 
 Among you all shynning full clear ! 
 Of all heaven I bear the light, 
 
 Though God himself and he were heare. 
 All in this throne yf that I were, 
 
 Then should I be as wyse as he ; 
 What say you, Angels that be here ? 
 
 Some comfort soon now let me see.' " 
 
 1 Isaiah, xiv. 13. 
 
 2 From the Lion King, Sir David 
 Lindsay's ' Monarchic, ' the last of the 
 chronicles of the middle ages, and in 
 which and Sir David's other works 
 constant illustrations occur of Christian 
 
 art. Works, torn, iii, p. 360, ed. 
 Chalmers. 
 
 3 The scenes in the Mysteries were 
 evidently in many instances arranged 
 as tableaux from the traditional com- 
 positions of art. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 21 
 
 — The various orders, Dominations, Principalities, etc. 
 dissuade him, but in vain, and seconded by Lightborn, he 
 seats himself in the throne, saying, 
 
 " 'Above great God I will me guide, 
 
 And sette myself here as I ween ; 
 I am peerless and prince of pride, 
 
 For God himself shines not so sheen. 
 Here will I sit now in his stead, 
 
 To exalt myself in this same see — 
 Behold my body, hands and head, 
 
 The might of God is marked in me. 
 All angels, turn to me, I rede, 
 
 And to your sovereign kneel on your knee ; 
 I am your comfort, both lord and head, 
 
 The mirth and might of the majestic '" 
 
 — Lightborn follows with similar blasphemies, and the Deity 
 then returns and passes sentence on both ; they fall down into 
 hell with their abettors and are changed into demons, and the 
 piece concludes with their mutual curses and recriminations, 
 and the moral, put into the mouth of God, that pride must fall. 
 
 Amid a thousand errors of taste, and a boldness of 
 imagery and language startling now-a-days, and full indul- 
 gence in that passion for the grotesque which is such a 
 singular element of the Teutonic mind, and ought to be 
 explored and compared in all its different channels of develop- 
 ment, these old Mysteries must have had a wholesome 
 influence on the people, as their moral is uniformly sound, 
 and the irreverence usually objected to them resembles the 
 familiarity which plays round objects of intimate trust and 
 love rather than the disrespect and profanity of an age of 
 scepticism like ours. 1 
 
 IV. Of the Death of Adam. 
 
 "And the Crystene men, that dwellen bezond the See, in 
 Grece, seyn that the tree of the Cros, that we callen Cypresse, 
 was of that tree that Adam ete the Appulle of : and that 
 fynde thei writen. And thei seyn also that here [their] 
 
 1 Being too long for insertion here, early mosaics and frescoes, and with 
 
 let me refer to the touching scene of the same simple naivete and pathos, 
 
 the Offering of Isaac in the ' Histories It is only during the childhood and 
 
 of Lot and Abraham, ' in the 'Chester youth of a nation that its poets can 
 
 Plays, 'pp. 64-73, — a subject frequently amplify Scripture in the spirit of 
 
 depicted with all its incidents, in the Scripture. 
 
22 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Scripture seythe, that Adam was seik, and seyde to his sonne 
 Sethe that he scholde go to the Aungelle that kepte Paradys, 
 that he wolde senden hym Oyle of Mercy for to anoynte his 
 membres with, that he myghte have hele. And Sethe went. 
 But the Aungelle wold not lat him come in, but seyd to him 
 that he myghte not have of the Oyle of Mercy. But he toke 
 him three greynes of the same Tree that his fadre ete the 
 Appulle offe, and bad him, als sone as his fadre was ded, 
 that he scholde putte theise three Greynes undre his tonge, 
 and grave him so : and he dide. And of theise three Greynes 
 sprong a Tree, as the Aungelle seyde that it scholde, and bere 
 a Fruyt, thorghe the whiche Fruyt Adam scholde be saved. 
 And whan Sethe cam azen [again], he fonde his fadre nere 
 ded. And whan he was ded, he did with the Greynes as the 
 Aungelle bad him ; of the whiche sprongen three Trees, of 
 the whiche the Cros was made, that bare gode Fruyt and 
 blessed, oure Lord Jesus Crist ; thorghe whom Adam and alle 
 that comen of him scholde be saved and delyvered from drede 
 of Dethe withouten ende, but it be here [their] own defaute." 
 — Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville, etc., p. 13. 
 
 V. Of the Death of Cain. 
 
 He is said to have lived to a great age, a wanderer on the 
 earth, and known every-where by the continual trembling of 
 his head, the mark set upon him by God, lest any one should 
 kill him. He was at last slain inadvertently, while sleeping in 
 a thicket, by the arrow of his descendant Lamech, to whom 
 the attendant of the latter pointed him out as a wild beast, 
 being deceived by his appearance, overgrown with long shaggy 
 hair. Lamech, on discovering his error, slew the youth. See 
 Comestor's 1 Historia Scolastica,' or any of the ancient 
 chronicles. This double bloodshed was supposed to be 
 alluded to in the remarkable song or poem (the oldest probably 
 in existence) addressed by Lamech to his two wives, Adah and 
 Zillah, Gen. iv. 23. 
 
 VI. Of the Sethites. 
 
 The posterity of Seth are reputed to have been the first 
 ascetics, dwelling apart, in Mount Hermon, till their descent 
 into the plains and intermixture with the " daughters of men," 
 or the race of Cain. — UHerbelot, Biblioth. Orientale. — They 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 23 
 
 were the depositories also of the seven sciences revealed to 
 Adam by God, and which Seth engraved on two columns, the 
 one of brick the other of stone, that they might survive the 
 deluge. — See the Antiquities of Josephus, lib. i. cap. 2. 
 
 VII. Of Nimrod, the Inventor of Idolatry, and of the 
 Trial of Abraham. 
 
 Nimrod is represented in the ancient chronicles as of gigantic 
 stature, ten or twelve cubits in height, and as the inventor of 
 idolatry. After the destruction of the Tower of Babel and the 
 dispersion of nations, he returned to Chaldsea and persuaded 
 the inhabitants to worship fire. He built a vast furnace, and 
 commanded that whoever should refuse to offer adoration 
 should be cast into it. Abraham and his brother Terah 
 refused, and Nimrod cast them in ; Terah perished, but 
 Abraham came out unhurt. 1 
 
 VIII. Of Orpheus. 
 
 The legends of his marvellous minstrelsy, his taming the wild 
 beasts, his descending into hell, etc., received an interpretation 
 of their own from the early Christians, and he is frequently 
 introduced as a type of the Messiah in early Christian art. 
 
 IX. Of the Sibyls. 
 
 Ten are usually reckoned by the writers of the middle ages, 
 named, after their respective birth places or residence, the 
 Persian, Libyan, Delphic, Cumsean, Erythraean, Samian, 
 Cuman, Hellespontine, Phrygian and Tiburtine, — the latter of 
 
 1 The Mahometan writers trans- 
 pose the order of events, asserting 
 that Nimrod' s desire to see and measure 
 his strength with the God who had 
 saved Abraham induced him to build 
 the Tower of Babel, and afterwards 
 to attempt to fly to heaven in a coffer, 
 to which he had harnessed four of the 
 monstrous birds named Karkes, cele- 
 brated in Eastern legend ; after flying 
 to and fro for some time, they threw 
 him so rudely to the ground that the 
 mountain on which he fell was shaken 
 to its foundations. Continuing in his 
 obduracy, and many still adhering to 
 
 him after the Dispersion, the Almighty 
 sent a plague of gnats, which killed 
 nearly all his followers, and one of 
 which, entering his nostrils, penetrated 
 to the brain, and enlarging there, gave 
 him such torture that he could only 
 sleep after beating his head with a 
 mallet, and he suffered in this manner 
 four hundred years, God willing to 
 punish by the most insignificant of 
 his creatures the man who had insolently 
 boasted himself the Lord of all. See 
 D'Herbelot's Bibl. Orieniale, art. 
 Nemrod, 
 
24 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 whom is said to have shown the Emperor Augustus, in a vision, 
 the Virgin and child in heaven. All of them are supposed to 
 have prophesied of Christ ; they are constantly associated with 
 the prophets, apostles and evangelists, in painting and sculpture, 
 and even chapels were occasionally dedicated to them. For 
 their attitude and attire, the colours of their robes, and the 
 words of their respective prophecies, as current especially in 
 Germany, see the 'Nuremberg Chronicle,' 1493,^0/. 35, verso. 
 The 'Sibyllina oracula' are well known, and preserve many 
 valuable traditions. 
 
 X. Of the Nativity, the Dedication, and the Marriage 
 of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 
 [Chiefly from the Apocryphal ' Gospel of the Birth of Mary,' translated by 
 S. Jerome, and abridged in the ' Catalogus Sanctorum ' of Peter de 
 Natalibus. Another version of the legend, which may be considered 
 as that more peculiarly of Greek or Eastern Christendom, may be 
 found in the ' Protevangelion,' attributed to S. James the Less. The 
 originals both of it and the 4 Gospel of the Birth of Mary,' are printed 
 in Philo's 'Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti,' Lips. 1832, torn, i. 1 ] 
 
 "Joachim, of Galilee, of the city of Nazareth and tribe of 
 
 1 Almost all the apocryphal Gospels, 
 Acts, etc., may be traced, generally, 
 to the early sect of Docetae, a branch 
 of the Gnostics, the introducers of the 
 Mystic philosophy into Christianity, 
 and in particular, to a certain Leucius, 
 said to have been a disciple (originally) 
 of S. John, and who opposed these 
 forgeries to the genuine writings of 
 the Apostles, with the view of supporting 
 the peculiar tenets of the sect, namely 
 — that Light and Darkness, Spirit and 
 Matter, are coeternally and coequally 
 opposed in hostility, — that Matter is 
 essentially corrupt and sinful, and 
 Spirit essentially pure and divine, a 
 particle in fact of the Deity, — that our 
 spirits being in this life imprisoned 
 within our bodies, the flesh must be 
 crushed to impotence if the spirit would 
 be free, — that this depending on the 
 will of man, an atonement for sin is 
 
 unnecessary, — that, as a means to this, 
 celibacy is to be commended and mar- 
 riage depreciated, — that the Blessed 
 Mary was ever Virgin, — that the body 
 of Our Saviour was a body only in ap- 
 pearance, and that a phantom, merely, 
 suffered on the cross, — that the pains 
 of death are unfelt and the spirit 
 departs easily in proportion as the 
 body is pure and uncontaminated, — 
 and that the resurrection takes place 
 in every instance at the death of the 
 individual, the body dropping off for 
 ever and resolving itself into dust, its 
 kindred mass of corruption. The 
 early Church, in rejecting the leading 
 principle of the heresy, and con- 
 demning the heretics, sanctioned not- 
 withstanding, or at least winked at 
 the circulation of the fables devised by 
 them in its support, 1 and these have 
 become the mythology of Christianity, 
 
 1 The condemnation of a number of the seems to have proved (ultimately) a dead 
 Apocryphal writings by Pope Gelasius letter. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 25 
 
 Judah, espoused Anna, daughter of Garizi, of Bethlehem, of 
 the same tribe. And they were both just before God, and 
 divided all their substance into three parts, whereof they appor- 
 tioned one to the temple and its ministers, another to pilgrims and 
 the poor, and the third to themselves and their household. And 
 thus living for twenty years, and being without children, they 
 vowed to the Lord, that, if he gave them offspring, they would 
 dedicate the child to His service. For the which cause visiting 
 Jerusalem constantly at the three great feasts, Joachim, with 
 his tribesmen, went up at the feast of the Dedication, and 
 entering the temple with the rest, he made offer to present his 
 oblation at the altar of the Lord. But Issachar, the high 
 priest, repelled him as one unworthy, being childless in Israel. 
 Joachim therefore, being ashamed, returned home, fearing lest 
 his friends should reproach him also, and being in much 
 sorrow, he went apart and abode with his shepherds in the 
 wilderness. 
 
 " But after certain days, the angel of the Lord stood near 
 him, with a great light, and when he trembled at the vision, 
 the angel comforted him, saying, that he was sent to him 
 from the Lord to tell him that his prayers had been heard, 
 and that his alms had risen up in the sight of the Most High, 
 and that God had witnessed his shame and the injustice of 
 his reproach, and that, like Sarah and Rachel of old, Anna 
 his wife should conceive and bear a child, who should be 
 called Mary and be consecrated to the Lord according to his 
 
 universally credited among the Southern 
 nations of Europe, while many of the 
 dogmas which they were grounded 
 upon have, as a natural consequence, 
 crept gradually into the faith. The 
 Gnostics, on the other hand, were 
 sound as regarded the divinity of Our 
 Saviour, which was fiercely attacked 
 by the Judaizing Ebionites. Both 
 sects, although as yet in the germ only, 
 were manifesting themselves during 
 the latter years of S. John, who wrote 
 his Gospel to vindicate the truth both 
 from one and the other. 
 
 Leucius is said to have been a 
 
 Greek, and was evidently a man of 
 genius and taste ; but his writings 
 have been so disfigured and inter- 
 polated that it is very difficult to 
 distinguish between his own statements 
 and those of his successors. Many 
 indeed of the pseudo-Gospels, trace- 
 able to him in their origin, are, as 
 they now appear, puerile in the 
 extreme, 1 some of them even imputing 
 malignity to Our Saviour's childhood. 
 The reader may consult the ' Histoire 
 Critique du Manichersme, ' by the 
 learned Beausobre, second part, second 
 book, torn, i, pp. 337-424. 
 
 1 E.g., according to the 'Gospel 'of the 
 Infancy of Christ,' Joseph was a very bad 
 carpenter, and whenever he made his chests 
 or tables too short or too long, Our Saviour 
 
 would touch, or stretch out his hand towards 
 them, and they expanded or contracted to 
 the correct dimensions. 
 
26 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 vow, — and that she should be full of the Holy Ghost from her 
 mother's womb, and should dwell for ever in the temple of the 
 Lord, — and that, as she should be born supernaturally from a 
 sterile womb, so she should supernaturally bring forth the Son 
 of the Most High, who should be called of all nations, Jesus, 
 the Saviour. And the angel gave him a sign, that he should 
 meet his wife, Anna, at the Golden Gate of Jerusalem, coming 
 to meet him, for that she was troubled at his long absence. 
 And, after saying these things, the angel disappeared. 
 
 " And while Anna wept bitterly, and knew not where her 
 husband was, the same angel appeared to her, and with the 
 selfsame message, adding, as a sign, that she should go to the 
 Golden Gate, and should there meet her husband. Meeting 
 therefore there, and rejoicing in the vision, Joachim and Anna 
 returned home, expectant of the promise. 
 
 " And Anna conceived and bare a daughter, and they called 
 her name Mary. And, three years being completed after the 
 weaning of the child, they brought her, with offerings, to the 
 temple, to be dedicated to the Lord. And there were around 
 the temple fifteen steps, according to the fifteen psalms of 
 Degrees. And the Virgin being placed on the lowest step 
 ascended them all by herself, without assistance, as if she had 
 been of perfect age. And after making their offerings, her 
 parents left her with the other virgins in the temple, and 
 returned home. And Mary lived day by day in all holiness 
 in the temple, in prayer and meditation, and study of the word 
 of God, holding converse with angels, and fed with celestial 
 food from heaven, and increasing in stature, and wisdom, and 
 grace before God and man. 
 
 " And when Mary was fourteen years of age, the high priest 
 commanded that the virgins brought up in the temple should 
 return home and be wedded according to the law. And all 
 obeyed except Mary, who replied that she might not, as her 
 parents had dedicated her to the Lord, and she had herself 
 vowed her virginity to God. And the high priest being 
 perplexed between Mary's vow (which ought to be kept) on 
 the one hand, and the introduction of a new custom in Israel, 
 on the other, summoned the elders together to consult upon 
 this matter. And, as they prayed, a voice came from the 
 Sanctuary, commanding that every man of the House of David, 
 who was not wedded, should place his rod on the altar, and 
 that he whose rod should bud, and the Holy Spirit descend 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 upon it in the form of a dove, according to the prophecy of 
 Isaiah, 1 should be the spouse of Mary. 
 
 "And there was among the rest a certain Joseph, of the 
 House of David, an old man and a widower, and who had 
 sons and grandsons. ' And, thinking it unseemly that an aged 
 man should marry a tender virgin, when the others presented 
 their rods, he withheld his own. And no miracle appearing, 
 the High Priest inquired of the Lord. Who answered that 
 he only to whom the Virgin was to be espoused had not pre- 
 sented his rod. So Joseph was brought forward, and presented 
 his rod, and straightway it budded, and the dove descended 
 from heaven and settled upon it. And it was clear to all men 
 that Mary was to be his wife. And after espousing her, he 
 returned to Bethlehem to put his house in order, but Mary, 
 with five other virgins, her companions, went home to her 
 parents at Nazareth. 
 
 " And in those days the angel Gabriel appeared to her while 
 she prayed, etc. etc." 
 
 XL Of the Nativity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus 
 Christ in the Cave at Bethlehem. 
 
 [From the ' Protevangelion, ' cap. 19 ; Codex Afiocr. N. Test. torn, i, 
 p. 245, edit. Thilo.1 
 
 " And the midwife went with Joseph, and stood in front of 
 the cave. And a cloud overshadowed the cave. And the 
 midwife said, My soul is magnified this day, that I have seen 
 this marvellous thing, and that salvation is born to Israel. 
 And suddenly the cloud shrunk away, and a. great light shone 
 in the cave, so that our eyes could not bear it, and, after a 
 little, that light diminished, until the child appeared, and 
 sucked the breast of his mother, Mary." 2 
 
 1 Isaiah xi, 1. 
 
 ' ' From Jesse's root behold a branch arise, 
 Whose sacred flower with fragrance fills the skies ; 
 Th' etherial Spirit o'er its leaves shall move, 
 And on its top descends the mystic Dove." 
 
 Pope's Messiah. 
 
 2 Artists, during the fourteenth and the new-born child, in order to express 
 fifteenth centuries, frequently repre- her delivery without suffering, 
 sented the Virgin kneeling and adoring 
 
28 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 XII. Of the Magi or Wise Men, commonly called the 
 Three Kings of the East. 
 
 [From the Second Homily on the First Chapter of S. Matthew, in a 
 Commentary by an uncertain author (but a Latin and an Arian, 
 flourishing at the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century), 1 
 printed among the spurious works of S. Chrysostom, edit. Benedict. 
 1817, torn. 6, p. xxviii, at the end of the volume.] 
 
 11 1 have heard speak of a certain writing, not perhaps de- 
 serving implicit credit, yet not repugnant to the faith, but 
 rather agreeable to it, how there dwelt a certain nation close 
 to the Ocean, at the very extremity of the East, among whom 
 a writing was current, inscribed with the name of Seth, con- 
 cerning this star which was to appear, and the gifts to be 
 offered after this manner, and which had been handed down 
 from father to son through the generations of learned men. 
 For twelve of the more learned, and lovers of celestial 
 mysteries, had elected and disposed themselves to watch for 
 that star. And when any of them died, his son or one of his 
 kindred, who was found of that mind, was appointed in his 
 place. And they were called Magi in their tongue, because 
 they glorified God in silence and inward prayer. These, 
 therefore, year by year, after the threshing out of the corn, 
 ascended into a certain mountain, called in their language 
 Mons Victorialis, having in it a certain cave in the rock, and 
 most grateful and pleasant with fountains and choice trees, into 
 which ascending, and bathing themselves, they prayed and 
 praised God in silence three days. And thus they did, genera- 
 tion after generation, ever watching lest peradventure that star 
 of beatitude should arise upon themselves, — until it appeared 
 unto them, descending on the Mons Victorialis, having within 
 itself the form as it were of a man-child, and above it the 
 similitude of a cross. And it spake to them, and taught them, 
 and commanded that they should go into Judea. And jour- 
 neying thither for the space of two years, the star went before 
 them, and neither food nor drink failed in their vessels. And 
 what further they did is told compendiously in the Gospel. 
 And after they had returned home, they continued worshipping 
 and glorifying God more zealously than before, and preached 
 to all in their nation, and instructed many. And finally when 
 
 1 See the preliminary Diatriba of the Editors. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 29 
 
 the Apostle Thomas went into that country after the resurrec- 
 tion of the Lord, they joined him, and after being baptized of 
 him, were made assistants in his ministry." 
 
 The Legend, in its complete and current form, bears, in 
 addition to the above, that the wise men were the posterity 
 and successors of Balaam, and the prophecy in their keeping 
 that in Numbers ', xxiv. 17, "There shall come a star out of 
 Israel," etc., — that they watched by three at a time, — that the 
 three only, to whom the star was revealed, worshipped at 
 Bethlehem, — that their names were Gaspar, Melchior and 
 Balthasar, the first of sixty, the second of forty, and the third 
 of twenty years of age, — that they were of kingly, or, at least, 
 of princely rank, 1 — that, starting from three different points, 
 and travelling apart, they met, notwithstanding, at the same 
 moment at the spot where the three roads joined, and thus 
 proceeded together to Bethlehem, — and that, after death, their 
 bodies were translated to Constantinople, from thence to 
 Milan, and finally to Cologne, where they are still preserved 
 in the Cathedral. 
 
 XIII. Of the Flight into Egypt. 
 
 When the Holy Family were departing from Bethlehem, they 
 passed certain husbandmen, occupied in a field, and the 
 Virgin begged them to answer, in reply to any who might 
 inquire " when the Son of Man passed by," that he did so 
 " when they were sowing the corn," — which they were doing 
 at the moment. The corn sprang up into the ear in the 
 course of the night, and they were engaged in reaping it the 
 following day, when the soldiers of Herod came up, and 
 inquired after the fugitives ; the reapers replied as the Virgin 
 had directed, and the pursuit was stayed. This legend is 
 frequently represented in early German and Flemish pictures, 
 but I have never met with it in the old Hagiographers. It 
 was related to me many years ago, as current in the North of 
 Scotland, where it is added that a little black beetle lifted up 
 his head and answered, "The Son of Man passed here last 
 
 1 According to a variation of the of the earth ; the King of Nubia is 
 
 legend, they ruled over Tharsus or therefore frequently (more especially 
 
 Thrace, Sheba, and Nubia, thus repre- in German art) represented as a negro, 
 senting the three continents or quarters 
 
3o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 night ! " in consequence of which the Highlanders kill the 
 black beetle whenever they meet with it, repeating the words, 
 " Beetle, beetle, last night !" in execration. I have read some- 
 where that a similar superstition formerly prevailed in Wales. 
 
 " At Babylon " (Cairo), says Jacques de Vitry, Bishop of 
 Acre, who died in 1264, "is a very ancient date-tree, which 
 spontaneously bent itself to the Blessed Virgin when she 
 wished to eat of its fruit, and rose again after she had gathered 
 it. The Saracens, seeing this, cut the tree down, but the 
 following night it sprang up again, as straight and entire as 
 before, and consequently they now venerate and adore it. 
 The marks of the axe are visible to this day." — Hist. 
 Orientalis, lib. 3, in Martenne's Thesaurus, vol. 3, p. 375. — 
 The Virgin is said, in the Koran, to have borne Our Saviour, 
 leaning against a withered date-tree, which miraculously let 
 fall ripe fruit for her refreshment. — Sale's Koran, cap. 19, p. 
 250. A fountain is also said to have sprung up miraculously 
 to quench their thirst; it is still shewn under the name of 
 ' Ain Shems,' or the Fountain of the Sun, at Mataria, near the 
 ancient Heliopolis, not far from Cairo. 
 
 "And Joseph drew nigh to a great city" (Hermopolis), 
 " in which there was an idol, to which the other idols and 
 deities of Egypt offered gifts and vows. And a priest stood 
 there ministering, who as often as Satan spake from that idol, 
 related his sayings to the inhabitants of Egypt and her coasts. 
 And near that idol stood the hospice of the city, which after 
 Joseph and Mary had entered, the citizens were in great 
 consternation. And all the princes and priests of the idols 
 assembled before the idol, asking, ' What is this consternation 
 and trembling that hath fallen upon our country?' — And the 
 idol answered, ' The Unknown God, who is God indeed, hath 
 come hither, nor is any one else worthy of divine honour, for 
 He is in truth the Son of God ; it is at His fame this region 
 trembleth, by His coming it is commoved and quaketh, and 
 we also tremble at the greatness of His power.' And that 
 same hour the idol fell." — From the Gospel of the Infancy oj 
 Our Saviour, cap. 10 ; Codex Apocr. N. Test. torn, i, p. 75. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 3i 
 
 XIV. Of the Blessed Virgin's Vigil by the Cross. 
 
 This is a favourite subject of representation in early Christian 
 art. She is occasionally represented with a sword in her 
 heart, in allusion to the prophecy of Simeon, Luke ii, 35. I 
 subjoin a translation of the ' Stabat Mater,' as the best possible 
 commentary upon it, and, generally speaking, on the mediaeval 
 veneration of the Madonna, which is to be distinguished from 
 ours, as regarding her as an intercessor and mediatrix rather 
 than the purest and most holy of the daughters of Adam. 
 
 STABAT MATER DOLOROSA, etc. 
 
 "By the Cross, sad vigil keeping, 
 Stood the mournful mother weeping, 
 
 While on it the Saviour hung ; 
 In that hour of deep distress, 
 Pierc'd the sword of bitterness 
 
 Through her heart, with sorrow wrung. 
 
 " Oh ! how sad, how woebegone 
 Was that ever blessed One, 
 
 Mother of the Son of God ! 
 Oh ! what bitter tears she shed 
 Whilst before her Jesus bled, 
 
 'Neath the Father's penal rod ! 
 
 " Who 's the man could view unmoved 
 Christ's sweet mother, whom He loved 
 
 In such dire extremity? 
 Who his pitying tears withhold, 
 Christ's sweet mother to behold 
 
 Sharing in his agony? 
 
 " For the Father's broken law, 
 Mary thus the Saviour saw 
 
 Sport of human cruelties, — 
 Saw her sweet, her only son, 
 God-forsaken and undone, 
 
 Die, a sinless sacrifice ! 
 
 " Mary mother, fount of love, 
 Make me share thy sorrow, move 
 
 All my soul to sympathy ! 
 Make my heart within me glow 
 With the love of Jesus — so 
 Shall I find acceptancy. 
 
32 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 " Print, oh mother ! on my heart, 
 Deeply print the wounds, the smart 
 
 Of my Saviour's chastisement ; 
 He who, to redeem my loss, 
 Deigned to bleed upon the cross — 
 
 Make me share his punishment ! 
 
 ' ' Ever with thee, at thy side, 
 'Neath the Christ, the Crucified, 
 
 Mournful mother, let me be ! 
 By the Cross sad vigil keeping, 
 Ever watchful, ever weeping, 
 
 Thy companion constantly ! 
 
 "Maid of maidens, undefiled, 
 Mother gracious, mother mild, 
 
 Melt my heart to weep with thee! 
 Crown me with Christ's thorny wreath, 
 Make me consort of his death, 
 
 Sharer of his victory. 
 
 ' 4 Never from the mingled tide 
 Flowing still from Jesus' side, 
 
 May my lips, inebriate, turn ; 
 And when, in the day of doom, 
 Lightning-like, he rends the tomb, 
 
 Shield, oh ! shield me lest I burn ! 
 
 ' ' So the shadow of the tree 
 Where thy Jesus bled for me 
 
 Still shall be my fortalice ; 
 So when flesh and spirit sever 
 Shall I live, thy boon, for ever 
 
 In the joys of Paradise ! " 
 
 XV. Of Our Saviour's Descent into Hell or Hades. 
 
 [From the spurious ' Gospel of Nicodemus ' — a forgery of the second or 
 third century, supposed to be identical in great measure with the ' Acts 
 of Pilate,' cited by the early Fathers ; the name of Nicodemus was 
 probably given to it by the Anglo-Saxons, who esteemed it canonical, 
 and read it in their churches. See Beausobre, Hist. Crit. du Mani- 
 ckeisme, torn, i, p. 370, and Philo's Codex Apocr. N. T. torn, i, pp. 
 cxviii sqq. and p. 48 7. 1 
 
 1 The portion here extracted is 
 supposed to be older than the rest, 
 and is attributed by Beausobre to the 
 Gnostic or Docetan Leucius, men- 
 tioned in a former page. The baptism 
 of the dead in Jordan is a proof, as 
 
 he remarks, of its extreme antiquity. 
 The belief of the necessity at least of 
 baptism even for the dead is alluded 
 to by Hermas, in his ' Pastor, ' lib. 3, 
 cap. 16 ; Patres Apost. t. i, p. 119, 
 edit. Cotelerii. And the whole legend 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 33 
 
 The legend fills eleven chapters of the Gospel, from the seventeenth to the 
 twenty-seventh. Joseph, we read, having buried the body of Jesus, the 
 Jews imprisoned him, but Our Saviour appeared to him after his 
 resurrection, and released and led him to Arimathea. The Jews, 
 hearing of this, sent seven of Joseph's friends, with letters of safe 
 conduct, entreating him to return ; he did so, and was present while 
 Annas and Caiaphas, with Nicodemus and others, examined the wit- 
 nesses of Our Saviour's ascension. The narrative then proceeds as 
 follows : — ] 
 
 " cap. xvii. And Joseph said, ' Why marvel ye that Jesus 
 should rise ? It is a greater marvel that he should have raised 
 other of the dead, who have appeared to many in Jerusalem. 
 And if ye know not therm at least ye know Simeon, who took 
 Jesus in his arms, and Simeon's two sons, the brothers, whom 
 also Jesus hath raised. For we buried them but a little while 
 ago, and now their tombs are to be seen opened and void, but 
 they are alive and dwelling in Arimathea.' 
 
 " They sent men therefore, and they found their sepulchres 
 opened and void. 
 
 " And Joseph said, 1 Let us go to Arimathea, and we shall 
 find them there.' 
 
 "Then the chief priests, Annas and Caiaphas, arose, and 
 Joseph, and Nicodemus, and Gamaliel, and others with them, 
 and went out to Arimathea, and found the men whom Joseph 
 had spoken of. And they entreated them, and they embraced 
 each other, and then they came with them to Jerusalem. And 
 they brought them into the synagogue, and shut to the doors, 
 and placed the Old Testament of the Jews in the midst, and 
 the chief priests said unto them, ' We adjure you by Adonai, 
 the God of Israel, that ye declare to us the verity, how that ye 
 have risen, and who hath raised you from the dead.' On 
 hearing this, they who had risen made the sign of the cross on 
 their foreheads, and said to the chief priests, ' Give us paper, 
 and ink, and reeds.' Which things were brought. And, 
 sitting down, each of them, apart, they wrote as follows : — 
 
 " cap. xviii. ' Lord Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the 
 Life of the world ! give unto us grace, that we may declare thy 
 resurrection and thy wonders that thou didst in Hades ! For 
 
 may be supposed to have originated 
 in the obscure allusions, Ephes. iv. 8, 
 9, and 1 Peter hi. 19, — compared with 
 Psalms xvi. 10, xlix. 15, etc. It was 
 not till the fifth century that the clause, 
 " He descended into Hell," was intro- 
 VOL. I. 
 
 duced into the Apostles' Creed. The 
 following translation is made from the 
 Greek ; the Latin version, although 
 ancient, has been much and tastelessly 
 interpolated. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 we were in Hades, with all the rest of them that slept, and at 
 the hour of midnight there arose on that darkness as it were 
 the light of the sun, and it shone brightly, and we were 
 all illumined, and we saw one another. And straightway our 
 father Abraham, with the patriarchs and the prophets, filled 
 with exultation and gladness, said to each other, " This is the 
 light from the great enlightenment ! " The prophet Isaiah, 
 there present, said, " This is the light that proceedeth from the 
 Father, and from the Son, and from the Holy Ghost, of which 
 I prophesied while yet in the flesh, saying, 'The land of 
 Zabulon and the land of Naphthali, the people sitting in dark- 
 ness, have seen a great light.' " — Then came there forward, into 
 the midst of them, a stranger, an ascetic from the wilderness, 
 and the patriarchs said unto him, "Who art thou?" And he 
 said, "I am John, the last (reAos) of the prophets, who have 
 made straight the way of the Son of God, and preached to the 
 people repentance, to the remission of sins. And the Son of 
 God came unto me, and seeing him from afar, I said to the 
 people, ' Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin 
 of the world ! ' And with my hand I baptized him in the river 
 Jordan, and I beheld the Holy Ghost descending on him as it 
 were a dove, and I heard the voice of God, the Father, saying, 
 ' This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased ! ' And 
 for this cause hath he sent me also unto you, that I may 
 declare how that the only begotten Son of God is coming 
 hither, that whosoever shall believe in him may be saved, 
 but whosoever believeth not shall be damned. Wherefore I 
 warn you all, that ye worship when ye see him, for now only is 
 your time of repentance for your bowing down to idols in the 
 upper world of vanity, and for whatever else wherein ye have 
 sinned, — for from henceforth this will be impossible." 
 
 "cap. xix. 'Then Adam, the First-created and the Forefather, 
 hearing John thus teaching those in Hades, spake unto his son, 
 Seth, " My Son, I will that thou relate to the fathers of the 
 race of men, and to the prophets, whither I sent thee, when I 
 fell ill of my death-sickness." And Seth said, " Ye prophets 
 and patriarchs, hearken ! My father, Adam, the First-created, 
 drawing near his ending, sent me to make supplication to God 
 at the gate of paradise, that he would guide me by his angel to 
 the Tree of Mercy, and that I might procure oil and anoint 
 my father, that he might rise up from his sickness. Which 
 indeed I did. And, after prayer, the angel of the Lord came 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 35 
 
 unto me and said, ' Seth, what seekest thou ? the oil which 
 raiseth up the sick rather than the tree which sheddeth that oil, 
 for thy father's sickness ? That oil is not to be obtained as 
 yet. Depart hence, and say to thy father, that after five 
 thousand five hundred years have been accomplished from the 
 foundation of the world, 1 the Only Begotten Son of God will 
 descend upon the earth, having put on Manhood, and He will 
 anoint him with this oil of mercy, and will raise him up, and 
 will wash both him and his posterity in water and fire, and 
 heal them from all infirmity, — but for the present this hath 
 become impossible.' " — Hearing these things, the patriarchs 
 and prophets rejoiced greatly. 
 
 " cap. xx. ' And in the midst of these rejoicings came Satan, 
 the heir of darkness, and saith to Hades, " All-devouring and 
 insatiate ! hear my words. A certain Jesus, of the race of the 
 Jews, calling himself the Son of God, but being a man — him, 
 through my travail, the Jews have crucified. And now that 
 he draws nigh to death, get thyself ready that we may secure 
 him here. For I know that he is a man, and I have heard 
 even himself saying, 1 My soul is sorrowful even unto death.' 
 He hath worked me much evil in the upper world, mingling 
 among men ; for wheresoever he found my servants he cast 
 them out, and whomsoever I had made blind, lame, maimed 
 and leprous, by his word alone he healed them. And many 
 that I had brought down to the grave, he restored to life." 
 Hades saith, "And is his power so great that he can do these 
 things by his word alone ? And being such, art thou able to 
 withstand him ? . Me seemeth that, being such, no man could 
 stand against him ! And whereas thou hast heard him fearing 
 death, he hath said this mockingly and to jeer thee, purposing 
 to seize on thee with his hand of power. And woe, woe to 
 thee through all eternity!" — "Tremblest thou thus," replied 
 Satan, " All-devouring and insatiate ! at hearing of our com- 
 mon enemy ? I have not trembled ! But I have roused up 
 the Jews, and they have crucified him, and given him gall and 
 vinegar to drink. Make ready therefore, to hold him fast at 
 his coming." — Hades answered, " Heir of darkness, Son of 
 Perdition, Diabolus ! thou tellest me that he hath raised many 
 
 1 This is in accordance with the the existing Hebrew text having been 
 
 more correct chronology as preserved intentionally vitiated. See Dr. Hales' 
 
 in the Septuagint and the Samaritan ' Analysis of Chronology, ' etc. , torn, i, 
 
 versions of Genesis, and in Josephus, pp. 272 sqq., and 293 sqq., edit. 1830, 
 
36 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 to life whom thou hast brought down to the grave, and by his 
 word alone ; how then and in what power shall he be con- 
 strained by us? I, indeed, not long since, drank down a 
 certain dead man, by name Lazarus, and, after a little, some 
 one from among the living, by the might of his word alone, 
 updrew him from my maw. I trow it be this same Jesus, of 
 whom thou speakest. If it in sooth be he, and he enter here, 
 I fear greatly as regards the rest. For all whom I have 
 swallowed up I feel stirring within me, and I writhe in my 
 inmost entrails. And the fore-rescue of Lazarus seemeth to 
 me no good sign, for, not as a dead man, but like an eagle 
 he flew up from me, so promptly the earth east him forth. 
 Wherefore I adjure thee, for thy sake and for mine, that thou 
 bring not this man hither, for I know that he cometh to raise 
 up the whole of the dead, and I swear to thee by the darkness 
 which is our portion, that if thou bring him, not one of the 
 dead will be left remaining unto me." 
 
 "cap. xxi. 'And while Satan and Hades thus communed 
 together, there came a great voice, like thunder, saying, "Lift 
 up your gates, ye princes ! and be ye lift up, ye everlasting 
 doors, and the King of Glory shall come in ! " And Hades, 
 hearing it, said to Satan, " Go forth now, if thou art able, and 
 make stand against him." And Satan went forth. Then 
 Hades saith to his demons, " Make fast the gates of brass and 
 the bolts of iron, and secure me the locks, and watch, all of 
 you, standing on tiptoe, for if this man enter, woe betides us." 
 
 " ' And hearing these things, the forefathers began to upbraid 
 him, saying, " All -devouring and insatiate! open, that the 
 King of Glory may come in ! " And David, the prophet, 
 saith, " Knowest thou not, blind one ! that, while still in life, 
 I prophesied these selfsame words, ' Lift up your gates, ye 
 princes?'" And Isaiah said, "I too foresaw this, and wrote 
 by the Spirit, ' The dead shall stand up, and those who are in 
 the tombs shall be awakened.' And, ' Where is thy sting, O 
 death? where, O grave ! thy victory?' " 
 
 " ' Then came again the voice saying, " Lift up your gates, ye 
 princes ! and be ye lift up, ye everlasting doors, and the King 
 of Glory shall come in ! " 
 
 " ' And Hades, hearing the voice the second time, answered, 
 as one forsooth unwilling, "Who is this King of Glory?" 
 And the angels of the Lord answered, " The Lord strong and 
 mighty, the Lord mighty in battle." 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 37 
 
 " ' And straightway, with that word, the brazen gates were 
 broken and the bolts of iron torn asunder, and the bound in 
 death were loosed from their chains, and we with them. And 
 the King of Glory entered, in form even as a man, and all 
 the dark places of Hades were lighted up. 
 
 " cap. xxn. ' And straightway Hades cried out, " We are 
 conquered — Woe unto us ! But who art thou, that hast such 
 power and privilege ? And what art thou that comest hither 
 without sin, small in seeming but excellent in power, the 
 humble and the great, slave at once and master, soldier and 
 king, wielding power over the dead and the living? Nailed 
 to the cross — and yet the destroyer of our power? Truly 
 thou art the Jesus, of whom the Archsatrap Satan spake to 
 us, that by thy cross and death thou shouldest purchase the 
 universe ! " — Then the King of Glory, holding Satan by the 
 head, delivered him to the angels and said, " Bind his hands, 
 and feet, and neck and mouth with irons." And, giving him 
 over to Hades, he said, " Receive, and keep him surely until 
 my Second Advent." 
 
 ****** 
 
 " cap. xxiv. ' Then the King of Glory stretched out his right 
 hand, and took the forefather, Adam, and raised him up, and 
 turning to the rest also, he said, " Come with me, all of you, 
 as many as have died by the wood which this man eat of, 1 for 
 lo ! I upraise ye all by the wood of the Cross ! " After these 
 things he brought them all forth. And the forefather, Adam, 
 filled with exceeding joy, said, " I render thee thanks, O 
 Lord ! that thou hast brought me up from the depths of 
 Hades!" Thus too said all the prophets and saints, "We 
 thank thee, O Christ, Saviour of the World ! that thou hast 
 redeemed our life from corruption." And while they were 
 saying these things, the Saviour blessed Adam in the forehead 
 with the sign of the cross, and did the like to the patriarchs 
 and the prophets, and the martyrs and forefathers, and taking 
 them with him, he rose up out of Hades. And as he 
 journeyed, the holy fathers, accompanying him, sang, " Praised 
 be he who hath come in the name of the Lord ! Hallelujah !" 
 
 "cap. xxv. 'Journeying therefore, as in triumph, to Paradise, 
 and holding Adam, he delivered him and all the rest to the 
 Archangel Michael. And as they entered in, into the gate of 
 
 1 There is an allusive fulness in the Greek word, ^xparo, hardly to be ex- 
 pressed by translation. 
 
38 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Paradise, there met them two aged men, to whom the holy 
 fathers said, "Who are ye, who have not seen death nor 
 entered Hades, but dwell body and soul in Paradise?" And 
 one of them, answering, said, " I am Enoch, who pleased 
 God, and was taken by him ; and this is Elijah, the Tishbite ; 
 and we are to live until the fulfilment of these present times, 
 and then we are to be sent on the part of God to withstand 
 Antichrist, and to be slain by him, and after three days to rise 
 again, and to be caught up to meet the Lord in the clouds. " 
 
 " cap. xxvi. ' While they were saying these things, a mean 
 man came forward, bearing a cross on his shoulders, to whom 
 the holy fathers said, " Who art thou, that hast the semblance 
 of a thief, and bearest a cross upon thy shoulders?" And he 
 answered, " I was, as ye say, a thief and a robber in the 
 world, and for this the Jews seized and delivered me to the 
 death of the cross, together with our Lord Jesus Christ. But 
 seeing the signs that were done as he hung on the cross, I 
 called upon him and said, { Lord, forget me not when thou 
 comest into thy kingdom ! ' And immediately he said to me, 
 ' Verily, verily, I say unto thee, this day shalt thou be with me 
 in Paradise.' Bearing therefore my cross, I came to Paradise, 
 and finding the Archangel Michael, I said to him, ' Our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, the Crucified, hath sent me hither ; lead me 
 therefore into the gate of Eden.' And the flaming spear, 
 knowing the sign of the cross, opened for me, and I entered. 
 Then said to me the Archangel, 1 Tarry here awhile, for Adam, 
 the forefather of the race of men, cometh with the just, that 
 they too may enter in.' And now, beholding you, I am come 
 to meet you." And, hearing these things, the Saints cried 
 all, with a loud voice, "Great is our Lord, and great is his 
 power ! " 
 
 " cap. xxvn. ' All these things saw we and heard, being two 
 brothers, who also were sent by Michael the Archangel, and 
 commanded to announce the resurrection of the Lord, but 
 first to go down into Jordan and be baptized, and we went 
 down accordingly and were baptized, along with the rest of 
 the dead that had risen. 1 And then we came to Jerusalem, 
 and kept the feast of the resurrection. And now we depart, 
 
 1 What a picture for the imagina- temple before the destruction of Jeru- 
 
 tion, if not the canvas, this baptism salem, dimly intimated by Josephus, 
 
 of the dead — of course by night— in and painted with such gorgeous splen- 
 
 Jordan ! Like that of the vision of dour in the romance of ' Salathiel. ' 
 the guardian host departing from the 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 for we may not abide here. And the love of the Father, and 
 the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the All Holy Spirit 
 be with you all ! Amen.' 
 
 " Having written these things and made fast the tablets, they 
 gave the one to the High Priests, and the other to Joseph 
 and Nicodemus, and incontinent vanished — to the glory of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom be honour, world without 
 end." 1 
 
 XVI. Of the Composition of the Apostles' Creed. 
 
 The Apostles are said to have pronounced the twelve articles 
 of the Creed at their last meeting, in a grotto on Mount 
 Olivet, previous to their dispersion to preach throughout the 
 world. In allusion to this, they are frequently represented 
 with scrolls, on which the articles they are held to have re- 
 spectively contributed, are inscribed. 
 
 XVII. Of the Death and Assumption of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary. 
 
 [From Peter de Natalibus and the ' Legenda Aurea, ' or ' Golden Legend, ' 
 — but originally an invention of the Gnostics, and, there is reason to 
 believe, of Leucius, in the second century. Beausobre, Hist. Crit. du 
 Manicheisme, t. i, p. 393. S. Jerome appears to allude to it in his 
 Epistle to Paula and Eustochium, ' De Assumptione Beatse Mariae.' 
 Opera, t. v, col. 83, edit. Bened. Paris, 1706.] 
 
 "After the dispersion of the Apostles, the Blessed Virgin is 
 
 1 A translation of this legend has 
 been inserted at the close of the 
 chivalric romance of ' Perceforest, ' — 
 where that hero, and his brother 
 Gadifer, King of Scotland, Dardanon, 
 one of the ancient kings of Britain, 
 and others of remote generations, are 
 all assembled in the Isle de Vie, the 
 Insula Vitse, or Isle of Wight — living 
 on there till the news shall arrive of 
 the atonement and the resurrection of 
 the Saviour. The legend having been 
 recited by one of their descendants 
 who visits them with that purpose as 
 a missionary, they quit the island — 
 where death might not enter — wishing 
 to die, death having become a blessing 
 through faith. They find a boat and 
 
 a mariner, who conveys them to an 
 unknown shore, where they receive 
 baptism, and their strength failing 
 more and more, they are conveyed, in 
 obedience to a voice from heaven, for 
 several hours through a dark forest, 
 which at last expands into a verdant 
 glade, lighted by the moon, shining 
 far more brilliantly than her wont, 
 and where, as they arrive, five sepul- 
 chres of marble arise from the ground 
 to receive them. They expire im- 
 mediately, commending their souls to 
 God, and are interred accordingly. — 
 La tres elegante, delicieuse, mellijlue et 
 tres-plaisante Hystoire du . . Roy 
 Perceforest, Roy de la Grant Bretagne, 
 etc. torn, vi, fol. cxxii sqq. edit. 1531. 
 
4o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 reported to have dwelt in her house, beside Mount Sion, and 
 to have sedulously visited all the spots of her son's life and 
 passion, so long as she lived. And she is reported to have 
 lived twenty-four years after the ascension of Christ. And 
 when, on a certain day, her heart burnt within her with long- 
 ing for her son, so that she broke out into very abundant 
 tears, the angel Gabriel stood beside her, and reverently saluted 
 her, and told her, on the part of her son, that after three days 
 she should depart from the flesh and reign with him for ever. 
 And he gave her a branch of palm from Paradise, which he 
 commanded should be borne before her bier. And the Virgin, 
 rejoicing, gave thanks to God, and besought two boons of the 
 angel, to wit, that her sons, the Apostles, might be assembled 
 at her death, that she might die in their presence, and that 
 they might accompany her to the tomb, — and secondly, that, 
 in expiring, she might not behold Satan. And the angel 
 promised her that these things should be. And the palm 
 branch was green in the stem, but its leaves were like the 
 morning star. 
 
 " And while John was preaching in Ephesus, behold it thun- 
 dered, and a cloud caught him away and set him down at 
 Mary's door, and entering in, Mary marvelled and wept for 
 joy. And she told him how she had been sent for by the 
 Lord, and that Christ had brought him to her, and she be- 
 sought him to take charge of her burial, and to bear the palm 
 branch before the bier. 
 
 " And while John was wishing for the presence of his 
 brother Apostles,, behold they were all transported in clouds 
 from the places where they preached, and collected together 
 before the door of Mary. To whom, while they gazed on each 
 other, greatly astonished, John went forth and warned them 
 of Mary's summons, admonishing them not to weep, nor let 
 it be imputed to them that they who preached the resurrection 
 feared death. 
 
 " And when the Virgin beheld the Apostles assembled 
 round her, she blessed the Lord, and they sat around her, with 
 lights burning, and watched till the third day. 
 
 " And towards nightfall, on the third day, Jesus came down 
 with his hosts of saints and angels, and they ranged themselves 
 before Mary's couch, and sweet hymns were heard at intervals 
 till the middle of the night. And then Jesus called her softly, 
 twice, that she should come to him ; and she answered that 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 41 
 
 she was ready joyfully to yield the spirit to him. And thus 
 her spirit quitted the body, and flew into the arms of her son. 
 And she neither suffered pain, nor her body corruption. 
 
 " For the Lord commanded the Apostles that they should 
 carry her body into the valley of Jehoshaphat, and place it in 
 a new tomb that had been dug there, and watch three days 
 beside it, till he should return. 
 
 "And straightway there surrounded her flowers of roses, 
 which are the blessed company of martyrs, and lilies of the 
 valley, which are the bands of angels, confessors and virgins. 
 
 "And the angels that had remained in heaven came down 
 to meet the angels who ascended up from earth, and the latter 
 answered and said, ' This is she who is beautiful among the 
 daughters of Jerusalem, even as ye have seen her, full of grace 
 and love !' 
 
 " And thus Mary's soul was received up into heaven, re- 
 joicing, and was seated in the throne at. the right hand of her 
 Son. And the Apostles saw that her soul was such that no 
 mortal tongue could express its whiteness. 
 
 " And when the body was laid on the bier, Peter and Paul 
 uplifted it, and the other Apostles ranged themselves around 
 it. And John bare the palm branch in front of it. And Peter 
 began to sing, ' In exitu Israel de Egypto,' and the rest joined 
 softly in the psalm. And the Lord covered the bier and the 
 Apostles with a cloud, so that they might be heard, but not 
 seen. And the angels were present, and singing with the 
 Apostles. And all the city was gathered to that wondrous 
 melody. 
 
 " And the Jews ran to arms, that they might seize and burn 
 the body, and the High Priest put forth his hand to overthrow 
 the bier, but his hand straightway withered, and the rest of 
 the people were stricken with blindness. Then the High 
 Priest besought Peter, who promised that if he confessed that 
 Mary was the Mother of God, he should receive his sight. 
 And he confessed it, and saw. And taking the palm branch, 
 by command of Peter, he touched each man among the people, 
 and such as believed on the Virgin received their sight, but 
 such as believed not remained blind. 
 
 " And the Apostles laid the body of the Virgin in the tomb, 
 and they watched beside it three days. And on the third day, 
 the Lord appeared with a multitude of angels, and raised up 
 Mary, and she was received, body and soul, into heaven." 
 
42 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY, 
 
 According to some accounts the Apostle Thomas was not 
 present at the Virgin's Assumption, and refused credence 
 to the report of the Apostles, till the girdle of the Virgin, 
 detached as she rose, descended upon him from the air in 
 token of their truth. This, however, is treated as apocryphal 
 even by the writers who record the preceding narrative. The 
 incident is frequently introduced in paintings of the Assump- 
 tion. 1 The girdle itself is said to be preserved at Prato, where 
 its subsequent history forms the subject of a series of frescoes 
 by Angelo Gaddi, a painter of the fourteenth century. — See 
 infra, vol. ii, p. 84. 
 
 The series of the life of the Virgin generally concludes 
 with her coronation by Our Saviour as Queen of Heaven, — 
 a subject which is also very frequently represented separately. 
 The identification of the Virgin with the "woman clothed 
 with the sun," of the Apocalypse, chap. xiL, and with the 
 bride in Canticles — both of them, truly, significative of the 
 Church — together with the transfer to her of the popular 
 veneration for a female deity, whether Diana, Astarte, or Isis, 
 universally current among the Southern nations, is the key to 
 the whole mystery of her various representation in early art. 
 Her Coronation, therefore, is a symbol of that of the Church, 
 subsequently to the general Resurrection — and to this the 
 accessaries introduced constantly refer. 
 
 XVIII. Of Simon Magus and S. Peter. 
 
 [Chiefly from the second book of the History of Normandy, by Ordericus 
 Vitalis. Derived, originally, from the Gnostics, and from the ' Acts of 
 Peter,' by Leucius. Beausobre, t. i, p. 395.] 
 
 " After long disputations in Csesarea of Palestine and else- 
 where, Simon betook himself to Rome, where, by his magical 
 arts he persuaded the people that he was a God. After Peter's 
 arrival there he persecuted him greatly, and frequently dis- 
 puted against him, but Peter uniformly prevailed. During 
 one of these disputes a widow passed by, accompanied by a 
 
 1 S. Thomas was probably favoured Vitalis, alluded to in a preceding note, 
 
 thus on account of his peculiar zeal The legend is traceable, however, as 
 
 (as asserted) in preaching celibacy and usual, to the Gnostic Leucius, in the 
 
 virginity. His adventures at Adrian- second century. See Beausobre, Hist. 
 
 ople and in India (Parthia that is to Crit. etc., torn, i, p. 402. No great 
 
 say, or Persia), may be read in the artist, so far as I am aware, has repre- 
 
 history of Normandy, by Ordericus sented S. Thomas's history. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 43 
 
 great crowd, carrying the body of her son to burial. And 
 Peter proposed to Simon the resuscitation of the child, as the 
 test of their respective truth. Simon consented, and exhorted 
 the bystanders to burn Peter if he succeeded. He then, 
 evoking his demons, succeeded in making the head of the 
 child move, but nothing more. But Peter prayed, and in 
 the name of Christ bade the child arise. And he did so, and 
 all the people cried, ' The God of Peter is God ! ' And Simon 
 endeavoured to escape, but the people seized and were about 
 to burn him alive, when Peter interposed and delivered him 
 saying, 'My master teacheth to return good for evil' 
 
 "And after the arrival of Paul at Rome, Simon wrought 
 much evil against the two Apostles, deceiving the people. 
 For he made a serpent of brass that moved, and dogs of stone 
 that barked, and statues of bronze that laughed and walked. 
 But Peter and Paul, on the contrary, healed the sick, gave 
 sight to the blind, cast out devils, and raised the dead. And 
 Simon and his followers continually bare false witness and 
 imputed evil to the Apostles. And these accusations coming 
 to the ear of Nero, he summoned Simon before him, — who, 
 by his magical art, continually changed his appearance as 
 he stood before him, now appearing young, now old. So that 
 Nero believed him the Son of God. And thus, repeating his 
 calumnies against the Apostles, Nero sent for them. And 
 they disputed with Simon in Nero's presence. 
 
 "And Peter besought the Emperor that a cake of bread 
 might be brought and given him privately. Which was done, 
 and Peter blessed it, and hid it under his sleeve, and called 
 upon Simon, who boasted himself the Son of God, to declare 
 what it was that he had just done ? And Simon, furious in that 
 he knew not the secret, called upon his familiars, and lo ! 
 there appeared fierce and monstrous dogs, whom he com- 
 manded to devour Peter before the eyes of Caesar. But 
 Peter, dropping on his knees as they leapt upon him, held 
 forth the consecrated bread, and they vanished away. And 
 thus Simon was confounded. 
 
 "And thereafter Simon gave out that he was about to quit 
 the world and return to heaven. And Nero commanded that 
 a lofty tower should be built of wood in the Campus Martius. 
 And the Emperor, the Senate, and all the people of Rome 
 assembled to see the magician fly to heaven. So Simon 
 ascended the tower, with his brows crowned with laurel, and 
 
44 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 commenced his flight through the air, sustained by devils. 
 And Paul, meanwhile, kneeling before the multitude, prayed 
 to the Lord, while Peter watched Simon. And after a little 
 Peter said unto Paul, 'Paul, look up!' — And, seeing Simon 
 ascending, Paul answered, ' Peter, it is time, why tarriest 
 thou? Finish what thou hast begun.' — And Peter, gazing 
 upwards, cried, 'Angels of Satan, I adjure ye, by God the 
 Creator, and Jesus Christ, his Son, that ye leave hold of that 
 impostor ! ' And immediately Simon fell to the ground, upon 
 the way which is called the Via Sacra, and was taken up dead. 
 And Paul and Peter gave thanks to the Lord." 
 
 XIX. Of the Origin, Invention, and Exaltation of the 
 Cross ; of the Conversion of Constantine and 
 Helen, and of the Political Establishment of 
 Christianity. 
 
 [Arranged and abridged from the ' Legenda Aurea,' and from the 
 ' Catalogus Sanctorum ' of Peter de Natalibus. ] 
 
 i. Of the Origin of the Cross. 
 
 " It hath been told elsewhere how Adam, being sick, sent 
 his son Seth to pray for him, at the gate of Paradise, for the 
 oil of mercy, to anoint him and heal his sickness. But the 
 archangel Michael appeared to him and said, that it might 
 not be until five thousand five hundred years had been com- 
 pleted, and, in the meanwhile, he gave him a branch of the 
 tree whereof Adam had eaten, bidding him plant it on Mount 
 Lebanon, and that when it bore fruit his father should be 
 healed. Seth therefore returned, and finding his father dead, 
 he buried him, and planted that branch on his grave. And 
 the branch took root and became a mighty tree, and flourished 
 till the days of Solomon. And Solomon, admiring the beauty 
 of this tree, commanded that it should be cut down, and used 
 in building the house of the forest of Lebanon. But no fit 
 place could be found for it, for either it exceeded or fell short 
 in length, and if they attempted to adjust it by cutting, it 
 appeared still either too short or too long, so as to be altogether 
 unserviceable and useless. Wherefore the builders rejected 
 and threw it aside into a certain marsh, that it might serve as 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 45 
 
 a bridge for those who passed over. But when the Queen of 
 Sheba came to Jerusalem, to hear the wisdom of Solomon, 
 and was about to cross the said marsh, she saw in the spirit 
 how the Saviour of the world was to be suspended on that 
 tree, and so would not walk over it, but forthwith adored it. 
 Some indeed say, that the Queen saw the tree in the house of 
 the forest, and that she informed Solomon that the man was to 
 be suspended on it through whose death the kingdom of the 
 Jev/s was to be blotted out. Solomon, therefore, had the tree 
 buried in the deepest bowels of the earth. And in aftertimes 
 the pool of Bethesda was there made, wherefore not only from 
 the descent of the angel, but also from the virtue of the said 
 tree, were the waters troubled and the infirm healed. And 
 when the time of the passion drew near, the tree rose up and 
 floated to the surface. And the Jews took it, and made of it 
 a cross for our Lord. And after the Crucifixion the tree lay 
 buried three hundred years." 
 
 2. Of the Conversion of the Emperor Constantine. 
 
 " And in the three hundred and thirty-third year of Our Lord, 
 an innumerable multitude of barbarians were assembled on 
 the banks of the River Danube, intending to cross the river, 
 and subdue the world from West to East. And Constantine 
 marched against them, and encamped on the hither side of 
 the river. And they were to join battle on the morrow. 
 Now Constantine was as yet a heathen. 
 
 "And in the night time he was aroused by an angel, who 
 bade him look up. And he saw the sign of the cross in 
 heaven, of most clear light, within a ring of golden letters, 
 which ran thus, ' In hoc signo vinces ! ' — Who, being thus 
 comforted, made the similitude of a cross, and commanded it 
 to be carried in front of his army. And he marked his 
 standards and his arms with the sign of the cross, and rushing 
 on the enemy, he discomfited them, and slew a very great 
 multitude of them. 
 
 " And returning to the city, he called together the priests 
 of the idols, and enquired whose sign this was among the 
 Gods. But they declaring themselves ignorant, certain Chris- 
 tians who were present expounded to him the mystery of the 
 cross. And Constantine from thenceforth held Christ in 
 reverence as one of the Gods, after the fashion of the Gentiles, 
 
4 6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 but as yet received not baptism, and still persecuted the 
 Christians. 1 
 
 "Wherefore God visited him with an incurable leprosy. 
 And on consulting the priests, they prescribed for him a bath 
 of the warm blood of three thousand infants. 2 But as he pro- 
 ceeded to the place where the bath was to be prepared, the 
 mothers of the infants met him, with dishevelled hair, and 
 wailing piteously. Which seeing, the Emperor abhorred the 
 deed, and bidding his charioteer stop, he rose up in his chariot, 
 and addressed the people in a very eloquent oration, showing 
 how the dignity of the Roman Empire took its rise from the 
 fountain of pity, and that it was a law that whoever should 
 slay an infant in warfare should forfeit life, and that this law 
 ought to be still more binding on Augustus, — and by many 
 other reasons he persuaded the people that it was right for 
 him to abstain from committing so great a crime. And while 
 the people applauded, he gave back the infants to their mothers, 
 with many fair gifts besides, and returned to his palace. 
 
 " And on the following night, the blessed Apostles Peter 
 and Paul stood beside him in his dream, and said that they 
 were sent to him by God, in guerdon of his having spared 
 the innocent blood, and to counsel him for the recovery of 
 his health, — and that he should send for Pope Sylvester, 
 bishop of Rome, then hiding from his persecution in Mount 
 Soracte, who would direct him to the one and only bath by 
 which he might be washed clean of his leprosy. 
 
 "And Constantine, waking, sent messengers accordingly to 
 Mount Soracte. And Sylvester, with his priests and com- 
 panions, returned to Rome, believing it was to martyrdom. 
 But Constantine received him graciously, and recounted his 
 vision, enquiring who were the Gods that had appeared to 
 him, and that are named Peter and Paul. And Sylvester 
 
 1 Another legendary history assigns 
 the vision to the night before the battle 
 between Maxentius and Constantine, 
 adding that Constantine, in going out 
 to battle, carried a golden cross in his 
 hand, and prayed that the victory 
 might fall to him without staining that 
 hand with Roman blood. Maxentius 
 was accordingly drowned in spurring 
 over the Milvian Bridge (the Ponte 
 Molle), attempting to escape to Rome. 
 This is the subject of the great fresco 
 
 in the Hall of Constantine in the 
 Vatican. 
 
 2 ' ' That Louis XI. drank children's 
 blood to recover his health, is seriously 
 stated by a commentator on Philip des 
 Comines, on the authority of Gaguin, 
 without any observation on the barbar- 
 ity of the act. ' ' Quoted by Dr. Prichard , 
 Physical History of Mankind, torn, ii, 
 p. 157, from Salt's ' Travels in Abys- 
 sinia,' 4to, p. 307. — Goats' blood 
 was sometimes prescribed for leprosy. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 47 
 
 replied that they were no Gods, but Apostles of Christ, and 
 sending his deacon for their images, he showed them to the 
 Emperor. And when the Emperor looked upon them, he 
 exclaimed that they were the same that he had seen in his 
 dream, and demanded to be led forthwith to the bath of 
 mercy in which he might be cleansed. Which Sylvester 
 expounded to him to signify the bath of baptism, and dili- 
 gently instructed him in the Christian faith, and, making him 
 a catechumen for the present, prescribed him fasting, and 
 admonished him to open the prisons. And on the evening 
 of the Sabbath, he bade make ready the bath of the palace 
 of the Lateran, and blessed the water, and baptized Constantine, 
 in fullness of faith, and a wonderful light shone round about, 
 and Constantine reascending clean in body and soul, bare 
 witness that he had seen Our Saviour, who had commanded 
 that He alone should be worshipped as the true God. 
 
 " And after this, Constantine built basilicas and churches, 
 and gave up the palace of the Lateran to the Pope, and 
 appointed the Church of Rome the mother of all churches, 
 and honoured the Apostolic See with many privileges." 
 
 3. Of the Conversion of the Empress Helen and the Political 
 Establishment of Christianity. 
 
 " And when Helen, the mother of Constantine, heard of these 
 things, being then in Bithynia, she wrote letters, praising him 
 that he had forsaken the worship of idols, but blaming him 
 for passing by the God of the Jews to worship a man that had 
 been crucified. For Helen had been newly converted to 
 Judaism. Augustus wrote back, therefore, desiring her to 
 come to Rome, and bring with her the doctors of the Jews, 
 that they might dispute with the Christians, and that the 
 truth might thus appear. 
 
 " Helen accordingly brought an hundred and forty of the 
 most learned of the Jews, of whom twelve were, beyond the g 
 rest, illustrious for wisdom. Who met to dispute with Sylvester 
 before the Emperor, — Crato and Xenophilus, two of the wisest 
 and most just of the philosophers of the Gentiles, being 
 appointed judges. And the names of the wise men of the 
 Jews were Jonathan, Godolias, Anna, Doeth, Chusi, Benjamin, 
 Aroel, Jubal, Athan, Sileon and Zambri. With whom Sylves- 
 ter, by himself alone, disputing, proved the faith of Christ by 
 
48 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 most evident reasons, and by the sentence of the judges 
 marvellously confuted the Jews. And, by mutual consent, 
 appealing to miracles, Zambri, the wise man, and who was 
 also a magician, boasted that he knew the ineffable name of 
 God, which no animal could hear and live. And a bull was 
 brought in, so ferocious as scarcely to be held by an hundred 
 men, and when Zambri whispered that name in his ear, roaring 
 and with starting eyes, the bull fell down dead. And the Jews 
 thereupon exulting over Sylvester, the holy man replied, that 
 it was the name of a demon, not a deity, that destroyed life, 1 
 while that of the true God, the Incarnate Son, restored it 
 even to the dead. Whereupon, invoking the name of Christ, 
 he bade the bull arise, — and he did so, but with a changed 
 nature, being now as tame and gentle as before he was violent 
 and savage. And thus Sylvester converted the Queen, the 
 Jews and the Judges, and a great multitude of the people, to 
 the faith of Christ. 
 
 "And some time afterwards it came to the Emperor's ear 
 that a dragon, dwelling in a certain cave, had, by favour of 
 the devil, slain with his breath alone three hundred persons. 
 And Sylvester, hearing this from the Emperor, made prayer 
 to God, and offered himself to bind the dragon. And S. 
 Peter appearing to him and instructing him what he should 
 do, he descended into the cave where the dragon dwelt, 
 followed by two priests only, bearing lanterns, and pronouncing 
 the name of Christ, he bound the mouth of the dragon, hissing, 
 with a thread, and shut him up till the day of judgment. 
 And re-ascending, he found two Magicians who had followed 
 him in hopes of detecting some imposture, stretched out and 
 about to expire, being poisoned by the dragon's breath, — 
 whom he brought out safe and well. And thereafter, the 
 Emperor Constantine bestowed the province of Rome, with 
 the whole city, upon the Church of God, and rebuilt Byzantium, 
 changing its name to Constantinople, and transferred his 
 Empire thither, and the blessed Sylvester remained in the 
 city. 2 
 
 1 According to the Gnostics, the race may be supposed to have been 
 Jehovah or God of the Jews was the perpetuated till the marshes or inland 
 Evil Principle, as opposed to Our seas left by the deluge were dried up. 
 Saviour. Hence probably the legends of the 
 
 2 The dragons of early tradition, Lernsean hydra, etc. As respects their 
 whether aquatic or terrestrial, are not terrestrial brethren (among whom the 
 perhaps wholly to be regarded as fab- serpent, for example, which is said 
 ulous. In the case of the former, the to have checked the army of Regulus 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 49 
 
 4. Of the Invention of the Cross. 
 
 " And after the disputation which Sylvester held with the Jews, 
 and the conversion of Helen, mother of Constantine, to 
 Christ, the Spirit infused into her the wish to discover the 
 wood of the Cross of the Lord. Coming therefore to Jeru- 
 salem, with a great army, on the eighteenth day of the second 
 month, which is April, she ordered all the wise men of the 
 Jews, who could be found throughout the whole province, to 
 be gathered together, to the number of five hundred ; who, 
 much fearing, sought anxiously among themselves what this 
 could mean. And one of them, by name Judas, began to say 
 that he doubted not but that she wished to learn from them 
 where the Cross lay hid on which Jesus was crucified, — warn- 
 ing them that no one should presume to confess this, because, 
 so soon as that cross should be found, the law of the Jews 
 would be made void and done away. He said, moreover, that 
 he knew the place where the Cross was hidden. For Zaccheus, 
 his grandfather, had revealed it in confidence to his father 
 Simon, and Simon, the father of the said Judas, had informed 
 himself. And he added, that Zaccheus had said that when 
 that wood should chance to be revealed, the race of the Jews 
 should reign no more, but only they who adore the Crucified, 
 and for this reason, that Christ was truly the Son of God, as 
 he, Zaccheus, had clearly learnt, — for he had not consented 
 to the conspiracy of the death of Christ, and had been the 
 father of the protomartyr, Stephen. But the Jews declared 
 that they had never heard these things before, and commanded 
 Judas that he should on no account discover the wood of the 
 Cross. 
 
 " And when they stood before the Queen, and she ques- 
 tioned them concerning the place where Jesus had been 
 crucified, and they denied that they knew it, she commanded 
 that they should all be burnt with fire. And, greatly terri- 
 fied, they pointed out Judas, as the son of a just man, and 
 a prophet, and well skilled in the law, saying that he would 
 
 for three days near the river Bagradas, case of branches of a family trans- 
 
 in Numidia, will be at once remem- planted in early and more congenial 
 
 bered), their existence, testified as it is ages into regions remote from the 
 
 by the universal credence of antiquity, parent domicile, and where the climate 
 
 is not absolutely incredible. Lines of has gradually changed — to say nothing 
 
 descent are constantly becoming extinct of the assiduity of man in rooting them 
 
 in animal genealogy, especially in the out. 
 
 VOL. I. E 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 tell her all. And the Queen, sending away the rest, kept 
 Judas only, and offered him death or life, according as he 
 should discover the Cross of the Lord. Who asserted that 
 he knew neither the Cross nor the place, for that three 
 hundred years had now elapsed since the passion of Christ, 
 at which time he had not been born. Helen therefore com- 
 manded him to be put into a well, and there tormented by 
 hunger. And when he had remained six days without food, 
 on the seventh day he sought to be taken out, and promised 
 to discover the Cross. And he led them hastily to the place 
 Golgotha, and while he prayed there, the place was suddenly 
 shaken, and an aromatic odour, of wonderful sweetness, was 
 perceived, so that Judas, marvelling, confessed and exclaimed, 
 'Verily, O Christ, thou art the Saviour of the World !' 
 
 " There was in that place, as is related in ecclesiastical 
 story, a temple of Venus, which the Emperor Hadrian had 
 built, in order that if any one should worship Christ on that 
 spot he might appear to worship Venus. Wherefore this 
 place was well nigh forgotten and out of mind. The Queen 
 therefore had the temple destroyed and the foundations 
 ploughed up. 
 
 " After this, Judas, with his companions, began to dig man- 
 fully, and at twenty feet below the surface they found three 
 Crosses, which Judas presented to the Empress. And when 
 they were unable to distinguish the Cross of Christ from the 
 two pertaining to the robbers, and it was about the ninth 
 hour, a certain dead man was carried past on a bier, and 
 Judas stopped the bearers, and the first and the second 
 Cross being laid upon the dead man, he did not move. But 
 when they laid the Third, forthwith he that was dead re- 
 turned to life. And a certain woman also, of the first in the 
 city, was lying half dead, as is said in ecclesiastical story, to 
 whom the Bishop of Jerusalem applied the first and second 
 crosses, and it profited nothing, but the Third being laid upon 
 her, immediately the woman rose up whole. This one, 
 therefore, they understood to be the Cross of the Lord, as 
 thereafter indeed was more fully known, when the title had 
 been read which Pilate had placed over it, and which from 
 its age had been almost obliterated. But the devil, emitting 
 terrible wailings, in the hearing of all, complained grievously 
 of Judas, and threatened him with torments and much 
 persecution. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 5i 
 
 " After these things, Judas, being baptized, was named 
 Cyriacus, and after the Bishop of Jerusalem died he was 
 appointed Bishop in his place, by the command of Helen. 
 For the Empress remained in Judea a long time, and visited 
 all the holy places. And desiring to possess the Nails where- 
 with the Lord was crucified, she prayed the Bishop Cyriacus 
 that he would go to the place and search for them. Who, 
 when he had come and offered prayer, immediately the Nails 
 appeared in the earth, shining like gold. Which Nails the 
 Bishop delivered to the Queen, and she reverently adored them. 
 And she had the Cross of the Lord cut through the middle, 
 and part she carried away for her son, and part she left, 
 enclosed in a silver shrine, at Jerusalem. And she carried 
 away the Nails of the Lord with her, one of which she fixed in 
 the helmet, the other on the bridle of the Emperor, that thus 
 weaponed with the weapons of the Lord he might go safe 
 into battle. And the third she reserved for herself, or, as 
 some assert, threw it into the Adriatic, which till then was a 
 whirlpool. And she appointed the feast of the Invention of 
 the Holy Cross to be solemnly celebrated every year through 
 the whole world,, namely on the fifteenth of the Nones of May." 
 
 5. Of the Exaltation of the Cross. 
 
 "And in the course of many seasons, as time flowed on, the 
 Lord permitting his people to be scourged for their sins, 
 Cosrhoes, King of the Persians, subdued all the kingdoms of 
 the East to his dominion. But coming to Jerusalem, he fled 
 terrified from the sepulchre of the Lord, yet he carried away 
 the portion of the Lord's Cross, left there by Helen. 1 And 
 willing to be worshipped of all as the only God, he built a 
 tower of gold and silver with interlucent gems, and placed 
 images therein of the sun and moon and stars, and made 
 slender conduits to imitate the rain of God from heaven, and 
 kept horses drawing chariots in a subterranean cave, to shake 
 the tower and imitate thunder. And giving up the kingdom 
 to his son, he himself dwelt in the tower, and placing the 
 cross of the Lord near him, commanded himself to be called 
 of all men King of Kings and Lord of Lords. 
 
 1 See Gibbon, chap. 46, and Sir rhoes the Second, or Khosroo Purviz, 
 
 John Malcolm's ' Hist, of Persia, ' grandson of Nushirvan — and for the 
 
 torn. i. pp. 157^. edit. 4to, for the groundwork of the legend, 
 struggle between Heraclius and Cos- 
 
52 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 "Then the most Christian Emperor Heraclius, with a 
 mighty army, came to the river Danube, to fight against the 
 son of Cosrhoes, and to recover the Cross. And the two 
 princes agreed to fight in single combat on the bridge, and that 
 he who should remain victor should dispose of the army of 
 the other at his pleasure. And if any man, on either side, 
 should presume to assist his prince, his arms and legs should 
 be cut off, and he should be thrown into the river. Heraclius, 
 therefore, commending himself devoutly to God and to the 
 Cross, ever to be venerated, for which he fought, after a long 
 combat, at last, by the blessing of Christ, obtained the victory 
 and killed the son of Cosrhoes. And immediately the whole 
 army of the Persians, as if by divine impulse, yielded itself to 
 the Christian faith, and received holy baptism. 
 
 " But Cosrhoes knew not the event of the battle, for he was 
 hated by every one on account of his pride, and no one cared 
 to acquaint him with it. Wherefore Heraclius, ascending to 
 the tower, came suddenly upon him, and found him sitting on 
 his golden throne, and said to him that, forasmuch as he had 
 honoured the Cross of Christ after his fashion, he should 
 receive life and kingdom, holding it of the Empire, if he would 
 accept baptism, but if not, that he would kill him instantly 
 with the sword. And that infidel not acquiescing, Heraclius 
 straightway beheaded him. But because he had been a king, 
 and had after a manner honoured the Cross of Christ, he 
 ordered him to be buried. 
 
 " And a son of Cosrhoes, whom he found with him, a lad 
 of ten years old, Heraclius caused to be baptized, holding him 
 at the font, and he gave him his father's kingdom. And 
 destroying the tower he divided the silver as booty among his 
 soldiers, but the gold and the gems he reserved for repairing 
 the churches which the tyrant had destroyed. 
 
 "And so Heraclius carried the Cross of the Lord back to 
 Jerusalem. But when, descending from the Mount of Olives, 
 he offered to enter the city on his royal steed, and in imperial 
 state, through the gate by which the Lord had entered before 
 his passion, suddenly the stones of the gate descended and 
 closed themselves up like a wall. And the angel of the Lord, 
 holding the sign of the cross, appeared above the gate, and 
 reproved the Emperor, saying, that when the Lord entered 
 through that gate for his passion, — not in regal pomp but 
 sitting on a mean ass, he left an ensample, not of pride but 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 53 
 
 of humility, — and thus saying, the angel disappeared. Then 
 the Emperor, shedding tears, barefoot, and stripped to his 
 shirt, took the Cross of the Lord, and carried it on his shoul- 
 ders, like a servant, to the gate. And immediately the gate 
 rising, gave them free admission. And the sweet odour that 
 had departed from the day when the Cross had been removed 
 from the tower of Cosrhoes, returned, and refreshed them all 
 with its sweetness. And so the precious Cross was restored 
 to its place. And the miracles of former time were renewed, 
 — a dead man was raised, four paralytic were cured, ten 
 afflicted with leprosy cleansed, fifteen blind restored to sight, 
 and several devils cast out — and many others were healed of 
 divers diseases. This Exaltation of the Cross took place on 
 the sixteenth of the Calends of October, about the year of our 
 Lord six hundred and twenty." 
 
 XX. Legends of Martyr Saints. 
 
 [Distinguishable from the Ascetic or Monastic class by a clearer recogni- 
 tion of the duties and spirit of Christianity, by a more cordial sympathy 
 with common or secular life, by a more varied and brilliant imagery 
 and incident, a*ad, consequently, a closer approximation to polytheism. 1 
 The legends of S. James the Greater, of S. Cecilia, S. Catherine, S. 
 George, of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, of S. Ursula and the Eleven 
 Thousand Virgins, and of S. Christopher, here subjoined, are among 
 those most frequently represented by the early Christian artists. Others 
 — as those of S. James the Less, S. Matthew, S. Andrew, S. Philip, 
 S. Mark, S. Lawrence, S. Sebastian, SS. Cosmas and Damian, S. 
 Nicholas, and others — will be incidentally narrated in the following 
 pages.] 
 
 i. Of S. James the Greater, Apostle and Martyr. 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 " James the x\postle, who is styled the Greater, the brother of 
 
 1 The two classes bear nearly the 
 same relation to each other as the 
 mythology of the Japhetan to the 
 Sensual-Spiritualism or Mysticism of 
 the Hamite tribes, — the former re- 
 flecting what may be called the Brah- 
 minical, the latter (although sharing 
 many elements in common with it) 
 the Buddhistical element of Southern 
 Christianity, — while the Gnosticism of 
 the early ages is to be traced in both, 
 
 according to the two divisions of the 
 sect, the Asiatic and the Egyptian, 
 the latter of which, in acknowledging 
 the inherent corruption of matter, re- 
 jected the coeternal and coequal evil 
 principle of the Medo-Persians, and 
 admitted the reality of the body of 
 Our Saviour. But it is impossible, 
 thus briefly and incidentally to appre- 
 ciate these subtle distinctions. 
 
54 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 John the Evangelist, after the ascension of Christ preached 
 long throughout Judea and Samaria, and thereafter went to 
 Spain, that he might sow the word of the Lord there also. 
 But he profited little, gaining only nine disciples, two of whom 
 he left there, to carry on the work of the ministry, and with 
 the remaining seven returned to Judea. 
 
 " And as he preached Christ, a certain Magician, by name 
 Hermogenes, leaguing with the Pharisees, sent his disciple 
 Philetes to him, that he might convince him in dispute that 
 his preaching was false. But when the Apostle, on the con- 
 trary, overcame him by argument, and did many miracles in 
 his presence, Philetes returned to Hermogenes, bearing testi- 
 mony to James's doctrine, and recounting his miracles, and 
 confessing himself his convert. Whom Hermogenes, being 
 angered, bound by magical art, so that he could not move. 
 And Philetes sending word of this to James, the Apostle sent 
 him a handkerchief, by touching which alone he was freed 
 forthwith from the enchantment ; and he hastened to the 
 Apostle. Then Hermogenes sent devils to them, command- 
 ing that they should bring them both bound to him. And 
 the devils came to James, wailing in the air, and saying, ' O 
 James, Apostle of God ! pity us, for we burn before our time, 
 — for Hermogenes hath sent us to bring thee and Philetes to 
 him, and the angel of God hath bound us with chains of fire, 
 and grievously tormenteth us.' Whom the Apostle released, 
 and commanded them to bring Hermogenes to him bound, 
 but without hurting him. And the devils brought him to 
 James bound, and with his hands tied behind him. And 
 complaining of Hermogenes, that he had sent them to be 
 tortured, they besought James that he would permit them to 
 revenge their sufferings upon him. And when James asked 
 them why they did not seize Philetes, who was standing by, 
 they replied that they could not touch even the ant which 
 might be crawling in his chamber. But James, willing, after 
 the example of his master, to return good for evil, commanded 
 Philetes to unbind Hermogenes, and give him liberty. Her- 
 mogenes stood confounded, and dared not depart, for he feared 
 the wrath of the devils, lest they should slay him. But the 
 Apostle gave him his staff, and he went home safe, and brought 
 all his magical books to James, to be burnt. But the Apostle 
 commanded them to be thrown into the sea, lest peradventure 
 the smell of them should harm the unwary. Which being done, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 55 
 
 Hermogenes returned to the Apostle, and besought his pardon, 
 and grew greatly in the fear of God, insomuch that many 
 marvels were done by him. 
 
 " And seeing these things, the Jews, moved with zeal, came 
 to the Apostle, and reproached him for preaching Christ 
 crucified. Who proved to them, by the Scriptures, the advent, 
 passion, and resurrection of the Lord, and many of them 
 believed. But Eleazar, the High Priest, raised a tumult 
 among the people, and had James taken. And Jonah, the 
 Scribe, put a rope round his neck, and, with a multitude of 
 the Jews, dragged him before Herod Agrippa. And Herod, 
 willing to please the Jews, commanded him to be beheaded. 
 And as he was led to martyrdom, a certain paralytic man, 
 lying by the roadside, called on him that he should heal him. 
 Whom the Apostle, invoking the name of Christ, immediately 
 healed. Which seeing, Jonah the Scribe, who held the rope, 
 believed and confessed Christ, and was beheaded also. And 
 thus the holy James received martyrdom. And his body now 
 lies at Compostella. 
 
 " For after his decollation his disciples put the body into 
 a ship by night, for fear of the Jews, and, embarking therein 
 without mariners or steersmen, they committed themselves 
 and the body of their master to the Providence of God. And 
 an angel brought them to Gallicia in Spain, to the kingdom 
 of Queen Lupa. And taking the body forth of the vessel, 
 they laid it down on a large stone, which yielded to it like 
 soft wax, and fitted itself marvellously to its reception, after 
 the manner of a sarcophagus. And the disciples proceeding 
 to the Queen, who was indeed Lupa, a wolf both by character 
 and name, they told her how Christ had sent her the body of 
 his Apostle, that whom she had rejected living, she might 
 accept dead. And relating how they had sailed thither with- 
 out mariners, they begged for a place wherein to give it 
 burial. 
 
 " But the queen deceitfully directed them to the King of 
 Spain, that they should seek his assent, as her superior lord. 
 Who took and cast them into prison. But while he slept, the 
 angel of the Lord released and set them free. And the king, 
 hearing of it, sent soldiers after them to kill them. But, in 
 crossing a bridge, the bridge broke and the soldiers were 
 drowned in the river. And the King trembled, and sent for 
 them to return in peace, and received the faith of Christ to- 
 
56 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 gether with his people, and granted to them freely whatsoever 
 they required. 
 
 " And Lupa, hearing these things, was grieved ; and when 
 the Saints returned, and brought the King's consent by letter, 
 she answered that they might take the oxen that she kept on 
 a certain mountain (naming it), and yoke them to a wain, and 
 carry the body of their master whither they would, and bury 
 it. And this she said guilefully, because a vast dragon, 
 vomiting flames, guarded those oxen, and the oxen were wild 
 and unbroken, nor had ever submitted to the yoke, and if 
 yoked, she believed they would fly hither and thither, and 
 tear the body of the Apostle to pieces. But the disciples, 
 unsuspecting the deceit, ascended the mountain, and when 
 the dragon menaced them, breathing out fire, they shewed 
 him the sign of the cross, and he clove asunder in the midst. 
 And they yoked the oxen to the wain, as tame as lambs, and 
 they placed the body of James upon it, with the stone on 
 which he had been laid. And the oxen, no man guiding 
 them, drew the body into the midst of Queen Lupa's palace, 
 and seeing it she believed, and became a Christian, and 
 granted all they desired of her, and gave her palace as a 
 church for the holy body, and endowed it richly, and the 
 body now lies there, resplendent with innumerable miracles." 1 
 
 2. Of S. Cecilia, Virgin and Martyr. 
 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " Cecilia, Virgin and Martyr, suffered at Rome under Alma- 
 
 chius, prefect of the city, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius 
 
 1 The most noted of these miracles acted towards him as Potiphar's wife 
 
 are the two celebrated by Southey in towards Joseph, and receiving a 
 
 his ballad of the ' Pilgrim to Com- similar repulse, secreted her father's 
 
 postella,' and which have been the drinking cup in his baggage, and 
 
 subject of many excellent frescoes by complained to her father after the 
 
 the old Italian masters. Three pious family had departed that the cup 
 
 pilgrims, a father and mother with was missing. The pilgrims were 
 
 their son, a very handsome youth, pursued forthwith, and the cup being 
 
 were travelling to Compostella, and found in the baggage of the youth, 
 
 halted for the night at a village about he was taken before the Alcayde and 
 
 three months' journey short of the summarily condemned to death. They 
 
 shrine. The daughter of their host, hanged him on a gibbet at some little 
 
 enamoured of the youth's beauty, distance from the village. He sub- 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 57 
 
 and Commodus, Emperors, — being born of a most noble 
 house among the Romans, and instructed from the cradle in 
 the faith of Christ, and she carried the Gospel always hidden 
 in her bosom, and never ceased from divine colloquy and 
 prayer ; and she composed hymns to the glory of God, which 
 she sang so sweetly that the angels came down from heaven 
 to hear them, and to sing along with her. And she prayed 
 earnestly of Christ that she might preserve her virginity. 
 And being espoused to a certain youth, by name Valerian, 
 and the day being appointed for their nuptials, Cecilia, 
 wearing sackcloth next the skin under her cloth of gold, and 
 singing to God in her heart while music pealed around her, 
 commended her soul- to God in fasting and prayer. 
 
 "And on her marriage night she addressed her husband, 
 and told him that she had an angel as her lover, who jealously 
 guarded her, and would slay him if he approached her, but 
 that if he were willing to love her in purity, the angel would 
 reveal himself unto him. And Valerian bade her shew him 
 the angel, for if he were indeed from God, he would do as 
 she desired. And Cecilia promised that if he would believe 
 in One God, and be purified, 1 he should see the angel, and 
 she bade him go to the third milestone on the Appian Way, 
 and salute in her name certain poor men whom he should 
 find there, and require them to lead him to Pope Urban, who 
 would instruct and purify him. And the poor men accordingly 
 conducted Valerian to Pope Urban, then concealed in the 
 catacombs. And telling Urban what Cecilia had said to him, 
 
 mitted with resignation, and his par- 
 ents went on to perform their vows 
 at Compostella. Passing through the 
 same village on their return, the 
 mother expressed a desire to see the 
 remains of her son, and, on approach- 
 ing the spot, was astonished to see 
 him alive and well, — and he spoke to 
 her, and declared that Sant' Iago had 
 supported him during her absence, so 
 that he had suffered nothing. The 
 father and mother went immediately 
 to the Alcayde, who was just sitting 
 down to dinner, with two fowls, a 
 Cock and a Hen, in the dish before 
 him. "A miracle, a miracle," cried 
 the mother, "My son lives !" "Non- 
 sense, good woman, " said the Alcayde, 
 ' ' your son is as much alive as these 
 
 two fowls are alive." Whereupon 
 the Cock and the Hen immediately 
 rose up in the dish, alive and well ; 
 the Hen chuckled, and the Cock 
 clapped his wings and crowed aloud. 
 The Alcayde immediately repaired to 
 the gibbet, followed by the whole in- 
 habitants of the village, and took the 
 youth down, and they found him as 
 fresh and ruddy as if he had been 
 feasting instead of fasting and hanging 
 there during the last six months. And 
 the pilgrims departed, all three to- 
 gether, rejoicing. For the holy and 
 edifying life led by the Cock and Hen 
 thereafter, and by all their posterity, 
 the reader may refer to Southey's 
 ballad. 
 
 1 That is, by baptism. 
 
53 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 he lifted up his hands and blessed the Lord. And behold an 
 aged man appeared to them, in white raiment, holding a 
 book on which was written ' One Lord, One faith, One 
 baptism,' and asking whether he believed this, and Valerian 
 answering 'Yes,' the old man disappeared. And Valerian 
 received baptism from Pope Urban. 
 
 "And, returning home, he found Cecilia in her chamber, 
 conversing with a glittering angel. And falling to the ground 
 in great terror, the angel raised him up and comforted him. 
 And he held in his hand two crowns of roses and lilies, and 
 he gave one of them to Cecilia, and the other to Valerian, 
 telling them they were brought from the Paradise of God, and 
 bidding them guard them carefully and undefiledly. He 
 desired Valerian, moreover, to ask any boon whatsoever, and 
 God would grant it him. And Valerian answering that he 
 had an only brother, Tiburtius, who was very dear to him, 
 and that he earnestly desired that he too might be brought to 
 the knowledge of the truth, the angel promised that not only 
 should he believe, but that they should both attain to the 
 Lord through the crown of martyrdom. 
 
 "And on the morrow, when Tiburtius came to salute his 
 sister-in-law Cecilia, he perceived an excellent odour of lilies 
 and roses, and asked her, wondering, whence she had untimely 
 roses in the winter season ? And Valerian answered, that 
 God had sent them crowns of roses and lilies, but that he 
 could not see them till his eyes were opened and his body 
 purified, — and added that an angel had taught them these 
 things, and that he too might see him if he would believe in 
 Christ and renounce idols. And he preached Christ to him, 
 and Tiburtius believed, and Valerian brought him to Pope 
 Urban to be baptized. 
 
 " And the two brothers abounding thereafter in almsgiving, 
 and burying the bodies of those whom the prefect Almachius 
 put to death, they were seized, and brought before him, and 
 martyred for the name of Christ. And Cecilia was also 
 seized, as the wife of Valerian, and commanded to sacrifice, 
 but refusing to do so, Almachius commanded her to be taken 
 to her own house and burnt in the fire that heated the bath. 
 But after having been in the fire for a day and a night it had 
 no effect upon her. And then he commanded her to be 
 beheaded in the bath. And the executioner having struck 
 her neck thrice, ineffectually, was obliged to desist, it being 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 59 
 
 against the law to strike a criminal a fourth time. And, 
 lingering on till the third day, she distributed all her goods to 
 the poor, and commended her jailors and executioners, all of 
 whom had been converted during her sufferings, to the bishop 
 Urban. And at length she departed, and Urban buried her, 
 and consecrated her house as a church." 
 
 3. Of S. Catherine, Virgin and Martyr. 
 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " Catherine, Virgin and Martyr, suffered at Alexandria under 
 Maxentius the Emperor. She was the only child of her father 
 Costus, King of Alexandria, who left her at his death his 
 successor in the kingdom, when not quite yet seventeen years 
 of age, and very beautiful, and trained in all the learning of 
 the Gentiles. And when a certain prince named Maximus 
 sought her in marriage, and her mother urged her to consent, 
 she proudly refused, saying, that she would take no one as 
 her husband unless as noble, as beautiful, as rich and as wise 
 as herself. But Maximus threatening to invade the city unless 
 her mother gave her up to him, she besought her daughter to 
 seek counsel of a certain Christian hermit, famous for wisdom 
 and prudence, who dwelt without the city, — and she did this, 
 hoping (being a Christian) that her daughter might either be 
 persuaded by him to marriage, or else converted to the faith. 
 For Catherine, devoted to the study of the philosophers, 
 despised Christ, nor would hearken to aught concerning him 
 from her mother. 
 
 " When, therefore, the mother and daughter came to the 
 hermit, and at the entreaty of the former he urged Catherine 
 to marriage, and she replied to him as she had done to her 
 mother, the hermit, divinely inspired, promised her a spouse, 
 not indeed her equal, but excelling in all things both herself 
 and any other created being. And the maiden desiring to 
 behold him, he gave her a painted tablet representing the 
 blessed Virgin and her son, telling her it was the image of 
 her spouse and of his mother, to whom devoutly making 
 supplication, her spouse would permit himself to be seen of 
 her. And Catherine, returning home, prayed that night 
 before the picture, and fell asleep, and saw in her dream 
 Christ, with his mother the Virgin, beautiful beyond all 
 
6o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 imaginable beauty. But when the Mother of God offered 
 Catherine to him as his spouse, he refused her, declaring she 
 was not beautiful. And the maiden hearing this, and already 
 smitten with love of her spouse, was grieved as if to death, 
 and when it was morning, she called her mother, and went 
 back to the hermit, and declared all she had seen. Whom 
 the hermit instructed more fully concerning the faith of Christ, 
 and baptized her, converted to the truth, and promised her 
 that she should now be immeasurably acceptable to her spouse. 
 And Catherine having returned, and fallen asleep prostrate 
 before the image, the Virgin reappeared with her child, more 
 brilliant than the sun, and with a company of angels. And 
 Mary offered her again as a spouse to Christ, and Christ 
 accepted her, as beautiful and full of grace, and purified, — 
 and he plighted troth to her with a celestial ring. And 
 Catherine, awaking, found the ring on her finger, and she 
 showed it to her mother, rejoicing, and declared what she 
 had seen, and from henceforth, kindled with the love of Christ, 
 she began to despise the pomps of the world. And she dwelt 
 in her palace till her mother departed this life. 
 
 "But when the Emperor Maxentius had summoned all, 
 both rich and poor, to Alexandria, to sacrifice to idols, and 
 was punishing the Christians who refused to do so, Catherine, 
 in her palace, hearing the howlings of the wild beasts and the 
 applause of the bystanders, sent messengers to enquire what 
 this might mean. And hearing what was going on, she took 
 some of her people, and fortifying herself with the sign of the 
 cross, she went to the temple. And she saw many Christians 
 sacrificing through fear of death. And, grieved to the heart, 
 she came boldly forward before the Emperor, and made him 
 no reverence, but reproved him for his folly and wickedness, 
 showing that God, the Creator of heaven and earth and of all 
 living, is the true God, and that Christ is his incarnate Son, 
 and that he suffered and rose again, and ascended into heaven. 
 And thus disputing, with much wisdom, Csesar, astonished 
 and unable to reply, commanded that she should be conveyed 
 to the palace and guarded needfully, admiring her wisdom and 
 her beauty. 1 
 
 1 ' ' Vergin' era fra lor di gia matura 
 
 Verginita, d' alti pensieri e regi, 
 
 D' alta belta 
 
 S' ode 1' annunzio intanto, e che s'appresta 
 
 Miserabile strage al popol loro . . . 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 61 
 
 " And returning to the palace, after the sacrifices were 
 ended, he asked her of her parentage. And she replied that 
 she was the daughter of King Costus, born in the purple and 
 trained in all liberal learning, but that she had despised all 
 for Christ, and that the Gods whom the Emperor worshipped 
 could neither aid him nor others. And arguing long, with 
 examples from the poets and reasons from the philosophers, 
 she confuted the Gods of the Gentiles. 
 
 "Wherefore Csesar sent letters, commanding that all the 
 rhetoricians and philosophers from the surrounding countries 
 should hasten to Alexandria. Fifty doctors, therefore, thus 
 came together, who excelled all men in this world's wisdom. 
 And hearing wherefore they were summoned, they thought 
 scorn of it, that they should be thus opposed against a girl. 
 But Catherine commended herself to the Lord. Whom an 
 angel comforted in Christ, and admonished her to stand firm, 
 since not only should she not be vanquished in this contest, 
 but her adversaries too were destined to conversion and the 
 palm of martyrdom. When therefore she was brought before 
 the doctors, and had most wisely disputed with them, and 
 shewed openly that the Gods were devils, astonished and 
 having nothing to reply, they were reduced to silence. Then 
 the Emperor, filled with fury, reproached them that they 
 permitted themselves to be conquered so disgracefully by a 
 weak maiden, and one of them answered, that although no 
 man was wise enough to stand before them, yet the Spirit of 
 God spoke by Catherine, and they could say nothing against 
 Christ. And all of them confessing this, the Emperor com- 
 manded them to be burnt alive in the midst of the city. 
 
 "After these things, the Emperor began to persuade the 
 virgin of Christ to sacrifice, promising her that she should be 
 called second in the palace, after the queen, and that an 
 image should be made of her, and she should be venerated of 
 
 Mirata da ciascun passa, e non mira, 
 
 L' altera donna, e innanzi al re sen viene ; 
 Ne, perche irato il veggia, il pie ritira, 
 
 Ma il fero aspetto intrepido sostiene .... 
 AH' onesta baldanza, all' improvviso 
 
 Folgorar di bellezze altere e sante, 
 Quasi confuso il re, quasi conquiso, 
 
 Frend lo sdegno, e placo il fier sembiante." 
 
 Gerus. Lib. Canto 2. 
 
 The whole scene of Sofronia's interposition would appear to have been 
 suggested by this legend. 
 
62 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 all as a Goddess. And answering that he ought to refrain 
 from uttering such wickedness, and that she adored Christ the 
 Lord, the Emperor commanded her to be scourged and kept 
 seven days in a dark dungeon, without food. And leaving 
 Alexandria for that interval, the Queen Faustina, his wife, 
 touched with pity, bribed Catherine's gaolers with the assist- 
 ance of Porphyrius, captain of the host, and came by night 
 to the prison. And they found it shining with a marvellous 
 light, and the angels were anointing the wounds of Catherine. 
 And Catherine preached to them eternal happiness, and 
 having converted them, predicted that they also should wear 
 the crown of martyrdom. And with Porphyrius, two hundred 
 of his soldiers believed. Meanwhile Christ refreshed the 
 virgin with celestial food, sending it by a dove from heaven, 
 and he appeared to her with a multitude of angels and virgins, 
 and exhorted her to be constant and of good courage. 
 
 "And the Emperor, returning, sent for Catherine, and 
 finding her blooming in beauty, whom he thought to see 
 wasted with hunger, he was about to put her keepers to the 
 torture, as thinking they had ministered to her. But she 
 declared how she had been fed from heaven by Christ. And 
 the Emperor again exhorting her to sacrifice, and she still 
 refusings a certain prefect advised that within three days four 
 wheels, set round with saws and blades of iron, should be 
 made ready, and that Catherine's limbs should thus be dis- 
 severed, and the other Christians intimidated. And this 
 machine was prepared accordingly, and the people assembled 
 to behold her martyrdom. Then the virgin besought the 
 Lord that he should destroy that engine to the conversion of 
 the bystanders. And behold, the angel of the Lord struck 
 and broke it to pieces, and in doing so, slew four thousand of 
 the Gentiles. By which miracle a multitude of pagans were 
 converted. 
 
 "And the Queen Faustina, who had till then concealed 
 her faith, came down, and reproved the Emperor for such 
 cruelty. For which being seized, and discovered to be a 
 Christian, she too was martyred. And after Porphyrius had 
 buried the body of the Queen, he and his two hundred soldiers 
 confessed themselves Christians, and by the Emperor's order, 
 they were all beheaded. 
 
 "Then the Emperor, calling Catherine, gave her her 
 choice, either to sacrifice instantly to the Gods, or to lose 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 63 
 
 her head, and she refusing to sacrifice, he commanded her to 
 be beheaded. And being led to execution, she prayed, with 
 tears, that Christ would hearken for her sake to all who should 
 invoke her in any distress. And a voice from heaven answered, 
 that the gate of heaven was open for her, and that her prayer 
 was granted. And being beheaded, milk flowed from her 
 veins instead of blood. And her body was carried away by 
 angels, and transported to Mount Sinai, and was there buried. 
 And oil flows ceaselessly from her tomb, which hath virtue to 
 make whole the limbs of the sick." 
 
 4. Of S. George the Martyr. 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " S. George the Martyr, born in a city of Cappadocia, and 
 from infancy a Christian, was a military tribune in the time of 
 the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian. There was at that 
 time, in the province of Lybia, by the city Lysia, a marsh in 
 extent like a sea, in which there dwelt an enormous dragon, 
 which discomfited and put to flight all who attacked it, and 
 approaching the walls of the city, destroyed many with its 
 breath. Wherefore the citizens were compelled to give it two 
 sheep daily to appease its fury. But when the sheep began 
 to fail, they gave a sheep and a man together, and thereafter 
 casting lots, they gave it their sons and daughters, and the lot 
 excepted no one. And after nearly all the children of the 
 citizens had been devoured, the lot fell upon the King's only 
 daughter, and she was adjudged to the dragon. And King 
 Zevius offered the people abundance of silver and gold if they 
 would spare his daughter, but they answered furiously, that 
 their children were dead, and that he himself had made the 
 law and must abide by it, and that, if he withheld his daughter, 
 they would burn him in his palace, with his whole family. And 
 after much entreaty the King obtained from them the space of 
 eight days, wherein to bewail his daughter. And on the eighth 
 day, finding no remedy, he delivered her, clad in her royal 
 robes, to the people, and they exposed her to the dragon. 
 And all the people looked on from the summit of the walls. 
 
 " And S. George, passing by that way, beheld her weeping, 
 and asked of her what she wept for. And she told him all, 
 and admonished him that he should fly swiftly, lest he also 
 should perish with her. Whom the holy warrior exhorted to 
 
64 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 take courage, and he offered himself as her champion to do 
 battle with the dragon in the name of Christ. But she on the 
 other hand entreated him to depart, for that she was unwilling 
 he should be perilled with her. 
 
 "While they thus spoke, behold, the dragon raised his 
 head above the lake, and S. George straightway mounted his 
 horse, and couching his lance, commending himself to God, 
 and fortified with the sign of the cross, he attacked that 
 monster, and wounded him sore, and cast him to the earth. 
 Then drawing his sword, he cut off his head with a single 
 blow. 
 
 " And the people witnessing so great a miracle, believed in 
 Christ at S. George's preaching, and ten thousand of them 
 were baptized, besides women and children. And the King 
 built a church of wonderful magnitude to the honour of the 
 Mother of God, from whose altar a fountain issues of living 
 water, of great virtue in healing the sick. Moreover he offered 
 the Saint much money, which he would not accept for himself, 
 but gave it to the poor. And after diligently admonishing t;he 
 King and the people, he departed thence. 
 
 " And while the blessed George served as military tribune 
 in the city Militeria, one Dacian, the governor, greatly perse- 
 cuted the Christians. And George distributed all his posses- 
 sions to the poor, and laying aside his military robe, he put on 
 that of the Christians, and presenting himself to the governor, 
 he proclaimed all the Gods of the heathen to be devils. And 
 when the Governor found him constant in the faith of Christ, 
 and could not incline him otherwise, he commanded him to 
 be beaten with staves, and to be stretched on a wooden horse, 
 and his body to be torn with nails, and salt to be rubbed into 
 the wounds, and so to be thrust into prison, where the Lord 
 Jesus Christ appeared to him and closed his wounds. And 
 when, on the morrow, Dacian perceived this, he called for a 
 magician, who should overmatch George in magical arts. And 
 he mingled deadly poison with wine, and George, making the 
 sign of the cross, drank thereof, and was nowise harmed. And 
 this he likewise did a second time. And the magician seeing 
 this, besought his forgiveness, and believed in Christ, and was 
 put to death by the Governor. 
 
 "Thereafter Dacian commanded S. George to be fastened 
 to a wheel studded on every side with sharp swords; but 
 praying to God, the wheel was broken, and he was found 
 
CHRISTIAN. MYTHOLOGY. 65 
 
 unhurt. Which when a certain master of the horse, by name 
 Magnentius, saw, he believed, and others of his company. 
 Whom Dacian ordered to be beheaded. And he shut S. 
 George up again in prison. And a certain widow brought 
 him her son, who was blind and deaf, and dumb, and lame, 
 and the Saint healed him in the name of Christ, and converted 
 him and his mother, and many others. And Dacian hearing 
 of it, sent for him again, and exhorted him to sacrifice. To 
 which S. George answered, that if the whole people would meet 
 together, he would go to the temple of Apollo, and test his 
 omnipotence before the multitude. And the holy martyr, 
 entering the temple, commanded Apollo that he should pro- 
 claim what sort of a God he was. Who declared that he and 
 all the Gods of the Gentiles were devils, studious to deceive 
 the souls of men and plunge them into hell. And suddenly 
 fire fell from heaven, and consumed all the idols, with the 
 priests. Then the governor ordered a caldron to be brought, 
 full of melted pitch and sulphur, and S. George to be cast in. 
 But the angel of God descended from heaven and extinguished 
 the fire, and cooled the caldron, and the holy martyr remained 
 unhurt. Which seeing, Alexandria, the wife of the governor, 
 believed in Christ, and reproved her husband for his impiety. 
 Who ordered her to be hung up by the hair and scourged. 
 And she expired under the scourging. And on the following 
 day, the governor commanded S. George to be dragged through 
 the whole city by a bridle, passed through his mouth, and 
 then to be taken out of the city and beheaded. Which was 
 done. And, Dacian as he returned home, was consumed by 
 fire from heaven, and his ministers with him. " 1 
 
 5. Of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " f. hE Seven Sleepers were born at Ephesus, of the noblest 
 in that city, and their names were Maximian, Martinian, 
 Dionysius, Joannes, Serapion, Constantine, and Malchus. 
 
 1 ' ' Now in the picture of this bating with the dragon, that is, with 
 
 Saint and Soldier, might be implied the devil, in defence of the King's 
 
 the Christian Soldier and true Cham- daughter, that is, the Church of 
 
 pion of Christ, — a horseman, armed God." — Sir Thomas Browne, Vulgar 
 
 cap-a-pie, intimating the panoplia or Errors, book v, chap. 17. 
 complete armour of a Christian com- 
 
 VOL. I. F 
 
66 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 And they sleep still in Mount Celius near the said city of 
 Ephesus, incorrupt in body and in raiment. 
 
 " When the Emperor Decius, the persecutor of the Chris- 
 tians, came to Ephesus, these brethren, being Christians, 
 concealed themselves in a cave, until he should depart, and 
 Malchus brought them food daily, visiting the city disguised 
 as a physician. But hearing that Decius had enquired after 
 them, that they should sacrifice, they were greatly affrighted, 
 and prayed to God, exhorting each other to constancy in the 
 faith. And as God willed it, they fell asleep. 
 
 " And Decius, unable to discover the retreat of the seven 
 brethren, sent for their parents, and being informed where 
 they had concealed themselves, he commanded the mouth of 
 the cave to be sealed up with stones, that they might perish 
 with hunger. And this was done. And Decius died, and all 
 that generation. But the Seven Sleepers slept sweetly on, in 
 their cave. 
 
 " And one hundred and ninety-six years thereafter, in the 
 days of Theodosius the younger, the heresy gaining ground of 
 those who deny the resurrection of the dead, the Emperor 
 was much grieved, and prayed unto the Lord in dust and 
 ashes, that he would interfere to check it. Wherefore the 
 merciful God put it into the heart of a certain burgess of 
 Ephesus to build in that place a stable for his shepherds. 
 And the stones being thus removed from before the mouth of 
 the cave, the Sleepers awoke, and saluted each other, thinking 
 they had only slept one night, and remembering their sorrow 
 of yesterday, they mutually exhorted each other to martyrdom. 
 And they bade Malchus go down to the city and purchase 
 bread, and discover what new thing Decius had done. And 
 Malchus, putting on his physician's dress, took five pieces of 
 money and went forth of the cave, and timidly drew nigh to 
 the city, and beheld with astonishment the sign of the cross 
 erected upon the gate, and the city changed in aspect. And 
 going from gate to gate, he found everything different from 
 what it had been before, and so returned to the first gate, 
 thinking he was dreaming. And entering at last, with a 
 beating heart, he heard men speaking aloud concerning Christ, 
 and being sore perplexed, and hearing from others of whom 
 he enquired that the city was really Ephesus, although so 
 changed, he knew not what to think, and well nigh determined 
 to return straightway to his companions. Finding, however, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 67 
 
 the bakers' street, he bought bread, and offering his money, 
 the bakers marvelled, and shewed to each other the strange 
 coin, and concluded that he had found a treasure. And 
 seeing them thus conversing together, he thought they were 
 about to denounce him to the Emperor, and besought them 
 to keep both bread and money, and let him go. And asking 
 him where he had found this treasure of the old Emperors, 
 and he denying that he had found any, they put a rope round 
 about his neck, and dragged him into the midst of the city. 
 And the rumour being spread that a youth had found a 
 treasure, all the city was gathered together. But Malchus 
 saw no one of his acquaintance ; all were strangers. 
 
 "And the Bishop Marinus, and the Proconsul, hearing 
 these things, ordered him to be brought before them. And 
 Malchus thought that he was about to be led to the Emperor. 
 And the Bishop and the Proconsul enquired where he had 
 found that ancient money. And he replied, nowhere, for that 
 he had received it from his parents. And being asked what 
 city he belonged to, he said ' To this — if this be Ephesus.' 
 And beingMemanded the name of his parents, that they might 
 testify to him, and naming them, no one knew of such persons, 
 and they thought he said this in evasion, and to deceive them. 
 And the Proconsul said that the money could not have 
 belonged to his parents, as the superscription was of two 
 hundred years past • and he commanded him to be examined 
 by torture till he should confess the truth. Then Malchus 
 besought them in the name of God, that they should tell him 
 where the Emperor Decius was. The Bishop answered that 
 the Emperor was not named Decius, nor had any emperor 
 borne that name for many generations. And Malchus stood 
 as one stupified, and then, recollecting himself, recounted how 
 he and his brethren had concealed themselves from the fury 
 of Decius in a cave, and how on the preceding evening 
 Decius had entered that very city to persecute the Christians 
 — if, indeed, as he repeated, this was Ephesus. And he 
 offered to conduct the Bishop to the cave where his brethren 
 awaited his return. Then the Bishop perceived that this was 
 a revelation from God, and rising up, he, with the Proconsul 
 and the whole people of Ephesus, accompanied Malchus to 
 the Mons Celius, and entering in, they found the Saints 
 seated in the cave, their faces glowing like roses, and their 
 bodies and raiment incorrupt and fresh as if they had but 
 
68 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 slept a night. And this thing being reported to the Emperor 
 Theodosius, being then at Ephesus, he came hastily to the 
 spot, and entering the cave, embraced the youths and wept 
 for joy. And they told him that God had raised them up to 
 bear witness to the resurrection of the dead. For that as an 
 infant in his mother's womb is unconscious and yet lives, so 
 they had slept unconsciously and yet alive. And thus having 
 spoken, they bowed their heads, and fell asleep again even as 
 before. And the Emperor kissed and wept over them. And 
 he commanded golden coffins to be made for them. But they 
 appeared to him the following night, and bade him leave them 
 in the cave, even as they were, to slumber on till God should 
 raise them up at the resurrection of the just. And they lie 
 there to this day." 
 
 6. Of S. Ursula and the Eleven Thousand Virgins. 
 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 "The Eleven Thousand Virgins suffered at Cologne, under 
 Julian, prince of the Huns. Whose leader and instructress 
 was the blessed Ursula, a maiden of wondrous wisdom and 
 excelling beauty, the only daughter of the most Christian 
 Maurus, King of Scotland. To whom the King of England 
 sent ambassadors, requesting her in marriage for his son 
 Etherius, offering many promises, if she should be yielded, 
 and many threats, should she be withheld. But King Maurus 
 was greatly troubled, for on the one hand he dreaded the dis- 
 pleasure of the King of England, and, on the other, he feared 
 to offend God by giving his daughter to a Gentile, or by 
 marrying her at all, as she had vowed her virginity to the 
 Lord. 
 
 " But, in this strait, the virgin of God, admonished from 
 above, exhorted her father to consent to the proposal, but on 
 the condition that Etherius, her intended husband, should be 
 baptized and instructed in the faith for three years, and that 
 ten fair and chosen virgins should be given her by her father- 
 in-law and himself jointly, as companions, and that eleven 
 thousand more should be gathered from all countries, a 
 thousand namely for each of the eleven, and that eleven ships, 
 well provided in everything, should be built for their use, in 
 which, during those three years, they might sail and sport 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 over the sea, and dedicate their virginity to the Lord. And 
 this the holy Ursula required, that during the time foresaid, 
 she might consecrate those virgins to Christ, and bring her 
 spouse and his people to the faith. Which the prince 
 Etherius and his parents consenting to, the youth received 
 baptism, and the ships were immediately built, and all things 
 prepared with great festivity, and the virgins were collected 
 from different parts of the world, and presented to Ursula, and 
 her father provided her an honourable convoy of many bishops 
 and barons of England and Scotland, together with all things 
 needful in abundance. And many came from different and 
 distant regions to behold that fair spectacle. Among whom 
 was Panthulus, bishop of Basle, who afterwards escorted them 
 to Rome, and returning with them, suffered martyrdom, — and 
 S. Gerasima, queen of Sicily, and sister of the mother of 
 Ursula, who had converted her husband, and came with her 
 four daughters and her little son Hadrian, leaving her kingdom 
 under the government of his elder brother. 
 
 " And so for three years Ursula and her virgins wandered 
 over the seas, untroubled by storm and tempest, the power 
 of God protecting and guiding them — sporting and solacing 
 themselves, now simulating battle, now flight — filling the air 
 with their sweet singing, and passing their days in harmony 
 and love. And after Ursula had at length converted all those 
 virgins to Christ, in one day's space, with a fair wind, they 
 came to a port of Gaul which is called Ceila, and thence 
 ascended to Cologne, where the angel of the Lord appeared 
 to Ursula, and predicted that they should all return thither, to 
 receive martyrdom. And proceeding to Basle, they quitted 
 their ships, and journeyed on foot to Rome. And the Pope, 
 Cyriacus, received them joyfully, for he too was from Britain, 
 and had many kindred among them, and he baptized such as 
 had not yet been purified. And it was revealed to him in a 
 dream that he should resign the pontificate and return along 
 with them, to receive martyrdom. Wherefore the clerk erased 
 his name from among the roll of Popes. And Vincent, the 
 Cardinal, and many others, associated themselves with that^ 
 gentle company. 
 
 "But two wicked men, Maximian and Africanus, princes 
 of the Roman army, seeing every one flocking to Christ, sent 
 letters to Julian, their kinsman, the prince of the Huns, that 
 he should march against Cologne, where those virgins would 
 
7o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 be. (And James, bishop of Antioch, a native of Britain, re- 
 turned with them, and the bishop of Lucca, and many others. 
 And Etherius, King of England, Ursula's husband, his father 
 being dead although after baptism, and his mothers and sisters 
 having also been converted, had come to meet her at Rome.) 
 And thus they returned together to Cologne, and found the 
 city besieged by the Huns. And those barbarians rushing 
 upon them, like wolves on sheep, slew all those virgins with 
 the sword, and they received the crown of martyrdom. But 
 seeing the beauty of Ursula, they drew back and spared her, 
 and brought her to Julian. And refusing to marry him or to 
 sacrifice to idols, seeing himself contemned, he bade them 
 slay her with an arrow, and so she departed to the Lord. 
 And a certain virgin, by name Corbula, had hidden herself in 
 a ship that night, but on the morrow, offering herself to death, 
 she also received martyrdom. These virgins suffered on the 
 twelfth of the Calends of November, about the year of Christ 
 four hundred and fifty." 
 
 7. Of S. Christopher, the Martyr. 
 
 [From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " Christopher, the Martyr, by race a Canaanite, and before 
 baptism named Reprobus, a man terrible in look, and of most 
 exceeding stature, being twelve cubits in height, suffered in 
 the city Ammon of Lycia, under King Dagnus. Christopher 
 bethought himself on a time, that he would seek out the 
 greatest prince in the world, and take service with him. He 
 went accordingly to a certain King Maximus, of whom the 
 report went that a greater ruled not upon earth. And King 
 Maximus, beholding his stature and strength, received him 
 gladly, and he dwelt at his court. 
 
 " But on a certain day, the King's minstrel recited a lay, 
 in which the Devil was ofttimes mentioned, and the King, who 
 was a Christian, made each time the sign of the cross on his 
 forehead. Christopher saw it and wondered, and enquired of 
 the King why he did so, and what this sign meant ? The 
 King at first gave no answer, but at length when Christopher 
 threatened to depart from him, he answered, that it was for 
 fear of the Devil, whose name was so often mentioned. But 
 Christopher immediately argued, that the Devil must be a 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 7i 
 
 greater lord than the King, seeing the King feared him, and 
 thus that he was in error, and had not yet found out the 
 greatest lord in the world. Wherefore bidding farewell to 
 King Maximus, he set out in search of the Devil. 
 
 "And passing through a desert place, he saw a mighty 
 multitude of warriors, amongst whom a certain one, pre-emi- 
 nently terrible and fierce, rode up to him, and asked whither 
 he was going? To which he replied that he was seeking the 
 Devil, and the knight told him that he himself was the Devil, 
 who then spoke to him. So Christopher engaged himself to 
 the Devil in perpetual service. 
 
 "And as they journied together, they came to a cross 
 erected by the wayside, and the Devil, leaving the path, made 
 a circuit through a forest, and re-entered the road beyond the 
 cross. Which greatly marvelling at, Christopher with much 
 earnestness enquired of the Devil why he had done so ? And 
 the Devil at first refused to tell him, but at length, being con- 
 strained thereto, he confessed and told him that a certain man 
 who is named Christ, had hung upon that cross, whom he 
 feared greatly, and that on that account he had turned aside 
 out of the way. Whereupon Christopher concluded that 
 Christ was yet a greater potentate than the Devil, and so 
 immediately departed from his service, and disposed himself 
 to seek out Christ. 
 
 " And after long seeking, not being able to find him, he 
 fell in with a certain hermit, who preached Christ to him, and 
 instructed him diligently in the faith, and baptized him. And 
 when the hermit enjoined him prayer for his sins, and frequent 
 fastings, as the service which he should pay to Christ, and 
 Christopher represented that he was capable of none of these 
 things, and besought some easier service, the hermit at length 
 appointed him to dwell beside a certain river, 1 that, being so 
 strong and tall of stature, he might carry across such as wished 
 to pass over, telling him that this would be acceptable service, 
 and that without doubt Christ would reveal himself unto him. 
 
 " Christopher, accordingly, came to the river, and built a 
 hut there, and carrying the trunk of a palm-tree in his hand, 
 in lieu of a staff, he supported himself with it in the water, 
 and carried travellers across continually. And on a certain 
 night, as he slept in his hut, he heard, thrice, the voice of 
 
 1 Some say the Red Sea, as typical of baptism, but this seems to me an 
 unnecessary refinement. 
 
72 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 a little boy, calling him, and beseeching that he would carry 
 him across. And going out the first and the second time he 
 found no one, but on the third finding the child, he set him 
 on his shoulders, and taking his staff, he entered the river to 
 cross over it. And behold, the water of the river began to 
 swell by little and little, and the boy he carried weighed heavy 
 like lead. And the further he went in, the waters increased 
 the more, and the boy pressed heavier and heavier on his 
 shoulder. And at last, with great difficulty, he got to the 
 other side. And setting down the child, he complained of 
 his weight, — that it had been as if the whole world had rested 
 on his shoulders. To whom the boy answered, that he had 
 no cause to marvel, for that he had been carrying, not the 
 world merely, but Him who had created the whole world, — 
 and he told him that he was Christ the Lord. In token 
 whereof, he commanded him to plant his staff in the earth, 
 and he should find it budding and bearing fruit on the morrow. 
 And immediately he vanished from his eyes. And Christopher 
 planted the staff in the earth, and in the morning he found it 
 bearing leaves and dates after the manner of the palm-tree. 
 And thus he knew for a certainty that Christ had appeared 
 unto him. 
 
 " And after these things he came to the city of Ammon, 
 and not understanding the language of those people, he prayed 
 to God, and presently the gift of their speech came to him. 
 And they were torturing the Christians, and he comforted 
 them in their sufferings. And one of the Judges struck him 
 on the face, and he answered, ' I would avenge this injury, 
 were I not a Christian.' And he planted his staff in the earth, 
 and prayed God that it might take root and flourish, to the 
 conversion of the people. And it did so, and eighteen thou- 
 sand souls believed. But King Dagnus sent two hundred 
 soldiers to take him. And finding him praying, they dared 
 not touch him. And the King sent as many more the second 
 time ; but they began to pray along with him. And rising up, 
 Christopher went with them before the King, and seeing him 
 so tall of stature, King Dagnus fell from his seat to the ground 
 for very fear, but his ministers raised him up again, and he 
 questioned Christopher of his name, his country, and his 
 religion. And declaring himself a Canaanite and a Christian, 
 and refusing to sacrifice to the Gods, the King threw him 
 into prison. And he sent two women to him, very beautiful, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 73 
 
 to tempt him, promising them rich guerdon if they should 
 beguile him to sin, and induce him to sacrifice. But while 
 they spoke to him, and the holy martyr prayed to God, a 
 bright light shone from his visage, and they were terrified, and 
 Christopher prayed for them, and they were converted, and 
 thereafter received martyrdom. 
 
 "And being brought again before the King, and refusing 
 to sacrifice, Christopher was beaten with rods, and a red-hot 
 helmet was placed on his head, but he in nowise yielded. And 
 they laid him on an iron bed, and burnt pitch under him, but 
 the iron melted like wax and the saint was found unhurt. 
 Then the King had him bound to the trunk of a tree, and 
 shot at by three hundred archers, but the arrows remained 
 suspended in the air around Christopher. And when the 
 King approached, thinking to behold him dead, one of the 
 arrows suddenly turned round and flew back and hit him in 
 the eye. And Christopher admonished him that he should 
 take of his blood on the morrow, after beheading him, and 
 anoint his eye with it, and that he would recover his sight. 
 Wherefore the King ordered him to be led away and beheaded, 
 and, after praying to God, his head was cut off. And the 
 King, anointing his eye with the blood, was immediately 
 healed, on account of which he believed in Christ, and com- 
 manded that the body of the martyr should be buried." 1 
 
 1 The reader will easily perceive, 
 from the names Reprobus, Christo- 
 phorus, etc. , as well as from the char- 
 acter of the incidents described, that 
 the whole of this legend is allegorical. 
 "What emblem this was," observes 
 Sir T. Browne, ' ' or what its signifi- 
 cation, conjectures are many ; Pierius 
 hath set down one, that is, of the dis- 
 ciple of Christ ; for he that will carry 
 Christ upon his shoulders, must rely 
 upon the staff of his direction, whereon 
 if he firmeth himself, he may be able 
 t o overcome the billows of resistance, 
 and in the virtue of this staff, like 
 Jacob, pass over the waters of Jordan. 
 
 Or otherwise thus ; he that will sub- 
 mit his shoulders unto Christ, shall 
 by the concurrence of his power, in- 
 crease into the strength of a giant ; 
 and being supported by the staff of 
 the Holy Spirit, shall not be over- 
 powered by the waves of this world, 
 but wade through all resistance." 
 Vulgar Errors, book 5, chap. 16. — 
 The intellectual depreciation of giants, 
 current during the middle ages, and 
 indeed still — and a tendency to the 
 grotesque, akin to that so whimsically 
 indulged in by the Gothic sculptors — 
 will also be perceived in the legend. 
 
74 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 XXL Legends of Ascetic or Monastic Saints. 
 
 [Distinguishable from the preceding class in the manner noticed at page 
 53, and including 
 
 1. The Legend of Mary Magdalen, which partakes of the character 
 
 of both, and serves as a link between them : — 
 
 2. Those of the ' Fathers of the Desert,' extracted from the lives of 
 
 S. Paul the Proto-hermit, S. Antony, S. Hilarion, and others, 
 the founders of monachism in Egypt and Syria, illustrating the 
 spirit of the ascetic or 'angelical life,' both in its earlier stage 
 of demoniacal and sensual agony, 1 and its later, of quietism and 
 abstraction, 2 in each individual : — And, 
 
 3. The Legends attached to S. Jerome, the great apostle and propa- 
 
 gator of monachism in the Latin church — to S. Martin, S. Bene- 
 dict, S. Bruno and S. Bernard — omitting for the present those 
 of S. Domenic and S. Francis, which, with others of less im- 
 portance, will be noticed hereafter.] 
 
 1. Of S. Mary Magdalen. 
 
 [Based upon the identity (presumed from very early times, however 
 uncritically) of Mary Magdalen, Mary the sister of Lazarus, and the 
 woman that "was a sinner," Luke vii, 37. — From the ' Catalogus 
 Sanctorum ' of Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 " After the ascension of the Lord, and in the fourteenth year 
 
 1 This phase of the Angelical life 
 can only be appreciated, in its horrors, 
 by perusal of the original writers. 
 
 2 I subjoin an extract from the 
 ' Institutio Spirituals ' of Ludovicus 
 Blosius (Louis de Blois), as illustra- 
 tive of the mystical union with the 
 Deity, coveted by the ascetic saints : — 
 
 ' ' Happy is that soul which con- 
 tinually affecteth purity of heart and 
 holy introversion, and wholly re- 
 nounceth self-love, self-will, and self- 
 gain. She earneth a continually 
 nearer and nearer approximation to 
 God. And at length, her highest 
 powers being uplifted, enlightened 
 and embellished by divine grace, she 
 obtaineth unity and nudity of spirit, 
 and arriveth at pure and indescribable 
 love and simple thought, which is 
 void of all thoughts. And thus, hav- 
 ing become capacious of the excellent 
 and ineffable grace of God, she is led 
 to that living fountain which floweth 
 from the Eternal, and refresheth, over 
 and above, the minds of the Saints. 
 
 And ere long she is made sufficient 
 for contemplating the abyss of the 
 Deity, with a serene, simple and joy- 
 ful intuition, without Imagination, and 
 without any admixture of Intellect. 
 Whence when she turneth herself 
 with entire love towards God, incom- 
 prehensible light shining forth from 
 Him into her depths, the eye of Reason 
 and Intellect, being beaten back, wax- 
 eth blind, but the simple eye of the 
 soul herself, to wit, the pure, naked, 
 uniform, and super - intellectual 
 Thought remaineth open. There- 
 after, the natural light of the Intellect 
 being darkened by so great a bright- 
 ness, the soul seeth nothing in time, 
 but, elevated high above time and 
 space, assumeth after a certain man- 
 ner the property of eternity. For dis- 
 missing the images, distinction and 
 consideration of things, she now learn - 
 eth by experience that God far trans- 
 cendeth all images, corporeal, spiritual 
 and divine, and clearly perceiveth that, 
 whatever may be apprehended by in- 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 75 
 
 after the dispersion of the Apostles, the Jews, taking Mary 
 Magdalen and many Christians, among whom were the blessed 
 
 tellect, whatever may be spoken or 
 written concerning God, whatever 
 name may be imposed on him, still 
 all such things stand infinitely remote 
 from the truth of the divine essence, 
 and therefore that same essence is 
 nameless and indefinable. She is 
 ignorant, nevertheless, what the God 
 is, whom she is thus sensible of. 
 Hence foreknowledge being obtained 
 without knowledge, she quiesceth 
 in the only, loveable, naked, simple, 
 and unknown God. For the Divine 
 Light is inaccessible through its too 
 great brightness, — whence also it is 
 called darkness. And thus the Soul 
 becometh suscipient of tlje hidden 
 word, which God uttereth in the 
 internal silence and secret recess of 
 the mind. Receiving this, she bliss- 
 fully experienceth the embrace of 
 mystic union. For after that she 
 hath surmounted intellect and all 
 images through love, and is exalted 
 above herself (which God alone can 
 effect for her), then, flowing down- 
 wards from herself, she streameth into 
 God, and thus God is her peace and 
 fruition. She, therefore, elevated to 
 such excess of mind, singeth right- 
 fully 'In pace in idipsum dormiam 
 et requiescam,' Ps. iv, 8. For the 
 loving soul, I say, flowing down and 
 failing from herself, and as if reduced 
 to nothing, sinketh into the abyss of 
 eternal love, where, dead to herself, 
 she liveth in God, nothing knowing, 
 nothing feeling, save the love which 
 she enjoyeth. For she loseth herself 
 in that most vast solitude and dark- 
 ness of the Deity, yet so as, losing 
 herself, she rather findeth herself. 
 There, verily, putting off whatever is 
 human, and putting on what is divine, 
 she is transformed and transmuted 
 into God, as iron placed in the fire 
 receiveth the form of fire and is trans- 
 muted into fire. Yet the essence of 
 the soul, thus deified, still remaineth, 
 even as iron ignited doth not cease to 
 be iron. Thus, that very soul that 
 before was cold, now burneth — that 
 before was dark, now shineth — that 
 
 before was hard, now softeneth. 
 Wholly and altogether she taketh the 
 colour of God, forasmuch as her 
 essence is bathed in the essence of 
 God. Wholly consumed and wholly 
 liquefied by the fire of the divine 
 love, she hath passed over into God, 
 and, united unto him without medium, 
 she is made one spirit with him, as 
 gold and brass are fused into one 
 mass of metal. But of those who 
 thus surmount and are rapt into God, 
 there are divers grades, for each man 
 reacheth deeper and higher into God 
 in proportion to the energy, ardency 
 and love with which he turneth him- 
 self towards Him, and the entireness 
 with which he repelleth all selfish ends 
 in doing so. 
 
 ' ' Oh ! holy is that spirit, which, 
 singled out and visited by God, cre- 
 ated above all things, and elevated 
 above her proper operation, is in the 
 essence of Memory denuded of all 
 images and sentient of unmingled 
 purity and simplicity, — in the essence 
 of Intellect, perceiveth the prefulgent 
 illumination of the Sun of Justice, and 
 recogniseth the divine Truth, — and 
 further, in the essence of Love, feeleth 
 a certain glow of quiet love or contact 
 of the Holy Ghost, as if of a living 
 fountain, flowing with rivulets of eter- 
 nal sweetness, and thus is invited and 
 introduced into that excelling union 
 with God ! O happy is that hour ! 
 For then the Soul, with supernatural 
 and most grateful solemnity, and with 
 the joy of spring, hath inward fruition, 
 and after a manner a foretaste of future 
 beatitude. O happy is he, to whom 
 that most fragrant spring and that 
 most pleasant summer arise within 
 him, — to whom it is granted to experi- 
 ence that divine union even for a 
 moment ! For he is led to that which 
 neither reason not intellect can com- 
 prehend nor tongue express. Through 
 a wise ignorance, and through the 
 intimate contact of love, he knoweth 
 God better than his exterior eyes can 
 take cognisance of the visible sun. 
 To that pass is he established in God, 
 
7 6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Maximinus, one of the seventy-two disciples, to whom Mary 
 had been specially commended by St. Peter, and Lazarus her 
 
 that he perceiveth God to be nearer to 
 him than he himself is to himself, — 
 whence even here, already, he liveth 
 a deiform and superessential life, being 
 conformed to Christ in .spirit, soul and 
 body. Whether he eateth or drinketh, 
 whether he watcheth or sleepeth, God 
 ever worketh in him who liveth super- 
 essentially in Him. Such an one God 
 himself teacheth concerning all things, 
 and openeth spiritual and mystic senses 
 to him. Most frequently — yea rather 
 unceasingly — doth he visit, embrace, 
 kiss, illumine, burn, penetrate and fill 
 him. For his soul being made like 
 unto a clear mirror, without spot or 
 stain, objected and spread under the 
 sun, the Sun of Justice, Himself, can- 
 not but pour out into it continually the 
 rays of wisdom and the sparks of love 
 through the channels of his grace. 
 Truly indeed, both sublimely and 
 wonderfully doth God sometimes reveal 
 and manifest himself to the perfect 
 Soul, — yet not as yet doth he shew 
 himself as He is, in his ineffable glory, 
 but according as he can be looked 
 upon, in this life. ' ' 
 
 The reader will at once perceive the 
 self-sufficing, anti- mediatorial, anti- 
 hierarchical, anti- Christian and Pan- 
 theistical tendency of these doctrines, 
 and their affinity with the Shamanism 
 and Buddhism of the East, the Pytha- 
 gorean and Platonic systems of Greece, 
 
 '! I will only add an extract from an 
 Arabian writer, reciting the privileges and 
 powers acquired over nature by mystic 
 abstraction, to wit — " produire ce qui 
 n'existe point, et reduire au ndant ce qui 
 existe ; faire paroitre ce qui est cache, et 
 cacher ce qui est apparent ; obtenir l'effet 
 d'une priere ; parcourir en peu de temps 
 une grande distance ; voir les choses qui ne 
 sont pas accessibles aux sens, et les decrire ; 
 etre present tout a la fois en differens lieux ; 
 rendre la vie a des morts et donner la mort 
 a. des vivans ; entendre les paroles des 
 betes, des plantes et des corps inorganiques, 
 soit des cantiques, soit d'autres choses ; 
 faire paroitre a quoi manger et boire quand 
 on a besoin, sans aucun moyen ext^rieur ; 
 enfin une multitude d'autres choses con- 
 traires a la nature, telles que marcher sur 
 l'eau, nager dans l'air, soumettre a. ses 
 volontes les betes sauvages, avoir des forces 
 
 and the Quietism and Pietism of the 
 sects of Christianity and Islamism. 
 Blosius, a learned Benedictine of the 
 sixteenth century, is styled ' ' sublimis- 
 simus rerum mysticarum interpres ' ' by 
 Father Corderius, in his ' ' Isagoge ad 
 Mysticam Theologiam, " prefixed to 
 his edition of Dionysius Areopagita, 
 and from which I have extracted the 
 preceding paragraphs. I might have 
 accompanied them, as well as the 
 following sketches of the lives of the 
 Fathers of the Desert, with a running 
 commentary of quotations illustrative 
 of the affinity, indeed identity, in 
 doctrine and expression, of Christian 
 and Oriental mysticism, but space will 
 not permit, 1 and the reader will easily 
 discriminate between the errors of the 
 theory — the most deadly blow to moral- 
 ity and happiness ever dealt by the 
 devil at mankind — and the virtues of 
 its' victims — many of them saints indeed, 
 and whose history is full of instruction, 
 provided only we look down upon it 
 from the vantage-ground of experience. 
 Men should be judged by the past to 
 which they were heirs, their principles 
 and measures by the present, which 
 those measures and principles have 
 produced. We must look up the 
 stream in the one instance, and down 
 in the other ; this is the golden rule 
 of truth and charity, and without it, 
 history is a libel. 2 
 
 corporelles extraordinaires, frapper de la 
 main sur une muraille en sorte qu'elle se 
 fende, faire signe du doigt a quelqu'un de 
 tomber, et que cet homme tombe en effet, 
 et que la tete de cette personne saute dans 
 l'air." With a few exceptions, this might 
 be a list of the miracles of the Christian 
 Saints and Fathers of the Desert. See the 
 ' Lives of the Sooffees ' by Djami, (where 
 the above extract is inserted), as translated 
 by De Sacy, Notices des MSS. de la Bibl. 
 du Roi, torn, xii, p. 368. 
 
 2 I do not hesitate in branding Mysti- 
 cism as the most subtle device ever hit 
 upon by Satan to delude mankind — the 
 subtler and the more dangerous inasmuch 
 as it takes its rise in the purest and holiest 
 emotions of the heart. Engrossing the 
 Senses, lulling the Imagination, and silenc- 
 ing the Reason, it commends and insinuates 
 itself into every creed, Moslem, Hindoo, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 77 
 
 brother, and Martha, and Marcella the handmaid of Martha, 
 and also the blessed Cedonius, who had been blind from his 
 birth, and whose eyes the Lord had opened, they sent them 
 away from Judea in a vessel without oars or sailors, that they 
 might perish in the ocean. But, by God's guidance, they were 
 driven to Massilia (Marseilles), where no one taking them in, 
 they lodged for the night under the portico of a temple. And 
 when the people came in the morning, to sacrifice to the idols, 
 
 and Christian, and lies at the root too of 
 almost every aberration from orthodoxy in 
 Europe and Asia. The observations of 
 Jeremy Taylor on Contemplation and 
 Ecstasy, though less condemnatory than 
 might be wished, are well worth insertion 
 here, especially under the present phase of 
 religious excitement in England: — "Be- 
 yond this I have described, there is a degree 
 of Meditation so exalted, that it changes 
 the very name, and is called Contemplation, 
 and it is in the unitive way of religion, that 
 is, it consists in unions and adherences 
 to God ; it is a prayer of quietness and 
 silence, and a meditation extraordinary, a 
 discourse without variety, a vision and 
 intuition of divine excellencies, an imme- 
 diate entry into an orb of light, and a 
 resolution of all our faculties into sweet- 
 nesses, affections and starings upon the 
 Divine beauty, and is carried on to ecstasies, 
 raptures, suspensions, elevations, abstrac- 
 tions, and apprehensions beatifical. In all 
 the course of virtuous meditation, the soul 
 is like a virgin invited to make a matrimo- 
 nial contract ; it enquires the condition of 
 the person, his estate and disposition, and 
 other circumstances of amiability and 
 desire ; but when she is satisfied with these 
 enquiries, and hath chosen her husband, 
 she no more considers particulars, but is 
 moved by his voice and his gesture, and 
 runs to his entertainment and fruition, and 
 spends herself wholly in affections, not to 
 obtain but enjoy his love. Thus it is said. 
 But this is a thing not to be discoursed of, 
 but felt ; and although in other sciences, 
 the terms must first be known and then the 
 rules and conclusions scientifical, here it is 
 otherwise ; for first, the whole experience 
 of this must be obtained before we can so 
 much as know what it is, and the end must 
 be acquired first, the conclusion before the 
 premises. They that pretend to these 
 heights call them the secrets of the king- 
 dom. But they are such which no man can 
 describe ; such which God hath not revealed 
 in the publication of the Gospel ; such for 
 the acquiring of which there are no means 
 presented, and to which no man is obliged, 
 and which are not in any man's power to 
 obtain, nor such which it is lawful to pray 
 for or desire, nor concerning which we 
 shall ever be called to any account. In- 
 deed, when persons have been long softened 
 with the continual droppings of religion, 
 and their spirits made timorous and apt for 
 
 impression by the assiduity of prayer, and 
 perpetual alarms of death, and the con- 
 tinual dyings of mortification, the fancy, 
 which is a very great instrument of devotion, 
 is kept continually warm, and in a disposi- 
 tion and aptitude to take fire, and to flame 
 out in great ascents ; and when they suffer 
 transportations beyond the burdens and 
 support of reason, they suffer they know 
 not what and call it what they please, and 
 other pious people, that hear talk of it, 
 admire that devotion which is so eminent 
 and beatified (for so they esteem it), and 
 so they come to be called raptures and 
 ecstasies, which, even amongst the Apostles, 
 were so seldom that they were never spoken 
 of; for those visions, raptures and intuitions 
 of S. Stephen, S. Paul, S. Peter and S. 
 John, were not pretended to be of this kind, 
 — not excesses of religion, but prophetical 
 and intuitive revelations, to great and 
 significant purposes, such as may be and 
 are described in story, but these other can- 
 not ; for so Cassian reports, and commends 
 a saying of Antony the Eremite, ' That is 
 not a perfect prayer in which the votary 
 does either understand himself or the 
 prayer;' meaning, that persons eminently 
 religious were 'divina patientes,' as Dion- 
 ysius Areopagita said of his master Hiero- 
 theus, patics in devotion, suffering ravish- 
 ments of senses, transported beyond the 
 uses of humanity into the suburbs of 
 beatifical apprehensions : but whether or 
 no this be any thing besides a too intense 
 and indiscreet pressure of the faculties of 
 the soul to inconveniences of understanding, 
 or else a credulous, busy and untamed 
 fancy, they that think best of it cannot 
 give a certainty. There are, and have been, 
 some religious, who have acted madness 
 and pretended inspirations ; and when these 
 are destitute of a prophetic spirit, if they 
 resolve to serve themselves upon the pre- 
 tences of it, they are disposed to the imita- 
 tion, if not to the sufferings, of madness ; 
 and it would be a great folly to call such 
 'Dei plenos,' full of God, who are no 
 better than fantastic and mad people.'. 
 Life of Christ, Works, torn, ii, pp. 118 sqq. 
 ed. Heber. — The metaphors, it should be 
 observed, derived from love and marriage, 
 as typical of union with God, have given 
 sanction to very reprehensible language and 
 imagery, not only among the mystic poets 
 of the East but among the hymn-writers of 
 Christendom. 
 
73 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Mary began to preach Christ to them, and many were con- 
 verted, admiring her beauty and her eloquence. And when 
 the prince of the province and his wife came to the temple, 
 in order to implore offspring from the Gods by sacrifice, Mary 
 dissuaded them, and announced Christ. And the prince 
 desired Mary to entreat God for him for a son, promising to 
 believe in Christ if her prayer was granted. Mary, accordingly, 
 prayed, and after a few days the princess conceived. 
 
 " Thereafter, the prince and his wife, the latter being several 
 months gone with child, embarked for Rome, in order to 
 visit Peter. And as they departed, Mary signed them on the 
 shoulders with the sign of the cross, for their protection. And 
 the prince left Mary guardian of his state and household. 
 But after they had sailed for an entire day, the wind arose 
 and the tempest waxed fierce, and the princess was seized 
 with the pains of childbirth. And in the midst of that storm 
 and suffering she brought forth a son, and instantly expired. 
 And while the babe wept and the father had nothing to feed 
 it with, and wept bitterly, murmuring against the blessed 
 Magdalen, through whom he had incurred this evil, and the 
 sailors urged him to throw the body of his wife into the sea, 
 behold from afar a rock appeared amid the waves, and with 
 much difficulty he persuaded the sailors to touch at it. And 
 landing, he found a cave there, and placed the body of his 
 wife within it, and laid the infant upon her breast, and covered 
 them with his cloak, and re-embarked, commending the soul 
 of his wife and the care of his child to the blessed Mary 
 Magdalen. And when he reached Rome and told Peter what 
 had happened, Peter comforted him and confirmed him in 
 the faith. And the prince went with Peter to Jerusalem, and 
 they visited together all the sacred places, and then returned 
 to Rome. 
 
 " And two years having now elapsed, he parted from Peter, 
 and re-embarked, and set sail for Gaul. And coming to the 
 rock where he had left the body of his wife and the child, he 
 landed there, and he found the child playing on the shore 
 with the pebbles and shells, for Mary had preserved him, — 
 and when he saw the sailors, he was terrified and fled to his 
 mother's breast, and hid himself under the cloak. And the 
 father came near and beheld how the child had been nourished 
 at his mother's breast for two years, and as he wept for joy, 
 behold ! the mother began to breathe, and waking up as if 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 79 
 
 from sleep, gave thanks to the blessed Mary Magdalen, — 
 adding, that she had returned from the self-same pilgrimage 
 which he had made, and she described all the places where 
 they had been. For even as Peter had conducted her husband, 
 so had the blessed Magdalen conducted herself through those 
 holy regions. So the prince returned, with his wife and child, 
 to Marseilles, and told all this to Mary, and, destroying the 
 temples of the idols, he received baptism with his whole people. 
 And he built a church in the name of Christ, and appointed 
 the blessed Lazarus bishop in Marseilles. And thereafter 
 proceeding to Aix, they preached there and converted the 
 people, and Maximinus was made their bishop. 
 
 " Meanwhile the blessed Magdalen sought out a very desert 
 wilderness, and dwelt there unknown for thirty years in a 
 place prepared for her by the angels, where neither were 
 flowing waters nor herbs of any kind for her solace, that thus 
 it might be understood that not by earthly, but by celestial 
 food the Lord thought fitting to sustain her. And there, day 
 by day, at the seven canonical hours, she was carried up by 
 angels into the air, and refreshed with the songs of heaven, 
 and from thence was brought down again by the selfsame 
 angels to her cave. And thus satisfied, she needed no earthly 
 nutriment. 
 
 " But at length a certain priest, adopting the solitary life, 
 and building his cell at twelve stadia from that place, heard 
 on a certain day the voices of angels, and beheld with his 
 bodily eyes how Mary was carried up by the angels, and in 
 due time brought back again. And desirous to see this vision 
 more clearly, he drew nigh, commending himself to God, and 
 with much fear, adjured her that she should instruct him who 
 or what she was. Then Mary bade him come nearer, and 
 told him that she was that famous sinner who is mentioned in 
 the Gospel, and who had washed the feet of Jesus with her 
 tears, and merited the pardon of her sins, and that she had 
 dwelt in that place, unknown, for thirty years, sustained by 
 the food of heaven only. And knowing that her death drew 
 near, as the Lord had revealed to her, she commanded the 
 priest to go to Maximinus the bishop, and relate what he had 
 seen, and desire him, on her part, to be in his church in the 
 morning of the Lord's Day following, whither the angels 
 should bring her, that she might receive the sacraments of the 
 Lord from him. And the priest gave her his cloak at her 
 
8o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 request, that she might cover herself, being naked, and thus 
 come to the church more decently. 
 
 " Wherefore the priest went to Maximinus, and told him 
 these things, and at. the hour appointed he found Mary in the 
 church, in the midst of a choir of angels, elevated in the air 
 two cubits above the earth, and with hands extended in prayer, 
 and with her face shining as the sun, from her constant con- 
 verse with angels. 1 And when Maximinus feared to approach 
 her, she encouraged and comforted him, that he should recog- 
 nise his daughter. Who, calling his clergy and the priest 
 foresaid, offered her the body of Christ, which she received 
 with a great flood of tears, and then, her body prostrate before 
 the altar, her spirit flew up to God in the hands of angels. 
 And her body diffused an exceeding fragrance for seven days, 
 after which the blessed Maximinus buried it. And he com- 
 manded that his own should, after death, be laid beside it." 
 
 2. Of the Fathers of the Desert. 
 i. Of S. Paul the Proto-hermit. 
 
 [Born A.D. 229, died 342. From his Life, written by S. Jerome (from 
 the information of Amathas and Macarius, pupils of S. Antony), c. 365, 
 — and according to the Benedictine editors, "dejecto nonnihil stylo, 
 propter simpliciores." — Opera^ torn, iv, part 2, col. 68 sqq.~\ 
 
 "The persecution raging in Egypt under the Emperor Decius, 
 and the parents of Paul dying when he was about the age 
 of sixteen, leaving him rich and well instructed, as well in 
 Egyptian as Greek letters, and it being told to Paul that the 
 husband of his sister purposed to betray him, the prudent 
 youth took refuge in the wilderness till the persecution should 
 be ended. And after much wandering, he at length discovered 
 a rocky mountain, near the foot of which there was a large 
 cave which was closed with a stone. Which having removed 
 (so eager are men to discover things secret !), and entering in, 
 he found himself in a spacious vestibule, open to the sky, and 
 shadowed by an ancient palm-tree, with a spring of very clear 
 water, but which merely appeared to disappear again, being 
 immediately absorbed by the earth, the daughter by the mother. 
 Moreover, cells not a few were dug in the rocky face of the 
 mountain, wherein anvils and dies for coining money were 
 
 1 "Till oft converse with heavenly habitants," etc. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 81 
 
 still remaining. For it had been a lurking-place of coiners of 
 false money about the time of Cleopatra and Mark Antony. 1 
 
 " Pleased therefore with this retreat, thus provided for him, 
 as it seemed, by God, he passed his whole life there in solitude 
 and prayer. The palm-tree afforded him food and raiment, 
 Nor let any one deem this impossible, for I call Jesus to 
 witness and the holy angels, that in that part of the desert 
 which adjoins the Saracens 2 beside Syria, I have seen monks 
 living, of whom one, closed up for thirty years, lived on barley- 
 bread and muddy water, and another, enclosed in an old cistern, 
 supported life solely on five figs a day. 
 
 " But, that I may return to my purpose, when the blessed 
 Paul had now for one hundred and thirteen years lived the 
 life of heaven on earth, and Antony, at the age of ninety, was 
 dwelling (as he used to relate) in another solitude, it entered 
 into the thought of the latter that no hermit dwelt in the desert 
 more perfect than himself. But it was revealed to him by 
 night, as he slept, that there dwelt another in the desert far 
 worthier than himself, and that he should go and visit him. 
 Wherefore, as soon as it was dawn, the old man, sustaining 
 his feeble limbs with a staff, set out on his journey, whither 
 he knew not. And though noon arrived, and the sun scorched 
 him with his fervent heat, he persevered, saying, ' I trust in 
 my God, that he will discover to me my fellow-servant, as he 
 hath promised.' 
 
 " And straightway he saw a creature, half a man and half a 
 horse, such as the fancy of the poets has named a Centaur. 
 Whom perceiving, and fortifying his brow with the sign of 
 salvation, 'Where,' asked he, 'doth this servant of God 
 dwell?' And the centaur, growling I know not what, and 
 rather breaking his words than articulating them, nevertheless 
 offered him a kindly greeting, and stretching out his hand, he 
 indicated the road, and then swiftly taking flight across the 
 broad plain, he vanished from his eyes. But whether this 
 was a delusion of the devil desiring to affright him, or one of 
 the monstrous animals that the desert, so fertile in such pro- 
 digies, had given birth to, we must leave in doubt. 3 
 
 1 The cave is said to be still shown sula (as it is called) of Mount Sinai, 
 near the monastery of Mar Antonios and the region to the North of it, 
 in Gebel Kolzim, West of the Red between Egypt and Syria. 
 
 Sea. 3 In the Egyptian mythology the 
 
 2 This name originally belonged to desert is considered the abode and 
 the Arab tribes inhabiting the penin- domain of Typhon, the Evil Principle, 
 
 VOL. I. G 
 
82 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 " Marvelling therefore, and reflecting on what he had seen, 
 Antony fared further. And presently, in a narrow pass of the 
 rocks, he beheld a little man, with a hooked nose, his brow 
 bristling with horns, and his lower parts ending in the feet of 
 a goat. But Antony, undaunted even by this spectacle, seized 
 the shield of faith and the breastplate of hope, as a good 
 soldier ; nevertheless the animal held out to him dates of the 
 palm-tree to refresh him, as if in pledge of peace. Perceiv- 
 ing this, Antony pressed forward, and asking who he was, re- 
 ceived this answer, ' I am mortal, and of the dwellers of the 
 wilderness, whom, in their various error, the deluded Gentiles 
 call Fauns and Satyrs and Incubi. I come in embassy to you 
 from my flock; we pray you to entreat in our behalf our 
 common Lord, whom we know to have come down for the 
 salvation of the world, for his report hath gone forth through 
 all the earth.' Hearing these things, the aged pilgrim shed 
 copious tears, the witness of his heart, his joy being so great. 
 For he rejoiced in the glory of God and the downfall of Satan. 
 And striking the earth with his staff, 'Woe unto thee,' he 
 exclaimed, ' Alexandria ! the harlot city, confluence of devils 
 from the ends of the earth ! what sayest thou now ? beasts 
 speak of Christ, and thou worshippest monsters in place of 
 Christ !' And, while he was yet speaking, the animal departed 
 swiftly, as if he had wings. 1 And lest any one should deem 
 this incredible, the whole world can bear witness to it ; for a 
 man of this description was brought alive to Alexandria in the 
 days of Constantine, and exhibited to the people, and after 
 death, the body was carried, salted, to Constantinople, that it 
 might be seen of the Emperor. 
 
 " But, th&t I may pursue my purpose, Antony continued 
 on his way through that region, seeing nothing but the tracks 
 of wild beasts and the wide desolation of the wilderness. 
 What he should do, whither he should turn, he knew not. 
 And now another day had flown by. His confidence that it 
 was not possible that Christ should forsake him was his only 
 stay. He spent the second night in prayer, and on the early 
 
 the enemy of Osiris. It was similarly quarters, and vanquishing him on his 
 
 in the wilderness that Our Saviour own ground. 
 
 retired to be tempted of the devil. 1 ' ' And zit [yet] is the Hede with 
 
 Hence the predilection of the Ascetic the 2 Homes of that Monstre at 
 
 Saints, in all ages, for the wildest and Alisandre for a Marveyle. " — Voiage 
 
 most secluded scenes of Nature. It and Travaile of Sir John Maun- 
 
 was carrying the war into the enemy's deville, etc. , p. 57. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 83 
 
 morrow, while it was yet twilight, he beheld at a distance a 
 she-wolf, panting with thirst, creeping into a cave at the foot 
 of the mountain. Whom following with his eyes, and drawing 
 near the cave, after the beast had departed, he began to gaze 
 earnestly into it, but in vain, the darkness impeding his sight. 
 But as Scripture saith, ' Perfect love casteth out fear,' and 
 with doubtful foot and indrawn breath, cautiously entering in, 
 and advancing by little and little, and frequently standing still, 
 he listened for some sound, till at length perceiving a distant 
 light glimmering through the darkness, and hastening more 
 eagerly forward, he struck his foot against a stone, and the 
 blessed Paul, hearing the noise, shut to the door, which had 
 been open, and secured it by a bolt. Then Antony, falling 
 down before the door, prayed for admission even till the sixth 
 hour and later, saying, 'Thou knowest who I am, and 
 whence, and wherefore 1 am come. I know I do not merit 
 to look upon thee; nevertheless, unless I see thee, I depart 
 not hence. Thou who welcomest the wolf, why repellest thou 
 me ? I have sought and I have found thee ; I knock that it 
 may be opened ! And if thou deny me, I will die here at thy 
 threshold, and thou wilt at least bury my carcase ! ' 
 
 " Thus, rooted to the spot, he urged his quest ; 
 Whom, answering brief, the hero thus addrest :" 1 
 
 — * No one begs by menace, or libelleth with tears ? And 
 why marvel that I do not welcome you, if you have come to 
 die here?' — so, smilingly, Paul opened the door. Which 
 being done, while they mutually embraced, they saluted one 
 another, each by his proper name, and rendered thanks to 
 God together. 
 
 " And after a holy kiss, Paul, sitting down, began to dis- 
 course with Antony, ' Behold, then, him whom thou hast 
 sought out with such pains — rotted by time, withered and 
 worn with old age ! Thou beholdest me still alive indeed, but 
 about to become dust. Yet since love sustains the universe, 
 tell me, I beseech you, how it fares with the human race, — 
 whether new buildings are rising in old cities, under whose 
 empire the world is now governed, and whether any survive of 
 those who were deluded by the error of devils?' — And while 
 
 1 ' ' Talia perstabat memorans, fixusque manebat. 
 Ad quem responsum paucis ita reddidit heros." 
 
 Virg. Aen. ii. 650 ; vi. 672. 
 
8 4 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 thus discoursing, they perceived that a raven had settled on a 
 branch of the palm-tree, and it flew gently down, and laid an 
 entire loaf before them, and then departing, ' Lo ! ' said Paul, 
 £ God hath sent us dinner ! the truly pitiful, the truly merciful ! 
 For sixty years have I received daily a quarter of a loaf, but 
 at thy coming Christ hath doubled his soldiers' pay ! ' 
 
 " Thanking God, therefore, they sat down together, on the 
 margin of the glassy fountain. And here a contention arose 
 between them, which of the two should break the loaf. Paul 
 urged it on Antony, as being his guest ; Antony refused, as 
 being the younger in age. At length, when the dispute had 
 lasted well nigh to the evening, they came to terms thus, that 
 each one taking hold of one extremity of the loaf, they should 
 break it between them by a simultaneous effort, so that the 
 portion of each might remain in his hands. And when they 
 had eaten, bending down to the fountain they sipped a very 
 little of the water, and offering to God the sacrifice of praise, 
 they passed the night in vigil. 
 
 " And when day returned, the blessed Paul spoke thus to 
 Antony, ' I have long known of thee, my brother, as a dweller 
 in these regions, and long ago God promised thee to me, as a 
 fellow-servant. And now that the time of my falling asleep 
 draws nigh, and that my longing to depart and be with Christ 
 is granted, and that, my course being finished, there is laid up 
 for me a crown of righteousness, thou art sent me by the 
 Lord to cover my carcase with earth, and to render dust to 
 dust.' And, hearing this, Antony, weeping and groaning, 
 besought him not to abandon him, but to take him as his 
 companion on that his journey. But Paul replied, ' Thou 
 oughtest not to seek thine own things, but the things of others ; 
 the abject burden of the flesh is needful for thee in order to 
 follow the Lamb, and thy brethren too have still need of thee, 
 to learn by thy example. Wherefore go, I beseech you, if it 
 be not irksome to you, and bring the pall which the bishop 
 Athanasius gave you. to wrap my carcase in.' And this indeed 
 the blessed Paul requested, not that he greatly cared whether 
 his body rotted naked or covered (as one who for so great 
 a space of time had worn but a robe of woven palm-leaves), 
 but in order that Antony might be spared the grief of seeing 
 him die. Marvelling, therefore, when he heard of Athanasius 
 and his robe, as if seeing Christ in Paul, and venerating 
 God in his heart, he dared answer him nothing further, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 85 
 
 but weeping in silence, and kissing his eyes and hands, he went 
 back to his monastery, which was afterwards occupied by 
 the Saracens. Nor did his steps keep pace with his spirit. 
 But, though wasted with fasts and broken by years, he still 
 pressed onward, conquering old age by resolution. 
 
 " Weary, at length, and breathless, he reached his journey's 
 end, his cell; and two of his diciples, who had long been 
 accustomed to minister to him, came forth to meet him, 
 saying, ' Where, O father ! hast thou been tarrying so long ? ' 
 And he answered, 'Woe to me, a sinner, who bear falsely the 
 name of a monk ! I have seen Elijah, I have seen John in 
 the desert, and I have seen Paul verily in Paradise.' And 
 refraining his lips and smiting his breast, he brought forth the 
 pall. And his disciples entreating that he would inform them 
 further, he replied, ' There is a time to keep silence, and a 
 time to speak.' 
 
 " Then going forth, and taking not the least morsel of food, 
 he returned the way he had come, thirsting for Paul, longing 
 to see him, embracing him with his whole eyes and heart. 
 For he feared, what indeed came to pass, that Paul might 
 render the spirit to Christ during his absence. But when 
 another day had dawned, and he had travelled three hours more, 
 he saw Paul rising to heaven, and shining with the whiteness 
 of snow, among troops of angels and a choir of prophets and 
 apostles. And immediately, falling on his face, throwing dust 
 on his head and weeping, he cried, 1 Paul, why quittest thou 
 me? why leave me without farewell? known so late, why 
 departest thou so soon ? ' 
 
 "The blessed Antony used afterwards to relate that he flew 
 over the remainder of that journey with the swiftness of a bird, 
 and that, on entering the cave, he found the lifeless body 
 kneeling, with uplifted neck, and hands stretched out to 
 heaven, so that at first, believing him yet alive, he prayed 
 (as he thought) along with him, till hearing, after awhile, none 
 of the sighs which were wont to accompany his prayer, and 
 drawing near to offer him the kiss of grief, he perceived that 
 even the holy carcase still prayed to God, unto whom all 
 things live, in its gesture of observance. 
 
 " Having wrapped up the body, therefore, and carried it 
 forth of the cave, and sung the psalms and hymns of Christian 
 tradition, Antony was lamenting that he had not a spade, with 
 which he might dig the earth. And wavering in his mind, he 
 
86 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 considered, ' To return to the monastery would be four days' 
 journey — and if I remain here, I can do nothing more ; let me 
 die therefore, as is fitting, beside the warrior of Christ ! ' But, 
 behold, while he thus meditated, two lions came from the 
 interior of the desert, bounding towards him, with their manes 
 streaming on their necks, seeing whom he was at first affrighted, 
 but speedily recollecting himself, he awaited them fearlessly, 
 as though they had been doves. And they came straight to 
 the place, and stopped at the corpse of the blessed Paul, and 
 blandishing with their tails, lay down at his feet, roaring 
 loudly, so as to show that they bemoaned him after their 
 power. Then they began to tear up the ground, close by, 
 with their feet, and casting forth the sand, they dug a hole 
 capable of containing a man. And then, as if seeking a 
 guerdon for their toil, they came to Antony, throwing back 
 their ears, and bending down their necks, and licking his 
 hands and feet. And he perceived that they sought his 
 benediction. And, breaking into praise to Christ that even 
 mute animals knew him to be God, he said, ' Lord ! without 
 whose nod not a leaf of the tree drops nor a sparrow falls, 
 grant unto these creatures according to thy wisdom !' And 
 signing with his hand, he commanded them to depart. And 
 when they were gone, he bent his aged shoulders to the work, 
 and placing Paul in the grave, and gathering the earth over 
 him, he performed his sepulture. 
 
 " And on the following day, taking, as Paul's heir, the robe 
 which, after the manner of a basket, he had woven for himself 
 of leaves of palm, he returned to his monastery, and related all 
 things in order to his disciples, and ever thereafter wore the 
 robe on the high feast-days of Easter and Pentecost. 
 
 " And now, in closing this little book, let me ask those who 
 are ignorant of their true inheritance, who dress their houses 
 with marbles, who add farm to farm and villa to villa — what 
 lacked this Paul, think you, in his nakedness? You drink 
 from the diamond, he satisfied nature with the hollow of his 
 hand. You weave your tunics with gold, he had not the 
 attire of your vilest menial. But, on the other hand, Paradise 
 opens to him, in his poverty — Gehenna gapes for you, in your 
 riches ! Paul, in nakedness, wore the livery of Christ ; ye, in 
 your silks, have lost it ! Paul lies in humility under his little 
 heap of dust — to rise again to glory ; ye, in your pride, under 
 your costly cenotaphs — to burn with your gold for ever ! Oh 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 87 
 
 spare, I entreat you ! spare yourselves — or at least, spare the 
 wealth that ye prize so dearly ! Why wrap ye your dead in 
 cloth of gold ? Why quencheth not pride amid sighs and 
 tears ? Can the corpses of the rich rot only in silks ? Who- 
 ever thou art, that readest this, remember, I beseech thee, 
 Jerome, a sinner, — who if God gave him the choice, would 
 rather elect the robe of Paul with the merits of Paul, than the 
 purple of kings, with their sceptres and their hell ! " 
 
 ii. Of the Te7nptations of S. Antony. 
 
 [The founder of the Monastic Life in Egypt ; born a.d. 251, died 356. 
 From the eighth, ninth, and tenth chapters of his Life, a very curious 
 work, written by S. Athanasius, Opera^ torn, ii, pp. 802 sqq. edit. 
 Benedict^ 
 
 "Thus therefore, restraining himself, after the example of 
 Elijah, he retired to the tombs, at a distance, without the 
 village, and having charged one of his familiars to bring him 
 food at intervals of many days, he entered one of them, and 
 closing the door, remained alone within. But the Enemy, not 
 enduring this, and fearing lest in a little he should fill the very 
 desert with asceticism, coming to him one night with a crowd 
 of devils, he so wounded him with stripes that he lay on the 
 ground speechless, from the torture. But, by the providence 
 of God (for the Lord never overlooks those who trust in him), 
 the next day the familiar who provided his food, arrived, and 
 opening the door, and seeing him lying as if dead on the 
 ground, he lifted him up, and carried him into the church of 
 the village, and laid him on the ground. And many of his 
 kindred, and the men of the village, sat down to watch by his 
 body, supposing him dead. But about the middle of the 
 night, Antony, coming to himself, and being thoroughly 
 awakened, when he saw them all sleeping, and only his 
 familiar watching, he beckoned to him and besought him to 
 lift him up and carry him back to the tombs, without waking 
 any of them. 
 
 " The man carried him back accordingly, and closing the 
 door as usual, Antony was once more alone within, and as he 
 could not stand, on account of his wounds, he prayed as he 
 lay. And after prayer, he cried with a shout, 1 Here I am, 
 Antony — I shun not the wounds that ye can inflict, and even 
 if ye lay more upon me, nothing shall separate me from the 
 
83 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 love of Christ.' And then he sang, * Though an host should 
 encamp against me, my heart shall not fear.' — But Satan, the 
 enemy of good, marvelling that, after such wounds, he dared 
 to return, called together his hounds and said unto them, 
 bursting with fury, 1 Ye see how that neither by the spirit of 
 concupiscence nor by stripes can we put down this fellow, nay 
 rather, he defies us, — let us attack him otherwise ! ' — for the 
 devil is prompt in the devising of evil. In the night, therefore, 
 they upraised so great a clamour that the whole place seemed 
 to quake, and, as if bursting through the four walls of the cell, 
 devils rushed in upon him from all sides, transformed in the 
 guise of wild beasts and creeping things, and the place was 
 straightway filled with spectres of lions, bears, leopards, bulls 
 and serpents, asps, scorpions and wolves, all of them in 
 motion after their proper fashion, the lion roaring as about to 
 spring on him, the bull offering to gore him, the serpent hissing, 
 and the wolf making as if he would fly at him, but all in 
 seeming only, as under restraint, though dire were the noises 
 and fierce the menaces of those phantoms, thus huddled 
 together all around him. 
 
 " But Antony, although wounded and smarting from their 
 former injuries, lay unterrified and vigilant, and said to them 
 mockingly, ' If there were aught of power in ye, one would 
 have sufficed, but since the Lord hath unnerved you, ye seek 
 to terrify me by numbers. It is a token of your weakness, 
 this aping of dumb beasts,' — and then he resumed in boldness, 
 ' If ye are able, and have any power over me, delay not but 
 come on ! if ye have none, why do you disturb me, to no 
 purpose ? For faith in the Lord is my seal, and my wall of 
 salvation.' But they, while preparing to assail him yet further, 
 gnashed on him with their teeth, that they had as yet made 
 sport for him only, and not for themselves. 
 
 " But the Lord, meanwhile, did not forget the combat of 
 Antony, but came to his assistance. And looking up, he saw 
 as it were the roof opened, and a ray of light descending upon 
 him. And the devils on a sudden disappeared. And the 
 pain of his body was straightway assuaged, and the cell was 
 again entire as before. And Antony, perceiving the divine 
 interposition, and having recovered his breath, and feeling 
 lightened of his sufferings, besought the vision, saying, ' Where 
 wert thou ? why didst thou not appear from the beginning, in 
 relief of my anguish?' And a voice came to him, saying, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 89 
 
 ' Antony, I was here, but I stood waiting to witness thy combat. 
 And since thou hast prevailed, and not been worsted, 1 will 
 be with thee from henceforth as thy helper, for ever, and I 
 will make thee renowned through all the earth.' And after 
 hearing these things, Antony rose up and prayed, and received 
 such strength that he was more vigorous in the body than 
 before. And Antony was then near upon thirty and five years 
 of age." 
 
 I add two accounts of the community originally instituted 
 by S. Antony in Lower Egypt, the one by Ruffinus, the other 
 by Palladius, bishop of Helenopolis, and author of the 'Historia 
 Lausiaca,' — both written towards the close of the fourth century, 
 and abridged from the ' Lives of the Fathers of the Desert ' : — 
 
 " We also visited the monasteries of Nitria, which is about 
 forty miles distant from Alexandria, in which place are about 
 fifty monasteries, 1 all near each other, and all governed by one 
 principal father, some of the monks dwelling in company, some 
 apart, but all united in charity. And as we drew nigh, they all 
 came forth from their cells, like bees from the hive, and came 
 to meet us with joyful faces, bringing some their bread, some 
 their water, to refresh us, and first of all, they led us to the 
 church with psalms and hymns. And after prayer, they washed 
 our feet, and every one wished to entertain us. It is impos- 
 sible to express their charity, each one wishing to be our host, 
 and to instruct us in the way of God, and tell us of the many 
 virtues that dwelt among them, — and nowhere else did we 
 find the duties of hospitality so perfectly performed, or the 
 study of divine wisdom so fervent. They were not ignorant 
 and unlettered {idiottz) like many others, but with great 
 diligence united meditation and mutual instruction with the 
 study of wisdom, so that each one seemed to be a master. 
 
 " And beyond this place, about ten miles deeper in the 
 desert, was another more solitary, named Cellia, from the 
 multitude of cells, and there we saw the venerable father 
 Ammon, on whom God seemed to have shed every grace, 
 whether one considered his charity, his humility, his patience, 
 his kindness to all men, or the wisdom and knowledge that 
 
 1 " Tabernacula. " — It appears Bellini, on the Nile. These early 
 
 from the narrative that there were hagiographers abound in curious in- 
 
 crocodiles then in the lake near Nitria. timations respecting topography and 
 
 They are never seen now North of natural science. 
 
90 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 God had given him, and in which no man. equalled him." 
 Ruffinus, in Rosweyde's Vita Patritm, lib. ii, p. 477, edit. 
 Antv. 1615 ; Vite di SS. Padri, lib. i, cap. 60. 
 
 " After I had spent three years visiting the monasteries 
 around Alexandria, in which I found full two thousand perfect 
 monks, I came to the Mount of Nitria, where I found full five 
 thousand living either apart or in company, after their pleasure. 
 And I was received with much charity both by them and the 
 abbot Arsisius, their superior (who lived formerly for a time 
 under S. Antony), and there I saw a great church, and near 
 it a hospice for strangers. At the hour of vespers they sing 
 the office so loudly and well, that any one arriving there, and 
 hearing such beautiful and various voices, would fancy him- 
 self in Paradise, — and this office they sing, each in his cell, 
 so that the whole of the mountain appears at that moment 
 one vast monastery. But on Saturday 1 and Sunday they 
 meet for office in the church." Palladius, in Rosw., lib. viii, 
 p. 712 ; Vite di SS. PP., lib. ii, cap. 49. 
 
 "Furthest of all from Nitria, about a day and a night's 
 journey distant, is the place called Scitis, to which there is no 
 definite road, and one can only go by guidance of the stars. 
 This is the place where the blessed Macarius resided. There 
 is little water there, and it has an offensive smell, like bitumen, 
 but is not so very bad in taste. In this place none abide 
 except very perfect monks. They have much charity among 
 themselves, and especially towards brethren who come to visit 
 them. And let this suffice as an example. Some grapes being 
 one day sent to Macarius, he immediately sent them to one 
 who appeared to him more infirm than himself, and he, thank- 
 ing God for the charity of Macarius, and thinking that his 
 neighbour had greater need, carried them to him, and he 
 to a third, and thus those grapes made the round of all the 
 cells in that wilderness, no one knowing who had first brought 
 them. And last of all, they came back to Macarius." — Ruffi- 
 niis, ut supra. 
 
 1 The respect paid by the Egyptian their predecessors, the Jewish Essenes. 
 monks to Saturday, might seem a Hebrew names occur very frequently 
 relic of that paid to the Sabbath by in the ' Vitae Patrum. ' 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 9i 
 
 iii. Of S. Hilarion. 
 
 [Born a.d. 291, died 371. Disciple of S. Antony, and the founder of 
 the Monastic Life in Syria and Palestine as his master had been in 
 Egypt. Abridged from his life by S. Jerome, written before the year 
 392, Opera, torn, iv, part 2, col. 74 sqq.~\ 
 
 " Hilarion was born at Thabatha, about five miles from 
 Gaza, of heathen parents, a rose (as it were) among thorns. 
 But being sent, while a boy, to Alexandria, and believing 
 in Christ, and the name of Antony being then celebrated 
 throughout Egypt, inflamed with the desire of seeing him, he 
 journeyed to the wilderness, and abode with him for two 
 months. And then, returning home, his parents being dead, 
 he divided his substance between his brethren and the poor, 
 reserving nothing for himself, fearing the punishment of Ananias 
 and Sapphira, and mindful of the Lord's saying, 'Whoso 
 forsaketh not all he hath, he cannot be my disciple.' Hilarion 
 was then fifteen years old. And thus, naked, but armed in 
 Christ, he retired into the wilderness which is on the left 
 hand of those who go down into Egypt. All men wondered 
 at his resolution ; his cheeks were smooth, his body frail and 
 delicate, and impatient of the least injury, pained by the 
 slightest excess of cold or heat. Yet covering his limbs with 
 sackcloth, and wearing a robe of skin, which the blessed 
 Antony had given him at his departure, and a rough country 
 cloak, he took possession of the vast and terrible solitude, 
 eating only fifteen figs daily after the sun had gone down. 
 
 " What now shall the devil do ? Whither shall he turn ? 
 He who boasted of old, * I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt 
 my throne above the stars of God, I will be like the Most 
 High/ beholds himself vanquished by a boy — trodden down 
 by his heel, before, through his immature age, it is possible 
 for him to sin ! 
 
 " But in course of time, as Hilarion advanced in age, Satan 
 addressed himself to his senses, filling him with evil thoughts 
 of the pleasures of the flesh. Angry, therefore, with himself, 
 and beating his breast, as if he could exclude thoughts by 
 blows, he thus addressed his body, — ' Ass that thou art, I will 
 provide that thou kick not! I will feed thee, not with corn 
 but with chaff ! By hunger and by thirst will I wear thee out ; 
 with heavy burdens will I crush thee down ; by heat and cold 
 will I bring thee to think of food instead of wantonness !' 
 
9 2 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 From this time, accordingly, fasting till the third or fourth 
 day, he sustained fainting nature with the juice of herbs and a 
 few figs, praying frequently, and singing psalms, and digging 
 the ground with a spade, that the exercise of his hands might 
 double that of his fasting. And at other times, weaving 
 baskets with bulrushes, he emulated the discipline of the 
 Egyptian monks and the sentence of the Apostle, who says, 
 ' He that works not, let him not eat' His body, meanwhile, 
 through this discipline, became so wasted away, that it scarcely 
 adhered to his bones. 
 
 " On a certain night he began to hear the crying of infants, 
 the bleating of sheep, and lowing of cattle, the weeping as it 
 were of women, the roaring of lions, the hollow tramp of an 
 army, and portents, moreover, of various voices — devices of 
 devils, tempting him by the terrors of sound before essaying 
 those of sight. He recognised their sport, and prostrate on 
 his knees, he marked the cross of Christ on his forehead, and 
 armed with that helmet, and girt round with the breastplate 
 of faith, stood boldly on his defence, desiring, if possible, to 
 see those whom he was terrified to hear, and gazing hither 
 and thither with anxious eyes. When, on a sudden, the moon 
 shining brightly, he perceived a chariot and horses rush 
 furiously upon him, but when he had called on Jesus, sud- 
 denly, before his eyes, all that pageant sunk into the earth, 
 and disappeared. Then he cried, ' The horse and his rider 
 hath he cast into the sea ! ' And ' Some put their trust in 
 chariots and some in horses, but we will remember the name 
 of the Lord our God ! ' 
 
 " Many were his temptations and the snares of the devils 
 by night and day, all of which were I to rehearse, I should 
 exceed the measure of my volume. How often women tempt- 
 ing him to sin, how often banquets, richly spread before him, 
 in hunger ! At one time, while praying, a howling wolf, at 
 another a barking jackal leapt over him ; and while singing 
 psalms, a company of gladiators appeared and fought before 
 him, one of whom falling before his feet, as if wounded to 
 death, craved sepulture. 
 
 " On one occasion he was praying with his head fixed to 
 the earth, and, as might befal any man, his thoughts having 
 wandered from his prayer, he was dreaming I know not what, 
 when his persecutor leapt upon his back, and spurring his 
 sides, and beating his neck with a scourge, ' Ha, ha ! ' he cried, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 93 
 
 'what, nodding?' and chuckling over him, he inquired, laugh- 
 ing, 'Whether he was faint, or would like a little barley?' 
 
 " Thus, from his sixteenth to his twentieth year, he sheltered 
 himself from heat and rain in his little hut, which he had 
 woven of bulrushes and sedge. He built afterwards a small 
 cell, which exists even to the present day, four feet broad and 
 five high, lower that is to say than his own stature, and in 
 length little more than his body required, so that you would 
 have thought it a sepulchre rather than the residence of a 
 human being. 
 
 " Once only in the year did he poll his hair ; he slept ever 
 till his death on bulrushes strewed on the bare ground. He 
 never washed the shirt which he had once put on, saying it 
 was superfluous to study cleanliness in sackcloth. Nor did he 
 change his tunic for another, till it was utterly in rags. And 
 after prayers and psalms, having the Scriptures by heart, he 
 recited them as if God were present. And since it would be 
 tedious to declare by snatches, time after time, the progress ot 
 his ascension, I will briefly sum it up here, before the reader's 
 eyes, and will then return to the order of narration. 
 
 " From his twenty-first year, therefore, till his twenty-seventh 
 he ate daily, during the three first years, half a sextarium 1 of 
 pulse moistened with cold water, and during the three last, dry 
 bread, with salt and water. Then, from the twenty-seventh to 
 the thirtieth, he supported himself on wild herbs and the raw 
 roots of certain young shrubs. From his thirty-first to his 
 thirty-fifth year, he ate six ounces of barley-bread and potherbs, 
 only half cooked and without oil. But finding his eyes wear- 
 ing dim and his whole body contracted and crusted with a 
 rough dry tetter, he added oil to the above-mentioned food, 
 and till his sixty-third year persevered in this degree of con- 
 tinence, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything else what- 
 soever. And from his sixty-fourth to his eightieth year, find- 
 ing himself spent in body, and thinking death near at hand, 
 he abstained from bread, with incredible fervour of mind, in 
 order that from the winter of life, when men are wont to live 
 less rigorously, he might go, fresh as if from spring, to the 
 service of the Lord. During these latter years a little broth 
 was made for him, of meal and a few herbs chopped, both food 
 and drink scarcely weighing five ounces. And constant in his 
 life's orbit, he never broke his fast, either on feast days or in 
 1 About three quarters of a pint. 
 
94 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 his extremest weakness, before sunset. But it is time that I 
 
 resume my purpose. 
 
 # # # # 
 
 " He had now passed twenty-two years in solitude, and his 
 fame was celebrated throughout Palestine, when a certain 
 woman of Eleutheropolis, who had been married fifteen years 
 without issue, and was held in contempt by her husband in 
 consequence, first dared to break in upon him, and when he 
 least expected it, threw herself on her knees before him, and 
 said, ' Pardon my boldness, pardon my necessity ! Why 
 turnest thou away thine eyes, why fleest thou from me, a sup- 
 pliant ? Look not on me as a woman, but as a wretch in 
 misery ! Christ was born of a woman ! It is not the whole 
 but the sick that need a physician.' At length he stopped, 
 and (not having seen a woman for such a length of time) asked 
 the cause of her coming and of her weeping. And learning it, 
 lifting his eyes to heaven, he bade her have faith, and accom- 
 panying her departure with his tears, he saw her after a year 
 blessed with a son. This was the beginning of his miracles. 
 * * * * 
 
 " Facidia is a little village, dependent on Rhinocolura, a 
 city of Egypt. And a woman of this village, after having been 
 ten years blind, was brought to the blessed Hilarion, and 
 being presented to him by the brethren (for many monks 
 were now abiding with him), she said she had spent all her 
 substance on physicians. To whom he answered, ' If thou 
 hadst given to the poor that which thou hast thrown away on 
 physicians, the true Physician would have healed thee.' But 
 she calling upon him, and imploring his pity, he spat into her 
 eyes, and immediately she received her sight. 
 
 # * # * 
 
 " Orion, a man of the chiefest and richest of the city Aila, 
 which stands close upon the Red Sea, 1 was brought unto him, 
 possessed of a legion of devils. His hands, neck, sides and 
 feet were loaded with irons, and his eyes rolled with fury. 
 And while the Saint was walking with the brethren, and inter- 
 preting I know not what passage of Scripture, Orion burst from 
 his keepers, and clasping him from behind, lifted him up. 
 
 1 That is, on its N. Eastern prong, hilation is sketched by Dr. Robinson 
 
 where some ruins still remain of it in his most valuable and interesting 
 
 near the Turkish fortress, Akaba. Its ' Researches in Palestine, ' torn, i, p. 
 
 progress through decadence to anni- 251. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 95 
 
 And all present cried out, fearing lest he should crush his 
 limbs, wasted with fasting. But the Saint, smiling, said, ' Be 
 silent, and leave me my antagonist (palsestritam).' And so, 
 turning back his hand over his shoulders he touched his head, 
 and taking hold of his hair, drew him before his feet, and then, 
 holding tightly both his hands, opposite him, and treading on 
 his feet with each of his, and at the same time repeating again 
 and again that the crowd of devils must be punished (while 
 Orion cried out loudly, and his neck being turned backwards, 
 the crown of his head touched the earth), 'Lord Jesu,' he 
 prayed, ' relieve this wretch, release this captive ! It is as easy 
 for thee to vanquish many as one !' And, behold, a thing 
 unheard of ! many divers voices issued from one man's mouth, 
 and there was heard as it were the confused clamour of a mul- 
 titude. And thus Orion was cured. 
 
 % % * * 
 
 " He detested, especially, such monks as, through want of 
 faith, lay up for the future, and take thought either for food or 
 raiment, or anything else which perishes with the using. One 
 of the brethren, living about five miles from him, he had 
 driven from his sight because he found him too careful and 
 anxious a keeper of his little garden, and because he had a 
 little store of money. Who, wishing to propitiate him, fre- 
 quently visited the brethren, and especially Hesychius, who 
 was greatly beloved by Hilarion. On a certain day, this monk 
 had presented to Hesychius a basket of green cresses, the 
 earliest of the season. Which when Hesychius had placed on 
 the table at supper, Hilarion exclaimed that he could not en- 
 dure its evil odour, and at the same time inquired whence it 
 came. And Hesychius answering, that a certain brother had 
 presented it to the brethren as the first-fruits of his little field, 
 ' Perceive you not,' he said, ' the abominable stench, and that 
 avarice stinks in those herbs ? Give them to the oxen, offer 
 them to brutes, and see whether they will eat of them.' And 
 when Hesychius placed them in the manger, the oxen, terrified 
 and lowing louder than usual, burst their halters and fled in 
 different directions. For Hilarion had this grace, that he 
 knew from the smell of the body or the raiment of any one, 
 or from that of the things he had touched, to what devil or 
 to what vice he was subject. 
 
 •* # # # 
 
 " When Hilarion had thus lived for two years, sorrowing 
 
9 6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 at the honours paid him and the interruption of his solitude, 
 and being in the sixty-fifth year of his age, Aristseneta, the 
 wife of the prefect, came to him, wishing to visit Antony. To 
 whom he replied, weeping, ' I too would fain go, were the 
 journey now worth the pains, but this is the second day that 
 the whole world has been deprived of its parent.' She 
 believed his word, and stayed. And, in a few days, she heard 
 by a messenger that Antony had fallen asleep. 
 
 " And now still greater multitudes flocking to him, and 
 being studious of nothing but solitude, and having procured 
 an ass, being so worn with fasting that he could hardly walk, 
 he determined to depart. Which being noised abroad, more 
 than ten thousand souls, of every age and sex, assembled to 
 detain him. But he attested solemnly, that he would neither 
 eat nor drink unless they let him go. And prevailing, after 
 seven days' fast, and bidding them farewell, he journeyed, with 
 an infinite crowd following him, to Bethulia, where, having 
 persuaded them to return home, he chose forty monks, who 
 could travel fasting till after sunset. And on the fifth day 
 he reached Pelusium, and after visiting the brethren who lived 
 in the neighbouring desert and in the place which is named 
 Lychnos, he reached, after three days more, the castle Theu- 
 batum (Thaubastum), that he might see Dracontius, bishop 
 and confessor, who was there in exile. And leaving him in- 
 credibly consoled by the presence of such a man, after three 
 days more, with much exertion, he reached Babylon, 1 and 
 after staying there three days, he came to the city Aphrodito- 
 polis, whence conducted by a deacon, stationed there with 
 horses and camels for the transport of such as came to visit 
 Antony, he proceeded three days further through the vast and 
 horrible wilderness, till he reached the lofty mountain on 
 which Antony had dwelt. 2 And he found two monks there, 
 
 1 Of Egypt, over the site of which 
 the modern Cairo extends. 
 
 2 That is to say, during his latter 
 years, having quitted Nitria in con- 
 sequence of its propinquity to Babylon 
 and Alexandria. There is still a mon- 
 astery there, named after him Mar 
 Antonios, on the Western face of 
 Gebel Kolzim, the mountain range 
 which bounds the Red Sea on the side 
 of Egypt. Pococke has given some 
 particulars and a plan of it, from a map 
 
 he procured in Egypt, torn, i, p. 128. 
 But there is a much fuller and very 
 interesting description of it in Vansleb's 
 'Present State of Egypt,' etc. 1678, 
 pp. 177 sqq. There is another mon- 
 astery, of the same name, on the banks 
 of the Nile, near the site of old Aphro- 
 ditopolis, the monks of which swim 
 off to the traveller's boat, as he passes, 
 to offer him fish, and beg for alms. 
 In Nitria too, now called Natroun, 
 monasteries still subsist. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 97 
 
 Isaac and Pelusian, of whom the former had been interpreter 
 to Antony in his converse with the Greeks. 1 
 
 " It was a rocky and lofty mountain, about a mile in 
 circuit ; waters rose at its roots, part of which the sand drank 
 in, and part flowing downwards by little and little formed a 
 river, on either side of which grew palm-trees innumerable, 
 adding much to the pleasantness and commodity of the place. 
 And now you might see the aged Hilarion wander hither and 
 thither with the disciples of the blessed Antony. ' Here,' they 
 said, ' he sang psalms, there he prayed ; here he worked, there, 
 when weary, he was accustomed to repose. These vines, these 
 trees he himself planted — that little garden he fenced in and 
 tended with his own hands. Much was the trouble this little 
 reservoir cost him — And this is his spade, which for many a 
 year he used in digging ! ' They took him to Antony's couch, 
 and he kissed it, as if still warm. It was a cell no broader 
 than a man could sleep in. And besides this, on the summit 
 of the mountain, ascending as if by a stair in the rocks, and 
 most difficult of access, were to be seen two other cells, of the 
 same dimensions, in which he ofttimes took refuge from the 
 crowds of visitors and the company even of his own disciples. 
 These, indeed, were cut in the living rock, and had only doors 
 added to them. And when they came to the garden, ' Observe,' 
 said Isaac, ' this orchard set with saplings and green with herbs. 
 Three years ago, when a herd of wild asses had wasted it, he 
 ordered one of their leaders to stand still, and tapping its side 
 with his staff, " Wherefore/' said he, " dost thou eat of that 
 thou hast not sown?" And since then, excepting the waters 
 at which they come to quench their thirst, they have touched 
 neither tree nor herb ! ' Furthermore, Hilarion begged that 
 they would show him Antony's sepulchre. And they took him 
 with them, but whether they shewed it to him or not is un- 
 known. They had concealed it, it is said, by the command 
 of Antony himself, lest Pergamius, who was very wealthy in 
 those parts, should carry away the body to his villa, and build 
 a Martyrium over it. 
 
 Returning therefore to Aphroditopolis, retaining only the 
 two brethren with him, Hilarion remained in the neighbouring 
 desert in such abstinence and solitude, that then first, as he 
 said, he began to serve Christ. 
 
 1 Antony only spoke the Coptic though skilled intuitively (we are told) 
 tongue. He was quite illiterate, al- in the interpretation of Scripture. 
 VOL. I. H 
 
9 8 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 " And Hilarion being thus unable to abide there (in Sicily), 
 and wishing to go to some barbarous nation, where his name 
 and reputation might be unknown, Hesychius, his disciple, 
 conducted him to Epidaurus, a city of Dalmatia, 1 where tarrying 
 some days in a neighbouring field, he could not be hid. A 
 dragon, of marvellous magnitude, which they call in Gentile 
 speech a Boa, for that they are so large that they are wont to 
 swallow oxen, had laid waste the whole province, and not only 
 swallowed sheep and cattle, but husbandmen also and pastors, 
 drawn to it by the attraction of its breath. And having com- 
 manded a funeral pile to be prepared, and offered prayer to 
 Christ, he called the boa and commanded it to mount that 
 heap of wood, and he then set fire to it. And thus, the whole 
 population looking on, he consumed that monster. 2 
 
 "And straightened whither he should betake himself, he 
 prepared for a further flight, and with his heart bent on solitude, 
 mourned that even when the tongue was silent miracles spoke 
 of him. But at that moment the earthquake taking place, 
 after the death of Julian, the sea transgressed her bounds and 
 threatened a second deluge. Which the natives of Epidaurus 
 perceiving, and dreading the destruction of their city through 
 the rising of those mountain waves, they took the old man, 
 and as if marching forth to battle, placed him on the shore. 
 Who, after he had drawn three crosses on the sand, and 
 stretched out his hands against the sea, it is incredible to what 
 a height it towered up before him, and long raging, as if in- 
 dignant at the check, by little and little subsided into itself." 
 Epidaurus and all that region repeat this marvel to the present 
 day, and mothers tell it to their children for its remembrance 
 to posterity. 
 
 " This miracle was greatly noised abroad. Which the old 
 man hearing, fled secretly by night, and. sailed for Cyprus. 
 And between Malea and Cythera, 3 pirates put off from the 
 shore in chase of them, 4 and all on board began to weep and 
 wail. But Hilarion, beholding the pirates from afar, smiled, 
 and, turning to his disciples, said, ' O ye of little faith, why do 
 ye fear ? Are these more in number than Pharaoh's host ? Yet 
 
 1 According to some authorities 3 Cape S. Angelo and Cerigo. 
 
 the modern Budua, according to others 4 That coast bears still, or at least 
 
 Ragusa Vecchia. bore till very lately, a very bad reputa- 
 
 2 The boa is now (at least) extinct tion. 
 in Dalmatia. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 99 
 
 God willed it, and they were all drowned in the Red Sea.' 
 He spoke thus, and still, with foaming prows, the pirate vessels 
 bore down upon them, coming nearer and nearer, and were now 
 within half a stone's throw. He then stood up on the prow 
 of the ship, and stretched out his hand against them, and said, 
 1 Suffice it to have come thus far ! ' And immediately the 
 vessels of the pirates recoiled, and in spite of their oars, drove 
 backwards, so that, although toiling with their utmost bodily 
 efforts to come up to the ship, they were borne back to the 
 shore much quicker than they had left it. 
 
 % % * % 
 
 " And after remaining at Paphos two years, ever meditating 
 flight, he sent Hesychius to Palestine to salute the brethren. 
 Who, returning in spring, persuaded him (being desirous of 
 returning to Egypt) that he might dwell in great secrecy in a 
 certain spot in the interior of that very island. He conducted 
 him, accordingly, two miles inland from the sea, among 
 secluded and rugged mountains, and where ascent, even on 
 one's hands and knees, was scarcely possible, till they reached 
 a place surrounded on every side by trees, and irrigated with 
 waters, flowing from the brow of the hill, with a most pleasant 
 garden and orchards (the fruit of which he. never eat), and, 
 moreover, adjacent to the ruin of a very ancient temple, from 
 which (as he himself used to relate, and as his disciples bear 
 witness) the voices of such innumerable devils resounded, both 
 by night and day, that you would have thought them an army. 
 At which being greatly delighted, as having enemies at hand 
 to combat, he dwelt there for the space of five years, often 
 congratulating himself that through the wildness of the district 
 and the multitude of spirits that the people believed to haunt 
 it, few or none either could or dared climb up to him. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 "And now, being eighty years old and approaching his end, 
 and Hesychius being absent, Hilarion wrote a short epistle to 
 him, in lieu of testament, bequeathing to him all his riches, to 
 wit, the Gospel, his shirt of sackcloth, his hood and cloak. 
 And many religious men came from Paphos to see him, and 
 particularly when they heard he was about to migrate to the 
 Lord and be freed from the chains of the flesh, and more 
 especially a certain holy matron, named Constantia, whose 
 son-in-law and daughter he had healed by anointing them with 
 oil, — all of whom he adjured that they should not delay an 
 
IOO 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 hour after his death, but bury him immediately in that same 
 garden. 
 
 " And now but little warmth remained in his body, nor save 
 mere consciousness did aught appear alive in him, when 
 opening his eyes, he said, ' Depart, what fearest thou ? De- 
 part, my soul, why doubtest thou? Seventy years hast thou 
 served Christ, and fearest thou death?' And with these 
 words he yielded the spirit. And interring him immediately, 
 they announced his burial before his death at Paphos. 
 
 " But after that the holy man,Hesychius, heard this, he came 
 to Cyprus, and feigning a wish to live in that garden, after 
 about ten months he stole the body. Which when Constantia 
 heard, she immediately expired, proving her love for him by 
 death. It had been her custom to pass her nights in his 
 sepulchre, communing with him as if present, to the further- 
 ance of her prayers. " 
 
 iv. Of S. John of Lycoftolis. 
 
 [To whom the Emperor Theodosius sent the embassy recorded by Gibbon, 
 chap. 27. The two following visits are narrated by Ruffinus and 
 Palladius, his contemporaries, and may be found in Rosweyde's ' Vitse 
 Patrum,' lib. ii, p. 451, and lib. viii, p. 739, or in the 'Vite de' SS. 
 PP.' lib. i, cap. 43, and lib. ii, cap. 18.] 
 
 "This John dwelt in the wilderness which is beside the city 
 of Lycopolis, 1 in the flank of a lofty mountain, but no one 
 could enter to him, as he always kept the door locked, from 
 his fortieth to his eightieth year, when I saw him ; and he 
 spoke to those who visited him through a little window. 
 
 " We were seven in number, monks, and he received us 
 pleasantly, asking if there were any deacon among us, and 
 though one of the seven concealed himself, as unwilling to be 
 honoured, saying he did not merit it, the most holy John 
 immediately that he saw him, pointed him out and said, ' Lo, 
 this man is a deacon !' He was the youngest of us all, and 
 wishing still to deny it, John took his hand and kissed it and 
 said, 'Do not, my son, deny the grace of God, or fall by 
 humility into falsehood.' And the young man confessing his 
 error, and receiving benediction, John was about to retire, but 
 
 1 Now Siout, in Upper Egypt or recent times to the desert of Nitria 
 
 the Thebais. It is worth recollection and the district immediately South 
 
 that the name Thebais was given of Cairo, 
 during the middle ages and till very 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IOI 
 
 one of our company having a tertian fever, prayed that he 
 would heal him, to which John answered, ' Thou seekest to be 
 relieved from that which is very useful to thee, for as the body 
 is cleansed by soap, so is the soul by sickness.' And after he 
 had discoursed to us at length on this subject, to satisfy the 
 desire of that brother he blessed oil, and anointed him, and 
 instantly he was perfectly cured. And then he commanded 
 his disciples to prepare us food. And after we were suf- 
 ficiently refreshed, we returned to him, and he, receiving us 
 with cheerfulness of face, made us sit opposite the window 
 from which he spoke, asking who we were, and whence we 
 came, etc." — Ruffinus, ut supra. 
 
 " And hearing of the fame of John the hermit, who lived 
 shut up in a cell on the mountain which hangs over the city 
 Lycopolis, I parted from my companions and travelled thither. 
 His cell was divided into three parts, in one of which he 
 worked and ate, and in the other prayed. And in front of it 
 was a very large vestibule, which might have contained an 
 hundred men. 1 And there he dwelt, shut up, and never went 
 out, but spoke through a little window to visitors, yet only 
 on Saturdays and Sundays. On arriving there, I found the 
 window shut, and learning the reason from his disciples, I 
 waited patiently till the Saturday, and going in the morning I 
 found him at the window, and saluting each other, he asked 
 me by an interpreter whence I was and why I came, telling 
 me that he supposed I was one of the company of Evagrius. 
 And confessing that I was one of those brethren, at that mo- 
 ment there came to visit him the ruler of that province, by 
 name Alypius, wherefore John, leaving me, began to speak 
 with him, and I waited till he should go, and as he discoursed 
 with him at great length I began to become impatient, judging 
 John in my heart for having left me for the prince, although 
 I had come first. Whereat being much displeased, I was 
 thinking of going away without saying anything. But he, 
 knowing my thoughts by the Spirit, called Theodorus, his 
 interpreter, and desired him to bid me have patience, as the 
 prince would soon be gone ; and thus, seeing that he knew 
 by the Spirit the thoughts of my heart, I was certain he was 
 a perfect monk, and held him consequently in the greater 
 
 1 The larger caves at present to be apparently built up long after the 
 
 seen near Siout answer very closely to original excavation, and which fancy 
 
 this description, and in one of them I might easily fix upon as the scene of 
 
 remember scrambling into a small cell these singular interviews. 
 
102 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 reverence. And after the prince had gone, he called me and 
 said, ' Why hast thou done ill to thy soul in judging me thus ? 
 Remembrest thou not what Christ saith in the Gospel, that 
 not the whole but the sick have need of a physician ? Thou 
 canst come to me any day, but that poor man is wholly given 
 to the world and a subject of the evil one, and this is but a 
 sorry hour that he hath stolen from that hard service, for the 
 refreshment of his soul, and I should have done ill, surely, to 
 have neglected him for thee, who live only for its edification.' 
 After which, having requested his pardon, he told me much 
 concerning my relations who had been converted, and that 
 my father would live seven years longer, and, thereafter, added 
 playfully, 'Should you like to be a bishop?' — which receiving 
 as a jest, I answered, ' I was one already,' and asking, 
 'Where?' I answered, 'in kitchens and cellars, looking out 
 for the best wine and the best victuals, and that this was my 
 bishopric' 1 But he answered, ' Let jests be ; know for certain 
 that thou shalt be a bishop, and have much trial and tribula- 
 tion, but if thou wouldst avoid it, do not quit the desert.' 
 And after this I returned to my cell in the desert of Nitria. 
 And three days afterwards, being ill in the spleen and stomach, 
 I went, at the solicitation of my friends and forgetting the 
 advice of John, to seek medical advice at Alexandria, and 
 thence, by the recommendation of my physicians, I proceeded 
 to Palestine, because the air is excellent there, and from 
 thence into Bithynia, where, I know not how, or by whose 
 device, or by what judgment of God, but against my will I was 
 made a bishop, and was in much tribulation afterwards, as 
 John the hermit had foretold." — Palladius, Hist. Zaus., ut 
 supra. 
 
 v. Of S. Macarius, S. A?nmon, S. Serapzon, and others, 
 Monks and Anchorets? 
 
 [Abridged from the works of Ruffinus, Palladius, etc., in the old Italian 
 collection of the 'Vite de' SS. Padri,' and Rosweyde's 'Vitae Patrum.' 
 — Several of the following anecdotes I have inserted rather as filling 
 up the general picture of the ascetic life than as being individually 
 picturesque, or subjects of representation in early Christian art.] 
 
 " Dorotheus, the monk, was a man of wonderful abstinence. 
 
 1 A pun — in Greek nostrils. the remotest wildernesses, frequently 
 
 2 The Anchorets were distinguished without settled abode, and destitute 
 from the monks, as living entirely in of clothing — feeding on herbs, and 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 103 
 
 He never ate save an ounce of bread a day, with some herbs 
 and a little water, nor did I ever see him lie down, or stretch 
 his feet, or sleep, but he sat up continually all night long, 
 weaving ropes of palm-leaves, and so leaning, as he sat, he 
 would sleep for a little, but never long; and through his 
 constant watching, the food would oftentimes fall from his 
 mouth through drowsiness, as he ate. And this he did, 
 saying, that as the angels never rest, but are continually 
 praising God, so those should never rest who study to please 
 him." — Pall. Vite^ lib. ii, cap. 1 ; Rosw. lib. viii, p. 709. 
 
 " There lived in this desert a monk, by name John, who 
 at his first coming to the wilderness, stood under a rock three 
 years, continually praying and standing erect, and never once 
 during that time lay down, and what little sleep he had he 
 
 regardless of heat and cold, so that, 
 as described by Evagrius, ' ' they at 
 length became assimilated to wild 
 beasts, with their outward form alto- 
 gether disfigured, and their mind in 
 a state no longer fitted for intercourse 
 with their species, whom they even 
 shun when they see them ; and on 
 being pursued, contrive to escape, 
 favoured either by their swiftness of 
 foot or by places difficult of access." 
 — Eccles. Hist, book i, chap. 21. 
 There was a third description of 
 solitaries, frequently represented in 
 Byzantine paintings, the ' Sancti Co- 
 lumnares,' or Pillar Saints, of whom 
 Simeon, surhamed Stylites, who flour- 
 ished in the fifth century, was the 
 type and model. He commenced his 
 career by living on a column four 
 cubits high ; after four years he 
 mounted one of twelve, and twelve 
 years afterwards a third of thirty — 
 and began to work miracles. But 
 the devil appearing to him with a 
 chariot and steeds of fire, telling him 
 that he was sent by God to carry him, 
 like Elijah, to heaven, he lifted his 
 left foot to mount, making the sign of 
 the cross, when the whole vanished, 
 and he stood thus a whole year on 
 the column, on one foot, persevering 
 till his thigh putrefied, with circum- 
 stances of suffering too horrible for 
 
 translation. Some time afterwards, 
 the column was raised to forty cubits, 
 and he lived upon it the remaining 
 sixteen years of his life. His life was 
 written by one of his disciples named 
 .Antony, who tells us that he fed only 
 once a- week, and on bread or the 
 roots of herbs, with water, and that 
 he died in the attitude of prayer, and 
 that during his burial the birds 
 fluttered round his body, so that it 
 seemed as if they grieved and lamented 
 for him. See Rosw. lib. i, p. 170 ; 
 and another account (with a descrip- 
 tion of the Church or Temple erected 
 round the pillar, and the prodigies 
 supposed to attend the commemora- 
 tion of the Saint) in the Eccles. Hist, 
 of Evagrius, book i, chap. 13, 14. 
 This extravagant superstition seems 
 to have been solely confined to the 
 Oriental churches. An attempt was 
 indeed made in the sixth century to 
 introduce it at Treves in Germany, 
 but the bishops interfered, and put it 
 down peremptorily and for ever. See 
 Mosheim, torn, ii, p. 44, and Guizot, 
 Hist, de Civ. en France, torn, i, p. 
 410, where the original passage is 
 cited from Gregory of Tours. Tenny- 
 son's poem entitled ' Simeon Stylites, ' 
 is no less valuable historically and 
 psychologically than in a poetical 
 point of view. 
 
104 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 took standing, nor ever ate during all that time except when 
 he communicated every Sunday. And through the length of 
 time that he stood there, his feet rotted and stunk. And after 
 the three years were completed, the angel of God came to him 
 and said, ' The Lord our God hath heard thy prayers and 
 healeth thy wounds.' And touching his feet and mouth, he 
 made him whole, and filled him with divine wisdom." — Pallad. 
 Vite, lib. i, cap. 63 ; Rosw. lib. viii, p. 755. 
 
 "And the Abbot Macarius said, e Sitting in my cell in 
 Scitis, my mind impelled me, saying, "Go into the desert, 
 and consider what thou seest there." And after struggling 
 against this for five years, thinking it might be a suggestion 
 of devils, I went into the desert, and arrived at a great lake, 
 with an island in the middle of it, and many beasts of the 
 desert came there to drink, and along with them I espied two 
 men naked, and supposing that they were spirits, I began to 
 tremble, and seeing it, they said, " Fear not, for we are men 
 as thou art;" and, asking them whence they had come and 
 how they lived in that wilderness, they said they had been 
 monks, and had come thither forty years before, the one being 
 of Egypt the other of Libya, — and added, " God hath given 
 us this grace, that we neither feel the cold of winter nor the 
 heat of summer;" and it was in remembrance of them,' said 
 Macarius, ' that I told you that I was not a monk.'" — Vite> etc. 
 lib. iii, cap. 21 ; Rosw. lib. vi, p. 652. 
 
 " After Apollonius had lived forty years in the wilderness, 
 exercising every virtue, a voice came to him from God and said, 
 ' Apollonius, by thee I will confound the wisdom of the wise, 
 and reprove the prudence of the prudent in Egypt and 
 Babylon, and I will make thee powerful in word and deed, 
 and I will cast down to the ground the worship of devils. 
 Go forth then from thy solitude, and live among men, and 
 by the virtue that I will give thee thou shalt gather unto me a 
 peculiar people, zealous of good works.' To which voice he 
 answered, ' Lord, take from me pride, that I glory not nor 
 exalt myself above my brethren, and thus fall from thy grace.' 
 And the voice answered and said, ' Put thy hand to thy neck 
 and catch that which thou shalt find there and bury it in the 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 105 
 
 sand.' And, putting his hand to his neck, he caught as it 
 were a fetid Ethiopian louse, and did what the voice had 
 commanded him, and the louse, laughing at him, said, ' I am 
 the devil of pride ! ' And the voice came again, saying, ' Go 
 now in surety, for thou hast what thou hast asked of God.' 
 And Apollonius went and dwelt in a cave near human 
 habitations, living rather on celestial food than terrestrial, 
 and in continual prayer, making genuflections one hundred 
 times during the day, and as many at night, and working 
 miracles innumerable. And this was in the time of the 
 Emperor Julian, the Apostate." — Pallad. Vite, lib. i, cap. 48 ; 
 Rosw. lib. ii, p. 460. 
 
 " A disciple of the Abbot Bessarion journeying with him 
 one day along the sea-shore, thirsted greatly, and said, 'O 
 father, I die of thirst ! ' And he commanded him to drink 
 the sea-water, and he did so, and finding it sweet, he filled 
 his flask with it. And the Abbot seeing this, asked him where- 
 fore he did so, and he answered, 1 Father, lest I thirst again.' 
 And he said, ' God pardon thee, my son ! for thou oughtest 
 to believe that God can give thee sweet water anywhere.' " — 
 Ruffin. Vite, lib. iii, cap. 12; Rosw. lib. iii, p. 532, and p. 649. 
 
 " A solitary lived at twelve miles' distance from the well, 
 and wearied at last with his many journeys, said within him- 
 self, ' I will build me a cell nearer the water.' And, turning 
 round, he saw one who followed him, and asking who he was, 
 he answered, that he was the angel of God, sent to number his 
 steps and recompense him according to his toil. Whence he 
 was strengthened in spirit, and became so fervent in well-doing 
 that he removed his dwelling full four miles further from that 
 water." — Vite, lib. iii, cap. 38. 
 
 " A holy father sent his disciple to draw water from a well 
 at a great distance from his cell, and the disciple forgot the 
 rope. And reaching the well, and perceiving that he had 
 nothing to draw with, he was grieved and perplexed, for to 
 stay there was loss of time, and he feared the Abbot's dis- 
 pleasure if he returned without the water. So, being beset 
 
106 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 with difficulty on all sides, he had recourse to prayer, and 
 with many tears threw himself on the ground and prayed, 
 saying, ' Have pity on me and counsel me, O God Omnipotent ! 
 who madest heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that in 
 them is ! Aid me, for the sake of thy servant, my abbot, who 
 hath sent me.' And rising with great fervour he cried, ' O 
 well, well ! the servant of God, my abbot, sendeth for water.' 
 And immediately the water rose up to the mouth of the well, 
 and he filled the pitcher, and departed, glorifying the power of 
 the Saviour; and the water returned to its place." — Ruffin. 
 Vite, lib. iii, cap. 86 ; Rosw. lib. hi, p. 502, and p. 651. 
 
 " The holy Macarius, sitting one day in his cell, and feeling 
 himself bitten in the foot by a gnat, put his hand to the place 
 and found the gnat and killed it, and seeing its blood, he 
 blamed himself, as it seemed to him that he had revenged 
 himself for the injury received ; for which thing, and in order 
 to learn meekness, he went into the utmost solitude of the 
 wilderness called Scitis, where those gnats are largest and 
 most venomous, and lived there for six months, naked, to be 
 stung by them, and at the end of that time he returned so 
 disfigured and wounded that he was unrecognisable save by 
 his voice, being swelled all over with boils and blisters, so that 
 he had lost all shape, and appeared leprous." — Vite, etc. lib. i, 
 cap. 71. 
 
 " A monk was in the habit of coming to the cell of a holy 
 solitary, and secretly stealing his food, and although the latter 
 knew it, still, in order to subdue himself, he made as if he 
 perceived him not, and exerted himself to work more diligently 
 in order to procure himself food, thus reasoning with himself, 
 ' God hath sent me aforetime that which I needed, and this 
 brother too will be a blessing to me.' And having sustained 
 this tribulation a long time, his strength failed, and he was 
 dying. And many brethren stood around, looking upon him, 
 and seeing among them the brother who had for so long a 
 time stolen his bread, he called him to him, and kissed his 
 hands, and said before them all, 'I render thanks to these 
 hands, my brethren, for by means of them I trust to enter 
 paradise.' Which hearing and understanding, that brother 
 took shame to himself and was touched with remorse, and 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 107 
 
 changed to good, and did heavy penance for his sins, and 
 became a perfect monk, through the example of the foresaid 
 holy father." — Vite, lib. iii, cap. 100. 
 
 "There was an old hermit who drank so much that he was 
 frequently drunk, and what he gained during the day he spent 
 in the evening in wine, and he made a mat every day. And 
 there came to live with him a hermit who was also a skilful 
 workman, and made every day a mat, — and the drunken 
 hermit took it from him, and sold both mats, and spent the 
 price in wine, and gave his companion nothing but a little 
 bread in the evening. And this going on for three years, that 
 hermit was so patient that he never remonstrated nor mur- 
 mured. And after three years he said to himself, ' Lo ! I am 
 in rags, and have scarcely aught to eat ; I will depart, and 
 live with some other brother.' But in a little he thought 
 better of it and said, ' Yet whither shall I go ? I have endured 
 this life hitherto for the love of God, — I had better persevere 
 and have patience,' and he determined to stay. And im- 
 mediately the angel of God appeared to him and said, ' Do 
 not go hence, but be comforted, for to-morrow we will come 
 for thee.' And believing the angel's words, he said to his 
 companion, that drunken hermit, 'Stay at home to-morrow, 
 brother, for the angels are to come for me.' And when the 
 hour arrived when that hermit was wont to go to fetch the 
 wine, he said, ' 1 do not think the angels will come for thee 
 to-day, as thou sayest' But the other said, 'Be certain that 
 they will;' and while he yet spake, without pain, the soul 
 parted from his body, and the angels carried it to heaven. 
 And seeing it, that old and drunken brother began to weep 
 bitterly and said, ' Alas my brother ! I have lost many years 
 by my negligence.' And he became from thenceforth sober 
 and good." — Vite, lib. iii, c. 16. 
 
 " Macarius once went to visit Antony in the mountain, and 
 knocking at the door, Antony opened to him and asked, ' Who 
 art thou?' He answered, 'I am Macarius;' and Antony, to 
 prove him, shut the door and left him without, as if holding 
 him in contempt, till, considering his patience, he opened and 
 admitted him joyfully, saying, ' Long have I heard of thy 
 
108 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 fame and desired to see thee.' And then he made ready 
 and they ate together in charity. And in the evening Antony 
 wetted certain palm-leaves, to weave baskets with, and Macarius 
 asked him for some likewise, to work along with him, and thus 
 sitting and discoursing of things useful to the soul, they made 
 a mat of those leaves, and Antony, seeing that what Macarius 
 had woven was well done, kissed his hands and said, ' Much 
 virtue issues forth of these hands, my brother!"' — Vite, lib. 
 iii, cap. 1 8. 
 
 " There were two ancient hermits who dwelt together and 
 never quarrelled. At last one said to the other, simply, 4 Let 
 us have a quarrel, as other men have.' And the other answer- 
 ing that he did not know how to quarrel, the first replied, 
 ' Look, here I will place this stone in the midst between you 
 and me ; I will say it is mine, and do you say that that is not 
 true, but that it is yours — and in this manner we will make a 
 quarrel.' And placing the stone in the midst, he said, ' This 
 stone is mine ! ' And the other said, ' No, it is mine ! ' And 
 the first said, ' It is not yours, I say, but mine ! ' And the 
 other said, ' If it be yours, then, take it.' And in short, they 
 could by no means contrive to quarrel, being so much accus- 
 tomed to peace." — Vite, lib. iii, cap. 102. 
 
 " On a certain time Macarius was journeying from Scitis, 
 and entered into a tomb to sleep, where many bodies of 
 pagans were buried, and placing one of them under his head 
 as a pillow, 1 the devils wished to frighten him, and one of 
 them called out the name of a woman who was buried there, 
 and said, ' Dame Such-a-one ! come with me to the bath ! ' 
 And another devil answered from the body on which Maca- 
 rius lay, ' I have a traveller lying upon me and cannot get 
 away ! ' But, for all that, Macarius was not frightened nor 
 disturbed, but he held the body fast and answered, ' Get up 
 and go if you can !' Which seeing, the devils cried with a 
 great voice, 'Thou hast conquered us !' and fled." — Fife, lib. 
 iii, cap. 21. 
 
 " And the devil one day knocked at his door and said, as 
 
 1 Probably a mummy. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 109 
 
 if he had been a monk, ' Get up, Macarius ! and let us go to 
 the Church, for the brethren are assembled.' And Macarius, 
 recognising him, said, ' O liar, and enemy of truth ! what 
 hast thou to do with the assembly of the brethren?' And 
 the devil, perceiving himself discovered, answered, ' Knowest 
 thou not that the brethren never meet but we are among 
 them?' Macarius answered, 'God guard us from thee!' 
 And he prayed to God, to show him whether this was true 
 that the enemy had boasted. And, rising up, he went to the 
 congregation, and found them performing a certain office; and, 
 praying again, he perceived little children, as black as Ethiops, 
 running hither and thither among the brethren- throughout the 
 church. It is the custom for one monk to stand in the 
 midst by himself, and sing or say the psalm, and the others 
 sit round listening, and from time to time responding. And 
 Macarius saw the little devils busily at work among the 
 monks that sat ; on some they put their ringers on their eyes, 
 and made them fall asleep ; others they touched on the 
 mouth, and made them yawn ; and to others they presented 
 divers forms and images, illusions of the fancy ; and by a few 
 only, as more perfect, were they driven away and beaten back. 
 And after the office, he called each monk apart, and revealed 
 to him what he had seen of the delusions of the enemy, and 
 they confessed that such had been their thoughts. And ever 
 after he retained the power of seeing and knowing the illusions 
 of the wicked one in the hearts of the brethren at the hour of 
 prayer." — Ruffin. Vite, lib. i, cap. 65 ; Rosw. lib. ii, p. 481. 
 
 " S. Helenus once came to a monastery on the Lord's-day, 
 and seeing that the brethren did not keep the feast, he asked 
 the reason, and they answered that the priest, who lived on 
 the other side of the river, was afraid to pass on account of a 
 crocodile that had appeared there. And Helenus said, 'If 
 you will, I will go and bring him.' And going to the river, 
 and invoking the name of God, behold the crocodile came to 
 the river side very meekly, and bending itself that he might 
 step on its back, it carried him to the other side. And 
 Helenus went to the priest, and prayed him to come and say 
 the office, and the priest, wondering at his having crossed, and 
 asking how, accompanied him to the river; and Helenus 
 calling the crocodile, it came as before, and presented its back 
 
no 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 that he might step upon it. And Helenus, mounting first, 
 invited the priest to follow, but the latter fled, and Helenus 
 recrossed by himself, many monks looking on ; and when he 
 had reached the shore, he turned to the crocodile and said, 
 ' It is better for thee to die than to live here, killing men ; ' 
 and having said this, the beast fell to the earth, dead, and 
 thereafter the priest and others were able to cross without 
 hindrance." — Ruffin. Vite^ lib. i, cap. 58 ; Rosw. lib. ii, p. 470. 
 
 " The Abbot Ammon, going to the well to draw water, saw 
 a basilisk, and throwing himself on his face he cried, ' Lord, 
 either I must die, or this basilisk ! ' And instantly the basilisk 
 died." — Ruffin. Vite> lib. iii, p. 532 ; Rosw. lib. iii, cap. 17. 
 
 " Paphnutius, the servant of God, related to me, that one 
 day, while Macarius prayed to God, a hyena brought him a 
 cub, which was blind, and laid it at his feet. And Macarius, 
 taking up the cub, and spitting on its eyes, prayed to God, 
 and it received its sight. And the mother departed with it, 
 and on the following day brought Macarius the skin of a large 
 sheep. But Macarius, seeing it, said, ' Whence hast thou this, 
 except by devouring thy neighbour's sheep? I cannot take 
 aught from thee that comes of robbery.' The hyena bent her 
 head, and knelt at the feet of the saint, and laid down the 
 skin. And he continued, ' I accept it not, unless thou swear 
 never henceforward to injure the poor by eating their sheep.' 
 And the hyena nodded her head in assent, and then Macarius 
 accepted the skin." — Pallad., Rosw. lib. viii, p. 749. 
 
 " A brother demanded of a holy father, and said, ' My 
 sister is very poor, — if I give her alms, is it not as if I gave it 
 to others?' And he answered, 'No, because carnal affection 
 induceth thee to it.'" — Vite^ lib. iii, cap. 41. 
 
 " The sister of the monk Pior having been left a widow 
 with two children, she sent them into the desert to enquire 
 after him, and having visited many monasteries, with great 
 trouble they discovered his cell and told him that they were 
 his nephews, sons of his sister, and that she wished to see 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 in 
 
 him before her death, and entreated that he would go to her. 
 But Pior refusing to hear of any such thing, they went to the 
 blessed Antony, and told him their motive for coming and 
 their uncle's answer. And Antony bade him go visit his 
 sister. And taking a monk as his companion, he went to his 
 sister, and standing outside the house near the door, he shut 
 his eyes that he might not see her, and called out, ' Here am 
 I, Pior, thy brother.' And she, running out, threw herself at 
 his feet with great joy, but he would not look at her, nor 
 return her caresses, but after staying there a little and allowing 
 her to look at him, returned to his cell. And this he did, to give 
 example to other monks not to take thought of visiting their 
 relatives." — Ruffin. Vite, lib. iii, cap. 89 ; Rosw. lib. ii, p. 504. 
 
 "One day the mother of Pastor and Anub went to visit 
 them in the desert, and stationed herself by the wayside that 
 she might see them as they went to the church. But they, 
 perceiving her, shut themselves up in their cell, and fastened 
 the door. And standing at the door she wept. And Pastor 
 said to her, ' Woman, why weepest thou ?' And she answered, 
 ' I wish to see you, my children ! What harm can there be 
 in it, I that am your mother, an old woman and gray-haired?' 
 And Pastor said, ' If thou patiently endurest not to see us in 
 this life, we shall see each other in the next' And strength- 
 ened by these words, she answered, ' If in very deed I shall 
 see you in the life to come, be it so, and I will see you no 
 more in this.' And she went her way comforted." — Vite, lib. 
 iii, cap. 11. 
 
 " A rich and noble virgin, and of mature years, hearing of 
 the fame of Arsenius, 1 came to Alexandria to see him, and 
 being honourably welcomed by the bishop Theophilus, she 
 prayed him that he would entreat Arsenius to receive and 
 speak to her. Wherefore the bishop went to him and said, 
 ' A rich and distinguished lady is come from Rome to see 
 thee and beg thy blessing, wherefore I pray thee to receive 
 her kindly.' And Arsenius refusing to see her, she made 
 ready her horses and rode to the desert, thinking and saying, 
 
 1 He was a Roman, and had been He lived fifty years in solitude after 
 preceptor to the Emperors Arcadius his retreat to the desert, 
 and Honorius, sons of Theodosius. 
 
112 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ' I trust in God that I shall see this holy man, for God 
 knoweth well that I do not come to see him for that he is 
 a man, for I have seen many such at Rome, but as a prophet 
 and friend of God.' And, with this zeal, coming to the cell 
 of Arsenius, it chanced, by the will of God, that she found 
 him at once, outside the cell, and she threw herself at his feet 
 with her face to the ground. But Arsenius admonished her 
 to rise immediately, and said, in order to make her ashamed, 
 ' If thou desirest to see my face, stand up and look at me.' 
 At which thing being confused, she dared not lift up her eyes, 
 and Arsenius continued, — ' Hast thou not heard even at 
 Rome of my works ? What need was there for thee to come 
 hither ? How hast thou been so bold as to come to me thus ? 
 Knowest thou not that thou art a woman and shouldst stay 
 at home ? And now thou wilt go back to Rome, and boast- 
 ing that thou hast seen Arsenius, many will come hither to 
 me, after thy example.' But she answered, 'If God permit 
 me to return, I will not allow any to trouble thee, and I ask 
 nothing of thee except thy prayers to God, and that thou wilt 
 retain me in thy memory.' Arsenius answered, 'I pray God 
 that he may drive thee quickly out of my memory!' With 
 which words she was. so troubled that, returning to the city, 
 she fell ill with grief, and the bishop coming to see her, and 
 learning the cause of her illness, and seeing that she was like 
 to die of that sorrow, he consoled her and said, ' Thou knowest 
 that thou art a woman, and, for that the devil is wont to 
 trouble the saints by the remembrance of women, therefore 
 is it that he prayed God to take thee out of his memory, — 
 but be assured of it, that he will pray God continually for thy 
 soul.' With which words being much consoled and comforted, 
 she returned to Rome." — Vite, lib. iii, cap. 10; Rosw. lib. v, 
 p. 564. 
 
 "Serapion, a perfect monk, full of every virtue, a man of 
 admirable abstinence, and who had sold himself repeatedly as 
 a slave, in order to give the price to the poor and convert his 
 masters, travelling to Rome, and hearing that there lived there 
 a holy virgin, who had shut herself up, and never spoke to any 
 one, went to her cell, and speaking to her attendant, bade her 
 go to her mistress and say that it was necessary that he should 
 see her. And the maid answering that it was many years 
 that she had spoken to no one, ' Go, tell her,' he repeated, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 n 3 
 
 ' that God hath sent me to speak to her.' And he urged this 
 with such importunity, that on the third day she consented to 
 see him. And when he entered, he said to her, ' Why sittest 
 thou ?' And she answered, ' I do not sit but walk.' And he 
 said, 'Whither walkest thou?' She answered, 'To God.' 
 Serapion asked, 'Art thou alive or dead?' She replied, 'I 
 trust in God that I am dead to the world, for whoso liveth 
 according to the flesh cannot go to God.' Serapion answered, 
 ' If thou wishest me to believe this, come out, and do as I do.' 
 She answered, ' Command me what I may do, and I will do 
 it' He replied, ' Everything is possible to one that is dead 
 to the world, except impiety.' And he added, ' Come out 
 with me, and thou shalt discover whether thou art indeed 
 dead.' She replied, ' Twenty and five years have I been shut 
 up here; why then wishest thou that I should now go out?' 
 He answered, ' Hast thou not just told me that thou art dead 
 to the world ? If thou be so, as thou sayest, what is it to thee 
 whether thou go out or stay at home ? For the dead neither 
 feel nor care for anything. Come, I say ! and prove thyself.' 
 And then the virgin went out with him, and they went to- 
 gether to a church, and there Serapion said to her, ' If thou 
 wouldst make me believe for certain that thou art dead to the 
 world, and carest not to please it, do as I will do, — strip 
 thyself naked and take thy clothes on thy shoulders, and follow 
 after me through the city ; I shall be as naked as thou, and 
 do thou neither care nor think shame of it any more than I 
 will.' She answered, 'The people will be scandalized and 
 will think me mad or possessed with devils.' And Serapion 
 answered, ' What is that to thee that art dead to the world ? 
 The dead care not for the scoffs or calumnies of the living ; 
 they neither hear nor feel.' The virgin answered and said, 
 4 1 pray thee to command me something else, and truly I 
 confess that I am not thus far mortified.' Then Serapion 
 answered, ' Go thy way then, sister mine ! and boast no longer 
 that thou art dead to the world or holier than others, thou 
 that livest still to the world and fearest to displease men — I 
 am more dead to the world than thou I' 1 And thus having 
 reproved her pride and edified her in humility, he departed 
 
 1 "Those who walk," in aspira- the Sooffee mystics ; Serapion evi- 
 
 tion towards God, longing and stand- dently considered himself of the higher 
 
 ing on the brink, but not yet sub- class of the "perfect," and of that 
 
 merged in the Ocean of Annihilation, division of it who are charged with 
 
 form the second class or rank among perfecting others. The closer the 
 VOL. I. 1 
 
H4 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 from her. And at the end of seventy years he departed this 
 life, and was buried in the desert." — Pallad. Vite, lib. ii, cap. 
 19 ; Rosw. lib. viii, p. 762. 
 
 " There came, on a time, two youths to the Abbot Macarius, 
 and one of them was well instructed, and the other a beginner 
 only, and throwing themselves at his feet, they prayed that he 
 would let them live with him. And seeing them to be very 
 delicate of body, he did not believe that they could endure 
 the desert, wherefore he said to them, ' My brethren, it will 
 be too hard for you,' and they answered, ' Then what will be- 
 come of us?' And Macarius thought within himself and 
 said, 1 If I abandon them, perchance it will turn to their fall ; 
 I had better receive them, and tell them to make themselves a 
 cell' And so doing, they were very glad, and besought him 
 to show them where they might make it, and to prove them 
 he took them to a great rock, and bade them hollow and cut 
 it out sufficiently, and cover it in with wood from the marsh. 
 And this he did, thinking that they would find it too difficult, 
 and so depart, but, fervent in spirit, they promised to do all, 
 and did it. And asking for some employment, he showed 
 them how to make ropes, telling them that they might sell 
 them and buy such things as they wanted. And he departed 
 from them, and they remained together, doing well and wisely 
 whatever was commanded them. 
 
 " And Macarius, seeing them continually increasing from 
 good to better, and being much in the church in prayer, be- 
 came desirous to know how their works were accepted by 
 God ; wherefore he fasted all the week, and prayed God that 
 he would show him their works. And, after his prayer, he 
 went to their cave, and knocked at the entrance, and they, 
 opening and seeing him, made him reverence and threw them- 
 selves at his feet, and, after prayer, they sat down, and the 
 elder beckoned the younger, and he went out, and the elder 
 remained, twisting his rope, and spoke not till the ninth hour, 
 when the younger that had gone out knocked at the door. 
 And it being opened, he entered with food, and at the sign 
 
 examination, the more will the resem- description of these "perfect " Chris- 
 
 blance appear between every descrip- tian ascetics see Evagrius, book i, 
 
 tion of Asceticism, both in principle chap. 21. 
 and development. For the fullest 3 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ii5 
 
 of the elder, laid the table with three loaves, 1 and said nothing. 
 And when they had eaten, they said to Macarius, ' Wilt thou 
 depart, father, or stay?' And he answered, that he wished to 
 rest there, and they laid a mat in one corner that he might 
 sleep, and they laid themselves down in another, and the 
 Abbot Macarius prayed God that he would show him their 
 works, and behold, it appeared as if the roof of the cell opened, 
 and there shone there a light as of noonday, which he only 
 saw, and those two youths, believing that Macarius slept, 
 addressed themselves to prayer. And Macarius watched 
 attentively, and saw many devils, like flies, attempting to enter 
 the mouth and fix on the eyes of the younger brother, but the 
 angel of God, armed with a sword of fire, defended him and 
 drove them off, but those devils could in no -wise approach 
 the elder. And when it was near day they returned for a 
 little to their bed, and Macarius made sign of waking and 
 rising, and they did the like, as if aroused from a long slumber. 
 And the elder said to Macarius, ' Wilt thou, father, that we 
 chant the twelve psalms, according to usage?' And he 
 answered 'Yes,' and began to sing, and it appeared that at 
 every verse a flame of fire issued from the mouth of the 
 younger and shot up to heaven, and as often as the elder 
 opened his mouth, there issued, as it were, a torch, and went 
 to heaven. And when the psalms were ended, Macarius 
 took leave of them, beseeching them to pray for him ; but 
 they, saying nothing, fell at his feet, and commended them- 
 selves to his prayers. And Macarius, considering what he 
 had seen, perceived that the elder was already perfect in the 
 fear of God, but that the younger was still buffeted by devils. 
 And a few days afterwards, the elder brother was received 
 into peace, and on the third day thereafter the younger fol- 
 lowed him." — Ruffin. Vite, lib. iii, cap. 21; Rosw. lib. hi, 
 p. 528. 
 
 " A secular man wishing, on the death of his wife, to leave 
 the world, commended his little daughter, Marina, to a rela- 
 tion, and entered a monastery, and behaved so well that the 
 Abbot loved him better than any other of the brotherhood. 
 And after a while, bethinking himself of his daughter, and 
 longing much for her, he became very melancholy, and the 
 Abbot asked him, 'What is it, my son? tell me freely, and 
 
 1 " Paximatia " — twice baked, and hard. 
 
u6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 God can give thee comfort through me.' And he threw him- 
 self at his feet, weeping, and said, 1 1 have a son in the city, 
 and I greatly long for him.' And the Abbot replied, ' If you 
 love him, send for him, and I will take him as a monk.' And 
 he went to the city, and changed his daughter's apparel, and 
 brought her to the monastery as a boy, and gave her the name 
 of Marinus, and taught her to read, and when she was fourteen 
 years of age he instructed her in the commandments of God 
 and the way of Christ, and especially warned her that she 
 should let no one know her sex till death. And when she 
 was seventeen, her father died, and she remained alone in his 
 cell, keeping his commandments and doctrine, and was so 
 obedient and virtuous that the Abbot and all the brethren 
 loved her. 
 
 " And that monastery had a yoke of oxen and a cart, with 
 which the Abbot frequently sent Marina to a man who lived 
 on the seashore about three miles distant, in order to receive 
 goods from him for the use of the monastery. And this man 
 had a daughter, who fell into sin, so that she became with 
 child, and the father, discovering it, was much grieved, and 
 enquired of her how this had come to pass. And she, 
 instigated by the devil, accused Brother Marinus, and the 
 father and mother went to the Abbot to complain of him. 
 And the Abbot, unable to credit it, knowing the sanctity of 
 Marina, sent for her, and enquired whether this accusation 
 were true. And, hearing it, Marina refrained herself and 
 made no excuse, but began to weep, and answered, ' Father, I 
 have sinned, and am ready to do penance.' And the Abbot, 
 very wroth, and persuaded that the accusation was true, 
 commanded her to be severely scourged, and said, 'This 
 monk shall stay here no longer.' And he sent her away. 
 
 " But Marina humbly endured it all, and said nothing, but 
 abode at the gate, outside the monastery, lying on the ground 
 and weeping, as if she had sinned, — and she lived on the alms 
 which were distributed at the gate. And when the daughter 
 of that man had brought forth her child, and weaned him, her 
 mother took it to Marina and said, in anger, ' There, brother 
 Marinus, take your child, and be a father to it.' And Marina 
 received it humbly, and brought it up, feeding it on the alms 
 that were given at the gate. 
 
 "And after enduring this penance for several years, with 
 much patience and humility, the other monks, moved with 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 117 
 
 pity, went to the Abbot, and said, ' Father, forgive brother 
 Marinus, and let him come back into the monastery. It is 
 now, as thou knowest, five years that he has done penance 
 at the gate, nor hath he once quitted it. Do therefore unto 
 him as Christ commandeth shall be done to the sinner that 
 repenteth.' And with much difficulty, after many prayers, 
 they persuaded the Abbot, and brought Marina in. 
 
 " And the Abbot said to her, ' Thy father was a good man, 
 and brought thee here when a little child, nor hath any one 
 in this monastery transgressed as thou hast done. And now, 
 at the prayers of these brethren, I receive you back with your 
 child, the offspring of sin, wherefore know thy fault, and 
 bethink thee how great it is, and what need there is that thou 
 do severe penance, — and I take thee solely on this condition, 
 that thou alone sweep and clean the monastery, and fetch 
 water, and mend all the clothes and shoes of the brethren, — 
 and in this manner thou mayst regain my favour.' 
 
 "And Marina, doing all these things, died a few days 
 afterwards. And hearing of her death, the Abbot said, ' Ye 
 see now what a sin this man hath committed, that God hath 
 not vouchsafed to receive him to penance. Yet go and bury 
 him, for pity's sake, only apart from the others, and at a 
 distance from the monastery.' And preparing to wash the 
 body before burial, they found that she was a woman, and all 
 of them began to weep for sorrow, thinking of the afflictions 
 she had endured, and saying, ' Such holiness and penitence 
 were never heard of!' And they came and told the Abbot, 
 and he trembled exceedingly, and was very sorrowful, and 
 prayed, ' Oh blessed and most holy soul, I adjure and pray 
 thee, by our Lord Jesus Christ, that thou contend not with me, 
 in the sight of God, at the day of judgment ! ' 
 
 " And, hearing of these things, all who dwelt in that country 
 came together, with great reverence, and they buried her in 
 the cemetery of the monks, within the monastery, and many 
 miracles were afterwards done there through her merits." — 
 Auct. Incerto. ap. Rosw. lib. i, p. 393 ; Vite, lib. iv, cap. 42. 
 
 "When the Abbot Abraham was already very old, his 
 brother, a secular and very rich, died, and their relations 
 brought him his brother's daughter, a child of seven years 
 old, by name Mary, and left her with him, to bring her up as 
 
n8 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 he should think fit. And Abraham made a cell for her beside 
 his own, and taught her the psalter and other Scriptures 
 through the little window that opened between their cells, and 
 brought her up in the way and fear of God. And she grew in 
 age and health and goodness, and studied to imitate her uncle 
 in abstinence and in every perfection, singing with him the 
 psalms and praises of God. And Abraham continually prayed 
 God for her, that he would wean her heart from every earthly 
 affection, and that she might never remember nor think of the 
 riches that her father had bequeathed to her, and which he 
 (Abraham) had immediately distributed to the poor, to relieve 
 himself and her from such cares and temptations. And most 
 especially did Abraham pray God for her, that He would 
 guard and deliver her from the temptations of the enemy. 
 
 " But after many years, when Mary was grown up, the 
 devil put the thought of her into the heart of a youth who 
 dwelt in that desert as a hermit, and was accustomed to visit 
 Abraham, but chiefly in order that he might see Mary. And 
 he found means to speak with her, and the enemy availing 
 himself of this temptation, after about a year she yielded and 
 fell. And coming to herself, and remembering from what 
 height and purity of life she was fallen, despair settled upon 
 her, and not knowing what to do, she wept most bitterly, and 
 was ashamed to look upon her uncle, and so fled, and went 
 to another part of the country, and dwelt there, sinning yet 
 more, and that habitually. 
 
 " And the same night that Mary sinned, Abraham, know- 
 ing nothing of it, had a dream. He beheld a dragon, very 
 horrible and fierce, and loudly hissing, enter his cell, where it 
 seemed to him that there was a beautiful dove, as white as 
 snow, which the dragon swallowed up, and then returned to 
 the cave whence he had come forth. And awaking, much 
 saddened with this vision, he wept, imagining that the dragon 
 signified the devil, who was to do evil to the church, as he 
 understood the dove to mean ; and, throwing himself on his 
 knees, he prayed, f Do thou, O Lord ! who knowest everything, 
 instruct me what this vision signifies.' And after two days, 
 he saw again in his dream that dragon enter his cell, and it 
 lay down at his feet, and clove asunder and died, and it 
 appeared as if the dove that it had devoured came to life 
 again, and he put forth his hand and took it. And awaking, 
 and marvelling that his niece had not opened the window 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 119 
 
 these two days, he called to her, and no one answering, and 
 remembering that for two days he had neither heard her sing 
 nor move, he then knew that those visions were on her 
 account, and understood that the enemy had deceived her, 
 and that it was he who was to bring her back to penitence. 
 And finding for certain that she was flown and gone, he began 
 to weep, and said, ' Alas ! what cruel wolf hath carried off my 
 lamb?' And his grief rising, he lifted up his voice, broken 
 with sobs, and prayed, ' Saviour of the world, Jesu Christ ! 
 restore me my sheep Mary, bring her back to the fold, that I 
 die not thus in sorrow ! Lord, despise not my prayer, but 
 send thy grace swiftly, that I may rescue her from the dragon's 
 mouth ! ' 
 
 "And after two years, which were signified by the two 
 days, he heard where Mary was, and what life she was leading, 
 and sending a friend to enquire further, and being certified of 
 everything, he commended himself to God, and bought vest- 
 ments and ornaments as of a rich cavalier, and a good horse, 
 and a hat broad and overlapping, that his features might not 
 be known. And going to the inn where his niece was, and 
 taking thus the arms of the wicked in order to discover and 
 defeat their wickedness (after the example of that other 
 Abraham who rode forth as a warrior to rescue Lot, and of 
 Him too who took the guise of sin for the salvation of the 
 world), he demanded to speak with Mary. And being 
 admitted by the host, and seeing her in the garb of sin, he 
 felt such grief that he well nigh fainted, but he refrained 
 himself and did not weep, fearing lest she should recognise 
 him and fly. And the three sitting down together, such an 
 odour of abstinence and sanctity issued from him, that Mary 
 felt grief and compunction in her heart, and fell a weeping, 
 and said, 'Alas, me miserable! what am I come to!' And 
 the host, marvelling, said, ' Mary, thou hast been here two 
 years, and I never saw thee sigh or weep before — wherefore 
 now?' But she only answered, ' Happy had I died two years 
 ago !' Then Abraham gave money to the host and bade 
 him provide supper for them. And when he was gone, 
 Abraham took her by the hand, and drawing her towards him, 
 uncovered his head and began to weep bitterly, and said, ' O 
 my daughter Mary, dost thou not know me ? Am I not thine 
 uncle, who brought thee up ? O miserable one, what art thou 
 come to — how fallen ! Where is the life of thy soul ? Where 
 
120 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 thy fastings, thy watchings, thy prayers and tears ? O wretched 
 one, that hast fallen from the heights of heaven to the depths 
 of iniquity! And though thou hadst sinned, why hide it 
 from me? For I would have done penance for thee with 
 my brother Ephraim. 1 Why didst thou despair and fly? 
 Why hast thou brought upon me such affliction?' And Mary, 
 full of shame and sorrow, stood before him motionless as a 
 stone, and as if dead; and Abraham, seeing it, began to 
 console her, and said, ' Wilt thou not speak to me, daughter 
 Mary, having come thus far for thee? Be not cast down — 
 upon me be thy sin — I will answer for it at the day of 
 judgment — comfort thee, for I will do thy penance for thee!' 
 And thus consoling her, she took comfort and said, weeping, 
 ' I dare not look in thy face, and how then can I look up to 
 God and pray, being full of uncleanness ?' And Abraham 
 answered, 1 On me be thy sin, my daughter, and God require 
 it of me, — but now come with me, and let us return to our 
 cell. Think of the Magdalen and of the mercy of God, who 
 willeth not the death of the sinner ! It is not such a great 
 thing to fall into sin, but obstinately to continue therein is sin 
 indeed.' 
 
 "So Mary bent herself to the earth and worshipped him, 
 and did him reverence, and said, 'How can I thank thee, my 
 lord and father !' And he said, ' Up, my child, and let us 
 go.' And he mounted her on his horse and led her away, 
 greatly rejoicing, and arriving at his place, he put her into her 
 cell, and he abode in that where he had been before. And 
 mindful of the grace of God, that had called her to penitence, 
 she put on sackcloth, and passed her days and nights in 
 watchings, prayers and tears, so that not only God, but all 
 that heard her pitied her. And after ten years Abraham died, 
 being seventy years old, and five years afterwards Mary also 
 died ; and in testimony of her forgiveness, her face shone 
 brightly after she was dead, so that every one marvelled and 
 gave glory and praise to God the Father and to Jesus Christ 
 the Blessed." — Vite^ lib. iv, cap. 139; Rosw. lib. i, p. 
 368. 
 
 1 The celebrated Saint of that name, abridged. It may be found at large 
 commonly called S. Ephraim Syrus, in his life of Abraham, among his 
 who flourished about the middle of Greek writings, at the commencement 
 the fourth century — and the author of of the second volume of his works, 
 this narrative, which I have much edit. Ro?nce, 1743. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 121 
 
 " We, Theophilus, Sergius and Hyginus, inspired by God, 
 renounced the world, and entered the monastery which is in 
 Mesopotamia of Syria, between the two rivers, Tigris and 
 Euphrates, where the holy father Asclepion was Abbot. And 
 after having been a long time in the said monastery, one day, 
 after nones, we walked by the river Euphrates, and sat down 
 on the bank to repose ourselves, and began to speak of the 
 virtue and perfection of divers holy fathers. And I, Theo- 
 philus, said to my companions, ' My brethren, a wish hath 
 come into my heart, to go a travelling all the days of my life, 
 and to persevere till I reach the place where heaven and 
 earth meet.' And they answering, that they had ever looked 
 upon me as their spiritual father, and that they were ready to 
 follow me till death, we arose up with that purpose, and 
 returned to the monastery. And saying nothing thereof, either 
 to the Abbot or any other monk, late that evening, after prayer 
 to God, and when all had gone to rest, we departed secretly, 
 and in seventeen days came to Jerusalem, and adored the 
 Holy Cross, and visited the holy places both there and at 
 Bethlehem. And after commending ourselves to God and 
 his Saints, departing thence, in fifty days we entered Persia, 
 and came to a large and spacious plain which is named Asia, 
 and thereafter entered the city of Persia named Kitissefodus 
 (Ctesiphon), where are buried the three children, Ananias, 
 Azarias and Misael. And after four months, proceeding 
 thence, and entering the region of India, we fell in with full 
 three thousand Ethiopians, who surrounded us with fire in a 
 house, and would fain have burnt us, but calling on Christ, 
 we escaped, and thereafter they put us into a dark prison, 
 without food or drink, but God sustained us with food from 
 heaven ; and coming, and finding us alive and praying to 
 God, they beat us cruelly and drove us out of their bounds. 
 And after many days, we came to a fair plain, far in the East, 
 full of lofty trees, laden with fruit, of which, praising God, we 
 ate abundantly. And thence departing, we entered the coasts 
 of the Cananeans, who are called Cynocephali, who dwell in 
 caves, but as it pleased God, they let us pass and did us no 
 injury. And after one hundred and ten days we reached the 
 country of the Pichiti, otherwise named Pygmies, who fled, 
 seeing us. And we proceeded further, and came to certain 
 mountains most arid and gloomy, where neither sun shines 
 nor herbs grow, and there we found serpents and beasts of 
 
122 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 great fierceness, but by the help of God we passed them un- 
 harmed, but for twenty days afterwards we heard their hissing 
 and roaring. And after that, we came to a place exceeding 
 wild, with steep and terrible precipices, and there we remained 
 seven days, there being no path beyond it. And on the 
 seventh day, there appeared to us a beautiful stag, and made 
 sign that it was willing to guide us. Whom following, we 
 found the mountains and precipices ever the steeper, till we 
 came to an immense plain, full of elephants, but we passed 
 through the midst of them harmless, and fared onward, and 
 after nine days, came to a fruitful plain, but suddenly that 
 plain was filled with thick darkness, and falling to the ground, 
 disturbed and afflicted, we prayed and called on God for seven 
 days continually, neither eating nor seeing light. And at the 
 end of seven days there appeared to us a dove of dazzling 
 whiteness, which came towards us, and appeared to invite us 
 to renew our journey, and we commended ourselves to God 
 and followed her. 
 
 " And as we went, we found a great tablet of marble with 
 this inscription, 'This tablet was placed here by Alexander, 
 the Emperor, when he pursued Darius. He that would pro- 
 ceed further, let him keep to the left' Proceeding therefore 
 towards the left, after forty days we smelt a great stench, so 
 that we fell to the earth as if dead, and unable to sustain it, 
 we prayed God to receive us into his rest. And as it pleased 
 God, feeling ourselves a little comforted, we arose, and look- 
 ing round us, saw a very broad lake full of serpents belching 
 out fire, and we heard voices issue from that lake, and clamour 
 as of an innumerable multitude which wept and wailed, and 
 we heard a voice from heaven saying, £ This is the place of 
 judgment and punishment for those who deny Christ.' And 
 weeping and striking our breasts, we departed very quickly 
 thence, and went on till, at the foot of two lofty mountains, 
 there appeared to us a man of vast stature, chained with four 
 chains, of which two were fixed to one mountain and two to 
 the other, and around him all was fire, and he cried so loud 
 that he might have been heard at forty miles off. And stupi- 
 fied and aghast, and covering our faces, we hurried past, and 
 came to a place, deep, horrible, rugged and stony, in which 
 we saw a woman most frightful of aspect, with dishevelled 
 hair hanging to the ground, and encircled and girt round by 
 a dragon, which, whenever she opened her mouth to speak, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 123 
 
 put its head into her mouth and bit her tongue. And as we 
 stood and gazed, we heard a voice issue from that valley, 
 ' Have pity on us, O Christ, the Son of God, the blessed !' 
 And thereafter we came into another place in which we 
 saw many trees which had the appearance of fig-trees, and 
 in the boughs thereof were certain birds, which cried with 
 human voices, 'Pardon us, O God our Creator!' And 
 throwing ourselves on the ground, and praying God to show 
 us what this thing meant, there came a voice which said, 
 'It is not for you to know the secret judgments of God. 
 Proceed on your way.' Whence parting in fear, we came 
 to a place beautiful and spacious, where we found four 
 men, of most wonderful and gracious aspect, and who had 
 crowns of gold and gems on their heads, and in their hands 
 palm -branches of gold, and in front of them there was a 
 great fire burning, and swords very sharp and cutting. And 
 seeing us afraid, they comforted us and said, ' Fear not, but 
 go on securely, for we are stationed here by God till the day 
 of judgment' 
 
 " And travelling onward, we went for thirty days without 
 food save water, and as we journeyed we heard voices as of 
 an unnumbered multitude, and much singing, and we smelt 
 an odour . most sweet, as of the balsam, and in our mouths 
 there abode a taste as it were of honey, through which things, 
 as if inebriated with sweetness, we fell asleep. And after a 
 little, waking again, we saw before us a Church, marvellously 
 beautiful and ornate, and it appeared as if wholly of crystal, 
 and in the midst was a fair altar from which issued water, 
 white as milk, and around it stood men in white raiment, and 
 of most holy and honourable aspect, and they sang a celestial 
 hymn of rare melody. And that Church, on the south side, had 
 the likeness of an emerald, and towards the East was of the 
 colour of pure blood, and towards the West white as snow, 
 and above it were many stars, more bright than those that 
 usually shine, and so too the sun was seven times more 
 brilliant and more warm in that country than in ours, and the 
 alps and mountains were higher, the trees and fruits more fair 
 and lovely, and the birds made sweeter minstrelsy. And, in 
 brief, everything we saw was more beautiful than in the world 
 we had left behind us. The very earth was on the one side 
 white as snow and on the other red. Which things having 
 considered, and after saluting those holy men, we proceeded, 
 
124 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 and after awhile came to a plain full of herbs white as milk, 
 sweet as honey, and about a cubit high, of which we ate, 
 thanking God, and whereas for a long time we had found no 
 path, we here perceived a fair one, which pursuing, after 
 several days we reached a cave. 
 
 " And making the sign of the cross we entered, but found 
 no one within. So we sat down and rested. And suddenly 
 we smelt a smell of such exceeding fragrance that we fell 
 asleep. And after awhile awaking, and looking towards the 
 East, we saw approaching us as it were the figure of a very 
 aged man, with hair white as snow, and covered with down 
 like a bird, and seeing us, he threw himself on the ground, 
 and prayed, and said, ' If ye be sent by God, make the sign 
 of the cross and come to me, but if ye be from the enemy, 
 depart hence !' And answering that we were monks, who had 
 quitted the world to serve God, and beseeching his blessing, 
 he came towards us, and lifting his hands to heaven, prayed 
 for a long hour, and then, parting the hair from his forehead, 
 blessed us and spoke to us, and his face appeared as that of 
 an angel, and through his extreme age his eyes were scarcely 
 visible, and the nails of his hands and feet were very long, 
 and his hair and beard covered his whole body, and his voice 
 was weak and scarcely audible, as if it rose from a deep abyss. 
 And asking in what state the world was, and Holy Church, 
 and whether the Saracens and Gentiles still persecuted the 
 Christians, and who we were, we answered in order, and told him 
 of our purpose to travel until we should reach the place where 
 heaven joins the earth ; but he answered and said, ' Know, my 
 children ! that nearer than this no man can approach Paradise, 
 for I, miserable sinner, wished to go further, but the angel of 
 God visited me in my sleep and said, " Go no further, nor 
 presume to tempt God." And I said, "Wherefore, Sir, may 
 I not go further?" And he answered, "From this place to 
 Paradise are twenty miles, but God hath placed a cherubim 
 before it with his flaming sword to keep the way of the tree of 
 life, and he hath two feet, and down to the middle he hath 
 the likeness of a man, and his breast as a lion, and his hands 
 are in appearance as crystal." ' Hearing which things, I, 
 Theophilus, and my companions, threw ourselves to the earth 
 for reverence, and thanked God and him. And when it was 
 evening, he said, ' My brethren, go forth of the cell, and 
 watch till ye see two lions coming.' And when they came, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 125 
 
 he laid his hand on their necks and said to them, ' My sons, 
 these brethren have come to me from the world ; see ye do 
 them no injury !' Then calling us in, and having sung ves- 
 pers, we sat down and supped with him, and he told us of his 
 life and conversation, and that he was Macarius, and how, 
 being married against his will, he had fled from his wife on 
 the evening of their nuptials, and concealed himself with a 
 certain widow, and thereafter, after long wandering in the 
 desert and many adventures, had travelled thus far, guided 
 and assisted by the angel Raphael, — and how the devil, long 
 afterwards, beguiled him in the semblance of his wife whom 
 he had deserted, and how, presently thereafter, the two lions 
 appeared from the desert, by the mercy of God, and entering 
 the cave, scooped out in the ground a hole of the size of a 
 man, and how, thanking God for indicating that penance, he 
 laid himself therein and commanded the lions to heap the 
 earth around him, and how towards the end of three years 
 there fell a great rain, and the cave opened above him, and 
 he saw light, and stretching out his hand, he took of the herbs 
 that grew there and ate, and how the lions returned, after the 
 three years were accomplished, and removed the earth from 
 off him, so that he could freely rise, and how, rising, he found 
 himself stronger than before, and how Our Saviour afterwards 
 appeared to him in the cave, and how he had lived there in 
 penitence ever since. And when he had narrated all these 
 things and we had rested, the most holy Macarius prayed for 
 us and blessed us, and commended us to Christ, and com- 
 manded those two lions to accompany us to the place where 
 I said before that we lay in darkness seven days and seven 
 nights. And reaching it quickly, we proceeded without let 
 or hindrance to the tablet of Alexander, and thence through 
 Persia and to the city where the three children were put into 
 the fiery furnace, and thence crossing the river Tigris, in 
 fifteen days we reached Jerusalem, and after adoring the holy 
 sepulchre and other holy places, and thanking the Saviour who 
 had saved us from such perils and brought us back in safety, 
 we reached our monastery, and found the Abbot and all the 
 brethren safe and well; and relating all we had seen and 
 heard, and of the life of the holy Macarius, they praised and 
 thanked God our Father, with his Son, Our Saviour, Jesus 
 Christ, and the Holy Spirit, life of our souls, One essence and 
 unity in Three persons, who reigneth and is Lord over all 
 
126 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 and everywhere, most blessed, for evermore, Amen I" — Rosw. 
 lib. i, p. 224; Vite, lib. v, cap. 1-6. 1 
 
 3. Of S. Jerome. 
 
 [Born A.D. 342, died 420. Doctor of the Church. Chiefly from 
 Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 "Jerome, Presbyter and Doctor, was born in Dalmatia, and 
 received full instruction in Greek, Latin and Hebrew letters. 
 But loving Plato more than the prophets, as more polished 
 and elegant in style, and being seized with a fever, so that, the 
 heat of life failing, his death was expected, he was suddenly 
 caught up in the spirit before the judgment-seat of God, and 
 being questioned as to his condition, and answering, 'A 
 Christian,' it was replied, ' Thou liest ! thou art a Ciceronian, 
 for where thy treasure is, there thy heart is also.' And Jerome 
 was silent, and the Judge commanded him to be scourged 
 severely. But entreating for mercy, and those standing by 
 interceding for him, he was released on promising no more to 
 read secular writings. He awoke, bathed in tears, and with 
 the marks of stripes on his shoulders. 2 
 
 "After certain years he betook himself to the Egyptian 
 desert, where what he endured for Christ is narrated in his 
 epistle to Eustochium. For he macerated himself with in- 
 credible penitence, struggling against the flesh. 3 And, after 
 
 1 Though not the best sustained, 
 this is perhaps the earliest of the long 
 series of allegories of the Christian 
 life and pilgrimage — a series perfected 
 and closed by the ' Pilgrim's Progress' 
 of John Bunyan. Macarius, like S. 
 Christopher, is evidently here an alle- 
 gorical personage, although partially 
 confounded with the celebrated Egypt- 
 ian Saint of that name. 
 
 2 He tells this story himself, con- 
 cluding with this solemn asseveration : 
 " Nec vero sopor ille fuerat, aut vana 
 somnia quibus saepe deludimur. Testis 
 est tribunal illud, ante quod jacui, 
 testis judicium triste, quod timui ; ita 
 mihi nunquam contingat in talem in- 
 cidere quaestionem, liventes habuisse 
 scapulas, plagas sensisse post somnum, 
 et tanto dehinc studio divina legisse, 
 quanto non ante mortalia legeram. " 
 
 See his epistle ' De custodienda Vir- 
 ginitate,' addressed to Eustochium, 
 the daughter of his friend Paula. — 
 Opera, torn, iv, pt. 2, p. 42. 
 
 3 "Oh ! how often," he exclaims, 
 ' ' while dwelling in the wilderness, 
 and in that vast solitude, burnt up by 
 the sun's heat, the dreary dwelling of 
 anchorets, did I fancy myself present 
 at the delights of Rome ! I dwelt apart, 
 for my soul was filled with bitterness. 
 My disfigured limbs were rough with 
 sackcloth, and my squalid skin was foul 
 with the Ethiop's tetter. Daily tears, 
 daily groans ! And when sleep sur- 
 prised me unawares, my naked bones, 
 that scarce clung together, were 
 bruised in falling to the ground. I 
 say nothing of food and drink, for 
 even the sick drink but water, and to 
 have eaten aught cooked would have 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 127 
 
 four years, he took up his abode at Bethlehem, and built a 
 monastery at the western gate of the city, and drew together 
 many disciples, and possessing a great library, he passed his 
 days and nights in fasting and study, spending fifty years on 
 his translation of the Scriptures. And he founded a nunnery 
 there also, where Paula, the widow, and Eustochium, her 
 virgin daughter, his dearly beloved friends, who had followed 
 him to Palestine, abode. 
 
 "And on a certain day, towards evening, while Jerome, 
 with the brethren, were seated reading the Scriptures, a lion, 
 which had fallen lame, entered the monastery. All fled, and 
 the holy Doctor received him alone, and found that his paw 
 had been wounded by thorns. And drawing them forth, the 
 lion recovered, and thereafter dwelt there like a domestic ani- 
 mal, and ate hay like an ox. On whom Jerome imposed the 
 service of conducting and protecting, on the road and in the 
 forest, the ass which brought fire-wood for the monastery. 
 And the lion faithfully guarded the ass, as a shepherd doth 
 the sheep. 
 
 " But on a certain day, by ill adventure, the lion fell asleep, 
 and some merchants, passing by with their camels, saw the ass 
 feeding at a great distance from the lion, and stole him, 
 and led him away. And the lion awaking, wandered hither 
 and thither, roaring and seeking for his comrade. And not 
 finding him, he returned sorrowing to the gate of the monas- 
 tery, not presuming to enter through very shame, and the 
 brethren perceiving it, and that the ass was missing, concluded 
 that he had eaten him, and refused him therefore his accus- 
 
 been luxury. Yet even then, I, who 
 had damned myself to that prison- 
 house through the fear of hell — con- 
 sorting but with scorpions and beasts, 
 I was often present at the dances of 
 girls ! My cheeks were pale with 
 fasting, my body was ice, but my 
 heart burnt within me with unholy 
 fire. Thus destitute of all help I lay 
 at the feet of Jesus, washing them 
 with my tears, wiping them with my 
 hair, and yoking down my struggling 
 flesh with week -long fastings. I 
 blush not at my misery — rather I 
 mourn that I am not now what I was 
 then. Night often came ere I ceased 
 to strike my breast, ere tranquillity re- 
 turned, ere the Lord ceased to chide. 
 
 I held my very cell in horror, as if 
 conscious of my thoughts. And at 
 such times I would plunge into the 
 wilderness, and wherever the valleys 
 yawned deepest, where the mountains 
 were ruggedest, the rocks most preci- 
 pitate, there was my place of prayer, 
 there the task -house of my most 
 wretched flesh, — and, as God is my 
 witness ! after many tears, after eyes 
 long fixed on heaven, I now and then 
 found myself present with the bands 
 of angels, and gladly and in joy I took 
 up my song, ' In odorem unguentorum 
 tuorum curremus, ' — * We will run after 
 thee, because of the savour of thy 
 good ointments.'" — Opera ut supra, 
 p. 30. 
 
128 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 tomed food. And by Jerome's advice, they laid the duty of the 
 ass on the lion, and employed him accordingly in bringing in 
 their faggots from the forest. 
 
 "And after the lion had borne this a long time very 
 patiently, one evening, after his work was done, he began to 
 run hither and thither, as if by divine instinct, till at last he 
 perceived at a distance the merchantmen returning with their 
 camels, and the ass along with them, and the lion, recognising 
 the ass, roared loudly and rushed out upon them, and the 
 men all fled in every direction. But the lion, lashing the earth 
 fearfully with his tail, drove the ass and the camels, loaded as 
 they were, to the gate of the monastery. Which the brethren 
 seeing, told to Jerome, and he ordered the camels to be 
 brought in and unloaded, and their feet to be washed, adding 
 that they should wait the will of the Lord. Then the lion 
 began to run through the monastery, prostrating himself sever- 
 ally at the feet of each of the monks, and wagging his tail, as 
 if to crave pardon for his offence. But Jerome, prescient of 
 the future, ordered supper to be got ready for expected guests. 
 And lo ! these guests were already at the gate, craving to see 
 the Abbot. And when he went forth, they threw themselves 
 at his feet, imploring forgiveness. And kindly drawing them 
 in, and entertaining them, he admonished them to respect the 
 rights of others, and rest content for the future with their own 
 property. 1 
 
 "And Jerome's death drawing near, he commanded that 
 he should be laid on the bare ground and covered with sack- 
 cloth, and calling the brethren around him, he spoke sweetly 
 to them, and exhorted them in many holy words, and appointed 
 Eusebius to be their abbot in his room. And then, with tears, 
 he received the blessed Eucharist. And sinking backwards 
 again on the earth, his hands crossed on his heart, he sung 
 the 4 Nunc dimittis.' Which being finished, it being the hour 
 of compline, suddenly a great light, as of the noonday sun, 
 shone round about him, within which light angels innumerable 
 were seen by the bystanders, in shifting motion, like sparks 
 among the dry reeds. And the voice of the Saviour was heard, 
 inviting him to heaven, and the holy Doctor answered that 
 
 1 According to the ' Spiritual Mea- to have pined away after Jerome's 
 
 dow, ' of John Moschus, who died death, and to have at last died on his 
 
 a.d. 620 — the original source prob- grave. Rosweyde, p. 888. 
 ably of this legend — the lion is said 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 129 
 
 he was ready. And after an hour, that light departed, and 
 Jerome's spirit with it. • 
 
 " And at that very hour Augustine, bishop of Hippo Regius, 
 was sitting in his cell, meditating a treatise on the beatific 
 vision, and had begun an epistle to Jerome, consulting him on 
 that mystery, when an ineffable light, with a fragrant odour, filled 
 his cell, and a voice came to him therefrom, reproving him of 
 presumption for deeming that, while yet in the flesh, he could 
 comprehend the eternal beatitude. And Augustine demand- 
 ing who spoke to him, the voice answered, 1 Jerome's soul, to 
 whom thou writest, for I am this very hour loosed from the 
 flesh and on my way to heaven.' And after Augustine had 
 asked him many questions concerning the joys of heaven, the 
 angelic nature and the Blessed Trinity, and Jerome had 
 answered thereto, the light and the voice departed." 
 
 4. Of S. Martin. 
 
 [Born A.D. 316, died 397. Bishop of Tours. Abridged from his Life by 
 his disciple Sulpicius Severus, the " Christian Sallust."] 
 
 "Martin, a native of Sabaria, a city of Pannonia, and of 
 gentle parentage, but brought up at Ticinum (Pavia), in Italy, 
 served under his father, a military tribune, while Constantius 
 and Julian were Emperors, — yet not willingly, for he had 
 become a catechumen of the Church, against his parents' will, 
 at ten years old, and would even then have retired to the 
 desert, but for the impediment of his youth. And after his 
 entrance into the army he lived spotless and free from vice, 
 and gave all he had to the poor. 
 
 "And while serving in Gaul, and having nothing left 
 (through his charity) except his armour and the cloak upon 
 his back, a beggar petitioned him for alms as he entered the 
 gate of Amiens ; it was a bitter winter's day, and the beggar 
 was naked ; S. Martin drew his sword, and cutting his cloak 
 in two, gave the beggar half of it. And on the following 
 night, as he slumbered, he saw our Saviour standing beside 
 his bed, clothed in the fragment of his cloak which he had 
 given the beggar, and attended by angels, to whom he heard 
 him saying, ' This robe was given me by Martin, still a cate- 
 chumen,' Whereupon Martin presented himself to be bap- 
 tized, being then in his twenty-second year. 
 
 vol. 1. k 
 
i 3 o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 " And wishing to leave the army, his commanding officer 
 would not permit it. But two years afterwards, the barbarians 
 having invaded Gaul, and the Emperor Julian bestowing a 
 donative on his army, and the officers approaching one by one 
 (as the custom is) to receive it, Martin refused to accept it, 
 and craved his dismissal, alleging that he was the soldier of 
 Christ, and that it was not lawful for him to fight. And Julian, 
 much displeased, charged him with cowardice. But Martin 
 offered to place himself on the following day in the front of 
 the battle, and penetrate into the thickest of the enemy without 
 any weapon save the sign of the cross and the name of Christ. 
 Wherefore the Emperor commanded him to be carefully 
 guarded, lest he should elude the experiment, but by divine 
 providence (lest the man of God should be sent out to battle, 
 unarmed), the enemy sent in their submission the following 
 morning, and Martin was permitted to retire. 
 
 "Thereafter he sought out the holy Hilary, bishop of 
 Poitiers, and received ordination from him as an Exorcist, his 
 humility not permitting him to accept a higher order. And 
 being warned in a dream to visit his parents in Pannonia, he 
 returned thither, and endured many perils by the way, being 
 attacked and bound by robbers, whom nevertheless he con- 
 verted by his preaching, and they released him. And he con- 
 verted his mother, but his father continued still in obduracy. 
 And the Arians prevailing in that country, Martin was beaten 
 and cast out of the city, and returned to Milan, but being driven 
 thence also by the Arians, he rejoined Hilary at Poitiers. 
 And a certain man having died without baptism, he took the 
 body into his cell, and prayed over it, and the man revived 
 and received baptism, living for many years afterwards. And 
 he related that he had been carried before the tribunal of the 
 Judge and had received sentence, when two angels represented 
 that he was the man for whom Martin had prayed, and the 
 Judge commanded that he should be carried back and restored 
 to life. And thereafter Martin was esteemed of all a man of 
 holiness, powerful in intercession, and as an apostle of the 
 Lord, — and very deservedly so, for no one ever saw him angry, 
 no one either grieving or laughing, but his countenance was 
 ever the same, suffused with a certain heavenly joy, passing 
 human nature ; nothing dwelt on his lips but Christ, nothing 
 in his heart but piety, peace and pity. And he remained 
 with Hilary till his election as bishop of Tours. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 " And not enduring the great concourse of the people, he 
 formed unto himself a monastery about two miles out of that 
 city, in a place so secret and remote that he no longer sighed 
 for the desert. The scarped rock of a lofty mountain over- 
 hung it on one side, and the Loire, sweeping round so as to 
 enclose a small plain, cut off all access from the other. It 
 could be approached but by one path, and that a narrow and 
 difficult one. His cell and those of many of the brethren, 
 were built of logs of wood ; others excavated their dwellings 
 in the lofty rock that rose up above them. Eighty brethren 
 lived thus together, under the rule of the blessed Martin. No 
 one had aught of his own, all things were held by them in 
 common. No one was permitted (after the manner of monks) 
 to buy or sell. No art was allowed there except that of the 
 scriptor, which was left indeed to the younger brethren, the 
 elder occupying themselves solely with prayer. Rarely did any 
 one leave his cell, except for assembling at the place of 
 worship. They took their meal together after the hours of 
 fasting. Wine was never drank, except in case of sickness. 
 Most of them were clad in camels'-hair ; a softer raiment was 
 esteemed criminal. And this was the more to be wondered 
 at, as many of them were noble, and had been brought up very 
 differently, but they had compelled themselves to this humility 
 and patience. And many of these brethren we have since seen 
 bishops. For where is the city or church which doth not wish 
 itself a priest from Martin's monastery ? 
 
 " And a certain person being worshipped in a neighbouring 
 church under the name of a martyr, and Martin being unable 
 to ascertain aught respecting his life or martyrdom, standing 
 over his sepulchre he prayed to the Lord that he would reveal 
 it to him. And turning to the left, he beheld the spirit of the 
 man, foul and fierce, standing by, who told him that he was 
 the soul o£ a thief who was worshipped in that altar, and had 
 been put to death for his crimes, and was among the damned in 
 hell. And all heard him speaking, but no one saw the vision, 
 which Martin declared to them, and then threw down the altar. 
 
 " And seeing a dead youth carried to the grave, followed by 
 a crowd of people, and by his mother weeping, Martin had 
 compassion on her, and restored him to life, and many of 
 those pagans were converted. 
 
 " And in destroying a very ancient temple, he was about 
 to cut down a pine-tree dedicated to the devil that had been 
 
132 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 worshipped there, and the rustic people opposed him, till one of 
 them offered that it should be cut down provided Martin would 
 stand in its way as it fell — ' and if God be with thee,' he said, 
 ' thou shalt escape uninjured.' And Martin, trusting in the Lord, 
 agreed to this. The tree was ancient and inclined greatly to 
 one side, and they placed Martin, bound, beneath it. And 
 the Gentiles, with great merriment, began to cut down the 
 tree. And the pine began by little and little to nod, and 
 incline more and more over Martin's head. And the monks 
 grew paler and paler, expecting his death. And down it 
 rushed — but Martin, unmoved, and raising his hand towards 
 it, made the sign of the cross, and, as if repelled by a whirl- 
 wind, it sprung back and fell on the other side. And while 
 the brethren wept for joy, the whole of that savage multitude 
 shouted and called on Christ as their God. 
 
 " And some time thereafter, willing to destroy another idol- 
 temple in the suburb of lepers, and the pagans resisting, after 
 praying for many days, armed angels appeared, and attacking 
 the pagans put them to flight, and Martin accomplished his 
 purpose. 
 
 " And while destroying a third temple, the Gentiles rushed 
 upon him, and one attacked him with his sword, but he pre- 
 sented his naked neck, and the man fell on his knees, and 
 besought his pardon. And on a similar occasion, a man 
 offering to strike him, the sword was struck out of his hand 
 and disappeared. 
 
 " And he cast out many devils, and healed many sick by 
 his touch alone. At Paris he kissed a leper, horrible of aspect, 
 and immediately he was made clean. And even irrational 
 animals obeyed him. While journeying through his diocese, 
 a hare fled past, followed by the hounds, and pitying her, he 
 called them back, and they obeyed him. 1 And he was often 
 visited by angels and apostles, and was solaced with their con- 
 versation. 
 
 " And on a certain time, soon after his election as bishop, 
 having occasion to visit the court of Valentinian the Emperor, 2 
 to petition for something which the latter did not choose to 
 grant, Valentinian, at the instigation of his wife, who was an 
 Arian, denied him admission into the palace, and ordered the 
 gates to be closed against him. And having been repulsed a 
 
 1 Peter de Natalibus further informs us that a dog that was barking ceased 
 to do so at his bidding. 2 The First, of that name. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 133 
 
 second and a third time, Martin betook himself to his usual 
 weapons of prayer and fasting, and on the seventh day was 
 admonished by an angel to go boldly to the palace. Which 
 doing, every door flew open, and no one hindered him, but 
 he walked straight into the Emperor's presence. And Valen- 
 tinian indignantly keeping his seat, it suddenly took fire under 
 him, and burnt that part of his body upon which he sat, where- 
 upon, being compelled to rise, contrite and ashamed, he 
 embraced Martin and granted all that he required of him. 
 
 " And thereafter, being at the court of the Emperor Maxi- 
 mus, and invited by him to dine with him, he refused con- 
 stantly, alleging that he could not sit at table with a man who 
 had deprived one emperor of his throne and another of his 
 life. Yet Maximus entreating him, and representing that he 
 had assumed the empire, not voluntarily, but through the 
 imposition of the army, Martin, whether yielding to his reason- 
 ing or his importunity, consented to come. And all the great 
 men of the court were assembled to meet him, and Martin's 
 presbyter was placed between two Counts of the highest dignity, 
 the King's brother and his uncle, but Martin himself sat on a 
 little seat beside the King. And at the middle of the banquet, 
 as is the custom, the King's cupbearer offered him the cup, 
 but he commanded it to be given rather to the bishop, expect- 
 ing that he should receive it from his hand. But Martin, after 
 he had drunk thereof, presented the cup to his presbyter, as 
 the worthiest to drink after him, which the Emperor and all 
 who were with him, although contemned in that comparison, 
 applauded greatly. And it was noted through the whole 
 palace, that Martin had done that at the Imperial table which 
 none of the bishops had done at those even of the inferior 
 judges. 
 
 " And the Empress 1 also entertained him, although greatly 
 against his will, as he avoided all converse with women. But 
 she thought not of dignity or diadem, but clinging as it were 
 to Martin's feet, could not be separated from them, washing 
 them with her tears. By the permission of her husband, she 
 prepared him an entertainment, alone, allowing no other 
 service. The meal was prepared by her chaste hands, she 
 arranged his seat, offered water for his hands, and placed before 
 him the food which she had herself cooked. And while he 
 
 1 She was a British lady, by name Helena, daughter of a wealthy lord of 
 Caernarvonshire. — Gibbon, chap, xxvii. 
 
134 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 sat aloft, she stood immoveably before him, according to the 
 custom of menials. She mixed the wine for him to drink, and 
 presented it herself. And after the meal was over, she 
 collected the crumbs that had fallen from his table, preferring 
 them to the banquet of the Emperor. 
 
 "And as he went to the church on a certain day, meeting a 
 poor man naked, he gave him his inner robe, and covered 
 himself as he best might with his cope. And the archdeacon, 
 indignant, offering him a short and narrow vestment, he 
 received it humbly, and went up to celebrate mass. And a 
 globe of fire appeared above his head, and when he elevated 
 the host, his arms being exposed by the shortness of the 
 sleeves, they were miraculously covered with chains of gold 
 and silver, suspended on them by angels. 
 
 " Many were the attempts of the devil to deceive him. 
 Sometimes he appeared to him as Jupiter, oftener as Mercury, 
 and very frequently as Venus or Minerva. Against whom he 
 protected himself, fearlessly, by the sign of the cross and by 
 prayer. And lastly, the enemy appeared to him, as he prayed, 
 in royal raiment, crowned with gems and gold, with gilded 
 sandals and a serene and joyful countenance, and surrounded 
 with a purple light. And after they had regarded each other 
 in silence for some time, Satan called on Martin to recognise 
 and do him homage, for that he was Christ, and had come to 
 visit him first, being about to return to the earth. But Martin 
 replied, by the inspiration of the Lord, that Christ was not to 
 return in the purple or with a diadem, but as he had been slain, 
 with the signs and tokens of his passion. Whereupon that 
 apparition vanished like smoke, filling the cell with such a 
 stench that no man could doubt but that it was the devil. 
 And lest any one should think this fabulous, I know it from 
 Martin's own mouth. And whatever else I have told is either 
 from his own information, or from that of others who were 
 present, or knew for certain the truth of the things they 
 reported. 
 
 " Long before his death the man of God foreknew and 
 predicted his decease. But the affairs of the church at Cande 
 being much disordered, he travelled thither in order to com- 
 pose them. And as he journeyed, accompanied by a great 
 multitude of his disciples, vast flocks of cormorants were 
 hovering over the river, fishing for their food, reminding him, 
 as he said, of the sport of devils, laying snares for the unwary, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 135 
 
 ravishing the innocent, devouring their captives and insatiate 
 with prey. And commanding them to leave the river and 
 retreat to the wilderness, flocking together they all took flight 
 and disappeared. 
 
 "And after restoring peace among the clergy, though anxious 
 to return to his monastery, his strength might endure no 
 longer. And assembling his disciples, he took farewell of 
 them, while all wept around him. And during his fever he 
 lay continually on ashes and in sackcloth, praying to Christ. 
 And when his presbyters besought him that they might change 
 the position in which he lay, so that he might rest on one side, 
 'Brethren,' he replied, 'let me rather look towards heaven 
 than earth.' And at the moment he expired he saw the 
 devil standing beside him, and he answered, ' Why here, thou 
 beast of blood ? Thou wilt find nothing in me. I shall rest 
 in Abraham's bosom.' And thus saying, he yielded the spirit. 
 
 "And the whole city and the neighbourhood assembled for 
 his obsequies, and followed him with hymns and tears to the 
 grave. And at the hour of his burial Severinus, bishop of 
 Cologne, heard voices singing in the air. And calling his 
 archdeacon, he enquired whether he heard anything, and the 
 archdeacon answering ' No,' the bishop ordered him to listen 
 more attentively. And stretching out his neck, erecting his 
 ears, and standing on tiptoe, supporting himself with his staff, 
 the archdeacon listened, but I doubt that he was not of 
 sufficient merit to hear such sounds. Then, both praying 
 together, and the bishop entreating the Lord for the arch- 
 deacon, after rising and listening again, the bishop enquired, 
 ' What hearest thou ? ' And he answered, ' Voices as of those 
 singing in heaven, but what they may be I know not.' And 
 the bishop informed him that they were the songs of the 
 angels as they carried Martin up to heaven. 
 
 "And at that same hour the blessed Ambrose was celebrating 
 mass at Milan, and the custom was that the Lector should not 
 begin to read till the bishop nodded to him. And when he 
 would have begun, standing before the altar, the blessed 
 Ambrose fell asleep on the altar. Which many saw, but no 
 man presumed to wake him till after two or three hours had 
 elapsed, when they spoke to him, saying, ' The hour has passed 
 by, — let my lord, the bishop, command the Lector to read, 
 for the people are waiting and already very weary.' And 
 Ambrose bade them not be disturbed, for that his brother 
 
136 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Martin had departed from the flesh, and he had just been 
 attending his funeral. And greatly astonished, and noting the 
 day and the hour, they found afterwards that at that very time 
 the blessed Martin had been buried at Tours." 
 
 5. Of S. Benedict. 
 
 [Born a.d. 480, died 543. Styled by Butler the "patriarch of the 
 Western monks ;" founder of the Benedictine order, and of the monas- 
 teries of Subiaco, Monte Cassino, etc. Abridged from his Life, 
 forming the second book of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory the Great, 
 and written from the personal information of four of his disciples, viz. 
 his successor at Subiaco, the second and third abbots of Monte Cassino, 
 and the first of the monastery of the Lateran. — Opera, torn, ii, p. 207, 
 edit. Benedict. 1 ] 
 
 " Benedict, the Abbot, was born at Norcia, of parents above 
 the common rank, and was taken by them to Rome for educa- 
 tion, but on perceiving the vices of the world he turned his 
 back on her, despising the study of letters, learned although 
 unlearned, wise in his ignorance. He set off accordingly 
 for the wilderness, his nurse, who loved him dearly, alone 
 accompanying him. But arriving at Enfide, 2 and many of 
 the more respectable men of that place detaining him there, 
 from the regard they bore him, he abode there for some time, 
 dwelling in the church of S. Peter. And his nurse having left a 
 sieve, which had been lent to her, on the table, and finding it 
 broken on her return, she wept ; on which Benedict, taking 
 the fragments to his chamber and praying, found it entire on 
 rising from his knees, and restored it to her. After this, 
 desirous of avoiding the praise of men, he gave his nurse the 
 slip, and escaped into the desert which is called Sublacus 
 (Subiaco), about forty miles distant from Rome, where there is 
 much water collected into a lake first, and thence issuing as 
 a river. And while journeying thither, he met a certain monk, 
 
 1 See M. Guizot's 'Hist, de la 
 Civilisation en France,' xiv e Lecon, 
 for a very interesting analysis of the 
 rule of S. Benedict, — and the same 
 and following chapters for many most 
 valuable observations on the early 
 monastic system as current in the 
 East and West. 
 
 2 "Afile," according to Sir W. 
 Gell, is "a mountain hamlet, in the 
 rugged district near Subiaco. The 
 
 details of its topography are not as 
 yet accurately known." — Topogr. of 
 Rome, etc. vol. i, p. 17. It is placed 
 in Sir William's map in the midst of 
 a broad blank space, described as 
 "regio non satis explorata," — still 
 more a "wilderness" now, probably, 
 than in Benedict's time. The Bene- 
 dictine commentators describe it as 
 "vulgo Afide in yEquicolis, duobus 
 mill, a Subiaco. " 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 137 
 
 by name Romanus, who asked whither he was going, and, 
 learning his object, gave him shelter and assistance, and robed 
 him in the habit of holy conversation. 1 And he dwelt in this 
 place for three years in a very narrow cave, unknown to any 
 one except Romanus, who lived in a monastery not far off, 
 and who saved what he could from his own meals for the 
 sustenance of his friend. 
 
 " Benedict's cell was on a high rock, most difficult of ascent, 
 wherefore Romanus suspended the food to a rope dependent 
 from it, and attached to it a little bell, which he rang to give 
 notice of his presence. But the old enemy, envying the one the 
 charity, the other the refreshment, threw a stone one day, and 
 broke the bell. Yet Romanus did not relax from ^his kind 
 offices. Nevertheless the Lord, willing to make his servant's 
 manner of life more known, that, like a candle set on a candle- 
 stick, it might illumine all who dwell in the house of God, 
 appeared to a certain presbyter, who had prepared himself a 
 supper of festivity for Easter-day, and said, ' Thou providest 
 sumptuously for thyself, but my servant Benedict is starving on 
 yonder mountain ! ' And rising up straightway, and taking the 
 food that he had cooked, the presbyter sought for Benedict 
 everywhere until he found him, in his cave. And they prayed 
 together, and blessed God. And the presbyter said, ' Rise 
 and let us eat, for this is Easter-day.' And the man of God 
 answered, ' I know that it is Easter-day, since I have merited 
 to see thee.' For, dwelling apart from men, he was quite 
 ignorant on what day that feast fell. And so they dined 
 together. 
 
 " And on a certain day, while he was alone, the tempter 
 came upon him in the form of a blackbird, fluttering round 
 him, but with the sign of the cross he drove it away. And 
 immediately there followed a grievous temptation ; the image 
 of a certain woman, very beautiful, whom he had seen long 
 before, recurred to his mind through the malignity of the 
 enemy, so that for awhile he almost resolved to return to the 
 world, but rolling himself naked among thorns and brambles, 
 it passed away, and returned no more for ever after. 2 
 
 " Benedict's name was now become very famous, and the 
 superior of a neighbouring monastery being dead, the brethren 
 besought him to become their abbot, and after much entreaty 
 
 1 That is, the monastic habit. cis, with the addition that the thorns 
 
 2 A similar story is told of S. Fran- and brambles afterwards became roses. 
 
138 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 prevailed. But finding his rule too rigid, they mixed poison 
 with wine, and offered it to him, but stretching out his hand and 
 making the sign of the cross, the glass broke, and he perceived 
 their wickedness. And rising straightway, and mildly reproving 
 them, he returned to his beloved solitude. 
 
 "Numbers flocked to him thither, and he built twelve 
 monasteries on the lofty rocks surrounding his retreat. And 
 many of the nobles of Rome brought their children to be 
 dedicated to the Lord through him. And especially, iEquitius 
 brought his son Maurus, and Tertullus, the patrician, his son 
 Placidus, then of very tender age. 
 
 " And in one of these monasteries there was a certain monk 
 who could not endure to abide with the brethren during the 
 time of prayer, but the moment they knelt down, went out, 
 and with a wandering mind betook himself to things purely 
 transitory and worldly. And this being told the man of 
 God, and admonition proving unavailing, Benedict visited the 
 monastery, and when the psalms were ended, and the brethren 
 knelt down to pray, he saw a little black boy drawing the 
 monk in question by the gown out of the church. And 
 pointing it out to the superior, and the latter not being able 
 to see the boy, 'Let us pray,' said Benedict, 'that you may.' 
 And after two days, Maurus saw him, but still the superior 
 could not. And on the third day, after prayer, Benedict found 
 the monk standing outside the door, and striking him with his 
 staff, in reproof of the blindness of his heart, from that day 
 forth he was no more troubled by that black boy, but staid 
 out the prayers patiently with his brethren. 
 
 " But three of the monasteries, thus established by Bene- 
 dict, being on very lofty rocks where there were no springs of 
 water, the monks were obliged to descend daily to draw water 
 from the lake, — and complaining to Benedict, the latter, 
 accompanied by Placidus, ascended the mountain that night, 
 unknown to the brethren, and after prayer, laid three stones 
 one on the other, as a mark, and, next day, desired the 
 brethren to ascend and dig where they should find those three 
 stones. And arriving at the top and preparing to dig, they 
 found the water already oozing through. 
 
 " At another time, a certain Goth had been converted and 
 enrolled among the brethren. And being employed by Bene- 
 dict in cutting down brambles on the edge of the lake, the 
 iron of his billhook flew off and sunk in the water where it 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 139 
 
 was very deep. And Benedict, being told of this mischance, 
 came to the spot, and taking the handle out of the Goth's 
 hand, and dropping the end of it into the lake, straightway the 
 iron rose up from the bottom of the water and re-entered into 
 its place. And the holy man returned the billhook to the 
 Goth, saying, ' Take it and work, and be not afflicted. ' 
 
 " And on a certain day, Placidus, the young monk, going 
 to draw water, incautiously fell into the lake. Benedict, in 
 his cell, knowing what had happened, called to Maurus and 
 bade him go to the youth's assistance. And having asked and 
 received his benediction, Maurus did so, and running over the 
 water as if it had been dry land, caught him by the hair, as he 
 was sinking, and brought him to the shore, and then only 
 perceived that he had walked on the water. The man of God, 
 Benedict, imputed this, not to his own merits, but to the 
 obedience of Maurus ; while Maurus, on the contrary, main- 
 tained that it was in virtue solely of Benedict's command. 
 But Placidus himself intervened as arbiter in this contest of 
 humility, saying, ' When I was dragged out, I saw above my 
 head the goatskin robe 1 of the Abbot, and perceived that it 
 was he himself who saved me from the waters.' 
 
 " And now the love of Christ spreading wider and wider 
 through that region, and many forsaking the life of vanity for 
 the yoke of the Redeemer, a certain Florentius, the priest of 
 the neighbouring church, and the grandfather of this our 
 present subdeacon Florentius, became greatly jealous and envi- 
 ous of Benedict, and, smitten by the malice of the old enemy, 
 mixed poison in a cake and sent it to him as a present, and 
 Benedict received it thankfully, but the guile was not hid from 
 him. Wherefore he commanded a raven, which came every 
 day to be fed by him, to carry it away to some spot where no 
 man could find it. And the raven, after fluttering round and 
 round it, and croaking as if unable or unwilling to touch it, at 
 last flew away with it, and returned three hours afterwards for 
 its accustomed meal. 
 
 " But the persecutions of Florentius still continuing, Bene- 
 dict removed to Monte Cassino, then crowned by the temple 
 of Apollo, the idol of the district; and preaching to the 
 people, he converted them and overthrew the temple, and 
 built on its site his new monastery. But the old enemy, 
 greatly raging thereat, no longer secretly or by dream, but in 
 
 1 The • Mellotes, ' worn in imitation of the Egyptian monks. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 open vision now appeared to him (as he told his disciples), 
 and with great clamour, with eyes and mouth of flame, ex- 
 claimed to him, ' Benedicte, Benedicte — nay rather Maledicte, 
 accursed one! why persecutest thou me?' and denounced 
 vengeance against him. And thenceforth he threw every 
 obstacle in the way of the new edifice. On one occasion, in 
 spite of their utmost efforts, the monks could not move a 
 stone which had been cut for the building, till Benedict, being 
 sent for, perceived him sitting upon it ; he fled at the sign of 
 the cross, and the stone was immediately raised and lodged in 
 its place. At another time he raised a magical delusion, 
 through which the whole kitchen appeared to be on fire, but 
 while the brethren were hurrying with water to put it out, 
 Benedict arrived, and at the sign of the cross that phantasm 
 disappeared. On another occasion, during the progress of the 
 building, S. Benedict was praying in his cell, when Satan 
 looked in, and said that he was on his way to the monastery. 
 The Saint sent with all speed to warn the brethren, but 
 scarcely had the message been delivered when he threw down 
 the wall, and crushed a young monk to death beneath it. 
 Benedict ordered the body to be brought to him and laid in 
 his cell, on the mat on which he was wont to pray, and 
 shutting the door, he prayed more earnestly than usual, and 
 that self-same hour the dead man revived, and he sent him 
 out whole, to assist in repairing the wall by the fall of which 
 he had been killed. 
 
 " And about this time the man of God began to possess the 
 spirit of prophecy, to predict the future, and to announce 
 things absent to those present. The brother of one of his 
 monks, a layman, but very devout, and who was accustomed 
 to come to him once a year, fasting, yielded, after several 
 refusals, to the instances of a fellow traveller, who prevailed 
 on him, by the attractions of food, a pleasant meadow and a 
 fountain of clear water, to refresh himself during his journey. 
 Presenting himself to Benedict in the evening, the Saint, who 
 knew all that had passed, reproved him for his gluttony, and 
 prescribed him penance. 
 
 "And Totila, king of the Goths, hearing that Benedict 
 possessed the spirit of prophecy, and willing to prove him, 
 attired Riggo, his armour-bearer, in his royal sandals, robes 
 and crown, and sent him, with three of his chief Counts, 
 Vulteric, Ruderic and Blidi, to the monastery. Benedict, 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 141 
 
 witnessing his approach from a lofty place whereon he sat, 
 called out to him, ' Put off, my son, those borrowed trappings ; 
 they are not thine own.' And Totila, hearing of this, went 
 himself to visit him, and perceiving him from a distance 
 seated, he presumed not to approach, but prostrated himself 
 on the earth, and would not rise till, after having been thrice 
 bidden to do so by Benedict, the servant of Christ deigned 
 to raise him himself, and chid him for his misdeeds, and in 
 few words foretold him all that was to befal him, the years 
 of his^reign and the period of his death. All of which fell 
 out accordingly. And from thenceforth Totila was less cruel 
 than before. 
 
 "And when a famine prevailed greatly throughout Cam- 
 pania, and the five last loaves had been eaten in the monastery, 
 and the brethren wore very long faces, Benedict reproved 
 them, and passing the night in prayer, the following morning 
 two hundred measures of meal were found at the door. 
 
 " And his sister Scholastica, a virgin dedicated to the Lord 
 from her infancy, came once a year to see Benedict, who 
 went down to visit her at a house not far distant, belonging 
 to the monastery. And having once passed the whole day 
 in prayer and praise with some of the brethren, and night 
 coming on, they supped together, and while still at table, that 
 holy woman besought him not to leave her, but to sit up till 
 morning, discoursing concerning the joys of heaven. And 
 Benedict replying that he could on no account sleep out of 
 his cell, she clasped her fingers and placed them on the table, 
 and leaning her head upon them, shed a flood of tears, praying 
 to the Lord. The sky had till then been so clear that not 
 a cloud was to be seen, but immediately such a storm of 
 thunder and lightning arose, and such a deluge of rain came 
 down, that, although the storm ceased at the very moment 
 when she raised her head from the table, it was impossible 
 for Benedict to leave the house, and they watched and held 
 holy converse accordingly till the morning. 
 
 " And shortly before his decease, standing at the window 
 by night, and praying to God, suddenly he perceived a great 
 light, and (as he thereafter declared) the whole world was 
 brought together before his eyes, collected, as under a single 
 ray of the sun. For his spirit being dilated and rapt into 
 God, he saw without difficulty everything that is beneath God. 
 
 " And at the hour of his death there appeared unto two of 
 
142 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 the^ brethren, then absent and apart from each other, the self- 
 same vision, — for they saw a path stretching from his cell up to 
 heaven, strewed with robes of silk, and with numberless lamps 
 burning all along it, ascending towards the East. And behold, 
 a man, of majestic mien and in seemly attire, stood over 
 against them, and asked, 'Whose that path was?' And they 
 confessing that they knew not, he answered, ' This is the path 
 through which Benedict, the beloved of God, is ascending to 
 heaven.' And thereby they knew of his decease." 
 
 6. Of S. Bruno. 
 
 [Born c. a.d. 1030, died 1101. Founder of the Carthusian order, a 
 branch of the Benedictines. Chiefly from the ' Storia di S. Brunone, 5 
 by Ercole Zanetti, Bologna, 4to, 1741.] 
 
 "S. Bruno was born at Cologne before the middle of the 
 eleventh century, and after completing his education, with the 
 highest reputation, both there and at Paris, he removed to 
 Rheims, where he became the Scholasticus, or superintendent 
 of the schools of the diocese, and taught theology in the 
 College. While thus occupied, a certain Raymond, Doctor 
 of Theology, then in the highest repute for learning and 
 holiness, and a most distinguished preacher, was taken ill and 
 died, with every external mark of piety. His obsequies were 
 prepared, and friends and acquaintance, including Bruno, 
 were gathered round the bier, when, on attempting to lift it, 
 the stiff dead corpse rose up and spoke, at intervals, ' Justo 
 Dei judicio accusatus sum,' — 'Justo Dei judicio judicatus 
 sum' — 'Justo Dei judicio condemnatus sum,' and then lay 
 down again. From that moment Bruno determined to lead 
 the life of angels and of solitude. 
 
 " Six of his friends joining in this resolution, three angels 
 appeared to Bruno in a dream, instructing him to journey to 
 Grenoble, where the bishop Hugo would further their wishes. 
 About the same time Hugo saw in a dream seven stars rising 
 from the ground, which seemed to lead him to the valley of 
 the Chartreuse, near his residence, where Christ, appearing, 
 commanded him to build a church. Bruno, meanwhile, and 
 his companions, having distributed their property to the poor, 
 departed from Rheims, and in due time arrived at Grenoble, 
 where the bishop received them gladly, as expectant of their 
 arrival, and recounted to them his dream. And after some 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 143 
 
 days he conducted them to the Chartreuse, and made over 
 to them the property of the district, and built them a church 
 and seven cells around it, and gave them a new and dis- 
 tinctive habit, since known as that of the Carthusian order. 
 They lived here in the utmost austerity, in perpetual silence, 
 occupying themselves in prayer and labour, and supporting 
 themselves by the transcription of religious books. 
 
 " After six years' retirement Bruno was summoned to Rome 
 by Urban II, to assist him with his counsels, and he went 
 very reluctantly. But after many entreaties, and after re- 
 fusing the archbishopric of Reggio, offered him by the Pope, 
 he obtained permission to retire to Squillace, in Calabria, 
 where he founded a new monastery named La Torre, the 
 second of the order. And one day Roger, Count of Sicily, 
 hunting in the forest, discovered him praying, and imme- 
 diately dismounted out of reverence, and knelt before him, 
 and had much discourse with him afterwards, offering him 
 rich gifts, which Bruno declined. And not long afterwards, 
 Sergius, a Greek, one of Roger's captains, undertook to 
 murder him at the instigation of the Prince of Capua, with 
 whom his master was at war in defence of the Papal autho- 
 rity against the anti-pope, Guibert. But when the night 
 was come on which the deed was to be done, Bruno appeared 
 to the Count in a dream, as he slept in his tent, and re- 
 vealed the treachery, which Roger, awaking, immediately took 
 measures to counteract. Roger thereafter bestowed many 
 privileges on Bruno and his monastery. 1 
 
 " Bruno remained during the rest of his life at La Torre, 
 and died there in the odour of sanctity, on the sixth of 
 October, 1101." 
 
 7. Of S. Bernard. 
 
 [Of the Cistercian branch of the* Benedictines. — From Peter de Natalibus.] 
 
 "Bernard was born in the year of grace 1091, in Burgundy, 
 of noble parents, and lived in holiness from his youth up, till 
 the age of twenty-three, when he entered the Cistercian order, 
 along with his three brothers, whom he had attracted to the 
 angelical life by his example. On taking farewell of their 
 father, they found their youngest brother, a boy, playing in the 
 
 1 This was the first Roger, Count of Sicily — youngest of the twelve gallant 
 sons of Tancred de Hauteville. 
 
144 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 court of the castle, and the eldest said, 'Farewell, dear Nivard ; 
 you will now be lord of everything; we have forsaken all.' — 
 'But you have taken heaven for your portion and left me 
 earth only ! ' said Nivard, and soon afterwards he followed 
 them to their retreat, as did eventually their father and sister, 
 and thus the whole family were gathered to Christ. 
 
 "And being sent by the abbot to found the abbey of 
 Clairvaux, Bernard gave himself more and more to abstinence 
 and prayer, and became so abstracted from sense, that on one 
 occasion he travelled for a whole day beside the lake of 
 Lausanne without being aware of it. 
 
 " And miracles testified his sanctity. On a certain occasion, 
 while dictating a letter in the open air, it began to rain ; the 
 monk who acted as his scribe, offered to rise, but Bernard 
 forbade him, saying, 4 Go on, for it is God's service,' — and he 
 finished the letter in the midst of that shower of rain, without 
 a drop wetting the paper. On another occasion an infinite 
 multitude of flies had appeared in a certain monastery, and 
 grievously annoyed the brethren, — which the man of God 
 excommunicated, and on the morrow all the flies were found 
 dead. And even in his boyhood, when, suffering from headache, 
 a certain woman had offered to soothe him by singing, and he 
 drove her indignantly away, the headache was immediately cured. 
 
 " And being devoted to the Blessed Virgin, and feeling, on 
 a certain time, while engaged in writing concerning her excel- 
 lency, extremely overworked and ill, he sent one of the brethren 
 to pray for him in the church, — who prayed at three altars, to 
 the Virgin, to S. Lawrence, and to S. Benedict. And at that 
 moment the Virgin entered his cell, accompanied by these two 
 Saints (or as some represent it by two angels), and touched 
 him, and he was immeasurably refreshed and strengthened. 
 
 "And William, Duke of Aquitaine, a licentious man and a 
 favourer of the Anti-pope, Anacletus, had deposed two bishops. 
 S. Bernard, after vainly endeavouring to induce him to reinstate 
 them, consecrated the host, and went forth to the Duke, who 
 stood without, as one excommunicated, and summoned him 
 to submit himself in the name of Christ, as personally present. 
 His face seemed on fire, and his eyes to dart lightning as he 
 spoke, and the Duke fell to the ground, and besought pardon, 
 which the Saint granted, and the bishops were restored 
 immediately. 
 
 " And thus living, he died also in holiness, departing from 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 145 
 
 the flesh on the twentieth of August, a.d. 1153, in his sixty- 
 third year." 1 
 
 XXII. Legends of National and Local Saints. 2 
 
 Of these — forming two classes, the one including the Apostles, 
 or Missionary Saints of different countries or provinces, such 
 as S. Augustine of England, S. Boniface of Germany, etc. ; the 
 other, saints of more restricted celebrity, as S. Sebald of 
 Nuremberg, S. Raniere of Pisa, S. Zenobio of Florence, S. Fina 
 of S. Gimignano, and many others — names frequently unknown 
 in the calendars of the Church — I shall give no account here, 
 as their histories have for the most part been illustrated by 
 some one distinguished master, under whose works, such 
 notices will find more fitting place. 
 
 And for the same cause, I postpone for the present the 
 legends connected with the ' Santa Casa ' of Loretto, the 
 ' Volto Santo ' of Lucca, the ' Cintola ' or girdle of the Blessed 
 Virgin at Prato, etc. 
 
 XXIII. Table of the Symbols, or Emblems, of the more 
 popular Saints of Christendom, as represented by 
 the artists of the middle ages. 
 
 [To those desirous of entering deeper into this branch of symbolism, let 
 me recommend the ' Ikonographie der Heiligen,' by Von Radowitz, 
 Berlin, 1834, and 'Die Attribute der Heiligen,' by A von. M., 
 Hanover, 1843 — works of great value for reference, being arranged 
 dictionary-wise, in the former according to the alphabetical order of 
 the saints — in the latter, of the emblems.] 
 
 S. Agatha — usually carries a pair of pincers and her breasts, 
 
 1 As already mentioned, the legends 
 of S. Domenic, S. Francis, etc., will 
 be found in the text of the following 
 ' Sketches. ' 
 
 2 For these, Brocchi's or Razzi's 
 histories of the Saints of Tuscany, 
 Rader's ' Bavaria Sancta ' and ' Pia ' 
 of which the original edition of 1615- 
 28 is to be preferred, on account of 
 the beautiful engravings by Raphael 
 Sadeler), the 'Acta Sanctorum Belgii,' 
 6 vols. 4to. 1782, the essays of Dr. 
 Milner in Carter's ' Ancient Sculpture 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 and Painting of England,' etc. may 
 be consulted — besides separate opus- 
 cula innumerable, and the immense 
 collection of the Bollandists. The 
 more general legendaries, moreover, 
 although professedly inclusive only of 
 Saints common to all Christendom, 
 frequently embrace those peculiar to 
 the province or country where they are 
 published ; those of Spain for instance, 
 will be found in the ' Flos Sanctorum ' 
 of Villegas, and those of Great Britain 
 and Ireland in Alban Butler, etc. 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 which were cut off during her martyrdom. After being 
 taken back to prison, a venerable man entered and told 
 her that he thought she might recover, and believing him 
 a physician, she refused any medicament except from 
 Christ, — but the old man, smiling, answered that he was 
 S. Peter, and had been sent to her by Christ, — and 
 immediately disappearing, she found herself whole and 
 well : — 
 
 S. Agnes — is accompanied by a lamb, as emblematical of her 
 name and her purity : — 
 
 S. Ambrose, — Doctor of the Church — bears a scourge, in 
 allusion to his repulse of the Emperor Theodosius the 
 Great from the Cathedral of Milan, after the massacre of 
 Thessalonica, — vide Gibbon, chap. 27 : — 
 
 S. Andrew — the cross usually known by his name : — 
 
 S. Antony the Abbot (of Nitria) — a staff and a bell (denoting 
 mendicancy), and a pig, in allusion to his having crushed 
 the desires of the flesh, or to his having been originally a 
 swineherd, — a tradition however discredited by the silence 
 of S. Athanasius : — 
 
 S. Apollonia — carries a pair of pincers holding a tooth, all 
 her teeth having been drawn in the course of her martyr- 
 dom : — 
 
 S. Augustine, Doctor of the Church — a heart, sometimes 
 represented burning, or pierced with an arrow, allusive (it 
 is supposed) to the metaphor in the ninth book of the 
 Confessions, "Thou hadst pierced our hearts with thy 
 charity," — ed. Lib. of the Fathers ; p. 156 : — 
 
 S. Barbara — either carrying, or standing beside the tower in 
 which her pagan father had shut her up, that she might 
 not be seen of men ; in building the bath he made two 
 windows only, but she ordered the workman to add a third, 
 and then descending into it, prayed that the water might 
 be sanctified, and so baptized herself. Her father returning 
 and enquiring why she had made the third window, she 
 answered, " Because there are three who give light to the 
 world, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost." Dis- 
 covering that she was a Christian, he denounced her to 
 the authorities, and ultimately beheaded her with his own 
 hand : — 
 
 S. Bartholomew — is known by the knife, with which he was 
 flayed alive : — 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 147 
 
 S. Benedict — by the cup, broken, in which poison was offered 
 him, as related supra, in his legend, p. 138:— 
 
 S. Bernardino, the Franciscan — by a tablet, or disk (some- 
 times that of the sun), inscribed with the letters 3f 5? 
 which he was accustomed to write on pieces of parchment 
 or paper, and distribute — and sometimes by a globe of 
 fire, which is said to have descended on him from heaven, 
 and removed an impediment in his speech which injured 
 the eloquence of his preaching : — 
 
 S. Blaise (Biagio, Ital.) — by a comb or rake of iron, one of 
 the instruments of his martyrdom : — 
 
 S. Catherine — by a broken wheel, set with knives, as described 
 in her legend, supra, p. 62. She frequently wears a 
 crown, as a princess : — , 
 
 S. Catherine of Siena, of the third order of S. Domenic — by 
 the stigmata of Our Saviour, miraculously inflicted upon 
 her hands, feet and side : — 
 
 S. Cecilia — by a small organ, as the patroness of church- 
 music, in allusion to her zeal in singing the praise of God, 
 — and by a wreath of white and red roses, intermixed, — 
 see her legend, supra, p. 5 8 : — 
 
 S. Christina — by a millstone round her neck, with which, for 
 confessing Christ, she was thrown into the lake of Bolsena, 
 but angels supported her on the surface, and Our Saviour, 
 . descending from heaven, baptized her with his own hands, 
 and gave her his own name, and commanded S. Michael to 
 carry her to the shore — she was afterwards beheaded : — 
 
 S. Christopher — of gigantic stature, carries Our Saviour, as a 
 little child, on his shoulder, as described in his legend, 
 supra, p. 7 2 : — 
 
 S. Clara (Chiara, Ital), of the third order of S. Francis — in 
 the dress of the order, carries the lily of chastity, or the 
 receptacle of the host, with which she discomfited the 
 Saracens when they attacked the monastery at Assisi : — 
 
 S. Domenic — is distinguished by a star on his head, and some- 
 times a dog lying at his feet, and holding in its mouth a 
 blazing torch, in allusion to a dream of his mother, pre- 
 vious to his birth, that she had brought forth- a dog that 
 should set fire to the world : — 
 
 S. Dorothy — carries roses and apples. While led to martyr- 
 dom, a youth, named Theophilus, begged her, scofhngly, 
 to send him some roses from the paradise of her spouse, 
 
148 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 which she promised to do. And when about to be be- 
 headed, an angel suddenly stood beside her, and pre- 
 sented her three apples and three roses, which he said he 
 had brought her from the paradise of Christ ; she besought 
 him to deliver them to Theophilus, and he believed, and 
 was martyred also : — 
 S. Elizabeth of Hungary — is represented crowned, and with 
 a basket of bread, or of roses — according to the legend, 
 that meeting her husband, while carrying bread to the 
 poor, on his lifting the napkin to see what was beneath it 
 the loaves were found miraculously changed into red and 
 white roses. See her Life by the Comte de Montalem- 
 bert :— 
 
 S. Francis — his hands, feet and side marked with the stigmata, 
 according to the legend, infra, vol. ii. p. 38 : — 
 
 S. George — in armour, carrying the banner of the cross, and 
 with a dragon at his feet. See his legend, supra, p. 
 
 63 — 
 
 S. Gregory, the Great, Pope and Doctor of the Church — with 
 a dove on his shoulder, or near his ear, as inspired by the 
 Holy Ghost — Peter the Deacon having informed Paul, 
 the biographer of Gregory, that he had seen the dove 
 thus in communication with him while dictating his homi- 
 lies on Ezekiel. Opera (of S. Gregory), torn. iv. col. 15, 
 ed. Bened.: — 
 
 S. Helen, mother of Constantine — carrying the cross. See 
 the legend, supra, p. 49 : — 
 
 S. James the Greater (Sant' Iago of Compostella) — as a pil- 
 grim with staff and scallop-shell : — 
 
 S. James the Less — carrying a fuller's bar, the instrument of 
 his martyrdom : — 
 
 S. Jerome — naked, and striking his breast with a stone, doing 
 penance in the desert; or in the dress of a Cardinal, 
 with his attendant lion, as noticed in his legend, supra, 
 p. 127 :— 
 
 S. John the Baptist — carrying the cross and lamb : — 
 S. John the Apostle — a cup with a serpent rising out of it, in 
 allusion to his having drunk poison unharmed. Part, at 
 least, of his dress is always green. As an Evangelist, he is 
 accompanied by the eagle, one of the four symbolical 
 beasts of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse : — 
 S. Joseph — carries the rod, flowering, with the dove resting 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 149 
 
 upon it, according to the legend, supra, p. 27. He is 
 always represented as an old man, and part of his dress is 
 generally saffron : — 
 
 S. Jude — bears a club, the instrument of his martyrdom : — 
 
 Judas Iscariot — the purse, — his hair either gray or bistre in 
 colour, and his robe yellow — bistre and yellow being 
 colours of treachery : — 
 
 S. Laurence, the Deacon — the gridiron on which he was 
 roasted alive, vide infra, vol. ii. p. 239 : — 
 
 S. Lucia — her eyes, which were plucked out in the course of 
 her martyrdom, or with the wound in her neck of which 
 she expired. Vide infra, vol. ii. p. 118 : — 
 
 S. Luke the Evangelist — is attended, as such, by an ox. He 
 is sometimes represented painting the portrait of the Virgin 
 — the fame of a Byzantine painter of the same name, 
 author of many of the miraculous images preserved in 
 Italy and elsewhere having been popularly transferred to 
 him. 
 
 S. Margaret — bears a cross, and treads on the dragon which 
 appeared to her when she prayed the Lord to show her, 
 in visible form, the enemy she contended against; the 
 monster was in the act of swallowing her when she made 
 the sign of the cross, and killed it : — 
 
 S. Mark, the Evangelist — is, in that character, accompanied 
 by the lion, of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse : — 
 
 S. Mary, the Blessed Virgin — carries, or is seated near, the 
 lily of chastity, and is usually robed in blue and red, with 
 a star upon her shoulder : — 
 
 S. Mary Magdalen — bears the cup of ointment, with which 
 she anointed Our Saviour's feet ; she is robed in red, the 
 colour of love : — 
 
 S. Matthew, Apostle and Evangelist — carries a purse, in allu- 
 sion to his original vocation, or a sword, the instrument of 
 his martyrdom, and is attended, in his character of Evan- 
 gelist, by an angel : — 
 
 S. Matthias, the Apostle — bears a halbert, the instrument of 
 his martyrdom : — 
 
 S. Michael the Archangel — is represented in armour treading 
 on the devil, or holding the balance of good and evil : — 
 
 S. .Nicholas — carries three golden balls (originally purses), 
 in allusion to a legend, for which see infra, vol. ii. p. 
 227 : — 
 
IS© 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 S. Paul — the sword, with which he was beheaded ; the type 
 of his countenance is traditional, from very early times : — 
 
 S. Peter — the keys, — his likeness is also traditional ; in the 
 ancient mosaics his hair is sometimes arranged in three 
 distinct tires, concerning which (and the keys) see Ciam- 
 pini's Vetera Monimenta, torn. i. p. 272. He is generally 
 robed in blue and yellow : — 
 
 S. Peter Martyr, the Dominican — has a hatchet or knife stick- 
 ing in his head ; vide infra, vol. ii. p. 148 : — 
 
 S. Philip, the Apostle — carries a cross, significative of his 
 martyrdom : — 
 
 S. Roch — a staff, and wears a pilgrim's robe, partly drawn 
 aside, so as to expose a plague-boil on his left thigh — 
 allusive to an illness contracted in attending the sick at 
 Piacenza : — 
 
 S. Sebastian — is pierced with arrows, or holds one in his hand; 
 
 see his legend, infra, vol. ii. p. 276 : — 
 S. Simon, the Apostle — carries a saw, the instrument of his 
 
 martyrdom : — 
 
 S. Stephen, the Protomartyr — a stone, — which sometimes rests 
 on his head : — 
 
 S. Thomas, the Apostle — a carpenter's square, as patron of 
 architects, in allusion to a legend of his having engaged 
 to build a palace in the Roman fashion for Gundafor king 
 of India, which on the return of the latter after an absence 
 of two years, and his complaint that nothing had been 
 done, the Apostle interpreted as implying the edification 
 of the Church, which he had greatly advanced by conver- 
 sion of the Gentiles during the interval in question, — see 
 the second book of Ordericus Vitalis : — 
 
 S. Thomas Aquinas, Dominican — a star on his breast, and 
 the tabernacle of the host in his hands, in allusion to 
 his composition of the office for the feast of Corpus 
 Domini : — 
 
 Tobias — the fish : — 
 
 S. Ursula — an arrow; see her legend, supra, p. 70: — 
 S. Veronica — a handkerchief, imprinted with the likeness of 
 Our Saviour, according to the legend, that she wiped his 
 face with it while on the way to Calvary, and that the 
 divine likeness, the vera icon, was miraculously transferred 
 to it. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 151 
 
 I may close this list with a quotation from Sir David 
 Lindsay's 'Monarchic,' or 'Dialog betwix Experience and 
 ane Courteour : ' 
 
 c Of Images usit amang Christian Men.'' 
 COURTIER. 
 
 " Father, yet ane thing I wald spier ; 
 Behold, in every kirk and quier, 
 Throuch Christendome, in burgh and land, 
 Imagis, maid with mannis hand, — 
 To quhome bene gevin divers names, 
 Sum Peter and Paull, sum Johne and James ; 
 Sanct Peter, carvit with his keyis, 
 Sanct Michaell, with his wingis and weyis ; 1 
 Sanct Katherine, with her swerd and quheil, 2 
 Ane hynde set up besyde Sanct Geill : 
 It wer too lang for till descryve 
 Sanct Francis, with his woundis fyve, 
 Sanct Tredwall, als, there may be sene, 
 Quhilk on ane prik hes baith hir ene, — 
 Sanct Paull, weill paintit, with ane sworde, 
 As he wald fecht at the first worde, — 
 Sanct Apolline on altar standis, 
 With all hir teeth intill hir handis, . . . 
 With costlie colouris, fyne and fair — 
 Ane thowsand mo I micht declair , . . 
 All thir on altar stately standis, 
 Priestis cryand for their offrandis ; 
 To quhome we commons on our kneis 
 Does worschip all thir imagereis, 
 In kirk, in queir, and in the closter, 
 Prayand to them our Paternoster, — 
 In pilgrimage from toun to toun, 
 With offerand and with orisoun, 
 To them aye babbland on our beidis, 
 That they wald help us in our neidis. 
 Quhat differis this, declair to me, 
 From the Gentilis idolatrie ? " 
 
 EXPERIENCE. 
 
 " Gif that be trew that thou reportis, 
 It gais right neir thir samin sortis : 
 Bot wee, be counsall of clergie, 
 Has licence to mak imagerie, 
 
 1 Scales. 
 
 2 Wheel. 
 
152 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Quhilk of unlernit bene the buikis; 1 
 
 For when lawit 2 folk upon them luikis, 
 
 It bringeth to rememberance 
 
 Of Sanctis lyvis the circumstance, — 
 
 How, the faith for to fortifye, 
 
 They sufferit pane richt paciently : 
 
 Seand the image of the rood, 3 
 
 Men suld remember on the blood 
 
 Quhilk Christ, intill his passioun, 
 
 Did sched for our salvatioun; 
 
 Or quhen thou seis ane portraiture 
 
 Of blyssit Marie, virgine pure, 
 
 Ane bonnie babe upone hir knee, 
 
 Then in thy mynd remember thee 
 
 The wordis quhilk the prophet said, 
 
 How sche suld be baith mother and maid : 
 
 But quha that sittis doun on their kneis, 
 
 Prayand till ony imagereis 
 
 With orisoun or offerand, 
 
 Kneland with cap into their hand, 
 
 Na difference bene, I say to thee, 
 
 From the Gentilis idolatrie." 
 
 Sir David adds a long and curious list of the pilgrimages 
 then popular in Scotland, most of the principal Saints being 
 patrons or protectors against individual distempers or calami- 
 ties — as S. Roch against the plague, S. Apollonia against the 
 tooth-ache, S. Barbara against thunder and lightning, etc. etc. 
 
 4 ' Howbeit thir 4 simple pepill rude 
 Think their intentioun be bot gude ; 
 Wo be to priestis, I say for me, 
 Quhilk suld schaw them the veritie ! " 
 
 XXIV. Floating Legends. 
 
 Of these — a numerous class, either attached to the names of 
 Saints of celebrity, whose lives are matter of history rather 
 than legend, or scattered, like flowers or weeds, as their worth 
 may qualify them, nameless and unowned, on the tide of 
 tradition — some are very beautiful, parables of the deepest 
 wisdom ; others again are purely ludicrous, inventions for the 
 recommendation of particular doctrines of the Church during 
 the middle ages. A store of both may be found in the 
 ' Vitae Patrum ' of Rosweyde, in the folio of Herolt, entitled 
 
 1 The famous argument of Gregory the Great against the Iconoclasts. 
 2 Lay. 3 Cross. 4 These. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 153 
 
 ' Sermones Discipuli de Sanctis,' with the 1 Promptuarium 
 Exemplorum' that follows it, — in the ' Gesta Romanorum ' 
 (of which the old English version has been so admirably 
 edited by Sir Frederick Madden), and in other works of the 
 fifteenth and preceding centuries. I subjoin a few specimens 
 of both varieties. 
 
 1. That the Body of Christ is verily and indeed present, body 
 and blood, in the Holy Eucharist. — " An ancient hermit dwelt 
 in Scitis, who although of great fame, being ignorant (idiota) 
 and simple, maintained that the bread which we eat is not in 
 very nature the body of Christ, but only so after a figure. 
 And two other ancient hermits, seeing this, and having 
 compassion on him because he erred in simplicity, spoke to 
 him thereupon, exhorting him to believe as Holy Church 
 teacheth. But he answered, ' Unless I know this thing more 
 clearly, I cannot believe.' And they agreed together to pray 
 to God, that the truth might be manifested to him. And God 
 heard their prayer, and made known the truth thus to that 
 simple hermit. Coming all three to the church the following 
 Lord's day, and sitting together, they saw, after the bread had 
 been placed on the altar and consecrated, as it were a little 
 child above the altar, and when the priest began to break the 
 host, it appeared to them that an angel descended from 
 heaven with a knife, and divided that child, and received the 
 blood in the chalice. And the sacrifice being completed, 
 when that hermit went up with the others to communicate, it 
 appeared to him that to him alone was given a particle of the 
 flesh of that child, all bloody, and fearing greatly, he cried out 
 and said, ' Lord ! I believe verily that the bread consecrated 
 on thy altar is thy body, and the cup thy blood!' And im- 
 mediately the flesh appeared to him turned into bread, and he 
 communicated. And thanking God, he returned to his cell." 
 — Vite, lib. iii, cap. 7 ; Rosw. lib. v, p. 635. 
 
 2. Of the benefits of Fasting, and the necessity of Confession 
 and Commicnion before death. — "A pilgrim journeying to 
 Rome for devotion, and going by chance out of the road, 
 perceived the head of a man, which was continually opening 
 and shutting its eyes ; and being much frightened, and looking 
 earnestly at it, the head spoke to him and said, ' Why dost 
 thou thus stare at me?' And the pilgrim answered, 'Because 
 I wonder at thee, that thou canst speak, being without a 
 body.' The head answered, ' Marvel not, for God willeth not 
 
54 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 that my soul depart till I have communicated from the hand 
 of the priest.' The pilgrim answered, 'Tell me how thou 
 hast obtained this grace from God.' The head replied, ' Know, 
 that every year I fasted on bread and water on the vigil of the 
 Annunciation, and on that account I cannot die without 
 confession.' The pilgrim said, 'If thou wishest it, I will 
 carry thee to the Pope.' The head answered, ' If you will do 
 so, I shall be very much obliged to you.' Then the pilgrim 
 took up the head, and carried it to the Pope and Cardinals, 
 and the head spoke before them all. And the holy father, 
 assembling the people, showed them this miracle of the 
 Mother of Christ, and after the head had received the holy 
 sacrament, the soul immediately departed, and entered para- 
 dise." — Vite de' SS. Padri, lib. vi. 
 
 3. Of the duty and benefit of Alms-giving. — "Peter was a 
 rich man and a miser. And many poor men, standing in the 
 sun and discoursing of good alms-givers, one of them blaming 
 Peter, his fellow said, 'What will you give me if I get an 
 alms from him?' And the rest reputing it impossible, they 
 laid a wager upon it. And going to Peter's house, he awaited 
 his return home. And as it pleased God, as Peter returned, 
 a servant was entering in, carrying a basket of bread, and 
 Peter seeing the beggar, and having nothing at hand to strike 
 him with, seized one of the loaves and flung it in his face, — 
 but the beggar ran and picked it up, and fled, and told his 
 companions what he had got from Peter. 
 
 " But after two days Peter sickened nigh unto death, and 
 saw at night, in a vision, how he was led to the judgment-seat 
 of God, and how all his works, good and evil, were put into 
 the balance ; and there assembled on the one side a great 
 troop of devils, black and terrible, ready to seize on him, and 
 on the other stood angels, in the likeness of beautiful youths, 
 shining in white raiment, to aid and defend him. And they 
 sought if they could find aught of good in him, and finding 
 none, seeing that the evil preponderated, they stood sorrowful, 
 and one said to the other, ' Have we then no part at all in 
 him ? ' And the other said, ' Verily we find nothing good of 
 him except a loaf which he gave to Christ two days ago, and 
 even that not willingly.' And taking the loaf, he placed it in 
 the empty scale, and it weighed down the evil so far that the 
 balance was equal. Then the angels said to Peter, ' Go ! add 
 more alms to this loaf, for if not, be sure those devils will 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 155 
 
 have thee !' And waking, and perceiving the grace of God 
 which had shown .him this, he became from thenceforth 
 modest, wise and pitiful, so that he even took the clothes off 
 his back to give in alms, and finally sold himself as a slave, 
 that he might give the price to the poor." — Vite, lib. iv, cap. 
 14; Rosw. lib. i, p. 189. 
 
 4. Of the merits of Christ as making up the deficiency of 
 human righteousness. — "A man there was, that was seke nere 
 to the dethe, ande sawe ij Aungells, a goode ande a bade; the 
 which ij wedyne [weighed] in ballaunce his werkes, bothe 
 goode and bade. Ande when he sawe his goode werkes were 
 but fewe, then he seide, ' A ! Lorde Jhesu Criste, shalle it not 
 helpe me that thou deyeste for me, ande suffrede thy pynefulle 
 passione for me, ande was naylede to the crosse for me?' 
 Ande when he hade seide thus, he wepte faste. Ande anone a 
 grete nayle felle into the balaunce, where his goode werkes 
 were ; and than they weyede mych more than his badde ; 
 ande this man was sauyde, blessyde be God ! Deo gracias. 
 Amen." — Gesta Romanorum, p. 42 6. 1 
 
 5. Of the love of Christ. — " Beyonde the see was a noble 
 ladie, on whose house alle-way the sone shone on the day, 
 ande on the nyghte the mone. Of this many men mer- 
 vaylede. Atte last the fame of this come to the byshope, a 
 worthy man : ande he wente for to se here, hopynge that she 
 was of grete penaunce in clothinge, or in mete, or in othere 
 thinges. Ande when he come, he saw here alle-wey mery 
 ande glade. The Bishope saide, 'Dame, what ete ye?' She 
 answeride ande saide, that dyverse metes and delicate. Then 
 he askede if she vsede the hayre? She sayde, 'Nay.' After 
 this the byshope mervaylede, that Gode wolde shew so grete 
 mervaylle for such a woman. Ande when he hade take his 
 leve of the ladie, ande was gone his way, he thought he wolde 
 aske here more of anothere thinge, ande wente againe to here 
 and said, ' Loue ye not mekille Jhesu Criste ?' She said, ' Yis, 
 I loue him, for he is alle my loue ; for when I thinke on his 
 swetnesse, I may not withholde myself for gladnesse and 
 
 1 Both the preceding legends illus- among the Hindoos and Egyptians, 
 
 trate the popular opinion that the and is frequently depicted in the tombs 
 
 good and evil actions of each indi- of the Pharaohs. S. Michael figures 
 
 vidual were weighed by the angels in these legends as the heir or repre- 
 
 after death, and his lot determined sentative of Thoth, through the Grecian 
 
 accordingly. The same idea prevailed Hermes, or Mercury. 
 
i 5 6 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 myrthe that I euer fele in hyme.'" — Gesta Romanorum, p. 
 4". 1 
 
 6. Of S. Augustine and the angel. — While meditating on 
 his work ' De Trinitate,' S. Augustine betook himself to the 
 sea-shore, and as he walked, he beheld a little child attempting 
 to empty the ocean with a shell into a hole which he had dug 
 in the sand. And reproving him for his folly, " Is yours 
 less," said the child, " in deeming that you can comprehend 
 in your finite capacity, or express to others, the unfathomable 
 mystery of the Trinity?" 
 
 7. Another (finally), and a very beautiful legend — of a 
 monk on whose heart the benumbing thought had settled. 
 " Must not the bliss of eternity pall at last ? Shall we not 
 weary of heaven?" — and who, after having been beguiled into 
 a wood by the song of a bird, and having passed, as it seemed, 
 an hour there listening to it, returned to the monastery, to find 
 that a whole generation had passed away during his absence, 
 and to learn by this experience that an eternity will not suffice 
 to exhaust the bliss of Paradise — has been related with much 
 feeling and beauty by the Rev. R. Chenevix Trench, in his 
 volume entitled 'The Story of Justin Martyr, and other 
 Poems,' 1836. 
 
 XXV. Of the Signs which shall precede the Second 
 Coming of Our Lord. 
 
 These, as familiarised to the Christian world by S. Jerome, 
 are enumerated in one of the noblest passages of Jeremy 
 Taylor : — " The majesty of the Judge and the terrors of the 
 judgment shall be spoken aloud by the immediate forerunning 
 accidents, which shall be so great violences to the old con- 
 stitutions of nature, that it shall break her very bones, and 
 disorder her till she be destroyed. Saint Jerome relates out 
 of the Jews' books, that their doctors used to account fifteen 
 
 1 It is evident that a very different 
 spirit from that of pure asceticism — 
 that namely of the regular priesthood 
 as distinguished from the monastic 
 orders — animates this beautiful legend. 
 A similar feeling is traceable in another, 
 I believe of Italian origin, of a lady 
 of rank who vexed herself with the 
 thought that her domestic interfered 
 
 with her devotional duties, and on one 
 occasion when she had been called 
 away from Church by some sudden 
 summons, found on returning that the 
 pages that she had missed in her 
 breviary had been re-written in letters 
 of gold, and that an angel had taken 
 her place and prayed in her stead 
 during her absence. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 157 
 
 days of prodigy immediately before Christ's coming, and to 
 every day assign a wonder, any one of which if we should 
 chance to see in the days of our flesh, it would affiright us into 
 the like thoughts which the old world had, when they saw the 
 countries round about them covered with water and the Divine 
 vengeance ; or as those poor people near Adria and the 
 Mediterranean sea, when their houses and cities are entering 
 into graves, and the bowels of the earth rent with convulsions 
 and horrid tremblings. The sea (they say) shall rise fifteen 
 cubits above the highest mountains, and thence descend into 
 hollowness and a prodigious drought • and when they are 
 reduced again to their usual proportions, then all the beasts 
 and creeping things, the monsters and the usual inhabitants of 
 the sea shall be gathered together, and make fearful noises to 
 distract mankind : the birds shall mourn and change their 
 songs into threnes and sad accents : rivers of fire shall rise 
 from the East to West, and the stars shall be rent into threads 
 of light, and scatter like the beards of comets ; then shall be 
 fearful earthquakes, and the rocks shall rend in pieces, the 
 trees shall distil blood, and the mountains and fairest struc- 
 tures shall return unto their primitive dust ; the wild beasts 
 shall leave their dens, and come into the companies of men, 
 so that you shall hardly tell how to call them, herds of men 
 or congregations of beasts ; then shall the graves open and 
 give up their dead, and those which are alive in nature and 
 dead in fear shall be forced from the rocks whither they went 
 to hide them, and from caverns of the earth where they would 
 fain have been concealed ; because their retirements are dis- 
 mantled, and their rocks are broken into wider ruptures, and 
 admit a strange light into their secret bowels ; and the men 
 being forced abroad into the theatre of mighty horrors, shall 
 run up and down, distracted and at their wits' end ; and then 
 some shall die, and some shall be changed, and by this time 
 the elect shall be gathered together from the four quarters 
 of the world, and Christ shall come along with them to 
 judgment." — Sermons, etc., Works, torn, v, p. 13, ed. Heber. 
 It may be added, that the mysterious incarnation of evil, 
 Antichrist, is never omitted in the Christian representations of 
 these portents preliminary to the Last Day. 1 
 
 1 The Jewish tradition has been he is styled, Armillus, who, according 
 much amplified since S. Jerome's time, to the 'Abakat Rucal,' is to be born 
 especially as regards Antichrist, or as at Rome, to declare himself the Mes- 
 
158 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 XXVI. Of the Last Judgment. 
 
 The scenery of the Last Judgment, in popular estimation, 
 seems to have been gathered partly from the Bible, partly 
 from the ancient traditions of the Oriental, and more especially 
 the Greek Christians. The Saviour is to descend in clouds 
 above the valley of Jehoshaphat, attended by the nine orders 
 of angels — the cross, the crown and other instruments of the 
 Passion borne around him, the five wounds shining like rubies, 
 the Virgin Mary attendant on his right hand, the Baptist on 
 the left, accompanied respectively by the Saints of the Old 
 and New Testament — the whole forming a vast amphitheatre 
 of glory. The Book of Life is then to be opened and the 
 trumpet blown, summoning man to judgment. The angels 
 are to separate the good from the wicked ; the latter are to 
 be cast into hell ; the former, transfigured and perfected, to 
 be translated to heaven to reign with Christ in glory for ever 
 and ever. 
 
 I may close these notices with a translation of the cele- 
 brated hymn ' Dies Irse,' as expressive of the feelings of dread 
 and almost despair with which the Christians of the middle 
 ages — taught to look on Christ as Jehovah rather than the 
 merciful Mediator through whose atoning blood and all-suffi- 
 cient merits the sinner is reconciled to his Maker — looked 
 forward to the awful consummation of all things : — 
 
 DIES IRJE, DIES ILLA, etc. 
 
 ' ' Day of wrath, and doom of fire — 
 (Hark the Seer's, the Sibyl's lyre !) 
 Earth and Heaven shall expire. 
 
 " How each heart will thrill with fear 
 When Christ Jesus shall appear, 
 Sifting all things, Judge severe ! 
 
 "At the trumpet's hoarse command, 
 Echoing through Death's dreary land, 
 Each before the throne must stand. 
 
 siah, receive the homage of the Romans Messiah, the Son of David, in battle, 
 
 and their king, acknowledge the Law and be destroyed by fire from heaven, 
 
 of the Christians, pervert all nations, See Stehelin's ' Traditions of the Jews, ' 
 
 persecute the Jews, and finally meet torn, ii, pp. 200 sqq. 
 
CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 " Death and Nature shall, aghast, 
 See all generations past 
 Rising, answering to the blast. 
 
 " Writ without, and writ within, 
 Lo ! displayed, the Book wherein 
 Record lies of every sin ! 
 
 " Nothing done in secrecy 
 
 Shall elude the Searcher's eye, 
 Shall escape its penalty. 
 
 " What shall I, a sinner, plead — 
 Whom resort to in my need, 
 When the just shall scarcely speed ? 
 
 " King of dread ! whose mercy free 
 Saveth those that saved shall be — 
 Fount of pity, pity me ! 
 
 ' ' Think, sweet Jesus ! 't was my woe 
 Brought thee thence to bleed below — 
 Be my Saviour, not my foe ! 
 
 " 'Twas for me that thou didst deign 
 To endure the Cross's pain — 
 Be that passion not in vain ! 
 
 " Judge that judgest righteously, 
 Grant to me indemnity 
 Ere that day of reckoning be ! 
 
 " Lo ! I groan beneath the load, 
 Conscience-stricken by thy rod — 
 Spare thy suppliant, oh my God ! 
 
 " Mary was by thee forgiven — 
 
 By thy grace the thief won heaven, 
 Hope to me too thou hast given ! 
 
 " Worthless are my prayers, I know, 
 Yet in mercy hear me ! — so 
 Shall I scape Gehenna's woe. 
 
 " At thy right hand, 'mong thy sheep, 
 For me, Lord ! a station keep, 
 Lest eternal death I sleep. 
 
 " Silenced that accursed throng, 
 Bound in fiery fetters strong — 
 Speak me thy redeemed among ! 
 
 " Suppliant, heart-wrung, at thy knee, 
 In this last extremity, 
 Thus I cast my lot on thee ! " 
 
i6o 
 
 CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Choir. 
 
 " On thee, O Lord !— 
 In that day of wrath and sighs, 
 When from ashes man shall rise 
 Unto judgment, hear our prayer, 
 Spare this sinner, hear and spare — 
 
 Spare him, O Lord ! pitiful Jesus ! and give unto him rest for ever- 
 more, Amen !" 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION 
 
 OF 
 
 SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 1 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 ROMAN AND BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 PERIOD OF PREPARATION. 
 
 From the Establishment of Christianity till the Self-assertion 
 of the Teutonic over the Classic Element of Modern 
 Europe, — otherwise, from the Commencement of the 
 Fourth to that of the Thirteenth Century — and afterwards. 
 
 I. Roman Art. 
 
 1. Architecture of the Catacombs. 
 
 2. Christian Architecture of Rome. 
 
 Basilicas, Baptisteries, and Sepulchral Chapels. 
 
 1 This must be regarded as merely 
 an approximation to a correct classi- 
 fication. The principle adopted is that 
 of influence as opposed to locality, ac- 
 cording to the proverb, ' ' Non ubi 
 nascitur, sed ubi pascitur. ' ' Sometimes 
 I have found it advisable to introduce 
 the same name more than once, but, 
 as a general rule, when an artist has 
 passed through different schools, he is 
 classed under that in which his genius 
 has found its most congenial develop- 
 ment. It has been my object,, more- 
 over, that each great master should 
 be understood by those who have pre- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ceded him. The dates refer either to 
 the birth or death of the artists, or 
 to the periods within which they 
 flourished. They have been added 
 for the sake of convenience, as usually 
 current. I need scarcely observe that 
 a complete classification should in- 
 clude artists in wood - carving, in 
 cisellatura, or goldsmiths' work, in 
 medal-casting, gem and seal cutting, 
 glass, miniature and enamel painting, 
 in engraving, in tarsia, or marqueterie, 
 embroidery, etc. — all of them legitimate 
 and interesting branches of Christian 
 Art. 
 
 M 
 
1 62 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 3. Sculpture and Painting of the Catacombs, and ancient 
 Roman School of Painting, as perpetuated North and 
 South of the Alps during the Middle Ages. 
 
 II. Byzantine Art. 
 
 1. Architecture of Byzantium. 
 
 2. Design — Traditional Compositions. 
 
 3. Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, Mosaic and Painting, 
 
 till the Decadence in the Eleventh Century. 
 
 4. Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, Mosaic and Painting, 
 
 from the Revival under the Comneni in the Twelfth 
 Century. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ART OF MODERN EUROPE. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 From the Settlement of the Lombards till the Restoration of 
 Classical Learning and the Age of Cosmo de' Medici, — 
 otherwise from the Middle of the Sixth to the Middle of 
 the Fifteenth Century — and afterwards. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Development of the Christian Element, Spirit — Lombard 
 and Gothic, or Pointed Architecture — Rise of Sculpture 
 and Painting — Expression. 
 
 I. Lombard and Gothic Architecture. 
 
 1. Lombard Architecture, South and North of the 
 
 Alps. 
 
 i. Early Lombard, Ecclesiastical and Civil. 
 
 ii. Late or Florid Lombard, Ecclesiastical and Civil. 
 
 2. Gothic Architecture, North and South of the 
 
 Alps. 
 
 i. Northern, or pure Gothic, Ecclesiastical and Civil, 
 
 in its different stages of development and decline. 
 
 ii. Italian or Tuscan Gothic, School of Niccola Pisano, 
 
 or of Pisa. 
 
 [Both superseded by the ' Cinquecento ' style. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 163 
 
 II. Sculpture of the Lombards, and Italico-Byzantine 
 
 Revivals in Sculpture, Mosaic and Painting, 
 anterior to the Ascendancy of Niccola Pisano. 
 
 1. Lombard Sculpture — as associated 
 
 i. With Early Lombard Architecture. 
 
 ii. With Florid Lombard Architecture. 
 
 Wiligelmo, Modena, fl. c. 1100. 
 Biduino, Pisa, fl. c. 1 1 50. 
 Bonanno, Pisa, fl. 1174-86. 
 
 [Influence on Niccola Pisano. 
 Bened. degli Antelami Parma, fl. 1178-1216. 
 The Cosmati Family, Rome, 13th cent., etc. 
 
 2. Mosaics. 
 
 Fra Giac. da Turrita, Siena, fl. 1225-90. 
 The Cosmati, Rome. 
 
 Pietro Cavallini, Rome, 1259- 1334. 
 Andrea Tafi, Florence, 1213-94. 
 Gaddo Gaddi, Florence, 1239-13 12. 
 Andrea Orcagna, c. 1300-75. 
 
 3. Painting. 
 
 Guido, Siena, fl. 1221. 
 
 Diotisalvi, Siena, fl. 1227-78. 
 
 Ugolino, Siena, fl. 1284. 
 Giunta, Pisa, fl. 1202-55. 
 
 Succession at Pisa. 
 Margaritone, Arezzo, fl. 1262-75. 
 Cimabue, Florence, 1240- 1302. 
 
 [Giotto. 
 
 Buffalmacco (Bonamico di Crist.), Florence, fl. 131 1-5 1. 
 
 [The Orcagna family. 
 Tomaso de' Stefani, Naples, c. 1230-c. 13 10. 
 
 Filippo Tesauro, Naples, c. 1260-c. 1320. 
 [Messer Simone. 
 Bertolino of Piacenza and Niccolo of Reggio, fl. c. 1 260. 
 Paolo Veneziano, Niccolo Semitecolo, and Lorenzo, 
 
 Venice, fl. 1333-58; A. 1367; A- I37i- 
 Revival of the Primitive Roman or Classic School in 
 Lombardy — Cremona, Verona, etc. 
 [Superseded everywhere by the influence of Niccola Pisano. 
 
 III. Niccola Pisano and his School — Rise and Re- 
 
 storation of Sculpture, in connexion with 
 Gothic Architecture — Preparation for Ghi- 
 berti and Donatello. 
 
 1. Niccola Pisano, Pisa, fl. 1233-76. 
 
 2. Succession of Niccola. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 i. At Pisa. 
 
 Giovanni Pisano, fl. 1274-1311. 
 
 [Andrea Pisano, Agostino and Agnolo, 
 and many German pupils. 
 Arnolfo di Lapo, 1232- 1300. 
 Margaritone, Arezzo, fl. 1262-75. 
 Giov. di Balduccio Pisano, fl. 1333-47. 
 
 Succession, W. Lombardy. 
 
 ii. At Florence. 
 
 Andr. (di Ugolino) Pisano, fl. 1299- 1344. 
 Andrea Orcagna, c. 1300-75. 
 
 iii. At Siena. 
 
 Agost.- and Agnolo, fl. 1286-1330. 
 
 Giac. Lanfrani, Vicenza, fl. 1347. 
 Jacobello and Piet. Paolo, Venice, fl. 
 
 I338-94- 
 Succession, E. Lombardy and 
 Venice. 
 
 Goro, fl. 1323. 
 
 Niccolo Aretino, fl. 1383. 
 
 Giac. della Quercia, fl. 1390- 1438. 
 
 [Anton, di Federigo, VecchiettaCivitali, 
 etc. 
 
 iv. At Naples. 
 
 Pietro de' Stefani, c. 1230-c. 1310. 
 The two Masuccios, 1230-c. 1300; 1291-1387. 
 Andrea Ciccione, fl. 1414-55. 
 [Agn. Aniello Fiore. 
 [Superseded everywhere by the influence of Ghiberti and 
 Donatello. 
 
 IV. Giotto and his School, the Giotteschi — Rise 
 and Restoration of Painting in connexion 
 with Gothic Architecture — Influence of 
 Niccola Pisano — Dramatic— Sympathy with the 
 Guelph or Classic Element — Patronized by 
 the Franciscans — Preparation for Masaccio, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 1. Giotto di Bondone, 1267-1337. 
 
 2. Pupils of Giotto. 
 
 i. Proselytes from preexistent schools. 
 
 Pietro Cavallini, Rome, 1259- 1334. 
 Messer Simone, Naples, fl. 1327. 
 
 Francesco di Simone, fl. 1350. 
 
 Colantonio del Fiore, fl. 1400. 
 [Lo Zingaro. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 ii. Immediate Pupils. 
 
 Taddeo Gaddi, 1300-c. 1366. 
 
 [Giov. da Milano. 
 
 [Giac. da Casentino. 
 Stefano, 1301-50. 
 
 Giottino (Tomaso di Stef.), 1324-56. 
 3. School of Taddeo Gaddi in Tuscany. 
 i. Principal and purer branch. 
 
 Giov. da Milano, fl. c. 137 1. 
 Painter of the Passion at Assisi. 
 Angelo Gaddi, 1326-89. 
 Antonio Veneziano, 1309-83. 
 Gherardo Stamina, 1354-1406. 
 
 [Influence, possibly, on Spain. 
 [Masolino. 
 
 [Masaccio. 
 
 Don Lorenzo degli Angeli, fl. 1413. 
 Cennino Cennini, t old, 1437. 
 ii. Inferior branch — mingled influence of the old 
 Roman School. 
 Giac. da Casentino, 1310-80. 
 Spinello Spinelli, Arezzo, fl. 1361-1407. 
 Lor. di Bicci, Florence, fl. 1 375- 1445. 
 
 Marco da Montepulciano, fl. 1448. 
 
 4. GlOTTESCHI OF LOMBARDY. 
 
 i. Mingled influence of the old Roman School. 
 
 Guariento, Padua, fl. 1365. 
 [Squarcione, Padua. 
 
 ii. Purely Giottesque. 
 
 Giusto Menabuoi, at Padua, fl. 1378. 
 Aldighieri, Jacopo Avanzi, etc., Padua, fl. 
 c. 1380. 
 
 Giac. da Verona, fl. 1397. 
 
 Miretto, etc., Padua, 1423-41. 
 Michelino, Milan. 
 
 5. GlOTTESCHI OF UMBRIA. 
 
 Oderigi da Gubbio, + 1299. 
 Allegretto Nuzio, Fabriano, fl. 1368. 
 Gentile da Fabriano, fl. 1418-30. 
 
 [Influence on Fra Angelico, Benozzo Gozzoli, 
 Pisanello, Pinturicchio, Carpaccio, etc. 
 [Superseded everywhere by the influence of Ghiberti and 
 Donatello, through Masaccio, Uccello, Verrocchio and 
 Squarcione. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 V. School of Siena— Rise and Restoration of Paint- 
 ing, IN CONNEXION WITH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 —Influence of Niccola Pisano— Contemplative 
 — Sympathy with Byzantine Art and with the 
 Ghibelline or Teutonic Element — Patronized 
 by the Dominicans — Preparation for Fra 
 Angelico and Perugino. 
 
 1. The Fathers of the School. 
 
 Mino di Simone, fl. 1287- 1303. 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna, fl. 1282-133 9. 
 
 2. Succession of Mino. 
 
 Simon di Memmo, c. 1285-1344. 
 
 Lippo di Memmo, Fra Martino, etc. 
 [Influence on Sano di Pietro, etc. 
 
 3. Succession of Duccio. 
 
 Pietro and Ambr. di Lorenzo, fl. 1319-55 ; 1330-77. 
 
 Ugolino di Prete Ilario, Orvieto, fl. 1356-70. 
 
 Bartolo di Maestro Fredi, fl. 1356. 
 
 Andrea di Vanni, fl. 1373, etc. 
 [Influence on Taddeo di Bartolo and Giov. di Paolo. 
 Berna, fl. 1367-81. 
 
 Pietro di Puccio, Orvieto, fl. 1370-92. 
 
 4. Influence of Ambr. di Lorenzo and of the 
 
 Semi-Byzantine Ugolino. 
 
 Taddeo di Bartolo, 135 i-t after 1414. 
 [Influence on Fra Angelico. 
 Influence on Umbria. 
 
 Pietro di Dom. di P., Montepulciano, fl. 
 1420. 
 
 Martinellus, Assisi, fl. 1422. 
 
 Bartol. di Tomaso, Foligno, fl. 1430. 
 
 [Niccolo Alunno. 
 [Bened. Bonfigli, Perugia. 
 
 [Perugino. 
 
 Domenico di Bartolo, Siena, fl. 1438-45. 
 [Influence on Pinturicchio. 
 
 Vecchietta, Neroccio, etc. 
 
 5. Succession of Duccio and Mino, the latter 
 prevailing. 
 
 Giovanni di Paolo, fl. 1428-62. 
 Sano di Pietro, fl. 1420-62. 
 Matteo da Gualdo, fl. 1468. 
 Matteo di Giovanni, fl. 1462-91. 
 [Luca Signorelli. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 167 
 
 6. Mosaics of the pavement in the Duomo. 
 [Superseded by the influence of Ghiberti and Donatello, 
 chiefly through Uccello. 
 
 VI. Semi-Byzantine Succession at Florence — In- 
 fluence OF NlCCOLA PlSANO— ORCAGNA AND FRA 
 
 Angelico— Contemplative — Chiefly patronized 
 by the Dominicans — Preparation for Verrocchio 
 and Perugino. 
 
 1. Andrea (di Cione) Orcagna, c. 1300-75. 
 
 Francesco Traini, fl. 1341. 
 
 2. Fra Angelico da Fiesole, 1387-1455. 
 
 Zanobio Strozzi, 1412-66. 
 
 Dom. di Michelino, fl. 1450-65. 
 
 [Benozzo Gozzoli, Cosimo Rosselli, etc. 
 [Superseded by the influence chiefly of Donatello, through 
 Verrocchio, who springs apparently from this succession, 
 and Uccello also. 
 
 VII. Primitive School of Bologna, in connexion with 
 Gothic Architecture — Influence of Niccola 
 Pisano. 
 
 1. Franco and his Succession. 
 
 Franco Bolognese, fl. c. 1300. 
 Vitale dalle Madonne, fl. 1320-45. 
 Lippo Dalmasio, fl. 1376- 1409. 
 Simon de' Crocefissi, fl. 1377. 
 Jacobus, fl. 1377, etc. 
 
 2. Frescoes presumed to be by this school at Parma. 
 [Superseded by the influence of Ghiberti and Donatello, 
 
 through Squarcione. 
 
 VIII. Sculpture and Painting North of the Alps, in 
 
 CONNEXION WITH LOMBARD AND GOTHIC ARCHI- 
 TECTURE—INFLUENCE, partly of Niccola Pisano, 
 partly apparently of some independent con- 
 temporary sculptor, probably in germany ; 
 subsequently, mere imitation of nature — pre- 
 paratory for the great struggle of imagination 
 and Reason in Italian Painting, which distin- 
 guishes the Second Period of European Art, 
 and for the development of ' genre ' under 
 the Fourth. 
 
 1. Early Sculpture and Painting North of the 
 Alps. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 i. Sculpture, as associated 
 
 (1) With Early Lombard Architecture. 
 
 (2) With Florid Lombard and Early Gothic. 
 
 (3) With Decorated or Complete Gothic. 
 
 [1] In France. 
 [2] In England. 
 [3] In Germany. 
 
 {a) School of Cologne. 
 
 (&) School of Nuremberg. 
 Early Artists. 
 
 Adam Krafft, fl. 1 492-1 501. 
 Peter Vischer, 1460- 15 29. 
 
 (c) The Godl family of Tyrol, fl. 
 
 I529- 
 
 (d) Veit Stoss, Cracow, 1447-90. 
 
 ii. Traces of the primitive Roman school of Painting, 
 
 N. of the Alps. 
 Painters at Ingelheim, temp. Charlemagne, and 
 elsewhere under the Carlovingian dynasty, 
 and afterwards, — in England till the end 
 of the fifteenth century. 
 
 iii. Painting — School of Cologne — Influence of Byzantium 
 
 and of Niccola Pisano. 
 Hans of Cologne, fl. 1307. 
 Meister Wilhelm, fl. 1 380-1410. 
 Meister Stephan. 
 Johannes de Colonia, fl. 1440. 
 Giov. Alamanno and others settled at Padua. 
 
 [Influence on the primitive school of Venice. 
 [Superseded by the school of Van Eyck. 
 
 School of Van Eyck, or of the Netherlands. 
 
 The Brothers Van Eyck and their followers. 
 
 (1) Hubert and John van Eyck, Bruges, 1366- 
 1426; c. 1390-1445. 
 
 Margaret van Eyck, f before 1426. 
 Gerard vander Meire, Ghent, t 1447- 
 Roger of Bruges, fl. 1445-62. 
 Hugo vander Goes, Bruges, t c. 1480. 
 Roger vander Weyde, Brussels, t 1529. 
 
 Antonello of Messina, fl. 1445-93. 
 [Influence on Venice, Florence, and Naples, 
 and in a less degree on Spain. 
 (2) Hans Memling, Bruges, fl. 1450-99. 
 [Influence on Venice and Naples. 
 
 Israel van Mekenen, Barth. de Bruyn, Jean 
 de Mehlem, etc. 
 (3) Quentin Matsys, Antwerp, 1460- 1529. 
 
 [Influence on the later Flemish school. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 (4) Mabuse, Van Orley, and the Italianisers of 
 
 Antwerp — imitators chiefly of Raphael. 
 [1] John de Mabuse, fl. 1495- 1 562. 
 Lambert Lombard, 1500-60. 
 Francis Floris, 1 5 1 1 - 70. 
 Martin Vos, 1 531- 1604. 
 The Franck family. 
 The Porbus family. 
 Abraham Bloemaert, 156 7- 1647. 
 
 Cornel. Poelemburgh, 1586- 
 1660. 
 
 [Honthorst, Rembrandt, etc. 
 [2] Bernard van Orley, c. 1490- 1560. 
 Michael Coxcie, 1497- 1 5 92. 
 Gaspar Crayer, 1582- 1669. 
 [3] Third succession, through 
 
 Adam van Oort, of Antwerp, 1557- 
 
 1641, and 
 Otto Venius, of Leyden, 1556-1634. 
 [Rubens. 
 
 (5) Van Eyck's school in Holland. 
 
 Albert van Ouwater, fl. c. 1430. 
 Gerard van Harlem, f c. 145°- 
 Cornel. Engelbrechtsen, 1468-1533. 
 Lucas de Leyden, 1504-33. 
 
 [Influence of the preceding on Italy. 
 John Schoreel, 1495- 1562. 
 Martin van Heemskerk, 1498-1574, etc. 
 [Superseded by the development of ' Genre,' the peculiar 
 glory of the modern Dutch School. 
 
 3. Schools of Upper Germany. 
 
 i. Predecessors of Albert Diirer. 
 
 Martin Schongauer, Colmar, c. 1420-99. 
 Michael Wohlgemuth, Nuremberg, 1434-15 19. 
 
 ii. Albert Durer and his School — Nuremberg. 
 
 (1) Albert Durer, 147 1 -1528. 
 
 [Influence on Italy. 
 
 (2) Albert's immediate pupils. 
 
 Hans von Kulmbach, fl. i486- 1545. 
 George Pens, 1500-50. 
 Barthol. Beham, c. 1496-c. 1550. 
 Henry Aldegrever, 1502-62, etc. 
 
 (3) Pupils from elder schools. 
 
 Matth. Griinewald,' Aschaffenburg, fl. 1500. 
 
 Hans Schauffelein, Nordlingen, tc. 1540. 
 
 Hans Burgmair, Augsburg, 1474- 15 59. 
 
 Melchior Feselen, Ingolstadt, fl. 1529-38. 
 
 Albert Altdorffer, Bavaria, 1488- 1558, etc. 
 hi. Painters of Ulm, etc. 
 
 Martin Schaffner, fl. c. 1520. 
 Hans Baldung, c. 1480-c. 1520. 
 
170 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 iv. The Holbeins of Augsburg and Basle.' 
 
 (1) Hans Holbein, the father, fl. 1499. 
 
 (2) Hans Holbein, the son, c. 1495- 1554. 
 
 Christopher Amberger, c. 1485-1550. 
 [Influence on Italy, especially Milan. 
 
 v. The Cranachs of Bamberg. 
 
 (1) Lucas Cranach, the father, 1472-1553. 
 
 (2) Lucas Cranach, the son, 1515-86. 
 [Christian Art dies out in Germany. 
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 From the Age of Cosmo de' Medici and the Restoration of 
 Classical Learning, to the Expulsion of the Medici, — 
 otherwise from the Middle to the Close of the Fifteenth 
 Century — and afterwards. 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 Development of Intellect — Struggle of Imagination and 
 Reason, of the Contemplative and Dramatic, the 
 Christian and Classic or Pagan Elements — Sculp- 
 ture perfected — Design or Form — Progress of Paint- 
 ing, preparatory for the full Development, success- 
 ively, of Spirit, Mind and Sense, Expression, Form 
 and Colour, during Period III. 
 
 I. Architecture — The Cinquecento, Revived An- 
 tique or Italian Style. 
 
 Brunellesco and his Succession. 
 
 i. Filippo Brunellesco, Florence, 1377- 1444. 
 
 ii. Succession of Brunellesco. 
 
 Michelozzo Michelozzi, Flor., fl. 1430-c. 1468. 
 
 Franc, di S. Giorgio, Siena, 1439-c. 1506. 
 
 Bened. da Majano, Cronaca, etc. 
 Leon Battista Alberti, Flor., c. 1400-85. 
 Donato (Lazzari) Bramante, Urbino, 1444-15 14. 
 Giuliano di S. Gallo, Flor., 1443-15 17. 
 
 Anton, di S. Gallo, 1482- 1546. 
 Michele Sanmichele, Verona, 1484- 15 59. 
 
 Giac. da Sansovino, c. 1479-1570. 
 
 Sebastian Serlio, Bologna, 1475-1552. 
 Raphael, 1483- 15 20. 
 Baldassare Peruzzi, Siena, 1 481- 1536. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 171 
 
 Michael Angelo, 1474- 15 63. 
 
 [Influence preparatory to Fontana, Ber- 
 nini, Borromini, etc. 
 
 Influence on Spain. 
 
 Alonzo Berruguete, c. 1 480-1 561. 
 
 Pedro Ibarra, fl. 1521. 
 
 Pedro de Valdelvira, fl. 1525-40. 
 
 Alonzo de Covarrubias, fl. i53°-5°> e *- c - 
 Influence on France. 
 
 Pierre Lescot, 15 10-71. 
 
 Philibert Delorme, c. 1500-77, etc. 
 Influence on Germany and Flanders. 
 
 Architect of the Knights' Hall, Heidelberg. 
 
 Architect of the Bishop's Palace, Liege, etc. 
 Influence on England. 
 
 Holbein, John of Padua, etc. 
 
 John Thorpe, Rob. Adams, etc. The 
 Elizabethan Style. 
 [Gradual corruption till the commencement of Period IV. 
 
 II. Sculpture perfected, in association at first with 
 the Gothic and Jealousy of Cinquecento 
 Architecture. 
 
 1. Ghiberti and his Succession — Dramatic — Sym- 
 
 pathy with the Giotteschi. 
 
 i. Lorenzo Ghiberti, Florence, 1378-1455. 
 
 ii. Succession of Ghiberti. 
 
 Anton, and Pietro del Pollajuolo, Flor., 1426-98 ; 
 1433-98. 
 [Influence on Michael Angelo. 
 Bened. and Giuliano da Majano, Flor., 1444-98 ; 
 fl. 1465. 
 
 Agn. Aniello Fiore, Naples, fl. 1447-70. 
 Giov. di Nola, Dom. d' Arena, etc. , 
 Naples. 
 
 Andr. (Contucci) da Sansovino, 1460- 1529. 
 Giac. da Sansovino, c. 1479- 1570. 
 
 Girol. LombardOjIl Tribolo, Danese 
 Cattaneo, Aless. Vittoria, etc. 
 [Blends with the succession of Donatello. 
 
 2. Donatello and his Succession — Contemplative — 
 
 Sympathy with the Semi-Byzantine Succession. 
 
 i. Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi), Flor., 1383- 1466. 
 
 ii. Succession of Donatello. 
 
 Nanni d' Antonio di Banco, Florence. 
 
 Bertoldo, Flor., keeper of L. de' Medici's garden. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 [Instructs Michael Angelo. 
 Bern, and Anton. Rossellini, Flor., fl. 1451-64; 
 fl. 1468. 
 
 Desiderio da Settignano, fl. c. 1455. 
 Andrea del Verrocchio, Flor., 1432-88. 
 Giov. Fr. Rustici, 1470- 1550. 
 
 Baccio Bandinelli, Flor., 1487- 
 1559. 
 
 Michael Angelo and his succession. 
 
 Bened. da Rovezzano, the Montelupi, etc. 
 
 Mino da Fiesole, fl. 1466-86. 
 Andrea (Ferrucci) da Fiesole, f 1522. 
 
 Luca della Robbia, Florence, fl. 1438-80. 
 
 Andr. della Robbia, fl. 1525, and others 
 of the family. 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini, Florence, 1500-70. 
 
 Pupils originally of Giac. della Quercia, Siena. 
 Anton, di Federigo, fl. 1450. 
 Lor. (di Pietro) Vecchietta, fl. 1445-82. 
 Niccolo dell' Area, fl. Bologna, 1467. 
 Matteo Civitali, Lucca, 1435-1501. 
 
 Andrea Riccio, Padua, 1480-1532. 
 
 Influence on Spain. 
 
 Juan de Borgona, or Vigarny, fl. 1495- 
 
 1533, at Toledo. 
 Alonzo Berruguete, Leon, c. 1 480-1 561. 
 Gaspar Becerra, Seville, 1520-70. 
 Gaspar de Tordesillas, Leon, fl. 1527. 
 Domenic Forment, 1480-1540, etc. 
 
 Influence on France. 
 
 Jean Goujon, fl. 1547-72. 
 
 Germain Pilon, fl. 1557-90. 
 
 Jean Cousin, fl. 15 38-1 601. 
 
 Giovanni Bologna, Douay, 15 24- 1608. 
 
 Pietro Francavilla (Francheville), 
 1548-1614, etc. 
 
 Influence on England. 
 
 Paul Stevens, of Holland, temp. Eliz. 
 Nicholas Stone, temp. James I. 
 [Gradual corruption till the commencement of Period IV. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 173 
 
 III. Painting— Struggle of Imagination and Reason, 
 of the Christian and Pagan Elements— Tus- 
 cany, Umbria, Lombardy, and Naples— Great 
 Improvement in Details, especially Land- 
 scape, FROM THE INFLUENCE OF VAN EYCK. 
 
 I. TUSCANY. 
 
 1. Influence of Ghiberti — Dramatic — Preparation 
 
 for Michael Angelo and for the later style 
 of Raphael. 
 
 i. Masolino and Masaccio. 
 
 Masolino da Panicale, f c. 141 5. 
 Masaccio da S. Giovanni, 1402-28. 
 
 ii. Succession of Masaccio. 
 
 Benozzo Gozzoli, 1400-78. 
 Fra Filippo Lippi, 1400-69. 
 Cosimo Rosselli, 1416-96. 
 
 Piero di Cosimo, 1441-1521. 
 Sandro (Filipepi) Botticello, 1437-1515. 
 Filippino Lippi, 1460- 1505. 
 
 Raffaellino del Garbo, 1476- 
 1534- 
 
 Dom. (Corradi) del Ghirlandajo, 1450-95. 
 [Michael Angelo. 
 Franc. Granacci, 147 7- 1544. 
 Bastiano Mainardi, fl. c. 1495. 
 [Influence of Masaccio's frescoes in the Carmine 
 on Leonard da Vinci, Perugino, Raphael, 
 Michael Angelo, etc. 
 [Influence of the Cartoons of Leonard and 
 
 Michael Angelo. 
 Andrea (Vannucchi) del Sarto, 1488-1530. 
 
 Marcantonio Franciabigio, 1483- 1524. 
 Dom. Puligo, 1475-1527. 
 Jac. (Carrucci) da Pontormo, 1493- 
 1558. 
 
 [Bronzino. 
 
 [The style perfected at Rome by Raphael, but super- 
 seded at Florence by the Michelangioleschi. 
 
 2. Mingled Influence of Ghiberti and Donatello 
 
 — Preparation for Michael Angelo. 
 
 i. Paolo (di Dono) Uccello, Flor., 1389- 1472. 
 
 ii. Succession of Uccello. 
 
 (1) Florentine branch — leaning towards the 
 school of Van Eyck. 
 ' Dello, 1372-c. 142 1. 
 
 [Influence, possibly, on Spain. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Andr. del Castagno, 1409-77. 
 Dom. Veneziano, c. 1414-c. 1470. 
 Pesello Peselli, 1380- 1457. 
 
 Pesellino (Fr. di Pesello), 1426- 
 1457- 
 
 Anton, and Pietro del Pollajuolo, 1426- 
 1498; 1433-98. 
 
 [Influence on M. Angelo. 
 Aless. Baldovinetti, 1425-99. 
 
 [Dom. del Ghirlandajo. 
 (2) Extra - Florentine Branch — Influence of 
 Masaccio in subordination to that of 
 Uccello — Leaning towards the antique — 
 Loftier aim than the Florentine branch. 
 Pietro della Francesca, Borgo S. 
 Sepolcro, 1398-c. 1484. 
 
 [Influence partially on Perugino. 
 Lazz. Bramante, Urbino, 1444- 
 
 Bramantino, etc., Milan. 
 Don Bartol. della Gatta, t c. 
 1491. 
 
 Fra Carnevale, Urbino, fl. 1474. 
 Victor Pisanello, Verona, fl. 1436-73 ? 
 Luca Signorelli, Cortona, 1439- 1 521. 
 
 [Influence on M. Angelo. 
 [Both lines centre in Michael Angelo. 
 
 Influence of Donatello — Contemplative and 
 Christian — Sympathy with Soderini, Savon- 
 arola, ETC., AGAINST THE MEDICI — PREPARATION 
 
 for Leonard da Vinci and the early style 
 of Raphael. 
 
 i. Andrea del Verrocchio, 1432-88. 
 
 ii. Succession of Verrocchio. 
 
 [Leonard da Vinci. 
 [Perugino. 
 
 [Raphael. 
 
 Lorenzo (Sciarpelloni) di Credi, 1452-c. 1 53 1 . 
 Fra Bartolommeo della Porta, 1468-15 17. 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli, c. 1467-c. 1512. 
 Giuliano Bugiardini, 1481-1556. 
 [Franciabigio. 
 [Innocenzio of Imola. 
 Giov. Ant. Sogliani, fl. 1530. 
 Suor Plautilla, + 1588. 
 Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, 1485-1560. 
 
 Michele di Ridolfo, fl. 1 568. 
 
 Andr. del Minga, fl. 1568. 
 Bern. Poccetti, 1549-16 12, etc. 
 [Superseded at Florence by the Michelangioleschi, etc. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 175 
 
 II. UMBRIA. 
 
 Christian School of Perugino — Contemplative — 
 Influence chiefly of Donatello — Preparation 
 for the early style of raphael. 
 
 Predecessors in Umbria — Influence of Siena. 
 
 Bened. Bonfigli, Perugia, 1420-c. 1496. 
 Nice. Alunno, Foligno, fl. 1458-92. 
 Giov. Sanzio, Urbino, father of Raphael, 
 fl. 1482-92. 
 
 i. Pietro (Vannucci) Perugino, 1446- 15 24. 
 
 ii. Influence of Perugino. 
 
 Boccaccio Boccaccino, Cremona, fl. 1496-15 18. 
 Bernardino Pinturicchio, Perugia, 1454-1513. 
 [Influence on Francia, Bellini, etc. 
 
 iii. Pupils and followers of Perugino. 
 
 [Raphael. 
 
 Lo Spagna, fl. 1524. 
 
 II Bacchiacca (Fr. Ubertino), Flor.,+c. 1557. 
 
 L'Ingegno (Andr. d'Assisi), c. 1470-1556. 
 
 Jac. Pacchiarotto, Siena, fl. 1535. 
 
 Dom. Beccafumi orMecherino, Siena, 1 484- 1 549. 
 
 Girol. Genga, Urbino, 1476- 1558. 
 
 Dom. and Orazio Alfani, Perugia, 1483- 1550 ; 
 
 1510-1583. 
 Adone Doni, Assisi, fl. c. 1550. 
 Niccolo Soggi, Florence, 1474- 1554. 
 [Perfected by Raphael — Superseded in Umbria by Baroccio. 
 
 III. LOMBARDY. 
 
 1. Classic School of Squarcione, or of Padua — 
 Springing apparently from the primitive Roman 
 school as mingled with the Giottesque, 
 through the impulse of the sculptures of 
 Donatello — Influence over all Lombardy — 
 Preparation for Correggio. 
 
 i. Franc. Squarcione, Padua, 1394- 1474. 
 
 ii. Succession of Squarcione. 
 
 (1) Andrea Mantegna, at Mantua, 143 0-1506. 
 
 Bern. Parentino, at Padua, fl. 1489-94. 
 Fr. Monsignori, Verona, 1555-1519. 
 Giov. Fr. Carotto, Verona, 1470- 1546. 
 Pier-Franc. Sacchi, Pavia, fl. 1512-26. 
 Carlo del Mantegna, fl. 15 15. 
 
 [Influence on Genoa. 
 Fr. and Ludov. (sons of) Mantegna. 
 
 [Correggio. 
 
 (2) Marco Zoppo, at Bologna, fl. 1471-98. 
 
 (3) Melozzo of Forli, 1446-92. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Marco Palmeggiani, Forli, fl. 1513-37. 
 
 (4) Galasso of Ferrara, fl. 1404-50. 
 
 Cosimo Tura, Ferrara, 1406-69. 
 
 Lor. Costa, Ferrara, fl. 1488-c. 1530. 
 Ercole Grandi, Ferrara, 
 1491-1531. 
 Guido and Amico Aspertini, 
 Bologna, 1460- 1500 ; 1474- 
 1552. 
 
 (5) Vincenzio Foppa, at Milan, 1407-92. 
 
 Vine. Civerchio, Crema, fl. 1500. 
 
 Bern. Butinoni, Trevilio, fl. 1484-c. 
 1520. 
 
 Bern. Zenale, Trevilio, 1 1526. 
 Gio. Donato Montorfano, fl. 1495. 
 Ambr. Borgognone, fl. 1500. 
 Anton. Bevilacqua, fl. i486, etc. 
 [Gaudenzio Ferrari. 
 [Superseded at Padua by the Bellini, at Milan by Leonard 
 da Vinci, at Bologna by Francia, at Ferrara by 
 Garofolo, at Mantua by Giulio Romano. 
 
 School of Murano, or of the Vivarini, at Venice 
 — Mingled influence of Padua and of the 
 schools of Cologne and Van Eyck. 
 
 Lorenzo Veneziano, fl. 1371, etc. 
 
 Jacobello del Fiore, fl. 1401-36. 
 
 Carlo Crivelli, fl. 1482, etc. 
 
 Andrea da Murano, fl. 1400. 
 
 Anton, da Murano, or Vivarini, fl. 1445. 
 
 Bartol. Vivarini, fl. 1436-73. 
 
 Fra Anton, da Negroponte, fl. c. 1450. 
 
 Domenico Veneziano, fl. 1477. 
 
 Giacomo Bellini, 1400-70. 
 
 [Giovanni and Gentile Bellini. 
 
 Luigi Vivarini, fl. 1490. 
 [Marco Basaiti. 
 [Superseded by the Bellini. 
 
 Christian School of the Bellini, at Venice and 
 in lombardy — preparation for glorgione and 
 Titian. 
 
 i. Gentile and Giov. Bellini, 1421-1507; 1424-1516. 
 ii. Succession of the Bellini. 
 
 (1) Mingled influence of Guariento, Gent, da 
 Fabriano, Pisanello, etc, 
 Victor Carpaccio, fl. 1500. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 177 
 
 (2) Mingled influence of the Vivarini. 
 
 Marco Basaiti, fl. 1520. 
 
 G. Bat. Cima da Conegliano, fl. 1 5 1 7. 
 
 Vine. Catena, 1478- 1530. 
 
 (3) Pure influence of the Bellini. 
 
 [Giorgione. 
 [Titian. 
 
 Franc. Bissolo, fl. 1520. 
 
 Girol. di S. Croce, fl. 1520-49. 
 
 Mart, da Udine, or Pellegrino di S. 
 
 Daniele, f c. 1545. 
 Succession in Friuli. 
 Giov. (Nanni Ricamatore) da Udine, 
 
 1494-1564. 
 
 Morto da Feltro, tc. 1505. 
 
 Andr. di Cosimo, or Feltrino, fl. 
 
 1456-76. 
 [Giov. da Udine. 
 
 (4) Towns of Lombardy, Westwards — 
 
 Mingled influence of the schools of 
 Padua and L. da Vinci. 
 [1] Padua. 
 
 Jac. Montagnana, fl. 1508. 
 [2] Trevigi. 
 
 [Girolamo da Trevigi. 
 [3] Verona. 
 
 Ant. Liberale, 1451-1536. 
 Giov. Fr. Carotto, 1470- 1546. 
 Dom. and Fr. Morone, 1430-c. 
 
 1500; 1474-1529. 
 Girol. dai Libri, 1472-1555. 
 [Giulio Clovio. 
 [4] Vicenza. 
 
 Bart, and Bened. Montagna, fl. 1 500. 
 II Marescalco (Giov. Bonconsigli), 
 fl. 1497-15 14. 
 [5] Bergamo. 
 
 And. Previtali, fl. 1506-2S. 
 [Lorenzo Lotto. 
 
 (5) In Romagna. 
 
 [1] Ravenna. 
 
 Nice. Rondinello, fl. 1500. 
 
 Fr. da Cotignola, etc. 
 
 [2] Rimini. 
 
 Bened. Coda, fl. 1500. 
 Bartol. Coda, etc. 
 [Superseded by Giorgione and Titian, etc. 
 
 Christian School of Francia, at Bologna. 
 Franc. (Raibolini) Francia, fl. 1490-15 17. 
 
 N 
 
178 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Lor. Costa, fl. 1488-c. 1530. 
 
 Giac. Francia, fl. 1525-57. 
 
 [Timoteo della Vite, Innocenzio da Imola, 
 
 Garofolo, etc. — influence of the early style 
 
 of Raphael. 
 
 [The Aspertini, II Bagnacavallo, etc. — influence 
 of the later style of Raphael. 
 [Superseded by the Raffaelleschi. 
 
 IV. NAPLES. 
 
 lo zlngaro and the zlngareschi — mlngled influence 
 of Tuscany, Umbria, and Flanders. 
 
 Lo Zingaro (Ant. Solario), fl. c. 1450. 
 
 Piero and Polito Donzelli, tc. 1470. 
 Buono, Tesauro, etc. 
 Giov. Ant. d'Amato, c. 1475-c. 1555. 
 [Superseded by the Raffaelleschi. 
 
 PERIOD III. 
 
 From the Expulsion of the Medici to the Council of Trent — 
 otherwise from the Close of the Fifteenth to the Middle of 
 the Sixteenth Century — and afterwards. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 Result of the Struggle between Imagination and Reason, 
 the Contemplative and Dramatic, the Christian and 
 the Pagan Principle, in the successive Triumphs of 
 Spirit, Intellect and Sense, of Expression, Design and 
 Colour. 
 
 I. Triumph and Fall of the Christian Element- 
 Spirit, Expression — Sympathy at first with 
 the extinct, or expiring, gothic architecture 
 rather than the clnquecento — excellence 
 both in Fresco and in Oils. 
 
 1. Leonard da Vinci, and his School. 
 
 i. Leonard da Vinci, Florence, 1452-1519. 
 
 [Influence on the Florentine and Umbrian 
 succession of Donatello — and in colour 
 (especially) on Giorgione, and through him 
 on the Venetian school, the Naturalisti, 
 the schools of France, Flanders, etc. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. i 79 
 
 ii. Succession of Leonard in W. Lombardy. 
 
 (1) Mingled influence of the old Paduan- 
 
 Milanese school. 
 
 Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1484- 1550. 
 
 (a) Cerva, Lomazzo, etc. at 
 Milan. 
 
 (3) Lanino, etc., at Vercelli. 
 Andr. (Solario) del Gobbo, fl. 1530. 
 Giov. Anton. Beltraffio, 1467-15 16. 
 [Razzi, surnamed Sodoma. 
 
 (2) His own pupils. 
 
 Andr. Salaino, fl. 1497-1513. 
 Cesare da Sesto, f c. 1524. 
 Marco d'Oggione, f c. 1530. 
 Fr. Melzi, still living in 1568. 
 Bernardino Luini, fl. 1500-30. 
 
 Aurelio Luini, 1530-93, etc. 
 [Sink into Mannerism, and are superseded by the Pro- 
 caccini. 
 
 Raphael and his School. 
 
 i. Raphael Sanzio, Urbino, 1483- 1520. 
 
 ii. School and Succession of Raphael. 
 
 (1) Pupils and Imitators— from elder schools. 
 Timoteo della Vite, Urbino, 1470- 
 1524. 
 
 Innocenzio da Imola, fl. 1506-49. 
 
 [Prospero Fontana. 
 Benv. (Tizio) Garofolo, Ferrara, 1481- 
 . 1559- 
 
 Succession at Ferrara. 
 
 Dosso Dossi, 1490- 
 1560. 
 
 G. Bat. (Benvenuti) 
 Ortolano, f 1525. 
 
 Girol. da Carpi, 1501- 
 1556. 
 
 Lud. Mazzolini, 148 1- 
 I S3<>, etc. 
 
 Girol. da Trevigi, fl. 1479-92. 
 
 Giov. da Udine, 1494- 15 64. 
 
 Dom. Beccafumi or Mecherino, Siena, 
 
 1484-1549. 
 
 [Daniel da Volterra. 
 II Sodoma (Giov. Ant. Razzi), 1479- 
 
 1554. 
 
 II Riccio (Bart. Neroni), Siena, 
 A- 1573. 
 
 Arcang. Salimbeni, 
 Siena, fl. 1579. 
 [Fr. Vanni. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 [Influence, through Van Orley, Coxcie, 
 etc., on the Italianising Flemish 
 schools. 
 
 (2) His own immediate Pupils. 
 
 Giulio (Pippi) Romano, 1492- 1546. 
 
 Abate Nice. Primaticcio, 
 Bologna, 1490-c. 1570. 
 [Influence on France. 
 Succession at Mantua. 
 
 Guisoni, Rinaldo, etc. 
 Giulio Clovio, 1498- 1578. 
 II Fattore (Giov. Fr. Penni), Flor., c. 
 1488-c. 1528. 
 
 Leonardo (Grazia) da Pistoja. 
 Perino (Bonaccorsi) del Vaga, Flor., 
 
 1500-47. 
 
 Succession at Rome — v. infra. 
 Succession at Genoa. 
 
 Ant. Semini, 1485 -c. 
 
 1547- 
 
 Andr. Semini, 
 
 1508-78. 
 Ottavio Semini, 
 t 1604. 
 Luca Cambiaso, 1527- 
 1585. 
 [Paggi. 
 II Bergamasco (Giov. 
 Bat. Castello), 1500- 
 i57o. 
 [Influence on Spain. 
 Pedro Campana, Brussels, 1503-70. 
 
 [Influence on Spain. 
 Andr. (Sabbatini) da Salerno, c. 1480-c. 
 1545. 
 
 Succession at Naples. 
 
 Fr. and Fabr. Santa- 
 fede, fl. c. 1 540 ; 
 1560-1636. 
 Giov. Fil. and Giov. 
 Ang. Criscuolo, f 
 1584; f 1573. 
 [Fr. Imparato. 
 Polidoro (Caldara) da Caravaggio, 
 
 I495-I543- 
 
 Succession at Naples. 
 
 Marco (Cardisco) 
 Calabrese, fl. 1508- 
 1542. 
 
 G. Bat. Crescione, fl. 
 1568, etc. 
 Succession at Messina. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 181 
 
 Baldassare Peruzzi, Siena, 1481-1536. 
 
 [Daniel da Volterra. 
 Vine, di S. Gimignano, fl. 1527. 
 Pellegrino (Munari) da Modena, fl. 
 1509-23. 
 
 Nice, dell' Abate, Bologna, 
 1509-71. 
 
 [Influence on France 
 and on the Car- 
 racci. 
 
 Jacopone (Bertucci) da Faenza, fl. 
 1532. 
 
 Succession in Romagna. 
 
 Luca Longhi, Ravenna, 
 1517-80. 
 
 Barbara Longhi, 
 fl. 1581. 
 
 II Bagnacavallo (Bartol. Ramenghi), 
 1484-1542. 
 
 Succession at Bologna, v. infra. 
 
 (3) Raffaelleschi at Rome — chiefly through 
 
 Perino del Vaga — Mingling influences of 
 Raphael and Michael Angelo — Idealism. 
 Girol. Siciolante da Sermoneta, 1504- 
 1572. 
 
 Taddeo and Fred. Zucchero, 1 5 29-66 ; 
 1543-1609. 
 
 Bart, and Vine. Carducci, 
 Florence, 1560-1610; 1568- 
 1638. 
 
 [Influence on Spain. 
 [Otto Venius, Leyden, etc. 
 [Passerotti — Baroccio — Passignano. 
 II Cav. d'Arpino (Gius. Cesari), 1568- 
 1640, the opponent of M. A. da 
 Caravaggio and the Carracci. 
 Pietro Bernini, Flor., fl. 1598. 
 [Giov. Lor. Bernini. 
 
 (4) Raffaelleschi at Bologna — purer branch — 
 
 through Innocenzio and Bagnacavallo. 
 [Ercole Procaccini, 1520-c. 1600. 
 
 Lor. Sabbatini, c. 1540-77. 
 
 Oraz. Samacchini, 1532-77. 
 Prospero Fontana, 1512-97. 
 
 Lavinia Fontana, 1552-1614. 
 
 [The Carracci. 
 Bartol. Passerotti, fl. 1578-92. 
 Denis Calvart, 1555-1619. 
 
 [Guido, Domenichino, Albano, 
 etc. 
 
 Bartol. Cesi, 1556- 1627. 
 [Sink into Mannerism and are superseded by the Carracci. 
 
182 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 II. Triumph and Fall of the Classic or Pagan Element 
 —Intellect, Design — Cordial Sympathy with 
 the clnquecento architecture — especial ex- 
 CELLENCE in Fresco. 
 
 Michael Angelo and his School. 
 
 i. Michael Angelo Buonarroti, Florence, 1474- 1563. 
 
 (1) Influence on masters of elder schools. 
 
 [Sebastian del Piombo. 
 [Mecherino, Siena. 
 
 [On Spain — Berruguete, Borgona, etc. — 
 See Period IV. 
 
 (2) Pupils and Imitators — the Michelangioleschi 
 
 — at Rome. 
 
 Dan. (Ricciarelli) da Volterra, 1 509-66. 
 
 (3) Michelangioleschi at Naples. 
 
 Marco (Pino) da Siena, 1 520-87. 
 
 Giov. Ang. Criscuolo, f c. 1580. 
 
 (4) Michelangioleschi at Florence. 
 
 II Rosso, or Maitre Roux, 1496- 1 541. 
 
 [Influence on France. 
 Fr. (Rossi) de' Salviati, 1510-63. 
 Giorgio Vasari, 1 5 1 2-74. 
 Agn. Bronzino, 151 1-80. 
 
 Santi di Titi, 15 38- 1603. 
 
 [Cigoli. 
 Bat. Naldini, 1537-90. 
 
 [Cos. Gamberucci, fl. 16 10. 
 Aless. Allori, 1535-1607, — adopts 
 the manner of Baroccio, 1606. 
 
 (5) Michelangioleschi at Bologna and in Lom- 
 
 bardy. 
 
 II Semolei (Bat. Franco), Venice, fl. 
 1536-61. 
 
 Pellegrino di Tibaldo de' Pellegrini, 
 Bologna, 1527-91, the ' Michelagnolo 
 riformato ' of the Carracci. 
 [Influence on the Carracci. 
 [At Rome mingle with the followers of Raphael and 
 sink into Idealism ; at Florence are superseded by 
 the influence of Baroccio, and at Bologna, etc. by 
 the Carracci. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 183 
 
 III. Triumph of the Sensual Element— Colour— An- 
 tagonistic to Design and Expression— Sympathy 
 with the clnquecento, but a tendency to dis- 
 connect itself from architecture, except in a 
 purely decorative character — especial excel- 
 LENCE in Oils. 
 
 1. CORREGGIO AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 i. Antonio (Allegri) da Correggio, Parma, 1494- 1534. 
 
 ii. Succession of Correggio. 
 
 II Parmigianino (Fr. Mazzuoli), 1503-40. 
 
 Girol. Mazzuoli, fl. 1580. 
 Michelang. Anselmi, 1 491-15 54. 
 Fr. Maria Rondani, 1504-c. 1550. 
 Camillo Boccaccino, 151 1-46. 
 II Sojaro (Bern. Gatti), Cremona, f 1575. 
 
 Gervasio Gatti, fl. 1578. 
 [Influence on Baroccio, etc. 
 [Influence on Lanfranco and the Macchinisti. 
 [Sink into affectation and mannerism, and are superseded 
 by the schools of the Campi, Procaccini and Carracci. 
 
 2. Later Venetian School, of Giorgione and Titian. 
 
 i. Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), Castel-franco, 1478- 
 
 1511. 
 
 Fra Sebast. del Piombo, Venice, 1485-1547. 
 
 Fra Marco Pensaben, c. 1485-1530. 
 II Moro (Fr. Torbido), Verona. 
 Giov. Cariano, Bergamo, 1480- 15 19. 
 [Influence on Pordenone, Titian, etc. 
 [Influence on Michelangiolo da Caravaggio and 
 on the Naturalisti. 
 
 ii. II Pordenone (Gio. Ant. Licinio), Friuli, 1482- 1540. 
 
 Pomponio Amalteo, 1504-76. 
 Succession in Friuli. 
 hi. Tiziano Vecellio — or Titian — of Cadore, 1477-1576. 
 iv. Influence of Titian, and of Titian and Giorgione con- 
 jointly. 
 
 Paris Bordone, Trevigi, 1500-75. 
 Andr. Schiavone, of Dalmatia, 1522-82. 
 Lorenzo Lotto, Bergamo, fl. 1513-54. 
 Jacopo Palma, il Vecchio, Bergamo, c. 1540-c. 
 1588. 
 
 Bonifazio, of Verona, c. 1491-1553. 
 
 II Bassano (Jacopo da Ponte), 1510-92. 
 Succession at Bassano. 
 
 Dom. Campagnola of Padua, G. Bat. Maganza 
 of Vicenza, II Brusasorci (Dom. Ricci) of 
 Verona, II Moretto (Aless. Bonvicino), and 
 Girol. Savoldi, of Brescia, etc. etc. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Influence on Naples. 
 
 Fr. Imparato, fl. 1565, 
 
 Girol. Imparato, + c. 1620. 
 Influence on Flanders and Spain. 
 
 [Lambert Lombard, El Mudo, etc. 
 
 v. II Tintoretto (Jac. Robusti), Verona, 1512-94. 
 
 Hans Rottenhamer, Munich, 15 64- 1606. 
 [Corenzio, Caracciolo, etc. Naples. 
 
 vi. Paolo (Cagliari) Veronese, 1532-88. 
 
 Jacopo Ligozzi, Florence, 1543- 1627. 
 
 Fra Arsenio (Dom. Mascagni), Florence, 
 1579-1636. 
 
 [Influence on Bernini, Cortona, Luca Giordano, 
 Rubens, etc. 
 
 vii. Jacopo Palma, II Giovane, Venice, 1544-1628. 
 
 II Padovanino (Aless. Varotari), Verona, 1590- 
 1650. 
 
 L'Aliense (Anton. Vassilacchi), — Pietro Liberi 
 — Carlo Loti, etc. — Giov. Bat. Tiepolo, 
 1692-1769. 
 
 naturalist! and later neapolitan school — chiefly 
 inspired by Venice — Antagonists to the Idealism 
 of the Raffaelleschi and Michelangioleschi at 
 Rome, and subsequently to the Intellectual re- 
 form of the Carracci. 
 
 i. Michelangiolo da Caravaggio and his Succession. 
 
 (1) M. A. (Amerighi) da Caravaggio, 15 69- 1609. 
 
 (2) Succession of M. A. da Caravaggio. 
 
 Bartol. Manfredi, Rome, 15 74-1 621. 
 Angiolo Caroselli, Rome, 15 73-1 651. 
 II Caravaggino (Tom. Luini), Rome, 1597-c. 
 1632. 
 
 II Rustichino (Fr. Rustici), Siena, c. 1596- 
 1625. 
 
 Carlo Saracino, Venice, 1585-c. 1625. 
 [Honthorst, or Gherardo della Notte. 
 
 [Rembrandt, etc. 
 [Lo Spagnoletto. 
 
 Influence on the schools of Spain and 
 Naples. 
 [Valentin and Vouet, France. 
 
 ii. Later Neapolitan School. 
 
 ( 1 ) The Triumvirate, enemies of the Carracci. 
 
 Belisario Corenzio, c. 15 88- 1643. 
 G. Bat. Caracciolo, 1591-1641. 
 
 [Massimo Stanzione. 
 Lo Spagnoletto (Gius. Ribera), 1589- 
 1656. 
 
 [Luca Giordano. 
 
 (2) School and influence of Spagnoletto. 
 
 Aniello Falcone, 1600-65. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 185 
 
 Micco Spadaro (Dom. Gargiuoli), 
 1612-79. 
 
 M. Ang. (Cerquozzi) delle Battaglie, 
 1602-60. 
 
 [II Borgognone, France. 
 [Esteban March, etc., Spain. 
 Salvator Rosa, 1613-73. 
 II Cav. Calabrese (Mat. Preti), 1613-99. 
 [Superseded by Luca Giordano. 
 [The close of this Third Period marked by Idealism and Man- 
 nerism in the Successions of Leonard, Raphael and M. Angelo, 
 and by Sensualism in vigorous development, and respectively 
 refined and coarse, in the Schools of Venice and of Naples. 
 
 PERIOD IV. 
 
 From the Council of Trent and the first Regeneration of 
 Catholic Christianity, to the French Revolution, — other- 
 wise, from the middle of the Sixteenth to the close of the 
 Eighteenth Century. 
 
 1 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING. 
 
 Attempts to regenerate Christian Art through Sense and 
 Intellect, Colour and Form, or Design, stopping short 
 of Spirit — Gallant struggle — Victory of Sense. 
 
 L Attempts' at Reform in Architecture and Sculp- 
 ture BY STUDY OF THE ANTIQUE, AND IN PAINTING 
 
 by improvement in colour and design — in 
 Italy ; where, however, the Catholic regene- 
 ration FINDS ITS CHIEF AND LOFTIEST EXPRESSION 
 
 in Music — Palestrina, Allegri (of the family 
 
 OF CORREGGIO), ETC. ETC., TO MARCELLO AND PER- 
 GOLESI. 
 
 i. Architecture. 
 
 Giac. (Barozzio) da Vignola, 1507-73. 
 Andrea Palladio, Vicenza, 1518-80, etc. 
 
 Juan de Herrera in Spain — Inigo Jones, Sir 
 Christopher Wren, Lord Burlington, etc., 
 in England. 
 
 [Superseded, except at Vicenza, by the influence of Bernini, 
 Maderno, etc. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Sculpture — influence (except in Spain) of the 
 Carracci. 
 
 Stefano Maderno, Lombardy, 1576-1636. 
 Aless. Algardi, Bologna, 1593- 1654. 
 
 II Fiammingo (Fr. Duquesnoy), Brussels, 1594- 1646. 
 
 Jacques Sarazin, France, 1590- 1660. 
 
 Franc, and Michel Anguier, Fiance, 1604-69 ; 1612-86. 
 
 Juan de Juni, Flanders, from Rome to Castile, t 1614. 
 Gregorio Hernandez, Castile, 1 554-1 614. 
 Alonzo Cano, Seville, 1601-76. 
 [Superseded by the influence of Bernini. 
 
 Painting. 
 
 i. Reform of Colour, or rather, Attempt to spiritualise 
 it, by Baroccio of Urbino, emulous of Correggio — 
 parent of a reform at Florence and Siena, which 
 pre-occupies the ground and maintains it throughout 
 the reign of the Carracci. 
 
 (1) Fred. Baroccio, Urbino, 1528-1612. 
 
 (2) Succession of Baroccio. 
 
 [1] At Rome. 
 
 II Pomerancio (Crist. Roncalli), 
 
 1552-1626. 
 Giov. Baglione, 15 73- 1642. 
 [2] At Siena (pupils of M. A. Salimbeni). 
 Franc. Vanni, 1 565-1609. 
 Ventura Salimbeni, 1557- 16 13. 
 Pietro Sorri, 1 556-1622. 
 
 Prete Genovese, Genoa, etc. 
 Aless. Casolani, 15 52- 1606, etc. 
 [3] At Florence. 
 
 The three introducers of the style. 
 Lud. (Cardi) da Cigoli, 
 
 ISS9-I6I3. t 
 Gregorio Pagani, 155^" 
 1605. 
 
 II Passignano (Dom. 
 Cresti), 1558-1638. 
 Succession of Cigoli. 
 
 And. Comodi, 1560- 1638. 
 
 [Pietro da Cortona. 
 Cristof. Allori, 1577-1621. 
 Jac. daEmpoli, 15 54- 1642. 
 Dom. Feti, Rome, 1569- 
 1624. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 187 
 
 Succession of Pagani and Passig- 
 nano. 
 
 Matteo Rosselli, 1578- 
 1650. 
 
 Giov. (Mannozzi) di S. 
 
 Giovanni, 1590- 1636. 
 Lorenzo Lippi, 1 606- 1 664. 
 II Volterrano (Bald. Fran- 
 ceschini), 161 1-89, the 
 link with theMacchinisti. 
 Carlo Dolce, 1616-86. 
 [4] At Pisa. 
 
 Aurel. Lomi, 15 56- 1620. 
 Oraz. Luigi Gentileschi, 1563- 
 1647. 
 
 Artemisia Gentileschi, 
 1590-1642. 
 
 [5] At Genoa. 
 
 Giov. Bat. Paggi, 1 554-1627. 
 Dom. Fiasella, 1589- 1669. 
 Valerio Castello, 1625-59. 
 Pellegro and Dom. Piola, 16 1 7- 
 1640 ; 1 628- 1 703, etc.. 
 [Superseded "by Pietro da Cortona. 
 ii. Reform of Design— the Eclectic Schools— all in 
 Lombardy. 
 
 (1) School of the Campi, at Cremona. 
 
 Giulio Campi, 1500-72. 
 Antonio Campi, living 1 591. 
 Bernardino Campi, 1522-84. 
 
 Sofonisba Angusciola, 1533-1626. 
 
 II Malosso (G. Bat. Trotti), 1555- 
 1612. 
 
 (2) School of the Procaccini, at Milan. 
 
 Ercole Procaccini, 1520-c. 1600. 
 Camillo Procaccini, 1546- 1626. 
 Giulio Ces. Procaccini, 1548-c. 1626. 
 
 II Cerano (G. Bat. Crespi), 1557- 
 1633. 
 
 Daniel Crespi, c. 1600- 1630. 
 
 II Talpino (Enea Sal- 
 meggia), 15 56- 1626. 
 Carlo Fr. Nuvolone, 1608-61. 
 
 (3) School of the Carracci at Bologna. 
 
 [1] The three chiefs of the school. 
 
 Ludovico Carracci, 1 555-1619. 
 
 Franc. Brizio, 15 74- 1623. 
 Annib. Massari, 1 5 69 - 1 6 3 3 . 
 Lionello Spada, 1 5 76- 1 622. 
 Lor. Gariberi, 1580-1654. 
 Giac. Cavedone, 1577- 
 1660, etc. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Agostino Carracci, 1558-1601. 
 Annibal Carracci, 15 60- 1609. 
 [2] Their five great pupils. 
 
 Guido Reni, 1 574-1642. 
 
 Franc. Gessi, 1588-1649. 
 
 Giov. Giac. Sementi, 1580- 1638. 
 
 Gio. Andr. Sirani, 1610-70. 
 
 Elis. Sirani, 1638-65. 
 
 II Pesarese (Simon Cantarini), 
 1612-48. 
 
 Dom. Maria Canuti, 1620-84. 
 Francesco Albani, 15 78- 1640. 
 
 G. Bat. Speranza, 1610-40. 
 
 Pietro Fr. Mola, 1609-65. 
 
 G. Bat. Mola, 16 16-61, etc. 
 
 [Andrea Sacchi. 
 
 [Carlo Cignani. 
 Domenichino (Dom. Zampieri), 1581- 
 164 1. 
 
 II Sassoferrato (G. Bat. Salvi), 
 
 1605-85. 
 [Nicholas Poussin. 
 [Franc, di Maria, Naples. 
 II Guercino da Cento (Giov. Fr. Bar- 
 bieri), 1590- 1666. 
 
 [Influence on Calabrese and on 
 Carlo Dolce. 
 Giov. Lanfranco, Parma, 1581-1647, — 
 prototype of the Macchinisti, and link 
 with the Cortoneschi. 
 
 Bartol. Schidone, Modena, 1 560-1 61 6. 
 Cos. Gamberucci, Florence, fl. 16 10. 
 
 [Influence on Sculpture, Algardi, Fiam- 
 mingo, etc. 
 
 [3] Later Carracceschi — Struggle with the 
 Sensual principle. 
 {a) At Naples. 
 
 Massimo Stanzione, 1585 -1656. 
 Andr. Vaccaro, 1598- 1670. 
 Giacomo Farelli, 1624- 
 1706. 
 
 Francesco di Maria, 1623-90. 
 [Solimene. 
 (5) At Rome. 
 
 Andr. Sacchi, 1600-61. 
 
 Fr. andFil. Lauri, 1610-35 ; 
 1623-94. 
 Carlo Maratta, 1623-17 13. 
 Agost. Masucci, 1 6 9 1 - 
 1758. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 Stef. Pozzi, 1708- 
 1768. 
 
 Giuseppe Peroni, 
 Parma, 1700-76. 
 
 Gavin Hamilton, f 
 1795- 
 
 (c) At Bologna. 
 
 Lor. Pasinelli, 1629- 1700. 
 
 Giov. Gius. del Sole, 
 
 1654-1719. 
 Carlo Cignani, 162 8-1 719. 
 
 Lud. Quaini, 1 643- 1 7 1 7. 
 Marcant. Franceschini, 
 
 1 648- 1 729. 
 Lo Spagnuolo ( Gius. 
 
 Mar. Crespi), 1665- 
 
 I747- 
 
 (d) At Verona. 
 
 Ant. Balestra, 1666- 1740. 
 
 Conte Pietro Rotari, 
 
 1707-62. 
 G. Bat. Cignaroli, 1706- 
 
 1770. 
 
 [Superseded everywhere by the influence of 
 Bernini and P. da Cortona. 
 
 II. Opposition and Ultimate triumph of the Sensual 
 
 ELEMENT, IN ITALY. 
 
 1. Architecture. 
 
 Prospero Fontana, Bologna, 1512-97. 
 
 Carlo Maderno, W. Lombardy, 1 556-1636. 
 
 Giov. Lor. Bernini, Naples, 15 98- 1680. 
 
 Franc. Borromini, W. Lombardy, 1599- 1669, etc. 
 
 Josef Churruguete, in Spain— Perrault, Mansard, 
 etc., in France — Sir John Vanburgh, 
 etc., in England. 
 
 2. .Sculpture. 
 
 Giov. Lor. Bernini, 1598-1680. 
 
 His succession at Rome, Venice, etc., to 
 Toretti, master of Canova. 
 
 Influence on France. 
 
 Pierre Paul Puget, 1622-94. 
 
 Pierre Legros, 1685-1719. 
 
 Edmund Bouchardon, 1698- 1762. 
 
 J. Bapt. Pigalle, 1714-85. 
 
 £tienne Maurice Falconet, 1716-83, etc. 
 
 Roubiliac, in England. 
 
190 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 3. Painting. 
 
 Pietro (Berrettini) da Cortona, 1596- 1669 — from the 
 Florentine succession of Baroccio — Influence of 
 Bernini, Paolo Veronese, etc. — Opposes and puts 
 down the Intellectual reform of the Carracci, and 
 re-establishes the Sensual ascendency more com- 
 pletely but less grossly than before. 
 Succession of Pietro da Cortona. 
 [1] At Rome. 
 
 Ciro Ferri, 1634-89. 
 [Nasini. 
 
 Giov. Fr. Romanello, 1617-62. 
 
 Baciccio (G. Bat. Gaulli), 1639- 
 1709. 
 [2] At Siena. 
 
 Gius. Nasini, 1664- 1736. 
 [3] At Florence. 
 
 Vine. Dandini, 1607-75. 
 
 Ant. Dom. Gabbiani, 1652- 1722. 
 
 Bened. Luti, 1666- 1724. 
 
 J. Bapt. Vanloo (France), 1676- 
 1745- 
 
 G. Bat. Cipriani, c. 1725-85. 
 [4] At Naples. 
 
 Luca Giordano, 1632- 1705. 
 
 Paolo de Matteis, 1662- 
 
 1728. 
 [Influence on Spain. 
 Franc. Solimene, 165 7- 1747. 
 
 Sebast. Conca, 1676- 1764. 
 [Batoni. 
 
 III. Revival or Protest in behalf of Intellect and 
 the Ideal, in Italy. 
 
 Raphael Mengs, 1726-76. 
 
 [Influence on the Spanish and French Schools. 
 
 Pompeio Batoni, Rome, 1708-87. 
 
 Ant. Cavallucci da Sermoneta, 1752-95. 
 Angelica Kauffmann, at Rome, 1742- 1807. 
 Claud. Fr. Beaumont, Turin, 1694- 1766. 
 Benvenuti of Florence, Andr. Appiani of Milan, 
 Camuccini of Rome, etc 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 191 
 
 IV. Schools of the Netherlands, Spain, France and 
 England, as inspired by Italy — The Catholic 
 Regeneration peculiarly expressing itself in 
 the Spanish School. 
 
 1. The Later Flemish School — Influence of Venice. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens, 1577-1640. 
 Antony Vandyke, 1599-1641. 
 
 Jordaens, Van Balen, Cornel. Schut, Van Thulden, 
 
 the Quellins, etc. 
 Gerard Lairesse, 1640-1711. 
 
 2. Holland — Influence of M. A. da Caravaggio. 
 
 Gerard Honthorst, the Gherardo della Notte of the 
 
 Italians, 1592- 1660. 
 Rembrandt van Rhyn, 1606-74, etc. 
 
 Adrian vander Werf, 1659-1727. 
 
 3. Spanish School — Influence of all the Great 
 
 Masters, Italian and Flemish, but with a peculiar 
 national and religious feeling, pervading and 
 animating it throughout. 
 
 Early painters" of Aragon, Castile, Andalusia and 
 Valencia — thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. 
 
 i. Influence of Van Eyck and Upper Germany. 
 
 Juan Sanchez de Castro, Seville, fl. 1454-84. 
 
 Juan Nunez, Seville, fl. i486. 
 Fern. Gallegos, Salamanca, c. 1475-1550. 
 Luis Morales, Badajoz, 1509-86. 
 
 ii. Influence of Florence and Umbria. 
 
 Pedro de Aponte, Aragon, fl. 1479. 
 Ant. del Rincon, Castile, 1446-c. 1500. 
 Diego Lopez, fl. 15 19. 
 Inigo Comontes, Toledo, fl. 1495. 
 Pedro Berruguete, Toledo, fl. 1485. 
 Franc. Neapoli of Madrid, and Pablo Aregio, fl. 
 
 1506, at Valencia. 
 Juan de Borgona, or Vigarny, fl. 1495-1533, at 
 Toledo. 1 
 
 1 Alonzo Sanchez and Luis de with Juan de Borgona. Juan de 
 
 Medina worked at Toledo in 1495, Villoldo was still alive and working at 
 
 and Juan de Villoldo in 15 10 — all Toledo in 1548. 
 three excellent artists — in competition 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Franc. Comontes, Toledo, fl. 1547-64. 
 Bias del Prado, Toledo, 1547-93. 
 
 iii. Influence (chiefly) of Michael Angelo. 
 
 Alonzo Berruguete, Leon, c. 1 480-1 561. 
 
 Gaspar Becerra, Seville, 1520-70. 
 
 Pedro Marmoleja de Villegas, Seville, 1520-97. 
 
 iv. Influence (chiefly) of Raphael. 
 
 Luis de Vargas, Seville, 1528-90. 
 
 [Juan del Castillo. 
 Pablo de Cespedes, Cordova, 15 38- 1608. 
 Vicente Juan de J oanez, Valencia, 1523-79. 
 
 v. Influence of Correggio, Titian, M. A. da Caravag- 
 
 gio, the Naturalisti, and Rubens. 
 
 (1) Castile — From Berruguete, Becerra, etc. 
 
 Miguel Barroso, 1538-90. 
 
 Luis de Velasco, fl. 1564- 1606. 
 
 El Mudo (Juan Fernandez Navarrete), 
 
 1526-79. 
 Luis Tristan, 1596- 1640. 
 Pedro de las Cuevas, f 1635. 
 Anton. Pereda, Valladolid, 15 99- 1669. 
 [Mingles with the school of Seville. 
 
 (2) Valencia — from Vicente J. de Joanez. 
 
 Alonzo Sanchez Coello, c. 1500-90. 
 
 Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, 1 55 1- 
 1610. 
 
 Bartol. Cardenas (Portuguese), 
 1547-1606. 
 Franc, de Ribalta, c. 1551-1628. 
 
 Juan de Ribalta, 1 597-1 631. 
 Lo Spagnoletto (Jose Ribera), 1589- 
 1656. 
 
 [Influence on Naples, L. Gior- 
 dano, etc. 
 
 Jacinto Geronimo de Espinosa, 1600-80. 
 Pedro Orrente, 15 60- 1644. 
 Esteban March, etc. 
 [Mingles with the school of Seville. 
 
 (3) Andalusia, or Seville — from L. de Vargas 
 
 and Marmoleja. 
 
 Juan de las Roelas, 1560- 1625. 
 
 Franc. Pacheco, 1 571-1654. 
 
 Franc. Herrera, the Elder, 1 576-1656. 
 
 Franc. Herrera the Younger or 
 El Mozo, 1622-85. 
 Juan del Castillo, 15 84- 1640. 
 
 Franc. Zurbaran, 1598- 1662. 
 
 Anton, del Castillo, 1603-67. 
 
 Juan del Valdes Leal, 1630-91. 
 [Palomino. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 Diego Velasquez, 1 599-1660. 
 
 Juan de Pareda, 1606-70. 
 Juan Carreno de Miranda, 1 6 1 4- 
 1685. 
 
 Matteo Cerezo, Burgos, 
 1635-85. 
 Alonzo Cano, 1601-76. 
 Pedro de Moya, 1610-66. 
 Bartol. Esteban Murillo, 1613-80. 
 
 Pedro Nunez de Villavicenzio, 
 
 1635-1700. 
 Alonzo Miguel de Tobar, 1678- 
 1729. 
 
 Claudio Coello, 1621-93. 
 [Sebastian Munoz. 
 vi. Influence of the Revival, through C. Maratta. 
 
 Vicente Vittoria, Valencia, 1658-17 12. 
 vii. Influence of L. da Cortona, L. Giordano, etc. 
 Sebast. Munoz, 1654-90. 
 Anton. Palomino, Valencia, 1653-1726. 
 Anton. Viladomat, Saragossa, 1678-1756. 
 viii. Influence of Mengs, David, etc. 
 
 Ramon Bayeu y Subias, Saragossa, 1734-95. 
 Jose Apariccio, 1775- 18 15, etc. 
 
 French School. 
 
 i. Influence of Florence and Parma. 
 
 Jean Cousin, 15 38-1 601. 
 Martin Freminet, 1 567-161 9. 
 
 ii. Influence of Venice, M. A. da Caravaggio, etc. 
 
 Simon Vouet, 1582-1641. 
 
 [Lesueur, Lebrun, etc. 
 Pierre Valentin, 1600-32. 
 
 Le Bourguignon, ' II Borgognone ' of Italy 
 (Jacques Courtois), 1621-76. 
 Joseph Parrocel, 1648- 1704. 
 
 iii. Influence of the Revival. 
 
 Nicholas Poussin, 1594- 1665. 
 
 Philippe de Champagne, 1602-74. 
 
 Jean Jouvenet, 1644-17 17, etc. 
 Eustache Lesueur, 1617-55. 
 Pierre Mignard, 1610-95. 
 Charles Alfonse Dufresnoy, 161 1-65. 
 Sebastian Bourdon, Nich. Loyr, etc. 
 
 iv. Influence of Lanfranco, P. da Cortona, etc. 
 
 Charles Lebrun, 1619-90. 
 
 Fr. Perrier, Fr. Lemoine, Louis Galloche, 
 
 Charles Natoire, Charles Andre Vanloo„ 
 
 etc. 
 
194 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Pierre Subleyras, 1699- 1749. 
 v. Influence of R. Mengs and of the Antique. 
 Jos. Marie Vien, 17 16- 1809. 
 Jacques Louis David, 175 0-1825. 
 
 5. British School — influence of Venice, Rubens, the 
 Carracci, etc. 
 
 Sir James Thornhill, 1676-1734. 
 William Hogarth, 1698- 1764. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1723-92. 
 Benjamin West (of America), 1738-1820. 
 James Barry, 1 741-1806. 
 
 William Blake, 1757-1828. 
 
 Henry Fuseli, John Opie, Joseph Wright of Derby, 
 Thomas Stothard, etc. etc. 
 
 V. Development of 'Genre/ or of Portrait, Land- 
 scape, the Grotesque, Common Life, Animal 
 Life, Flower and Fruit- Painting, etc. (the 
 'disjecta membra 5 of oll - painting torn 
 asunder in the reformation), in the nether- 
 LANDS, Italy, Spain, France and England' — 
 each several branch having been anticipated 
 in the works of van eyck — the chase after 
 the Ideal perpetuating and exhausting itself 
 in each branch successively, descending lower 
 and lower till it becomes extinct in flowers 
 and fruit, pots and pans, like the greek 
 poetry in the epigrams of the anthologia. 
 
 i. Portrait — Italy, the Netherlands, etc. 
 
 i. Italy. 
 
 Simon di Memmo, Uccello, Botticello, Dom. 
 
 del Ghirlandajo, Andr. del Sarto, etc. 
 Leonard da Vinci, Raphael, etc. 
 Parmigianino. 
 Giorgione, Titian, etc. 
 
 Morone, Calcar of Treves, etc. 
 
 ii. Netherlands and Germany. 
 
 (1) Native Schools. 
 
 Van Eyck, etc. 
 Albert Diirer, etc. 
 Holbein, etc. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 195 
 
 Balthasar Denner, Hamburgh, 1685- 
 1747- 
 
 (2) Influence of Italy. 
 
 Antony More, Utrecht, 1512-68. 
 Rembrandt, etc. 
 Rubens, etc. 
 Vandyke, etc. 
 
 Sir Peter Lely, 1617-80; Sir Godfrey 
 Kneller, 1648- 1702, etc. 
 [Influence on England. 
 
 iii. Spain. 
 
 El Mudo. 
 Velasquez, etc. 
 
 iv. France. 
 
 Philip de Champagne,, etc. 
 
 v. Great Britain. 
 
 (1) German influence — Succession of Holbein. 
 
 Nich. Hilliard, temp. Eliz. 
 
 Isaac Oliver, 1556-1617. 
 
 Peter Oliver, 1601-60. 
 
 (2) Italian and Flemish influence. 
 
 George Jamesone, Scotland, 1 586-1644. 
 
 Dobson, Walker, Cooper, Fuller, Riley, 
 Richardson, Jervas, Hudson. 
 
 Aikman, Ramsay, Scotland. 
 
 George Romney, 17 34- 1802. 
 Thomas Gainsborough, 1727-88. 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1723-92. 
 
 Northcote, Hoppner, etc. 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1769- 1830, etc. 
 
 Sir Henry Raeburn, Scotland, 1756- 
 1823, etc. 
 
 2. Landscape. 
 
 , i. Flanders and Germany — Ideal Landscape. 
 (1) School of Antwerp. 
 
 Joach. Patenier, fl. 1520. 
 
 Henr. van Bles, the Civetta of Italy, 
 
 1489-1550. 
 Hans Mostaert (Harlem), 1499-1555. 
 Matth. Cock or Koeck, c. 1500-66. 
 Jerome Cock, c. 1510-70. 
 Peter Breughel, the Old, 1510-70. 
 Lucas van Gassel, Henry van Cleef, 
 
 James Grimmaer, etc. 
 Fr. and Giles Mostaert (Antwerp, sons 
 of Hans), 1520-57 ; i5 2 o-79- 
 Hans Soens — worked at Parma. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Paul Brill, 1 556-1624. 
 
 [Henr. Corn. Vroom. 
 
 [Agostino Tassi. 
 
 [Claude. 
 Denis Calvart, 1555- 16 19. 
 
 [The Carracci. 
 Lucas van Uden, 1 595-1660. 
 Rubens. 
 
 John Breughel, the Younger, or ' de 
 Velours,' 1 569-1625, etc. 
 
 Succession to John van Breyda 
 1 683- 1 750, Charles Breydel, 
 1 67 7- 1 744, etc. 
 Ant. Fr. Vandermeulen, 1634-90, etc. 
 
 (2) School of Malines — chiefly in distemper. 
 
 Mart, van Valkenburg, fl. 1560. 
 Hans Bol, 1536-83. 
 
 James and Roland Savery, 1545- 1602 ; 
 
 .1576-1655. 
 David Vinkenbooms, 1578-1629. 
 Alb. van Everdingen (Holland), 1621-75. 
 [Influence on Ruysdael. 
 
 (3) School of Frankfort on the Main. 
 
 Adam Elsheimer, 15 74- 1632. 
 
 [David Teniers, the Elder. 
 
 [Influence on Italy. 
 John Lingelbach, 1625-87. 
 
 ii. Holland. 
 
 (1) School of Harlem. 
 
 Hans Mostaert and his family. 
 
 [Mingle with the school of Antwerp. 
 Esaias Vandervelde, 1590- 1630. 
 John Van Goyen, 1596- 1656. 
 Herman Sachtleven, 1609-85. 
 John Asselyn, 1610-60. 
 Fred. Moucheron, 1633-86. 
 Nich. Berghem, 1624-83. 
 Jacob Ruysdael, 1640-81. 
 Minderhout Hobbema, fl. 1662. 
 Karel du Jardin, 1640-78, etc. 
 
 John Wynants, 1600-70. 
 Adam Pynaker, 1621-73. 
 Adrian Vandervelde, 1639-72. 
 Philip Wouvermans, 1620-61, etc. 
 
 (2) Other Dutch Schools. 
 
 Albert Cuyp, Dort, 1606-67. 
 Paul Potter, Amsterdam, 1625-54. 
 
 (3) Marine-Scenery — begun at Harlem, perfected 
 
 at Leyden and Amsterdam — the most ideal 
 branch of Dutch Nature-painting. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 Henr. Cornel. Vroom, the 'Enrico di 
 Spagna ' of Italy, 1566-1619. 
 
 Simon de Vlieger, 1612-70. 
 
 William Vandervelde, the Younger, 1633- 
 1707. 
 
 Ludolph Backhuysen, 163 1- 1707. 
 
 iii. Perfection of Ideal Landscape— Italy, France, Great 
 
 Britain, etc. 
 Agostino Tassi, Perugia, 1566- 1642. 
 Claude Gelee, or de Lorraine, 1600-82. 
 
 John Both, Utrecht, 1610-50. 
 
 Herman Swanevelt, Holland, 1620- 1725. 
 The Carracci. 
 
 Nicholas Poussin, 15 94- 1665. 
 
 Gaspar (Dughet) Poussin, 1600-75. 
 
 Domenichino, etc. 
 Velasquez, 1599- 1660. 
 Salvator Rosa, 1613-73. 
 
 Pier Tempesta (P. Molyn), Harlem, 1637-1701. 
 Orizzonte (John Fr. van Bloemen), Antw. 1656- 
 1740. 
 
 Joseph Vernet, 1712-89. 
 Richard Wilson, 1714-82. 
 
 iv. Architecture. 
 
 (1) Holland. 
 
 Jean de Vries, 1 5 2 7 - 88, and his descendants. 
 
 Henry Steenwick, 1550-1603. 
 
 Peter Neefs, 15 70-1 651. 
 
 Eman. De Witt, 1607-92. 
 Job Berkheyden, 1637-93. 
 John Vanderheyden, 1637- 17 12. 
 
 (2) Italy— influence (chiefly) of Gentile Bellini, 
 
 Carpaccio, etc. 
 
 Aristotile (Bastiano da S. Gallo), 1481- 
 I55I- 
 
 Ottavio Viviani, Brescia, 1599- 1674. 
 Giov. Ghisolfi, Milan, 1623-83. 
 Andr. Locatelli, Rome, 1 660-1 741. 
 Giov. Paolo Panini, Piacenza, 1691-1758. 
 Luca Carlevarijs, Udine, 1665- 1729. 
 
 Canaletto (Ant. Bellotti), Venice, 
 1697-1768. 
 
 Fr. Guardi, Venice, 1712- 
 1793. 
 
 3. Fantasticherie— Burlesques, Witch-pieces, etc.— 
 
 IN CONTINUATION OF THE GROTESQUE SCULPTURE 
 
 of Gothic Architecture— Almost confined to 
 Flanders and to Roman Catholicism. 
 Jerome Bosch, Bois-le-Duc, 1470-c. 1530. 
 John Mandyn, Harlem, fl. c. 1500. 
 
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 Henr. van Bles, or Civetta, 1489- 15 50. 
 Lancelot Blondeel, Bruges, 1500-59. 
 Peter Breughel, the Elder, 1510-70. 
 Martin de Vos, 1 531-1604. 
 Peter Breughel, ' d'Enfer,' 1569-1625. 
 The Tenierses, father and son. 
 David Ryckaert, Antwerp, 1615-77. 
 Rembrandt, S. Rosa, the Heemskerks, etc. 
 
 . Common life. 
 
 i. Germany. 
 
 Hans Sebald Beham, Nuremb. 1500-50. 
 
 ii. Flanders — More Imaginative than the Dutch — 
 
 Scenes of Low Life, chiefly out of doors, in 
 which you mingle as a mere spectator. 
 
 Peter Breughel, the Elder, 1510-70. 
 
 Joach. Beucklaer, 1 530-1610. 
 
 David Teniers, the Elder, 1 582-1649. 
 
 David Teniers, the Younger, 1610-94. 
 
 Rubens. 
 
 iii. Holland — Influence chiefly of M. A. da Caravaggio 
 
 (1) Bambocciate — in-doors debauchery of low life. 
 
 Adrian Brauwer, 1608-40. 
 Adrian van Ostade, 1610-85. 
 Cornel. Bega, 1620-64. 
 Peter de Laar, the Bamboccio of Italy, 
 1613-75. 
 
 M. Angelo (Cerquozzi) delle Bam- 
 bocciate {alias delle Battaglie), 
 Italy, 1602-60, etc. 
 Jan Steen, 1639-89, etc. 
 
 (2) School of Leyden, anticipated by Schoreel — 
 
 in-doors life, but more graceful and refined. 
 Rembrandt, 1606-74. 
 Gerard Dow, 1613-74. 
 Gerard Terburgh, 1608-81. 
 Arnold vander Neer, 1619-83. 
 
 Eglon vander Neer, 1643- 1703. 
 Francis Mieris, 1635-81. 
 
 William Mieris, 1662-1747. 
 Godfrey Schalken, 1643- 1706. 
 Gabriel Metzu, 1615-58. 
 John Peter Slingelandt, 1640-91. 
 Gasper Netscher, 1636-84. 
 Adrian vander Werf, 16 59- 1727, etc. 
 
 iv. Spain. 
 
 Juan Labrador, f 1660. 
 
 Fr. Goya y Lucientes, 1746- 1832. 
 
 v. France. 
 
 Jacques Callot, 1 593- 1 635. 
 Antoine Watteau, 1 684- 1 72 1 . 
 Jean Bapt. Greuze, 1726- 1805. 
 
SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, ETC. 
 
 vi. Great Britain — Common Life in its deeper meaning 
 — the highest development of this branch of art. 
 William Hogarth, 1697- 1764. 
 Sir David Wilkie, 1785-1841. 
 
 5. Animals, the Chase, etc. 
 
 i. Flanders and Holland. 
 
 John Strada or Stradarius, Bruges, 1536- 1604. 
 Franc. Sneyders, 1579- 1637. 
 John Fyt, the Van Aelsts, the Weeninxes, the 
 Hondekoeters, etc. 
 
 ii. Italy. 
 
 Bassano and his family. 
 
 Antonio Tempesta, 1555-1630. 
 
 Giov. Bened. Castiglione, Genoa, 1616-70. 
 
 Rosa da Tivoli (Philip Roos), 1655-1707. 
 
 6. Flowers and Fruit. 
 
 i. Flanders and Holland. 
 
 Jean Louis Bosch, c. 1450- 1507, and other 
 
 early painters of Bois-le-Duc. 
 John Breughel, ' de Velours,' 1569-1625. 
 Daniel Seghers, 1 590-1661. 
 David de Heem, 1600-76. 
 Otto Marcellis, 1613-73. 
 Abraham Mignon, 1625-79. 
 Rachel Ruysch, 1665- 1750. 
 John van Huysum, 1682- 1749. 
 
 John van Kessel, Simon Verelst, Bapt. Mon- 
 noyer, etc. 
 
 ii. Italy. 
 
 M. Ang. (Pace) del Campidoglio, Rome, c. 
 1610-70. 
 
 II Gobbo de Carracci (P. Paolo Bonzi), 1570- 
 1630, etc. 
 
 iii. Spain. 
 
 Bias del Prado, Toledo, 1547-93. 
 
 Fray Juan Sanchez Cotan, Toledo, 1561-1627. 
 
 Juan Labrador, t 1660. 
 
 Juan de Arellano, 1614-76. 
 
 7. Still Life. 
 Holland. 
 
 Peter Aertsen, the ' Pietro Lungo ' of Italy, 
 Amst. 1519-66. 
 
 [Influence on M. A. da Caravaggio. 
 Joachim Beucklaer, 1 530-1 610, etc. 
 Cornel. Brize, etc. etc. 
 
2oo GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SCHOOLS, ETC. 
 
 PERIOD V. 
 
 From the French Revolution and the Second Regeneration 
 of Catholic Christianity — otherwise, from the commence- 
 ment of the Nineteenth Century — to a period as yet 
 undetermined. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING. 
 
 L Preparation and Precursors. 
 
 Discovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii — Works of 
 Passeri, Gori, Sir William Hamilton, Mr. Hope, 
 
 ClCOGNARA, AND SEROUX d'AGINCOURT — OF THE 
 
 Dilettante Society — Stuart's Athens, etc. etc. 
 
 Horace Walpole's resuscitation of Gothic Archi- 
 tecture — the works of Carter, Milner, etc. etc. 
 
 Flaxman , Canova, Thorwaldsen, the Princess Marie, etc. 
 II. Revival in Germany. 
 
 III. Revival in Italy. 
 
 IV. Revival in France. 
 
 V. Revival in Great Britain— the pledge, it may be 
 hoped, of a distinctly new style of archi- 
 tecture, expressive of the epoch in human 
 progression of which great britain is the 
 representative, as well as of a sculpture and 
 Painting founded, not on servile imitation, 
 but on sound principles and the inspiration of 
 
 GENIUS. 
 
SKETCHES OF THE 
 OF CHRISTIAN 
 
 HISTORY 
 ART. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 ROMAN AND BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 PERIOD OF PREPARATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. ROMAN ART •. . 203 
 
 II. BYZANTINE ART . . . . • . .239 
 
LETTER I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 Having thus taken, as it were, a Pisgah glance at Palestine — 
 having familiarized ourselves with the grand outlines and the 
 leading features of the 'terra incognita' below us, and acquired 
 some familiarity with the language and the habits of thought 
 of the community that people it — let us descend and investi- 
 gate the subject in detail, and form that intimate acquaintance 
 with the schools and masters of the past, apart from which we 
 can entertain no rational hope of greatness for the future. 
 We must begin ab initio, and I propose, accordingly, to consider, 
 in this and the following letter, the early efforts of Rome and 
 Byzantium, during the first ten or twelve centuries of the 
 Christian era, forming a ' Period of Preparation,' during which 
 the life-giving Teutonic element was as yet, intellectually, in 
 its nonage. We will commence with the Architecture, 
 Sculpture, and Painting of Rome and the Latin Church, during 
 the early ages of Christianity, — and let me entreat you at the 
 outset, once for all, to give me credit for an earnest abhorrence 
 of the spirit of dogmatism, although I fear that strong and 
 intimate conviction may sometimes induce me to speak with 
 unbecoming assurance. I will at least study that my words be 
 few — as few as the subject will admit of. 
 
 Section i. — Architecture of the Catacombs. 
 
 It is true, in a certain sense, that Christian Art dates from 
 Constantine ; nevertheless it would be more correct to say 
 that it then first emerged above ground, — its earliest efforts 
 must be sought for in the Catacombs. 
 
 Rome, as you are aware, is undermined in every direction 
 by subterraneous excavations, forming a maze of unknown 
 
204 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 extent, and labyrinthine intricacy, formed during the early ages 
 in the process of quarrying tufo, and hallowed to the imagina- 
 tion of the Christian world by their having become the 
 refuge and abode of the primitive Church -during the ages of 
 persecution. To our Classic associations, indeed, Rome was 
 still, under Trajan and the Antonines, the city of the Caesars, 
 the metropolis of Pagan idolatry — in the pages of her poets and 
 historians we still linger among the triumphs of the Capitol, 
 the shows of the Coliseum — or if we read of a Christian being 
 dragged before the tribunal, or exposed to the beasts, we 
 think of him as one of a scattered community, few in number, 
 spiritless in action, and politically insignificant. But all this 
 while there was living beneath the visible an invisible Rome — 
 a population unheeded, unreckoned — thought of vaguely, 
 vaguely spoken of, and with the familiarity and indifference 
 that men feel who live on a volcano — yet a population strong- 
 hearted, of quick impulses, nerved alike to suffer or to die, and 
 in numbers, resolution, and physical force sufficient to have 
 hurled their oppressors from the throne of the world, had they 
 not deemed it their duty to kiss the rod, to love their enemies, 
 to bless those that cursed them, and to submit, for their 
 Redeemer's sake, to the "powers that be." Here, in these 
 " dens and caves of the earth," they lived ; here they died — a 
 " spectacle " in their lifetime " to men and angels," and in their 
 death a " triumph " to mankind — a triumph of which the 
 echoes still float around the walls of Rome and over the 
 desolate Campagna, while those that once thrilled the Capitol 
 are silenced, and the walls that returned them have long since 
 crumbled into dust. 1 
 
 In these recesses, these Catacombs, we must seek for the 
 first efforts of Christian art, the earliest, I should say, which 
 
 1 "Siste, Viator. 
 Tot ibi trophaea, quot ossa, 
 Quot martyres, tot triumphi ! 
 Antra quae subis, multa quae cernis marmora, 
 Vel dum silent, 
 Palam Romae gloriam loquuntur. 
 Audi quid Echo resonet Subterraneas Romae ! 
 Obscura licet Urbis Coemeteria, 
 Totius patens Orbis Theatrum ! 
 Supplex Loci Sanctitatem venerare ; 
 Et posthac sub luto aurum, 
 Coelum sub coeno, 
 Sub Roma Romam quasrito !" 
 Inscription, abridged, Roma Subterranea, 1651, torn. i. p. 625. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 205 
 
 have come down to us, since whatever may have existed of 
 such early date in the elder East has long since perished. 
 But in vindicating this antiquity you must not misunderstand me 
 as asserting their intrinsic merit, or that ancestral relation to 
 the glorious works of the middle ages which is the distinction 
 of Greece rather than Rome, as I shall hereafter show. Art 
 in the Catacombs was of feeble growth from the first, and 
 although it survived its translation to upper earth, it never 
 attained a richer development than is exhibited by those 
 plants that we find growing in subterraneous caverns, secluded 
 from the sun, colourless and uncouth — and which, when 
 removed to the ungenial light of heaven, either immediately 
 wither or gradually decay. The latter alternative, as you will 
 presently find, attended the Sculpture and Painting of these 
 dreary regions ; the former more peculiarly expresses the fate 
 of their Architecture, after the conversion of Constantine. 
 
 This Architecture is, in the strictest sense, Sepulchral ; 
 tombs were the first altars, and mausoleums the first churches 
 of Christendom. The mortal remains of the vulgar herd were 
 deposited in niches scooped out of the walls of the long wind- 
 ing passages, the streets or thoroughfares of the subterranean 
 city, and secured by flat slabs of marble, between the chinks 
 of which the white skeletons may frequently to this day be 
 seen glittering in undisturbed repose. But to the confessors 
 and martyrs, the heroes and heroines of the faith — to bishops, 
 and in general^ to those of higher mark and renown, more dis- 
 tinguished resting-places were allotted. A space broader and 
 more regular than the usual passages, and ending in a blank 
 wall, was in such cases selected or excavated ; recesses, sur- 
 mounted by semicircular conchce, or shells, were hollowed out 
 at the extremity and in the two sides of the square; within 
 these recesses were placed sarcophagi, their sides covered with 
 the symbols and devices of Christianity j the roof was scooped 
 into the resemblance of a dome or cupola, — this was usually 
 painted, as well as the shells of the recesses, and the whole, 
 thus completed, formed a chamber bearing some faint re- 
 semblance to the Greek cross, and well suited, by its com- 
 parative space, for the congregation of the faithful and the 
 services of religion, the sarcophagus at the upper end of the 
 cell serving as a communion-table, or altar. These primitive 
 churches abound in the Catacombs, and may still be seen in 
 that of S. Sebastian, — of course they are very rudely executed. 
 
206 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Where their plan and distribution originated, it would be per- 
 haps idle to enquire; but it is at least a singular coincidence 
 that the central chamber of the Pagan catacombs of Alex- 
 andria, and its lateral recesses, present the exact model of 
 those of Rome, only on a far more splendid scale. 
 
 After the conversion of Constantine and the consequent 
 enfranchisement of Christianity, the Catacombs ceased to be 
 frequented as a place of refuge, but past associations had 
 invested them with the deepest interest, and for centuries 
 afterwards they were held in veneration, and constantly visited 
 both by individual worshippers and by the clergy, who per- 
 formed regular services at the tombs of the martyrs. But in 
 the course of the thirteenth century they fell into oblivion, 
 and remained almost totally forgotten till the great Catholic 
 revival in the sixteenth, posterior to the Council of Trent, 
 when the policy of Sixtus V., and the enthusiasm of the 
 learned Bosio, brought them once more to notice. Assisted 
 by a faithful friend, Bosio spent thirty-five years in exploring 
 them — making accurate plans, copying sculptures and paintings 
 with unwearied assiduity — and his labours resulted in the 
 massive folios of the ' Roma Subterranea,' now of inestimable 
 value, since the Catacombs being for the most part closed up 
 and inaccessible — the tombs removed and the frescoes de- 
 stroyed 1 — they form the sole record of much that then existed 
 in its freshness, now obliterated. 2 
 
 Of these paintings and sculptures I shall speak more at 
 length hereafter, since, bad as they may be, they were the 
 models of Latin art for many centuries. But the Architecture, 
 or rather architectural forms, to which they were allied, and 
 which were far more susceptible of expansion and improvement, 
 were, except in the case of one insignificant class of buildings, 
 the funeral chapels, neglected and abandoned by Rome, and 
 heathen models imitated in preference. Little else indeed 
 was to be expected, for the art which had been transplanted to 
 
 1 I use the word, in its common once, much augmented and improved, 
 acceptation, for all wall-paintings, ex- by Aringhi and Bottari), may be asso- 
 ecuted in fresh or water-colours, as ciated the work of Boldetti, entitled 
 opposed to oils. But the reader will ' Osservazioni sopra i Cimiterj de' 
 remember that fresco, in its strict tech- Santi Martiri ed antichi Cristiani di 
 nical acceptation, as practised by Roma, ' Rome, fol. 1720, and the very 
 Raphael and Michael Angelo, is of interesting little essay on the Cata- 
 much later date. combs by M. Raoul-Rochette, of the 
 
 2 With the ' Roma Subterranea ' French Institute, 
 (which has been republished more than 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 207 
 
 Italy in its decline, and long after its original lofty inspiration 
 had evaporated, had for three centuries been more and more 
 degenerating, 1 and the descendants of those who built the 
 Pantheon in Augustus's time, were unable or afraid, save on 
 the most trifling scale, to imitate its stately dome in Constan- 
 tine's. To this we may, partly at least, attribute the adoption 
 of the basilica form for church architecture, in lieu of that 
 suggested by the cells of the Catacombs, in which the dome 
 constitutes so marked a feature ; the adoption, I admit, is not 
 servile, the adaptation is most ingenious, and the result is such 
 that it is impossible to wish that matters had taken a different 
 course, — still it must be confessed that Rome left the grander 
 flight, the glory of creating a new and peculiarly original 
 Christian architecture, to Byzantium. 
 
 Section 2. — Christian Architecture of Rome. 
 
 Constantine, perhaps, little thought that, in proclaiming 
 himself a Christian, he announced a new era, a new world for 
 Art, as for every other department of intellectual enterprise. 
 Such was indeed the fact. The first consequence of the step 
 was a demand for architectural structures adapted to the 
 rites of the new Establishment. Two new styles immediately 
 arose 2 at Rome and at Constantinople — each of them destined 
 to a long and uncontested supremacy respectively in the East 
 and West, and ultimately, in their combination, to become the 
 parents of a still more illustrious progeny, the architecture of 
 Lombardy and that of the North, commonly called Pointed, 
 or Gothic. Of these the former style, or that of Rome, at 
 present invites our attention. 
 
 The buildings required for the religious ceremonies of the 
 Church in the fourth century were of three descriptions, — 
 Baptisteries, for the performance of the initiatory rite of Christi- 
 anity — Churches, for the united worship of the initiated and 
 the celebration of the mystery of the Lord's Supper — and 
 Sepulchral Chapels, for the commemorative prayers offered up 
 for the welfare of the departed, who " sleep in Christ." For 
 the first of these the public baths, for the second the basil- 
 
 1 A momentary revival was effected tianity was introduced." — Lectures, 
 by Trajan, but the decadence recom- vol. ii. p. 259. 
 
 menced under Hadrian and his sue- 2 Churches had indeed been built 
 cessors, and in the words of Niebuhr, long before the age of Constantine, 
 ' ' Ancient art had ceased before Chris- but there is a deficiency of clear 
 
 evidence as to their form and design. 
 
208 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 icas, or courts of justice, for the third, as I have already 
 intimated, the subterraneous cells of the Catacombs, presented 
 ready models. We will consider the Churches first, as the 
 most numerous and most important class of buildings thus 
 originated. 1 
 
 It may be thought, perhaps, that the heathen temples 
 might have been converted to Christian purposes, thus obviat- 
 ing the necessity of new structures ; but it should be remem- 
 bered that in Constantine's time the interior of Rome was still 
 in occupation of the heathen, and that a worship at which the 
 whole community is required to be present, demands much 
 ampler internal space than the narrow, dark, cavernous cells 
 of those temples afforded. 2 The basilicas, on the contrary, 
 presented, as models, every thing that could be desired. . Of 
 Oriental origin — assembly -halls, in the first instance, in the 
 palaces of kings (and of which the earliest examples may per- 
 haps be found among the ruins of Thebes 3 ) — they had been 
 introduced into Rome during the decline of the republic, and 
 had multiplied to no less than eighteen in the time of Pliny — 
 serving as Exchanges as well as Courts of Justice. 4 Their 
 plan was very simple, — an oblong area, divided by pillars into 
 what would be called, in ecclesiastical architecture, a nave 
 and two aisles, the nave sometimes open to the sky, some- 
 times roofed over, the aisles always so protected — the whole 
 bounded by a transverse aisle or transept, raised by several 
 steps, and terminating at the extremity opposite the door of 
 the building in a semicircular niche or tribune, in front of 
 which stood an altar, while beneath this transept, at least in the 
 basilica at Pompeii, 5 was sunk a dungeon. In this dungeon 
 lay the prisoner ; in the tribune, in his curule chair, sat the 
 
 1 On the subject of the early 
 Christian architecture of Rome, see 
 the ' Vetera Monimenta ' of Ciampini, 
 Romae, 3 torn. foL, 1749- 
 
 2 Very few temples were converted 
 into churches in Italy ; the Pantheon 
 (if a temple and not a bath) was the 
 first consecrated, by Pope Boniface 
 IV., A.D. 610. S. Urbano alia 
 Caffarella, in the suburbs of Rome, 
 is another early instance. But this 
 adaptation constantly took place in 
 the East, in which case the court, 
 introductory to the cella, was some- 
 times filled with columns and roofed 
 
 over so as to form a nave and aisles ; 
 the pillars are still standing in that of 
 Medinet Abou at Thebes, and traces 
 of a similar adaptation were visible at 
 the beginning of last century in the 
 Temple of the Sun at Baalbec. 
 
 3 At Gournou, for example. 
 
 4 On this subject see Chev. Biin- 
 sen's work on the Basilicas of Christian 
 Rome, published at Munich, — as also 
 a very able and interesting article on 
 early ecclesiastical architecture in the 
 ' Quarterly Review, ' March, 1845. 
 
 5 A small but perfect specimen. It 
 is described by Sir William Gell, in his 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 209 
 
 judge, with his councillors to the right and left, to acquit 
 or condemn him, after swearing at the altar immediately in 
 front, to award a righteous judgment ; the advocates and other 
 parties interested occupied the transverse space in front of the 
 tribunal ; the spectators stood in two divisions below, the men 
 to the right, the women to the left, — though sometimes the 
 lower part was left entirely to the male sex, and the women 
 were lodged in galleries contrived under the roofs above the 
 lateral aisles of the building. Nothing, it is obvious, could 
 be easier than to accommodate an edifice like this to the 
 demands of Christian worship, 1 and we accordingly find the 
 plan preserved in all the earliest Latin churches, or as they are 
 usually termed, Basilicas, with little alteration, and the addition 
 merely of such accessary parts as the rites to which it was 
 newly adapted, required. Few, indeed, of these primitive 
 churches remain unchanged, or can be cited as complete 
 models of the style ; nevertheless the ideal of the Christian 
 basilica may be sketched nearly as follows — in its broad outline, 
 I mean, omitting mere details and minutiae : — 
 
 1. The Atrium, or Court of entrance, usually surrounded 
 by a columned portico, as in the heathen temples, and in 
 imitation probably of the Court of the Gentiles in the temple 
 of Jerusalem. This was an addition to the heathen basilica. 
 
 2. The Portico in front of the building, called the Narthex, 
 or Scourge — reserved for the catechumens and penitents, the 
 former being confined to its precincts till baptism, the latter 
 till ecclesiastical absolution. 2 
 
 3. (Entering the church.) The central area or Nave, so 
 named from the supposed resemblance to a ship, in Greek, 
 Naos, the emblem of the Church — parted from its side aisles 
 by rows of columns, in the smaller churches single, in the 
 larger double, the rows next the nave almost invariably 
 
 ' Pompeiana, ' First Series, p. 210. — vane" (between the cancellum and 
 
 A deep and peculiar interest attaches entrance) "was allotted to the cate- 
 
 to the basilica and its distribution, as chumens or neophytes, those who were 
 
 the judgment - hall of Pilate was in a state of preparation, but had not 
 
 probably a building of this descrip- yet been admitted to the rite of bap- 
 
 tion. tism, and who were only permitted to 
 
 1 Two basilicas, the Laterana and assist at the first half of the service ;" 
 Vaticana, are said to have been actually while ' ' behind the neophytes, in the 
 converted into churches by Constan- part of the nave nearest to the door, 
 tine. were stationed the penitents, — such of 
 
 2 According to Milner, Hope, and them at least as were permitted to 
 other older authorities. Mr. Knight, assist at any part of the service, — for 
 however, says that ' ' the middle of the there was a class of penitents, those in 
 
 VOL. I. P 
 
2IO 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 supporting round arches instead of an unbroken architrave, 
 and upon these arches the main walls of the building — these 
 walls pierced with windows, under which very often in the 
 larger basilicas run lines of mosaics — both nave and aisles 
 crowned with wooden roofs, while under those of the aisles 
 Triforia or galleries, as in their pagan prototypes, are some- 
 times provided for the women. 
 
 4. The Cancellum, Chancel or Choir — the upper part of 
 the nave, raised two or three steps, railed off, or separated by 
 a low wall, and appropriated to the singers and inferior clergy ; 
 within it, sometimes on the same, more frequently on 
 opposite sides, stood the Ambones, or desks, that on the left 
 hand appropriated to the reading of the Gospel, that on the right 
 to that of the Epistle, — the Paschal candlestick, emblematical 
 of revealed religion, being fixed adjacent to the former. The 
 congregation stood on either side this Cancellum, the men to 
 the right, the women to the left, as in the heathen basilica. 
 
 5. The Triumphal Arch, introducing from the central nave 
 into the sanctuary, and thus figurative of the transition, through 
 death, from the Church Militant on earth, to the Church Trium- 
 phant in heaven, respectively symbolised by the nave and the 
 sanctuary ; subjects allusive to this triumph — the Saviour in 
 glory, or the Vision of the New Jerusalem in the Apocalypse 
 — were usually represented upon it in mosaic. 
 
 6. The Transept, Presbytery or Sanctuary, elevated by 
 steps, in the centre of which stood the Altar, originally un- 
 covered, but afterwards surmounted by a Ciborium, or taber- 
 nacle, supported by small pillars — the whole an imitation of 
 the tombs of the martyrs and their rock-hewn canopies in the 
 Catacombs. 1 
 
 7. The Tribune, or Absis, within which, overlooking the 
 whole church, arose the Throne of the Bishop, flanked, to the 
 right and left, by the seats of his attendant clergy. The side 
 aisles were terminated by similar absides, of smaller proportions. 
 
 a state of the greatest reprobation, who walls of the church was certainly a 
 were constrained to stand the whole violation of the rigidly exclusive sym- 
 time outside the door. — "Ecclesiastical bolical principle^of the early ages. 
 Architecture of Italy, Series I. This 1 The early memorial altar-tombs 
 certainly is countenanced by a passage may be seen represented in the mosaics 
 in the ' Apostolical Constitutions, ' of S. Giovanni in Fonte, at Ravenna, 
 which I shall allude to presently. The A tomb in the church of S. Lorenzo, 
 fact seems to be, that customs varied outside the walls of Rome, immediately 
 on this point at different times. The to the right hand on entering, pre- 
 admission of catechumens within the serves the primitive form. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 211 
 
 And, lastly, the Crypt, immediately beneath the sanctuary 
 — generally half sunk below the level of the earth, an open 
 screen or grating admitting a sight of its interior from the nave, 
 and of the Confession, the tomb or shrine containing the relics 
 of the Saint or Martyr in honour of whom the church was 
 dedicated, directly below the upper altar. These crypts are 
 lofty and spacious in the later basilicas, especially those built 
 after the Lombards had taken the lead as architects, but in the 
 earlier they are usually low, narrow, and confined. The theory, 
 I should observe, of a primitive church presumed it to be 
 built over a catacomb ; S. Agnes, S. Lorenzo, S. Martino, S. 
 Prassede, and a few others, all at Rome, actually are so ; but 
 as this could rarely be the case elsewhere, artificial catacombs 
 or crypts were thus dug to represent them. They had 
 acquired at an early period a figurative character, as symbolical 
 of the moral death from which we have been redeemed by 
 Our Saviour. 
 
 Such, in brief outline, was the usual internal distribution of 
 the Basilica. Side-altars and chapels were in process of time 
 added, as Saints multiplied, to the great detriment of its unity 
 and simplicity. But few of the more interesting basilicas have 
 been thus disfigured. 1 A more advantageous change was the 
 removal of the choir, or chancel, from the nave to the presby- 
 tery or sanctuary, nearer the altar. 
 
 The materials are usually of a strangely mingled character ; 
 the pillars, taken frequently at random from more ancient 
 structures, are of every order, size, and excellence, the most 
 exquisite in workmanship alternating with the rudest ; the 
 ceilings are of the plainest description, mere wooden rafters. 
 On the other hand, the pavement is almost invariably of rich 
 marbles, inlaid in ' Opus Grsecanicum,' or ' Alexandrinum,' a 
 very beautiful species of mosaic-work; the cancellum, the 
 reading-desks, the ciborium are inlaid with mosaic of minuter 
 
 1 Four Cubicula, or chapels, were aeternae requiem locos praebent. 
 
 attached to the basilica built by S. Opera, col. 203, ed. Muratori. — And 
 
 Paulinus, at Nola, towards the close see the note upon the passage, col. 912. 
 
 of the fourth century. His account of Paulinus' s description of his basilica, 
 
 it, in an epistle to Severus, informs us which is extremely curious, may be 
 
 likewise of their use and purpose: — seen abridged in Mr. Faber's interesting 
 
 "Cubicula intra porticus quaterna Life of Vigilantius, p. 177. It was 
 
 longisbasilicaelateribusinserta, secretis long, however, before chapels became 
 
 orantium vel in lege Domini meditan- constituent parts (as it were) of the 
 
 tium, praeterea memoriis religiosorum basilica, 
 ac familiarium accommodatos ad pacis 
 
212 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 and still more brilliant materials ; while the triumphal arch, 
 the shell of the absis, and sometimes the side walls of the 
 nave, are incmsted with mosaics of the third and most precious 
 description, the work of Greek artists, representing scenes 
 from the Bible, or those peculiar symbolical conceptions in 
 which they so much delighted. In a word, these basilicas 
 possess the charm of contrast in the fullest degree — a mingled 
 richness and simplicity which lend them a grace to which the 
 more imposing edifices of Byzantium, and even the glorious 
 creations of Lombardy and the North, can make no pretensions. 
 
 Their symbolism too, though well recognised and defined, 
 is of a more practical, a less enthusiastic character. The 
 Ship of S. Peter, the Ark of Noah, labouring in the ocean, 
 but affording a refuge for the Church during her warfare, and 
 a type, though a subordinate one, of heaven as the port of 
 her repose, 1 such seems to be their idea, as distinguished from 
 those edifices of the more contemplative Byzantines which 
 symbolise in their soaring and dominant cupola the Church 
 Triumphant, the rest of heaven. It is perhaps for this reason 
 that, while the latter invariably point East and West, the 
 former, even till a late epoch, were directed indifferently to 
 every point of the compass. 2 
 
 1 The allegory of the ship is peculi- 
 arly dwelt upon by the ancient Fathers. 
 A ship entering the port was a favour- 
 ite heathen emblem of the close of 
 life, — it may be seen on a tomb near 
 the Neapolitan Gate of Pompeii, com- 
 memorated in some beautiful lines by 
 Lady Flora Hastings, Poems, p. 52. 
 But the Christian idea, and its elevation 
 from individual to universal or Catholic 
 humanity, is derived directly from the 
 Bible, — see, for instance, 1 Peter, ii. 
 2.0, 21. "Without doubt," says S. 
 Augustine, ' ' the Ark is the figure of 
 the City of God pilgrimising in this 
 world, in other words, of the Church, 
 which is saved by the wood, on which 
 hung the Mediator between God and 
 Man, the Man Christ Jesus." The 
 same interpretation was recognised in 
 the Latin Church in the days of Ter- 
 tullian and S. Cyprian, etc. The 
 bark of S. Peter is similarly represented 
 on a Greek gem found in the Cata- 
 
 combs, as sailing on a fish, probably 
 Leviathan or Satan, while doves, em- 
 blematical of the faithful, perch on the 
 mast and stern, — two apostles row, 
 a third lifts up his hands in prayer, 
 and Our Saviour, approaching the 
 vessel, supports Peter by the hand 
 when about to sink. — Roma Subter- 
 ranea, 165 1, -torn, ii, p. 475. It was 
 probably one of the signet rings alluded 
 to by Clement of Alexandria, as bear- 
 ing the vavs ovpavodpofxovaa, the ship 
 in full sail for heaven. Pcedagogus, 
 lib. 3 ; Opera, p. 289, edit. Potter. 1 
 — But the allegory of the ship is 
 carried out to its fullest extent in 
 the fifty-seventh chapter of the second 
 book of the 'Apostolical Constitutions, ' 
 supposed to have been compiled, in 
 the name of the Apostles, in the fourth 
 century. See the following note. 
 
 2 S. Peter's, S. John Lateran, and 
 S. Clemente face the East, and the 
 basilica of S. Paul and the church of 
 
 1 Sometimes the mast was represented as a cross, in allusion to Our Saviour. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 213 
 
 The steeples, which add so much to the external beauty of 
 these basilicas, as grouped with, not attached to them, were 
 
 S. Lorenzo were originally entered 
 from that quarter. At the same time 
 the theory of worshipping towards one 
 point, and that point the East, was 
 very general, even in the Latin Church, 
 and ultimately became law. For the 
 mystical reasons, see Durandus, Bishop 
 of Mende, on ' The Symbolism of 
 Churches and Church - ornaments, ' 1 
 translated by Messrs. Neale and Webb, 
 p. 214, and Pugin's ' Ecclesiastical 
 Antiquities,' p. 14. In estimating 
 the causes of this difference of usage 
 (originally) between the two Churches, 
 we should recollect that Byzantium 
 was a Dorian city, that Roman civil- 
 izati6n was of Ionian origin, and that 
 the Dorians and Ionians, the types 
 respectively of Conservatism and Pro- 
 gression, entered their temples, the 
 former from the West, the latter from 
 the East — the former bending their eye 
 for ever on the world they had left 
 behind, the latter pressing eagerly 
 forward in search of novelty and 
 change. Distinctions of this character 
 are innate and ineffaceable, perpetu- 
 ating themselves under a thousand 
 changes of form and circumstance. 
 
 The earliest description of a basilica 
 is that of the cathedral built at Tyre 
 by the Bishop Paulinus under Con- 
 stantine and Licinius, and therefore 
 between the years 313 and 322, as 
 given by Eusebius in his ' Panegyric 
 on the Building of the Churches ' 
 (Eccles. History, book x. , chapter 
 iv. ) With this may be compared the 
 directions for the construction and the 
 ceremonial service of churches, con- 
 tained in the chapter of the ' Apostol- 
 ical Constitutions ' alluded to in the 
 preceding note, and of which, as inter- 
 esting in many respects, I subjoin a 
 translation : — 
 
 ' ' But do thou, the Bishop, be holy, 
 blameless, no striker, not irascible, not 
 harsh, but an edifier of the truth, a 
 converter to righteousness, a giver of 
 
 instruction, patient in enduring evil, 
 mild in disposition, gentle, long-suffer- 
 ing, apt in exhortation, apt in com- 
 forting, like a man of God. And 
 when thou gatherest together the 
 Church of God, regulate the assembly 
 with all discernment, like the pilot of 
 a great ship, commandingthe Deacons, 
 as the sailors, to arrange places for 
 their brethren, as the passengers, with 
 all care and decency. And first, let 
 the house (church) be oblong, turned 
 towards the East, having Pastophoria 
 (cells) on both sides, towards the East, 
 as it is to resemble a ship, and let the 
 throne of the Bishop be in the midst, 
 with the presbytery sitting on either 
 side of it, and the deacons standing by, 
 clad in light but seemly raiment, for 
 they are likened to sailors and oars- 
 men. And, by the provision of the 
 Deacons, let the laity seat themselves 
 at the other end of the church, with 
 all stillness and order, the women 
 separately, — and let them too be seated, 
 keeping silence. And let the Reader, 
 standing on some high place, read 
 aloud the books of Moses, and Joshua 
 the son of Nun, of the Judges and 
 Kings . . . etc. etc. ; and then let 
 some other sing the psalms of David, 
 and let the people join in softly, at 
 the beginnings of the verses. After 
 this, let our Acts be read, and the 
 Epistles of Paul, our fellow-workman, 
 which, through the instruction of the 
 Holy Spirit, he sent to the Churches. 
 And after these things, let the Deacon 
 or Presbyter read the Gospels which 
 I (Matthew) and John delivered to 
 you, and which the fellow-workers of 
 Paul, Lucas and Mark, bequeathed to 
 you by tradition. And while the 
 Gospel is recited, let all the presbyters 
 and deacons, and the whole people 
 stand up with great stillness, for it is 
 written, ' Hearken and be silent, O 
 Israel ! ' and again, ' Stand thou here 
 and listen. ' And next let the Presby- 
 
 1 The first book of his ' Rationale Divin- tion and services of the mediaeval Church, 
 orum Officiorum,' a treasure of information Durandus was born in Provence about 
 on all points connected with the decora- 1220, and died in 1290 at Rome. 
 
214 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 not part of the original plan, but added for the most part by 
 Lombard architects, in or after the eighth century, when the 
 
 ters exhort the people, one after the 
 other, but not all, and the Bishop 
 last, as he who resembles the pilot. 
 And let Door-keepers stand at the 
 entrances for the men, keeping watch 
 over them, and Deaconesses at those for 
 the women, after the manner of those 
 who receive the fare on shipboard. For 
 the same analogy and type is followed 
 out in the temple of God as in the 
 tabernacle of the testimony. And if 
 any one shall be found sitting out of 
 his place, let him be chidden by the 
 Deacon, as by the pilot's mate, and 
 led over to the seat befitting to him. 
 For not only is the Church likened to 
 a ship, but also to a fold. For as 
 shepherds arrange in order those ir- 
 rational creatures, the goats (I say) 
 and the sheep, according to race and 
 age, so that they all consort together, 
 the like with the like, — so too, in the 
 church, let those who are younger 
 sit apart, provided there be room, and 
 if not, let them stand upright, and let 
 those already advanced in age sit in 
 due order. As for children, let them 
 stand beside their fathers and mothers, 
 the younger girls only apart, if there 
 be place, and if not, let them stand 
 behind the women. And let those 
 who are already married and have 
 children stand apart, but let the virgins 
 and widows and old women sit or 
 stand first of all. And let the Deacon 
 provide that each who enters go to 
 his proper place, and that none sit 
 near the entrance. Similarly, let the 
 Deacon keep watch over the people, 
 that no one whisper or fall asleep, or 
 laugh or beckon to another. For it 
 is fitting to stand attentively, circum- 
 spectly, and wakefully in the church, 
 having the ears intent to the word of 
 the Lord. And after this, when the 
 catechumens and the penitents have 
 gone out, let all, rising up at once, 
 and looking towards the East, pray 
 to God, who ascended above the 
 heaven of heavens towards the East, 
 and in remembrance of our ancient 
 dwelling-place of Paradise in the East, 
 whence the first man, disregarding 
 
 the commandment, persuaded by the 
 counsel of the serpent, was cast out. 
 And, after the prayer, let some of the 
 Deacons take heed to the oblation of 
 the Eucharist, ministering {virripeToi- 
 [xevoi, literally, performing the office 
 of a sailor) to the body of the Lord 
 with fear — and let the others watch 
 the crowd, and impose silence on them. 
 And let the Deacon, standing near the 
 Arch -priest (dpxtepeiis), say to the 
 People, ' Let no one harbour aught 
 against another ; let no one (approach 
 hither) in hypocrisy !' And then let 
 the men salute each other, and let the 
 women salute each other with a kiss, 
 in the name of the Lord. But let no 
 one do this deceitfully, even as Judas 
 betrayed the Lord with a kiss. And 
 after this, let the Deacon pray for the 
 whole Church, and for all the world, 
 and its parts and produce, for priests 
 and rulers, for the Arch-priest and the 
 King, and for universal peace. And 
 thereafter let the Arch-priest, after 
 invoking peace on the people, bless 
 them, even as Moses commanded the 
 priests that they should bless the 
 people, with these words, ' The Lord 
 bless thee and keep thee, the Lord 
 make the light of his countenance to 
 shine upon thee, and give thee peace ! ' 
 The Bishop also shall invoke a blessing 
 on them and say, ' Save thy people, 
 O Lord, and bless thine inheritance, 
 whom thou hast purchased and ob- 
 tained by thy precious blood, and hast 
 called them a royal priesthood and a 
 holy nation ! ' And after these things, 
 let the sacrifice be performed (yiveado) 
 i] dvaia), all the people standing and 
 praying silently, and after it has been 
 offered up (avepex6y)> let eacn class 
 by itself receive the body of the Lord 
 and the precious blood, coming up in 
 order, with reverence and awe, as to 
 the body of the King, and let the 
 women approach with their heads 
 covered, as becomes'the class of women. 
 And let the doors be guarded, lest any 
 infidel or uninitiated (unbaptized) per- 
 son enter." — Patres Apostolici, ed. 
 Cotelerii, torn. i. p. 263. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 215 
 
 use of bells had been introduced from Greece. Their style is 
 very various ; almost every town in Italy possesses its distinct 
 pattern, and all are beautiful. 1 
 
 The Basilica, like each successive style of Church Archi- 
 tecture, seems to have taken its perfect form at once, and to 
 have retained it unchanged for ages, co-extensively with the 
 spiritual dominion of the Romish see ; it even maintained its 
 ground long after the Lombard style (formed from it and the 
 Byzantine) had encroached upon its exclusive prerogative. 
 Some of the most beautiful basilicas in Italy are the work of 
 Lombard architects, who, it is remarkable, have in such cases 
 suppressed that passion for exuberant grotesque imagery in 
 which they indulge so freely on ordinary occasions ; and 
 similarly in England, the churches built during the heptarchy, 
 and indeed as late as the Norman Conquest, in the style 
 commonly but erroneously styled Saxon, seem all to have 
 been basilicas, or in the style of the basilica — "more Romano," 
 as contemporary Chroniclers express it, — the proper Lombard 
 architecture was first introduced by the Normans. Even in 
 the East too, under the very shadow of the Greek cross and 
 cupola, the basilica is often met with. At Bethlehem, the 
 church built by Constantine for his mother Helen over the 
 cave of the nativity, still exists, in venerable neglect, its marble 
 pillars flashing in the torchlight as the traveller passes under 
 them to the interior of the convent; it comes nearer the 
 antique than (I believe) any other existing basilica, in the 
 continuous unbroken entablature surmounting the columns of 
 the nave. The church also of Mount Sinai, built by Justinian, 
 remains unchanged in all respects, except the barbarous white- 
 wash with which the monks have disfigured its granite columns, 
 the palm-leaved capitals of which, it is observable, betray the 
 Egyptian origin or sympathies of the architect. 2 And through- 
 out Syria, especially among the ancient cities East of the Jordan, 
 and everywhere, I believe, throughout Asia Minor, specimens 
 of the basilica may still be seen, where now not a Christian 
 survives to tell the tale of their ancient destiny. 
 
 1 The Round Towers of Ireland, Ireland.' The square tower of S. 
 
 the seat of high comparative civilization Rule at S. Andrews in Fifeshire, and 
 
 in those early ages, are bell-steeples the Pictish towers at Abernethy and 
 
 which have survived the churches they Brechin, are similar examples, 
 were attached to. This has been ably 2 Similar capitals may be seen at 
 
 demonstrated by Geo. Petrie, Esq., Sueda in the Hauran, south of Da- 
 
 in his ' Ecclesiastical Architecture of mascus. 
 
2l6 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Yet, after all, none are so interesting as those of Rome ; 
 none have their peculiar charm of hoar antiquity, of repose 
 and seclusion from the busy haunts of men. It is true that 
 they have suffered much from restoration, — of Constantine's 
 original structures not one remains ; S. Paolo fuori le mura is 
 no more ; S. Peter's, S. John Lateran, S. Maria Maggiore, S. 
 Croce in Gerusalemme, have long been modernised, and have 
 lost their primeval attractions. But S. Agnese (of the beginning 
 of the seventh century), said to preserve the form of the 
 heathen basilica with remarkable accuracy — the churches of S. 
 Prassede and S. Cecilia (of the early part of the ninth), built 
 on the sites of their respective fathers' houses (men of renown 
 in the congregation, under whose roofs the Christians were 
 accustomed to meet for worship during the intervals of persecu- 
 tion), — these still survive. And in that of S. Clemente, a little 
 church between the Coliseum and the Lateran, built on the 
 site of his paternal mansion, and restored at the beginning of 
 the twelfth century, an example is still to be seen, in perfect 
 preservation, of the primitive church ; everything remains in 
 statu quo — the court, the portico, the cancellum, the ambones, 
 paschal candlestick, crypt and ciborium — virgin and intact; 
 the wooden roof has unfortunately disappeared, and a small 
 chapel, dedicated to S. Catherine, has been added, yet even 
 this is atoned for by the lovely frescoes of Masaccio. I most 
 especially commend this relic of early Christianity to your reve- 
 rent and affectionate admiration. 1 
 
 Yet the beauty of S. Clemente is internal only ; outwardly 
 it is little better than a barn. This is not the case with S. 
 Lorenzo, which is as perfect a picture of a basilica externally, 
 as S. Clemente is internally. Viewing it from a little distance, 
 the whole pile — in its gray reverential dignity — the row of 
 stones indicating the atrium, with an ancient cross in the 
 centre — the portico overshadowing faded frescoes — the shelving 
 roof, the body -wall bulging out .and lapping over like an 
 Egyptian temple — the detached Lombard steeple — with the 
 magic of sun and shadow, and the background of the Cam- 
 
 1 Let me refer to plates first and appended to Chev. Biinsen's work al- 
 second, with the corresponding de- ready cited, and may be found also in 
 scription, in Mr. Gally-Knight's beauti- the ' Histoire de l'Art paries Monu- 
 ful and able work on the ' Ecclesiastical mens ' of Count Seroux d' Agincourt, 
 Architecture of Italy, ' — and in which where plans too are given of almost all 
 will be found views of most of the the churches I shall have occasion to 
 buildings alluded to in the text. mention in these ' Sketches of Chris- 
 Plans of the Roman basilicas are tian Art. ' 
 
ROMAN ART. 
 
 217 
 
 pagna, bounded by the blue mountains of Tivoli — together 
 with the stillness, the repose, interrupted only by the chirp of 
 the grasshopper, and the distant intermitted song of the 
 contadino — it forms altogether such a scene as painters love to 
 sketch and poets to repeople with the shadows of past ages; 
 and I open a wide heaven for either fraternity to fly their 
 fancy in, when I add that it was there the ill-fated Peter de 
 Courtenay was crowned Emperor of the East. 1 
 
 I have dwelt too long, perhaps too fondly, on these basilicas, 
 and will therefore be very brief in enumerating three or four 
 similar edifices in other parts of Italy, well worth a pilgrimage 
 should you be in their neighbourhood. 
 
 Of these, two at Ravenna, dedicated to S. Apollinare, and 
 built, the one by Theodoric, the other by Justinian, are par- 
 ticularly interesting. Both are in their primitive state, — the ex- 
 terior of the former, distinguished as ' di dentro,' or within the 
 city, is very picturesque — the line of its court marked, as at S. 
 Lorenzo, by a row of stones, with a cross in the centre — the 
 interior is also in good preservation ; the appearance of the 
 latter, 'S. Apollinare di fuori,' 'without,' or 'in Classe,' is 
 injured by a large mass of modern workmanship, added in front, 
 but the interior is spacious and beautiful, and was still more 
 so before the poverty of the Chapter 2 occasioned its being 
 despoiled of the rich, marbles which originally incased the 
 walls. You will especially admire the broad and airy aisles, 
 and their freedom from chapels or interruption of any sort, 
 except the characteristic ornament of a line of (moveable) 
 sarcophagi, containing the bones of the early archbishops. 
 This church, like a rock deserted by the tide, is the solitary 
 vestige of the suburb formerly designated ' Classis,' from the 
 fleet that anchored under its walls — the spot is now four miles 
 distant from the sea, and most dreary and desolate, the tide 
 of population ebbed for ever. But the church is not the less 
 interesting, both on account of its architecture and its mosaics, 
 and an hour's ride to the North of it will carry you into the 
 depths of the Pineta, or pine-forest, which supplied the ships 
 that wafted Augustus to Actium and the Crusaders to Palestine, 
 and where, if you watch in vain for the spectre Theodore and 
 the scornful Honoria, you may at least hear the birds singing 
 as sweetly to the accompaniment of breeze and bough as they 
 did in Dante's ear when he wrote those lovely lines in the 
 
 1 See Gibbon, chap. 61. 2 As far back as the fifteenth century. 
 
218 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Purgatorio, introductory of Matilda; the whole description, 
 indeed, and not one poor simile only, breathes of the Pineta. 
 " Mais revenons a nos moutons ! " 1 
 
 As lonely as S. Apollinare, and, architecturally, still more 
 interesting, is the Duomo of Torcello, the parent island of 
 Venice — the fastness to which the Heneti and Aquileians fled 
 before the face of Alaric and Attila. It was rebuilt, but 
 evidently in its primitive form, at the beginning of the eleventh 
 century, by Lombard architects. Being a cathedral, it is 
 fronted by a Baptistery, octagonal and very small, only six 
 paces in every direction, lighted by two diminutive windows, 
 and attached to the church by the portico. Within, almost 
 every feature of the basilica is seen in perfection, particularly 
 the cancellum, or screen of the choir, here peculiarly hand- 
 some, a beautiful double ambo of white marble, and the 
 bishop's throne, elevated behind the altar so as to overlook 
 the whole church, with the seats for the clergy to the right 
 and left, rising in seemly tiers in the semicircular form of a 
 theatre. Here too the mosaics, if not the architecture, will 
 amply reward you for the excursion. 2 
 
 Another of the later basilicas, and of peculiar interest, is 
 that of S. Zenone at Verona ; the facade, and the beautiful Cam- 
 panile, are in the Lombard style, but the interior preserves the 
 basilica form complete, and is remarkable for the two triumphal 
 arches which span the nave, a third, as usual, admitting to the 
 sanctuary, — as well as for the splendour of the crypt, supported 
 by about forty slender columns, clustered, round and polygonal, 
 surrounding the tomb, and for the three noble flights of steps, 
 one of them leading down to the crypt, the other two, to the 
 right and left, ascending to the presbytery, — the former 
 occupying the breadth of the nave, the latter that of the aisles. 
 The Duomo too, at Verona, of the ninth century, with its 
 giant-like procession of columns, is singularly beautiful and 
 impressive. 
 
 Lastly, I would fain interest you in my well-beloved S. 
 
 1 For the ancient churches of The crypt, like that of S. Apollinare 
 Ravenna consult the work by A. F. in Classe, consists of a central oratory 
 von Quast, entitled ' Die alt-Christ- and tomb, descended to from either 
 lichen Bauwerke von Ravenna, vom side of the upper sanctuary by a 
 fiinften bis zum neunten Jahrhundert, ' curving passage, having much more 
 etc. Berlin, fol. 1842. resemblance to a catacomb than the 
 
 2 The exterior of this church ex- lofty crypts, or subterranean churches, 
 hibits the unusual number of five absides. introduced by the Lombards. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 219 
 
 Miniato al Monte, near Florence, remarkable for the purity 
 and almost classic taste of its architecture and decoration, — 
 graceful and yet august in its simplicity. You will especially 
 notice the cancellum, with its exquisite mosaic-work, here 
 occupying the presbytery, as well as the reading-desk, or ambo, 
 in which the Lombard taste for imagery, elsewhere repressed, 
 very excusably luxuriates. The crypt, like that of S. Zenone, 
 would be beautiful, did not its excessive height impair the 
 unity of the whole, — and exception too might be taken to the 
 slabs of transparent alabaster, the ' lapis specularis ' of the 
 ancients, inserted in the walls of the tribune. But these are 
 trifles, comparatively, and I shall be content to rank as a false 
 prophet if you do not return again and again to S. Miniato — 
 or at least to the platform half-way up the hill, near the church 
 of S. Francesco ; there is nothing on earth lovelier than the 
 view that will thence greet you, whether, sitting on the broken 
 wall, you gaze up at that graceful fagade, and at the steeple, 
 which Michael Angelo, out of love for its exceeding beauty, 
 defended by mattresses against the balls his own patriotic 
 artillery provoked against it — or downwards on the vale of the 
 Arno and its bounding hills, dotted with white villas, and on 
 fair Florence beneath with her dome and her towers, seen 
 between the cypresses. 1 
 
 But we must now turn to the subject of Baptisteries. The 
 resemblance of these to the ancient baths is most striking, and 
 under the circumstances nothing is more natural than that 
 those baths should have served as their model. Still, from 
 their internal arrangement, their isolation, and juxta-position 
 at the same time with the Cathedrals to which they belong, 
 they derive a character, consistency and beauty of their own, 
 far surpassing that of their pagan prototypes. 
 
 These Baptisteries arose, architecturally considered, under 
 very favourable auspices — the result, in great measure, of the 
 ecclesiastical doctrine and discipline which prevailed at the 
 time of their construction. 
 
 The Church material being the image of the Church 
 spiritual, within which nothing impure can enter, it was 
 requisite that the rite of ablution, by which spiritual purity 
 
 1 Besides the above-mentioned S. Michele at Lucca, respectively of the 
 
 churches in the basilica form, I may seventh and eighth, although newly 
 
 specify those of S. Maria at Toscanella, faced in the Lombard style — S. Am- 
 
 near Viterbo, finished before the close brogio at Milan, of the ninth — and 
 
 of the sixth century — S. Frediano and S. Niccoldat Bari, consecrated in 1 103. 
 
220 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 was preliminarily conferred, should take place without its walls, 
 — consequently, that a distinct edifice should be appropriated 
 for the purpose. But as the neophyte, in that day, proceeded 
 from the font direct to the altar, or table of communion, there 
 to partake of the Eucharist, or Sacramentary Supper of the 
 Lord, this edifice was necessarily to be contiguous to the 
 church, although detached from it. Moreover, the frequent 
 practice of postponing baptism to manhood, 1 and the per- 
 petual occurrence of adult conversion, to say nothing of the 
 very strong opinion then prevalent in favour of complete 
 immersion, required the font to be of ample dimensions. 
 While, lastly, the restriction, for many centuries, to the Epis- 
 copal order of the privilege of baptising, and the practice of 
 only performing the rite, except in cases of urgency, twice in 
 the year, at Easter, namely, and Whitsuntide, occasioning a 
 great influx of people at those periods, demanded corre- 
 spondent encircling space for the spectators, and an architec- 
 tural distribution calculated for the concentration of their 
 attention on the Font, as the focus of interest. 
 
 All these considerations were attended to in the Baptisteries 
 of Constantine, and may be said to have found their accom- 
 plishment in those shortly afterwards erected by the Latin 
 Church. 
 
 They are, for the most part, octagonal buildings, surmounted 
 by cupolas, borrowed, at least in their improved form, from 
 Byzantium — and situated, where symmetry and propriety 
 have been most attended to, in front of the central door of 
 the Cathedral. 2 The Font is placed in the centre of the 
 building, directly underneath the cupola; in the earliest 
 examples, as in the baptistery adjoining the Lateran, it consists 
 of a shallow octagonal basin, descended into by three steps, 
 precisely similar to the pagan bath — in later instances it has 
 more resemblance to an elevated reservoir. 3 The figure of 
 
 1 From belief in the plenary re- 
 mission of sins at baptism, and the 
 quasi irremissibility of sin after it. 
 Constantine postponed his baptism 
 to his deathbed. Many purposely 
 so deferred it, that they might pro- 
 long the period of youthful dissipa- 
 tion, and sweep off all their sins at 
 once, when satiated with vice. See 
 (for instance) S. Gregory of Nyssa's 
 Sermon against those who defer their 
 
 baptism, Opera, torn. ii. p. 215, edit. 
 1638. 
 
 2 Such seems to have been the case 
 in the Cathedral at Tyre, as described 
 by Eusebius. 
 
 3 Sometimes it receives the shape 
 of a sarcophagus, in allusion to our 
 ' ' death unto sin and new birth unto 
 righteousness,"^/^, ii. 12, etc., typi- 
 fied by the death and resurrection of 
 our Saviour. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 221 
 
 the octagon was peculiarly insisted on; even when the bap- 
 tistery itself is round, the cupola is generally octagonal, and 
 the font almost always so. This may have been, in the first 
 instance, mere imitation of the pagan baths, in which the 
 octagon constantly occurs, but the Christians, ever studious 
 of symbolism, gave it a mystic sense, as expressing Our 
 Saviour's resurrection on the eighth day — the first, that is to 
 say, of spiritual creation, after accomplishing the six days of 
 the material, and resting on the seventh. Such, at least, is 
 the reason assigned in some verses attributed to S. Ambrose, 
 and said to have been formerly inscribed on a baptistery 
 at Milan. 1 And in a similar manner, the three steps by 
 which, in the earliest baptisteries, the convert entered the 
 font, were understood to signify, in descent, his renuncia- 
 tion of the world, the flesh and the devil — in ascent, his 
 confession of the three Persons of the Trinity. Whether in 
 elevating above a font, significative of the Jordan, a cupola, 
 symbolical of heaven, the ancients intended a further reference 
 to the baptism of Our Saviour, I cannot say; the propriety 
 and beauty of the allusion involuntarily suggest such an inter- 
 pretation. 
 
 Of these Baptisteries three of great antiquity exist at Rome; 
 a small round one, near S. Agnese, built by Constantine, but 
 afterwards converted into the funeral chapel of his daughter 
 Constantia — another, now named S. Stefano Rotondo, of the 
 fifth century, rather larger, but also round — and the noble 
 edifice, above alluded to as adjacent to the Lateran, com- 
 monly attributed to Constantine, but in reality of later con- 
 struction by a century, and which in becoming the model of 
 all the baptisteries subsequently reared by the Latin Church, 
 fixed the octagonal as their ruling character: — But it has been 
 sadly modernised, and the whole upper story is an addition of 
 the seventeenth century. 2 
 
 By far, however, the most interesting of all the early bap- 
 tisteries, is that of S. Giovanni in Fonte, at Ravenna, built 
 in the fifth century,— octagonal, and preserving its original 
 
 1 Quoted (from ' Grater's Inscrip- resemblance to S. Stefano and S. 
 tiones,' p. 1166) by Ciampini, Vett. Costanza, I may add S. Maria Mag- 
 Monimenta, torn. ii. p. 22. The giore, a round edifice of very early date, 
 Gnostic heretics also attached a sig- with a double row of columns and an 
 nificance (on other grounds) to the octagonal font, near Nocerade' Pagani, 
 Ogdoad, or number of eight. on the road between Naples' and Sal- 
 
 2 To this list, but bearing more erno. It strongly resembles a bath. 
 
222 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 octagonal font and ancient reading-desk, and with its cupola 
 incrusted with contemporary mosaics — most characteristic in 
 every respect, and well deserving of a visit. 
 
 Of later construction, built by the Lombards, but on the 
 same general principles, I may enumerate that of Bologna, of 
 the eighth century, now, under the name of S. Stefano, the 
 nucleus of a whole cluster of early chapels and churches — the 
 Baptistery of Florence, nearly of the same date, and which for 
 many centuries served as a Cathedral — the small one at Tor- 
 cello, already mentioned — those of Volterra, Cremona, Verona, 
 Padua, Parma (the latter octagonal without, but sixteen-sided 
 within, the vast ribs, rising directly from the ground and 
 meeting in the centre of the vault, giving it a singular air of 
 majesty), — and lastly, that of Pisa — grouping to such advantage 
 with the Duomo, Campanile and Campo Santo, of corre- 
 spondent Lombard architecture, and remarkable within for a 
 font, of the usual octagonal shape, and ascended by three 
 steps, for adult immersion, surrounded by smaller basons for 
 that of infants, and peculiarly interesting from its presenting, 
 probably, an exact parallel to that, no longer existing, in the 
 Baptistery at Florence, for breaking which, in order to rescue 
 a drowning child, Dante complains of having incurred the 
 imputation of impiety. 1 
 
 During the first eight centuries, therefore, after Constantine, 
 Baptisteries were, in theory at least, if not invariably in practice, 
 distinct structures, adjacent to the Cathedral yet unconnected 
 with it. But after the eleventh century, parish-priests being 
 allowed to baptize, they ceased to be indispensable, and though 
 several were built during the two following centuries (the Lom- 
 bard architects, apparently, taking especial delight in rearing 
 them), few or none are met with after the introduction of 
 Pointed architecture — that of Pistoja, built by Andrea Pisano, 
 being, so far as I am aware, the solitary exception. Fonts of 
 small dimensions, but still preserving, usually, the octagonal 
 shape, were then placed within the churches, but always near 
 a door, still keeping up the idea of initiation, and these have 
 been perpetuated to the present day. 
 
 But while Baptisteries have degenerated into Fonts, the 
 Funeral Chapels — of which we recognised the prototypes in 
 the sepulchral cells of the Catacombs — have disappeared alto- 
 
 1 Inferno, canto xix. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 223 
 
 gether, at least in Christendom and as distinct edifices, 
 being superseded, apparently, by the chapels which it became 
 the fashion to annex to churches and cathedrals. The 
 ' Memoriae,' commemorative of Saints and Martyrs, which 
 covered the country in the early ages, seem to have been 
 structures of this description ; none of these now remain, but 
 we doubtless see their exact form and distribution in the 
 Santons' tombs that form so picturesque a feature in the 
 scenery of Turkey — -borrowed, like the rest of her architecture, 
 from Byzantium, though, in this case, ultimately (I fancy) 
 from subterranean Rome. 1 
 
 Two specimens only, properly speaking, of the style remain 
 in Italy, 2 and both at Ravenna— the one, the mausoleum built 
 by Galla Placidia to receive the remains of herself and her two 
 sons, the Emperors Honorius and Valentinian ; the building 
 is as fresh as if finished yesterday, the vaults covered with 
 mosaics, and the three sarcophagi remaining still in their 
 places — the other, that of Theodoric the Goth, raised to his 
 memory by his daughter, Amalasuntha, — I know few monu- 
 ments so interesting, and it is highly picturesque externally, an 
 attraction which, that of Placidia wants. The body of the 
 structure is round, and elevated high in the air on a decagonal 
 basement supported by circular arches, now filled nearly to the 
 sufnt with water ; the interior is lighted by two small loop- 
 holes only ; the sarcophagus is gone ; the roof is of one solid 
 stone, or rather rock, hollowed into the shape of a cupola, and 
 dropped as it were from heaven — three feet thick, more than 
 thirty in diameter, and weighing two hundred tons — the broad 
 loops or rings, by which it was lowered, jutting out, externally, 
 like ragged battlements, having never been smoothed away 
 The whole building, though not large, has a rugged, craggy, 
 eternal character about it, — weeds tuft themselves among the 
 masonry, and the breeze dallies with them as on the mountain- 
 side, and the scene is nearly as lonely. This monument, 
 although unquestionably of Roman masonry, is the sole relic 
 of what alone can pretend to the title of Gothic architecture — 
 and most eminently characteristic it is of the indomitable race 
 of the North ; one would think they feared that neither Alaric 
 nor Theodoric could be held down in their graves except by 
 
 1 Constantine erected many of these nople. Life, by Eusebius, lib. iii. 
 Memoriae in and around Constanti- cap. 48. 
 
 2 Excluding S. Costanza, at Rome. 
 
224 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 a river rolling over the one, and a mountain covering the 
 other. 1 
 
 Finally, as the most important of this class of buildings, I 
 must mention the circular church erected by Helen,, the 
 mother of Constantine, at Jerusalem, on the supposed site of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and long since destroyed, but rebuilt in 
 the primitive form, as we now see it, in the ninth century. It 
 has been the parent of a whole family of round churches in 
 different parts of Europe, built for the most part by the Knights 
 Templars, one of which, lately restored, graces the English 
 metropolis. 2 
 
 Such were the three distinct classes of Ecclesiastical edifices 
 originated in the Western world by the conversion of Constan- 
 tine — reiterated for ages afterwards by the Latin Church — 
 frequently adopted by the Byzantine, although in possession 
 of an independent architecture — and never completely super- 
 seded, at least as regards the most important of the three, the 
 basilica, till the fifteenth century, when Latin, Lombard and 
 Pointed architecture all went down before the revived antique, 
 or Cinquecento. There were, of course, exceptions to these 
 general forms, but scarcely of sufficient consequence to justify 
 their classification as a separate category. 3 
 
 I should add, that, during the whole period intervening 
 between the age of Constantine and that of Cosmo de' Medici, 
 architects seem to have arisen from time to time with an 
 inclination to revert to the models of ancient Rome, thus 
 anticipating the principle of the Cinquecento. The Baptistery 
 of Florence is an instance of this, being an evident imitation 
 of the Pantheon, and the like tendency may be observed in S. 
 Miniato, and in the church of the Apostles, at Florence, 
 supposed to have been imitated from it, and which is said to 
 have first awakened the genius and ambition of Brunellesco. 
 
 1 According to a legend still current 2 Another round church, conse- 
 in Arabia, a vast pile of stones was crated however in noi, prior to the 
 heaped over the grave of Antar, by foundation of the Order of Knights 
 order of his mother, fearing lest he Templars, exists at Cambridge, and 
 should burst through. The query has lately been restored under the super- 
 suggests itself, did pyramids, in their intendence of the Camden Society, 
 sepulchral character, the enormous 3 See chapter eleventh of Mr. 
 barrows of Asia Minor, the cairns of the Hope's ' Historical Essay on Archi- 
 Celtic nations, etc. , originate in a simi- tecture, ' a work which I cannot name 
 lar apprehension ? And has the belief without admiration and gratitude, 
 in vampyres any connection with it ? 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 225 
 
 Section 3. — Sculpture and Painting of the Catacombs, 
 and Ancient Roman School of Painting, as per- 
 petuated North and South of the Alps during 
 the middle ages. 
 
 As the earliest Christian Architecture (if it may be called 
 such) exists in the Catacombs, there too we find the earliest traces 
 of a Sculpture and Painting, specially dedicated to Christian 
 purposes. The Catacombs, themselves, indeed, are now, for 
 the most part, closed up, , while from those still accessible the 
 tombs have been removed by man, the paintings obliterated 
 by time. Nevertheless some specimens of the latter, and a 
 very rich collection of the former, may still be seen in the 
 ' Museum Christianum ' in the Vatican, amply enabling us, 
 with the assistance of the ' Roma Subterranea,' to estimate 
 their character and excellence. 
 
 I have already described the subterraneous chambers, or 
 sepulchral cells, their lateral recesses for sarcophagi, and the 
 domes which crowned them ; I proceed very briefly to enu- 
 merate the cycle of compositions usually represented on these 
 domes and sarcophagi, and which, though far inferior in 
 interest to those of the Byzantines, must not be passed over 
 unnoticed, as they formed the models of Roman sculpture and 
 painting for many centuries. Considered as works of art, it 
 must be confessed, they are but poor productions — the meagre- 
 ness of invention only equalled by the feebleness of execution 
 — perpetually reminding one, it is true, of the works of classic 
 sculpture, especially the basreliefs of Trajan's column, the 
 great school of design during the third and fourth centuries — 
 but inferior, generally speaking, to the worst specimens of con- 
 temporary heathen art. There is little to wonder at in this 
 when we remember the oppressed condition of the Christians 
 at the time, and (I am afraid I must add) the poverty of 
 imagination which uniformly characterised Rome, even in her 
 palmy period. It is therefore with other views than those 
 of criticism that you will examine a series of compositions, 
 which have their own peculiar interest in the light they throw 
 on the sentiments of the community that originated them. 
 
 Of these compositions, by far the most interesting is that of 
 Our Saviour as the Good Shepherd, which is almost invariably 
 vol. 1. Q 
 
226 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 painted on the central space of the dome or cupola, subjects 
 of minor interest being disposed around it in compartments, 
 precisely in the style, as regards both the arrangement and 
 execution, of the heathen catacombs. 1 
 
 He is represented as a youth in a shepherd's frock and 
 sandals, carrying the " lost sheep " on his shoulders, or leaning 
 on his staff (the symbol, according to S. Augustine, of the 
 Christian hierarchy), while the sheep feed around, or look up 
 at him; in a beautiful Greek mosaic in the mausoleum of 
 Galla Placidia, at Ravenna, he feeds one of them with his right 
 hand, holding a small cross in the other. Sometimes he is 
 represented seated in the midst of the flock, playing on a 
 shepherd's pipe, — in a few instances, in the oldest catacombs, 
 he is introduced in the character of Orpheus, surrounded by 
 wild beasts enrapt by the melody of his lyre, — Orpheus, as you 
 will recollect, being then supposed to have been a prophet or 
 precursor of the Messiah. The background usually exhibits a 
 landscape or meadow, sometimes planted with olive-trees, doves 
 resting on their branches, symbolical of the peace of the 
 faithful - in others, as in a fresco preserved in the Museum 
 Christianum, the palm of victory is introduced, — but such 
 combinations are endless. In one or two instances the sur- 
 rounding compartments are filled with personifications of the 
 Seasons, apt emblems of human life, whether natural or 
 spiritual, though we may be startled perhaps, however appro- 
 priate to the Catacombs, in admitting the parallel traced by 
 one Christian writer 2 between winter and idolatry, spring and 
 baptism, summer and the glow of Christian love, autumn and 
 martyrdom. 3 
 
 This subject of the Good Shepherd, I am sorry to add, is 
 not of Roman but Greek origin, and was adapted from a 
 statue of Mercury carrying a goat, at Tanagra, mentioned by 
 Pausanias. 4 The Christian composition approximates to its 
 original more nearly in the few instances where Our Saviour 
 
 1 For an illustration of this see the the habitual Christianisation of heathen 
 ' Histoire de l'Art ' of Seroux d'Agin- traditions. Tertullian, in his treatise 
 court, Peinture, pi. 4. ' De Pudicitia, ' cap. 7, mentions the 
 
 2 S. Zeno of Verona, as quoted in symbol of the Good Shepherd as the 
 the Roma Subt. , torn. ii. p. 600. usual ornament of the sacramental 
 
 3 The device of a Shepherd sur- chalice, — and still more emphatically, 
 rounded by the Seasons, was dis- cap. 10 ; Opera, pp. 559 and 563, 
 covered in the course of last century edit. 1744. 
 
 in a pagan tomb at Rome, — adding 4 See lib. ix. cap. 22, p. 752, edit, 
 
 another to the proofs innumerable of Kuhnii. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 227 
 
 is represented carrying a goat, emblematical of the scapegoat 
 of the wilderness. A small statue and a fresco, representing 
 the more usual composition, may still be seen in the Museum 
 Christianum. Singularly enough, though of Greek parentage, 
 and recommended to the Byzantines by Constantine, who 
 erected a statue of the Good Shepherd in the forum of Con- 
 stantinople, 1 the subject did not become popular among them ; 
 they seem, at least, to have tacitly abandoned it to Rome. 
 
 The head of Our Saviour, you will observe, in this as in all 
 the early Latin compositions in which his figure is introduced, 
 is not the well known traditional one. Whether or not the 
 genuine likeness had been preserved in the East, it was un- 
 known, as such, in the Latin Church in the time of Augustine. 2 
 In the early days of the Church, both in the East and West, he 
 was represented as an abstraction, as the Genius, so to speak, 
 of Christianity — a beardless youth, to signify the everlasting 
 prime of eternity ; this is the case throughout the Catacombs, 
 and the idea, as I shall instance hereafter, was not unfre- 
 quently reiterated by the Greek Church, especially when at- 
 tempting to portray the scenes connected with his future glory. 
 It drew its last and highest sanction from Michael Angelo. 
 
 Another representation of Our Saviour, almost wholly con- 
 fined to Sculpture, and which usually occupies the central 
 compartment in the front of sarcophagi, represents him stand- 
 ing on the symbolical rock, or mountain of paradise, from 
 which gush out the four rivers, emblematical of the evangelists ; 
 S. Peter and S. Paul attend on his right and left ; a lamb with 
 a cross on its head, symbolical of the atonement, frequently 
 stands on the mount beside him, and occasionally a line of 
 sheep below, representing the apostles. 
 
 The remaining compositions of the cycle (among which I 
 reckon those only which received a fixed traditional form, and 
 were constantly reiterated) are as follows : 3 
 
 1 Life of Constantine by Eusebius, gine, le diveloppement et le caractere 
 lib. iii. cap. 49. des Types Imitatifs qui constituent 
 
 2 This appears from a passage in Vartdu Christianisme. Paris, 1834. 
 the fourth chapter of his eighth book 3 Minute descriptions and illustra- 
 ' De Trinitate ' — to be understood, tions of these may be found in the 
 however, as M. Raoul-Rochette shows, ' Roma Subterranea, ' and in Dr. Fred, 
 as implying no more than that, out of Miinter's Sinnbilder und Kunstvor- 
 the multitude of likenesses of Our stellungen der alten Christen. Altona, 
 Saviour then current, none possessed 2 torn. 4to. 1825. I would only ob- 
 an undisputed or recognised character serve that these works include several 
 of authenticity. — Discours sur Vori- subjects in the cycle which appear to 
 
228 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 I. The Fall. — Adam and Eve standing to the right and 
 left of the Tree of Knowledge, round which the Serpent is 
 coiled ; the apple, as apparent from the cinctures round their 
 waists, has been already eaten • sometimes, instead of the tree, 
 Our Saviour (as the representative of the Deity) stands between, 
 condemning them, and offering a lamb to Eve and a sheaf of 
 corn to Adam, to signify the doom of themselves and their 
 posterity to delve and to spin through all future ages. The 
 former of these compositions is common to Rome with 
 Byzantium, the latter is exclusively Roman. 
 
 ii. The Offering of Cain and Abel. — They present a lamb 
 and a sheaf of corn to a seated figure, intended, I presume, 
 for the Almighty, and in its profile and relative size, not unlike 
 the gigantic statues of the heathen deities. This is not a very 
 common subject, but was certainly traditional. 
 
 hi. Noah in the Ark — a mere tub, less than himself — 
 receiving the dove with the olive-branch in its mouth. 
 
 iv. Abraham's Sacrifice. — His son Isaac bound — the hand 
 of God from heaven arresting the knife — a ram standing 
 beside the altar. 1 
 
 v. The Passage of the Red Sea. 
 
 vi. Moses receiving the Law — delivered to him by a hand 
 from heaven. 
 
 vii. Moses striking water from the rock, — constantly re- 
 iterated both in sculpture and painting. 
 
 viii. Moses pointing to several pots full of manna. 
 
 ix. Elijah's translation to heaven in the fiery chariot. Not 
 uncommon, and perhaps the most spirited of the series. 
 
 x. The three Children, Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego, 
 in the fiery furnace. 
 
 xi. Daniel in the den of lions, — generally represented 
 standing, in the attitude of prayer, 2 naked, his hands expanded 
 crosswise, a lion couching on either side of him. 3 
 
 xn. Jonah swallowed up by the whale. 
 
 me to belong more properly to Byzan- ing, as conscious of sin and misery, 
 
 tium, and others which occur so rarely during the six days of the week, but 
 
 as scarcely to be considered traditional. standing, in joyful commemoration of 
 
 1 S. Gregory of Nyssa is reported the resurrection, on the Sunday. 
 
 to have frequently shed tears when 3 A statue of Daniel, thus represented, 
 
 contemplating this composition. Roma was erected by Constantine in the 
 
 Subterranea, torn. ii. p. 463. forum at Constantinople. Life, by 
 
 2 The early Christians prayed kneel- Eusebius, lib. iii. cap. 49. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 229 
 
 xiii. Jonah disgorged again. 
 
 xiv. Jonah reposing under his booth. 
 
 xv. Jonah grieving and disconsolate after he gourd had 
 withered. 
 
 FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 i. The Nativity — with the ox and ass kneeling before the 
 cradle, dramatis persona preserved in every age of Christian 
 art, according to the text, "The ox knoweth his owner and 
 the ass his master's crib, but Israel doth not know, my people 
 doth not consider" — fancifully interpreted, the ox as the Jew 
 subjected to the yoke of the law, the ass as the heathen wor- 
 shipper of idols. 
 
 11. The Adoration of the Magi — three in number and 
 represented with Phrygian caps. Sometimes joined with the 
 Nativity. 
 
 in. Our Saviour turning water into wine. 
 
 iv. Our Saviour conversing with the woman of Samaria. 
 
 v. Our Saviour healing the man sick of the palsy. 
 
 vi. Our Saviour healing the woman with the issue of blood. 
 
 vii. Our Saviour multiplying the loaves and fishes. 
 
 viii. Our Saviour healing the daughter of the woman of 
 Canaan. 
 
 ix. Our Saviour healing the blind man. 
 
 x. Our Saviour raising Lazarus. 
 
 xi. Our Saviour's entry in triumph into Jerusalem. 
 
 To which may be added, though found only (I believe) on 
 the tombs : — 
 
 xii. Our Saviour giving S. Peter the keys — very rare. 
 
 xiii. Our Saviour predicting the denial of S. Peter. 
 
 xiv. S. Peter denying our Saviour — the cock either standing 
 on the ground beside him, or on the capital of a pillar. 
 
 xv. Our Saviour before Pilate, the latter seated in moody 
 thought, while water is brought him in a vase to wash his 
 hands. 
 
 xvi. S. Peter taken to prison. 1 
 
 1 The following subjects also occur, representations occur of primitive rites, 
 but so rarely as not to justify their in- — one of an Agape, or love-feast, and 
 sertion in the cycle, — Moses unloosing that uninteresting, excepted. Some- 
 his sandals, the Patience of Job, times (as elsewhere intimated) the 
 David with his sling, Tobias with the Church is personified by a solitary 
 fish, and some others. Few or no female figure, standing with her hands 
 
230 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Nothing probably will surprise you at first sight more, on 
 reading this list, than the paucity of subjects selected from the 
 history of Our Saviour, and the exclusion of almost every one 
 of those most interesting scenes which marked his sojourn 
 upon earth, and have been the cherished theme of Christian 
 Art in every later age — the Annunciation, for instance, the 
 Flight into Egypt, his Baptism, Transfiguration, Agony in the 
 Garden, Crucifixion, Resurrection, Ascension, and the Descent 
 of the Holy Spirit. And this surprise will increase when, on 
 becoming familiar with the originals in the Vatican and else- 
 where, you find that, with the exception of the Good Shepherd 
 and the Saviour standing on the Mount of Paradise, the 
 subjects from the Old Testament are repeated at least ten 
 times more frequently than those selected from the New. 
 
 This peculiarity, whether it arose from reverence or fear, or 
 want of skill, constitutes the most marked feature in the early 
 Christian art of Rome, and distinguishes it in a very striking 
 manner from that of Byzantium. While the Greeks seem to 
 recognise no medium between absolute symbolism and direct 
 representation, Rome seems to have adopted from the first, 
 and steadily adhered to, a system of Typical Parallelism — of 
 veiling the great incidents of redemption, and the sufferings, 
 faith, and hopes of the Church, under the parallel and typical 
 events of the patriarchal and Jewish dispensation — admitting 
 no direct representations from Gospel history but such as 
 illustrate the kingly office of the Saviour, and the miracles by 
 which he prefigured the illumination of the spirit and the 
 resurrection of the body. Thus, reviewing and classifying 
 the series just enumerated, we have, after the Fall into sin, 
 the Offering of Cain and Abel, contrasting natural and revealed 
 religion — Moses receiving the Law, which was to be as a school- 
 master to bring us unto Christ — Pilate washing his hands, 
 Abraham's Sacrifice, Jonah swallowed and disgorged by the 
 
 outstretched in prayer ; a figure, in- the life of Our Saviour and the Virgin, 
 
 deed, of this description fills the the Last Supper, the Resurrection of 
 
 central compartment or niche in many Lazarus, the Healing of the Leper, 
 
 heathen sarcophagi. Occasionally the the Transfiguration, the Crucifixion, 
 
 Virgin and child are met with, the the Burial of Our Saviour, his Resur- 
 
 child sitting in the lap of the Virgin, rection, his Ascension, the Descent of 
 
 and both directly facing the spectator ; the Holy Spirit, and the offering of 
 
 but these are certainly later than the Isaac by Abraham, as usual subjects 
 
 Council of Ephesus, held A. D. 431. of pictorial representation. Several of 
 
 In the Epistle of Remonstrance from these are not enumerated in the 
 
 Pope Gregory II. to the Emperor Leo present letter, being rather, as previ- 
 
 the Iconoclast, c. 712, he mentions ously hinted, of Byzantine origin. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 231 
 
 whale, and the Translation of Elijah, typifying respectively the 
 innocence, death, resurrection, and ascension of Our Saviour 
 —Christ healing the blind man, signifying the illumination of 
 the heart — Noah welcoming the dove with the olive-branch, 
 emblematising reconciliation and peace through baptism, of 
 which the deluge was a type, as the ark was of the Church — 
 the Passage of the Red Sea, figurative of the like initiatory 
 transition from the spiritual Egypt to the camp of the Church 
 Militant, pilgrimising to Canaan — Moses striking water from 
 the rock, significative of spiritual blessings derived to the 
 Church through Christ — Moses pointing to the pots of manna, 
 as shadowing Him who spoke of himself as "bread from 
 heaven," and who gives us spiritual food, his body broken for 
 our sins, in the Eucharist — Christ turning water into wine, 
 allusive apparently to the corresponding element of the Lord's 
 Supper — Jonah's Repose under the gourd, and his Sorrow 
 after it had withered, Christ's conversation with the woman of 
 Samaria, the Cure of the daughter of the Canaanite woman, 
 and that of her diseased with the issue of blood, all prefiguring 
 the conversion of the Gentiles — the Three Children in the 
 furnace, and Daniel in the den of lions, representing the faith- 
 ful in affliction, and in their deliverance, a type of the resurrec- 
 tion — the Resurrection of Lazarus, of all the New Testament 
 subjects the most frequently depicted, still more directly 
 typifying the same blessed prospect — and, to conclude, the 
 Adoration of the Magi, and Our Saviour's triumphal entry 
 into Jerusalem, the latter foreshadowing his ultimate entry as 
 the King of Glory into the New Jerusalem, the former the 
 consummation of this world's history, when all monarchs shall 
 have become his vassals, "and all nations shall call him 
 blessed." Such, and by no strained interpretation, is the 
 creed of the Catacombs. 1 
 
 1 I have cited only the most obvious 
 and. universally acknowledged inter- 
 pretations, and such as, I cannot 
 doubt, influenced the primitive Chris- 
 tians in the choice of subjects for 
 representation by art. But a system 
 much more fanciful and recondite was 
 introduced, or rather grew out of them, 
 at a very early period, and appears in 
 full maturity in the writings of the 
 Fathers of the fourth century. Some 
 of their analogies are very ingenious, 
 and to a certain extent warranted by 
 
 Scripture, that of the Passage of the 
 Red Sea, for instance, as typical of 
 Baptism, Egypt answering to the 
 world, Pharaoh to the prince of this 
 world, the Devil, Moses' rod to the 
 cross of Christ, the Red Sea to the 
 laver of regeneration, and the Egyp- 
 tians to our sins, original and actual, 
 drowned in it along with Satan, as 
 they attempt to pursue us. But, on 
 the other hand, they not unfrequently 
 verge on the ludicrous, as when Saints 
 Augustine and Jerome respectively 
 
232 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Yet it is not the doctrinal so much as the practical lesson 
 that should interest us in these early records of Christian 
 feeling ; it is the illustration they afford of the spirit of the 
 primitive Christians under suffering, of their faith, their 
 hope, their charity — "men," of whom it may be truly said, 
 "the world was not worthy;" amid "mockings and scourg- 
 ings, bonds and imprisonment, destitute, afflicted, tormented, 
 tempted, slain with the sword, stoned, sawn asunder," not a 
 thought of bitterness^ or revenge has expressed itself in 
 sculpture or painting during three centuries — not a single 
 instance has been recorded of the tortures and martyrdoms 
 which have furnished such endless food for the pencil in later 
 ages. 1 Even the sufferings of Christ are alluded to merely by 
 the cross, borne lightly in his hand, as a sceptre of power 
 rather than a rod of affliction ; the agony, the crown of thorns, 
 the nails, the spear, seem all forgotten in the fulness of joy 
 brought by his resurrection. This is the theme, Christ's 
 resurrection and that of the Church in his person, on which, 
 in their peculiar language, the artists of the Catacombs seem 
 
 identify the door of the Ark, and the 
 aperture in the rock which emitted 
 water when struck by Moses, with the 
 wound in Our Saviour's side, from 
 whence issued water and blood, the 
 Sacraments of Baptism and the Eucha- 
 rist ; and when Ambrose and Augus- 
 tine, agreeing in the identification of 
 David and our Saviour, Goliath and 
 Satan, differ, the latter in interpreting 
 the sling as the Church and the stones 
 as the orthodox, the former in ex- 
 plaining the scrip as Christ's human- 
 ity, the sling as his tongue, and the 
 five stones as the five books of Moses, 
 by citing one of which, only, the 
 Deuteronomy, he prevailed in his 
 temptation. The five books of Moses, 
 I may add, are a very fertile theme for 
 allegory, and have been plentifully 
 speculated on in this manner ; S. 
 Isidore identifies them with the five 
 husbands of the woman of Samaria, 
 otherwise the Synagogue, and S. 
 Cyril of Alexandria with the five 
 
 loaves multiplied by Our Saviour, the 
 two fishes representing the writings of 
 those "fishers of men," the Apostles. 
 — I cite these 1 instances, not in an 
 irreverent spirit, but as illustrative of 
 the danger of pushing analogies, even 
 of those of Scripture, too far, and of 
 basing argument upon them. 
 
 1 One instance occurs in the ' Roma 
 Subterranea, ' — the martyrdom of S. 
 Sebastian, but it is evidently of com- 
 paratively recent date. 1 After perse- 
 cution had ceased, martyrdoms were 
 multiplied ad infinitum. Many such 
 are mentioned by S. Basil, S. Gregory 
 of Nyssa, S. Paulinus of Nola, etc., 
 as popular subjects of representation. 
 M. Raoul-Rochette considers them to 
 have been introduced and rendered 
 popular in the West by the Greek 
 monks, expelled during the Iconoclast 
 persecution, and who were almost all 
 of the order of S. Basil.— Discours, 
 etc., p. 52. 
 
 l See M. Raoul-Rochette's 'Discours,' 
 p. 54. He observes that the subject of S. 
 Sebastian has been always extremely popu- 
 lar in Christian Italy, and that it is not 
 uninteresting to recollect, "que la Grece 
 
 antique poss£doit une statue en bronze du 
 heros Diitr£phes, perce 1 de fleches, oIgtois 
 (3e(3\r}fA£pos, Pausan. i. 23.2, qui dut res- 
 sembler beaucoup au St. Sebastien." 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 233 
 
 never weary of expatiating ; Death swallowed up in victory, and 
 the victor crowned with the amaranth wreath of immortality, 
 is the vision ever before their eyes, with a vividness of antici- 
 pation which we, who have been born to this belief, can but 
 feebly realise. 1 I am far from being an implicit admirer of 
 the Ante-Nicene Church, but nowhere, it must be confessed, 
 does its spirit shine with so pure a lustre as in the Catacombs. 2 
 The cycle of compositions above enumerated (after receiving 
 probably the sanction of Constantine in the church dedicated 
 by him to Our Saviour at Rome, and in which we are informed 
 that the history of the Old and New Testament was represented 
 on the opposite walls 3 ) continued to be reiterated in the Latin 
 
 1 Many of the typical events which 
 are found so constantly reiterated in 
 the Catacombs, e.g. the resurrection 
 of Lazarus, the release of Jonah from 
 the whale's belly, the preservation of 
 the three children in the fiery furnace, 
 and of Daniel in the den of lions, the 
 healing of the man sick of the palsy 
 and of the blind man, the feeding of 
 the five thousand, and the turning the 
 water into wine— are enumerated in a 
 remarkable passage of the 'Apostolical 
 Constitutions, ' as prophecies or pledges 
 of the resurrection of mankind. — Lib. 
 v. cap. 7 ; P aires Apostolici, torn. i. 
 p. 309. 
 
 2 The usual symbols of Christi- 
 anity, as enumerated in my intro- 
 ductory Memoranda, are constantly 
 intermingled with the above more 
 definite representations, but always 
 in a subordinate capacity, the Latins 
 never imitating the Byzantines in 
 making them a first object. From 
 this list, however, the vesica piscis, a 
 device of peculiarly Greek origin, must 
 be excepted, as it never (to the best of 
 my belief) occurs in the Catacombs, 
 though introduced in a very singular 
 manner in the mosaics of S. Maria 
 Maggiore as early as the fifth century, 
 mosaics in which the influence of the 
 Roman basreliefs is very apparent. 
 Nor do the angels, which figure so 
 constantly in these mosaics in full- 
 grown stature, ever appear in the 
 Catacombs ; the nearest approach to 
 them are the child-like genii that sport 
 among the vine-branches, bearing the 
 
 strongest resemblance to those in 
 the sculptures of Baalbec and other 
 heathen temples. The omission is 
 singular, and can hardly be imputed 
 to religious scruple, when we find the 
 river -gods of paganism constantly 
 introduced with their urns — a licence 
 indulged in by the common consent 
 of artists in every school and every 
 country of Europe throughout the 
 whole course of the middle ages. 
 
 3 S. Ambrose also painted the walls 
 of his basilica at Milan, with the 
 history of the Old Testament. — Raoul- 
 Rochette, Discours, etc., p. 48. The 
 sarcophagus of the Princess Con- 
 stantia, once in the funeral chapel 
 near S. Agnese, and now in the Va- 
 tican, and that of the prefect of Rome, 
 Junius Bassus, of the Anician family, 
 so celebrated during the decline of the 
 empire, and who died in 359 — now 
 preserved in the subterranean church 
 of S. Peter, and engraved in the 
 second volume of Pistolesi's great 
 work on the Vatican, plate 19 — may 
 be cited as the fairest specimens of 
 Roman sculpture, contemporary with 
 the establishment of Christianity by 
 Constantine. I may also mention as 
 of some, though inferior interest, the 
 curious tomb of Titus Gorgonius, now 
 of S. Liberio, and evidently of Roman 
 workmanship, in the crypt under the 
 southern transept of S. Cyriaco, at 
 Ancona, and that of the Exarch Isaac, 
 who died in 641, near S. Vitale at 
 Ravenna. 
 
234 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Church, both in sculpture and painting, above ground and 
 under ground, for many ages — long, it is to be feared, after 
 the spirit that originally influenced their selection had become 
 extinct. As works of art, they were lifeless at the very first, 
 so that I cannot, as usual in such cases, lament that the forms 
 survived the spirit which once animated them ; but the figures 
 that had been mere captct mortuums in the fourth century, had 
 become positive monsters in the ninth and tenth — little better 
 than the rude carvings of savages. I do not reckon in this 
 succession the sculptures of Lombardy, which, uncouth as 
 they may be, have still a life, a spirit, and a peculiar character 
 of their own, indicating an infusion of fresh feeling from the 
 North. But at Rome, and in the South of Italy (and there 
 are works too of Latin authorship even in the North), the 
 traditions and style of the Catacombs are traceable as late as 
 the thirteenth century. In the very curious wooden door of S. 
 Sabina, for instance, we have a specimen of pure unadulterated 
 Latin art — compositions transmitted in direct succession from 
 the sculptors of the Catacombs to a contemporary (in all 
 probability) of Niccola Pisano ; Moses receiving the Law and 
 pointing to the pots of manna — Christ changing water into 
 wine — the three Children in the Furnace — the Translation of 
 Elijah — the Adoration of the Kings, and S. Peter's denial of 
 Our Saviour — are all represented precisely as they figure * on 
 the tombs in the Museum Christianum. 1 And in the corre- 
 sponding art of painting, a series of frescoes, executed at the 
 beginning of the eleventh century, and equally rude, exists, or 
 at least did exist till very lately, in the chapel of S. Urbano 
 alia CafTarella, in the suburbs of Rome; 2 and another, in 
 which the Byzantine influence is intermingled, in the little 
 chapel of S. Silvestro attached to the church of the Quattro 
 Santi Incoronati, detailing the history of the Conversion of 
 Constantine with a naivete which, with the exception of a 
 certain dignity in some of the figures, constitutes their sole 
 attraction. They are indeed little better than Chinese paint- 
 ings ; the ninth of the series, representing Constantine leading 
 Pope Sylvester's horse by the bridle, walking beside him in 
 
 1 See an engraving of this door in my introductory Memoranda. I have 
 Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. 22. not seen them for several years, the 
 
 2 Painted by one Bonizzo, 1011, hermit who in theory resides habitually 
 and engraved in Agincourt, Peinture, on the spot, being scarcely ever at 
 pi. 94. They represent the history of home. Lanzi considers them purely 
 S. Urban and S. Cecilia, related in of Latin workmanship. 
 
I. 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 235 
 
 his long flowing robe, with a chattah held over his head by an 
 attendant, has quite an Asiatic character. 1 
 
 But we must look far beyond the walls of the Eternal City 
 if we would trace the painting of classic Rome to its complete 
 extinction. There seems reason to believe that it maintained 
 its ground long, and in almost unmixed purity, in all the pro- 
 vinces which owned the supremacy of Rome, West at least of 
 Greece— provinces which it had originally overspread as the 
 waters of the deluge covered the earth, and where, like them, 
 ages passed away ere it was entirely dried up. We find, at 
 least, a peculiar style of painting, distinct from the Byzantine, 
 pale in colour, and in that respect not unlike the paintings of 
 Pompeii and the Catacombs, and even the still earlier works 
 of Etruria, ' prevailing over the whole of Lombardy, and even 
 in Germany, France, and England, from the earliest ascertain- 
 able epoch till the introduction and ascendancy of the Byzan- 
 tine and Giottesque influence in the South, and of the Byzantine 
 and Cologne influence in the North, — while in England, in 
 spite of a decided improvement in sculpture, and frequent 
 communication with the reviving schools of painting, it seems to 
 have been perpetuated at least till the close of the fifteenth 
 century. Whether this primitive style was originally imparted 
 to the several native populations by the Roman conquerors, or 
 whether, like the architecture of Constantine, it was carried 
 
 1 They are engraved in Agincourt, 
 Peinttire, pi. 101. The date of 1248 
 was formerly visible on the ceiling, 
 now repainted. The legend of the 
 Conversion of Constantine has been 
 fully detailed among my Memoranda 
 relating to the Christian Mythology. 
 A similar mixture of the Latin and 
 Byzantine style may be seen in the 
 frescoes under the portico of S. 
 Lorenzo fuori le mura, of the early 
 part of the thirteenth century — much 
 superior to those I have just noticed. 
 The oldest are the three rows, re- 
 spectively to the left and right of the 
 door, representing the history of S. 
 Stephen and S. Lawrence (for which 
 the reader may refer to Section ii. 
 of my Letter on Orcagr. x and Fra 
 Angelico, infra) ; in j the third line 
 Peter de Courtenay is represented com- 
 municating from the hands of Pope 
 Honorius. But the most spirited are 
 
 the frescoes on the south wall of the 
 porch, especially two, the second and 
 third of the lowest row, in the first of 
 which, amid a crowd of monks, a 
 young man is stretched out dead, 
 while his good angel watches at his 
 head, holding a book containing the 
 record of his merits — "opera quae 
 bene facit," — and devils at his feet, 
 with a similar schedule of his failings 
 — " opera quae male fecit, " — while in 
 the following compartment his soul is 
 seen embracing the knees of the Arch- 
 angel Michael, who weighs his good 
 and bad actions in the balance, while 
 the devil, fruitlessly, throws his own 
 weight into the scale against him. 
 Con/, the third of the ' Floating 
 Legends' in my introductory Me- 
 moranda. These frescoes are en- 
 graved in the work of Agincourt, 
 Peinture, pi. 99. 
 
236 
 
 ROMAN ART. 
 
 LETTER I. 
 
 with them by the missionaries of Christian Rome into every 
 country which they spiritually colonised, may admit of dispute; 
 both may be true, though I think the latter the more probable 
 supposition. I may add that, of the two great branches or 
 divisions of this early style, the Italian displays less, the Teu- 
 tonic more originality, and that the chief seat of the former 
 seems to have been Verona, of the latter Cologne. 1 I shall 
 speak of both more at length hereafter. 
 
 1 So far as I am aware, no traces 
 of this primitive style exist at Reggio, 
 Piacenza, Parma, and Bologna, which 
 seem to have taken the lead among 
 the cities of Lombardy in adopting 
 the Byzantine manner. But such 
 traces are recognisable at Verona, 
 Padua, Treviso, Milan, Cremona, 
 Ferrara, Modena, etc., in paintings, 
 still remaining, of the middle of the 
 fourteenth century. It was super- 
 seded at Padua about 1370 by the 
 Giottesque, which spread to Verona, 
 but disappeared in both those towns 
 before the middle of the fifteenth 
 
 century — to be replaced by the great 
 classic school of Lombardy, founded 
 by Squarcione — itself, I have little 
 doubt, a new development (through 
 the influence, originally, of Niccola 
 Pisano) of the same original primitive 
 Roman school, spoken of in the text, 
 and which thus, in renewed youth, 
 extended its influence through Man- 
 tegna and Correggio, to the days of 
 the Carracci. For the fortunes of 
 Roman painting north of the Alps, 
 let me refer to the second section of 
 the First part of my Letter on Teu- 
 tonic Art, infra, vol. ii. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 ROMAN AND BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 PERIOD OF PREPARATION. 
 
 II. BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 Sect. i. Architecture of Byzantium. 
 
 Sect. 2. Design — Traditional Compositions. 
 
 Sect. 3. Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, Mosaic, and 
 Painting, till the decadence in the Eleventh 
 Century. 
 
 Sect. 4. Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, etc. from the 
 Revival under the Comneni in the Twelfth 
 Century. 
 
LETTER II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 I can hardly doubt that the respect with which I have spoken 
 of the arts of Byzantium, in the preceding pages, must have 
 appeared rather strange to you. We are apt to think of the 
 Byzantines as a race of dastards, effete and worn out in body 
 and mind, bondsmen to tradition, form and circumstance, 
 little if at all superior to the slaves of an Oriental despotism — 
 and that too from the very first hour of Constantine's migra- 
 tion to the Bosphorus. Yet even were such indiscriminate 
 dispraise restricted to the latter ages of their decline, the 
 heroic death of the last Constantine might warn us that Men 
 still survived, even in that hour of ruin, to speak the language 
 and wield the sword of Greece; while throughout the whole 
 period of their earlier history, the unbroken line of Christian 
 Fathers, men of undoubted genius, and of learning to which 
 the contemporary West presents but a feeble parallel, amply 
 vindicate their intellectual character. But the fact is, that the 
 influence of Christianity on Byzantium, and of Byzantium on 
 modern Europe, has been much underrated. To say nothing 
 of our debt to her for the preservation and transmission of the 
 Greek language and literature, and as the instructress of the 
 Saracens, from whom, through Spain, we derived our earliest 
 knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences, it was 
 from Greece that we received our Christianity — it was Greece, 
 still, as of old, the imaginative, the enthusiastic, that supplied 
 Europe with her new mythology — with the whole quarry of 
 legends, ceremonies and superstitions which Rome, keen, 
 sagacious and practical as ever, employed in the structure 
 of that wondrous fabric, the Church of the middle ages. 
 — Byzantium, in a word, represents the Contemplative, as 
 Rome does the Practical element of the original European 
 
240 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 character — of the Hindoo or Classic branch of the nations of 
 Christendom, — elements worn out, indeed, and insufficient, con- 
 sidered by themselves detachedly, but which were destined, 
 after the amalgamation of the Hindoo with the Teutonic or 
 Medo-Persian race, of the conquered with the conquerors, to 
 spring up again in renewed youth and vigorous opposition, 
 in the veins of the progeny of that amalgamation, and thus to 
 become the germ of all that is great and glorious in modern 
 history. Pursuing this idea, we shall at once recognise in 
 Byzantine no less than Roman Art the reflection of the ele- 
 ment from which it emanated, just as in that of Lombardy, 
 Tuscany and Germany, we shall hereafter trace that of the 
 Teutonic inspiration which gave the first impulse to the arts, 
 no less than to the chivalry, commerce and civil liberty of 
 Europe. We shall thus, moreover, be prepared to find the 
 Byzantines taking the lead in Art, that especial child of the 
 Imagination, throughout the whole period of the dark ages — 
 guarding it like a precious deposit, till the Romano-Teutonic race, 
 the predestined heirs of ancient civilisation, should be grown 
 to manhood, and ready to relieve them of their trust. The 
 Byzantines, in fact, maintained a pre-eminence, unchallenged 
 and unchallengeable, in the three sister arts, till the Lombards 
 took Architecture into their own hands in the seventh and 
 following centuries, and the Tuscans, headed by Niccola 
 Pisano and Giotto, took the lead in Sculpture and Paint- 
 ing in the thirteenth. Ill therefore would it become us to 
 speak disrespectfully of those, with whom we cannot become 
 familiarly acquainted without acknowledging them as our fathers 
 in each of these three branches of modern art. 1 
 
 1 The view I have taken of Byzan- 
 tine Art, and of its influence on that 
 of Italy and Europe, is, I fear, at 
 variance with received opinions. Count 
 L. Cicognara, for instance, in his ad- 
 mirable ' Storia della Scultura, ' main- 
 tains that the arts were never so de- 
 based in Italy as to need restoration 
 from abroad, that the whole series of 
 mosaics there existing are by native 
 artists, that the Oriental mosaicists 
 visited Italy as exiles merely, or in 
 search of employment, not because 
 there was any need of their assistance 
 — in a word that his countrymen are 
 
 under no sort of obligation ' ' di restar 
 debitori del nuovo incremento delle 
 arti ai Greci di Costantinopoli. ' ' — 
 Storia, etc., torn. i. pp. 475-6, edit, 
 fol. It would be higher praise, and 
 more consistent with truth, to assert, 
 that Italy has carried to perfection 
 what others schemed and chalked 
 out, — that she has succeeded where 
 her predecessors failed. Raphael 
 and Michael Angelo are not losers in 
 glory, because the one rose to excel- 
 lence on the wings of Perugino, the 
 other on those of Pollajuolo and 
 Signorelli. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 241 
 
 Section i. — Architecture of Byzantium. 
 
 The Christian Architecture of Byzantium, less complicated 
 and more original than that of Rome, resembled it in springing 
 at once to perfection at the command of Constantine ; the 
 churches dedicated by that Emperor to the Apostles and to 
 the Divine Wisdom (S. Sophia), at Constantinople, displayed 
 its distinctive form and features precisely as they appear in the 
 latest productions of her architects. 1 
 
 These features were few, simple and sublime. Instead of 
 the lengthened nave and transverse presbytery of the Roman 
 basilica, with all its minute though interesting details, four naves 
 or pillared avenues, of equal length and breadth, were disposed 
 at right angles to each other, so as to form the figure of a 
 Cross ; while in the centre, beyond the points where each nave 
 terminated, a Dome or Cupola, springing from four arches rest- 
 ing (ultimately) on enormous piers, soared upwards, expanding, 
 as it were, into infinity like the vault of heaven, — such, indeed, 
 we cannot doubt, was its symbolic meaning, 2 taken in connec- 
 tion with the Cross, the emblem of the obedience whereby 
 that heaven was purchased for sinners. In the more sumptu- 
 ous Byzantine churches, smaller cupolas are also reared over 
 each of the four naves, but this, although it adds to the mag- 
 nificence of the pile, deteriorates, I think, from its unity and 
 its significance. I have only to add that these Greek churches 
 invariably stand East and West, the Eastern arm of the cross 
 forming the sanctuary, while the Western is fronted by a porch, 
 — that the Western, Northern and Southern arms are frequently 
 lined with triforia, or galleries, for women, above the aisles, — 
 and that windows, round or semi -circular, generally range 
 under the cupola. 3 
 
 1 The Christians being more numer- when the church was rebuilt by Jus- 
 
 ous than the Pagans, and there being tinian. 
 
 no heathen temples to resort to as 2 This is expressly asserted in the 
 quarries, ' ' the architects of Constan- case of the Pantheon, by Ammianus 
 tinople were immediately enabled to Marcellinus and Dion Cassius. See 
 accomplish their wish of giving to the the little pamphlet entitled ' The 
 architecture of Christianity a form Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Cam- 
 wholly different from that of Pagan- bridge, ' p. 5. The roofs of temples, 
 ism." Hope's 'Hist. Essay,' p. 109. both Christian and Pagan, were fre- 
 — The cross, it should be remarked, quently painted azure and powdered 
 of the church of the Apostles, origi- with stars, to convey the same idea, 
 nally Greek in the edifice of Constan- 3 M. Didron observes that the 
 tine, was altered to the Latin form, form of the cross usually termed 
 VOL. L R 
 
242 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 S. Sophia, as rebuilt by Justinian in the sixth century, has 
 universally been considered as the model of Byzantine Archi- 
 tecture, especially in its cupola, which exhibits the first link 
 in that series of progressive improvements, of which the dome 
 of S. Peter's at Rome was the climax and accomplishment. 1 
 But however and by whomsoever improved and perfected, the 
 Cupola must still remain the peculiar praise and crown of glory 
 of Byzantium. She first discerned its capabilities, and vindi- 
 cated it to Christianity. 
 
 It was not till Justinian reconquered Italy, in 553, when 
 Ravenna became his Western capital and Rome was yielded to 
 the Popes, that the new style found its way into the West. 
 The church of S. Vitale, built by that Emperor at Ravenna, is 
 most interesting, not merely as marking the first appearance of 
 the Byzantine cupola in Italy, but for its own singular beauty 
 and proportion, with which Charlemagne was so delighted, 
 that he adopted it as the model for his celebrated church at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. It displays almost every Byzantine feature 
 except the cross, — round without and octagonal within, eight 
 lofty arches spring at once from the ground to the base sup- 
 porting the cupola ; the sanctuary is raised by two steps above 
 the octagonal nave, its walls pierced on either side, above and 
 below, by three arches, while the lower part, and indeed the 
 whole of the remaining walls, are covered with mosaics, which 
 also extend into the absis, or tribune. The capitals of the 
 columns are squared blocks, sculptured with basket-work 
 tracery, a characteristic of the style. 2 
 
 The plan of the Greek cross is more closely adhered to in 
 the three other principal Byzantine churches of Italy, the 
 Duomo of Ancona, dedicated to S. Cyriaco, the little church of 
 S. Fosca at Torcello, and the Cathedral of S. Mark at Venice. 
 
 The first-mentioned of these, the Duomo of Ancona, a 
 building, it is supposed, of the end of the tenth century, is 
 very interesting both within and without. The facade is of 
 white marble, the porch Lombard, supported by slender pillars, 
 resting on lions couchant^ of remarkable spirit; the interior 
 
 Greek is not so peculiar to Byzantium Iconographie de Dieu, p. 557. 
 as that "a deux traverses," or in 1 See the ' Histoire de l'Art,' of 
 
 which there are two transepts, — a Count Seroux d'Agincourt, Archit. 
 
 feature so common in the cathedrals pi. 67, and the accompanying text, 
 of England, that he infers from it a 2 The cupola of S. Vitale became 
 
 close and hitherto unsuspected inter- the model of all those executed in 
 
 course between the two countries. — Europe for several centuries. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 243 
 
 presents the Greek cross, surmounted by a cupola, with the 
 transepts raised several steps above spacious sunken crypts, the 
 Northern (gaudily gilt and spoilt) containing the tomb of S. 
 Cyriaco, the Southern that of S. Liberie 1 But it is the site 
 of S. Cyriaco that stamps its character, rising on a lofty emin- 
 ence, conspicuous from afar, both by sea and land, to mariner 
 and pilgrim, and grouping most picturesquely with the varied 
 architectural lines of the Greek-like city it looks down upon. 
 
 S. Fosca, on the contrary, has far fewer advantages of 
 position. 2 It is a small building, nearly of the same date as 
 S. Cyriaco, but built of the fragments of older edifices. The 
 interior is singularly simple and beautiful, presenting the 
 Greek cross and dome, while externally it is surrounded on 
 three sides by an open portico, the pillars of which support a 
 slanting wooden roof ; they are of all shapes and sizes, some 
 round, some square-shafted, some polygonal, — their capitals, 
 a medley of Corinthian and of square blocks, either absolutely 
 plain or covered with the usual basket-work tracery. This 
 portico connects itself with that of the Duomo, described 
 (among the Latin basilicas) in the preceding letter. 
 
 But S. Mark's is the glory of Byzantine Architecture West 
 of the Adriatic. It was erected during the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. Beside the central dome, each of the four 
 arms of the cross is crowned by a cupola ; the whole five, as 
 well as the intervening vaults and walls down to the triforia, 
 are completely incrusted with mosaics; the lower walls are 
 lined with precious marbles ; the pavement is of rich opus 
 Grcscanicum^ undulating and uneven like a settling sea — the 
 whole blending and harmonising in the doubtful light into a 
 rich mysterious gloom. The Eastern wing of the cross, or 
 sanctuary, is separated by a screen, supported by low thick 
 columns and surmounted by statues of Our Saviour and the 
 Apostles, at the two extremities of which, attached to the 
 Northern and Southern piers, which support the central 
 cupola, are fixed two pulpits, the one to the left canopied by 
 a baldacchmo, exactly resembling those seen in the earlier 
 mosaics and the latest portraits of the Turkish Sultans. The 
 confession, or ciborium, within the sanctuary, is also highly 
 curious, but to this as well as to the mosaics, I shall revert 
 
 1 Seetheprecedingletter,note,p. 233. who had converted her. Her remains 
 
 2 S. Fosca, or Fusca, was a virgin were carried to Venice a long while 
 of Ravenna, martyred at the age of afterwards by Vitalis, a Venetian, and 
 fifteen, with her faithful nurse, Maura, buried at Torcello. 
 
244 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 hereafter. A portico, crowned with six small cupolas and 
 (like the interior) covered with mosaics, extends the whole 
 length of the Western facade, and is continued along the 
 Northern aisle, — the corresponding Southern wall being simi- 
 larly faced by the chapel of S. Zeno and the Baptistery. 
 
 Imagination can scarcely conceive a greater contrast than 
 exists between this towering pile and the little • church I have 
 just described in the neighbouring isle of Torcello. There 
 every thing is on the tiniest scale ; you can touch with your 
 hand the capitals of the columns that support the roof, — I 
 have elsewhere noticed the diminutive baptistery, and though 
 the basilica be a respectably-sized parish church, its title of 
 Duomo prepares one to expect a building of far greater 
 magnitude. The contrast is striking too in other respects. 
 The spot once so populous is now almost utterly abandoned. 
 The two churches, the baptistery and steeple, an isolated 
 marble column, an ancient well, sculptured with the Greek 
 cross, the Archivio and Tribunal (such no longer) — these, and 
 one or two dilapidated buildings, all closely adjacent, are the 
 sole remains of the ancient town, and form now the centre of 
 a wilderness ; the piazza which they encircled, is completely 
 overgrown with grass and divided by hedgerows — a narrow 
 pathway is the only street ; the little birds sing amid the 
 profound silence — and on finishing your survey, you will 
 probably find yourself leaning against the marble pillar which 
 once sustained the flag-staff of the republic, long before those 
 of her tributary principalities, Cyprus and Candia, waved in 
 the breeze. I know nothing in its way like Torcello ; it is a 
 scene sui gefieris for simplicity and solitude, — and yet not 
 melancholy, for they are not the ruins of fallen greatness ; the 
 emotions excited are akin rather to those one experiences in 
 visiting the source of some mighty river, or gazing at the 
 portrait of a hero in his childhood, — or if a sadness will in- 
 voluntarily steal on one amidst the solitude, it is little to that 
 which broods over S. Mark's, gorgeous as it rises in its Oriental 
 blazonry; the widowed flag-staffs and the unpeopled piazza 
 tell of a glory that has passed away, — there you are lost in a 
 moral solitude, darkly shadowed by the " desolate cloud " that 
 decay, ruin and disgrace have flung over the " lovely walls " 
 of Venice. 
 
 These three cities, Venice, Ancona and Ravenna, maintained 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 245 
 
 the closest intercourse with Constantinople ; acknowledged 
 political dependance, indeed, upon the Eastern empire for 
 ages after the conquest of Justinian, nor was it till the twelfth 
 century that the Greeks lost their last footing in the peninsula. 
 But though the Architecture of Byzantium, in its strict purity, 
 confined itself to the shores of the Adriatic, 1 its influence 
 spread far and wide throughout Europe, the Cross and Cupola, 
 its distinctive features, having been adopted (as we shall see) 
 at a very early period by the Lombards, the last of the 
 Teutonic tribes to settle in Italy, and the first to lead the way 
 towards the civilisation of which we are heirs. 
 
 In the East, on the contrary, Byzantine Architecture has 
 flourished to the present day, under various modifications and 
 denominations, coextensively with the Oriental Churches and 
 with Islamism. The Arabs adopted it from the first; the 
 mosque El Mebrak, built by Othman outside the walls of 
 Bozrah in the Wilderness, on the Hadj road to Mecca, still 
 exists, though ruined and forsaken ; and the mosque of 
 Lucknow, the Kremlin of Moscow, the Alhambra of Grenada, 
 the Saracenic remains in Sicily, the tombs of Saladin at Damas- 
 cus, of the Mamlook Sultans near Cairo, and of the Ottoman 
 Emperors at Constantinople, boast the same unmistakable 
 parentage. 2 It is only in the East, moreover, that the external 
 effect of the Dome, and its influence on the Imagination, at 
 once so elevating and so soothing, can be fully appreciated; 
 it is always and everywhere beautiful and appropriate, whether 
 crowning the Santon's tomb, as it glitters in lowliness amid its 
 grove of cypresses, or swelling into air, a vast hemispheric globe, 
 over the populous stillness of some ancient city, suggesting ideas 
 of perfection, durability and repose, on which the mind might 
 brood for ages. Martin must have felt this strongly in design- 
 ing his vision of the Celestial City for the ' Pilgrim's Progress. ' 
 
 The Dome, in short, is the true offspring, the peculiar ex- 
 pression of the Contemplative East, and the nations of the 
 West will be found, I think, to have adopted or rejected it 
 nearly in the proportion in which the Contemplative or Active, 
 the Imaginative or Reasoning, the Classic or the Teutonic 
 element has predominated in their character. 
 
 1 With a few scattered exceptions, 2 Let me refer to the beautiful 
 
 such as S. C£sar at Aries, the ancient sketch by Mr. Hope, ' Historical 
 
 church of S. Vincent and S. Anastasius at Essay, 'pp. 135-139- 
 Paris, etc. Hope's 'Hist. Essay,' p. 113. 
 
246 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Section 2. — Design and Traditional Compositions 
 of Byzantium. 
 
 But it was in design, more especially, that the Byzantines 
 evinced their superiority during the middle ages, — and this by 
 universal and cheerful acknowledgment. Greek artists were 
 employed in every church of consequence, to decorate it with 
 appropriate mosaic-work, and though there may be reason to 
 believe that the Latins after awhile learnt to execute for them- 
 selves the ' Opus Graecanicum ' which composed the pavement, 
 and that finer incrustation which embellished the ciboria and 
 reading-desks, it appears certain that their enterprise soared 
 no higher, and that the execution of those extensive and more 
 intricate compositions, whether symbolical or dramatic, that 
 adorned the walls, tribunes and cupolas, remained as late as 
 the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the exclusive monopoly of 
 Byzantium. 1 In Sculpture too, a similar precedence was 
 conceded by the West to the heirs of Phidias and Praxiteles ; 
 bronze doors were repeatedly cast at Constantinople for the 
 cathedrals of Italy, and her ivory carvings were as frequently 
 sought for to adorn the binding of missals and breviaries for 
 Kings and Emperors. But, partly from the expense attendant 
 on importation, and partly from the Lombards being well 
 disposed to supply the public demand by sculpture, such as 
 it was, of their own, few specimens comparatively of that of 
 Byzantium are now to be met with. 
 
 I noticed in a former page the remarkably different principles 
 which guided Rome and Greece in their election from the 
 materials of Christian Art — the former preferring the via 
 media of Typical Parallelism, trodden of old by the prophets 
 of the elder Testament, the latter the extremes of absolute 
 symbolism and direct dramatic representation, suggested by 
 the Gospels and the Apocalypse. I have elsewhere, too, 
 furnished you with a vocabulary (as it were) of symbols, the 
 hieroglyphical language of the early Christian world, — its 
 universality induced me thus to anticipate mention of it, but I 
 cannot doubt that the Greeks contributed more than any 
 other people to its creation, while they unquestionably clung 
 to it with almost parental fidelity and love, and to the com- 
 parative neglect of their dramatic resources, for many centuries. 
 
 1 See Mr. Hope's 'Historical Essay,' p. 152. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 247 
 
 This might arise partly from a laudable dread of transgressing 
 the second commandment; it was at least fortunate for art 
 that the council held at Constantinople in 692 positively 
 enjoined its disuse and the substitution of direct representation. 1 
 After that period, Symbolism, still the acknowledged queen 
 of Architecture, took the place of a handmaid below the 
 thrones of Sculpture and Painting, which she had so long 
 usurped, — to raise her voice henceforward at intervals only, 
 and as an accompaniment to the more sustained and legitimate 
 song of her sister rivals. 
 
 The Greek artists were not unprepared for this interference 
 on the part of the Church, — it may even have been the know- 
 ledge of that preparation which suggested it. Compositions of 
 a high order, illustrative of the Christian history and doctrine, 
 already existed, and there could be little doubt that the 
 summons would waken up and elicit whatever genius and 
 enthusiasm yet survived in Greece. Accordingly we find, 
 within a century after the Council in question, a cycle of 
 compositions, distinct and well defined, seldom or never 
 deviated from, and stamped (as it were) with the seal of the 
 Greek Church, current everywhere throughout its bounds, — 
 a series of extreme beauty, feeling and simplicity, and sus- 
 ceptible, in almost each individual instance, of a refinement 
 and perfection which must have beamed before the mind's eye 
 of the original composer, although the debased mechanical 
 skill of the age debarred him from realising the vision. Of 
 these compositions I must now attempt to give you a precise 
 idea, since, after exercising the apprenticeship and maturer 
 powers of Niccola Pisano, Cimabue and Giotto, they were 
 finally reissued by those masters, more or less modified and 
 
 1 The special object of the decree 
 is the substitution of the human figure 
 of Our Saviour for the symbolical 
 lamb ; but the edification of the people 
 by the contemplation of the obedience 
 and death of Christ, represented to 
 the life by painting, is the principle 
 broadly laid down, and it is clear, as 
 MM. Raoul - Rochette, and Didron 
 observe, that the Council wished to 
 effect an entire substitution of history 
 for symbolism. M. Raoul-Rochette, 
 I may add, considers the introduction 
 of the Crucifix in lieu of the Cross, of 
 martyrdoms instead of the older scenes 
 
 of Christian hope and joyfulness, of 
 the idea of death, in short, instead of 
 life, as signs and tokens of a gradual 
 saddening of the soul of Christendom, 
 deepening and darkening through the 
 whole course of the middle ages. 
 Discours, etc., pp. 58, 59. Icon, de 
 Dieu, p. 339. Admitting the fact 
 (strictly analogous, indeed, to the 
 similar saddening of the Individual 
 man during his march through life), 
 we may read in it the gradual preval- 
 ence of the Subjective, or Teutonic, 
 over the Objective, or Classic element 
 of Europe. 
 
248 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 improved, and were constantly reiterated in the following 
 centuries, till each and all of them had taken their places 
 finally and for ever amidst the productions of the golden age 
 of art, as perfected by the genius of the Peruginos, Raphaels 
 and Michael Angelos, to whom the merit, not merely of 
 execution, but of their original invention, is usually but 
 erroneously attributed. 1 A volume might be written on this 
 subject, and illustrations of it will occur, incidentally, in almost 
 every page of these ' Sketches,' but a brief enumeration of such 
 as appear to belong to the class of Traditional Compositions 
 will suffice for the present. They may be divided (as it 
 appears to me) into two Classes, 
 
 I. Personal — that is to say, representations of the ' Drama- 
 tis Personae ' of Christianity, Divine and Human, in contem- 
 plation and repose : — And, 
 
 II. Historical, or Dramatic — scenes from the Sacred 
 History of the world, as recorded in the books of Holy 
 Scripture or by tradition. 
 
 We will review each series in order. 
 
 I. Personal. 
 
 i. The Holy Trinity in Unity. — The Ancient of Days, in 
 the form of an aged man, wearing a crown or tiara, seated on 
 the clouds of heaven, holds forth, as the sign of salvation to 
 mankind, the Son of Man, nailed to the Cross, which He (the 
 Father) sustains by the two transverse arms. The Holy 
 Ghost, in the form of a Dove, hovers on the wing between 
 them, as proceeding from the Father. 2 The outlines of the 
 Saviour frequently fall within those of the Father, probably 
 to denote the Unity of the Godhead. This is one of the 
 later compositions of the Byzantine cycle, but, once introduced, 
 
 1 I am happy to find myself antici- 
 pated in this statement, and confirmed 
 in the view I have taken of Byzantine 
 art, by Flaxman, who enumerates the 
 " Greek Christian compositions" of 
 ' ' the Creation of Adam and Eve, the 
 Nativity, the Transfiguration, Cruci- 
 fixion, Resurrection, Glorification, and 
 the Last Judgment, with some others, " 
 ' ' as having been standards to the 
 Italian painters, from which they 
 
 scarcely ventured to deviate for ages, ' 1 
 and "which amply prove that the 
 sacred flame remained in Greece, which 
 kindled light and life in the modern 
 arts of Western Europe. " — Lectures, p. 
 146. And see thereafter, pp. 242, sqq. 
 
 2 From the Father only, according 
 to the dogma of the Greek Church. 
 Hence a slight occasional difference in 
 the versions of this composition by the 
 Latin Church. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 249 
 
 it was constantly reiterated, and adopted with but little varia- 
 tion both South and North of the Alps. The sublimity of 
 conception is undeniable, and I should be loath to impute 
 irreverence to Christians for attempting to render visible to 
 the eye the forms dimly suggested to the ear by the mysterious 
 imagery of the prophets, — nevertheless- this is a theme too awful 
 for art to touch upon, and the earlier artists showed a wise 
 humility in abstaining from the representation of the Father 
 except, symbolically, by a hand from heaven, or dramatically, 
 in the person of his Image and Word, the Son, Jesus Christ. 1 
 11. The Head of Our Saviour. — In the primitive ages of the 
 Church, as I before remarked, the Saviour was represented, 
 not personally, but as the Genius of Christianity — a youthful 
 form and figure, without any special likeness. The traditional 
 head with which Europe is now so familiar, was unknown in 
 the West till the fourth century, when the original was sent to 
 Constantia, sister of the Emperor Constantine, by Eusebius, 
 
 1 The first personal representa- 
 tion of God the Father occurs in the 
 ninth century, according to M. Raoul- 
 Rochette, Discours, etc., p. 7, — but 
 not till the twelfth, according to M. 
 Didron, Icon, de Dieu, p. 207. 1 "II 
 faut le dire enfin, " observes the latter 
 antiquary, with equal truth and force, 
 that ' ' les premiers Chretiens jusqu'aux 
 cinquieme et sixieme siecles furent 
 assez mal disposes pour les images en 
 g£n£ral ; tous £taient iconoclastes, 
 ceux-ci un peu plus, et ceux-la un 
 peu moins. On sortait du paganisme. ' ' 
 Ibid. , p. 204. This surely (with 
 submission) accounts sufficiently for 
 the few direct representations met with 
 of the First Person of the Trinity dur- 
 ing the early and the middle ages, 
 — relieving us from the necessity of 
 supposing, with M. Didron, a Gnostic 
 aversion for Him, perpetually latent 
 in the heart of Catholic Christendom, 
 and revealing itself either in neglect or 
 studied disrespect. See the Icon, de 
 Dieu, pp. 193, sqq. 
 
 The composition described in the 
 text may be seen, magnificently amp- 
 lified, in the Casa di Misericordia at 
 Pisa {Rosini, Storia della Pittura 
 
 Italiana, tav. 10), — in altarpieces by 
 Orcagna, Luca Signorelli, and Alberti- 
 nelli (the latter, one of the artist's 
 best pictures), in the gallery of the 
 Academy at Florence, — in one, also, 
 by Moretto, in the first chapel to the 
 left, of S. Giovanni, at Brescia, painted 
 with much feeling. It is also" intro- 
 duced by Andrea del Sarto, but 
 twisted and distorted out of all dignity, 
 in the upper part of his Dispute con- 
 cerning the Trinity, in the Pitti Palace. 
 It became popular, too, North of the 
 Alps, and is the subject of two of the 
 most beautiful pictures of the Upper 
 German school — one, by Christopher 
 Amberger, in his pure German style, in 
 the Pinacothek at Munich — the other, 
 by Albert Diirer, a picture of extra- 
 ordinary merit, in the Belvidere at 
 Vienna. Finally, there is a variation 
 of this subject, by Rubens, in the 
 Museum at Antwerp, ineffably coarse, 
 vulgar, and disgusting. These exam- 
 ples will illustrate the far-spread cir- 
 culation of these traditional composi- 
 tions of Byzantium. And the com- 
 position in question is by no means 
 so frequently met with as some others, 
 not yet mentioned. 
 
 1 Unless indeed, as before conjectured, 
 the gigantic figure to whom Abel and Cain 
 
 offer sacrifice on the tombs of the Catacombs 
 be intended for the Almighty. 
 
250 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 bishop of Caesarea, to whom she had written her request to 
 that effect. 1 It is therefore indisputably to the Greek 
 Church that we owe that most expressive type, which, if not 
 the actual likeness of the Redeemer, comes nearer our dreams 
 of what that likeness may have been — nearer the ideal of 
 Incarnate Deity — than Christian humility could have hoped to 
 soar. Were this head of Christ the solitary tradition bequeathed 
 to us by Byzantium, she would have the highest of all claims 
 on our reverence and gratitude. 2 Its earliest appearance is in 
 a mosaic, said to [be of the fourth century, found originally in 
 the cemetery of S. Callisto at Rome, and now preserved in the 
 Museum Christianum of the Vatican. It was repeated in 441, 
 attended, to the right and left, by the symbols of the Evan- 
 gelists, and the elders offering their crowns, on the triumphal 
 arch of S. Paolo fuori le mura, now destroyed — was reiterated, 
 two years later, on that of S. Maria Maggiore, still existing — 
 
 1 The reply of Eusebius is given in 
 Labbe's collection of the Councils, 
 torn. vii. col. 493, sqq. From this 
 transaction, observes M. Raoul-Roch- 
 ette, it appears that these images were 
 still rare, and that the use of them was 
 not condemned by the Church. — Dis- 
 cours, etc., p. 12. 
 
 2 According to MM. Raoul-Roch- 
 ette and Didron (Discours, etc. , p . 15 ; 
 Icon, de Dieu, p. 248), the head of Our 
 Saviour is derived from the Gnostics, 
 — but even if such were the case, those 
 Gnostics were probably Greeks, like 
 Leucius, the father of the Christian 
 mythology, and it was certainly the 
 Greek Church which selected, from 
 the various likenesses current, the one 
 that through her influence became 
 traditional — whether the genuine like- 
 ness or not. This is repeatedly ac- 
 knowledged by M. Raoul-Rochette. 
 On the other hand, the ancient Fathers 
 and historians of the Church, in- alluding 
 to ancient portraits of Our Saviour 
 and the Apostles, do not throw the 
 discredit of heresy upon them. See, 
 for instance, the interesting passage 
 of Eusebius, Eccles. History, lib. vii. 
 cap. 18. 
 
 This early Byzantine type has evi- 
 dently suggested the beautiful descrip- 
 tion of Our Saviour's personal appear- 
 ance and demeanour in the spurious 
 
 epistle from the Proconsul Publius 
 Lentulus to the Roman Senate : — 
 ' ' There appeared in these our days a 
 man of great virtue, named Jesus Christ, 
 who is yet living amongst us, and of 
 the Gentiles is accepted for a Prophet 
 of truth, but his own disciples call him 
 the Son of God. He raiseth the dead, 
 and cureth all manner of diseases. 
 A man of stature somewhat tall and 
 comely, with a very reverend counten- 
 ance, such as the beholders may both 
 love and fear ; his hair, the colour of 
 a filbert full ripe, to his ears, whence 
 downwards it is more orient of colour, 
 somewhat curling or waving about his 
 shoulders ; in the midst of his head is 
 a seam, or partition of his hair, after 
 the manner of the Nazarites ; his 
 forehead plain and delicate ; his face 
 without spot or wrinkle, beautified 
 with a comely red ; his nose and mouth 
 exactly formed ; his beard thick, the 
 colour of his hair, not of any great 
 length, but forked ; his look innocent ; 
 his eyes grey, clear and quick ; in 
 reproving, awful ; in admonishing, 
 courteous ; in speaking, very modest 
 and wise ; in proportion of body, well 
 shaped. None have ever seen him 
 laugh, but many have seen him weep. 
 A man, for his beauty, surpassing the 
 children of men. " — Quoted in Clarke's 
 Travels, torn. iv. p. 177, edit. 8vo. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 251 
 
 and repeated constantly afterwards, in the same situation — a 
 half-length, that is to say, within a wreath, and generally in 
 the act of blessing with the right hand, and holding the cross 
 or the globe in the left — in the basilicas successively built at 
 Rome and elsewhere in Italy. 1 From these it was introduced 
 into larger historical compositions, first by the Byzantines and 
 afterwards by the Italians, Flemings and Germans, whose 
 efforts to animate its perfect outlines with the Divine expression 
 have been but approximations to an unattainable perfection. 2 
 
 in. The Blessed Virgin Mary. — Her likeness was unknown 
 to the Latin Church in the time of Augustine, 3 nor does any 
 distinct type of countenance appear to have been assigned to 
 her, even in the East, previous to the twelfth century, although 
 the mode of representing her, with the child on her knees, 
 was fixed by the Council of Ephesus in 431. 4 The type, 
 as current in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, is august 
 and grand, especially in mosaic ; in painting, a new fashion 
 came in about that time, of representing her complexion of the 
 deepest brown and even black — in allusion to the passage in 
 Canticles, " I am black but comely, O ye daughters of Jeru- 
 salem, as the tents of Kedar, as the curtains of Solomon." 
 These paintings being generally esteemed miraculous and 
 ascribed to S. Luke, the probability is, that this was the name 
 of the artist who introduced the innovation. 5 Most of the 
 Italian painters subsequent to Giotto abandoned the Greek 
 
 1 That executed, in 641, in the 
 little chapel of S. Venanzio, attached 
 to the Baptistery of Constantine, is 
 one of the most beautiful and impress- 
 ive. Engravings of this, and of all 
 the mosaics at Rome and Ravenna, 
 hereafter mentioned, till the ninth 
 century inclusive, may be found in the 
 ' Vetera Monimenta ' of Ciampini. 
 
 2 The original half-figure, in the 
 act of calm benediction, as handed 
 down by the Byzantines, and still 
 perpetuated in the East, seems to have 
 been less popular in Italy (where Ecce 
 Homos, or heads of Christ wearing 
 the crown of thorns, were more in 
 demand) than North of the Alps. 
 The Venetian Bellini, whether inspired 
 by the example of Flanders or by the 
 common source, the ancient mosaics 
 — or sharing, probably, in the sym- 
 pathy ever felt by Venice for Byzantium 
 
 — was the first to reclaim the original 
 subject to Italian art. 
 
 3 That is to say, as in the case of 
 the portraits of Our Saviour, her genu- 
 ine likeness. — S. August, de Trinitate, 
 lib. viii. cap. 8 ; torn. iii. col. 870. 
 Cited by M. Raoul-Rochette, Discours, 
 etc., p. 31. 
 
 4 With the view of opposing the 
 heresy of Nestorius. See Raoul-Roch- 
 ette, Discours, etc., p. 34. 
 
 5 Respecting the legendary ascrip- 
 tion to S. Luke see M. Raoul-Roch- 
 ette's Discours, p. 37. This gentleman, 
 in remarking upon the veneration for 
 these images entertained by the common 
 people, makes the following striking 
 observations : — " II y a done la quel que 
 chose qui rappelle le culte que la Grece 
 idolatre rendoit a ces antiques simu- 
 lacres de la Diane d'Ephese, de la 
 Junon de Samos, de la Fortune d ' Ery- 
 
252 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 type, and attempted, with more or less success, to form an 
 ideal of their own. 
 
 iv. The Heads of S. Peter and S. Paul. — S. Peter was 
 generally represented blessing, S. Paul preaching, — the former 
 with white hair and beard, the hair sometimes plaited in three 
 distinct partitions ; the latter with a lofty and partially bald 
 brow, and long high nose, — as characteristic of the man of 
 genius and the thorough gentleman, as the former is of the 
 warm-hearted, frank, impetuous, manly fisherman. The like- 
 
 thres, dont le type, produit dans une 
 6cole anterieure a D6dale, ou derive" 
 de 1' Orient, ou tombe" du ciel, type 
 informe et depourvu de tout merite, de 
 toute intention imitative, recueilloit, au 
 sein de la nation la plus eclair£e de 
 l'univers, plus d'hommages et de 
 respects que n'en inspirerent jamais les 
 chefs-d'oeuvre de Phidias et de Poly- 
 clete. 1 Mais il y a encore dans ce 
 groupe de la Vierge et de 1' Enfant, tel 
 que l'avoit d'abord concu l'Eglise 
 assembled, au Concile d'Ephese, et 
 que le produisit depuis l'6cole du pr6- 
 tendu Saint Luc, cet autre De"dale du 
 moyen age, une analogie sensible avec 
 le groupe Egyptien d'Isis allaitant 
 Horus, qui offrit, dans 1' antique pays 
 des Pharaons, une image a peu pres 
 semblable." 2 Ibid., p. 38. — And, in 
 accordance with this writer's opinion 
 of the gradual saddening of Christen- 
 dom — (which I can only assent to, 
 either in restricting it, for many ages at 
 least, to the advancing age and waning 
 energies of the elder, Sanscrit or Classic 
 principle — or in qualifying it as the 
 deeper, more serious and subjective 
 spirit, mingling from the first with the 
 youthful buoyancy of the Teutonic 
 race) — he adds most interestingly, 
 ' ' C'est sous ce rapport qu'il devient 
 inte>essant d' observer comment, a 
 
 1 ' ' Une analogie plus positive encore se 
 montre dans ces statuettes de la [Vierge, en 
 bois de cedre, telles que la Madonne de 
 Lorette, celle du Puy en Velai, celle d'ln- 
 siedlen en Suisse, et d'autres encore, qui 
 ressemblent presque de tout point a la Diane 
 d'Ephese, par la matiere, par le style, et 
 par les circonstances memes de la legende 
 qui les concerne." — Ibid. 
 
 2 A similar resemblance might be pointed 
 out in the Hindoo paintings of Crishna 
 nursed by his mother Devaki,— see Moor's 
 
 mesure que le Christianisme s' engage 
 dans les t^nebres du moyen age, la 
 figure celeste de Marie se couvre par 
 degr£s des memes ombres qui obscur- 
 cissoient la soci^te" tout entiere ; com- 
 ment ce visage, qui sourioit aux 
 premieres carresses de 1' Enfant-Dieu, 
 pour ainsi dire comme aux premieres 
 esp^rances du genre humain, prend 
 une physiognomie de plus en plus 
 triste et seVere, qui ne r£pond que 
 trop fidelement au g6nie de ces temps 
 barbares. La tete se penche, avec 
 1' expression d'une douleur sombre et 
 morne, qui recoit un caractere plus 
 sinistre encore de la couleur noire 
 par laquelle les artistes de cet age 
 croyoient exprimer une tradition bib- 
 lique, concernant le teint de Marie ; 
 et c'est dans cette attitude, avec le 
 teint noir, et avec le voile, qui descend 
 j usque sur ses yeux, ou s'est dteint le 
 sentiment m£me de la maternity, que 
 la Vierge et son enfant, pareillement 
 prive" de mouvement et de la vie, et 
 comme garotte dans les langes qui 
 l'enveloppent, se sont vus en quelque 
 sorte immobilises par l'art Byzantin, 
 jusqu'au siecle de Cimabue, ou le geliie 
 des temps modernes a commence" a 
 tirer dece type inertetous les eiemensde 
 vie et de beauts morale que la religion 
 y avoit places. " — Discours, etc., p. 34. 
 
 ' Hindoo Pantheon,' plate 59. The key to 
 these analogies is to be found in the primi- 
 tive dogma, so deeply rooted in the heart 
 and mind of man, of a male and a female 
 principle, a God and a Goddess, answering 
 to the Sun and the Moon of the physical 
 world — common, both in religion and philo- 
 sophy, to every branch of the descendants 
 of Noah, but clung to by the Sanscrit much 
 more tenaciously than by the Zendish or 
 Medo-Persian branch of the descendants 
 of Japhet. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 253 
 
 nesses may be correct, — they were current, at least, in the days 
 of Eusebius. 1 They were to be seen till lately, in mosaic, 
 executed in 443, at S. Paolo fuori le mura. Two similar 
 heads, along with that of Our Saviour, beardless, executed in 
 449, still exist in the chapel of the Archiepiscopal palace at 
 Ravenna, and they recur constantly in the more recent 
 basilicas. While Giotto's influence lasted in Italy, these 
 traditional types were invariably adhered to, but Masaccio set 
 the example of painting one of his friends as S. Peter, and 
 from that moment there has been no security against plough- 
 men and gondoliers figuring as inspired Apostles. The 
 Umbrian School, as we shall find hereafter, maintained in 
 this, as in other respects, a continual protest against innova- 
 tion. 
 
 v. Christ in Glory. — He is usually seated on a vast 
 globe, to signify the universe, 2 or on the rainbow, and in the 
 attitude of blessing. 3 Angels and Saints stand to the right 
 and left, the latter generally separated by pillars or palm-trees. 
 This was a very favourite composition for the tribunes of 
 churches from the sixth century downwards, but after the close 
 of the eighth, the Virgin, enthroned, with the child in her 
 arms, was frequently substituted for the mature figure of our 
 Saviour, the attendants remaining the same ; this may be seen 
 in the absides of S. Maria in Dominica (of a.d. 815), S. 
 
 1 Hist. Eccles., lib. vii. cap. 18. — 
 He speaks of their portraits as of some 
 antiquity. We know too that a por- 
 trait of S. Paul, said to have come 
 down by tradition from his own time, 
 existed in the days of S. Ambrose, and 
 S. Chrysostom had one which he 
 always kept in his cell, to gaze upon 
 when lifting his eyes from the epistles 
 of the Apostle. — Raoul - Rochette, 
 Discours, etc., p. 42. These types, 
 also, are supposed — I might say, in 
 this instance, proved by M. Raoul- 
 Rochette to be of Gnostic origin, Ibid. 
 p. 45. Little images of Pythagoras, 
 S. Paul, Our Saviour, Homer, etc., 
 were set up by Marcellina, a follower 
 of Carpocrates, in her church at Rome, 
 and the constant use of such by the 
 Gnostics explains the fact recorded of 
 Alexander Severus, that he adored 
 the images of Orpheus, Apollonius 
 Tyaneus, Abraham and Christ, in his 
 
 private Lararium or oratory. M. 
 Raoul - Rochette supposes that the 
 Christian laity adopted the use of these 
 images gradually and by degrees, as 
 the Church relaxed in her ancient 
 aversion to the monuments of idolatry, 
 exactly as we have elsewhere concluded 
 (under the authority of Beausobre) 
 respecting the legendary history of 
 the Virgin, the Apostles, etc. The 
 types, undecided under the Gnostics, 
 seem to have been ultimately selected 
 and fixed by the authority of the Greek 
 Church. — Discours, etc., pp. 16, sqq. 
 See also Didron, Iconographie de Dieu, 
 p. 249. 
 
 2 Eternity is represented so seated 
 on the ancient medals. 
 
 3 Of course in Greek paintings, in 
 the Greek fashion, as explained in the 
 Table of Symbols, among my prelimi- 
 nary Memoranda. 
 
254 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Cecilia (of 820), S. Maria Nuova (of 848), and in the 
 beautiful mosaic on the facade of S. Maria in Trastevere, of 
 the twelfth century, representing the Virgin suckling the child, 
 attended by the five wise and five foolish virgins. Hence 
 originated that innumerable multitude of pictures, Greek and 
 Italian, especially of the Giottesque, Sienese, Umbrian and 
 early Venetian schools, representing the Virgin and child, 
 attended by Saints, each Saint originally parted from his 
 neighbour by a compartment or by a palm-tree, and, long after 
 these compartments had been done away, perpetuating their 
 remembrance by their erect posture, like sentinels, on either 
 side of the central object of adoration. Gradually, however, 
 and especially by the Umbrian school of Perugino, stiffness 
 was softened into ease, the figures were brought into closer 
 and more intimate relation, the composition enlivened and 
 improved without loss of symmetry — landscapes were intro- 
 duced in lieu of glaring gold back-grounds — and thus some of 
 the most exquisite pictures of Raphael, Fra Bartolommeo, 
 Bellini, etc. may be considered as the legitimate development 
 of the early Byzantine composition of the sixth century. 
 
 vi. and lastly, Angels and Devils, the spiritual friends and 
 foes of man. — The former, evidently imitated from the winged 
 genii, or victories, of the ancients, mingle in the Byzantine 
 compositions from the first, in the exact proportion in which 
 they are described in the Bible as mingling in every incident 
 of human weal or woe — whether rejoicing with God over his 
 new creation, or attendant on the ministry of Christ and the 
 pilgrimage of his servants, or receiving the souls of the expiring 
 faithful, defending them against the attacks of evil spirits, and 
 conveying them to repose in " Abraham's bosom," or Paradise. 
 This ministry of angels is peculiar to Byzantium, seldom or 
 never occurring in early Latin Art. In later times, the nine 
 orders of the heavenly hierarchy were duly discriminated 
 according to the visions of Dionysius Areopagita, and were 
 sometimes represented in compartments encircling the central 
 figure of our Saviour. Devils, on the other hand, and their 
 chieftain, Satan, were generally represented in the human 
 form, winged, and only differing from angels in being black. 
 The triple-headed, bat-winged, horned and hoofed monster of 
 the later middle ages is rather a resuscitation of the heathen 
 Pan, with the attributes of Cerberus and Nox, than the legiti- 
 mate offspring of Byzantium, or Christianity. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 255 
 
 II. Historical. 
 
 I. The Genesis. — A series of six compositions, illustrative 
 of the origin of that evil which the Saviour came to remedy, 
 became traditional at a very early period, and are constantly 
 met with either apart or together. They represent, 1. The 
 Creation of Adam: 2. The Creation of Eve — drawn by the 
 Almighty out of the side of Adam, while asleep. 1 This 
 appears on a Greek diptych as early as the fourth century. 2 
 The idea was perfected by Michael Angelo on the ceiling of 
 the Sistine Chapel : 3. The Fall — nearly the same as the 
 Latin composition. This too may be said to have been 
 perfected by Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapek It 
 was adopted even by the Mahometans, who represent Adam 
 and Eve, in Oriental dresses, standing on either side of the tree 
 of life, from the foot of which flows a fountain, emblematical 
 (though not to their apprehension) of the Gospel of Christ : 3 
 4. Adam delving and Eve spinning: 5. The Sacrifices of Cain 
 and Abel, and the murder of the latter. The brothers stand 
 usually, face to face, on opposite sides of the same altar, the 
 one holding up a lamb, the other a sheaf of corn, — the hand 
 of God from heaven sending down fire on the lamb : 6. The 
 death of Cain— -by the hand of his descendant, Lamech, ac- 
 cording to the ancient tradition. These compositions may be 
 seen in consecutive order in the mosaics of the porch at S. 
 Mark's, Venice, in the Duomo of Monreale, near Palermo, and 
 elsewhere, and they were adopted and constantly reiterated on 
 the facades of their cathedrals and churches by the Lombard 
 sculptors, and in their frescoes by the Italian painters of the 
 fourteenth and following century. 4 
 
 II. The Nativity of the Virgin — and that of S. John the 
 Baptist, are sometimes represented by the same composition. 
 The mother reclines on a couch, generally in an open court, 
 
 1 Figurative, in allegorical interpre- ing, in Mouradja d'Ohsson's ' Tableau 
 
 tation, of the birth of the Church from de 1' Empire Ottoman, ' torn. i. pi. 1, 
 
 the wounded side of Our Saviour, p. 67, edit, folio, 
 thereafter to be espoused to him, and 4 Of the Patriarchal history there 
 
 to become " the mother of all living. " are no traditional compositions. It 
 
 In the older representations of this was frequently repeated (as at S. 
 
 subject Eve is seen rising out of Maria Maggiore at Rome, at S. Mark's 
 
 Adam's side, in obedience to the hand of Venice, at Monreale, etc. ), as typi- 
 
 of God, stretched out from heaven. cal of the Christian pilgrimage, but 
 
 | 2 Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. 12. the composition was always left to 
 
 3 See a print, after a Persian paint- the genius and discretion of the artist 
 
256 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 and is attended by females who either offer her water to wash 
 her hands, or plates containing eggs ; x another maid, in the 
 corner, washes the child. This composition occurs as the 
 birth of the Precursor, in the Menologion, an illuminated 
 manuscript, of the tenth century, to be described in the 
 following section. 
 
 in. The Annunciation. — In the oldest existing representa- 
 tion of the Annunciation, that on the triumphal arch of S. 
 Maria Maggiore, at Rome, the Virgin is represented seated, 
 attended by angels to the right and left, and addressed by 
 Gabriel, who floats in the air, above her. But this did not 
 become traditional. In later works, since the tenth century, 
 both Gabriel and Mary are represented standing, the angel 
 extending his hand towards Mary, in the delivery of his 
 message, the latter raising her hand in astonishment and meek 
 acquiescence. This composition is less strictly adhered to 
 than usual by the early Italian artists, who usually represent 
 them both kneeling. 
 
 iv. The Nativity.- — The Virgin reclines on her couch, in 
 front of the cave, and beside the manger in which the new- 
 born Saviour is laid ; the heads of the ox and ass appear 
 behind it • the star rests over the spot, and sheds (as Tasso 
 would express it) a " pennello di lume " on the infant ; S. 
 Joseph, leaning his head on his arm, and averting his face, 
 sits moodily apart ; two damsels 2 wash the child, who is thus 
 twice represented in the same composition ; angels hover above, 
 either looking down in adoration, or singing the " Gloria in 
 excelsis," — another in the background announces the good 
 tidings to the shepherds. Sometimes the three Kings are 
 seen approaching on the opposite side. This composition, 
 unquestionably inferior in unity and beauty to most of the 
 cycle, appears in the Menologion and repeatedly afterwards. 
 Giotto considerably modified it, and later masters still more 
 
 1 The meeting of Joachim and 
 Anna is often repeated, and neces- 
 sarily with much resemblance, yet I 
 do not think it can be fairly ranked 
 as one of the traditional series. And 
 I should say the same of the Salutation, 
 which usually follows the Annuncia- 
 tion. — Of the intermediate Dedication 
 of the Virgin (her ascent of the steps 
 of the temple when a child), there 
 certainly existed a traditional repre- 
 
 sentation, in the tenth and eleventh 
 centuries, but it is very rare and of 
 inferior merit, and was never, that I 
 am aware of, copied by Italian artists. 
 It may be seen in the Menologion, 
 and in a Diptych, of the beginning of 
 the eleventh century, engraved in 
 Gori's Thesaurus Veti. Dipiychorum, 
 torn. iii. pi. 37. 
 
 1 Probably the midwife and Salome, 
 according to the ' Protevangelion. ' 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 257 
 
 so, but traces of the Byzantine original are always discernible, 
 — the ox and ass, for instance, are never omitted, and the 
 Annunciation to the Shepherds is generally seen in the back- 
 ground. In the early German pictures (variations from the 
 same original source), the infant Saviour is generally sur- 
 rounded by a group of little angels, who offer him flowers or 
 play with him. 
 
 v. The Flight into Egypt. — The Virgin and Child on the 
 ass, an angel leading it by the bridle, Joseph following. 
 Sometimes, though rarely, they are passing under the date-tree, 
 which is said to have bent down spontaneously to afford them 
 food in the wilderness. Not perhaps so rigidly traditional as 
 some of the others. No angel occurs in the representation 
 of this subject in the Menologion ; still the idea, at least, of 
 angelic guidance may be assumed as Byzantine. A subject 
 in which green old age, female youth and beauty, infant inno- 
 cence and heavenly purity are so exquisitely contrasted, could 
 scarcely fail to inspire originality of treatment. 
 
 vi. The Baptism of Our Saviour. — The Saviour stands 
 immersed to the middle in the Jordan, flowing between two 
 deep and rocky banks, on one of which stands S. John, 
 pouring the water on his head, and on the other two angels 
 hold his robes. The Holy Spirit descends upon him as a 
 dove, in a stream of light, from God the Father, usually 
 represented by a hand from heaven. Two of John's disciples 
 stand behind him as spectators. Frequently the river-god of 
 Jordan reclines with his urn in the corner. The original, 
 probably, of this composition may be seen in a mosaic occu- 
 pying the centre of the cupola of S. Giovanni in Fonte, the 
 Baptistery at Ravenna, a work of the middle of the fifth 
 century. The only difference is, that the robe is supported, 
 not by an angel but by the river deity, " Jordann," who holds 
 in his left hand a reed as his sceptre. 1 This composition 
 has been constantly repeated, with scarcely any alteration, and 
 often with the utmost beauty, by the whole series of Italian 
 painters, down to the Carracci. 
 
 vii. The Transfiguration. — The Saviour, within a vesica 
 piscis, is elevated in the air between Moses and Elias, who 
 
 1 In a mosaic, about a century reed in his right hand, and lifting 
 
 later, in S. Maria in Cosmedin, the up the left in astonishment, with two 
 
 Arian Baptistery, also at Ravenna, the crabs' claws on his head, white hair, 
 
 river-god is repeated in a sitting pos- and naked to the waist, like the 
 
 ture, but without the robe, holding a heathen statues of Jupiter. 
 
 VOL. I. S 
 
258 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 stand on distinct rocks, or peaks of the mountain ; the three 
 Apostles below kneel and hide their faces. The glory of 
 Our Saviour darts in rays, like the spokes of a wheel, beyond 
 the vesica piscis. This composition already existed in the 
 time of Justinian, and may be seen, filling the shell of the 
 tribune, in the church built by him at Mount Sinai. 1 Giotto 
 transmitted it to his successors without the slighest alteration, 
 and it was finally perfected by Raphael in his chef-d'oeuvre, 
 now in the Vatican. 
 
 viii. The Agony in the Garden.— The Saviour kneeling 
 in prayer and receiving the cup of suffering from an angel. 
 Not of very frequent occurrence. It was adopted by Giotto, 
 constantly reiterated by his successors, and perfected, perhaps, 
 by Perugino, in his exquisite picture in the Academy, at 
 Florence. 
 
 ix. The Crucifixion. — The simplest and oldest form of 
 this most deeply affecting of all compositions, represents Our 
 Saviour on the cross, the feet pierced with two nails, according 
 to the usage of Roman crucifixion, 2 and resting on a suppedi- 
 taneum, or wooden support, with the Virgin and S. John 
 (only) attendant to the right and left. Sometimes two angels, 
 sometimes the disk of the sun and crescent of the moon, 
 eclipsed during the Passion, hover above the arms of the 
 cross. A skull — that of Adam, according to the tradition 
 that the tree of the cross was planted on his grave — is 
 frequently represented at its foot. Sometimes Calpurnius, 
 offering the sponge, and Longinus the Centurion, piercing the 
 side of Our Saviour with the spear, are introduced on either 
 side, between the Virgin and S. John. Latterly both thieves, 
 on their crosses, were added, in which case two distinct 
 groups were represented, of the Virgin fainting, supported by 
 the Maries, on one side, of S. John and the Apostles, sometimes 
 exchanged for the soldiers dicing for the seamless garment, 
 on the other. In these more copious compositions the sky 
 is often filled with angels, some receiving the blood in chalices 
 from the hands and side of Our Saviour, others wringing 
 their hands and wiping their eyes. Towards the thirteenth 
 
 1 It is engraved in Count L£on de Laborde's noble work, the 'Voyage de 
 1' Arabie P£tr£e. ' 
 
 2 ' ' Ego dabo ei talentum, primus qui in crucem excucurrerit . 
 Sed ea lege ut omgantur bis pedes, bis brachia." 
 Plant. Mostellaria, ii. i, 12. — Quoted by Jeremy Taylor, Life of Christ. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 259 
 
 century Our Saviour was represented attenuated and emaciated 
 in a most painful manner, every rib distinct, in order to 
 represent his presumed austerities, and in accordance with 
 Psalm xxii. 1 7 ; sometimes the features were even studiously 
 disfigured and debased, in accordance with the opinion — of 
 great antiquity, but based, not on tradition, but on mere 
 textual misconception, and ever strenuously opposed, more 
 especially by the Latin church — that the Saviour was mean 
 and abject in personal appearance. But this never obtained 
 general acceptance, even in Byzantine art. 1 The waistband 
 of Our Saviour has also a conventional arrangement in Greek 
 paintings of the Crucifixion, — falling in broad folds, like an 
 apron. 
 
 x. The Deposition. — Our Saviour taken down from the 
 cross by Joseph and Nathaniel, one of whom loosens the 
 nails, the other receives and lowers the body ; the Virgin 
 presses the arm to her cheek and heart. S. John is also 
 present, but merely standing by. An exquisite composition, 
 at least as old as the tenth century, 2 and traceable, more or 
 less modified, through the whole gallery of art. 
 
 xi. The Pieta. — There are three compositions which 
 indifferently bear this name in Italy, all of Byzantine origin : — 
 1. The Lament over our Saviour's body, — the corpse is laid on 
 the ground preparatory to interment ; the Virgin, throwing her 
 arm round it, presses the cold cheek with her own ; S. John 
 kisses the hand, Mary Magdalen the feet, — the other mourners 
 attend around, and angels hover weeping in the air. 3 Some- 
 times, with the slightest possible change, this composition 
 serves for the Burial of Our Lord, and is thus, perhaps, 
 mentioned (among other Christian compositions) by Pope 
 
 1 M. Didron considers the absence qu'^toient apport^s a Rome, vers la 
 
 or presence of the beard in portraits of fin du septieme siecle, en petits tab- 
 
 Our Saviour, as a key to the opinion leaux portatifs, pareils aux diptyques 
 
 of the respective artists in this matter, d'ivoire eccl£siastiques, qui • eurent 
 
 the bearded Saviour being expressive cours dans le siecle suivant, les 
 
 of the suffering or human character, premiers crucifix peints que nous 
 
 the beardless, as represented in the connoissions par l'histoire litteraire de 
 
 tombs of the Catacombs and by the cet age. " — Discours, etc., p. 60. 
 
 Byzantines, of the triumphant or 2 Thes. Vett. Diptych,, torn. iii. 
 
 divine. — Icon, de Dieu, p. 281. The pi. 12, 39, etc. 
 
 earliest appearance of the Crucifix is 3 The Pieta of Perugino, in the 
 
 fixed by M. Raoul-Rochette at the Pitti Palace, although much modified, 
 
 close of the seventh century, almost may be considered the perfection of 
 
 simultaneously with the Council of this beautiful composition. 
 Constantinople. ' ' C'^tait de la Grece 
 
26o 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Gregory II., in his letter of remonstrance to the Emperor Leo 
 the Iconoclast, c. 712. 1 And it frequently occurs, in a modi- 
 fied form, in the funerals of Saints. 2. The Virgin holding the 
 Dead Body of our Saviour on her knees, — and looking into the 
 face of the spectator, as if saying, " Was ever sorrow like unto 
 my sorrow?" 2 3. Christ seated, or standing, half out of the 
 tomb, — naked, blood dropping from the side, the arms sometimes 
 folded on his breast, sometimes extended so as to exhibit the 
 open wounds — but dead, with the eyes closed. Not common, 
 but certainly traditional, and multiplied ad infinitum after its 
 introduction into the West. The early Italians and Germans 
 sometimes filled the background in a singular manner with 
 hieroglyphics (as it were) of the Passion — the purse of Judas, 
 the cock of S. Peter, a hand and knife cutting off an ear, a 
 hand pouring water from a vase on two hands washing them- 
 selves — together with the more usual symbols, the crown of 
 thorns, the nails, the scourge, etc. etc. 
 
 xii. The Descent into Hell. — Our Saviour holding the 
 cross, or the banner of the cross, and treading on the fractured 
 gate of Hades, beneath which the Devil lies crushed — takes 
 Adam by the hand to lead him to Paradise, and is followed 
 by Eve and the Patriarchs. As old at least as the eleventh 
 century. 3 
 
 xiii. The Resurrection. — An open tomb, the guards, three 
 usually in number, sleeping beneath it, angels seated, upon it 
 who say to the women of Galilee, a group in the opposite 
 corner, "He is not here, but is risen !" Mentioned by Pope 
 Gregory II. in his letter to the Emperor Leo, c. 712. 
 
 xiv. The " Noli me tangere." — Our Saviour holding a 
 gardener's spade, and turning away, — Mary Magdalen kneeling 
 and embracing his feet. One of the latest of the Byzantine 
 compositions. Sometimes joined with the Descent into 
 Limbo. 
 
 xv. The Ascension. — The Saviour is represented rising to 
 heaven in the act of blessing, and within a vesica piscis, 
 supported by angels ; an angel, on either side, flying in the 
 air, offers him a crown ; the sun and moon look down from 
 the two corners above, and below, facing the spectator, 
 stands the Virgin in front, with her hands raised in prayer, 
 the Apostles to the right and left looking up, while two angels, 
 
 1 Vide supra, p. 230. 2 See, for instance, Agincourt, Peinture, pi. 89. 
 
 3 Thesaurus Vett. Diptych., torn. iii. pi. 37. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 261 
 
 one on each side of the Virgin, point to Our Saviour, saying, 
 " This same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven, 
 shall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go into 
 heaven." A composition as old as the sixth century. 1 At a 
 later period it was transformed by the Italians into the Assump- 
 tion of the Virgin, by substituting her figure for that of Our 
 Saviour. 
 
 xvi. The Descent of the Holy Spirit. — The twelve Apostles 
 seated in a circle, the fiery tongues descending on them from 
 heaven. The Virgin is sometimes added to the number. 
 As old, at least, as the ninth and tenth centuries, and probably 
 the composition mentioned by Pope Gregory in his letter to 
 the Emperor Leo. 
 
 xvii. The Death of the Virgin. — She has just expired; the 
 Apostles stand around, and in the centre, beyond the bed, 
 Our Saviour appears in a vesica piscis, holding her soul in his 
 arms in the shape of a new-born child. A composition of 
 great antiquity and exquisite beauty. 
 
 xviii. The Coronation of the Virgin, — in the character of 
 the Church. Christ and the Virgin are seated on a throne in 
 heaven ; the Virgin bends forward, her arms crossed on her 
 breast, — and Our Saviour places the crown on her head. Of 
 comparatively modern date. 2 
 
 xix. The Last Judgment. — The Saviour, in glory, within 
 the vesica piscis, and seated on the rainbow — attended, to the 
 right and left, by the Apostles, six and six, headed by the 
 Virgin and S. John the Baptist — holds forth his hands, the 
 palm towards the faithful, the back towards the reprobate. 
 Angels at his feet blow the trumpets, and at the bottom of 
 the composition the graves give up their dead ; S. Michael 
 parts the good from the bad; the former are received into 
 Paradise, represented by Abraham, with children in his lap, or 
 " bosom " — the latter into Hell, formed by a river of fire, 
 descending from the throne of Christ, and expanding into 
 Tartarus, where Satan, swart and of gigantic stature, grasps 
 and crunches them with his teeth. This magnificent composi- 
 tion, of which I have described the mere outline only, and 
 
 1 See the description of a Syriac 
 MS. of the Gospels, in the following 
 section. 
 
 2 The Vision of S. John, in the 
 Apocalypse, chap. iv. , is sometimes 
 represented by the Byzantines, but 
 
 hardly with sufficient uniformity to 
 warrant its insertion among the tra- 
 ditional compositions. The subject 
 occurs more frequently in German 
 than Italian art. 
 
262 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 which existed at least as early as the ninth century, was 
 adopted by the Lombard sculptors, who constantly reiterated 
 it on the facades of cathedrals, — and by the whole series of 
 early Italian and German painters. Even in Michael Angelo's 
 Last Judgment, changed as the feeling is, in toto, from repose 
 to action, the grand masses and general arrangement remain 
 the same. The upper portion of the composition was fre- 
 quently adopted in paintings representing the Court of 
 Heaven, in Italy termed Glorias, and Raphael has followed it 
 very closely in the Dispute of the Sacrament. 
 
 To the above list may be added the following isolated 
 compositions, much less universal, but strictly traditional : — 
 
 1. The Delivery of the Law on Mount Sinai, and the Wan- . 
 derings of the Israelites. — A composition, in which the Nile, 
 the pyramids, the land of Goshen, and the whole of the Sinaite 
 promontory are delineated as on a map, with the two peaks of 
 Mount Sinai and Mount S. Catherine towering in the centre, 
 Moses receiving the Law on one, angels burying the body of 
 S. Catherine on the other, — the monastery of Justinian appear- 
 ing at their foot. The history of the Israelites, from the 
 drowning of Pharaoh in the Red Sea throughout their 
 pilgrimage, is represented in distinct groups, scattered through 
 this spacious field. 1 
 
 2. S. Simeon Sty lit es, — on the top of his column — S. 
 Alypius, and others, his successors in this elevated strain of 
 piety. 
 
 3. The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, within their cave. 
 
 4. Queen Helen and the Emperor Constantine, supporting 
 the Cross between them, or standing below it. Originally, I 
 believe, engraved on reliquaries containing a portion of the 
 true Cross. 2 
 
 5. The general distribution of the Funeral Service over a 
 Saint's dead body. 3 
 
 6. S. Michael and the Devil contending for a human soul — 
 the former holding a balance in which the soul, in the likeness 
 
 1 This composition is at least as 2 See the Thesaurus Vett. Diptych., 
 
 old as the thirteenth century, if the torn. iii. p. 140. 
 
 date assigned to a representation in 3 This may be seen in a curious 
 Agincourt, Peinture, pi. 91, be cor- picture of S. Ephraim, noticed in the 
 rect. At the present day a large fourth section of this letter. It con- 
 Russian engraving of it is presented to stantly reappears in Italian art. 
 every pilgrim who quits the monastery. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 263 
 
 of an infant, is weighed against its sins; the devil, though 
 crushed down below his feet, still endeavouring to depress the 
 scale of evil, catching it with his claws or with a hook. 
 
 Before concluding, I may notice two peculiarities of frequent 
 occurrence in Byzantine art, and common alike to that of 
 primeval Egypt, of classic Greece, and of reviving Italy — the 
 approximation of successive incidents of the same story within 
 the same field or compartment ; and the representation of 
 personages of superhuman power as of superhuman stature. 
 The diminutive size of the devotees in the Giottesque 
 Madonnas, of the courtiers in the portraits of the Emperors 
 in the middle ages, of the Victories in the hand and by the 
 side of the Jupiter Olympius, of the warriors who contend 
 around the car of Rameses, etc., reflect the same feelings of 
 reverence and humility, and are so many links connecting the 
 Arno with the Nile, the Medici with Memnon and Osirei. 
 
 Such were the Traditional Compositions of the Byzantine 
 School. The enumeration may have been tedious, and the 
 consideration I have claimed for them may appear excessive, 
 but they are the channel through which the spirit of the 
 Christian Art of Greece passed into that of Italy and Europe, 
 — they are the basement on which the pyramid of Modern Art 
 is built, and the sand must be cleared away before we can 
 discern and appreciate its correct proportions. Once fixed in 
 the memory, we shall have little difficulty in estimating the 
 progressive development of Composition in Christian Europe. 
 Each great school has, in fact, its distinct series of traditional 
 compositions, a few original, but the greater number inherited 
 and improved by its immediate founder ; each series therefore 
 is inseparably linked with those that precede and follow it, and 
 thus the continuity of art is preserved unbroken from the first 
 rising of that crescent star over Byzantium, which culminated 
 at the birth of Raphael, to disappear, alas ! if not to set for 
 ever, in the clouds and tempest that ushered in the last three 
 centuries. 
 
264 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Section 3. — Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, Mosaic 
 and Painting, till the decadence in the Eleventh 
 Century. 
 
 I proceed now to enumerate such individual monuments 
 of the Sculpture and Painting of Byzantium as, I think, will 
 interest you, either as evincing originality of thought and 
 invention on the part of artists, or as illustrating their 
 gradual progress and retrogression as regards the external 
 and mechanical side of art, during the dark ages. The lowest 
 point of depression may be fixed at the close of the eleventh 
 century, after which a decided revival took place, the influence 
 of which communicated itself to Italy. In the present Section 
 I shall confine myself to the former of these periods, producing 
 my specimens as nearly as possible in chronological order, 
 without preserving the distinct separation of Sculpture, Paint- 
 ing and Mosaic. 
 
 Of all the early works of Byzantine Art, the mosaics of the 
 nave and of the triumphal arch of S. Maria Maggiore at Rome, 
 executed in the fifth century, are the most important, and yet 
 none stand so isolated, none have had so little influence on 
 the latter ages of its development. This arose, doubtless, 
 from the artists having studied entirely on Pagan models, 
 especially Trajan's column, while their successors, who subse- 
 quently flocked to Italy, had formed their taste already in 
 Greece and Constantinople. 1 None of the compositions of 
 S. Maria Maggiore have become traditional, and except in the 
 constant introduction of attendant angels, and on one singular 
 occasion, of the vesica piscis, the style of composition, though 
 much superior, differs but little from that of the bas-reliefs of 
 the Roman catacombs. 2 
 
 The mosaics of the triumphal arch are the least interesting, 
 
 1 Not that pagan models were 
 wanting at Constantinople ; she was 
 richer than Rome in ancient statues, 
 which abounded there down to the 
 Latin conquest in 1206, and their 
 influence may be seen in the grand 
 design of the mosaics. But the spirit 
 of art became Christian sooner and 
 more entirely in the East than at 
 Rome. 
 
 2 Engravings (very indifferent ones) 
 of the whole series may be found in 
 the ' Vetera Monimenta ' of Ciampini, 
 torn. i. p. 195, sqq. A good opera- 
 glass is a sine quel non in the examina- 
 tion of mosaics and ancient frescoes. 
 A small mirror or looking-glass would 
 also be found 'useful in the case of 
 cupolas or the conchas of tribunes. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 265 
 
 except as the earliest existing representation of various scenes 
 from the early history of the Gospel. On the North side 
 appear the two Annunciations, to Zacharias and to Mary, — 
 the Adoration of the Magi, whom Our Saviour receives, seated 
 on the throne or sofa of empire, — and the Slaughter of the 
 Innocents ; on the South, the Purification, the Dispute with 
 the Doctors, and the Dance of the Daughter of Herodias ; 
 they are straggling in composition, and poorly executed. But 
 those of the nave, depicting the history of the Patriarchs and 
 of the Israelites in the wilderness, are, especially the former, 
 of much interest ; the composition is often excellent, the atti- 
 tudes simple and expressive, though they want relief, and the 
 conception is altogether superior to the performance. You 
 will especially notice the Appearance of the three angels to 
 Abraham at Mamre, where two of them have wings, the third 
 not, in order to indicate Our Saviour, — Jacob's Ladder, resem- 
 bling a spiral staircase, of most Cyclopean proportions, angels 
 ascending and descending it, and God appearing at the 
 summit ; and the Israelites stoning Moses and Aaron in their 
 flight to the Tabernacle, on the morning after the punishment 
 of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, — a hand from heaven sur- 
 rounds them with a vesica piscis, from which the stones, 
 arrested, fall innocuously to the ground, while a third figure 
 (like the Fourth in the fiery furnace of the Three Children) 
 appears beside them within the vesica piscis, intended doubt- 
 less for Our Saviour. 
 
 This series of S. Maria Maggiore is the first and last effort 
 of any extent in dramatic representation that the Byzantines 
 have left us in mosaic, for many centuries; their taste for 
 symbolism was probably too strong to allow it to be followed 
 up as otherwise might have been the case. 
 
 Of this early Symbolism the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia 
 at Ravenna (alluded to, architecturally, in my letter on Roman 
 art) presents by far the most perfect and interesting example 
 — its architecture, its mosaics and its tombs thoroughly har- 
 monising. The mosaics are peculiarly beautiful; one of them, 
 the Good Shepherd, I have already noticed ; another repre- 
 sents Our Saviour, the youthful head, with a cross in his hand, 
 standing beside a brazier of burning coals, 1 beyond which 
 appears an open sc?'inium, or bookcase, containing rolls of the 
 
 1 Probably in allusion to Isaiah, vi. 6. 
 
266 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Gospels, each marked with the Evangelist's name • the cross 
 glitters in a heaven of stars in the centre of the dome, and the 
 emblematical animals of the Evangelists watch around it; 
 other symbols, also, are introduced, all most appropriate. But 
 the tombs are still more interesting, as (with the exception, 
 perhaps, of a few busts) the earliest specimens existing of 
 Byzantine sculpture; taken together with those of Galla 
 Placidia's confessor, S. Barbation, and of the Archbishop 
 Rinaldo, in the chapel of the South transept of the Duomo, 
 and those of eight archbishops of Ravenna, who lived in the 
 seventh and eighth centuries, now ranged in the aisles of S. 
 Apollinare di fuori, they will enable you to form a satisfactory 
 idea of its merits during these early ages. They are, for the 
 most part, fairly executed for the time, especially those done 
 by order of Placidia. Nothing can be more striking than the 
 contrast they present in their simplicity to the tombs of the 
 catacombs, so overloaded with typical compositions. In these 
 everything is symbolical. A cross, with two birds perched 
 upon it — or supporting the monogram of Christ — between 
 two lighted candles, or two sheep ; birds or stags drinking at 
 a fountain, which springs up below the monogram enclosed in 
 a wreath, — or a lamb carrying the cross and standing on the 
 mount of Paradise — are the most frequent subjects ; occasion- 
 ally, but very rarely, the beardless figure of Our Saviour occurs, 
 seated on his throne. Of historical subjects, properly so called, 
 none are to be met with in the whole series. 1 
 
 1 The bas-reliefs of the ancient 
 ambones of the cathedral, now in- 
 crusted into the wall behind the choir, 
 hardly deserve mention as a work of 
 art, but are curious as exhibiting, in 
 distinct rows, the fish, the dove, the 
 lamb, the stag, the peacock, etc. — 
 ' ' the whole sacred menagerie, ' ' as 
 Mr. Hope calls it, of Symbolism. . . . 
 These tombs throw an interesting light 
 also on the origin of the three tufts or 
 rays of glory, emblematical of the 
 Trinity, which surround Our Saviour's 
 head in the productions of early Italian 
 painting, and even in the early works 
 of Raphael, Titian, and their con- 
 temporaries. I have little doubt of 
 their being a corruption of the well- 
 known monogram of Our Saviour's 
 name, formed by the Greek letters 
 X and p. The gradual progress of 
 
 corruption is easily traceable at Ra- 
 venna. In the nimbus or glory of the 
 lamb, for instance, on the tomb of 
 Valentinian (in the northern cross of 
 the Mausoleum) the monogram is 
 introduced entire, — on the lid of the 
 third tomb in the south aisle of S. 
 Apollinare, the loop of the P is 
 omitted, and the remaining part of 
 the letter becomes transformed, by 
 the insertion in the centre, at right 
 angles to it, of a transverse bar, into 
 an upright superimposed on a S. 
 Andrew's cross, — on the third tomb 
 in the northern aisle of the same 
 church, and (in mosaic) on the trium- 
 phal arch of S. Vitale (where it is 
 supported in the air by flying angels), 
 these crosses, bounded by an encircling 
 line, become a mere spoked wheel, — 
 while lastly, around the head of Our 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 267 
 
 In Mosaics — excluding those of S. Maria Maggiore, and 
 those executed subsequently to the eleventh century, and 
 estimating wealth by quality, not quantity — Ravenna is per- 
 haps richer than Rome, although the series in the latter city 
 extend through four hundred, in the former only one hundred 
 and thirty years. But Ravenna was, for a time, the queen of 
 Italy, the Western bride of the Eastern Caesars, and Byzan- 
 tium took a generous pride in hanging her richest jewels on 
 the brow of her youthful rival. 
 
 Five mosaics of singular interest exist there, executed in 
 the sixth century, and which I commend to your notice — the 
 first, as representing a Typical subject, very rare in Byzantine art, 
 — the second, one of the traditional compositions symbolised, 
 — the third, a direct historical composition from the New 
 Testament, though not traditional,— the fourth and fifth, as 
 purely historical. 
 
 The First of these, representing the Holy Eucharist, occu- 
 pies the right-hand wall of the sanctuary in the basilica of 
 S. Apollinare di fuori, between the town and the sea. Mel- 
 chizedek appears seated at a table covered with a white cloth, 
 on which stand a cup and two wafers or loaves — he holds a 
 third in his hand — : the hand of the Almighty points to him 
 from the clouds — Abel, to the left, holds up a lamb towards 
 Melchizedek — Abraham, on the other side, presents to the 
 spectator his son Isaac, who points to Melchizedek. Sub- 
 stitute the antitype for the type, the Prince of Peace for the 
 King of Salem, and the interpretation is clear throughout. 1 
 
 Saviour on the front of the sarcophagus offering of Isaac being shown in the 
 
 in the south aisle of S. Apollinare background. To the right and left, 
 
 (above alluded to), five imperfect radii, respectively, of the former composition 
 
 answering to the five uppermost spokes (of Melchizedek), figure Isaiah, stand- 
 
 of the wheel, alone remain. From ing beside the altar, and Moses, before 
 
 five to three the reduction was natural the bush ; to the right and left of the 
 
 enough, and there Christian reverence latter (the Feast at Mamre), Jeremiah, 
 
 should have stopped short ; but the and Moses, receiving the Law. Two 
 
 tendency of man towards God has angels display a wheel, emblematical 
 
 ever been that of King Lear' s daughters, ( I presume) of Christ (see the preceding 
 
 to diminish his dues of outward observ- note), on the centre of the triumphal 
 
 ance, and after the descent to three, arch, which rises from Bethlehem on 
 
 the question soon followed, and was the south side and from Jerusalem on 
 
 answered, " what need one ? " the north. And in the shell of the 
 
 1 A similar but less complicated tribune, beyond it, Our Saviour is 
 
 composition occupies the principal seated on the globe, the youthful face, 
 
 position on the south wall of the pres- presenting the crown of life to S. 
 
 bytery of S. Vitale, and is faced by Vitale. The compositions on the walls 
 
 a representation of Abraham entertain- of the tribune will be specially noticed 
 
 ing the three angels at Mamre, the in the text. 
 
268 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 The Second, representing the Transfiguration, fills the 
 tribune of the same church of S. Apollinare, and is one of 
 the most curious examples of symbolism I know. The scene 
 is a green meadow, of uneven ground, intended perhaps as 
 mountainous, and diversified with rocks and flowers, cypresses 
 and pines. A gemmed cross (in the centre of which the head 
 of Our Saviour, the traditional type, is inserted like a precious 
 stone) occupies the position usually assigned to the full-length 
 figure of Christ ; below it appear the Latin words, ' Salus 
 Mundi,' above it the five Greek letters IX0YC, noticed in 
 my Table of Symbols as the initials of the Redeemer's title, 
 and the origin of the symbol of the fish. At the top of the 
 shell, or concha, the hand of God issuing from the clouds 
 points to the cross. Moses (his head a youthful one) and 
 Elias — half-figures, truncated and cut short — rest on clouds 1 
 to the right and left of the cross, similarly pointing to it. 
 While below, in the green meadow, three sheep, answering for 
 S. Peter, S. James and S. John, gaze upwards. The arrange- 
 ment is exactly the same as that of the traditional composition. 
 Immediately below the cross stands S. Apollinare, in his ancient 
 archiepiscopal robes, his hands raised in the act of preaching, 
 and on either side, their heads towards him, by six and six, 
 twelve sheep, representing, I presume, not the Apostles, but 
 the faithful listening to his words — possibly " the twelve tribes 
 of Israel," in the sense S. James gives the expression in his 
 epistle. This is perhaps the most beautifully executed mosaic 
 at Ravenna ; it is equal to the best at Rome ; there is much 
 dignity, and the heads are free from the scraggy and ragged 
 appearance which frequently offends the eye and injures the 
 effect in works of this description. 
 
 The Third that I have cited, occupies the walls of the nave 
 of S. Apollinare di dentro, or within the city. At the upper 
 end of the Northern wall, the three Kings approach Our 
 Saviour, seated in the Virgin's arms, and attended by four 
 angels to the right and left; at the upper end of the Southern, 
 Our Saviour is seated on the throne in mature age, the tradi- 
 tional type, attended by angels and blessing. Two long lines 
 of Saints, male and female, extending the whole length of the 
 nave, on either side, approach these several groups, all in 
 white, each separated by a palm, to offer their homage, the 
 
 4 This rather absurd mode of re- the days of Raphael by the Byzantine 
 presentation was perpetuated even to lines of succession in Italian art. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 269 
 
 former issuing from a large building inscribed ' Palatium,' 
 presumed to represent the palace of Theodoric — behind which 
 is seen a church surmounted by a cupola, intended, it is sup- 
 posed, for S. Vitale — the latter from another large building, 
 behind which is seen the sea and Roman galleys, intended 
 doubtless as a representation of Classis, the maritime suburb 
 of Ravenna. These mosaics are not equal to the two I have 
 just described, though there is much grace in some of the 
 figures. 
 
 Fourthly and Fifthly, on the walls of the tribune of S. 
 Vitale, and on the left-hand wall of the presbytery of S. Apol- 
 linare di fuori, are represented the consecrations of those 
 respective churches by the archbishop Maximian, under Jus- 
 tinian. In the former, Justinian and his wife Theodora stand 
 on the opposite walls, with vases containing their offerings, the 
 Emperor attended by Maximian and his courtiers, the Empress 
 bv her ladies ; in the latter, Justinian presents the archbishop 
 a roll, on which is inscribed the word ' Privilegia.' 1 
 
 The throne of this same archbishop, Maximian, preserved 
 in the sacristy of the Duomo, is also a valuable relic, as illus- 
 trating the state of dramatic sculpture at the close of the sixth 
 century. It was originally covered with bas-reliefs in ivory, 
 some of which still remain, chiefly relating to the story of 
 Joseph, — his meeting with Jacob is perhaps the best. They 
 evince much skill for the time, though the faces are generally 
 caricatured. When these bas-reliefs were executed, the passion 
 for symbolism was on the wane. I mentioned, in the pre- 
 ceding section, its prohibition, and the encouragement given 
 to direct dramatic representation, by the Council of Constanti- 
 nople, a.d. 692. But no sooner had sculpture obeyed the 
 invitation, and given promise of excellence in her new line, 
 than the tide of religious feeling set in directly against her ; 
 the Iconoclast reform took place, statues and bas-reliefs were 
 banished from the churches of Greece, and (as I before stated) 
 it is only on diptychs and small works in ivory, or in bronze 
 doors for the churches and cathedrals of foreign countries, 
 that she has since found employment. We shall have occasion 
 to notice several of these before long. 
 
 1 The two mosaics in S. Vitale have ' Eccles. Architecture of Italy, ' First 
 been engraved in Mr. Gaily Knight's Series, pi. 10. 
 
2JO 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Of the frescoes of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, 
 no specimens, I believe, exist. But the illuminations of the 
 Book of Joshua, preserved in the Vatican — of that of Genesis, 
 in the Imperial Library at Vienna — and of the Syriac Gospels 
 in the Laurentian Library at Florence, executed at the monas- 
 tery of Marphuk in Mesopotamia, and long preserved in that 
 of Canubin on Mount Lebanon — may supply the deficiency. 
 The former, I regret to say, I know only by the engravings in 
 the work of Count Seroux d'Agincourt, 1 which clearly evince 
 the classic education of the artist ; the same is perceptible in 
 the Genesis of Vienna, which bears the strongest resemblance 
 to some of the mosaics in S. Maria Maggiore, especially in 
 composition 2 — the very colouring appeared to me somewhat 
 duskier and deader than the Byzantine — the illuminations in 
 the exquisitely beautiful Greek manuscript of the Gospels at 
 Mount Sinai, supposed to be nearly of the same date, are 
 much more brilliant. But the Syriac volume will interest 
 you, I think, more than either of the preceding, from the 
 singular boldness and originality of ideas animating (doubtless) 
 one of the rudest pencils of the age. But such is uniformly 
 the case. Each fresh nation, either on embracing Christianity 
 or amalgamating with the prior occupants of the soil, seems to 
 have bounded forwards for a moment with new life, using art 
 as a safety-valve — the Mesopotamians on the present occasion, 
 the Lombards (as we shall find hereafter) in the seventh and 
 eighth centuries, the Franks of Charlemagne in the ninth, the 
 Bulgarians and Russians in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh — 
 each ruder than the other, but life-like, fiery and almost fierce 
 in their exultancy. You will notice, especially, the Ascension 
 in this manuscript, nearly the same as the usual Byzantine 
 composition, with the addition of the symbolical beasts of 
 Ezekiel buoying up Our Saviour, as in the well known ' Vision ' 
 by Raphael. The Crucifixion is more original ; all the usual 
 dramatis persona are introduced — Our Saviour wears the robe 
 of purple, one of the soldiers pierces his side, the other 
 presents him the sponge of vinegar, 3 three others part his 
 raiment at the foot of the cross — the Virgin and S. John 
 stand beside the cross of the penitent thief, the women from 
 Galilee under that of the reviler. Below this composition 
 
 1 Peinture, pi. 28, 29, 30. 
 
 2 See D'Agincourt, Peinture, pi. 19. 
 
 3 On the instrument commonly called a lazy-tongs. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 271 
 
 appears the Resurrection — rays of light rush from the opened 
 folding doors of the sepulchre, and strike down the guards, 
 while an angel, sitting on the stone that has been rolled away, 
 addresses the women. Many small subjects are scattered 
 through the volume, betokening an inventive mind and a 
 hand bold and fearless, though untutored; an angel and a 
 devil fighting for a soul, which the latter holds by the leg, is 
 not good, but it is the earliest occurrence of the idea that I 
 have noticed in art j 1 a blind man led by a boy is much better 
 — his upward glance, forward gait and uncertain step are well 
 conveyed, and show the artist to have been an observer of 
 nature ; and at the bottom of the pages are many attempts at 
 drawing animals, some not bad, a doe for instance, trying to 
 scratch its ear, and others. 2 
 
 A similar originality may be observed in several of the 
 Bulgarian and Russian compositions, the first-fruits of Christian 
 Art in those countries, as engraved among the monuments of 
 Seroux d'Agincourt. 3 Into Bulgaria, indeed, painting is said 
 to have been — not the introduced, but — the introducer of 
 Christianity, a picture of the Last Judgment by Methodius, a 
 holy monk and excellent artist of the ninth century, having 
 frightened a prince of that nation into baptism. 4 Russian art 
 is of more recent origin by two centuries ; Jaroslaf, son of 
 Wolodomir, the illustrious son of an illustrious sire, both of 
 them of the Norman blood and descendants of Rurik, or 
 Roderick, the patriarch of so many of the existing noble 
 families of Russia — having intrQduced it from Byzantium. 
 
 But, to return to the ninth century : — The solitary fresco, 
 surviving, of the series that once adorned the atrium of the 
 church of S. Cecilia in Trastevere at Rome — now attached to 
 the wall near the absis, at the extremity of the right aisle — is 
 a very pleasing specimen of the art of that period, although 
 certainly not the production of a first-rate painter. It repre- 
 sents the Apparition of the Saint to Pope Pascal I. in a dream, 
 
 1 This idea being of Persian origin, broidery, tarsia, and similar inferior 
 its occurrence thus in a Christian MS. but graceful branches of art ; it is only 
 of Mesopotamia throws an interesting when from accidental causes the higher 
 light on the transmission of tradition fail to supply illustrations of the pro- 
 westwards, gress of art in general, that I shall 
 
 2 These ' Sketches ' are by no means appeal to them. 
 
 intended to comprehend the vicissitudes 3 See, for example, Peinture, pi. 
 
 of miniature and glass-painting, of 61, 83, 120. 
 
 cisellatura or goldsmith's work, of 4 Cedrenus, torn. ii. p. 540, as cited 
 
 medal-cutting, of engraving, of em- by Agincourt. 
 
272 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 in order to inform him where her relics were concealed. 
 Through rudeness and incorrectness of design, it displays, 
 nevertheless, much grace and pleasing expression. 1 
 
 Many, too, of the precious mosaics still existing at Rome 
 belong to this century. The iconoclast persecutions had 
 occasioned a continual migration of Greek monks, skilled in 
 the art, and they seem to have been kept in constant em- 
 ployment. Among their best works are the mosaics of S. 
 Pudenziana and of S. Prassede — the former, representing the 
 Saviour enthroned, attended by S. Peter and S. Paul, S. 
 Pudenziana and S. Prassede, and others, very noble, with a 
 curious architectural background — executed about the begin- 
 ning of the century ; the latter, representing the City of the 
 Apocalypse, in 8 1 8 — rough and stiff, but full of dignity, 2 — and 
 those in the sanctuary of S. Ambrogio, at Milan, of high merit, 
 executed in 836 for the Emperor Louis II., and representing 
 to the right and left, the death of S. Martin and the Vision of 
 S. Ambrose, during mass, at Milan, on awaking from which he 
 affirmed that Martin had died at Tours, and that he had just 
 assisted at his funeral. After the middle of the century, how- 
 ever, the series of mosaics abruptly terminates; it was a season 
 of war, misery and barbarism, and for two centuries none were 
 executed in any part of Italy. 3 
 
 These centuries, so emphatically ' dark ' in Europe, were a 
 shade less so in Greece ; the " light of other days " was dim, 
 but not extinguished. Georgius, Pantaleo, Nestor, Menas, 
 and Symeon of Blachernse (the court-quarter), were probably 
 the leading artists at Byzantium at the close of the tenth 
 century, when, with two or three assistants, they illuminated 
 
 1 It is engraved in Agincourt, with in Cosmedin, Ravenna, 553 ; of S. 
 the remainder of the series, Peinture, Apollinare di fuori, Ravenna, 567 ; of 
 pi. 84. S. Apollinare di dentro, Ravenna, 
 
 2 The mosaic of S. Pudenziana is 570 ; of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, 
 engravedin Mr. Knight's 'Ecclesiastical Rome, 578 ; of S. Agnes, Rome, 625; 
 Antiquities,' First Series, pi. 23. of the oratory of S. Venanzio, adjoining 
 
 3 The more interesting Italian the Baptistery of Constantine, Rome, 
 mosaics, up to this period, may be 642 ; of the Triclinium of S. Leone 
 enumerated as follows, in their chrono- (interesting for the portrait of Charle- 
 logical order : — Those of S. Sabina, magne), Rome, 797 ; of SS. Nereus 
 Rome, c. 425 (now almost entirely de- and Achilleus, Rome, c. 800 ; of S. 
 stroyed); of S. Maria Maggiore, c. 432; Maria in Domenica, Rome, 815; of 
 of SS. Nazario and Celso, or the tomb S. Pudenziana, Rome, and of S. Pras- 
 of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, 440 ; of S. sede, Rome, c. 820; of S. Cecilia, 
 Giovanni in Fonte, Ravenna, 451 ; of Rome, 820; of S. Ambrogio, Milan, 
 SS. Cosmo and Damian, Rome 530 ; of 836; of S. Maria Nuova, Rome, 
 S. Vitale, Ravenna, 547 ; of S. Maria 848. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 273 
 
 the celebrated Menologion for the Emperor Basil II., now 
 preserved in the Vatican. 1 It is a thick folio volume, filled 
 with small paintings, representing the martyrdoms of the Saints 
 commemorated, as well as almost all the traditional composi- 
 tions from sacred history — a volume of rare beauty, and which 
 it is impossible to turn over without a glow of rapture, so 
 exquisite is the vellum, so delicate the caligraphy, and so rich 
 and brilliant the illuminations, fresh as if finished yesterday. 
 They are deficient, indeed, in the originality and fire noticeable 
 in many earlier works, but a deep religious feeling reigns 
 throughout ; the martyrdoms are the worst, but where there is 
 no violent action, the attitudes are easy and dignified, the 
 drapery broad and well adjusted, the air noble and the ex- 
 pression good, — the emotions of piety, reverential awe and 
 resignation, well rendered, though grief, except in a few 
 instances, runs into caricature. The flesh betrays a tendency 
 to emaciation, but not revoltingly so. The sky is always of 
 gold, — the backgrounds are either architectural in the Byzan- 
 tine style, or mountainous, the summit of each mountain 
 lopped (as it were) short in two or three places, the shrubs 
 and trees at their feet rising to a third or half of their height. 
 Perspective, of course, there is none, although an attempt is 
 always made to give the colouring of distance, blue and pink, 
 — but it is easy to imagine how rudely. Altogether, it is not 
 easy to apply a higher epithet to the painters of the Meno- 
 logion than that of good mechanical painters for the time — 
 infinitely superior in that respect to their contemporaries in 
 Western Europe. 2 
 
 Arrived on the threshold of the eleventh century, commonly 
 considered as marking the lowest decadence of Byzantine art, 
 I must enter a protest, that that decadence, which to a certain 
 extent I admit, be estimated by the productions of the best, 
 not the worst artists, of those who worked at Constantinople 
 for princes and emperors, not of the inferior fry who migrated 
 to Italy. 
 
 To the former class belong the ivory tablets, carved in 
 Greece during the early part of the century, for insertion in 
 
 1 Most of the illuminations are edition of the Menologion published 
 signed by the painters' names. at Urbino, 3 torn, folio, 1727. En- 
 
 2 Woodcuts of these compositions gravings of some of the best may be 
 (very rude ones) are given in the seen in Agincourt, Peinture, pi. 31 sqq. 
 
 VOL. I. T 
 
274 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 the binding of the missals presented by the Emperor S. Henry 
 to the cathedral of Bamberg, 1 — now preserved in the Library 
 at Munich; and the bronze gates cast at Constantinople in 1070, 
 for the basilica of S. Paolo fuori le mura, at Rome. 2 
 
 Of the tablets, two deserve especial notice, the Death of 
 the Virgin — the traditional composition, very small, but 
 exquisitely worked, and with much expression — and the 
 Crucifixion — much larger, and presenting the singularities of 
 the cross being planted on the head of the serpent, of the sun 
 and moon being represented in their cars within their respective 
 disks, and, at the bottom, the God Oceanus attendant with his 
 urn, and Tellus with the cornucopia. It is altogether a larger 
 and more striking composition than the Death of the Virgin, 
 but it is on the latter, especially, coupled with the gates of S. 
 Paolo, now, alas ! no more, but well known by engravings, 
 accurately traced from its bas-reliefs, 3 that I venture to ground 
 my dissent from the common opinion, that such abortions as 
 I am about to mention — the bronze doors of S. Zenone at 
 Verona, and of the cathedral of Pisa; the 1 Pala d'Oro' and 
 Ciborium, and the mosaics of the Southern and Northern 
 transepts of S. Mark's, at Venice — fairly represent the con- 
 temporary talent of Byzantium. 
 
 Of these the doors of S. Zenone and Pisa are probably the 
 oldest. The former I long supposed to be of Italian work- 
 manship, partly from the few traces that appear of the 
 Byzantine compositions, partly from the costume more nearly 
 resembling that of Italy, partly from the inconceivable rudeness 
 of the sculpture. But authorities concur, I believe, in the 
 opinion of their Greek origin. If so, as S. Zenone was building 
 towards the close of the tenth century, they must be almost 
 exactly contemporary with the ivory sculptures of the Bamberg 
 missals ! 
 
 The Pisan door is a little, a very little superior to that of 
 S. Zenone. Its precise antiquity is unknown ; it is said to 
 have been brought by the Pisans from the Balearic islands 
 after the conquest in n 17. 4 The inscriptions are in Latin, 
 
 1 Dedicated in 10 12. with that of the then reigning pon- 
 
 2 The date and place of execution tiff. Ciampini, Vett. Mon. torn. i. 
 are given in the inscription, in which p. 42. 
 
 moreover the name of "the venerable 3 In Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. 13- 
 
 monk and archdeacon Dominus Ilde- 20. 
 
 prandus" — probably the celebrated 4 According to the "perantiqua 
 
 Hildebrand, subsequently pope by the traditio " of Pisa. Ciampini, Vett. 
 
 name of Gregory VII. — is associated Monimenta, torn. i. p. 56. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART, 
 
 275 
 
 but that is no argument against its Greek origin. 1 One thing, 
 however, is remarkable and should have its weight, that, while 
 the door of S. Paul's, the Menologion, and almost all the 
 works positively known to be of Byzantine workmanship, 
 strictly adhere to the traditional compositions, these doors of 
 Pisa and Verona do not, as if they had been executed by a 
 degenerate school, far from the fountain-head. 
 
 Be that, however, as it may, there is but one opinion as to 
 the Greek origin of the artists employed at S. Mark's during 
 the last quarter of the eleventh century. Of their works the 
 Pala d'Oro and the Ciborium are probably the oldest. The 
 former, an accumulation of sculpture and painting of the most 
 wretched description, was begun in 978, and is thus nearly 
 contemporary with the tablets of the Bamberg missal ! The 
 Ciborium, probably a few years later in date, is still worse ; 
 its sculptured columns and general appearance irresistibly 
 suggest a comparison with the rice sculptures of the Chinese. 
 But for a curious instance of symbolism (Our Saviour being 
 represented, in the Crucifixion, by a lamb standing in front of 
 a Greek cross, between the two thieves), and the known 
 inferiority to which Byzantine art could stoop, I should have 
 thought it of Italian workmanship. 
 
 Finally, the mosaics, begun in 1073, and which, may be 
 seen in the Southern transept and on the cupola of the 
 Northern, are below contempt — artless, uncouth and lifeless 
 beyond description — and yet contemporary with the gates of 
 S. Paolo ! — I think, on examining these, you will allow that 
 my protest has been fully justified. 
 
 It does, indeed, appear strange that any doubts should 
 have existed on the subject — that Byzantium should have 
 been deemed guilty of such abominations. Casting your eye 
 from the Northern to the Central or the Western cupola of S. 
 Mark's, each of them executed within fifty years after the 
 former, it is the transition from death to life, from rudeness to 
 grandeur — life, like the fire of Prometheus, reimported from 
 its sunny fountain in the East — grandeur, which betrays that 
 fresh and active spirit which distinguishes Byzantine art in the 
 twelfth century, and which it shall be the object of the con- 
 cluding portion of this letter to illustrate more minutely. 
 
 1 The inscriptions are constantly have the authority of Lanzi, Sioria 
 in Latin in the mosaics of S. Mark's, Pittorica della Italia, Sienese School, 
 and elsewhere. On this point we Epoch I. 
 
276 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Meanwhile we are lost in conjecture how it could come to 
 pass that Venice — rich and respected, in alliance with the 
 Eastern Emperors, in constant communication and importing 
 her artists direct from Byzantium — should have been so un- 
 lucky in her choice, or, if deficient in the taste to choose, 
 should have so utterly failed in attracting to her service artists 
 of that nobler stamp which unquestionably did exist there at 
 the period. I can only account for it by supposing that those 
 of superior order hesitated at first to quit the pleasant banks 
 of the Bosphorus for a land which they accounted barbarous, 
 and which then indeed presented few symptoms of being the 
 destined cradle of European civilisation. 
 
 Section 4. — Monuments of Byzantine Sculpture, Mosaic 
 and Painting, from the revival under the Comneni 
 in the Twelfth Century. 
 
 A revival, and a very remarkable one, did indeed take 
 place in Byzantine art in the twelfth century, but not, I think, 
 in consequence of the congregation and competition of artists 
 at Venice, as commonly supposed ; I should rather consider it 
 the result and expression of that general revival of the national 
 spirit which signalised the reigns of the three Comneni, Alexius 
 I., Calo- Johannes, and Manuel, 1 and which may possibly be 
 accounted for — to a certain extent, at least — by the recent 
 settlement and intermixture of the Varangians. Nor is it at 
 Venice, but at Rome, in the mosaic of S. Clemente, executed 
 in 1 1 1 2, that the new spirit first becomes apparent. 2 
 
 This mosaic is a most elaborate and beautiful performance, 
 yielding to none in minuteness of detail and delicacy of 
 sentiment. It is characterised, moreover, by a resuscitation 
 
 1 This revival lasted from a.d. 
 108 1 to 1 1 80. During this period, 
 and especially under the Emperor 
 Manuel, the Byzantine monarchy, 
 says Gibbon, "became an object of 
 respect or terror to the powers of Asia 
 and Europe." — chap. 48. 
 
 2 Manuel Panselinos, of Thessa- 
 lonica, so celebrated in the ' Manuel 
 d'Iconographie Chr&ienne' of the 
 painter Dionysius, and by his editor 
 M. Didron, as the chief or patriarch 
 of the school which has existed till the 
 
 present day in Mount Athos, and who 
 is said to have nourished in the 
 eleventh century, may have been 
 created by this revival of the national 
 spirit under the Comneni. His works 
 are shown in the principal church of 
 Kares, the capital of Mount Athos. 
 Thessalonica seems to have been the 
 chief seat of Byzantine art previous to 
 the time of Panselinos. The mosaics 
 of the Rotunda there are, according 
 to M. Didron, the most ancient and 
 beautiful in Greece. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 277 
 
 of the symbolism of early Christianity, so long neglected, 
 although in subordination to one of the traditional dramatic 
 compositions, the Crucifixion. On every account, therefore, 
 it merits our most attentive examination. 
 
 The centre of the composition is occupied by the tree of 
 life, the Cross, elevated on the Mount of Paradise and the 
 Church, and reaching to a series of five concentric rainbow- 
 like semicircles, signifying Heaven, from which the hand of 
 God issues, veiled in clouds, holding the crown of victory, and 
 also two cords with a heart attached to each, allusive (possibly) 
 to Ho sea xi. . 4, ox Psalm cxviii. 27. To the right and left, 
 within the circle, stands the paschal lamb, with a glory, and 
 other ornaments, all having a tendency to the cross form. 
 
 The Cross itself is of black or dark wood ; Our Saviour is 
 represented nailed upon it, but very small in proportion, 
 attenuated and emaciated, the feet pierced with separate nails 
 and resting on a suppeditaneum. On the limbs of the Cross 
 are represented nine white doves, three above the head, four 
 below the feet, and two beyond either hand. 1 
 
 Springing from the foot of the Cross, a thorn twists itself 
 round it, forming a figure of eight, and enclosing in the upper 
 loop the Saviour, in the lower the Virgin and S. John, as in 
 the oldest and simplest form of the traditional composition. 
 From this thorn, on either side of the foot of the Cross, is 
 suspended a bottle or lachrymatory, Psalm lvi. 8. 
 
 The base of the Cross is hid by acanthus leaves, on the top 
 of which perch two birds. From the base, as from a deep 
 well or fountain, the water of life descends in a cascade, which 
 parts into the four streams of the Gospel, and again united, 
 flows on, to the right and left, as the " river of the waters of 
 life." A stag is drinking at the well above the cascade, 
 immediately at the foot of the Cross, possibly implying direct 
 spiritual communion with the Saviour, and two others at the 
 Evangelic streams below — while water-fowl and fish, the 
 emblems of the faithful, swim in the river of life, and a whole 
 array of the Christian symbols are ranged along the bank — a. 
 man holding the scape-goat, the Good Shepherd feeding his 
 flock, the hen and chickens (Matth. xxiii. 37), the Sower 
 scattering seed — a tree against which lies an axe, while a spear, 
 
 1 Seven white doves surrounding is similarly puzzled respecting the nine 
 
 Our Saviour signify, in mediaeval art, formerly to be seen at the summit of the 
 
 the seven gifts of the Spirit. What triumphal arch of S. Sabina, at Rome, 
 
 nine imply I do not know. Ciampini Vett. Monimenta, torn. i. p. 191. 
 
278 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 a quiver, a sword, a helmet, and a saddle are laid upon it (in 
 allusion to Luke, iii. 9), — besides several of the symbolical 
 animals, a bird in a cage, and another killing (apparently) a 
 snail — neither of which I am able to explain. 
 
 Lastly, springing, like the thorn, from the foot of the Cross, 
 a vine, emblematical of the Church, spreads like a rolling 
 frieze over the whole remaining hollow of the tribune, the 
 fowls of heaven (or the faithful) lodging, and the four Doctors 
 of the Latin Church ensconced among its branches, besides 
 various other figures which, from their minuteness, I have 
 never been able to make out. 
 
 Below the whole composition, a row of thirteen sheep, the cen- 
 tral one, with a glory, looking straight at you, the other twelve, 
 six on either side, looking towards the central one — and repre- 
 sented as having come out from two archways at the extremities 
 of the tribune, leading respectively to the cities of Bethlehem 
 and Jerusalem — symbolise Our Saviour and the apostles. 
 
 Finally, on the triumphal arch, high above the whole, Our 
 Saviour, a half-figure, within a blue orb bordered with stars, 
 fixes his eyes on the congregation, and, with uplifted hand, 
 pronounces the benediction ; the emblems of the Evangelists 
 are disposed on either side of him, and lower down, to the 
 right and left, appear S. Paul and S. Lawrence, S. Peter and 
 S. Clement, seated respectively side by side, and lower still, 
 standing up as the wall narrows, Jeremiah and Isaiah, ex- 
 tending the scrolls of their prophecy towards Our Saviour. 
 
 I am afraid that this is but an imperfect description of this 
 interesting mosaic. I have paid it many a visit, and never 
 without discovering something new. But however imperfect, 
 my sketch will in this, as in other instances, save you the 
 trouble — the agony, I may say, to eyes and head — attendant 
 on the study of mosaics, when neither engraving nor description 
 exists to assist the examination. 
 
 We may now revert to the mosaics of S. Mark's, at Venice. 
 A detailed description of the whole would be far beyond my 
 limits, nor would it repay the trouble. Nor do I think 
 that, however appropriately subjects have here and there been 
 selected with reference to their locality, any general plan or 
 order has been observed in their arrangement, as regards the 
 church as a whole. We are at liberty, therefore, to consider 
 them detachedly, and I shall thus call your attention, first, to 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 279 
 
 the mosaics of the Central and Western cupola, and those of 
 the porch — probably from the usual progress of church-build- 
 ing, the earliest executed, with the exception of those already 
 mentioned, in the North and South transepts. 
 
 The subjects of the two cupolas are very well chosen. In 
 the centre of the most westerly, which overhangs the nave, 
 the Dove, symbolical of the Holy Spirit, hovers with its wings 
 expanded over an altar, from which rays, terminating in 
 tongues of fire, descend on the twelve Apostles, seated in a 
 circle — inscriptions over each indicating the "gifts of the 
 Spirit " — " spiritus in flammis," " percipientes," " vim linguae," 
 etc. Below them, between the small windows at the base of 
 the cupola, are distributed groups of Parthians, Medes, 
 Elamites, etc. — of all the nations, in short, mentioned in the 
 second chapter of Acts, as assembled at Jerusalem at the day 
 of Pentecost, and to whom the newly inspired Apostles 
 preached " in their tongues the wonderful works of God." 
 
 In the central cupola, Our Saviour appears, in the act of 
 benediction, within a circular glory, supported by floating 
 angels — the Virgin, attended by two angels, and the twelve 
 Apostles, each separated by a palm-tree, standing around him. 
 Between the windows are ranked the Theological and Cardinal 
 Virtues, and in the four fiennacchi or pendentives are seated 
 the Evangelists, below each of whom stands a river-god, 
 pouring out of his urn one of the rivers of Paradise. 
 
 There is majesty, and even grace, in these compositions, 
 and the Christ in the central cupola is full of dignity. 1 
 
 The mosaics of the Porch extend from right to left through 
 its whole extent, beginning from the little cupola immediately 
 above the most southerly of the three western doors. They 
 represent the history of the Bible from the Creation till the 
 gathering of manna, and striking of the rock in Horeb, — an 
 untimely conclusion, but the artless artists seem to have worked 
 on, from arch to arch, from cupola to cupola, without a 
 thought of the policy of economising their space. 
 
 The earlier part of the series, comprising the first cupola 
 and the suffits of the two arches intervening between it and 
 the second, is the most interesting ; it is very original, and 
 full of ideas. Either the artist or his employer has been a 
 
 1 The third cupola, over the choir, the last mosaic, I believe, done in S. 
 is inferior. The Saviour blessing, in Mark's or in Italy, in the pure old 
 the tribune, is as late as 1506 ; and Byzantine style. 
 
28o 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 good theologian ; many truths, less universally accepted now, 
 are recognised in his compositions — the character of Our 
 Saviour, for instance, as the active creator, "by whom all 
 things were made," 1 and others, which I will notice. Here 
 too, as almost uniformly among the Byzantines, Our Saviour 
 is represented throughout as "the Lord" of the Old Testament, 
 distinguished by the triple -rayed nimbus, or glory. The 
 Father, as of old, is only seen by the hand from heaven. 
 
 The first cupola is occupied by the history of the Creation 
 till the Fall, twenty-four subjects in three concentric circles. 
 
 In the first of the three circles, the second subject, the 
 partition of light from darkness, will strike you; an angel, 
 with his hands raised, separates from each other two globes, 
 the one of fiery red, with a central spot of white heat, the 
 other black, but rays of light issuing from both — while our 
 Saviour stands by, commanding. The idea of forcible separa- 
 tion reminds one of the composition of Raphael, in which the 
 Deity is represented effecting it by personal exertion — but the 
 Byzantine has the advantage in true sublimity. 
 
 The compositions of the second circle increase in interest. 
 Hitherto angels have been the Saviour's ministers in the 
 material creation, but he models Adam with his own hands, 
 while a more numerous company of the heavenly host attend as 
 spectators \ in the following compartment he solemnly blesses 
 him, as yet an animal only, endowed with body and soul, but 
 nothing more ; in the third, holding the cross, and pointing it 
 towards Adam, who extends his arms crosswise, as if in prayer, 
 he breathes into him the immortal spirit, which, in the shape 
 of a little butterfly or winged genius, clings to and becomes 
 identified with him. 2 In the fourth, Adam is introduced into 
 the Garden of Eden, in the midst of which rises the tree of 
 life, from the foot of which descend the four rivers of Paradise, 
 each, as usual, from an urn held by its deity. 
 
 In the third row, or circle, the history is continued, from 
 Adam's nomenclature of the brute creation to the expulsion 
 from Eden — where, in the midst of the tree of life, within the 
 
 1 John, i. 3 ; Hebrews, i. 2, etc. strate corpse is seen, and over it a 
 
 2 "It is very well known," ob- butterfly that has just escaped from 
 serves Mr. Douce, ' ' that the ancients the mouth of the deceased. . . . 
 often symbolised the human soul by Rejecting this heathen symbol al- 
 the figure of a butterfly. ... In a together, the painters and engravers 
 very interesting sepulchral monument, of the middle ages," etc. — Douce s 
 engraved in p. 7, of Spon's Miscel- Dance of Death, p. 2. 
 
 lanea Erudites Antiquitatis, a pro- 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 281 
 
 garden, is displayed a golden cross — and the favourite subject 
 of Adam delving and Eve spinning. 
 
 Descending to the three lunettes over the doors, which open, 
 respectively, into the church, into S. Zeno's chapel, and into the 
 piazza, we find the history of Cain and Abel, from the nuptial 
 embrace of Adam to the sentence pronounced by God the 
 Father on Cain after the murder, against which he protests in 
 the words, " My iniquity is greater than may be forgiven," as 
 more accurately rendered in the Vulgate translation. Cain is 
 represented with frizzled hair, as if the father of the negro race, 
 or perhaps to express the " mark " set on him by God. 
 
 The history of Noah and his family occupies the remainder 
 of this first and better portion of the mosaics. On the suffit 
 of the first intervening arch, the sacrifice after the deluge and 
 the release of the animals out of the ark are noticeable. To 
 the left Noah is represented offering, as the inscription says, 
 " holocaustum Domino," but he only holds up a dove before 
 the altar ; to the right, the lions, wolves, stags, etc. are seen 
 bounding away in the delight of their recovered liberty. 
 Singularly enough, the deer seems to have the gift of inducing 
 grace in the rudest ages of art ; here, as in the Syriac gospels 
 and in the tombs of Egypt, it is represented with a certain 
 elegance. 
 
 On the second suffit, Canaan, not Ham, is correctly re- 
 presented as the mocker at his father's nakedness. In the 
 compartment representing the building of the Tower of Babel, 
 Our Saviour holding the cross, and attended by three angels, 
 looks down from heaven, lifting his hand in reprehension ; and 
 in that which follows, the Dispersion is represented by the 
 ancestors of the human race departing in four distinct 
 companies towards the four quarters of the globe, while Christ, 
 with his attendant angels, stands over the principal door of 
 the Tower. 
 
 The compositions which follow this appear to me by a 
 different hand, and inferior both in invention and execution ; 
 the angels especially are no longer so graceful, if I may so 
 express myself. There are two or three, however, worth 
 notice, — Abraham, with Sarah and his family, on their 
 pilgrimage, in the second cupola ; Joseph's brethren dining, 
 after selling him to the Midianites, in the third — they sit 
 round in a circle, like Bedouin Arabs ; and in the fifth, Joseph 
 storing the grain in the Pyramids, universally believed in the 
 
282 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, and even long 
 before, to have been built by that patriarch as granaries 
 during "the dear years." 1 
 
 The gesticulation — by which I mean, not the attitudes of 
 passion, but the conventional language of the hand — is often 
 very remarkable throughout the series. 
 
 I must now invite your company in my gondola once more 
 to Torcello, touching en voyage at Murano, another of the 
 Venetian islets, where the mosaic in the tribune of the Duomo, 
 executed about the middle of the twelfth century, is one of the 
 most remarkable of the Byzantine revival; it represents a 
 single figure only, the Virgin, the Greek type, standing on a 
 cushion of cloth of gold, alone in the field, and completely 
 enveloped in her long blue robe ; her hands are held forth 
 appealingly towards the spectator, two large tear-drops hang 
 on her cheek, settled sorrow dwells in every feature ; the very 
 spirit of the "Stabat Mater" breathes through this affecting 
 portraiture— the silent searching look for sympathy is irresist- 
 ible. The face is not beautiful, but impressive and dignified ; 
 there is a feeling of elegance in the attitude, and the workman- 
 ship is finished with care, and evidently by one of the best 
 artists of the time. 
 
 The mosaics at Torcello are nearly of the same date, and 
 perhaps by the same master. But the most important of 
 them, covering the interior of the western extremity of the 
 church, is a much more elaborate performance. 
 
 It is divided into five compartments, of which the two 
 uppermost represent the Crucifixion and Descent into Hell, 
 or Limbo, the three lower, connectedly, the Last Judgment; 
 all three are the traditional compositions, and the last is the 
 most elaborate representation of the subject, purely Byzantine, 
 that I am acquainted with. 
 
 The Judge — not the youthful but the traditional type — sits 
 on the rainbow within a vesica piscis of glory, his hands 
 expanded, exhibiting the nail -marks, both palms forward, 
 attended to the right and left by the Virgin and S. John, and 
 by the Apostles beyond them, six on either side, a host 
 of attendant angels filling up the scene behind them. At the 
 
 1 See e.g. Sir John Mandeville's in the fourth century. Vita Patrum, 
 Travels, p. 63, edit. 1727. Ruffinus etc., p. 476, ed. 1615. 
 speaks of it as the tradition of Egypt, 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 283 
 
 foot of the vesica piscis stand two seraphim, guarding, as it 
 were, the two wheels of Ezekiel, the " wheel in the middle of 
 a wheel," within which is the "spirit of life," and between 
 which, and from the foot of the Saviour's glory, descends a 
 stream of fire winding round like a snake, and gradually, as it 
 descends into the third and lowest compartment, expanding 
 into the flames of Hell. 1 
 
 Below Our Saviour appears an altar, on which reposes the 
 Book of Life, surmounted by the cross ; seraphim hover above 
 it, and angels guard it to the right and left; in front of the 
 altar, stretching out their hands in prayer, kneel an aged man 
 and woman, our first parents, as types of the human race, 2 
 On either side, an angel blows the trump of judgment, and at 
 the two extremities of the compartment the Earth and Sea give 
 up their dead — vomited forth, mutilated and piecemeal, by 
 lions, elephants, tigers, etc. in the one instance, by fishes and 
 sea-monsters in the other — Amphitrite, her brows, ankles and 
 wrists enwreathed with sea-weed, and riding on a spotted sea- 
 monster which disgorges a human corpse, queening it in her 
 element. 
 
 A little lower, but nearly between these scenes of the 
 resurrection, stands the archangel Michael, holding the 
 balance of divine justice, while two devils attempt to destroy 
 its equipoise with their long forks ; they are represented in 
 human shape, but black, with horns and long ears, a girdle 
 round their waists, talaria to their heels, but the feet ending in 
 toes, not claws ; a white purse hangs round their necks, and the 
 foremost holds three others in his left hand. 
 
 Last and lowest, as the consummation of all things, are 
 represented Hell and Paradise. In the former Satan, a black, 
 single-headed, hoary-haired giant, occupies his throne as king 
 paramount. His feet end in claws ; two dragons, issuing 
 either from the throne on which he sits, or from himself, I am 
 uncertain which, devour each a sinner ; in his lap sits a figure 
 of the same shape, but white, and apparently much at his ease 
 there, possibly the soul of Judas Iscariot. Around him rolls 
 a sea of fire in which human figures flounder about, little 
 devils clutching and clinging to their heads, while angels with 
 long blue staves push them deeper in. Lowest of all, six small 
 
 1 Daniel, vii. 80. introduced below the throne, in sub- 
 
 2 A figure in an attitude of sorrow sequent representations of the sub- 
 or intercession, is almost invariably ject 
 
284 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 compartments seem to delineate the varieties of torture, — 
 dissevered heads, feet and arms, souls wedged in thick-ribbed 
 ice, etc. etc., are seen in horrible and ghastly confusion. 
 
 Paradise, on the opposite side, is represented as an enclosed 
 garden, within which Abraham is seated with a soul in his lap, 
 and several others (all in the shape of children) at his knee ; 
 the ground is covered with the flowers of spring ; the guardian 
 seraph watches within the gate, the branches of the Tree of 
 Life overhang it ; S. John the Baptist stands on the outside, 
 with his cross, as the preacher of repentance, and over against 
 him S. Peter, attended by an angel, holding the keys of grace, 
 and ready to give admittance ; each seems to beckon the 
 spectator with his hand, — while beyond S. John, the Virgin, 
 holding forth her hands, seems to intimate that she will assist 
 by her intercession any who may wish to enter. Her head — 
 the Greek type, and one of the most beautiful I have seen — 
 is represented in the lunette over the door, an aspect of calm 
 stillness, the hands raised in prayer — with the inscription, 
 
 "Virgo, Dei natum prece pulsa, terge reatum. " 
 
 Altogether, this is a beautiful mosaic, and superior, I think, 
 to any at Venice; the ideas are original, the traditional com- 
 position is amplified and filled out in a kindred spirit ; the 
 angels are graceful, and there is singular ease and spirit in the 
 execution, except where efforts are made to express attitudes 
 dependent on a skill in perspective as yet undreamt of in art. 
 The workmanship, too, merits the same praise bestowed on 
 the mosaic of Murano. 1 
 
 Returning to S. Mark's, and proceeding to the northern 
 
 1 "I suoi musaici, ' ' says Cicognara, 
 ' ' si ammirano tuttora, non tanto per 
 la bellezza del disegno, 1' espressione 
 dei volti, la grandiosita dello stile, la 
 scioltezza dei panneggiamenti, quanto 
 per la preziosa esecuzione con cui sono 
 connessi, e sfidano 1' ingiuria d' altret- 
 tanti secoli, quasi chb fossero gelosa- 
 mente conservati come 1' ornamento di 
 una ben custodita e non abbandonata 
 basilica." — Storia della Scultura, etc. 
 torn. i. p. 416. 
 
 To this same period of revival 
 belong the mosaics of the church of 
 Monreale in Sicily, executed between 
 H74andii82. Knowing them only 
 
 through the engravings of the inter- 
 esting work by the Duca di Serradi- 
 falco, "Del Duomo di Monreale, e 
 di altre Chiese Siculo-Normanne, " 
 Palermo, fol. 1838, I speak with 
 hesitation ; but, with much general 
 merit, they do not appear to me to 
 possess the originality of those I have 
 just described at Venice and Torcello. 
 The mosaics of the tribune of S. 
 Paolo fuori le mura, at Rome, exe- 
 cuted in 1206, survived the fire and 
 may still be seen — the figures are full 
 of dignity. It is engraved in the 
 Chev. Biinsen's work on the basilicas 
 of Rome, pi. 45. 
 
ir. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 285 
 
 transept, you will find, on the sufiit of the arch which over- 
 hangs the western triforium, a series of compositions from the 
 early history of the Virgin, very different from those usually 
 met with, being derived from the Protevangelion, or apocryphal 
 Gospel of S. Thomas, little known in the Latin Church. 1 In 
 her Marriage, she is represented as a little girl of twelve years 
 old. In the Annunciation, she is in the act of drawing water 
 at a fountain in front of the house, and the angel addresses 
 her, floating in the air. In the compartment which follows, 
 she receives from the hand of the High Priest, at the door of 
 the temple, a vase containing the purple with which it had 
 fallen to her lot to dye the new veil of the sanctuary — six 
 virgins, of the house of David, are in attendance on her. In 
 the salutation, she is represented as of full stature, being then, 
 according to the Protevangelion, fourteen years old; to the 
 right, in the same composition, Joseph — to whom she had 
 been entrusted, not so much as a husband as a guardian of 
 her virginity — vindicates himself by the " water of trial " from 
 the suspicion of having "privately married" her. In the 
 seventh of the series, the angel appears to Joseph, revealing 
 the mystery of her conception ; and in the eighth is represented 
 the Journey to Bethlehem before Our Saviour was born. The 
 series is continued on the adjacent wall, but by modern artists, 
 the earlier compositions having perished. These eight mosaics 
 have much merit, and are evidently a good deal later than 
 those of the cupolas, the porch, Murano and Torcello. 
 
 Those of the Baptistery are said to be of the fourteenth 
 century ; the historical subjects are, with one exception, 2 very 
 inferior, but those of the cupolas are curious. That of the 
 central one, overhanging the font, represents the Saviour in 
 the centre, the Apostles in a circle round him, each baptizing 
 a naked convert in a font, behind whom stands another in the 
 costume of the country where the Apostle preached, an Ethi- 
 opian for S. Matthew, an Indian for S. Thomas, a Roman 
 for St. Peter, etc. But these costumes seem to be purely 
 imaginary. The mosaic, finally, of the cupola overhanging 
 
 1 It is printed in Thilo's ' Codex to the right of the altar, and, with 
 Apocryphus Novi Testamenti. ' several breaks, is continued round the 
 
 2 Representing the daughter of chapel to the lunette on the left of the 
 Herodias presenting her mother the altar. Four subjects from the life of 
 head of S. John the Baptist, and the Christ are represented on the vault 
 burial of his body. It appears to be of the vestibule, and the Crucifixion 
 more modern than the rest. The behind the altar. 
 
 history of S. John begins in the lunette 
 
286 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 the altar represents the heavenly hierarchy surrounding the 
 central figure of Our Saviour, each order signalised by an 
 attitude or occupation expressive of its dignity or office ; a 
 Throne, for instance, is seated on a throne — a Domination 
 holds the balance — an Angel and an Archangel rise to heaven, 
 each with a human soul in his arms — a Power binds the devil 
 with chains, and a Virtue points downwards to a skeleton 
 stretched beside a mountain, crowned by an altar, from which 
 gushes forth the river of life, and seems to ask, " Son of Man, 
 can these bones live?" 
 
 But S. Mark's is inexhaustible, 1 and I have already perhaps 
 lingered too long on these relics of infant art, although you are 
 not, I am sure, the person to re-echo the hacknied "guarda e 
 passa " of fashionable tourists and many modern artists, whose 
 misapplication of his words might rouse up the indignant shade 
 of Dante to tell, what indeed his whole imagery declares, how 
 deeply and reverently he had drunk inspiration from them. 
 
 Of the painters contemporary with the mosaicists of this 
 latter period, from the twelfth century downwards, we possess 
 fewer memorials, or at least less important ones. One of the 
 most interesting is the picture of S. Ephraim, the pillar saint, 
 in the Museum Christianum at the Vatican, by some ascribed 
 to the tenth or eleventh century, but, as I suspect, more 
 recent. S. Ephraim appears nearly in the centre, seated, like 
 Simeon Stylites, on the capital of his column, while a disciple 
 places his food in a basket let down by a string ; in front, his 
 body is stretched out dead — above, the angels carry his soul 
 to heaven. Hermits of the desert are represented in the 
 background, some in their cells among the crags, alone and at 
 work, or conversing with their friends, others carried by their 
 disciples, or crutching along by themselves. One venerable 
 father approaches, riding on a lion, to join in the funeral 
 obsequies. A small picture of the " Ecce Homo " (the third 
 of the three Pietas enumerated at page 260) reposes on S. 
 Ephraim's breast. There is much merit in this picture. It is 
 
 1 The chapel of S. Isidore contains ship, although at a period when the 
 
 some curious mosaics, representing his Byzantine influence was still strong at 
 
 life and martyrdom, on the right wall, Venice. Of purely Byzantine origin, 
 
 and on the left, the translation of his the incidents in the lives of S. Simon 
 
 relics by the Doge Michael from and S. Jude, S. Bartholomew, etc. on 
 
 Greece to Venice and S. Mark's. the suffits of the great triforium arches 
 
 They have much merit, but are evi- of the southern aisle, will reward 
 
 dently of Italian design and workman- examination. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 287 
 
 said to have been brought from Greece by the celebrated 
 painter Squarcione of Padua, in the fifteenth century. 1 
 
 Another interesting relic is the ' Calendario,' preserved in 
 the Baptistery at Florence, and attributed by Vasari to Gaddo 
 Gaddi. 2 It is purely Greek, however. Among many of the 
 traditional subjects, you will recognise a new one, the Resur- 
 rection of Lazarus, of peculiar interest as the germ, if I mistake 
 not, of one of the noblest compositions of Giotto. The 
 - Calendario ' is represented by Vasari and others as mosaic- 
 work of extreme minuteness, but the parts so executed are 
 merely auxiliary to the painting. 3 
 
 Last, among the paintings of the twelfth and following cen- 
 turies, may be mentioned the miraculous and dusky Madonnas 
 attributed to S. Luke, some of which display not a little dignity 
 and even beauty. 
 
 But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the 
 Comneni is afforded by the designs on the Dalmatica, or 
 sacerdotal robe commonly styled " Di Papa San Leone," 
 preserved in the sacristy of S. Peter's — said to have been 
 embroidered at Constantinople for the coronation of Charle- 
 magne as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German criticism 
 as a production of the twelfth, or the early part of the thirteenth 
 century. The Emperors, at least, have worn it ever since, 
 while serving as deacons at the Pope's altar during their 
 coronation-mass. You will think little of it at first sight, and 
 lay it aside as a piece of darned and faded tapestry, yet I 
 would stake on it, alone, the reputation of Byzantine art. 
 And you must recollect too that embroidery is but a poor 
 substitute for the informing hand and the lightning stroke of 
 genius. 
 
 It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and 
 unbroken folds in front and behind, — broad and deep enough 
 for the Goliath-like stature and the Herculean chest of Charle- 
 magne himself. On the breast, the Saviour is represented in 
 glory, on the back the Transfiguration, and on the two 
 shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the Apostles. 
 
 The composition on the breast is an amplification of 
 Number V (as above enumerated) of the Personal traditional 
 
 1 It has been engraved in Agin- 2 Not indeed in direct terms, but 
 
 court, Peinture, pi. 82, and in Pisto- it is understood so by the Editors, 
 lesi's great work on the Vatican, torn. 3 See the Thesaurus Vett. Diptych., 
 
 iii. pi. 76. The artist's signature is torn. iii. p. 328 sqq. 
 'JH/uL/JLavovrjXov rod Tpav<poijpvapL %eip. 
 
288 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 compositions. In the centre of a golden circle of glory, "Jesus 
 Christ the Resurrection and the Life," robed in white, with the 
 youthful and beardless face, his eyes directly locking into yours, 
 sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting on the winged wheels 1 
 of E^ekiel, his left hand holding an open book, inscribed with 
 the invitation, " Come, ye blessed of my father," — his right 
 raised in benediction. At the four corners of the circular 
 glory, resting on them, half within it, half without, float the 
 emblems of the four Evangelists ; the Virgin and the Baptist 
 stand to the right and left of Our Saviour, the Baptist without, 
 the Virgin entirely within the glory, the only figure that is so 
 placed ; she is sweet in feature and graceful in attitude, in her 
 long white robe. 
 
 Above Our Saviour's head, and from the top of the golden 
 circle, rises the Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended 
 upon it, the spear resting on one side, the reed with the 
 sponge on the other, and the sun and moon looking down 
 upon it from the sky. 
 
 The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a 
 circle of adoration around this central glory ; angels occupying 
 the upper part, emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the 
 lower; at the extremity, on the left side, appears Mary 
 Magdalen, in her penitence — a thin emaciated figure, im- 
 perfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair. 
 
 In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to 
 the right, S. John the Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing 
 upwards to Our Saviour ; to the left, Abraham seated, a child 
 on his lap, and resting his hand on another by his side. 
 
 The background and scene of the whole composition is of 
 blue, to represent heaven, — studded with stars, shaped like the 
 Greek cross. 
 
 The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on 
 the back of the robe, is the traditional composition, only varied 
 by the unusual shape of the vesica piscis which encloses Our 
 Saviour. The two compositions representing the Institution 
 of the Eucharist, on the shoulders, are better executed and 
 more original. In each of them, Our Saviour, a stiff but 
 majestic figure, stands behind the altar, on which are deposited 
 
 1 In the ' Manuel ' of Dionysius, Thrones. Their interpretation as the 
 
 recently published by M. Didron Covenants of the Law and Gospel, 
 
 (pp. 71, etc. ), these winged wheels sanctioned by S. Gregory the Great in 
 
 are interpreted as signifying the order his Homilies, is certainly more sublime 
 
 of angels commonly distinguished as and instructive. 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 289 
 
 a chalice and a paten or basket containing crossed wafers. 
 He gives, in the one case, the cup to S. Paul, in the other the 
 bread to S. Peter, — they do not kneel, but bend reverently 
 to receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each 
 instance, — all are standing. 
 
 I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the 
 * Dalmatica di San Leone,' or your dissenting from my con- 
 clusion, that a master, a Michael Angelo I would almost say, 
 then flourished at Byzantium. 
 
 It was in this Dalmatica — then semee all over with pearls 
 and glittering in freshness — that Cola di Rienzi robed himself 
 over his armour in the sacristy of S. Peter's, and thence 
 ascended to the palace of the Popes, after the manner of the 
 Caesars, with sounding trumpets and his horsemen following 
 him — his truncheon in his hand and his crown on his head — 
 "terribile e fantastico," as his biographer describes him — to 
 wait upon the legate. 1 Rienzi's glory was scarcely more 
 transient in the eyes of history than that of this revival under 
 the Comneni. 2 
 
 But I need not comment on the injustice of such oblivion, 
 and will only add, that the Byzantine painters established 
 schools in all the principal towns of Italy, and that in repeated 
 instances their Italian scholars rose to an eminence entitling 
 them to distinct classification as precursors of Giotto, — that 
 such, more especially, was the reputation of the Byzantine 
 mosaicists settled at Venice in the middle of the thirteenth 
 century, that their assistance was courted by a special mission 
 from Florence, — that through the influence of the Byzantine 
 revival, a school of native mosaicists arose in Italy, which 
 produced great men and able artists, — that mosaic, however, 
 was found insufficient for the expanding ideas of the people, 
 and gradually died out, superseded by the superior facilities of 
 painting, — that the schools of painting, founded by the Greeks 
 in Italy, lingered on long after Giotto, strong in the affection 
 of the populace 3 — more especially at Venice, always Orientally 
 disposed, and where a manufactory of Madonnas and paintings 
 
 1 Cited from the original life, admirable facsimile of the Dalmatica 
 printed in Muratori's 'Antiquit. Ital. in large sheets, the central 'Gloria' in 
 Medii JEvi,' torn, iii, by M. Sulpice gold, silver and ultramarine, according 
 Boisseree, in his essay ' Ueber die to the original colours, — the effect 
 Kaiser-Dalmatica, ' etc. most beautiful. 
 
 2 My friend Herr M. Wittmer (an 3 A Greek succession nourished till 
 artist full of enthusiasm for the icole comparatively recent times at Otranto. 
 mystique), executed for me a most 
 
 VOL. I. U 
 
290 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 LETTER 
 
 in the ancient style has been kept up till recent times — not 
 merely for the Greek residents, but for Italian natives of the 
 state, 1 — that the revival, meanwhile, in the East gradually 
 declined under the depressing influence of the Latin conquest 
 in 1206, and that of the Turks in 1453, — and that art has 
 now for nearly four centuries been stationary in Greece, 
 treading, for the part, painfully and fearfully in the " old 
 paths " of tradition, although artists of no slight merit have 
 occasionally risen, to show that genius cannot become wholly 
 extinct in Greece. 2 
 
 You are not likely as yet to visit the East, but perhaps the 
 most curious gallery existing of genuine Byzantine paintings is 
 the church of Mount Sinai, where pictures of great antiquity 
 alternate with others produced but yesterday in Greece and 
 Russia. Meanwhile a visit to the church of S. Giovanni de' 
 Greci, belonging to the Greeks at Venice, will amply satisfy 
 any curiosity you may feel as to the ordinary character of art 
 among the existing descendants of Apelles. 
 
 In conclusion : — Casting an eye over the terrestrial globe, 
 the Painting of Byzantium may be described as coextensive 
 with her Church, though not with her Architecture, the 
 Mahometans, in adopting the latter, having repudiated the 
 former. Still, her ancient compositions have enjoyed a pub- 
 licity and a vogue unparalleled by the art of any other people. 
 They have spread indeed beyond the limits of her ecclesiastical 
 
 1 I possess a Madonna, of con- 
 siderable beauty, of this description, 
 purchased at Brescia many years ago, 
 when travelling, a boy, in Lombardy, 
 under the fond impression that it was 
 an original from Byzantium. 
 
 2 Among these may be reckoned 
 George Markos of Argos, and his 
 pupils, who executed, in 1735, the 
 frescoes in the church of the great 
 convent of Salamine, and which I 
 regret that I have not seen. "Au- 
 jourd'hui," says M. Didron, "l'ecole 
 d Argos est 6teinte, et presque tous les 
 
 peintres Chretiens de la Grece se sont 
 reTugtes au Mont Athos. " — Icon, de 
 Dieu, p. 217. 1 That sublime con- 
 ception, the 'Angel of the Mighty 
 Council,' frequently depicted on the 
 conchae and cupolas of Greek churches, 
 representing Our Saviour, winged, 
 descending upon the earth to fulfil the 
 decree for the salvation of Man passed 
 in Council within the bosom of the 
 Trinity, is to be attributed, I believe, 
 to some one of these more recent 
 artists of Byzantium. 
 
 1 In the Introduction and Notes to the century. Formerly, he says, it gave masters 
 
 ' Manuel d'Iconographie Chretienne,' more and pupils to Constantinople and Venice, 
 
 recently published (1845), M. Didron fur- Thessalonica and Athens ; " aujourd'hui en- 
 
 nishes many interesting particulars respect- core elle en fournit a toute la Russie, a la 
 
 ing the school of Athos, which he derives, Grece, et a la Turquie Chretienne.' — 
 
 as stated in a previous note, from Panselinos Jntrod. , p. xlvi. 
 of Thessalonica, an artist of the eleventh 
 
II. 
 
 BYZANTINE ART. 
 
 291 
 
 dominion. The heathen temples of Nubia, consecrated as 
 churches in the early ages, and which might still serve as such 
 were any Christians left to worship in them, 1 are covered with 
 her frescoes, and they are found fresh and of yesterday's 
 execution in the remotest districts of Abyssinia — the very 
 same style, the very same compositions, that, in an opposite 
 direction, are daily reiterated on the banks of the Don and the 
 Neva. 2 But it was in Italy, the heir of the younger as of the 
 elder Greece, that her spirit was destined to receive, in painting 
 as in architecture, that due development which imperfect 
 mechanical powers denied to her own efforts. The aged and 
 decrepit forms, the skeleton of Byzantine art, were necessarily 
 to be flung away, but the purer spirit underwent no change — 
 or rather did pass through a metamorphosis of a most ennobling 
 character. It is not here that I wish to discriminate the 
 different characters of the Italian schools, but I may observe 
 that, while the Historical compositions of Byzantium were 
 adopted, in outline only, by the dramatic Florentines, to be 
 modified, filled up and reinspired from their own original 
 resources of thought and association, her peculiar personal 
 subjects, and her general tendency to Symbolism and mystic 
 contemplation, found a congenial home among the more 
 enthusiastic Sienese and Umbrians, who seem ever to have 
 felt warmer sympathy, and recognised a more immediate 
 relationship with the East, than their compatriots of the Val 
 d'Arno. 
 
 1 Christianity lingered in Nubia till 
 the fourteenth century. It probably 
 died out through the non-supply of 
 priests. Father Protais, a Capuchin 
 missionary, of the seventeenth century, 
 and the first modern writer who takes 
 notice of Thebes, gives a melancholy 
 account of the "pauvres brebis sans 
 pasteur" — the Christians, then living 
 there, several of whom, he adds, ' ' ont 
 passe 1 cinquante annexes sans confession 
 et sans communion, n'ayant ni eglise 
 ni pr&tre. " — Thevenot, Relations de 
 divers Voyages curieux, etc. 1696, 
 torn. ii. part 2. 
 
 2 I have sometimes been tempted 
 to ascribe the origin of Japanese and 
 Chinese design, but more especially 
 the former, to the Byzantine ; but the 
 resemblances are not greater perhaps 
 
 than might arise in the ordinary course 
 of independent development. The 
 landscapes, for instance, on Japanese 
 cabinets, especially when architecture 
 and bridges are introduced, strikingly 
 resemble the frescoes of Pompeii. 
 Between the paintings of the Budd- 
 hists and those of the Byzantine 
 Greeks a stronger resemblance is ob- 
 servable, and communication (through 
 the Nestorians) may be reasonably 
 supposed ; but it was certainly less 
 than would be presumed at first, on 
 comparing them. The painting of the 
 Hindoos is more original and inde- 
 pendent, and, like some developments 
 of their architecture, is often extremely 
 elegant and tasteful. But I must not 
 diverge from the subject of Christian 
 Art. 
 
CHRISTIAN ART OF MODERN 
 EUROPE. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. LOMBARD AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE . .295 
 II. SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS, ETC. . .321 
 
 III. NICCOLA PISANO AND HIS SCHOOL . . -357 
 
 IV. GIOTTO AND HIS SCHOOL ... Vol. II. 3 
 
 \ 
 
LETTER I. 
 
 LOMBARD AND GOTHIC 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 In the preceding Letters, I have attempted to give you some 
 idea of the Christian Art of Greece and Rome, the aged 
 sovereigns of the elder world ; in these that follow, I shall do 
 my best to show you how their heirs, the youthful Europeans, 
 availed themselves of the legacy, threw their own glowing life 
 into the ideas and forms thus bequeathed to them, and either 
 combined them afresh, or created new ones out of the riches 
 of Nature and of their own Souls. 
 
 I shall divide the ensuing Series into five grand divisions 
 or periods, — the First, and of longest duration, extending 
 from the middle of the sixth to the middle of the fifteenth 
 century, during which Spirit, or Christianity, ruled supreme, 
 and found its chief expression in Architecture, — the Second, 
 embracing the latter half of the fifteenth century, during 
 which Christianity battled with the pride of Intellect and 
 resuscitated paganism, while Sculpture was perfected in the 
 struggle, — the Third, extending from the close of the fifteenth 
 to the middle of the sixteenth century, which witnessed the 
 results of the struggle, good and bad, in the successive tri- 
 umphs of Spirit, Intellect, and Sense, Expression, Design, and 
 Colouring, in Painting, the peculiar handmaid and exponent 
 of Christianity, — the Fourth, expiring with the eighteenth 
 century, signalised by the various attempts to regenerate Art 
 through Sense and Intellect, Colour and Design, — and the 
 Fifth and last, dating from the commencement of the present 
 century, characterised by a similar revival through Spirit, or 
 Expression, and a recurrence to first principles, to the 
 Christianity and Nationality of Romano-Teutonic Europe. 
 
296 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 The rise and progress of Sculpture and Painting will of 
 course demand their due consideration under the first as 
 under the later of these periods ; meanwhile it is to the 
 development and character of the Lombard and Pointed, or 
 Gothic Architecture, both in Italy and the North, that I 
 address myself in the present Letter. 
 
 Section I. — Lombard Architecture, South and North 
 of the Alps. 
 
 I need not remind you that the freedom of the North, the 
 civilisation of the South, and the Christianity of the East, are 
 the three elements from the commixture of which the charac- 
 ter and history of Europe spring, and that Italy was the field 
 where those elements first met, and began to amalgamate. 1 
 
 The invasion of the Lombards, in 568, may be considered 
 as the last preliminary step to this consummation. They 
 were a noble race, of pure morals, and bold, manly, generous 
 and even romantic character, presenting the strongest possible 
 contrast to the corrupt and degenerate Romans, whom they 
 held personally in utter contempt, and refused to mingle with 
 on the familiar footing of their predecessors, the Goths. It 
 was therefore from the Church rather than the natives of Rome 
 and Italy that they derived their civilisation, and to the Popes 
 accordingly they paid a free but a zealous deference, which 
 rendered them invaluable adherents in any course of policy the 
 latter might find it expedient to pursue. 
 
 The Papacy, at the commencement of the seventh century, 
 was in a very different position from that in which Constantine 
 had left her. In doctrine, indeed, she was but little changed, 
 for almost every peculiar dogma of Catholicism had been either 
 openly asserted, or indirectly implied, before the close of the 
 fourth century. But during the last three hundred years the 
 seed of spiritual despotism, wrapt up in the acorn of the 
 Nicene Church, had silently but rapidly shot up into a mighty 
 tree, and before the death of the First Gregory not only had 
 the theory been matured and the principles laid down by which 
 ecclesiastical supremacy was to be claimed and established 
 over the Kings of the earth, but the minds of men had been 
 
 1 Influentially, I mean, on the future ; the civilisation of the Visigoths in 
 Spain was earlier, but led to nothing. 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 297 
 
 prepared to acquiesce in the usurpation. An opportunity for 
 asserting that supremacy was not long in presenting itself. 
 
 The propriety of the adoration of images, an abuse at that 
 time of almost universal prevalence in Christendom, had been 
 long agitated in the Greek Church. In 726, the Emperor 
 Leo III. declared it unlawful by a special edict, which he 
 followed up by an. indiscriminate destruction of images through- 
 out his Eastern dominions, calling at the same time on the 
 Popes in Italy, his subject province, to follow his example of 
 reformation. Gregory II., then occupant of the papal chair, 
 refused obedience, and, finding his remonstrances unattended 
 to, proceeded — under the sanction of a decree subscribed by 
 a synod of ninety-three Italian bishops, and backed by the 
 ready swords of the Lombards — to excommunicate in one 
 sweeping anathema, the whole body of the Iconoclasts, the 
 Emperor himself not excepted, and to pronounce Italy politic- 
 ally independent of the Byzantine Empire. It was a step, 
 before God and man alike, indefensible — at once schismatical 
 and rebellious. But — from that hour a new star dawned on 
 the horizon, infant Europe was separated from the womb, life 
 awoke in her, the warm blood was sent thrilling through her 
 veins, that impulse was communicated to which she owes her 
 growth and development, her virtue and her glory — a crime 
 was, in short, overruled by providence to the good of mankind. 
 
 The results of the measure were not so immediately appar- 
 ent as might have been expected. The revolution was peace- 
 ably effected. Greece, after a short struggle, acquiesced in it, 
 and long continued to retain her maritime dependencies, and 
 even a nominal supremacy in the peninsula, the policy of the 
 Popes leaving a shadow of power to the Emperors, after 
 securing the substance to themselves. Under their rule in the 
 South, and that of the Lombards North of the Apennines, and 
 after the extinction of the latter dynasty, under that of Charle- 
 magne and his Carlovingian successors, Italy enjoyed repose 
 and tranquillity till the middle of the ninth century, when a 
 period of anarchy and misery ensued for a hundred and fifty 
 years. 
 
 It is from the settlement of the Lombards and the Icono- 
 clast rupture therefore, and not from the reign of Charlemagne, 
 that the life of Modern Europe, civil and ecclesiastical, pro- 
 perly dates, 1 and we find, accordingly, in the Lombard Archi- 
 
 1 See for the character of the Lombards, Gibbon, chap, 45, and for 
 
298 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 tecture and Sculpture, the earliest voice and expression of that 
 life — witnessed in the former by new combinations and a more 
 ample development of the spirit of symbolism — in the latter 
 by a profusion of imagery, remarkable even before the quarrel, 
 but absolutely redundant after it. We will discuss these 
 sculptures in a future letter; meanwhile I shall describe as 
 briefly as possible the principal characteristics of the new 
 architecture, as exhibited in the Lombard Cathedral. 
 
 These characteristics are of various origin, but easily dis- 
 criminated. The three most prominent features, the eastern 
 aspect of the sanctuary, the cruciform plan, and the soaring 
 octagonal cupola, are borrowed from Byzantium, the latter in 
 an improved form, the cross with a difference, the nave, or arm 
 opposite the sanctuary, being lengthened so as to resemble the 
 supposed shape of the actual instrument of suffering, and form 
 what is now distinctively called the Latin Cross. The crypt 
 and absis, or tribune, are retained from the Roman basilica, 
 but the absis is generally pierced with windows, and the crypt 
 is much loftier and more spacious, assuming almost the 
 appearance of a subterranean church. The columns of the 
 nave, no longer isolated, are clustered so as to form compound 
 piers, massive and heavy — their capitals either a rude imita- 
 tion of the Corinthian, or, especially in the earlier structures, 
 sculptured with grotesque imagery. 1 Triforia, or galleries for 
 women, frequently line the nave and transepts. The roof is 
 of stone, and vaulted. The narthex, or portico, for excluded 
 penitents, common alike to the Greek and Roman churches, 
 and in them continued along the whole facade of entrance, is 
 dispensed with altogether in the oldest Lombard ones, 2 and 
 when afterwards resumed, in the eleventh century, was re- 
 stricted to what we should now call Porches, over each door, 
 consisting generally of little more than a canopy open at the 
 sides, and supported by slender pillars, resting on sculptured 
 monsters. Three doors admit from the western front ; these are 
 
 the Iconoclast rupture, chap. 49. — 
 "La conquete des Lombards," says 
 Sismondi, ' ' fut, en quelque sorte, pour 
 l'ltalie, l'epoque de la renaissance des 
 peuples. Des principaute"s inddpen- 
 dantes, des communautes, des r£pub- 
 liques, commencerent a se constituer 
 de toutes parts ; et un principe de vie 
 fut rendu a cette contr^e, long-temps 
 ensevelie dans un sommeil 16thar- 
 
 gique. " — Hist, des Republ. Ital. torn, 
 i. p. 9. 
 
 1 Sometimes indeed, but rarely, the 
 insulated column of the early church 
 is restored. 
 
 2 A significant fact, and prophetic 
 of the tendency and the destinies of 
 the Medo-Persian or Teutonic versus 
 the Hindoo element of Europe. 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 299 
 
 generally covered with sculpture, which frequently extends in 
 belts across the fagade, and even along the sides of the 
 building. Above the central door is usually seen, in the later 
 Lombard churches, a S. Catherine's-wheel window. The roof 
 slants at the sides, and ends in front, sometimes in a single 
 pediment, sometimes in three gables answering to the three 
 doors ; while, in Lombardy at least, hundreds of slender pillars, 
 of every form and device — those immediately adjacent to each 
 other frequently interlaced in the true lover's knot, and all 
 supporting round or trefoliate arches — run along, in continuous 
 galleries, under the eaves, as if for the purpose of supporting 
 the roof — run up the pediment in front, are continued along 
 the side-walls and round the eastern absis, and finally engirdle 
 the cupola. Sometimes the western front is absolutely covered 
 with these galleries, rising tier above tier. Though introduced 
 merely for ornament, and therefore on a vicious principle, 
 these fairy-like colonnades win very much on one's affections. 
 I may add to these general features the occasional and rare 
 one, seen to peculiar advantage in the cathedral of Cremona, of 
 numerous slender towers, rising, like minarets, in every direc- 
 tion, in front and behind, and giving the east end, especially, 
 a marked resemblance to the mosques of the Mahometans. 
 
 The Baptistery, and the Campanile or bell-tower, are in 
 theory invariable adjuncts to the Lombard cathedral, although 
 detached from it. I have already noticed these buildings, as 
 well as the principal churches built by the Lombards in the 
 old basilica form, under the head of Latin architecture. But 
 I may remark that the Lombards seem to have built them 
 with peculiar zest, and to have had a keen eye for the 
 picturesque in grouping them with the churches they belong to. 
 
 I need scarcely add, that the round arch is exclusively 
 employed in pure Lombard architecture. 1 
 
 To translate this new style into its symbolical language is 
 a pleasurable task. 
 
 The three doors and three gable ends signify the Trinity, 
 the Catherine-wheel window (if I mistake not) the Unity, as 
 concentrated in Christ, the Light of the Church, from whose 
 Greek monogram its shape was properly adopted. 2 The 
 monsters that support the pillars of the porch stand there as 
 
 1 See, on the subject of the Lom- 
 bard style, the twenty -second and 
 following chapters of Mr. Hope's 
 
 ' Historical Essay.' 
 
 2 Vide supra, p. 266, note. 
 
3 oo LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 talismans to frighten away evil spirits. The crypt (as in older 
 buildings) signifies the moral death of man, the cross the 
 atonement, the cupola heaven ; and these three, taken in 
 conjunction with the lengthened nave, express, reconcile, and 
 give their due and balanced prominence to the leading ideas 
 of the Militant and Triumphant Church, respectively embodied 
 in the architecture of Rome and Byzantium. Add to this, 
 the symbolism of the Baptistery, and the Christian pilgrimage, 
 from the Font to the Door of heaven, is complete. 1 
 
 Lombard Architecture may thus be likened to a lovely 
 and graceful maiden, in whose countenance the lineaments of 
 both her parents, the high-spirited but practical father, the 
 lofty-souled contemplative mother, are equally recognisable, 
 while those of the latter predominate — yet both are softened 
 and reconciled into harmony by an expression and refinement 
 unborrowed and her own. 
 
 It may strike you at first as a discrepancy, that at the 
 
 1 I have confined myself in the text 
 to the popular symbolism, the broad 
 outline, but there was a deeper and 
 more abstruse theory current during 
 the early ages, and which has never 
 perhaps been completely realised. I 
 have nowhere seen it so fully and 
 succinctly stated as by M. Alfred 
 Maury in his ' Essai sur les Legendes 
 Pieuses du Moyen-age, ' p. 107 : — 
 1 ' Les eglises elaient tournees du cote" 
 de 1' Orient, par allusion a la naissance 
 du Sauveur. . . . Elles elaient placets 
 sur des lieux Aleves, comme embleme 
 de la supeYiorite divine et comme l'in- 
 term£diaire entre le ciel et la terre. 
 ( ' Nostrae columbae domus simplex, 
 etiam in editis semper et apertis et ad 
 lucem. ' — Tertull. adv. Valent. c. 2. ) 
 Elles comprenaient quatres parties: 
 le portique, la nef, le chceur et le 
 sanctuaire, emblemes de la vie p6ni- 
 tente, de la vie chrelienne, de la vie 
 sainte et de la vie celeste. En effet, 
 a la porte se trouvaient les penitents, 
 appetes audientes, 6coutant, et pro- 
 strati, prostern^s, qui elaient etendus 
 par terre, pendant qu'on faisait la 
 priere sur eux, et qu'on faisait sortir 
 avant l'offrande. Puis venaient les 
 consistants, consistentes, qui assistaient 
 dans la nef au divin office, mais sans 
 y participer, droit qui appartenait 
 
 seulement aux participajttes. Uambo 
 ou chceur 6tait plus 6lev6 que la nef, 
 comme marquant un degr6 de vie plus 
 parfait. C'elait la que se placaient 
 les clercs. L' eglise avait quatre portes, 
 deux du cote' de la nef, nominees 
 specioscs porta, symbole de la vie 
 terrestre, et deux du cot6 de la nef, 
 appetees porta sanctce, symbole de la 
 vie celeste. Le sanctuaire, accessible 
 au seul clerge\ elait separ£ du chceur 
 par un chancel ou balustre, qui em- 
 pgchait les lai'ques d'y entrer, et 
 exprimait, d'une facon mystique, la 
 barriere qui separe le ciel de la terre, 
 et ne s'ouvre que pour celui qui est 
 mort au monde, comme est celui qui 
 se consacre au service des autels. 
 Dans les representations qui decoraient 
 1' eglise, la gauche se rapportait a la 
 vie pr£sente, la droite a la vie future. 
 La forme de croix donn£e a l'^difice 
 elait l'image du Sauveur, l'abside 
 ou chevet indiquait la place ou reposait 
 sa t6te, les transept formaient les bras, 
 les chapelles placees a l'entour de Tab- 
 side elaient peut-£tre les symboles 
 des rayons de 1' aureole. Au reste, 
 les eglises furent d'abord construites 
 sur le plan des temples de Salomon 
 et de Zorobabel, qui pr^sentaient d£ja 
 une disposition toute mystique (Cf. 
 Euseb. Hist. Eccles. lib. x. c. 4), et 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 moment when the Lombards were preparing to sever them- 
 selves from Greece on the question of sculptured images, they 
 should have adopted her architecture as the foundation (for 
 such it is) of their own, in preference to that of Rome, as 
 exhibited in the basilica. But the reason, I think, is obvious. 
 While Sculpture and Painting deal with material objects that 
 demand specific representation, Architecture is the expression 
 of abstract ideas, and must necessarily have recourse to sym- 
 bolism if she would give them utterance. A cathedral is the 
 embodied idea of the Spiritual Church, and ought to express 
 in the first instance, and reflect back again, the sentiment 
 from which the sculptures and paintings that adorn its walls, 
 as well as the rites that take place within them, derive their 
 significance. Architecture is suggestive, sculpture and painting 
 are positive, and, like the music of nature, blending with the 
 songs of Adam and Eve in Paradise, the three arts, thus 
 combined, give praise to God. But the basilica is far less 
 suggestive, far less symbolical, than the Byzantine edifice, and 
 hence the sympathy always manifested for Byzantium by 
 Lombard architects. 1 
 
 Such was the Architecture which prevailed in Europe, 
 co-extensively with the Latin Church, from the seventh to 
 the close of the eleventh century ; while in Italy its rule 
 was prolonged to the thirteenth, and its influence was never 
 
 avaient dans leur distribution des 
 rapports g£ neraux avec l'univers. — Phi- 
 lonis, Vit. Mosis, lib. 3, c. 2. — Joseph. 
 Antiq. Jud. lib. viii. c. 8. — Cf. 
 Dupuis, Orig. de tons les Cultes, torn, 
 i. p. 179. Les troix parties princi- 
 pals du temple, le parvis, le saint 
 et le saint des saints repondaient a la 
 terre, a la mer et au ciel. Dans les 
 cath^drales, les roses repr£sentaient 
 aussi les el£mens, comme a celle 
 d' Amiens, par exemple. Gilbert, Descr. 
 de la Cath. d' Amiens, p. 71. Au 
 midi est la rose qui figure le ciel, l'air, 
 et qui est peinte en rouge ; on voit 
 dans les compartiments des archanges 
 et des cherubins. A l'ouest est celle 
 de l'eau ou de la mer ; les com- 
 partiments offrent des coquillages et 
 des dauphins. Au nord est celle des 
 vents. C'^tait principalement le por- 
 tail ou parvis des 6glises qui £tait 
 d£core\ ainsi qu'on peut le voir °ncore 
 
 dans toutes les cath^drales, de repre- 
 sentations tiroes de l'Histoire Sainte 
 et de statues de Saints. . . Le portail 
 des 6glises offrait . . l'image du para- 
 dis, paradisus, nom qui fut donn^ 
 pour cette raison sans doute a l'aire 
 du portail, et qui fut change" plus 
 tard, par corruption, en celui de par- 
 visium, parvis." 
 
 1 As symbolical and expressive of 
 emotion, not of definite ideas, Music 
 and Architecture are identical in 
 principle, and distinct, the one from 
 Painting and Sculpture, the other 
 from Poetry, or verse, — and not only 
 distinct, but independent of them to 
 such a degree that, in proportion as 
 they rise to absolute perfection, the 
 addition- of words to the one or of 
 subsidiary design to the other, becomes 
 not only unnecessary but obtrusive. 
 The secret of the effect produced by 
 the grand efforts both of Architecture 
 
3Q2 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 entirely superseded. Like the Roman and Byzantine styles, 
 it sprang at once to full development in all its essential points, 
 as may be seen in its earliest monument, the venerable church 
 of S. Michele at Padua, which existed as a sanctuary as early 
 as 661. 1 
 
 What chiefly contributed to its diffusion over Europe was 
 the exclusive monopoly in Christian architecture, conceded 
 by the Popes, towards the close of the eighth century, to the 
 masons of Como, then and for ages afterwards, when the title 
 of " Magistri Comacini " had long been absorbed in that of 
 " Free and Accepted Masons," associated as a craft or brother- 
 hood in art and friendship. A distinct and powerful body, 
 composed eventually of all nations, concentring the talent of 
 each successive generation, with all the advantages of accumu- 
 lated experience and constant mutual communication — imbued, 
 moreover, in that age of faith, with the deepest Christian 
 reverence, and retaining these advantages unchallenged till 
 their proscription in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries — we 
 cannot wonder that the Freemasons should have carried their 
 art to a pitch of perfection which, now that their secrets are 
 lost, it may be considered hopeless to attempt to rival. 2 But 
 before treating of the great triumph of their genius, Pointed 
 Architecture, I must point out to your notice a few of the 
 principal monuments of their skill in the earlier Lombard 
 style, existing in Italy and elsewhere. 
 
 These fall naturally into two classes, simpler or more rich 
 in their style, according as they belong to the first or second 
 millennium of the Christian era, and which may be appro- 
 priately described as Early and Late, or Florid, Lombard. 
 Those that rank under the former head are few, comparatively 
 — S. Michele is the oldest ; S. Giulia of Brescia and S. Maria 
 of Arezzo, respectively of the eighth and tenth century, are 
 next in importance. But, after the millennium panic, Europe 
 
 and Music, in every age and country, cal ; Sculpture and Painting, twins of 
 
 appears to lie in their appealing to Intellect, rejoice and breathe freest 
 
 and engrossing the two most powerful in the pure ether of Architecture, or 
 
 and earliest -developed elements of Spirit, like Castor or Pollux, under 
 
 human nature, Spirit and Sense — the the breezy heaven of their father 
 
 conquest and supremacy of Spirit Jupiter. 
 
 over Sense generating, in and through 1 When Unulfus took sanctuary in 
 
 them, as in devotion and philosophy, it to escape the vengeance of King 
 
 a mystical abstraction or ecstasy far Grimoaldus. — Knight's Eccles. An- 
 
 transcending, and even loathing verbal tiquities, Series I. 
 or particular expression. But this 2 See Hope's 'Historical Essay,' 
 
 independence is not of course recipro- chap. 21. 
 
LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 303 
 
 darted forward with new life ; the Lombard nobles forsook 
 the country for the towns, and intermarried with the Roman 
 or Latin population — and the result was a new nation, a new 
 rule — Italy and her republics, with all their glory. Pisa led 
 the way. Long celebrated for her maritime achievements 
 against the Saracens, in Sicily and on the coasts of Africa, she 
 added, in 1063, a still brighter leaf to her chaplet by bursting 
 the chain of the port of Palermo, capturing six vessels laden 
 with rich merchandise, and bringing them home in triumph 
 to her native Arno. By an unanimous decree the citizens 
 determined to convert this booty into a cathedral — to surpass 
 all others in size and beauty, and to be at once a thank- 
 offering to heaven, and a perpetual monument to their 
 country's honour. Everything was propitious — the hour was 
 ready with its man, the architect Buschetto, from whose 
 master-mind the plan would seem to have sprung forth at 
 once, complete, clear, and beautiful, like wisdom from the 
 brain of Jupiter ; the first stone was laid that same year, and 
 the building was completed before the close of the century, 
 after becoming, long ere it was finished, the model of archi- 
 tecture throughout the Pisan archbishopric. 1 The stately and 
 graceful Duomo of Lucca followed, then that of Siena, and 
 those of Parma, of Modena, of Piacenza, Ferrara, Cremona, 
 and others of lesser renown, in fair and queen-like procession. 
 Most of these were accompanied by their Baptisteries and 
 Campaniles, grouped for the most part most picturesquely, 
 though nowhere with such perfect harmony and beauty as at 
 Pisa, where Cathedral, Baptistery, Leaning Tower, and Campo 
 Santo, with their belt of green untrodden grass, form a group 
 of loveliness unrivalled in Europe — fortunate alike, as it has 
 been prettily expressed, "in their society and their solitude." 2 
 To this list must be added the kindred class of Conventual 
 buildings, now becoming very numerous, especially the fairy- 
 like cloisters of S. Zenone at Verona, those of S. Giovanni 
 Laterano and of S. Paolo fuori le mura at Rome, and those of 
 the monastery at Subiaco, all of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, — and a whole category of public palaces and town- 
 halls — temples, one might call them, dedicated to Liberty and 
 
 1 See Morrona's excellent work the Cathedral in the same year, 1063, 
 
 ' Pisa Illustrata nelle Arti del Disegno, ' to the ' Cronica Pisana, ' printed in 
 
 torn. i. pp. 60, 135, etc. edit. 8vo. Muratori's great collection, torn. vi. 
 
 He refers, for the exploit alluded to col. 168. 
 in the text, and the commencement of 2 Forsyth's Italy. 
 
LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 Commerce, as city after city rose to greatness and glory. 
 Some of these, as at Padua, Piacenza, etc., are of singular 
 beauty, and, in the North of Italy especially, are frequently 
 built of brick, which the Lombards used with a mastery of 
 which, in England, we have no conception ; every delicate 
 architectural ornament is fashioned in this unpromising material, 
 and the richness of effect is marvellous. It was even frequently 
 applied to ecclesiastical purposes ; the beautiful Duomo of 
 Cremona, with its adjacent dependencies, is entirely of brick ; 
 so are the churches of S. Francesco at Pavia and the cloisters 
 of the celebrated Certosa, between that city and Milan. The 
 Palazzo Pubblico at Piacenza, and the palace of the Lombard 
 Dukes at Pavia, are of the same material, and rank among the 
 noblest edifices in Italy. 1 Nor must I forget to mention, as 
 belonging historically, and indeed, in political geography, de 
 facto to Italy, the stupendous palace, or rather fortress, of the 
 Popes at Avignon — now, alas ! degraded into a barrack 2 — 
 a building by itself in every respect, and the noblest example 
 perhaps anywhere extant of the old feudal architecture of 
 Europe. 
 
 Singularly enough, it was at Rome that the Lombard 
 architects, those proteges of the Popes, found least employ- 
 ment, — desolate and deserted, the scoff and scorn of Italy 
 during the darker ages, her dwindled population lost in the 
 vast echoing aisles of her seven basilicas, she was overstocked 
 with churches, and had but small occasion for their services. 
 The cloisters of S. Giovanni Laterano and S. Paolo, above 
 mentioned, and the absis of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, and the 
 numerous brick steeples, all of the same pattern, that mingle 
 so picturesquely with temples of heathenry and cupolas of 
 yesterday — pines, palm-trees, and cypresses — reddening in 
 the " sunset's glow " as you gaze around you from the ruined 
 palace of the Caesars — are the sole monuments that attest their 
 
 1 In most of these later structures out transitional styles, if they deserve 
 
 the pointed mingles with the round the name, between each of the broad 
 
 Lombard arch, though they belong, distinctive types of Christian archi- 
 
 strictly speaking, to the earlier style. tecture. 
 
 The Certosa of Pavia, begun in the 2 Still remaining so, in spite of the 
 Lombard, continued in the Gothic, eloquent and indignant denunciation 
 and ended in the Cinquecento style, of the Comte de Montalembert, in 
 is perhaps the most singular medley of his Letter to Victor Hugo, 1833. — 
 this description, and yet most beautiful. Du Vandalisme et du Catholicisme 
 —A sketch so brief as this confines dans VArt, p. 13. But France is 
 me necessarily to the outline of the rapidly making amends for past pro- 
 subject, but it would be easy to point fanation. 
 
LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 305 
 
 skill on the spot where the bulls were dated that sped them 
 on the wings of monopoly throughout Christendom. 
 
 North of the Alps, the Lombard Architecture is seen in 
 most perfection at Cologne, the capital of the Carlovingian 
 empire — the early or Simple Lombard, that is to say, as 
 distinguished from the Late or Florid style, which being 
 developed nearly at the same moment with the Early Gothic, 
 was almost entirely confined to Italy. From Cologne as a 
 centre, this Early Lombard spread along the Rhine, and over 
 the North of Europe, gradually undergoing serious modifica- 
 tions or curtailments ; it appears in France at the beginning of 
 the eleventh century — in England not till the days of Edward 
 the Confessor and William the Conqueror, when it became 
 what we usually term the Norman style; in Germany, the 
 belfry was first attached to the side of the church, then to its 
 facade, and finally was elevated, in place of the Byzantine 
 cupola, on the intersection of the cross, thus preparing the 
 way for the Gothic spire — a substitution in which I cannot but 
 recognise that disrelish for contemplation which wrote itself 
 in stone the moment the Teutons had acquired sufficient 
 mechanical skill to create a new style for themselves. Let us 
 take breath — that moment had arrived at the commencement 
 of the twelfth century. 
 
 Section 2. — Gothic Architecture North of the Alps. 
 
 A new style of Architecture, eminently original, yet duly 
 developed from the Lombard, which immediately preceded it, 
 then appeared, suddenly and simultaneously as a flash of 
 lightning, in almost every country of Europe on this side the 
 Alps — the birth, not, like its predecessor, of one individual 
 people, but of the Teutonic mind in general, as represented in 
 those parliaments of genius, the Lodges of the North — an 
 architecture peculiarly ecclesiastical, more so even than the 
 Lombard, although equally susceptible of adaptation to any 
 civil purpose. Its characteristics, as displayed in the Gothic 
 Cathedral, may be soon sketched, in outline at least — you will 
 find full details in the works of Mr. Hope and Dr. Whewell, 
 writers whom it would be impertinent to praise. 
 
 Except in one important point, the general distribution of 
 the church underwent little change. The crypt and the Latin 
 vol. 1. x 
 
306 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 Cross were retained, but the cupola was suppressed, and its 
 place supplied by a lofty tower, surmounted by a spire. For 
 the absis, or tribune, a deep recess or chancel was substituted, 
 a sort of Holy of Holies, secluding the priest from the people 
 during the performance of the sacrifice of the mass ; and a 
 lofty stone screen, symbolical of the transition through death 
 from the Church Militant to the Church Triumphant, and so 
 far akin to the triumphal arch of the basilica, was interposed 
 between the chancel and the nave. 1 On the outside, the three 
 doors of the western facade were fronted by deep porches, 
 lined with imagery and sculpture ; occasionally the Catharine- 
 wheel window, or rose, appeared above the central portal, but a 
 large mullioned window more frequently replaced it. Two lofty 
 towers, containing the bells, flanked the facade, and together 
 with the third, over the centre of the pile, were understood to 
 signify the Trinity. Separate Baptisteries were abolished, and 
 a small font was placed within one of the doorways. 
 
 I cannot suppress my regret at most of these changes, 
 though I acknowledge that they were inevitable, and that they 
 were amply atoned for by the grand distinguishing feature of 
 the new style — the most prominent, if not the cause of all its 
 peculiarities and beauties — the substitution, namely, of the 
 vertical for the horizontal principle which still lingered in the 
 Lombard architecture, and the consequent universal and ex- 
 clusive adoption of the pointed instead of the round-headed 
 arch of the ancient Romans. 2 Hence the unlimited power of 
 vaulting, hence the increased height of the roof, hence the 
 lightness and reed-like elasticity of the pier, shooting up into 
 the arch, and so uninterruptedly to the roof, like the flight 
 of an arrow, gradually losing its first impulse, but soaring still 
 when lost to the eye, — hence the enlargement of the space for 
 light, and the idea of tempering its glare by painted glass, — 
 hence the unnumbered beauties, internal and external, of 
 groining, pendant, mullion- window, flying buttress, pinnacle 
 and spire — hence, in short, the life and animation, the vigour 
 and freshness, the exulting consciousness of power, the nature- 
 like luxuriance of tracery and ornament, that pervade the 
 whole pile, and rouse the heart like the roar of a cataract 
 swelling on the breeze amid the shades and sunshine of a 
 
 1 This was almost always surmounted 2 It may be said to mark the moment 
 
 by a rood, or crucifix, attended, to when the Teutonic, or Medo- Persian, 
 
 the right and left, by the Virgin and took the lead over the Classic or San- 
 
 S. John. scrit element, in the Intellect of Europe. 
 
I. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 307 
 
 forest. And yet all this is the mere surface- shadow of a 
 deeper meaning, — it was in Gothic Architecture that Christian 
 Symbolism reached its consummation, or rather took up and 
 re-expressed the faith and expectations of the Church in a 
 different and more spiritualized point of view. That which 
 in Lombard Architecture is confined to the general outline, 
 extends in Gothic to the minutest details ; like each several 
 fact in the Bible or in the Book of Nature, every window, 
 every corbel, every cusp has its mystery ; it would require a 
 volume to point out each minute particular, and in a thousand 
 instances individual fancy must interpret what individual fancy 
 first enigmatised. But the upward spring, the vertical tend- 
 ency, is the key to the whole, — whether, as in the pyramids 
 and obelisks of Egypt, it imply the natural yearning of the 
 human heart to the u blest abodes " of an uncovenanted 
 futurity — or faith, better assured, in the resurrection of the 
 Redeemer and of the Church in his person — or the joyful 
 anticipation of that continual up-springing approximation to- 
 wards the Fount of Wisdom, the Divine Vision, which we are 
 warranted to look forward to as the bliss of Eternity. 
 
 Comparing, in fact, apart from enthusiasm, the two styles 
 of Lombard and Pointed Architecture, they will strike you, I 
 think, as the expression, respectively, of that alternate repose 
 and activity which characterise the Christian life, exhibited in 
 perfect harmony in Christ alone, who, on earth, spent his 
 night in prayer to God, his day in doing good to man — in 
 heaven, as we know by his own testimony, " worketh hitherto," 
 conjointly with the Father — for ever, at the same time, reposing 
 on the infinity of his wisdom and of his power. Each, then, 
 of these styles has its peculiar significance, each is perfect in 
 its way. The Lombard Architecture, with its horizontal lines, 
 its circular arches and expanding cupola, soothes and calms 
 one ; the Gothic, with its pointed arches, aspiring vaults and 
 intricate tracery, rouses and excites — and why ? Because the 
 one symbolises an infinity of Rest, the other of Action, in the 
 adoration and service of God. And this consideration will 
 enable us to advance a step farther : — The aim of the one 
 style is definite, of the other indefinite; we look up to the 
 dome of heaven and calmly acquiesce in the abstract idea of 
 infinity ; but we only realise the impossibility of conceiving it 
 by the flight of imagination from star to star, from firmament 
 to firmament. Even so Lombard Architecture attained per- 
 
308 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 fection, expressed its idea, accomplished its purpose — but 
 Gothic never ; the Ideal is unapproachable. 1 
 
 I have said nothing of the theory which accounts for the 
 change of style by the necessity in a Northern climate of 
 avoiding the dome and all flat surfaces, where snow could 
 lodge. 2 Nothing is more likely than that this matter-of-fact 
 
 1 Perhaps men, were their senti- 
 ments analysed, would be found to 
 prefer the Classic-Greek or the Gothic 
 Architecture, according as their char- 
 acteristics are purely Intellectual, or 
 Contemplatively and Actively Spiritual, 
 — and the mind capable of fully com- 
 prehending the Gothic would, as a 
 necessary consequence (if unpreju- 
 diced), appreciate the Greek more 
 
 justly than the devotee of the Greek 
 would appreciate the Gothic — inasmuch 
 as Spirit, in the fullest development 
 of Human Nature, includes Intellect. 
 I subjoin, in illustration of the symbol- 
 ism and the peculiar emotions born of 
 Gothic Architecture, the ' ' Lost Church ' ' 
 of the poet Uhland — founded, I appre- 
 hend, on an ancient tradition of the 
 Sinaite peninsula : — 
 
 THE LOST CHURCH. 
 
 ' ' Oft in the forest far one hears 
 
 A passing sound of distant bells, 
 Nor legends old nor human wit 
 
 Can tell us whence the music swells. 
 From the Lost Church 'tis thought, that soft 
 
 Faint ringing cometh on the wind ; 
 Once many pilgrims trod the path, 
 
 But no one now the way can find. 
 
 "Not long since, deep into the wood 
 
 I stray'd, where path was none to see ; 
 Weary of human wickedness, 
 
 My heart to God yearn'd longingly. 
 There, through the silent wilderness, 
 
 Again I heard the sweet bells stealing, 
 Ever, as higher yearn'd my heart, 
 
 The nearer and the louder pealing. 
 
 "My spirit was so self-indrawn, 
 
 My sense with sweetness rapt so high, 
 That, how those sounds within me wrought 
 
 Remaineth yet a mystery. 
 It seem'd as if a hundred years 
 
 Had laps'd while thus I had been 
 dreaming — 
 When, lo ! above the clouds a space 
 
 Free opened out, in sunshine gleaming. 
 
 "The heaven was so darkly blue, 
 
 The sun so full and glowing bright — 
 And rose a minster's stately pile, 
 
 Expanding in the golden light. 
 Seemed the clouds resplendently, 
 
 Like wings, to bear it up alway, 
 And in the blessed depths of heaven 
 
 Its spired tower to melt away. 
 
 " The bells' delicious harmony 
 
 Down from the tower in quiverings flow'd, 
 Yet drew not hand of man the strings, — 
 
 They moved but to the Breath of God. 
 As if upon my throbbing heart 
 
 That self-same Breath its influence shed, 
 So entered I that minster high 
 
 With timorous joy and faltering tread. 
 
 "Words cannot paint what there-within 
 
 Awoke my spirit's ecstasies ; 
 The darkly-brilliant windows glow'd 
 
 With martyrs' pious effigies ; 
 Into a new and living world, 
 
 Rich imag'd forth, I gaz'd abroad, 
 A world of holy women and 
 
 Of warriors of the host of God. 
 
 "Down at the altar low I knelt, 
 Thrilling with awe and holy love — 
 
 Heaven and its glorious mysteries 
 Were pictur'd on the vault above. 
 
 But when again I looked up, 
 Roof, arch and pictur'd vault were 
 gone — 
 
 Full opened was the door of heaven, 
 And every veil had been withdrawn. 1 
 
 "What then, in silent prayerful awe, 
 
 Of majesty I saw reveal'd, — 
 What heard of sound more blissful far 
 
 Than aught to human ear unseal'd, 
 Lies not within the might of words ; 
 
 Yet whoso longeth for such good, 
 Let him take heed unto the bells 
 
 That ring in whiseprs through the wood." 
 
 1 Unintentionally, doubtless, Uhland has 
 here used the word (veil) by which the 
 Sooffees of the East express whatever inter- 
 venes opposingly between the human soul 
 and union with the Deity. A similar feeling 
 is expressed in the beautiful lines, — 
 
 "Whatever passes as a cloud between 
 The mental eye of faith and things unseen, 
 Causing that brighter world to disappear, 
 Or seem less lovely or its hopes less dear, 
 This is our world, our idol, though it bear 
 Affection's impress or devotion's air." 
 
 2 Hope's 'Historical Essay,' chap. 35. 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 309 
 
 expediency suggested the change in the first instance, although, 
 if such was the case, it must be owned that Beauty lost no 
 time in girding Utility with her cestus. But gazing rather 
 more earnestly into the millstone, may we not recognise in the 
 passage from Lombard to Gothic Architecture, that transition 
 from the Repose to the Activity of the Imagination, coupled 
 too with the first stirrings of Reason, which so remarkably 
 characterised the mind of Europe towards the close of the 
 eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century, when the 
 Crusaders, on the one hand, were crowding to Palestine, and 
 the Schoolmen, on the other, were commencing their flight 
 into the seventh heaven of theory and invention — those school- 
 men, let me observe, being almost to a man Teutons, or of 
 Teutonic blood (S. Thomas Aquinas himself not excepted), 
 and the prevalence of the Scholastic philosophy in Italy having 
 been almost exactly correspondent, in duration and extent, 
 with that of its sister, the Pointed Architecture in that country 
 — both of them exotics, never thoroughly acclimated? In 
 their death, at least, they were not divided, each of them, as 
 we shall find, having been superseded there nearly at the 
 same moment, in the fifteenth century, when the new anti-papal 
 Reasoning spirit, allying itself with Paganism in its detestation 
 of the corruptions of Imaginative Christianity, found its voice 
 in the philosophy of Macchiavelli, and in the Modern-antique, 
 or Cinquecento, Architecture — from both of which, in theology, 
 morals, politics, literature and art, we are still suffering, even 
 in our " ultima Thule " of Britain. But I must rein in this 
 devil of speculation. 
 
 Pointed, or to resume the old conventional and prescriptive 
 epithet, Gothic Architecture, 1 can only be profitably studied 
 North of the Alps ; there only has it been duly developed, 
 sympathetically and legitimately, from its fundamental principle. 
 This development has been two-fold — Generic, reflecting the 
 progress of the collective mind of Christian Teutonic Europe 
 — Special, reflecting that of each individual nation, as modified 
 
 1 See Dr. Whewell's defence of the it, — as the ' Maniera Tedesca,' or 
 
 epithet in his ' Architectural Notes on ' Gotico-Tedesca. ' But ' Gothic archi- 
 
 German Churches, ' p. 50. — 'Teutonic,' tecture' has become the classic, the 
 
 perhaps, in the restrictive sense of the prescriptive term, universally under- 
 
 term, would be at once the most com- stood and accepted by the many, and 
 
 prehensive and exclusive designation ; I should be loath to change it. 
 the Italians have always so distinguished 
 
310 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 in successive ages by its peculiar temperament and institutions. 
 Hence, in Ecclesiastical architecture, the various styles suc- 
 cessively prevalent in Germany, Flanders, France, England — 
 those for instance, named Early English, Decorated, Perpen- 
 dicular and Tudor, in our own island, 1 each of them distinct, 
 and yet akin to corresponding, though not always contemporary 
 varieties in other countries, — hence in Civil, but more especially 
 in Domestic architecture, the peculiar character observable in 
 every old town in Flanders and Germany — in Ghent, Bruges, 
 Antwerp, Cologne — Liibeck to the North, Innspruck to the 
 South — and to name but one more, the most picturesque 
 perhaps of all Teutonic cities, Nuremberg — each, like a faithful 
 mirror, reflecting the aristocratic or democratic tendencies of 
 the spot, yet all expressive of that leading idea, that watchword 
 of the Teutonic race, Individuality and Home, — whilst amid 
 all this apparent confusion, this crossing and intermingling 
 of the lines of life on the hand of art, the great channels of 
 feeling and thought remain unclogged and prominent, the 
 special ranges within the generic, the partial within the uni- 
 versal — the veins report themselves to the arteries, and the 
 arteries to the heart, and that heart is still, as in the old 
 Lombard day, Cologne — where the soul of Charlemagne 
 himself seems to have inspired the architect who conceived 
 the stupendous idea of the Cathedral — still and ever, fragment 
 though it be, the giant's step towards heaven in Gothic 
 Architecture. 
 
 But Architecture, as I said above, is symbolical, Sculpture 
 and Painting are positive — dependent, that is to say, on Form, 
 on the possession and correct appreciation of the relics of the 
 elder world, the marbles of Greece and Rome. These were 
 to be found only in Italy. It was in Italy, therefore — yet 
 not till Gothic Architecture had been introduced there from 
 Germany — that Sculpture and Painting revived in earnest ; it 
 was from Italy, consequently, that the great impulse was given 
 
 1 First discriminated and named by tecture — Saxon, Early Norman, Late 
 
 Mr. Rickman. And see Dr. Whewell's Norman, Early Plantagenet (Early 
 
 observations, ' Arc hit. Notes,' p. 50. English), Middle Plantagenet (Decor- 
 
 I cannot, however, refrain from re- ated), Late Plantagenet (Perpendicu- 
 
 ferring to a nomenclature advocated lar), Tudor, and Stuart, including under 
 
 by Mr. A. J. B. Hope ( ' Ecclesiolo- the latter designation, the revival of 
 
 gist,' torn. i. p. 192), which certainly Gothic Architecture under James. I. 
 
 link's Architecture with History much and Charles I. The merit of scientific 
 
 more agreeably. He proposes to name classification of course remains with 
 
 the successive styles of English archi- Mr. Rickman. 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 311 
 
 to Sculpture North of the Alps, and through Sculpture, to 
 Painting, — Italy, therefore, takes the precedence from hence- 
 forth in the history of art, and I shall accordingly devote the 
 remainder of the present letter, and those immediately succeed- 
 ing it, to the consideration of Gothic Architecture as naturalised 
 in Italy, and extending her wing of fosterage and protection 
 over her new-born sisters, deferring that of the corresponding 
 development of Sculpture and Painting in Germany, to the 
 close of this First and peculiarly Spiritual Period of European 
 Art. 1 
 
 1 On the question of pure Gothic 
 Architecture let me refer to Mr. Hope's 
 'Historical Essay,' chap. 32, etc., and 
 Dr. Whewell's 'Architectural Notes,' 
 and also his ' History of the Inductive 
 Sciences,' torn. i. pp. 343, sqq. The 
 works also of Messrs. Rickman, Mark- 
 land, Bloxham, Britton and Pugin on 
 Gothic Architecture are well known 
 and of great merit, the latter gentleman, 
 especially, entering much more fully 
 into its symbolism and principles as 
 connected with religion. The ' Gloss- 
 ary of Architecture, ' of which a new 
 edition has just appeared, is also a 
 mine of information. This latter work, 
 however, and numberless others re- 
 cently published, tacitly pass over the 
 early Roman, Byzantine and Lombard 
 styles, and assume that Gothic and 
 Christian Architecture are synonymous, 
 and that the ancient Gothic churches 
 of England are precisely in harmony 
 with her existing formularies and faith. 
 I much fear that Mr. Pugin is right — 
 that it is "as utterly impossible to 
 square a Catholic building with the 
 present rites as to mingle oil with 
 water, " — that ' ' those who think merely 
 to build chancels without reviving the 
 ancient faith, will be miserably deceived 
 in their expectation, " — that "the study 
 of ancient church architecture " (in 
 such an exclusive spirit) "is an admir- 
 able preparation for the old faith," — 
 and that ' ' if the present revival of 
 Catholic antiquity is suffered to proceed 
 much farther, it will be seen that either 
 the Common Prayer or the ancient 
 
 models must be abandoned. " — Ecclesi- 
 astical Antiquities, pp. 130, 137, 
 etc. But what is the alternative ? the 
 Meeting-house ? By no means. The 
 Church of England is neither Catholic 
 nor Protestant — she does not with the 
 Catholics exalt Imagination and repu- 
 diate Reason, nor with the Protestants 
 exalt Reason and repudiate Imagina- 
 tion, but includes them both, harmoni- 
 ously opposed, within her constitution, 
 so as to preserve the balance of truth, 
 and point out the true ' Via Media ' 
 between Superstition on the one hand 
 and Scepticism on the other, thus 
 approximating (in degree) to the Ideal 
 of human nature, Christ Incarnate, of 
 whom the Church is the Body and 
 ought to be the Likeness and the Image, 
 This then is the problem — England 
 wants a new Architecture, expressive 
 of the epoch, of her Anglican faith 
 and of the human mind as balanced 
 in her development, as heir of the 
 past and trustee for the future — a 
 modification, it may be, of the Gothic, 
 but not otherwise so than as the Gothic 
 was a modification of the Lombard, 
 the Lombard of the Byzantine and 
 Roman, the Byzantine and Roman of 
 the Classic Greek, the Classic Greek 
 of the Egyptian. We have a right 
 to expect this from the importance of 
 the epoch, and I see no reason why 
 the Man to create it, the Buschetto of 
 the nineteenth century, may not be 
 among us at this moment, although 
 we know it not. 
 
312 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 Section 3.— Gothic Architecture South of the Alps. 
 
 It was not till the thirteenth century, long after acquiring the 
 supremacy in Germany, France, and England, that the new 
 style crossed the Alps. Its first appearance is in the con- 
 ventual church of S. Francis, at Assisi, finished by a German 
 architect in 1230, — beautiful in itself, and still more interest, 
 ing as the cradle of Italian painting. It consists, properly 
 speaking, of two churches, one above the other, — the Upper 
 broad and spacious, preserving the usual form of the Latin 
 cross, but free from side chapels and from every incumbrance, 
 and lighted by broad and lofty windows, cheerful and almost 
 gay in its general appearance — the Lower, gloomy as the 
 grave, which it is designed to imitate ; the nave is lined by 
 chapels, dark and obscure like sepulchral recesses, the windows 
 are small, the arches round and low, bending heavily over the 
 shrine of S. Francis, situated in the centre of the transept, and 
 below which again you may descend deeper still, to a sub- 
 terraneous crypt, or excavation, in which his relics actually 
 repose. Nowhere is the distinctive symbolism of the Lombard 
 and Gothic Architecture more strikingly contrasted, and the 
 whole scheme of decoration seems to have been planned in 
 reference to it. I shall have repeated opportunities of 
 recurring to this, when speaking of the early painters of Pisa 
 and Florence. I may add that the style of the Upper church 
 has extended to the city which has grown up around the 
 monastery; pointed arches are to be seen everywhere, and the 
 place has more of the look of the middle ages than (perhaps) 
 any other in Italy. 
 
 But setting aside this church at Assisi, and a few similar 
 structures (of which I may specify the Duomo at Milan, the 
 Ducal Palace at Venice, and S. Giovanni a Carbonara at 
 Naples, all built by German architects in the course of the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries), few buildings of any 
 importance in Italy present the pure unmingled Gothic of the 
 North. 1 Classical influences, far less propitious to the sym- 
 
 1 Not indeed that these are pure curious tinge of the Arabesque or 
 
 Northern Gothic, except in comparison Saracenic. The Gothic influence was 
 
 with those of Italian erection. For Dr. strongest at Naples, even during the 
 
 Whewell's criticisms on Milan Cathe- middle ages, through the Normans 
 
 dral, see his ' Architectural Notes, ' p. and the dynasty of Anjou, closely 
 
 34, — still it is a glorious pile. The connected with the North, 
 palace of the Doges exhibits a most 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 313 
 
 bolical than the positive in Art, still lingered there, and 
 necessarily modified it. A new school of architects arose 
 during the latter half of the thirteenth century, and filled Italy 
 with churches and cloisters, public palaces and halls, in a style 
 of much beauty, but superficial and essentially Southern in its 
 character. Niccola Pisano was the founder of this school — 
 the parent of Sculpture and Painting through his judicious use 
 of antiquity, a man of whom in that respect it would be im- 
 possible to speak too highly, but whose fame would have stood 
 higher had he adhered strictly to his Transalpine models in 
 Architecture. The church of S. Antony at Padua, part of the 
 Duomo at Pistoja, and the campaniles of that church and of 
 S. Niccolb at Pisa (the latter a most ingenious structure) are 
 works of Niccola, — his son, Giovanni, built the Campo Santo, 
 or cemetery of Pisa, for the reception of the sacred earth 
 brought from Jerusalem by the Archbishop Ubaldo after the 
 expulsion of the Christians by Saladin, the most beautiful 
 cloister perhaps in the world, and, next to the church of Assisi, 
 the principal sanctuary of early Italian painting. In 1279, the 
 year after the Campo Santo was begun, Fra Ristoro, Fra Sisto, 
 and some other Dominican monks, pupils evidently of the 
 same school, laid the first stone of their monastery at Florence, 
 S. Maria Novella ; and about five years afterwards, the sculptor 
 Arnolfo, pupil of Niccola, settled there, relinquished sculpture 
 for architecture, and spent the rest of his life in the service of 
 the republic, then in the spring-tide of her greatness, rearing 
 those vast and splendid piles which stamp the fair city with a 
 character so peculiarly her own. 1 His first work was the 
 Ultimo Cerchio, or outer circle, of the walls; in 1284, he 
 commenced that singular building, originally a granary, now a 
 church surmounted by a record-ofiice, the Orsanmichele ; the 
 following year, the Loggia de' Priori, now no more ; the date 
 of the Palace of the Podesta, now called the Bargello, and 
 used as a public prison — an awful pile, gloomy without and 
 most characteristic within — is less certain, but it was probably 
 built during the years that immediately succeeded. In 1294, 
 he began the Franciscan church of S. Croce, and incrusted 
 the Baptistery with black and white marbles, after a fashion 
 possibly of Saracenic origin, and of which the first example 
 had been set by Buschetto in the Duomo at Pisa. In 1295, he 
 built a fortress in the Val d'Arno, which gave such satisfaction 
 
 1 Vasari, Life of Arnolfo. 
 
314 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 that he was admitted to the citizenship, and shortly afterwards 
 he seems to have begun the Palazzo Vecchio, the most striking 
 building at Florence, and which certainly gains in character 
 from the popular prejudice which would not permit him to 
 extend its foundations over the site of the demolished palaces 
 of the Ghibelline Uberti — a space still preserved free and un- 
 encroached upon, under the name of the Piazza del Gran Duca. 
 Finally, in 1298, according to Vasari, but probably five or six 
 years earlier, he commenced the Duomo, under the respon- 
 sibility of making it the loftiest, most sumptuous and most 
 magnificent pile that human wit could conceive or labour 
 execute — " the wisest of this city," says the decree, " being of 
 common counsel and consent, that the republic should under- 
 take nothing unless with the determination to carry it forth 
 from idea into performance commensurate with the grandeur 
 of a soul composed of the minds of the whole community 
 united and resolved into one single will and purpose," — the 
 most ample and fearless commission, surely, ever awarded to 
 man or architect. 1 The building was begun at once, and 
 prosecuted with such vigour, that the three tribunes were 
 already vaulted over at the death of the architect in 1300. 
 Andrea Pisano, Giotto — who reared the beautiful Campanile 
 — and Orcagna successively held the office of Capo-Maestro, 
 or chief architect, during the following century, but after the 
 death of the latter it was left unfinished for many years, till 
 the celebrated Brunellesco completed the pile by rearing the 
 cupola, a hundred and fifty years after the death of the first 
 projector, Arnolfo. But the name of Brunellesco announces 
 a new era in architecture, that of the Cinquecento or revived 
 antique : Many intimations of the approaching revolution — 
 of a tendency, that is to say, to relapse into the Lombard, as 
 
 1 The words are as follows, in the dall' industria e potere degli uomini, 
 
 ' Libro alle Riformagioni, ' for the secondo che da piu savj di questa 
 
 year 1294. "Atteso che la somma citta e stato detto e consigliato in 
 
 prudenza d'un populo d' origine pubblica e privata adunanza, non 
 
 grande sia di procedere nelli affari doversi intraprendere cose del comune, 
 
 suoi di modo, che dalle operazioni se il concetto non e di farle corri- 
 
 esteriori si riconosca non meno il spondenti ad un cuore, che vien fatto 
 
 savio, che magnanimo suo operare, si grandissimo, perche composto dell' 
 
 ordina ad Arnolfo capo maestro del animo di piu cittadini uniti insieme in 
 
 nostro comune, che faccia un modello un sol volere, molto piu doversi ci6, 
 
 osia di segno della rinovazione di considerata la qualita di quella cate- 
 
 Santa Reparata, con quella piu alta e dra." From Dr. Ernst Forster's 
 
 somma magnificenza, che inventar ' Beitrage zurneuernKunstgeschichte,' 
 
 non si possa ne maggiore ne piu bella Leipz. 8vo., 1835, p. 152. 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 315 
 
 transitional to the Classic — had appeared during the fourteenth 
 century, — the arches of the Campo Santo at Pisa are an 
 instance of this ; they are not pointed but round, the delicate 
 tracery being of later insertion ; so were those of the Orsan- 
 michele, previous to the intercolumniations being built up, — 
 and such are the three reared with such surpassing grandeur 
 and elegance by Orcagna, in the Piazza del Gran Duca (then 
 del Popolo), as a Loggia for the priors and standard-bearer of 
 the republic, 1 and which similarly have exchanged their 
 original name of Loggia de' Priori, for that of Loggia de' Lanzi, 
 commemorative of the Swiss lanz-knechts, or guards of the 
 Medici; they form the most beautiful portico in Italy, and 
 Michael Angelo, on being consulted by Cosmo I. on the decora- 
 tions of Florence, recommended him to extend them all round the 
 piazza. But for the Gothic cornice, this lovely Loggia might have 
 been cited as one of the earliest specimens of the Cinquecento. 2 
 Another branch of the Pisan school had in the meanwhile 
 settled at Siena, nowise behindhand in architectural enterprise 
 during these stirring times. Like Pisa, her predecessor and 
 ally in power, she had commenced her cathedral in the 
 eleventh century, but it had been much longer in hand, and 
 when completed, the facade proved unsatisfactory ; it was 
 destroyed, and a new design was obtained from Giovanni 
 Pisano in 1284; Lorenzo Maitani, a Sienese, but evidently 
 of the Pisan school, completed it in 1290, and laid the founda- 
 tions, that same year, of the equally celebrated Duomo at 
 Orvieto, where he settled definitively, in 1 3 1 o, at the requisition 
 of the inhabitants, whom he had provoked by his repeated 
 and prolonged absences. 3 His place at Siena was worthily 
 
 1 It is described as the ' Loggia 
 Dominorum Priorum et Vexilliferi, ' 
 and ' Loggia Dominorum Priorum, ' 
 in contemporary documents, cited by 
 Baldinucci, ' Notizie de' Professori del 
 Disegno, da Cimabue in qua, ' torn, ii, 
 p. 142, edit. Manni, Flor. 1767. 
 
 2 This loggia was begun between 
 1374, in which year the houses on 
 which it stood had not been bought, 
 and 1377, when it was in progress, as 
 appears by documents cited by Nic- 
 colini (the poet), in his ' Elogio d' 
 Andrea Orgagna,' Florence, 18 16, p. 
 xl. — The poet's estimate of its beauty 
 is not exaggerated ; "Alia vista," he 
 
 says, ' ' di questo portico, il piu bello 
 del mondo, rimane il core commosso, 
 1' occhio occupato e soddisfatto, 1' 
 unita non vi produce la noia ; e 
 quantunque nei pilastri decorati d' un 
 ordine Corintio di barbara maniera, 
 poco il nostro artefice si discosti dallo 
 stile de' suoi contemporanei, pure le 
 modinature, gli aggetti, gl' intagli son 
 cosi bene adattati alia massa generale, 
 che ne risulta quell' armonica quiete 
 per cui 1' anima soddisfatta s' appaga. 
 p. xxiv. 
 
 3 ' Storia del Duomo di Orvieto, ' 
 by the Abate Dellavalle, Rome, 4to., 
 1794, pp. 98, 248. 
 
316 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter 
 
 supplied by the brothers Agostino and Agnolo, pupils of 
 Giovanni Pisano, and then rapidly rising in reputation. They 
 had been entrusted, in 1308, with the elevation of that noble 
 pile the Palazzo Pubblico, and were afterwards appointed 
 public architects, in which capacity they served their country 
 for many years, generally working together, though sometimes 
 apart. They were distinguished as sculptors also, but it is as 
 architects that they are thought of at Siena, where every 
 street and almost every house in the older parts of the town 
 recalls their memory — their peculiar and highly picturesque 
 style having been followed by a crowd of nameless, or at 
 least fameless, imitators, till drowned in the universal deluge 
 of the Cinquecento. 1 
 
 These Tuscan-Gothic buildings are fine, unquestionably, 
 more especially those (and I wish to lay an emphasis on the 
 distinction) which are Civil, not Ecclesiastical. As public 
 palaces, nothing can be nobler, they bear the stamp of 
 true grandeur ; but as churches, as Gothic churches at least, 
 I can praise them only with a qualification ; they are far 
 inferior to their Northern prototypes — the leading idea of the 
 Pointed Architecture is not only never carried out, but seems 
 never even to have been comprehended; S. Croce, S. Maria 
 Novella, are essentially Lombard edifices, the pointed arch 
 occurring as if by chance, the vertical principle snubbed (as 
 it were) whenever it attempts to assert its natural tendency. 
 And were anything wanting to prove how completely the 
 spirit of the active, arrowy Gothic has been misapprehended, 
 it would be enough to remark that in their most admired 
 structures, in their earliest and latest efforts, in S. Antonio 
 of Padua and in the Duomos of Florence, Siena, and Orvieto, 
 Niccola Pisano and his followers wed fire with water, in 
 uniting the pointed arch to the cupola. The consequence 
 is inevitable under such circumstances — the more august 
 member gives the tone of feeling, and subordinates that of 
 less importance, and the pointed arch accordingly either 
 escapes notice altogether, or, if too obtrusive, annoys one 
 by suggesting the semblance of a fop perpetually interrupting 
 the meditations of a philosopher. 2 The very perpetuation, 
 
 1 See Dellavalle's ' Lettere Sanesi, ' 
 Rome, 3 torn. 4.1:0. , 1786, torn, ii, pp. 
 168 sqq., and passi?n. For the char- 
 
 acter of this work see a^note to Section 
 Third of the following letter. 
 
 2 I know not whether an appeal to 
 
i. LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 317 
 
 more especially at Florence, of the alternate horizontal courses 
 of black and white marble, the cherished legacy of the Pisan 
 Buschetto, neutralises the vertical principle of Gothic archi- 
 tecture. 1 
 
 The fact was, as I have already indeed shown, that the 
 Italians, ever, as a nation, contemplative rather than dramatic, 
 always sighed for the Roman arch and the Eastern dome, 
 and when, during the early years of the fifteenth century, 
 Brunellesco appeared in the field, with the rules of the old 
 Roman art, and the genius which knew how to apply them, 
 they eschewed the pointed arch and the vertical principle 
 at once and for ever. Independently of the gradual dying 
 away of the Christian and chivalric spirit throughout Europe 
 — so visible in the gradually lower and lower depression of 
 the pointed arch — and independently too of the successive 
 proscriptions of the Freemasons, to which I attach little 
 importance, as they had outlived their usefulness — I cannot 
 but think that an innate physical and intellectual distaste 
 dictated the abandonment of Gothic Architecture in Italy. 
 
 I have written this letter with much diffidence, and with 
 the full consciousness that the study of a life would scarcely 
 justify me in speaking on the subject. But the little I have said 
 
 the Campanile of Giotto would not 
 be more effectual than argument on 
 this subject. According to the origi- 
 nal plan, it was to be surmounted by 
 a spire a hundred and fifty feet high ; 
 let the reader stand before it, and 
 ask himself whether, with Michael 
 Scott at his elbow or Aladdin's lamp 
 in his hand, he would supply the 
 deficiency? I think not. Its spirit 
 is thoroughly Lombard. 
 
 1 My unfavourable opinion of ' Ital- 
 ian-Gothic' is chiefly based on what 
 I conceive to be its confusion of ideas, 
 its metaphysical untruth. In a scien- 
 tific point of view, I doubt not its 
 meriting the praise bestowed upon it 
 by Professor Willis in his ' Remarks 
 on the Architecture of the Middle 
 Ages, especially of Italy' (Cambr., 
 8vo., 1835), a standard book. Yet 
 Mr. Knight's distaste is expressed 
 still more strongly than my own, and 
 apparently both on the ground of 
 symbolism and science. "In Italy," 
 
 says that gentleman, "if the vertical 
 principle was adopted, the horizontal 
 principle was not discarded, and the 
 latter was a constant check on the 
 tendencies of the former. The Italian 
 architects, obeying their employers, 
 but obeying with reluctance, never 
 acquainted themselves with the rules, 
 the proportions and the arrangements, 
 through which the Northern architects 
 produced successful results. They 
 worked at random, and consequently 
 made mistakes. They consented to 
 imitate, but they sought no more, 
 and neither caught the spirit of the 
 original, nor struck out new paths 
 of their own. . . . Upon the whole 
 the pointed style in Italy has always 
 the appearance of an exotic plant, 
 permitted to live, and pleasing to a 
 certain degree, but deficient in vigour, 
 and never obtaining the height or the 
 development at which it arrives on the 
 Northern side of the Alps." — Archi- 
 tectural Antiquities, etc., Introd. p. ix. 
 
318 LOMBARD & GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, letter i. 
 
 is essential to my purpose of tracing Christian art in the 
 origin and connection of its distinct departments — for it is a 
 fact, that I hope to establish in the course of these Sketches, 
 that Sculpture and Painting, both in the South and in the 
 North, revived in strict alliance with Gothic Architecture — 
 and that Painting, in particular, reached perfection in Italy 
 long indeed after the extinction of that style South of the 
 Alps, but still in the succession of a line of artists, few but 
 faithful, whose sympathies induced them to stand apart from 
 the throng that followed in the triumph of the comparatively 
 anti- Christian Cinquecento. I have sketched, in a word, a 
 bold architectural background ; I shall now proceed to intro- 
 duce group after group till the picture of this opening period 
 of Christian Art be complete. 
 
CHRISTIAN ART OF MODERN 
 EUROPE. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Development of the Christian Element, Spirit — Lombard and 
 Gothic, or Pointed Architecture — Rise of Sculpture and 
 Painting — Expression. 
 
 II. SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS, AND ITALICO- BY- 
 ZANTINE REVIVALS IN SCULPTURE, MOSAIC AND 
 PAINTING, ANTERIOR TO THE ASCENDENCY OF 
 NICCOLA PISANO. 
 
 Sect. i. — Sculpture. Sect. 2. — Mosaics. Sect. 3. — Painting. 
 
LETTER II. 
 
 SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS, 
 
 AND ITALICO- BYZANTINE REVIVALS, 
 
 IN SCULPTURE, MOSAIC AND PAINTING, ANTERIOR TO 
 THE ASCENDENCY OF NICCOLA PISANO. 
 
 From the conclusion of the preceding letter you will naturally 
 expect an introduction in the present to Niccola Pisano, 
 the parent of modern Sculpture and Painting, as developed 
 in alliance with Gothic Architecture. But a transition period 
 must first be noticed, during which the artists of Italy endea- 
 voured to express the new life which stirred in their veins 
 through the types and traditions, and in the style and spirit 
 of the Menologion and the Dalmatica, and in association, 
 for the most part, with that elder Lombard Architecture, 
 which maintained such close affinity and deep sympathy with 
 that of Byzantium. These efforts were, with few exceptions, 
 insulated, and however laudable in themselves, would merit 
 little notice had the mind which conceived, expired in giving 
 them birth. But such was not the case, and the period in 
 question may be not unaptly compared to that which usually 
 intervenes in the life of a poet, between the hour when he 
 first becomes aware of his vocation, and that in which he 
 walks abroad in the conscious might of originality — a period 
 of Imitation, during which he endeavours to invest the bright 
 images and daring thoughts that visit his solitude with the 
 measure, cadence and peculiar phraseology of his most admired 
 predecessors in song, — like a young eaglet gazing on the sun 
 long ere its unfledged pinion enables it to rise from the 
 ground. The productions of that immature period are in later 
 life looked back upon with a smile, yet to the critic and 
 biographer they have their value as documents witnessing 
 
 VOL. I Y 
 
322 SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS. letter 
 
 to the intellectual growth of their author. It is under shelter 
 of this analogy that I propose to devote the few following 
 pages to a brief review of the Sculpture, Mosaics and Painting 
 of Italy, immediately antecedent to the new and peculiarly 
 original style introduced at Pisa, Siena and Florence during 
 the latter half of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Section i. — Sculpture. 
 
 The Sculpture of this period falls naturally into two sub- 
 divisions, strictly correspondent with the two periods, the 
 earlier and the later, of Lombard Architecture. The earlier 
 is the more original. It may be seen in full development on 
 the facade of S. Michele at Pavia — rude indeed to a degree, 
 but full of fire and a living record of the daring race that 
 created it. The archangel trampling down the dragon appears 
 over the central door, S. George similarly victorious, and 
 Jonah vomited by the whale, over those to the right and left ; 
 while in the jambs of the arches and in belts running along 
 the walls, kindred subjects are sculptured in every direction 
 and without the least apparent connection — dragons, griffins, 
 eagles, snakes, sphinxes, centaurs — the whole mythological 
 menagerie which our ancestors brought with them from their 
 native Iran, — and these either fighting with each other or 
 with Lombard warriors, or amicably interlaced with human 
 figures, male and female, or grinning and ready to fly at you 
 from the grey walls — interspersed with warriors breaking in 
 horses or following the hounds, minstrels, and even tumblers, 
 or at least figures standing on their heads ; in short, the 
 strong impress everywhere meets you of a wild and bold 
 equestrian nation, glorying in war, delighting in horses and the 
 chase, falconry, music and gymnastics — ever in motion, never 
 sitting still — credulous, too, of old wives' stories, and tenacious 
 of whatever of marvellous and strange had arrested their 
 fancy during their long pilgrimage from the East, — for zodiacs 
 from Chaldsea, and emblems of the stirring mythology of 
 Scandinavia, constantly alternate, in these and similar pro- 
 ductions, with the delineation of those pastimes or pursuits 
 which their peculiar habits induced them to reiterate with 
 such zest and frequency. But they are rude, most rude ; do 
 not mistake me, — I plead only that they are life-like, and 
 speak with a tongue which those who love the Runic rhyme 
 
SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS. 323 
 
 and the traditions of the North, and feel kindred blood warm 
 in their veins, will understand and give ear to. 1 
 
 Sculptures of similar character, though none, I think, so 
 fiery and original, may be seen in other of the early Lombard 
 churches, and in them too the character and habitual associa- 
 tions of the Lombards may be distinctly read. To the left 
 of the doorway of S. Zenone at Verona, for instance, you may 
 see two warriors charging with lances, and a figure running 
 another through with his sword (appropriate decorations truly 
 for the temple of the God of peace !) — and to the right, 
 King Theodoric (the Dietrich I fancy of the Hildebrand-lay 
 and the Helden-buch), on horseback, chasing the stag with 
 his hounds, and bound, according to the inscription, to Hell, 
 — a version probably, and a very early one, of that truly 
 Teutonic legend, the wild Huntsman. 2 We approximate to 
 chivalry at the Duomo, where the door is guarded by rude 
 
 1 Mr. Knight notices ' ' the very- 
 remarkable resemblance existing be- 
 tween the portals of the Italian " (Lom- 
 bard) ' ' churches and the portals of 
 the oldest churches of Norway. The 
 monsters and the singular mode in 
 which they are combined and inter- 
 laced, bear so great a similarity to 
 each other in both places, that the 
 coincidence can hardly be regarded 
 as merely accidental." I shall have 
 occasion hereafter to point out similar 
 resemblances between the Italian- 
 Lombard and the Norman churches 
 in England. — For the sports of the 
 Lombards see Gibbon, chap. 45. 
 The ' Chase ' of merry England has 
 its origin in the same remote antiquity, 
 both countries apparently perpetu- 
 ating in this respect the ancient 
 manners of Iran, as described in the 
 Cyropsedia. The beneficial influence 
 of the Chase on our national char- 
 acter has scarcely as yet been ade- 
 quately appreciated, but it was great, 
 and this we owe to the Norman 
 mixture, for as Somerville says (himself 
 a Norman) in his charming poem, its 
 mysteries as a science were hardly 
 understood 
 
 " till, from Neustria's coasts, 
 Victorious William to more decent rules 
 Subdued our Saxon fathers, taught to 
 speak 
 
 The proper dialect, with horn and voice 
 To cheer the busy hound." 
 
 — Boxing, on the other hand, the 
 influence of which, in its rules of fair 
 play, has been scarcely less beneficial 
 than that of the Chase, would seem 
 to be purely Saxon. Prize-fighting is 
 to the one what battues are to the 
 other — corruption and degradation — 
 slaughterous, unmanly, and unworthy 
 of that noble compound of Saxon 
 and Norman, the Englishman. Of 
 the mystic animals introduced in 
 these sculptures, the griffin is peculi- 
 arly Oriental, and may be seen to this 
 day among the ruins of Persepolis. 
 The eagle too is not of Roman but 
 Scandinavian and Iranian ancestry ; 
 originally, it would appear, emble- 
 matic of the omni vision of the Deity. 
 As a commentary on this love of the 
 monstrous and the marvellous, I may 
 refer to the ' Historia de Gentibus 
 Septentrionalibus ' of Olaus Magnus, 
 especially the edition with woodcuts, 
 printed at Rome in 1555. 
 
 2 From another inscription the 
 sculptures of this portal appear to 
 be by artists named Nicholas and 
 William. See the description of S. 
 Zenone in Murray's admirable Hand- 
 book for Northern Italy. 
 
324 SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS. letter 
 
 statues of Roland and Oliver, paladins of Charlemagne, — 
 the sword of the former inscribed with its redoubted name, 
 Durindarda. 1 
 
 Another peculiarity of this first epoch of Lombard sculp- 
 ture is the grotesque imagery introduced into the capitals of 
 the columns, or piers, within the church, and exhibiting the 
 same monsters, aerial, aquatic and terrestrial, that decorate 
 the exterior walls ; this, however, was gradually disused, and 
 in the later Lombard architecture the capitals are usually 
 rude imitations of the Corinthian. 
 
 In commencing the second millennium, we find an im- 
 provement in Sculpture, coincident with that in Architecture. 
 Its first appearance is in the monsters which it now became 
 the fashion to introduce in the porches of churches, for the 
 pillars that supported their roofs to rest upon, — partly for 
 ornament, and partly, as I said before, as talismans or 
 guardians, to frighten away evil spirits. Griffins and lions, 
 the former implying the union of the divine and human 
 nature in the person of Christ, the latter the strength and 
 watchfulness of the Church, appear most frequently in this 
 position, couched and grasping in their paws, or talons, wolves, 
 serpents and similar beasts of prey, typical of Satan. They 
 are generally well executed, often admirably. Among the 
 finest in this style are the two lions of the porch of S. 
 Cyriaco at Ancona; they are of red marble, and full of 
 spirit and fire — most masterly, both in conception and exe- 
 cution ; the one grasps a ram, the other a large snake, which 
 bites him, however, on the breast. Sometimes these monsters 
 were set up on the roofs of cathedrals ; the bronze Hippogryph, 
 once perched on the East end of that of Pisa, but now 
 translated to the Campo Santo, is an instance of this. 2 In 
 process of time the different states of Italy adopted them as 
 
 1 Dramatic representations, how- the ninth century. Having been pre- 
 
 ever, of sacred subjects are by no vented from seeing it when last at 
 
 means excluded from the Sculpture Milan, I must refer to Cicognara, 
 
 of the Lombards, but they generally Storia, della Sculiura, torn. i. p. 163, 
 
 want that impress of national character and Agincourt, SculpUire, pi. 26, 
 
 which would redeem their rudeness, and corresponding text. 
 The most interesting display of these 2 Theories innumerable have been 
 
 is to be seen at Milan in the falliotto, broached regarding this creature, the 
 
 or shrine of S. Ambrose, executed by Chimaera and puzzle of Pisa. See 
 
 Wolfinus (Wolfing, probably, in the Morrona's 'Pisa Illustrata,' torn. i. p. 
 
 original German), who describes him- 320, ed. 8vo., and Cicognara, torn, 
 
 self as a "magister faber," or master i. p. 187. 
 smith, a little before the middle of 
 
ii. SCULPTURE OF THE LOMBARDS. 325 
 
 their crests, 1 and sculptured them at the doors of their town- 
 halls and public buildings ; the fashion gradually spread over 
 Europe, and is retained to this day in the supporters of the 
 heraldic escutcheons of kings and noblemen. Heraldry is, 
 in fact, the last remnant of the ancient Symbolism, and a 
 legitimate branch of Christian Art; the griffins and unicorns, 
 fesses and cheverons, the very tinctures or colours, are all 
 symbolical, — each has its mystic meaning, singly and in 
 combination, and thus every genuine old coat of arms preaches 
 a lesson of chivalric honour and Christian principle to those 
 that inherit it, — truths little suspected now-a-days in our 
 Heralds' Offices ! 
 
 But with the exception of these mystic watchers, this 
 Second period of Lombard Sculpture, or as I should now 
 more correctly term it, this Sculpture of the Freemasons, was 
 characterised by a gradual abandonment of the purely Teutonic 
 element, the monstrous imagery of the earlier age, and a more 
 studious imitation of Byzantine or ecclesiastical models. The 
 point of transition may be fixed at Modena, where the chisel 
 of Wiligelmus (William), an artist highly celebrated at the 
 beginning of the twelfth century, has impartially illustrated 
 the history of the antediluvian world, the Passion of Our Lord, 
 the legend of S. Gimignano, and, in one singular bas-relief, 
 the exploits of Arthur of Britain — the grotesque being every- 
 where abandoned for the serious, yet the serious as yet 
 unennobled by a purer design or loftier expression ; while 
 the artist seems still to have sought for originality apart from 
 the Byzantine compositions. 2 A closer adherence to these 
 is evinced in the vast bas-relief of the Last Judgment, 
 
 1 The whole series are represented 
 in mosaic on the pavement of the 
 Cathedral at Siena — to be noticed 
 hereafter. 
 
 2 The bas-relief representing King 
 Arthur decorates a doorway near the 
 Campanile. The story of S. Gimig- 
 nano, bishop of Ravenna, will be found 
 above a small door on the southern 
 side of the Cathedral, opening into 
 the nave. The scenes represented 
 are, his journey to Constantinople — 
 the storm that, assailed his vessel after 
 embarkation, and which, on being 
 awakened, like Our Saviour, he quieted 
 by a command — his healing the daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Jovian, for which 
 
 he had been summoned from Ravenna 
 — his reception from the Emperor of 
 a rich chalice as an offering of gratitude 
 — his interview with Attila, whom he 
 saluted as the Scourge of God — and 
 his funeral obsequies. I cannot say 
 much for these sculptures. But those 
 above and between the three doors of 
 the principal facade, are not void of 
 merit, and the Sacrifice, especially, of 
 Cain and Abel, to the right of the 
 principal entrance, is remarkable for 
 a figure with its hands tied behind its 
 back, kneeling on one knee before 
 our Saviour, possibly a personification 
 of human nature bound with sin and 
 corruption since the Fall. Finally, in 
 
326 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 executed a few years later on the facade of the Cathedral at 
 Ferrara; the execution is, however, little, if at all, superior. 
 But a decided revival, however faint, is perceptible in the 
 sculptures of Biduino, over the door of the Baptistery at Pisa, 1 
 and though the bronze gate cast by his contemporary, the still 
 more celebrated Bonanno, in 1180, for the Cathedral of Pisa, 
 was destroyed by fire in the sixteenth century, a similar one, 
 executed by that artist six years afterwards for that of Monreale, 
 in Sicily, still exists, and, judging by the engravings in the 
 folio of the Duca di Serradifalco and the ' Storia della Pittura 
 Italiana ' of Rosini, 2 amply vindicates his improvement on the 
 style of his predecessors. In composition, Bonanno adheres 
 closely to the traditional subjects of Byzantium, but inter- 
 sperses a few of the Lombard monsters in the foliage and 
 ornaments. 3 
 
 Bonanno, it has been conjectured, may have been Niccola's 
 first instructor ; be that as it may, there can be no doubt that 
 he prepared the way for him, that he was his lineal ancestor 
 in art, and that in Sculpture as in Architecture, the honour of 
 revival, South of the Alps, rests with Pisa. 
 
 Nevertheless, an artist existed contemporary with Bonanno, 
 isolated and without succession, to whom I should assign the 
 palm of superiority over every sculptor of Italy anterior to the 
 great Niccola. I allude to Benedetto degli Antelami, of 
 Parma, whose bas-relief of the Deposition is preserved in the 
 Duomo. It is beautiful in composition (slightly varied from 
 the Byzantine), full of expression, and far less rude in work- 
 manship than one would expect from the period when it was 
 
 the chapel at the extremity of the 
 Southern nave (lateral to the elevated 
 choir), are the series of subjects re- 
 presenting the Passion of Our Lord, 
 very rude, but occasionally spirited, 
 as in the groups representing Our 
 Saviour waking the Apostles, and his 
 Arraignment before Pilate — where his 
 figure is expressive and dignified, 
 although the face is very inferior. — 
 For a specimen of Wiligelmus, see 
 Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 7. 
 
 1 See Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 7. 
 
 2 See the work by the patriotic 
 Duke, entitled ' Del Duomo di Monreale 
 e dialtre Chiese Siculo-Normanne Rag- 
 ionamenti Tre,' Palermo, fol. 1838, tav. 
 4, and torn. i. p. 162 of the 'Storia,' 
 
 etc. , by the learned and accomplished 
 Professor Rosini of Pisa. 
 
 3 There is another very curious 
 bronze door at Benevento, which I 
 know only by the engravings of Ciam- 
 pini, who considers it of the end of 
 the eleventh, or beginning of the 
 twelfth century. — Vett. Monimenta, 
 torn. ii. p. 24, sqq. Some of the 
 compositions evince originality ; the 
 devil is represented in human shape, 
 as by the Byzantines, — but my im- 
 pression from the style is, that it is of 
 Italian workmanship. The Hon. 
 Keppel Craven, speaks of this door as 
 "sculptured with considerable skill. " 
 — Tour through the Southern Provinces 
 of Naples, 4to. p. 27. 
 
II. 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 327 
 
 executed, 11 78, — probably in the youth of the artist. 1 In 
 the sculptures of the adjacent Baptistery, built from his designs 
 many years afterwards, his mind, if not his hand, may be 
 recognised everywhere, within and without, in an exuberance 
 of fancy and allegory akin to the earlier age of S. Michele 
 rather than the commencement of the thirteenth century, yet 
 admirably in keeping with the peculiar character of the archi- 
 tecture with which it is associated. So warm indeed was the 
 enthusiasm excited by these sculptures, that Fra Salimbene, 
 one of the old chroniclers of Parma, mentions that his father, 
 debarred by extreme old age and decrepitude from evincing 
 his patriotism in any other manner, sat daily from morning to 
 night in front of the Baptistery, while in the course of erection, 
 in order to prevent idle children from injuring them. 2 Incidents 
 of this description are not uncommon in the early history of 
 the arts in Italy. 3 
 
 Such was the state of Italian Sculpture at the period when 
 Lombard was superseded by Gothic Architecture South of the 
 Alps. Bonanno and Antelami were men of genius, and had 
 they lived fifty years later would have made themselves an 
 immortal name ; but they had not the advantages of their 
 great successor, or possibly that sure tact and prophetic 
 instinct by which he struck out and applied the master 
 principle of Christian Art might have been anticipated. 
 
 I have only to add, that no sooner had the school of Niccola 
 Pisano firmly established itself in Italy, than it attracted to 
 itself and absorbed every other throughout the peninsula, — 
 and that the Northern origin of the majority of the names, 
 above enumerated, of early Italian sculptors — as well as of 
 those omitted as of less importance (as Gruamonte and Enrico, 
 
 1 It will be found in the third 
 chapel to the right of the nave. 
 
 2 Cicognara, torn. i. p. 297. — 
 Among the more interesting of these 
 sculptures are the bas-relief in the 
 lunette over the Southern door, and 
 the statues of the twelve months, and 
 two supernumerary figures, Youth 
 (apparently) and Age, in the interior. 
 The Baptistery is said to have been 
 commenced in 1196. 
 
 3 With the specimens of this early 
 revival, mentioned in the text, may be 
 associated the statues of Our Saviour 
 
 and the Apostles, now ranged along 
 the Southern aisle of S. Zenone, at 
 Verona — very stiff, and a family like- 
 ness runs through the heads, the same 
 type, with a peculiar under-jaw and 
 projecting beard, that appears in some 
 of the old pictures in the Palazzo del 
 Consiglio — yet full of solemn expres- 
 sion, with the drapery broad and 
 flowing, as if through a reminiscence 
 or study of the antique. The SS. 
 Matthew, Bartholomew, Andrew and 
 Philip, struck me most. . 
 
328 
 
 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 who worked at Pistoja, Rodolfino, pupil of Gerardo Pisano, 
 also employed there, M. Roberto of Lucca, Gerardo and 
 Anselmo, who sculptured the bas-reliefs of the Porta Romana 
 at Milan, 1 etc. etc.), affords a strong presumption in support 
 of the opinion that the intellectual life of Modern Europe, 
 South as well as North of the Alps, is essentially Teutonic. 2 
 
 Section 2. — Mosaics. 
 
 I now turn to the Mosaics of this period of imperfect 
 revival. 
 
 I mentioned in a former letter that the Byzantine revival 
 under the Comneni extended its influence into Italy, and 
 that the mosaicists imported thither during the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries educated Italian pupils, or rather communi- 
 cated that impulse to the native genius which led it to seek 
 distinction in the same path — a path, you will recollect, till 
 then untrodden by the artists of the West, mosaic-work having, 
 from the time of the Romans, remained an exclusive monopoly 
 of Greece. 
 
 Of these pupils 3 three stand pre-eminent and deserve our 
 utmost respect, Fra Giacomo (or, by abbreviation, Mino) da 
 Turrita, of Siena, a Franciscan friar — Andrea Tan, of Florence 
 — and Gaddo Gaddi, of the same city, the friend alike of Tan 
 and of Cimabue, but disciple, strictly speaking, of neither, 
 although he worked in company with the former, and may 
 have profited in design by the example of the latter. Each 
 of these artists, in fact, learnt of the Greeks independently of 
 the other, and for a great part of their lives they were all 
 three contemporary. 
 
 Fra Giacomo was the eldest ; he was probably born towards 
 the close of the twelfth century. His earliest work is the 
 mosaic of the tribune of the Baptistery at Florence, commenced, 
 as the inscription informs us, in 12 25,* and in which the 
 
 1 These mark perhaps the lowest 3 The earliest ascertained mosaic 
 degradation of art in Italy. See a of the Italico-Byzantine revival is that 
 specimen, engraved, in Cicognara, torn, executed in 1220, by Solsternus, on 
 i. tav. 7. the facade of the Cathedral of Spoleto. 
 
 2 See Cicognara' s very interesting It is far inferior to the works I am 
 chapter, the second of the third book about to describe. 
 
 of his great history. — Not that he 4 I insert this inscription from the 
 would agree in the conclusion in the ' Ricerche Architettoniche sopra il 
 text. tempio di S. Giovanni, ' etc. , Flor. 8vo. 
 
II. 
 
 MOSAICS. 
 
 329 
 
 Virgin's face has the same sweet expression for which the 
 Sienese school is so distinguished throughout its history. 
 After executing this work he seems to have quitted Florence, 
 and above half a century elapses before he reappears in the 
 history of art. 
 
 Meanwhile the consuls of the wool-trade, the guardians of 
 the Baptistery, determining to incrust the cupola with mosaics, 
 but finding no one competent to the task — Mino probably 
 being engaged elsewhere — sent Andrea Tafi, the most accom- 
 plished painter that Florence could then boast of, to Venice, 
 to crave assistance from the Greek artists employed there in 
 the Cathedral of S. Mark's. He returned successful, accom- 
 panied by one Maestro Apollonio, who initiated him into 
 the secrets of the craft, and executed in company with him 
 the greater part of the mosaics still existing on the cupola, 1 
 Andrea himself completing the Judgment which overhangs the 
 
 1820, p. 62, — compared with the copy Giacomo da Torrita,' by the Abate 
 in the ' Notizie Istorico-Critiche di Fra Luigi de Angelis, Siena, 8vo. 1821 : — 
 
 " Annus Papa tibi nonus currebat Honori 
 Ac Federice tuo quintus Monarca decori 
 Viginti quinque Christi cum mille ducentis 
 Tempora currebant per secula cuncta manentis 
 Hoc opus incepit lux Mai tunc duodena 
 Quod Domini nostri conservet gratia plena 
 Sancti Francisci frater fuit hoc operatus 
 Jacobus in tali prse cunctis arte probatus." 
 
 — The description of Giacomo as of the heavenly hierarchy, adoring the 
 
 . "Sancti Francisci frater," shows that Almighty, standing at full length and 
 
 the inscription must be later than 1225 blessing; the second, the history of 
 
 by at least three years, S. Francis, who the world from the Creation to the 
 
 died on the 4th October 1226, not Deluge ; the third, the history of 
 
 having been canonized till July 1228. Joseph from his Dream in childhood 
 
 The date of 1225 harmonises correctly to the Meeting with Jacob in Goshen ; 
 
 with the ninth year of Honorius III. , the fourth, the history of Our Saviour, 
 
 and with the fifth of the Emperor — the fifth, that of John the Baptist. 
 
 Frederick II., dating from 1220, the Several of these compartments (as the 
 
 year of his coronation at Rome, Creation of Adam and Eve, and those 
 
 although he had been Emperor for that immediately follow, the Building 
 
 many years previously. According to of the Ark, etc. ) seem to have been 
 
 Professor Del Rosso, Richa and other recomposed in the process of repara- 
 
 authorities, citing the collections of tion. Of the original compositions, 
 
 the Senator C. Strozzi, the employment those from Joseph's history display 
 
 of Fra Giacomo, under the year 1225, ease and truth in the attitudes, and a 
 
 on the decoration of the tribune, is natural expression of feeling ; the 
 
 asserted in the records of the 'Arte history of Our Saviour is inferior again, 
 
 della Lana. ' An accurate extract from — but from the eighth compartment of 
 
 these would be important. the life of the Baptist (his reproval of 
 
 1 Laterally to the Last Judgment, Herod), to the end, the superiority 
 
 presently to be described, five rows of reasserts itself, and the burial of S. 
 
 mosaics run round the cupola, the John is excellent, 
 highest representing the different orders 
 
33o 
 
 ITALICO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 tribune by the addition of the gigantic figure of Our Saviour 
 — unless indeed, as I am inclined to believe, the whole of 
 that compartment be his own. It is the old Byzantine com- 
 position, resembling in outline that at Torcello, but less mystical 
 and more dramatic in its details, as might be expected from a 
 Florentine. Our Saviour, seated as usual on the rainbow, 
 stretches forth his hands, the palm of the right open towards 
 the blest, the back of the left, repulsively, towards the con- 
 demned ; above him a company of angels display the instru- 
 ments of the passion, while the Twelve Apostles, headed by 
 the Virgin, are seated on his right, and the Saints of the Old 
 Testament, headed by the Baptist, on his left ; the graves 
 open below — marble troughs, disproportionately long and 
 narrow, like the tombs attributed to the patriarchs in Syria ; 
 the spirits of the just are received by angels, those of the bad 
 by devils, who lead them away respectively to paradise or hell; 
 the attitude of one of the reprobate souls, shrinking back into 
 its tomb, dismayed at the sight of the demon about to pounce 
 upon it, is excellent, and the idea was constantly repeated 
 afterwards. Lastly, instead of Abraham sitting, alone, in paradise, 
 the three patriarchs are seated side by side in solemn state 
 within the gate, each with several souls in his lap ; and on 
 the opposite side Satan, no longer preserving the Byzantine 
 reminiscence of the human face and form divine, has acquired 
 his full extravagance of Gothic and Dantesque deformity. 
 
 Altogether, and making allowance for the head and expres- 
 sion of Our Saviour, which are decidedly inferior, this mosaic 
 strikes me as surpassing any previous effort of Italian art ; 
 and I may cite it, along with the improvement which Tafi 
 introduced in the mechanical workmanship of mosaic, in 
 justification of the reputation in which he was held throughout 
 Italy, and in excuse for the epitaph with which the enthusiasm 
 of his fellow-citizens honoured his memory, 
 
 ' 6 Qui giace Andrea, ch' opre leggiadre e belle 
 Fece in tutta Toscana, ed era e ito 
 A far vago lo regno delle stelle." 1 
 
 1 See the life of Tafi by Vasari, 
 who ascribes to him and to Niccola 
 Pisano equal honour, as the restorers 
 of Mosaic and Sculpture. I hope 
 hereafter to do justice to Vasari' s 
 merits as an historian of Art, but I 
 may here mention his honesty and 
 
 singleness of purpose, his justice and 
 reverence for truth, his freedom from 
 sectarian or provincial jealousy, his 
 deep sense — founded on religion — of 
 the source and legitimate ends of 
 Christian Art, and his appreciation 
 and indeed enthusiasm for the works 
 
II. 
 
 MOSAICS. 
 
 33i 
 
 I am not acquainted with any other works of Tafi, though, 
 except for the date, 1297, I should have ascribed to him the 
 mosaic in the absis of S. Miniato, so strong is the resemblance 
 between the face of the Saviour there and in the Baptistery, 
 the only difference being in the superior perfection of the 
 type, and the loftier dignity of the expression and attitude, in 
 the later mosaic. 
 
 Andrea died in 1294, in his eighty-first year, leaving but 
 one distinguished pupil, Buffalmacco, who continued the line 
 of Italico-Byzantine revival, not in mosaic, but in painting. 
 
 Fra Giacomo, in the meanwhile, had been in nowise idle 
 during what appears to us his long retreat from public view. 
 He had acquired a dexterity and finish of workmanship 
 surpassing even that of his Florentine rival, and while the 
 latter had been attempting to improve and extend the range 
 of dramatic composition, his own endeavours had been directed 
 towards the perfection of the traditional types of the Saviour, 
 the Virgin, and the Apostles, and to the infusion of a deeper 
 meaning and purpose into that early Christian symbolism of 
 which we have noticed such interesting examples in the 
 mosaics of Ravenna, and which had been resuscitated in 
 Italy in that of S. Clemente at the commencement of the 
 preceding century. It is not a little interesting to observe 
 the distinctive tendencies of the dramatic and contemplative 
 schools of Florence and Siena already in full activity and 
 antagonism. But it would be injustice not to add, that he 
 had greatly improved in design also, and that in this respect, 
 as in native genius, he far surpassed Andrea Tafi. 
 
 These merits of Fra Giacomo are alike conspicuous in the 
 noble mosaics executed, with the assistance of his pupil Fra 
 Giacomo da Camerino, for Pope Nicholas IV., in the tribunes 
 of S. Maria Maggiore and S. Giovanni Laterano at Rome, 
 towards the close of the thirteenth century. 
 
 The former represents the Coronation of the Virgin. 
 Christ and his mother are seated on the same throne within 
 an orb of azure studded with stars, representing heaven ; Our 
 
 of his predecessors, even of schools of Vasari's lives, — they are a treasury 
 
 that his teachers and associates despised, of information, and, in a moral point 
 
 as qualities pervading his work through- of view, a legacy more precious than 
 
 out, and counterbalancing the inexacti- rubies to the sons of genius, for virtue 
 
 tude in point of dates and want of is his spirit's dwelling-place, he sym- 
 
 criticism, generally, which he shares pathises with all that is loveable in 
 
 with all his contemporaries. Thus human nature, and never apologises 
 
 qualified, I have the highest opinion for vice. 
 
332 
 
 ITALICO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Saviour, his face full of calm benignity, places the crown on 
 her head, while she presses her hand meekly on her breast, 
 and bends forward to receive it. Angels gaze in adoration, 
 and several of the Apostles, with S. Francis, stand in a row 
 below, on the banks of the Jordan. The whole is singularly 
 august and grand, both as regards the general composition 
 and the individual figures. 1 
 
 But the mosaic of S. Giovanni is still more so, and in 
 conception is at once original and sublime. Its subject is the 
 union of heaven and earth by baptism. The head of Christ, 
 majestic and benignant, looks down from heaven, indicated 
 by a grand semicircular orb of intense blue — the little clouds 
 scattered over its surface assuming every colour of the rainbow 
 (as in the setting sun) while they float across his glory. 
 Above the Saviour the Father is represented, not as usually 
 by a hand from heaven, but by a face veiled with wings, 
 on either side of which a company of angels are symmetrically 
 ranged. Below these two Persons of the Godhead the Holy 
 Ghost, descending like a dove, sheds the Trinal influence, in 
 the similitude of a stream of water, upon the Cross, elevated 
 on the summit of the mystic Calvary, the Mount of Paradise, 
 and decorated with ten precious gems, artificially jointed 
 into each other, in the centre of which is inserted a medallion 
 representing the Baptism of Our Saviour. The spiritual 
 waters, falling from the angles of the cross, are ultimately 
 collected at its base, forming a deep " well of life," at which 
 stags are drinking, symbolical of the faithful. From this 
 well four streams descend the mountain, the four rivers of 
 paradise, or of the gospels, to water the earth. They sink 
 into it and are lost, but reappear in the foreground, poured 
 out of the urns of river-gods, one of which is designated, by 
 the inscription, "Jordanes," — the united streams forming 
 the "river of the waters of life." The river forms several 
 cataracts, and is in one place confined by a dam. Boats 
 filled with passengers are seen floating down the stream, souls 
 in the shape of children are bathing in it, or sporting with 
 swans and other water-fowl, others, like little winged Cupids, 
 amuse themselves on the shore, 2 among peacocks, cocks, the 
 hen and chickens, and other Christian symbols ; while, tower- 
 
 1 This mosaic has lately been 2 Reminding one, involuntarily, of 
 
 engraved in the work of the Chev. the passage in Wordsworth's Platonic 
 
 Biinsen on the basilicas of Rome, Ode : — ■ 
 plate 46. 
 
II. 
 
 MOSAICS. 
 
 333 
 
 ing over them, like "trees of righteousness planted by the 
 waters," stand a company of Saints and Apostles, headed by 
 the Virgin and S. John the Baptist, — and lastly, in the centre, 
 though very small, and immediately at the foot of the Cross, 
 and between the four mystic streams, appears the gate of 
 Paradise, a vast fortress, flanked with towers, and guarded by 
 the Cherub, standing before it with his drawn sword, the tree 
 of life rising above it, and the phoenix, apparently, the 
 emblem of the resurrection, reposing on its summit. 1 
 
 Both these mosaics are as beautifully executed as they are 
 nobly and profoundly composed ; the commettitura is perfect. 
 That of S. Maria Maggiore was finished in 1289, but Mino 
 died, it would appear, before the other was completed, and 
 Gaddo Gaddi, the youngest of the distinguished Tuscan trio, 
 was invited to Rome, as we shall presently see, expressly for 
 the purpose of finishing it. 
 
 This celebrated artist — the ancestor of a family, illustrious 
 alike for talent and moral worth, and which ranked for centuries 
 among the noble houses of Florence — was born in 1239, nine 
 years after Tafi, and one year before Cimabue, with both of 
 whom he maintained a warm and steady friendship through 
 life. His first instructors in design were probably certain 
 Greek artists, who had been invited to Florence to paint the 
 lower church of S. Maria Novella. He was afterwards em- 
 ployed by Tafi as his assistant in the mosaics of the Baptistery, 
 which he completed by adding the row of prophets which 
 range all round it, below the windows. The merit of these 
 obtained him independent employment in the Cathedral, 
 where he executed the Coronation of the Virgin, immediately 
 above the Great Western door, inside, — an imposing composi- 
 tion, but still very Greek ; it was reckoned, however, the 
 most beautiful mosaic that had till then been seen in Italy, 
 and the fame he gained by it procured him, in 1292, the 
 summons to Rome above alluded to. He appears to have 
 spent several years there. After finishing the mosaic of Fra 
 
 " Hence, in a season of calm weather, 
 Though inland far we be, 
 Our souls have sight of that immortal sea, 
 Which brought us hither, 
 Can in a moment travel thither, 
 And see the children sport upon the shore, 
 And hear the mighty waters rolling evermore." 
 
 1 This mosaic has been engraved in Chev. Bunsen's work, pi. 47. 
 
334 
 
 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Giacomo, he worked in the ancient basilica of S. Peter's, 
 destroyed by Julius II., and lastly, in 1308, at S. Maria 
 Maggiore, where he executed on the facade of entrance, now 
 shadowed by the Loggia della Benedizione, the series of 
 mosaics from which alone we can duly estimate his merits. 
 They are disposed in two rows, the upper representing Our 
 Saviour, attended by the Virgin, the Baptist and four Apostles; 
 the lower the legendary history of the foundation of the basilica. 
 These are his chef-d'oeuvre. They are Greek certainly, but 
 scarcely more so than the frescoes of Cimabue, and in design, 
 grandeur and dignity, in the majesty of the Saviour and the 
 beauty and benignity of the Virgin, are unsurpassed by any 
 productions of the time. 1 
 
 After completing this remarkable work, at the age of 
 threescore and ten, the venerable artist returned to his native 
 Florence, 2 to seek repose from his labours, which he found in 
 death a year or two afterwards, in 13 12, and was honourably 
 buried by his son, the painter Taddeo, in the cloisters of S. 
 Croce. 3 
 
 Gaddo Gaddi was the last of the great Italian mosaicists. 
 The rapid improvement of painting under Giotto, and the 
 
 the new church, as marked out by it. 
 One version indeed asserts that the 
 
 1 John, a rich patrician of Rome, 
 being childless, and desirous of leaving 
 the Virgin Mary his heir, besought 
 her to signify to him in what manner 
 it would please her that he should do 
 so. She appeared to him in a dream, 
 and commanded that he should 
 build a church on that part of the 
 Esquiline which should be found cov- 
 ered with snow. Informing Pope 
 Liberius, they went immediately to 
 the spot, accompanied by the clergy 
 and people, and the snow was found 
 covering the ground precisely accord- 
 ing to the ground-plan of the predes- 
 tined edifice. The church (S. Maria 
 ad nives, as it was originally named) 
 was reared forthwith at the expense of 
 John. The legend is a little varied 
 in the mosaics : — The First represents 
 the Virgin, with the child in her arms, 
 appearing to Pope Liberius, sleeping, 
 — the Second, a similar vision to the 
 patrician, John, — in the Third, John 
 is seen kneeling before the Pope on 
 his throne ; and in the Fourth, Our 
 Saviour and the Virgin pour down the 
 snow, and" Liberius traces the plan of 
 
 instant the Pope touched the earth 
 the foundations of the church yawned 
 open of themselves. Above these 
 four mosaics appear Our Saviour in 
 glory, a majestic figure, attended by 
 four angels, with the Virgin and the 
 Baptist on his right and left, and next 
 them, respectively, S. Paul and S. John, 
 S. James and S. Andrew. 
 
 2 Gaddo was a painter as well as a 
 mosaicist, but very few of his works 
 in that line remain. The most inter- 
 esting I am acquainted with is a S. 
 Lawrence, in excellent preservation, 
 in the possession of Colonel Lindsay 
 of Balcarres — a precious relic, a leaf 
 from a branch, remote, little regarded, 
 and early withered, on the tree of art. 
 
 3 His portrait is to be seen, accord- 
 ing to Vasari, in the Marriage of the 
 Virgin, painted by his son Taddeo in 
 the Baroncelli chapel at S. Croce, — 
 with Andrea Tafi standing beside him. 
 Vasari quotes a "libretto antico " for 
 the particulars he has furnished us 
 with of Gaddo's life. 
 
II. 
 
 MOSAICS. 
 
 335 
 
 superior resources of fresco, superseded their art. Beauty 
 and rapidity carried the day against grandeur and durability. 
 Moreover, the Byzantine associations of mosaic were uncon- 
 genial to the Gothic architecture, which had by this time 
 become the vogue in Italy. On reckoning up the mosaics 
 mentioned in these few pages, or recorded elsewhere, I think 
 you will find that, with few and those equivocal exceptions, 
 they were all executed for churches built in the earlier Con- 
 templative style of the Latins and Lombards. 1 When the 
 church of Assisi was ready for decoration, though mosaic had 
 made greater progress than painting, and Fra Giacomo, a 
 mosaicist of the Franciscan order, was already flourishing, 
 fresco was resorted to in preference. 
 
 Nevertheless the schools of Fra Giacomo and Gaddi 
 lingered on for many years in Rome and Tuscany. Adeodato 
 Cosmati, educated in the former, 2 was the parent of a family 
 of mosaicists much employed at Orvieto, and elsewhere in 
 the Roman territory ; 3 and Cavallini, a pupil (it is believed) 
 of Adeodato, distinguished himself by his mosaics in the 
 tribune of S. Maria in Trastevere, 4 and afterwards assisted 
 Giotto, then a very young man, in the celebrated 1 Navicella ' 
 or ' Ship of S. Peter/ worked by him in mosaic for the 
 basilica of the 'Prince of the Apostles.' But the temptation 
 was irresistible, and although by no means young, Cavallini 
 abandoned his art for that of his youthful friend, and became 
 one of the most distinguished painters of the Giottesque 
 school. 
 
 Of Gaddo's followers, Vicino of Pisa, ■ who won the 
 applause of his fellow -citizens by completing the mosaics in 
 the tribune of the Duomo in a style much superior to that of 
 the artists who had commenced them, was the only one who 
 attained distinction, unless indeed we are to reckon in this 
 succession the celebrated Orcagna, summoned as late as 1360 
 to work in mosaic at Orvieto, — a fair intimation that the 
 
 1 It is only, I believe, in Sicily — 3 See Dellavalle's history of the 
 exceptional in every respect through Duomo of Orvieto, p. 264. 
 
 the strange association of races — that 4 Ghiberti, the celebrated sculptor, 
 
 mosaics are found in churches of speaks in high praise of them, — 
 
 Gothic architecture. ' ' Ardirei a dire in muro non avere 
 
 2 He was a pupil probably, either veduto di quella materia lavorare mai 
 of Fra Giacomo, or of his disciple Fra meglio. " Commentario, etc., printed 
 Giacomo da Camerino, who worked in Cicognara, torn. ii. p. 101. — They 
 under him at S. Maria Maggiore and are still to be seen there. 
 
 in S. Giovanni. 
 
336 
 
 ITALICO - BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 school of the Cosmati was then either degenerated or extinct. 
 But Orcagna stands apart in this, as in other peculiar ex- 
 cellences, and with his honoured name we may take leave Of 
 this interesting department of the Italico-Byzantine revival. 1 
 
 Section 3. — Painting. 
 
 We have only now to notice the Painters of this transition 
 period, members of a class depressed for many ages below the 
 mosaicists, 2 but who were about to regain all and more than the 
 respect and influence they had enjoyed in the sunny days of 
 Grecian art, — an ascendancy which the patronage of the power- 
 ful orders of S. Domenic and S. Francis mainly contributed to 
 ensure for them ; almost every individual work which I shall 
 have occasion to notice in the concluding pages of this letter, 
 was executed for one or other of these sister communities, and 
 consequently, in connection with that Gothic Architecture 
 which sprang from the same new and strong impulse that 
 then pervaded Christendom. The artists I am about to 
 mention were not, indeed, the fathers of Italian painting — a 
 title that belongs, strictly speaking, to Giotto — but their genius 
 and their virtues, and, it may be, the noble birth of more than 
 one of them, 3 made the name of Painter honourable, and they 
 prepared the way for him. These artists, three in number 
 like the three great mosaicists, and not unlike them in their 
 character and relative excellence in art, were Guido of Siena, 
 Giunta of Pisa, and Cimabue of Florence, the master of 
 Giotto. 
 
 In Painting, as in Mosaic, Siena led the way to improve- 
 ment ; the Madonna of Guido, in the church of S. Domenico, 
 was painted in 1221, nineteen years before the birth of 
 Cimabue. It is still unquestionably Greek in character, but 
 displays a wonderful advance towards the modern style, with 
 the same grace and sweetness that I noticed in speaking of 
 
 1 Angelo Gaddi inherited from his 
 grandfather the technical knowledge 
 of the mosaicists, and turned it to 
 good account in repairing the mosaics 
 of the Baptistery. But after his time 
 the art would appear to have become 
 quite extinct at Florence. Alessandro 
 Baldovinetti, nearly a century after- 
 wards, acquired it de novo from a 
 
 German, and in his turn taught Do- 
 menico del Ghirlandajo. 
 
 2 Strictly speaking, the mosaicists 
 ranked as painters. Fra Giacomo 
 (among other examples) signs himself 
 ' Pictor ' on his mosaics. 
 
 3 As of Giunta, for instance, and 
 Cimabue. 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 337 
 
 the Madonna executed four years later in the tribune of the 
 Baptistery by the mosaicist Fra Giacomo ; both artists may 
 possibly have been disciples of the same master. 1 Guido's 
 pupils and successors would seem to have been numerous 
 rather than excellent ; a long period elapses before their works, 
 as preserved in the different churches and in the Gallery of 
 the Academy, betray any symptoms of improvement, and, 
 with the exception of Ugolino, author of the Madonna of the 
 Orsanmichele at Florence — a work of singular and almost 
 unearthly beauty — it was not till the influence of Niccola 
 Pisano had been felt at Siena that the school produced an 
 equal to its original patriarch. 2 The spirit, nevertheless, of the 
 Semi-Byzantine revival long lingered there, and formed, as we 
 shall see, the animating principle of a distinct succession of 
 artists, continually struggling with the tendencies of the age to 
 naturalism, to the antique and the Cinquecento. 
 
 1 It is engraved in Agincourt, 
 Peinture, pi. 107, and in Rosini, tav. 
 4. The inscription is as follows, with 
 the addition of the date 1221 : — 
 
 " Me Guido de Senis diebus depinxit 
 amenis, 
 
 Quem Christus lenis nullis velit agere 
 penis," 
 
 — "diebus amenis" being an allusion 
 to the concession, that year, by the 
 Emperor Frederick II. of the ' gabella 
 delle porte, ' or entrance - duties, and 
 of the right of striking money, of 
 both of which his grandfather, Bar- 
 barossa, had deprived the Sienese in 
 punishment for their having sided 
 against him in his struggle with their 
 fellow-citizen, Pope Alexander III. — 
 Lettere Sanesi, torn. i. pp. 237 sqq. 
 
 2 One peculiar feature in the his- 
 tory of art at Siena, is its close 
 association with history. The Crucifix 
 carried before the army at the glorious 
 battle of Monte- Aperto in 1260, the 
 Madonna, once the altar-piece of the 
 Cathedral, and on which the city was 
 formally bestowed as a gift before the 
 conflict, and a second Madonna, 
 painted ex voto in gratitude for the 
 victory — all of them works of the 
 thirteenth century, are still preserved 
 there, the former in the Cathedral, 
 the second in the Oratory of S. Ansano 
 in Castel Vecchio, the third in the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Cappella del Voto, attached to the 
 Cathedral. Diotisalvi del Maestro 
 Guido, pupil evidently of that master, 
 and who flourished in 1227 and 1250, 
 and indeed till 1278 (Lett. Sanesi, 
 torn. i. pp. 251 and 273), seems to 
 have been the most distinguished 
 Sienese artist between Guido and the 
 two rivals at the close of the thirteenth 
 century, Mino and Duccio. For one 
 of his Madonnas (in the Servi at Siena) 
 see Rosini, tav. 6. Ugolino is also 
 said to have preserved the manner of 
 Guido. His Madonna at the Orsan- 
 michele is enshrined in the famous 
 tabernacle of Orcagna, to be spoken 
 of in the ensuing letter. Baldinucci 
 assigns it the date of 1284, — Notizie, 
 etc., life of Andrea Orcagna. It is 
 much to be regretted that the great 
 altar-pieces painted by him for the 
 high altars of S. Croce and S. Maria 
 Novella, at Florence, have been de- 
 stroyed or lost, as in all probability 
 they might have warranted my classing 
 him with Mino and Duccio at the head 
 of the Sienese school, properly so called, 
 as born of the influence of Niccola 
 Pisano. Dellavalle describes the S. 
 Croce picture as of great merit, especi- 
 ally the six compartments of the gra- 
 dino, representing the Passion ; it 
 was removed from the high altar 
 when Vasari renewed the ciborium, 
 Z 
 
338 
 
 ITALICO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Guido's contemporary, Giunta Pisano, as he is usually 
 styled, although descended from a noble family, surnamed 
 Del Colle, of Pistoja, enjoyed a reputation far more extensive, 
 and was for many years accounted the prince of Italian 
 painters. He was already an artist in 1202, 1 and is styled 
 'Maestro 'in 1203 and 1210, 2 and probably shone without 
 a rival twenty years afterwards when invited to Assisi by the 
 celebrated Fra Elias, to decorate with his pencil the Upper 
 
 and in Dellavalle's time was preserved 
 in the upper dormitory of the convent, 
 at the head of the stairs. Lett. Sanesi, 
 torn. ii. p. 202. According to a 
 MS. statement by the Cav. ; T. Puc- 
 cini, cited by Masselli, the recent 
 annotator on Vasari, 1 it was sold to 
 an Englishman "per pochi scudi, " 
 at the beginning of the present century. 
 The altar-piece of S. Maria Novella 
 was subsequently removed to the 
 Cappella degli Spagnuoli, but was 
 missing when Dellavalle wrote. From 
 comparison with the altar-piece of S. 
 Croce, Dellavalle questions Vasari's 
 correctness in attributing to Ugolino 
 the Madonna of Orsanmichele, on 
 account of the superior excellence of 
 the latter. I cannot doubt, however, 
 its being a Sienese picture, and of the 
 Semi - Byzantine period. Baron von 
 Rumohr (Ital. Forschungen, torn. ii. 
 p. 25) acknowledges that he has dis- 
 covered nothing certain concerning 
 Ugolino. For the early masters of 
 Siena, generally, anterior to Mino and 
 Duccio, see the Lettere Sanesi, torn. i. 
 p. 271 sqq. I shall have frequent 
 occasion to cite this work ; it is of 
 high value, from its copious citations 
 of original documents in the Archivio 
 delle Riformagioni, the Opera of the 
 Duomo, the great Hospital, the Bic- 
 cherna and other public offices of the 
 city — the best and surest evidence 
 on which the genealogy and history 
 of art can be grounded. Dellavalle is 
 certainly rather partial, or (as I would 
 rather term it) patriotic, — but so all 
 such historians necessarily are, every 
 district of Italy having been formerly 
 
 an independent State, and naturally 
 retaining still the prejudices engendered 
 by early rivalry with its neighbours. 
 Vasari is freest from this demerit, and 
 Lanzi's impartiality is most praise- 
 worthy, — the defects in his 'Storia 
 Pittorica della Italia ' are incidental to 
 his plan, not his judgment, critical or 
 moral. 
 
 1 This appears from a deed printed 
 by Professor Ciampi, at p. 141 of his 
 ' Notizie Inedite della Sagrestia Pis- 
 toiese, de' Belli Arredi, del Campo 
 Santo Pisano,' etc. — Flor. 410. 1810, 
 — a most valuable work abounding in 
 original documents illustrative of the 
 history of early Italian art. Giunta 
 is styled in this document "Juncta 
 quondam Guidocti pict." — See the 
 same page for the proof of his family, 
 etc. For the works of his Greek pre- 
 decessors at Pisa see Rosini's ' Proemio ' 
 to the first volume of his history. 
 
 2 In public documents cited by 
 Morrona in his section devoted to 
 Giunta, torn. ii. p. 116 of the 'Pisa 
 Illustrata, ' ed. 8vo. I have ranked 
 Guido first, the Madonna of 1221 
 implying the maturity of that artist, 
 while the great works of Giunta belong 
 to the middle of the century. Mor- 
 rona (torn. iii. p. 400), and Rosini 
 (torn. i. pp. 114 sqq.), incline to 
 attribute to Giunta the frescoes in the 
 church of S. Piero in Grado about 
 four miles from Pisa, and this (among 
 other reasons) on the ground of their 
 striking similarity in style to the 
 frescoes at Assisi. Specimens of them 
 are engraved among the folio plates 
 of the ' Storia della Pitt. Ital. , ' tav. D. 
 
 1 P. 1 152, Appendix, of his most commodious and useful edition, Florence, 2 vols. 
 8vo., 1832-8. 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 339 
 
 church of the Franciscans. 1 He began, as usual, with the 
 tribune and transepts, which he entirely covered with 
 his frescoes, now, alas ! almost obliterated by time ; they are 
 literally peeling off the walls, and little is discernible except 
 the general outline of composition, and in many cases not 
 even that. The Crucifixion of Our Saviour, and that of S. 
 Peter, in the Southern transept, the Death of the Virgin and 
 her Coronation in the tribune, the four Evangelists in the 
 vault overhanging the choir, and certain Apostles and Saints 
 scattered through the Eastern part of the church, are among 
 the least decayed, but fifty years hence the Evangelists, and 
 perhaps such of the Saints as are sheltered by the triforia, 
 will be the sole witnesses to Giunta's merits as a fresco- 
 painter. 2 To attempt an estimate of these merits would be 
 presumptuous amid such a wreck of fame and talent. But I 
 may venture to say that his figures are dignified, though very 
 Greek, that his compositions, so far as recognisable, seem to 
 be purely Byzantine, with very little variation from the tradi- 
 tional arrangement, that his taste is decidedly dramatic and 
 anti-symbolical, and that he had undergone no influence from 
 Niccola Pisano, who indeed was a younger man. In short, 
 without any wish of forcing a parallel, Giunta strikes me as 
 holding much the same place in the painting of this peculiar 
 epoch as Andrea Tafi does in mosaic. These frescoes, after 
 an interval of absence, were resumed in 1253, and completed 
 before 1255, in which year Giunta had again returned to 
 Pisa. 3 He probably died soon afterwards, as his name does 
 not recur in the records or chronicles of the time. 
 
 Of his distemper, or easel paintings, a few are preserved at 
 Pisa, Assisi and elsewhere. They strike me as far inferior to 
 his frescoes ; they are completely in the Greek style, and little, 
 if at all superior to it ; in his crucifixes, the Christ is always 
 hideously emaciated, in accordance with the prejudice then 
 
 1 The year 1230 commonly assigned fresco of Simon Magus' flight through 
 would be too early, I suspect, as the the air, now almost wholly obliterated, 
 walls, though finished in that year, The distribution of the angels in the 
 would hardly be ready so soon for the Crucifixion, catching the blood from 
 pencil ; but he was certainly there in Our Saviour's side and weeping in the 
 1236, the date inscribed on a portrait air, shows feeling and invention in the 
 of S. Francis by his hand, formerly true Byzantine spirit. 
 
 preserved there. 3 Rosini, torn. i. p. 109. He was 
 
 2 Vasari errs in attributing these to certainly at Pisa in 1255, figuring as 
 Cimabue, whose works are confined to a feudal proprietor in a document of 
 the nave of the Upper Church. — See that year cited? by Ciampi, Notizie 
 Agincourt, Peinture, pi. in, for the Inedite, etc., p. 141. 
 
34o 
 
 SEMI-BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 current as to the personal appearance of Our Saviour. 1 The 
 most interesting of these smaller works is the portrait of S. 
 Francis, preserved in the sacristy of the lower church at 
 Assisi, a full length, the features copied from a still older 
 Greek portrait at S. Maria degli Angeli, said to have been 
 painted on the board on which the Saint slept. The head is 
 a remarkable one, and I have little doubt, a correct likeness ; 
 the eyes are deeply set and close to each other. 
 
 Giunta left some pupils at Pisa, but they were a puny race, 
 too weak to transform themselves into Giotteschi, 2 — it is on 
 the elder arts, Architecture and Sculpture, that, from first to 
 last, Pisa founds her peculiar praise and glory. But a re- 
 presentative of his style, and possibly a scion of his school, 
 long survived at Arezzo, in ■ Margaritone, excellent as an 
 architect and sculptor, but in painting distinguished only as 
 the author of the hideous crucifix, now preserved in the loggia, 
 or cloistral passage between the Capitolo, or chapter-house, 
 at S. Croce, in Florence, and historically interesting as having 
 been sent by him as a present to the illustrious Ghibelline 
 chief, Farinata degli Uberti. 3 Margaritone died at an advanced 
 age, worn out, it is said, with chagrin and vexation at finding 
 the taste changed, and the honours borne away from him by 
 a younger generation, 4 — to wit by him of whom I must now 
 speak, the third and most distinguished of the great painters 
 of this transitional period, Giovanni Cimabue. 
 
 This illustrious man was born in 1240, of a noble Floren- 
 tine family, otherwise named the Gualtieri. His turn for 
 design evinced itself at a very early age. In the lack of 
 native artists the Florentines had been compelled to invite a 
 company of Greek painters to decorate the lower, or subter- 
 ranean church of S. Maria Novella, belonging to the Domi- 
 
 1 The best preserved of these 
 crucifixes is in the north transept of 
 the church of S. Maria degli Angeli, 
 below Assisi. Lanzi praises it as 
 exhibiting a knowledge of the naked 
 figure, a power of exhibiting pain, 
 and a manner in painting drapery, 
 superior to the Byzantines. It is 
 almost too painful to look upon, much 
 less criticise. 
 
 2 Specimens of their works may be 
 seen in the gallery of the Academy. 
 And consult Rosini, torn. i. pp. 150, 
 216, 258, and plates 5 and 6. 
 
 3 Before November, 1266, when 
 Farinata was dead, and probably soon 
 after the battle of Monte - Aperto, 
 1260. He is described as ' Mar- 
 garitus Pictor, filius quondam Mag- 
 nani, ' in a deed of 1262. — Masselli s 
 notes to Vasari. 
 
 4 See Vasari. But Margaritone 
 had certainly abandoned the Byzan- 
 tine style and risen to high and 
 acknowledged excellence in Sculpture, 
 under the influence of Niccola Pisano, 
 so that I am rather incredulous of 
 this melancholy ending. 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 34i 
 
 nicans j 1 the works of these artists were an irresistible attraction 
 to young Cimabue, who loitered beside them, watching their 
 progress, while his parents believed him conning his grammar 
 in the adjacent school, kept for the instruction of the novices. 
 His books too betrayed the usual symptoms of a newly 
 awakened enthusiasm in the sketches of men, horses, houses, 
 etc. with which their margins were disfigured, and before 
 long his father found himself constrained to yield to an in- 
 very like those in the large Madonna 
 of Cimabue in the upper church ; the 
 thatch of the shed and the leaves 01 
 the shrubs, etc., are very carefully 
 finished : — Beyond this chamber, three 
 chapels, to the right of the corridor, 
 between the second and third of which 
 is interposed the modern partition wall, 
 above alluded to ; in the first, in 
 the lunette of the right-hand wall, 
 the Flagellation (apparently) of S, 
 Antony in the tomb, and his Burial, 
 very simple and beautiful ; in the 
 second, on the front wall, to the left, 
 the embrace of Joachim and Anna at 
 the Golden Gate of Jerusalem — her 
 face young and beautiful, full of purity, 
 sweetness and grace ; an angel descend- 
 ing from heaven seems to introduce 
 them, resting a hand on the head of 
 each, pressing them towards each 
 other, like children, — and to the right, 
 the Birth of the Virgin — engraved by 
 Agincourt, Peinture, pi. 109, as a 
 work of the Greek painters, instructors 
 of Cimabue, whereas it is evidently 
 much more recent ; — in the third, 
 nothing worth notice i 1 And finally, 
 in the chapel at the very extremity of 
 the corridor opposite the door of the 
 entrance from the Chiostro Verde — on 
 the left wall, the death of S. Jerome 
 and the vision of two young monks of 
 S. Martin's monastery at Tours, who 
 heard the voices and the singing when 
 Our Saviour, with the heavenly host 
 and the spirits of the just, came down 
 to receive his soul at Bethlehem, — and 
 on the right-hand wall the apparition 
 of S. Jerome to S. Augustine, and 
 another subject, but both these are 
 almost effaced. 
 
 1 There are a great many ancient 
 frescoes, woefully defaced, in the 
 chapels and cells of this part of the 
 monastery, but though traces of 
 Byzantine influence are very visible, I 
 do not think any of them of pure 
 Greek origin. They seem to be, for 
 the most part, of a school elder than 
 that of Giotto, but contemporary with 
 him or his immediate successors, and 
 strongly influenced by them. This 
 subterranean church should rather be 
 described as three extensive corridors, 
 two of which branch off from the 
 third at right angles to it in opposite 
 directions, but at unequal distances 
 from the entrance. The entrance is 
 through the archway opening on the 
 Chiostro Verde, immediately to the 
 right of that into the Cappella degli 
 Spagnuoli. The existing paintings 
 are confined to the central corridor, 
 right in front as you enter, and to the 
 chapels to the right and left of it, and 
 at the extremity, beyond a partition- 
 wall opening with a wicket, which has 
 been interposed in comparatively recent 
 times. The following notes may assist 
 inspection in a place so dark and 
 gloomy : — To the left, on entering, a 
 bas-relief of the Virgin and Child, and 
 a female devotee kneeling, rude in 
 execution, but graceful and dignified 
 in conception : — Immediately beyond 
 this, the door into the Stanza Mor- 
 tuaria, in which there is an interesting 
 early fresco of the Nativity, in which 
 the child, just born, turns round its 
 face to look at its mother, and one of 
 the shepherds holds back his dog, who 
 rises on his hind legs to bark at the 
 angel, — some of the angels' heads are 
 
 1 One of these chapels, dedicated to S. 
 Martin, was painted by Giocomo da Casen- 
 tino, according to the ' Firenze Antica e 
 
 Moderna,' torn. vi. p. 340. Vasari, how- 
 ever, does not mention it in his life of that 
 artist. 
 
342 
 
 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 clination so decided, and apprentice him to these foreign 
 masters. He made rapid progress and speedily surpassed 
 them. But the influence of this early Byzantine training was 
 never effaced. His natural disposition, indeed, being to the 
 grand and noble rather than the soft and refined, he had the 
 less temptation to depart from the traditional types and models, 
 and we find him accordingly, throughout his career, attempt- 
 ing to re-create, re-inspire and re-ennoble, rather than depart 
 from them. 
 
 His first great work was a Virgin and child, attended by 
 angels, and seated on a lofty throne supported by three arches, 
 under which appear the heads of four Apostles, very dignified, 
 although the upper part of the picture, especially the Virgin, 
 is quite Greek. This picture was executed for the S. Trinita, 
 a church in Florence belonging to the monks of Vallombrosa, 
 but it is now preserved in that treasury of primitive art, the 
 gallery of the Academy. 
 
 His next important painting was the crucifix, now in the 
 sacristy of S. Croce, executed for the Franciscans, the steady 
 patrons of his subsequent career. The Guardiano, or 
 Superior, of the monastery, who had given him the commis- 
 sion, was pleased with his performance ; and carried him to 
 Pisa, where he painted for the church of S. Francesco, in that 
 city, another Madonna, now in the gallery of the Louvre, 1 — 
 the head is Byzantine, but full of dignity. 
 
 These paintings established Cimabue's reputation, and 
 soon afterwards, probably through the intervention of his 
 friend the Guardiano, he received an invitation to Assisi, the 
 head-quarters of the order, there to continue the decoration of 
 the Upper church in fresco. He is supposed to have 
 arrived there about the year 1265, towards the twenty-fifth or 
 twenty-sixth year of his age. 2 
 
 After Giunta's death it would appear that no Italian artist 
 had been deemed worthy of filling his place and completing 
 the work. Cimabue, therefore, found the roof and the walls 
 of the nave a blank, ready for his pencil. 3 He commenced, as 
 
 1 Through the conquests of the where each picture came from. They 
 
 French. Many of the early Italian do so in the present instance, 
 paintings, not belonging to public 2 Notes to Vasari, Sienese edit. , as 
 
 galleries, were never restored ; they quoted by Lanzi. 
 now fill the first of the upper halls of 3 The frescoes of the nave of the 
 
 the Louvre Gallery. The original Lower Church are attributed to him 
 
 exposition-catalogues, as issued under by Vasari, conjointly with some Greek 
 
 the Empire, usually specify the spot painters whom he found working there, 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 343 
 
 usual, by the roof, representing on the first of the groined 
 vaults the four Doctors of the Church, and on the third the 
 Saviour, the Virgin, the Baptist and S. Francis, — the Doctors 
 full of dignity, but exactly resembling the Saints of the Meno- 
 logion magnified — the Virgin and her companions noble in 
 attitude and character, although still essentially Greek, — the 
 Saviour, especially, has evidently been inspired by the mosaics. 
 These vaults are in excellent preservation, the colours as 
 brilliant nearly as when first laid on. 1 But I cannot, alas ! say 
 as much for the remaining and more mature compositions. 
 These, ranging along the nave in two distinct rows on the 
 opposite walls, have been ruthlessly retouched and are in 
 many places entirely obliterated. Those on the Southern 
 wall represent the history of the Old Testament, those on the 
 Northern that of the New, which is concluded on the 
 Western wall, opposite the sanctuary, by the Ascension of 
 Christ and the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles. 
 The compositions are for the most part the traditional By- 
 zantine ones, little varied from, but they are grandly given — 
 the design is improved, the groups are well allied to, and 
 discriminated from each other; and in those compositions in 
 which the painter has been forced to be entirely original the 
 same merits are observable. They form altogether a noble 
 series, and I would mention the Building of the Ark, the 
 Sacrifice of Abraham, the Betrayal of Our Lord, and the 
 Pieta, or Lamentation over the dead body of Christ, as 
 especially worthy of admiration. 2 
 
 — but there is small probability of this. 
 They seem to have been executed 
 previously to the middle of the 
 thirteenth century, when the walls 
 were broken through to make the 
 chapels. They are now scarcely 
 recognisable. One of the most re- 
 markable is the Meeting of the Virgin 
 and S. John after the Crucifixion, on 
 the right-hand wall, — but I should 
 hardly have made it out but for the 
 assistance of a drawing, one of a 
 series, made by Signor Mariani, an 
 artist, and the engraver of some inter- 
 esting architectural views and sections 
 of the two churches, the upper and 
 lower, of S. Francesco. 
 
 1 Each of the Doctors is represented 
 at full length, sitting at his desk, 
 
 studying the Scriptures, while Our 
 Saviour appears above, inspiring him 
 in their interpretation. See Dr. Franz 
 Kiigler's interesting observation on 
 the ornaments which surround these 
 medallions, in which he recognises 
 "a decided and not unsatisfactory 
 approach to the antique." — Handbook 
 of Painting in Italy, p. 34, — a very 
 useful vademecum. 
 
 2 It has been questioned of late 
 years whether these are really works 
 of Cimabue. Baron v. Rumohr (Ital. 
 Forschungen, torn. ii. p. 67) inclines 
 to attribute them to Spinello Aretino 
 and his son Parri, Giottesque artists 
 of the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century. But, although it is possible 
 that Spinello may have retouched 
 
344 
 
 ITALI CO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 After completing these frescoes Cimabue returned to 
 Florence, to set the seal on his reputation by his celebrated 
 Madonna, painted for the chapel of the Ruccellai family in 
 S. Maria Novella, of the Dominicans. You will gaze on it 
 with interest, if not with admiration, for, independently of 
 pictorial merit it is linked with history. Charles of Anjou, 
 King of Naples, passing through Florence while he was 
 engaged in painting it, was taken to see it at the artist's 
 bottega, or studio — as it would now be termed, in a garden 
 outside the Porta S. Piero • rumour had been busy, but no 
 one had as yet obtained a glimpse of it, — all Florence crowded 
 in after him — nothing like it had till then been seen in 
 Tuscany, and when finished, it was carried in solemn pro- 
 cession to the church, followed by the whole population, 
 and with such triumph and rejoicings that the quarter where 
 the painter dwelt obtained the name, which it has ever since 
 retained, of Borgo Allegri. 1 Nor can I think that this 
 enthusiasm was solely excited by a comparative superiority to 
 contemporary art ; it has a character of its own, and, once 
 seen, stands out from the crowd of Madonnas, individual and 
 distinct. The type is still the Byzantine, intellectualised 
 perhaps, yet neither beautiful nor graceful, but there is a 
 dignity and a majesty in her mien, and an expression of inward 
 ponderings and sad anticipation rising from her heart to her 
 eyes as they meet yours, which one cannot forget. The child 
 too, blessing with his right hand, is full of the deity, and the 
 first object in the picture, a propriety seldom lost sight of by 
 the elder Christian painters. And the attendant angels, though 
 as like as twins, have much grace and sweetness. 2 
 
 them, the testimony of Vasari, and an 
 unbroken tradition of five centuries, 
 are not to be lightly questioned ; their 
 position immediately above Giotto's 
 life of S. Francis (hereafter to be 
 mentioned), and which occupies the 
 third and lowest range of compart- 
 ments, proves their prior execution, 
 and their style and character are 
 precisely accordant with that of the 
 undoubted works of Cimabue. 
 
 There was in the Carita, at Assisi, 
 a ruined church, crumbling to decay, 
 a gigantic Madonna, painted in fresco, 
 and attributed to Cimabue — very 
 Greek, but majestic and dignified. It 
 
 probably no longer exists. In S. Ber- 
 nardino, at Perugia, on the Piazza di 
 S. Francesco, is a Crucifix, dated 
 1272, which Prof. Rosini believes to 
 be by Cimabue, and probably painted 
 about the 'time of his works at Assisi. 
 — Storia, etc., torn. i. p. 192. 
 
 1 Vasari, on the authority of ' ' certi 
 ricordi di vecchi pittori. " He had 
 access to many documents of this 
 description, which have since been lost. 
 
 2 This picture .still hangs in its 
 original position, in the chapel at the 
 extremity of the Southern transept. 
 It is engraved in Agincourt, Peinture, 
 pi. 108, and in Rosini, tav. 4. 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 345 
 
 Cimabue died in 1302, 1 in the sixty-second year of his age, 
 lamented throughout Italy as the most illustrious painter of 
 his time. His portrait may be seen in one of the great 
 frescoes of Simon di Memmo in the chapel of the Spaniards, 
 the ancient Capitolo of S. Maria Novella. The sculptor 
 Ghiberti, who has left us some interesting notices of the early 
 artists, 2 describes him as a man of most fair presence (" di 
 bellissima presenza "), and from the likeness in question it is 
 easy to imagine his appearance — tall, thin and erect in person, 
 with much of the look of a gentleman and of an old soldier, 
 who has been the handsome, the gay, the admired, in his 
 younger days. A commentator on Dante, contemporary 
 with Giotto, describes him as noble in character, but haughty 
 and proud, and one who, if a fault was hinted at in any of 
 his works, or if he discovered a blemish in it himself, would 
 cast it aside at the instant, however deeply interested in it, 3 — 
 a man, in short, who lived for fame and not for pelf, as all 
 true artists would, were they not compelled too often, by the 
 iron arm of need, to paint to live rather than live to paint. 
 I may add (for everything respecting the man is interesting) 
 that he lived in his own house, afterwards that of Giotto, in 
 the Via del Cocomero, and that he was buried in the adjacent 
 Duomo. 
 
 And yet, before bidding farewell to Cimabue, I feel that I 
 
 ought to apologise to the many writers who reckon him the 
 
 father of the school of Florence — a dignity which cannot be 
 
 conceded to him in prejudice of Giotto. The simple state of 
 
 the case is this : — At a time when the traditions of Byzantium, 
 
 venerable and noble, but insufficient in themselves for the 
 
 regeneration of art, ruled paramount in Christendom, Niccola 
 
 Pisano introduced a new style of design and composition, 
 
 founded on nature and the antique, properly checked by the 
 
 requirements of Christianity and of the life of the middle ages, 
 
 retaining nothing from the Byzantines except the traditionary, 
 
 compositions which he held himself free to modify, improve 
 
 1 Vasari says in 1300, but he century. See the ' Notizie d' Opere 
 
 appears to have been executing a di Disegno, ' etc. , published by Morelli, 
 
 mosaic, at Pisa, in 1302 [Ciampi, Bassano, 8vo, 1800, p. 17. 
 Notizie, etc. , p. 144), and to have left 2 The ' Commentario, ' printed by 
 
 it unfinished through death. Cimabue Cicognara at the close of the fourth 
 
 painted in fresco at Padua in the chapter of the fourth book of his 'Storia 
 
 church of the Carmelites, afterwards della Scultura, ' torn. ii. p. 99. 
 burnt ; a head of S. John, cut from 3 Quoted by Vasari, in the life of 
 
 the ruin, was preserved in the sixteenth Cimabue. 
 
346 
 
 ITALICO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 or dispense with altogether at pleasure, with the licence of 
 originality. This new principle was adopted by Giotto, a 
 genius as original as Niccola himself, the sole distinguished 
 pupil of Cimabue, and who struck out a style totally different 
 from his master's and from the Byzantine, which his followers 
 even considered it a demerit to resemble. Cimabue, therefore, 
 exerted comparatively little or no influence on the Florentine 
 school, and the fact (which may readily be allowed) that he 
 improved in design under the influence of the new life im- 
 parted to art in general by Niccola Pisano, cannot countervail 
 the certainty that his inward spirit, and even his outward 
 style continued to the last essentially — although in the loftiest 
 sense — Byzantine, and that, if Fra Giacomo da Turrita and 
 Gaddo Gaddi rightly belong to this transitional period, Cima- 
 bue must, by all the laws of sound criticism, be classed under 
 it also. Jupiter, in fact, did not more thoroughly dethrone 
 Saturn than Giotto supplanted Cimabue and the Byzantines — 
 than the Dramatic superseded the Contemplative principle at 
 Florence. 
 
 The conquest was not, however, so immediate and complete 
 as in the case of Niccola Pisano in Sculpture. An adherent of 
 the elder school maintained his ground, like a little Emperor 
 of Trebizond, for many years after Giotto's death, and if I 
 am not mistaken, perpetuated a Semi-Byzantine succession at 
 Florence as late as the close of the fourteenth century. 
 
 This was Bonamico di Cristofano, surnamed Buffalmacco, 
 a name better remembered now for eccentricity than genius, 
 yet undeserving of that total neglect to which it is too gener- 
 ally abandoned. 
 
 He was educated by Andrea Tan, the mosaicist — not to 
 his own department of art, but as a painter, and had formed 
 his style and established his fame before the death of Cimabue 
 and maturity of Giotto. His style, so far as we can judge of 
 it by description and the few fragments which remain of his 
 works, was founded on the Byzantine, with such additional 
 improvement as talent and observation enabled him to infuse 
 into it from other quarters. But his caprice and carelessness 
 were at least equal to his genius, and carried away by the 
 perilous gift of facility, he too generally trusted to copious 
 invention, superficial grace and attractive colouring, to atone 
 for inaccurate design, exaggerated action, and the introduction 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 347 
 
 of figures in attitudes more or less comic, admirably calculated 
 to raise a laugh, but utterly at variance with the solemn 
 character of the subjects with which he intermingled them. 1 
 On the other hand he knew what was right and fitting, he 
 was even learned in his art, "dottissimo," according to Ghiberti, 
 " in tutta P arte," and when he chose to exert himself, when 
 "he put his soul into his work," he excelled, says that writer, 
 ' 1 every other painter of his time," — words to be taken with 
 allowance, but which amply testify the respect accorded to 
 him, even in the days of Cosmo de' Medici. 
 
 I confess there is many a celebrated painter, the moiety of 
 whose works I would freely sacrifice to win back from oblivion 
 half a dozen frescoes of Buffalmacco. As it is, we have little 
 to judge him by. Of his numerous works at Pisa, the sole 
 unquestionable one that remains is the Crucifixion in the 
 Campo Santo, an early work, yet a most singular one, — 
 bold and original in composition and by no means ill executed, 
 and especially remarkable for the varied action of the angels 
 with which the sky is peopled ; one of them, among a group 
 gathered round Our Saviour, receives the blood from his side 
 in a golden chalice; another, standing on the cross of the 
 penitent thief, extricates his soul from his mouth, while a 
 devil performs the like office for his companion in punishment, 
 receiving it in his arms, and a brother fiend, armed with a 
 whip, bends forward, grotesquely and exultingly, to welcome it 
 to its new existence; the angels who had been watching 
 beside the one cross, fly away, wringing their hands in sorrow, 
 while those attendant on the other rejoice over the good 
 estate of the soul that has found grace even on the stroke of 
 the twelfth hour. All of them are in communion with each 
 other, sympathising with man. Some of these ideas were 
 adopted and frequently repeated by the Giotteschi and other 
 early painters. The lower part of the composition is filled 
 with warriors on horseback, the Virgin fainting, attended by the 
 Maries, a group of Jews, women, children, etc., all expressive, 
 though often caricatured. The faces are generally rather 
 round and full, a peculiarity which attaches more or less to 
 most Italian painters of Semi-Byzantine descent or sympathies. 
 But this interesting fresco is a mere wreck, scarcely recognis- 
 
 1 E.g. , his representing the mothers pen to make it give out the ink, — and 
 
 biting and scratching in their rage the old man blowing his nose in the 
 
 and anguish during the Massacre of Crucifixion — in each instance as de- 
 
 the Innocents, — S. Luke blowing his scribed by Vasari. 
 
348 
 
 ITALICO -BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 able, it has been so repainted and injured. 1 Buffalmacco's 
 later works, at Assisi and elsewhere, have entirely perished, 2 a 
 fate that some of them had already undergone in Vasari's 
 time, who attributes their decay to his use of a peculiar 
 species of paonazzo, or purple, mixed with salt, which ate into 
 and corroded them. The ultimate and universal prevalence 
 of the Giottesque taste may have also in many instances 
 doomed them to premature destruction. 
 
 1 The composition has some resem- 
 blance to the Crucifixion by Giunta in 
 the upper church of Assisi. It is 
 engraved by Signor Carlo Lasinio, 
 the father, in the magnificent collection 
 of engravings of the Campo Santo, 
 published originally in 1812 — primar- 
 ily, I believe, through the advocacy 
 and interest of Professor Rosini, the 
 historian of Italian art. 
 
 2 The life of the Magdalen, in one 
 of the chapels of the lower church 
 at Assisi, attributed to Buffalmacco, 
 is certainly Giottesque, and appears 
 to be by Giottino. At Florence, how- 
 ever, in the gallery of the Academy, 
 a picture is attributed to him, which 
 may possibly be his, — at all events it 
 is a very interesting specimen of the 
 school to which he belonged. It was 
 painted and set up, in the year 1312, 
 over the tomb of the Abbess S. Umilta 
 (a rich, noble and beautiful damsel of 
 Faenza, foundress of the ' donne di 
 Faenza, ' or ' Monache Vallombrosane, ' 
 a distinct branch or rule of the Bene- 
 dictine order), in the church of her 
 nunnery at Florence, dedicated to S. 
 John the Evangelist, but now destroyed, 
 the name surviving in that of the castle 
 ' di S. Giovanni, ' usually known as the 
 ' fortezza di basso, ' which extends 
 over the site. The arrangement of 
 the picture is quite in the Greek style, 
 — the Saint is represented at full length 
 in her nun's dress in the centre, and 
 her story is told in small lateral com- 
 partments. In the First and highest, 
 beginning from the left, she is seen 
 converting her suitor, a kinsman of 
 the Emperor Frederick II. , to the 
 faith of virginity. In the Second is 
 represented the illness of the husband 
 whom her guardians had compelled 
 h„r to marry, which resulted in his 
 
 acquiescence in her wish to take the 
 veil, and ultimately, in his assuming 
 the cowl himself, which in the Third 
 compartment he receives from the 
 Bishop, while his (late) wife kneels 
 behind, in prayer. In the Fourth is 
 represented the miracle by which the 
 obedience that obtained her name, 
 ' Humility ' ( Umilta), was honoured 
 by God. Although of high birth, she 
 had never been taught to read ; the 
 nuns one day playfully bade her go 
 and read to them as they dined ; she 
 bent her head submissively, and went 
 up to the desk, and opening the book, 
 the words presented themselves to her, 
 ' ' Despise not the works of the Lord, 
 for they are all true and just," — she 
 read them aloud, and then, lifting up 
 her eyes, pronounced a discourse so 
 lofty and thrilling on the text in ques- 
 tion, that first they wondered, and 
 presently not an eye remained dry 
 throughout the refectory. And still 
 greater was their surprise when, on 
 examining the book that lay before her, 
 not a word was to be found there of 
 what her mouth had uttered. The 
 Fifth compartment represents her 
 escape from the convent by the assist- 
 ance of an angel of the Lord, and her 
 miraculous passage of the river Lamone 
 by walking on the water, her object 
 being to reach the desert and live 
 there in penitence and apart, in imita- 
 tion of the ancient Anchorets. Being 
 detained, however, shortly afterwards, 
 in an honourable captivity, by a rela- 
 tion who opposed her purpose, she 
 healed by the sign of the cross a 
 young monk whose leg the doctors 
 were about to amputate, and who 
 had besought her interposition, as 
 represented in compartment Sixth, in 
 consequence of which her kinsman 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 349 
 
 In every way, therefore, Time's tooth has been busy with 
 his fame, and a mere skeleton, a very ghost of a reputation is 
 all that remains to Buffalmacco. It is, in truth, in the thin 
 airy atmosphere of the Italian novelists, that his name will 
 survive after every vestige of his works has vanished. From 
 
 relinquished his opposition, and a cell 
 was built for her adjoining the church 
 of S. Apollinaire, near Faenza, belong- 
 ing to the monastery of the youth she 
 had healed, in which she might live, 
 professing the rule of the Benedictines, 
 and furnished with two little windows, 
 the one opening into the church, for 
 the reception of the Sacrament, the 
 other for the introduction of food. 
 She is seen kneeling beside it, in the 
 background of compartment Seventh. 
 Her example induced many other 
 women to build cells round the monas- 
 tery, and by the bishop's desire, 
 confirmed by an apparition of Our 
 Saviour, they were soon afterwards put 
 under her care, and a monastery was 
 built, into which, twelve years after 
 entering her cell, she was formally 
 inducted by the bishop. Some time 
 after this, accompanied by three of her 
 nuns, and at the command of S. John 
 the Evangelist, she walked barefoot to 
 Florence, with the view of establishing 
 another nunnery there ; they are seen 
 on their journey in the background of 
 the compartment last mentioned. In 
 the Eighth, the new nunnery is seen in 
 the progress of erection, — she follows 
 a mule laden with stones for the build- 
 ing, which, though past eighty, she 
 daily gathered with her own hands in 
 the Mugnone, the streamlet that flows 
 past Florence, under sunny Fiesole. 
 The Ninth compartment is lost. The 
 Tenth represents her resuscitation of 
 a dead child ; it had been entrusted 
 to a poor country-woman to nurse, 
 but fell ill, and she was bringing it to 
 Florence for medical aid when it died 
 in her 'arms ; she met S. Umilta, and 
 besought her assistance ; a little chapel, 
 dedicated to S. John the Evangelist, 
 stood by ; Umilta took the child and 
 laid it before the image, and making 
 the sign of the cross over the body 
 with a lighted taper, the child revived. 
 Finally, in the Eleventh compartment, 
 
 is represented the apparition of S. 
 Umilta, while yet alive, to two nuns 
 who lived as anchorets in the Apennine, 
 but had fallen from their first love, 
 warning them to repent ; and in the 
 Twelfth, her death, aged about a cen- 
 tury, in 1 310, or rather, the funeral 
 service performed over her remains. 
 See, for this history, the ' Breve Rac- 
 colto della Vita, Miracoli e Culto di 
 Sant' Umilta,' etc. Flor. \Xo, 1722. 
 These little compositions are painted 
 on a gold ground and very highly 
 finished ; the landscape, trees, archi- 
 tecture, etc., resemble those of the 
 Menologion, and the whole style is 
 Byzantine, but the figures are much 
 superior, and frequently have con- 
 siderable expression. The colouring 
 tends towards a greyish green, very 
 usual in productions of the Italico- 
 Byzantine schools. When the mon- 
 astery of S. John was destroyed in 
 1529, the picture was removed, along 
 with the body of the saint, to that of 
 S. Salvi, but the latter also being now 
 deserted, it has been lodged, after 
 careful restoration, in the Academy. 
 I own I am inclined to believe it a 
 genuine work of Buffalmacco, more 
 especially as, according to Vasari, his 
 earliest employment had been in decor- 
 ating the church of these ' monache 
 di Faenza' in fresco. It may be 
 noted too that the Mugnone is the 
 scene of one of the best of the practical 
 jokes which Buffalmacco and Bruno 
 played on Calandrino, as related by 
 Boccaccio, and the probability natur- 
 ally suggests itself that they may, all 
 three, have worked there together. 
 The interest of this picture as one of 
 the very few surviving relics of the 
 early Semi- Byzantine school of Florence 
 ' — ancestral, as I believe it, to Orcagna 
 and Fra Angelico da Fiesole, with 
 whose works not a few resemblances 
 may be here detected — will excuse 
 the length of this notice. 
 
35° 
 
 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 boyhood to hoary age, his pranks and practical jokes were the 
 laugh of Florence, as his conversational flow of fun and 
 humour were the life of Maso del Saggio's shop, the Wits' 
 Coffee-house of the time. 1 But wit and wisdom are seldom 
 mates, and the ashes left by the crackling thorns of folly press 
 heavily on the head on which retribution lays them. It so 
 fared with Buffalmacco. A merry wag, a careless spendthrift, 
 living for the day without a thought of the morrow, and (as 
 the phrase is) nobody's enemy but his own, he drained the 
 cup of pleasure to the lees and found misery at the bottom, 
 dying, at the age of seventy-eight, 2 a beggar in the Misericordia, 
 without a paul in his pocket to buy a coffin for his corpse or 
 a mass for his soul — the type and mirror of a whole class of 
 artists whose follies and vagaries throw discredit on genius, 
 while a certain kindliness of heart renders it impossible not to 
 pity while we blame them. 
 
 One only of his pupils, Giovanni da Ponte, is recorded 
 as such ; he was a prodigal and a man of pleasure, and died 
 in wretchedness like himself. 3 Bruno, the accomplice, and 
 Calandrino, the victim of his practical jokes, as recorded by 
 Boccaccio, both of them painters, though mere daubers, 
 unquestionably belonged to the same school, and, if not his 
 own, may probably have been his fellow-pupils under Andrea 
 Tafi. 4 These would be but ignoble representatives of the 
 Semi-Byzantine succession at Florence ; but, strange to say, 
 I think it not improbable that the Orcagna family derive 
 their pedigree as artists from the same original stock, — and 
 that thus the sublime author of the ' Triumph of Death,' and 
 his pupil, the mystic Traini, and even, possibly, the half-sainted 
 Beato Angelico da Fiesole, walk in the same procession with 
 him. But these are names of which we shall treat more 
 fully and reverently hereafter. 5 
 
 1 The witticisms recorded by Boc- Rosini, tav. 12. It bears a strong 
 caccio are dull enough, the practical resemblance (in its inferiority) to the 
 jokes excellent, — and so too are those style of Orcagna. Compare for 
 inserted in his life by Vasari, from instance the female figures with the 
 the novels of Sacchetti. mother attempting to rescue her daugh- 
 
 2 In 1340, according to Vasari. ter from the Demons' grasp in the 
 But Baldinucci says his name is in- Last Judgment of the Campo Santo, 
 serted as alive in 1351, in an ancient 5 It may be remarked, that in 
 book of the Company of the Painters. Ghiberti's ' Commentario ' he enum- 
 Notizie, etc., torn, ii, p. 27. erates the painters in three distinct 
 
 3 Vasari. groups, commencing with Giotto and 
 
 4 A picture by Bruno, preserved in his pupils, nominatim, as such, — then 
 the Academy of Pisa, is engraved by proceeding to Buffalmacco (or, as he 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 351 
 
 There were yet two or three Italico-Byzantine revivals, 
 similar to and contemporary with those of Siena and Florence, 
 which ought to be mentioned, before concluding this letter. 
 
 Tomaso de' Stefani effected an improvement of this de- 
 scription at Naples, but the frescoes executed by him in the 
 chapel of the Minutoli in the Duorao are, I fear, no longer 
 visible. Workmen were whitewashing the upper walls of the 
 chapel when I visited it in the spring of 1842, and it is not 
 likely that the compositions to the right and left of the 
 altar-tomb, which escaped retouching through the intercession 
 of De' Dominici a century ago, have now been spared. 1 The 
 frescoes, though sadly injured, were well worth preserving ; 
 ease, freedom, and even grace made amends for harsh outlines, 
 abrupt shadow, and much inequality of execution. But as 
 the work of Tomaso, the brother of Pietro, who sculptured 
 the altar-tomb, and the friend of Masuccio who built the 
 cathedral, each in his department the parent of art at Naples, 
 they should have been held sacred. Tomaso left a pupil, 
 Filippo Tesauro, the master of Messer Simone, whom I shall 
 hereafter mention as a proselyte to the school of Giotto. 2 
 
 The frescoes of the Baptistery at Parma have a far better 
 chance of preservation, and indeed rank among the most 
 remarkable productions of the thirteenth century. They were 
 executed by Bertolino of Piacenza and Niccolo of Reggio, 
 shortly after 1260, in the youth of Cimabue, and fill three of 
 the concentric circles of the cupola, — the highest representing 
 the Apostles and Evangelists (three of the latter, S. Mark, 
 S. Luke, and S. John being portrayed like Egyptian deities, 
 with the heads of their respective symbols, the lion, ox and 
 eagle) ; the second, Our Saviour, the Virgin and the prophets ; 
 
 calls him, Bonamico), Pietro Cavallini 
 and Orcagna, evidently considering 
 them a distinct school, independent 
 of Giotto — and lastly, to the painters 
 of Siena. In the Campo Santo, 
 moreover, the works of Orcagna im- 
 mediately succeed those of Buffal- 
 macco. 
 
 1 See the 'Vite de' Pittori, Scul- 
 tori ed Architetti Napoletani, ' by Ber- 
 nardo de' Dominici, torn. i. p. n. I 
 shall speak of the character of this 
 work in treating of the school of 
 Niccola Pisano. 
 
 2 Of Tesauro some frescoes, re- 
 
 presenting the life of the Beato Niccola, 
 existed at the beginning of last century 
 in a lunette in the chapel of S. Maria 
 del Principio in the church of S. Res- 
 tituta, now enclosed in the cathedral 
 of S. Gennaro — but they have been 
 whitewashed. — De Dominici, torn. i. 
 p. 30. A Madonna and child, in the 
 Incoronata, over the first altar to the 
 right, on entering the church, struck 
 me as the most pleasing among the 
 various works ascribed to Messer Sim- 
 one. The expression is very sweet, 
 and the style is peculiar, evidently 
 before any Giottesque influence. 
 
352 
 
 ITALICO- BYZANTINE 
 
 LETTER 
 
 the third, the history of S. John the Baptist. 1 They are in ex- 
 cellent preservation, and very nearly as fresh as whenfirst painted. 
 In general style they are decidedly Byzantine, imitated from 
 the mosaics,— the very colouring, clear and brilliant, reminds 
 one of them ; several of the compositions are the traditional 
 ones, yet varied with boldness and originality, while a life and 
 animation pervade the whole series, to which I scarcely remem- 
 ber any contemporary parallel. I cannot say what succession 
 these painters left, but from the peculiar colouring and other 
 circumstances I strongly suspect an ancestral relation between 
 them and the primitive and interesting school of Bologna. 2 
 
 In the North of Lombardy we find fewer ' and indecisive 
 traces of revival — at least in the Byzantine spirit. The old 
 Roman school indeed, or what I have ventured to consider 
 such, revived, especially at Cremona, where some very curious 
 frescoes, of the middle of the fourteenth century, by Polidoro 
 Casella, quite unlike either the Giottesque or the Byzantine 
 manner, still exist on the vaults of the two aisles of the 
 Cathedral. 3 Such too may be seen at Verona, in the frescoes 
 that line the choir of S. Zenone, but there the Byzantine 
 and Giottesque influences balance, if not encroach upon it. 4 
 
 1 The series commences in the first 
 compartment to the right of the central, 
 or Western door, as you face it from 
 within, standing at the font. The 
 Second, Sixth and Tenth compart- 
 ments represent S. Ambrose and S. 
 Augustine, S. Gregory and S. Jerome, 
 S. Martin and S. Sylvester ; the re- 
 mainder are as follows : — i. The An- 
 nunciation to Zacharias ; 3. The Birth 
 of S. John ; 4. An Angel leading him, 
 while a child, into the wilderness ; 5. 
 S. John preaching ; 7. S. John bap- 
 tizing ; 8. Pointing out Our Saviour 
 to his disciples ; 9. Baptizing Our 
 Saviour; 11. Before Herod ; 12. Led 
 to prison, while, to the right, his two 
 disciples are seen carrying his message 
 to Christ ; 13. Our Saviour performing 
 miracles of mercy in presence of John's 
 disciples, in reply to his message ; 14. 
 The two disciples relating to John 
 what they had seen ; 15. John's de- 
 capitation ; and 16. Herod's feast, 
 and the head brought in on a charger. 
 Some of the frescoes, I may observe, 
 on the lower walls of the Baptistery, 
 
 though very inferior, are curious as 
 works (apparently) of the earlier pale- 
 colouring school of Northern Italy, 
 after undergoing the influence of the 
 Giotteschi. 
 
 2 The merits of which must be 
 reserved for discussion hereafter, as 
 the influence of Niccola Pisano became 
 paramount ultimately, even in the 
 case of Vitale, Lippo Dalmasio, and 
 others, whose earlier works belong to 
 the same class as the Madonna of 
 Orsanmichele, and evince a close 
 affinity to the semi-Byzantine style. 
 
 3 The compositions are chiefly from 
 the patriarchal history. The colour- 
 ing and drapery are very peculiar, 
 some of the figures are distinguished 
 by a ?iaivetd and simplicity which 
 occasionally rises towards dignity, but 
 upon the whole they are inferior, and 
 even below par in point of mechanical 
 excellence. Rosini has engraved two 
 of them, torn. ii. facing p. 147. 
 
 4 The Baptism of Our Saviour and 
 the Resurrection of Lazarus seem to 
 be the oldest. There is a rather 
 
II. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 353 
 
 Guariento, moreover, of Padua, an artist to be mentioned 
 with high praise among the Giotteschi, and even Squarcione, 
 the father of the classic school of Lombardy, would appear to 
 have sprung originally from the same Roman family. 
 
 At Venice, on the contrary, ever, as you may remember, 
 sympathetic with the East, a decided, though transient Italico- 
 Byzantine revival took place as late as the middle of the 
 fourteenth century, in the persons of Paolo Veneziano, Niccolo 
 Semitecolo, and Lorenzo, of whom the two former, but 
 especially Niccolo, attempted to infuse the contemporary 
 improvements of central Italy into their distinct traditionary 
 style, while the latter, after a similar effort, abandoned it 
 altogether. Paolo painted the outer case of the Pala d' Oro, 
 in the treasury of S. Mark's, and specimens of the works of 
 Niccolo and Lorenzo may be seen in the interesting museum 
 of the Venetian Academy. 1 
 
 spirited one of S. George killing the 
 dragon, the dragon's tail curling round 
 the horse's leg. These are on the 
 Southern wall of the presbytery. 
 
 1 A large altar-piece, in a great 
 number of compartments, of which 
 the central, representing the Corona- 
 tion of the Virgin, is much superior to 
 the rest, is the most important work of 
 Semitecolo. The only compositions 
 worth notice are that of S. Francis 
 renouncing his father in the market- 
 place at Assisi, the third of the upper 
 row, adapted apparently from a com- 
 position by Giotto at Assisi, — and the 
 Last Judgment, in which one of the 
 angels attendant on Our Saviour holds 
 forth a scroll of the sun, moon, stars, 
 etc., as if about to roll it up, while 
 below, to the left, one vast tomb, sur- 
 rounded by trees, appears to enshrine 
 the spirits of the just, and fire descends 
 as usual from the throne to consume 
 the wicked, to the right of the picture. 
 This is purely a revival, an Italianiza- 
 tion of the Byzantine style, and as 
 such the picture is very curious. In 
 the robes of Our Saviour and the 
 Virgin the lights are done in gold, in 
 the trictrac manner, so common with 
 the Byzantines. Blue rays, shaped 
 like the blade of a sword, descend from 
 the circlet symbolical of heaven, when 
 the interference of Deity is expressed. 
 Something very like this occurs in the 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 paintings of Tintoretto at Venice and 
 even in the Annunciation by Titian 
 on the staircase of the Confreria di S. 
 Rocco, one of the many reminiscences 
 of Byzantium in his early works. 
 Four other of NiccokVs pictures, one 
 of them signed ' Nicholeto Simetecolo 
 de Venetia,' another dated 1367 — and 
 representing S. Sebastian reproving 
 the Emperors^Maximian and Diocletian, 
 his being shot at, his martyrdom, 
 beaten to death with clubs, and his 
 burial — are preserved in the Libreria 
 del Duomo, at Padua. The Burial is 
 the best, it is well; grouped, the colour- 
 ing neither very warm nor very pale, 
 the expression tame. They are highly 
 finished. Lorenzo is an artist of far 
 higher merit. The earliest of his 
 works would appear to be the immense 
 picture in compartments, formerly in 
 S. Antonio di Castello, now in the 
 Academy at Venice. The Byzantine 
 influence is still visible in it, but in his 
 later works in the same gallery it 
 wholly disappears. His colouring is 
 soft and warm, betraying, if I mistake 
 not, the influence of the early German 
 school of Cologne. We shall have 
 repeated occasion, hereafter, to notice 
 the influence of Byzantium, long lin- 
 gering, and perpetually reappearing 
 and asserting itself in the development 
 of art at Venice. 
 
 2 A 
 
ITALICO- BYZANTINE PAINTING. letter n. 
 
 It would prolong this sketch unnecessarily to notice the 
 traces of these Semi-Byzantine revivals discoverable long after 
 the direct succession had in each several district failed, and 
 the influence of Niccola Pisano become predominant in Italy 
 — at Siena longer than at Florence, at Bologna longer than at 
 Siena, at Venice longer than at Bologna ; while in Western 
 Lombardy, and at Asti, in particular, as late as the pontificate 
 of Leo X., artists might be found, descendants apparently in 
 the direct line from the original Roman school, who perpetu- 
 ated many of the worst peculiarities of the Byzantine school 
 in the style of the worst contemporaries of the Menologion. 1 
 
 I should have brought this letter more speedily to a close, 
 had I not wished you to appreciate the Sculpture and Painting 
 of Italy in all their varied relations, nor would the " bright 
 chambers of the East " have revealed Niccola Pisano sooner 
 for my shaking the hour-glass. There is a freshness too in the 
 half-hour's walk immediately before sunrise, which insensibly 
 begets a brisker step and a more discursive lip than may be 
 maintained in the heat of the day, when the mouth is parched 
 and the foot drags heavily onward. " Absit omen !" but to a 
 pedestrian like yourself this similitude may serve possibly as a 
 Janus-faced apology. 
 
 1 See for example a picture by- 
 Ambrose of Asti, dated 15 14, in the 
 Academy of Pisa, and more especially 
 the compositions on the gradino. 
 The picture nevertheless displays points 
 of originality and merit. In the central 
 compartment Mary Magdalen pours 
 the ointment over Our Saviour's head, 
 which I never saw elsewhere, and his 
 conversation with her (as identified 
 with Mary, the sister of Lazarus), on 
 the gradino, though rude, is full of 
 feeling. ' S. Orsola, regina di Bre- 
 tagna ' is represented in the compart- 
 ment to the right, with her Vision, 
 the Voyage of the Eleven Thousand 
 Virgins, and her Martyrdom, on the 
 
 gradino, — and to the left we behold 
 'S. Ilaria di Barcalone' (Barcelona), a 
 really bea atiful figure, with her expo- 
 sure to the flames, and her decollation, 
 below ; a hand, as if from heaven, 
 holds the sword that has despatched 
 her, and her soul flies up to heaven in 
 the shape of a little white bird. The 
 rocks in the background are exactly 
 like those of the Menologion, to which 
 the whole composition bears a singular 
 resemblance. This picture belongs 
 to a class whose interest, like that of 
 S. Umilta, is of a documentary descrip- 
 tion — rude indeed, and of little worth 
 in themselves, but valuable as witnesses 
 in the Jiistory of art. 
 
CHRISTIAN ART OF MODERN 
 EUROPE. 
 
 PERIOD I. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Development of the Christian Eleme?it, Spirit — Lombard 
 and Gothic ; or Pointed Architecture — Rise of Sculpture 
 and Painting — Expression. 
 
 III. NICCOLA PISANO AND HIS SCHOOL — RISE AND 
 RESTORATION OF SCULPTURE, IN CONNECTION 
 WITH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE — PREPARATION 
 FOR GHIBERTI AND DONATELLO. 
 
 Sect. i. Pisa — Niccola and Giovanni Pisano. 
 
 Sect. 2. Florence — Andrea Pisano and Orcagna. 
 
 Sect. 3. Siena. 
 
 Sect. 4. Naples. 
 
LETTER III. 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 Rise and Restoration of Sculpture, in connection 
 with Gothic Architecture — Preparation for 
 Ghiberti and Donatello. 
 
 Section i. — Pisa — Niccola and Giovanni Pisano. 
 
 In comparing the advent of Niccola Pisano to that of the sun 
 at his rising, I am conscious of no exaggeration ; on the 
 contrary, it is the only simile by which I can hope to give you 
 an adequate impression of his brilliancy and power relatively 
 to the age in which he flourished. Those sons of Erebus, 
 the American Indians, fresh from their traditional subterranean 
 world, and gazing for the first time on the gradual dawning of 
 day in the East, could not have been more dazzled, more 
 astounded when the sun actually appeared, than the popes 
 and podestas, friars and freemasons must have been in the 
 thirteenth century, when from among the Biduinos, Bonannos 
 and Antelamis of the twelfth, Niccola emerged in his glory, 
 sovereign and supreme, a fount of light, diffusing warmth and 
 radiance over Christendom. It might be too much to parallel 
 him in actual genius with Dante and Shakspeare; they 
 stand alone and unapproachable, each on his distinct pinnacle 
 of the temple of Christian song, — and yet neither of them can 
 boast such extent and durability of influence, for whatever of 
 highest excellence has been achieved in Sculpture and Painting, 
 not in Italy only but throughout Europe, has been in obedience 
 to the impulse he primarily gave, and in following up the 
 principle which he first struck out. I write this, fearless of 
 contradiction, for you will not, I am sure, misunderstand me 
 as proposing Niccola's men and women as models for an 
 
358 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 academy ; I think and speak of the immortal spirit, not of 
 bones and muscles, — though even in that point of view he 
 merits no small respect. But to descend to specification : — 
 
 Niccola's peculiar praise is this, — that in practice at least, 
 if not in theory, he first established the principle that the 
 study of nature, corrected by the ideal of the antique, and 
 animated by the spirit of Christianity, personal and social, can 
 alone lead to excellence in art, each of the three elements of 
 human nature — Matter, Mind and Spirit — being thus brought 
 into union and co-operation in the service of God, in due 
 relative harmony and subordination. I cannot over-estimate 
 the importance of this principle ; it was on this that, consciously 
 or unconsciously, Niccola himself worked, — it has been by 
 following it that Donatello and Ghiberti, Leonard, Raphael 
 and Michael Angelo have risen to glory. The Sienese 
 school and the Florentine, minds contemplative and dramatic, 
 are alike beholden to it for whatever success has attended 
 their efforts. Like a treble-stranded rope, it drags after it the 
 triumphal car of Christian Art. But if either of the strands be 
 broken, if either of the three elements be pursued disjointedly 
 from the other two, the result is, in each respective case, 
 grossness, pedantry or weakness, — the exclusive imitation of 
 Nature produces a Caravaggio, a Rubens, a Rembrandt — 
 that of the Antique, a Pellegrino di Tibaldo and a David, — and 
 though there be a native chastity and taste in religion, which 
 restrains those who worship it too abstractedly from Intellect 
 and Sense, from running into such extremes, it cannot at least 
 supply that mechanical apparatus which will enable them to 
 soar, — such devotees must be content to gaze up into heaven, 
 like angels cropt of their wings. I might cite many instances of 
 this, — even Raphael occasionally offends the eye by inaccuracy 
 of design. The principle, you see, is simple enough; I may recur 
 to it hereafter, when the unconscious accumulation of examples 
 shall have enabled you to appreciate its universal application. 
 We will now proceed to inquire how Niccola Pisano struck it out, 
 and what he has left behind him to justify these observations. 
 
 Of the date of Niccola's birth no record, I believe, exists ; 
 it probably took place about the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century. 1 Nor is there any certainty as to his first instructor 
 
 1 This may be gathered from an dating between the years 1274, when 
 inscription on the fountain of Perugia, the fountain was begun, and 1277, 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 359 
 
 in art; it may have been Bonanno, but the discrepancy of age 
 is great between them. His earlier years appear to have been 
 devoted to Architecture; I have elsewhere estimated his 
 claims to distinction as the introducer of the style usually 
 termed Tuscan or Italian Gothic. 
 
 His improvement in Sculpture is attributable, in the first 
 instance, to the study of an ancient sarcophagus, brought 
 from Greece by the ships of Pisa in the eleventh century, and 
 which, after having stood beside the door of the Duomo for 
 many centuries as the tomb of the Countess Beatrice, mother 
 of the celebrated Matilda, has been recently removed to the 
 Campo Santo. The front is sculptured in bas-relief, in two 
 compartments, the one representing Hippolytus rejecting the 
 suit of Phaedra, the other his departure for the chase, — such 
 at least is the most plausible interpretation. The sculpture, 
 if not super-excellent, is substantially good, and the benefit 
 derived from it by Niccola is perceptible on the slightest 
 examination of his works. Other remains of antiquity are 
 preserved at Pisa, which he may have also studied, but this 
 was the classic well from which he drew those waters which 
 became wine when poured into the hallowing chalice of 
 Christianity. 1 I need scarcely add that the mere presence of 
 such models would have availed little, had not nature endowed 
 him with the quick eye and the intuitive apprehension of 
 genius, together with a purity of taste which taught him how 
 to select, how to modify and how to reinspire the germs of 
 excellence thus presented to him. 
 
 His earliest work is probably the Deposition, over the left- 
 hand door of the facade of the Cathedral at Lucca, sculptured 
 in 1233. Several years, apparently, elapsed before he resumed 
 the chisel ; 2 but having once done so, he seems to have worked 
 
 when Niccola was dead, and in which 
 inscription he is described as being 
 then in his seventy-fourth year. — Mem- 
 orie Istor. intorno all" Area di S. 
 Domenico, by the Marchese Virgilio 
 Davia, 1842, p. 34. He is designed in 
 the records of Pisa, ' Magister Nichole 
 quondam Petri de Senis Ser Blasii 
 Pisani,' — the son, that is to say, of 
 Peter of Siena, the son of Ser Blasius, 
 or Biagio, of Pisa, — from which Ciampi 
 infers that his father may have been 
 born at Siena, while his grandfather 
 lived there as Podesta, or in some 
 
 honourable office, and that neither of 
 these, his progenitors, were artists. 
 Notizie Inedite, etc. , p. 35. 
 
 1 The' sarcophagus is engraved by 
 the younger Lasinio, in the ' Monu- 
 menti Sepolcrali della Toscana,' Flor., 
 folio, 18 19, tav. 41. For illustrations 
 of Niccola' s study of the antique, see 
 Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 13 and 15. 
 
 2 Except the Deposition, and the 
 Area di S. Domenico, Vasari mentions 
 no sculptures by Niccola prior to the 
 pulpit of Pisa, but a great number of 
 works in architecture. 
 
360 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 on, continuously, for a lengthened period, during which he 
 executed the three great works on which his reputation rests, 
 — the pulpits, namely, of the Baptistery at Pisa and of the 
 Cathedral at Siena, and the 'Area,' or shrine, of S. Domenic, 
 for the church of that Saint at Bologna. The first of these 
 was finished in 1260, as appears by the inscription; the 
 contract for the second was drawn up in 1266, — and, from the 
 date of the translation of S. Domenic's remains, there is reason 
 to believe that the intervening years were dedicated to the 
 preparation of the receptacle in which they were to be de- 
 posited, 1 unquestionably the most original and important work 
 that he has bequeathed to us. Each of these monuments is 
 worthy of a minute examination. 
 
 The Pulpit of Pisa is perhaps the most elegant in Italy. It 
 is of white marble, six-sided, and supported by seven Corinthian 
 pillars, six corresponding to the angles of the hexagon, and 
 resting alternately on the ground and on the backs of lions, 
 the seventh considerably thicker and in the centre, resting on 
 a whole clump of human figures and monsters. The bas- 
 reliefs are five in number. The first represents the Nativity, 
 the traditional Byzantine composition, very slightly varied; 
 the reclining figure of the Virgin, originally imitated from the 
 ancient statues, but long devoid of grace and beauty, is here 
 restored to not a little of its pristine character ; and to show 
 his skill in the delineation of nature, even in the lower grades 
 of animal life, Niccola has introduced, among the attendant 
 sheep, a goat scratching its ear, with admirable effect, — an 
 attempt that he has repeated, with the like success, on the 
 pulpit of Siena. 
 
 The second compartment, the Adoration of the Kings, is 
 perhaps the best of the series, admirable in composition, calm 
 and quiet, the kings full of majesty, the younger of the three 
 already a little idealised, while the Virgin is the dignified 
 mother of Christ ; it was not till afterwards that the idea of 
 virginity prevailed over that of maternity, or rather that artists 
 attempted to blend the two in their delineations of the maiden 
 mother of Nazareth. The three horses also, behind the kings, 
 are full of spirit. 
 
 The Presentation in the Temple, and the Crucifixion (in- 
 
 1 Davia, Memorie Istoriche, etc., Mai vasia, the historian of Bolognese art, 
 
 p. 42 ; Rosini, Storia, etc. , torn. i. p. was the first to remark the absurdity 
 
 165. According to Vasari, the Area of this, S. Domenic having only been 
 
 was sculptured in 1225 ; Count Carlo canonised in 1234. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 361 
 
 eluding the Deposition), follow, — and lastly, the final Judgment 
 — a most remarkable composition, full of attempts, wonderful 
 for the time, to delineate the naked and emulate the antique. 
 
 Throughout the series the composition is clear and intel- 
 ligible, the gesture calm and noble, the expression true and 
 unexaggerated, the drapery dignified and free ; and, if a fault is 
 to be found, it is that the heads are generally somewhat too 
 large in proportion to the bodies, a failing incidental to all 
 early efforts of the kind. 
 
 I cannot sufficiently regret the destruction of the gates of 
 Bonanno, for their proximity would have been the surest 
 witness to Niccola's merit. As it is, we may well wonder — to 
 give more appropriate application to an expression Vasari uses 
 with regard to Cimabue — "come in tante tenebre potesse 
 veder Niccola tanto lume." 1 
 
 The ' Area di S. Domenico ' is a work of greater extent 
 than the one I have just described, — rich to a degree in 
 general design, yet singularly sober and simple in execution, 
 and altogether a most satisfactory performance. 
 
 Its prominent features are the six large bas-reliefs, delineating 
 the principal events in the legend of S. Domenic, disposed, 
 two behind, one at each extremity, and two in front, between 
 which last is fixed a small statue of the Virgin, crowned, and 
 holding the infant Saviour in an attitude which almost every 
 one of his successors has imitated during the following century, 
 none however equalling the original. The face has a sweet 
 expression, though somewhat round and unideal, 2 but the 
 attitude and drapery are full of grace and elegance. A small 
 statue of Our Saviour occupies the correspondent position at 
 the back of the Area, and the four Doctors of the Church are 
 sculptured at the angles. The operculum^ or lid, was added 
 about two hundred years afterwards. 
 
 The series of bas-reliefs begins and ends at the back, 
 running round from left to right. The subjects are briefly as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. The Papal confirmation of the rule of the Dominican 
 order. — S. Domenic, a Spaniard, of the illustrious Gothic house 
 of Guzman, having formed the scheme of a new religious 
 
 1 This pulpit is engraved, as a 2 The features seem, as a general 
 
 whole, in Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. rule, to be more full and round in 
 
 32, and the Nativity and the Adoration proportion as the Semi- Byzantine in- 
 
 of the Kings may be seen in plates 14 fluence prevails in European art. 
 and 12 of the first volume of Cicognara. 
 
362 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 fraternity, expressly devoted to the defence of the faith against 
 heresy, applied to the Pope for his sanction, but unsuccess- 
 fully; the following night his Holiness beheld, in a dream, 
 the church of the Lateran giving way, and the Saint propping 
 it with his shoulders ; the warning was obvious, and the con- 
 firmation was accordingly granted. Each step in the march of 
 this important event is represented in a distinct group in this 
 compartment. 
 
 11. The appearance of the Apostles Peter and Paul to S. 
 Domenic, while praying in St. Peter's, — S. Peter presented 
 him with a staff, S. Paul with a book, bidding him go forth 
 and preach to Christendom. — This is a very beautiful com- 
 position ; attitude, expression, drapery are alike commend- 
 able. To the right S. Domenic is seen sending forth the 
 friars preachers (" fratres predicatores ") on their mission to 
 mankind. 
 
 in. S. Domenic praying for the restoration to life of the 
 young Napoleon, nephew of the Cardinal Stefano, who had 
 been thrown from his horse and killed, as seen in the fore- 
 ground ; his mother kneels behind, joining in the prayer. — The 
 horse is excellent, the figures are singularly free from stiffness 
 and true to nature, some of them even graceful. 
 
 iv. S. Domenic's doctrine tested by fire. — After preaching 
 against the Albigenses, he had written out his argument and 
 delivered it to one of his antagonists, who showing it to his 
 companions as they stood round the fire, they determined to 
 submit it to that ordeal ; the scroll was thrice thrown in, and 
 thrice leapt out unburnt. 
 
 v. The miracle of the loaves. — The brethren, forty in 
 number, assembled one day for dinner, but nothing was pro- 
 ducible from the buttery except a single loaf of bread ; S. 
 Domenic was dividing it among them, when two beautiful 
 youths entered the refectory with baskets full of loaves which 
 they distributed to the fraternity, and then immediately dis- 
 appeared. 1 The legend is here most happily told ; the forty 
 monks are reduced to six, the angels pour the loaves (crossed 
 sacramental wafers) into S. Domenic's lap, who distributes 
 them to his brethren. The composition is extremely simple, 
 the angel youths singularly graceful, and the friars have that 
 peculiar type of countenance which is not merely conventional 
 
 1 A miracle resembling this is told by Ruffinus of the Abbot Apollonius, 
 Rosweyde, Vitce Patrum, p. 463. 
 
II. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 363 
 
 in art, but may still be seen in every monastery, as if pro- 
 duced in obedience to some law of nature attendant on the 
 profession of celibacy. 
 
 vi. and lastly, the Profession of the youthful deacon, 
 Reginald. — He fell suddenly, ill when on the eve of entering 
 the order ; his life was despaired of ; S. Domenic interceded 
 for him with the Virgin, who appeared to him the following 
 night, when on the point of death, accompanied by two lovely 
 maidens, anointed him with a salve of marvellous virtue, 
 accompanying the unction with words of mystery and power, 
 and promised him complete recovery within three days, 
 showing him at the same moment a pattern of the Dominican 
 robe as she willed it to be worn thenceforward, varied from the 
 fashion previously in use ; three days afterwards he received 
 it from the Saint's hands, in perfect health, as the Virgin had 
 foretold. These incidents are represented with singular grace 
 and beauty in this concluding composition. 
 
 With the exception of the Adoration of the Kings on the 
 pulpit at Pisa, I know nothing by Niccola Pisano equal to 
 these bas-reliefs. Felicity of composition, truth of expression, 
 ease, dignity and grace of attitude, noble draperies, together 
 with the negative but emphatic merit of perfect propriety, are 
 their prevailing characteristics; while the whole are finished 
 with unsurpassed minuteness and delicacy. And you will 
 recollect too that these compositions are wholly Niccola's own, 
 — he had no traditional types to guide and assist him ; the 
 whole is a new coinage, clear and sharp, from the mint of his 
 own genius. Altogether, the 'Area di S. Domenico' is a 
 marvel of beauty, a shrine of pure and Christian feeling, which 
 you will pilgrimise to with deeper reverence every time you 
 revisit Bologna. 1 
 
 A much shorter notice will suffice for the last great work of 
 Niccola, the Pulpit of Siena. The subjects are the same as at 
 Pisa, with the substitution of the Flight into Egypt and the 
 Massacre of the Innocents for the Presentation, and the en- 
 largement of the concluding composition, the Last Judgment. 
 The Nativity and Adoration of the Kings are little changed ; 
 the Massacre and Crucifixion are injured by the caricature of 
 grief, and the same censure may be passed, though in a less 
 
 1 The bas-reliefs above described V. Davia, above cited. See also 
 are engraved in three large sheets, to Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 8, 9, 10. 
 accompany the essay of the Marchese 
 
364 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 degree, on the Judgment, in which the Byzantine traditional 
 composition has been followed so far as space permitted. But 
 the boldness and daring displayed in the naked figures, twisted 
 and contorted into every imaginable attitude, are wonderful, 
 and evince the skill with which Niccola drew at once on the 
 antique and on nature, flinging himself on truth where beauty 
 failed him, — for the Laocoon was still entombed under the 
 ruined baths of Caracalla. The chief fault is the confusion, 
 which is great, and in this respect, if I mistake not, Niccola 
 sins throughout the series. The eye is vexed by the mass of 
 figures and looks away for relief, and this is perhaps the reason 
 why the Caryatides, which front the pillars, please one so 
 much. 
 
 I should say that this pulpit betrayed a decadence on the 
 part of Niccola, did it not appear by the contract for its exe- 
 cution that his scholars, Lapo and Arnolfo, and his son 
 Giovanni, were then working under him ; to them probably 
 the weaker portions are attributable. The terms of remunera- 
 tion are curious ; Niccola was to have eight soldi a- day, his 
 scholars six a-piece, and his son four. 1 
 
 I have little more to add respecting this wonderful man. 
 His latter days were spent in repose at Pisa, but the precise 
 year of his death is uncertain; Vasari fixes it in 1275, — it 
 could not have been much later. 2 He was buried in the 
 Campo Santo. Of his personal character we, alas ! know 
 nothing ; even Shakspeare is less a stranger to us. But that 
 it was noble, simple and consistent, and free from the petty 
 foibles that too frequently beset genius, may be fairly presumed 
 from the works he has left behind him, and from the eloquent 
 silence of tradition. 
 
 A word only in conclusion. I have said enough perhaps 
 of Niccola's influence on Art in a general point of view, but 
 I wish to impress it upon you that it was special, direct and 
 
 1 See Dellavalle's ' Lettere Sanesi,' Vasari mentions that after completing 
 torn. i. p. 179. For engravings of the fountain (which it seems from the 
 the bas-reliefs see Cicognara, torn. i. preceding notice was left unfinished), 
 tav. 8, 13, 14. Giovanni departed for Pisa, in order 
 
 2 A paper is extant, dated 10 Sep- to see his father, who was old and 
 tember, 1277, by which King Charles unwell, and that through his delay at 
 of Naples grants to the town of Perugia Florence, his father in the meantime 
 the services of Arnolfo, disciple of died. Both King Charles and Vasari 
 Niccola, in order to finish the fountain evidently speak of the same journey, 
 in the Piazza, abandoned by Giovanni and this coincidence of testimony may 
 through his sudden journey to Pisa, be considered to fix the death of Nic- 
 Davia, Memorie, etc., p. 34. Now cola in 1276, or the beginning of 1277. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 365 
 
 peremptory from the very first, — that, in Sculpture, it was felt 
 in the vaults of S. Denis and in the remotest forests of Germany, 
 before the close of the thirteenth century, — and that, in Paint- 
 ing, the schools of Giotto, of Siena and of Bologna, spring 
 immediately from the Pulpits of Pisa and Siena, and the Ark 
 of S. Domenic, in distinct streams, like the Ganges, Indus 
 and Brahmaputra from the central peaks of Himalaya. 
 
 It is true that the characters of these schools (I allude 
 especially to the Giottesque and Sienese) are different, — that 
 while the Giottesque is Dramatic chiefly, the expression of that 
 Activity of the Imagination which produced the Gothic archi- 
 tecture, the Sienese (including the later but kindred school of 
 Umbria) is Contemplative, the expression of its Repose, 
 sympathetic with the East, and previously developed in Lom- 
 bard architecture. Nevertheless both, as schools, originate 
 from Niccola Pisano, — neither could have started on its 
 career without the impulse he gave — to the Dramatic by his 
 historical compositions, to the Contemplative by his Madonna 
 at Bologna, and the individual heads and figures scattered 
 among his works — to both, by that master principle of Chris- 
 tian art which he had thought out and revealed, and within 
 which, in fact, they both lay comprehended, in embryo, like 
 heaven and earth within Brahma's egg. Not that either line, 
 the Dramatic or Contemplative, was pursued exclusively of 
 the other — not that Giotto and the Florentines did not paint 
 as many Madonnas as the Sienese, nor that the Sienese did 
 not produce a Duccio and a Simon di Memmo, but the current 
 tendencies of the two schools set in respectively to these two 
 poles, — and when either produced an artist of opposite sympa- 
 thies, and of genius too masculine to compromise its originality, 
 we shall generally find him in alliance with the rival school, 
 and his pupils either dying out altogether after him, or return- 
 ing to the banner from which their master had separated 
 himself in the first instance. But this will be more clear 
 hereafter. All I contend for at present is, that every school, 
 contemplative and dramatic, must trace its pedigree to Niccola 
 Pisano in the first instance. 
 
 We will now make acquaintance with the pupils of this 
 great patriarch of art. 
 
 Three were mentioned a page or two back. Of Lapo 
 nothing certain remains ; of Arnolfo, the Gothic ciborium, or 
 
366 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 tabernacle, at S. Paolo fuori le miira, at Rome, is the most 
 important memorial; but the date recorded on it (1285) 
 being subsequent to that of his settlement as architect at 
 Florence, I fancy it must have been finished by his "famulus," 
 or apprentice, "Pietro," whose name is associated with his 
 own in the inscription. 1 This Pietro is supposed to have 
 been one of the Cosmati family, who have executed several 
 monuments at Rome, in the Pisan style, usually filling the 
 field above the sarcophagus with mosaic-work, for which, as 
 you may remember, they were celebrated, as the heirs of Fra 
 Giacomo da Turrita. 
 
 Of Giovanni Pisano, son of Niccola and his heir in reputa- 
 tion, the third, and apparently youngest, of his fellow-workmen 
 on the pulpit of Siena, I will speak anon, after doing justice 
 to a pupil, or at least an imitator, far more able than either 
 Lapo or Arnolfo, and who, I have little doubt, would have 
 surpassed all his contemporaries had the light shone upon 
 him in earlier life. This was Margaritone, mentioned in the 
 preceding letter as painter of the hideous crucifix presented to 
 Farinata degli Uberti between 1260 and 1266. Margaritone 
 had been afterwards employed at Rome by Urban IV. in 
 painting S. Peter's, but he there exchanged the brush for the 
 chisel, on what occasion or after whose example we are not 
 told, although Vasari intimates that his first sculptures were 
 "alia Greca," or in the Byzantine taste, — from which, how- 
 ever, he adds, he purified himself after becoming acquainted 
 with the works of Arnolfo and other sculptors of the Tuscan 
 school. He subsequently settled at his native town, Arezzo, 
 where, on the death of Gregory X, in 1275, he was chosen to 
 sculpture his tomb, still preserved in the Cathedral, — the 
 sole surviving relic of his skill, and a work of such excellence, 
 that, remembering his productions in painting, it would be 
 difficult to credit him with such an offspring, were not the 
 paternity indisputable. The Pope slumbers on his sarcophagus, 
 elevated on three pillars, — the whole overshadowed by a 
 Gothic -arched canopy supported by two lateral columns, 
 topped with pinnacles, — the simplest form of a design attribut- 
 able probably to Niccola Pisano in the first instance, and 
 which, as a generic type, distinguishes all the tombs sculptured 
 by his school — the only material deficiency here being that of 
 the two angels who are usually introduced withdrawing a 
 
 1 This tabernacle is engraved in Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. 23. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 367 
 
 curtain supposed to have concealed the body. 1 The effigy, 
 in the present instance, is excellent, the drapery good ; the 
 sculptures on the sarcophagus, representing (in medallions 
 shaped like the vesica piscis) the lamb carrying the cross, 
 between four Apostles, half figures, precisely in the style of 
 the Greek mosaics, at once remind one of Margaritone's 
 original Byzantine prepossessions, and show how completely 
 he had emancipated himself from the rigidity and formalism 
 of his earlier style. 2 Whether he would have succeeded in 
 composition is a different question, but these heads strike 
 me as freer, more dignified and more graceful than anything 
 I have seen by the far more celebrated Giovanni Pisano — to 
 whom we must now do homage with that deference which the 
 respectable heir of an Alfred or a Charlemagne is rightfully 
 entitled to as his successor. 
 
 Giovanni was, in truth, a man of far inferior genius to his 
 father. His forte lay in invention, but it was copious rather 
 than select, and in investing his ideas with forms he was too 
 apt to borrow them in the first instance from the pulpits of 
 Pisa and Siena, and reissue them, starved and emaciated, as 
 if from a beleaguered city. He profited little by the antique, 
 either in form or spirit, and Nature shrank from his embrace. 
 He is often sadly deficient in taste and propriety ; his figures 
 are not seldom ignoble in form and feature, and uncertain in 
 action, and in compositions on a large scale fall into inextri- 
 cable confusion. The wand, in short, which, waved by the 
 father, commands the services of superior agencies, few in 
 
 1 The general type was still pre- 
 served during the Second or Cinque- 
 cento period of Italian sculpture, 
 the pointed of course being exchanged 
 for the round-headed or classic arch. 
 Singularly enough, the arrangement 
 of the sarcophagus, effigy, etc. , in 
 these later monuments strikingly re- 
 sembles that in the tombs of Palmyra, 
 in the most ancient and best preserved 
 of which, that (namely) of Manaius, 
 erected A. D. 103, his statue (now de- 
 stroyed) lay in a reclining posture, at 
 the extremity of the tomb between 
 two pillars half-embedded in the wall ; 
 these pillars supporting a sarcophagus 
 covered with an embroidered cushion, 
 on which the figure was represented a 
 second time stretched out as a corpse 
 
 — thus portraying him both in life and 
 death, exactly as in the grand Gothic 
 tombs, presently to be mentioned, at 
 Naples. These identical results from 
 common principles are very curious, 
 and instances equally startling might 
 be cited ; at Petra, for instance, the 
 broken pediments, intermediate urns, 
 and general corrupt style of Bernini 
 and Boromini, are anticipated in the 
 exqavations named El Khasne and El 
 Deir, — the latter, especially, might be 
 mistaken for a work of the seventeenth 
 century. See the prints in Count 
 Leon de Laborde's work on Arabia 
 Petrsea. 
 
 2 This tomb is engraved in the 
 ' Monumenti Sepolcrali della Tos - 
 cana, ' tav. 39. 
 
3 68 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 number, who work his will with calmness and dignity, brings 
 up for the son a crowd of inferior spirits, who do indeed what 
 he bids them, but grumblingly, and with a jostling and bustle 
 utterly devoid of dignity. Nevertheless there are exceptions 
 to these censures, and when he fairly takes pains he acquits 
 himself well ; if he cannot breathe in the rare and lofty at- 
 mosphere where his father disports himself, he comes grace- 
 fully enough down on parting company with him, like an 
 aeronaut with his parachute. I do not indeed think that 
 Giovanni ever did himself justice ; he needed the stimulus of 
 competition; it was not merely the prestige of his father's 
 fame, — there was literally no one to run against him ; he 
 walked the course, and still, I think, enjoys a reputation 
 superior to his merits, like certain beauties of last century, 
 whose portraits clearly prove that their vaunted charms were 
 relative merely to the general plainness of their contemporaries. 
 Considered as an architect, indeed, he merits far higher praise. 
 
 His earliest work in Sculpture was the fountain of Perugia, 
 begun by himself and completed by Arnolfo, — a beautiful 
 and graceful structure, and covered with allegorical figures, 
 much injured but of great merit, and in the design of which 
 he is supposed to have been assisted by Niccola. 1 Returning 
 to Pisa on his father's death, he was received with pride by 
 his fellow -citizens, and appointed architect of the Campo 
 Santo, which was built after his designs between the years 
 1278 and 1283. After this he visited Naples at the invita- 
 tion of Charles L, of Anjou, to build a castle and a church, 
 but the following year, leaving their prosecution to the care of 
 the architect Masuccio, he returned, through Siena, to Tuscany, 
 and settled for a time at Arezzo, where he sculptured the 
 marble shrine of S. Donato for the Cathedral, a work exceed- 
 ing the ' Area di S. Domenico ' in magnificence, but far below 
 it in every other quality. The composition, indeed, of the 
 bas-reliefs is often good, but the execution is very rude, even 
 in those portions which can with least likelihood be imputed 
 to his assistants. 2 He sins even against propriety in the Death 
 of the Virgin (one of the larger compartments), where S. John 
 
 1 See Davia's 'Memorie,' etc., p. Vasari, were Germans, who worked 
 38. An interesting work descriptive under him rather for instruction than 
 of this fountain has been published by gain, and who were afterwards em- 
 Signor Vermiglioli, the biographer of ployed at Orvieto, and in S. Peter's 
 Perugino and Pinturicchio. at Rome, under Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 2 Several of these, according to 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 369 
 
 is represented puffing at his censer, which is about to go out, 
 with distended cheeks, and in an attitude worthy of Buffal- 
 macco or Bassano. 
 
 This shrine of S. Donato is by many considered Giovanni's 
 finest work, but I cannot give it the preference to the bas- 
 reliefs on the facciata of the Duomo at Orvieto, by many 
 ascribed to his father, though erroneously so, as is evident 
 from their comparative imperfection in design, from the 
 frequent emaciation of the figures, and from an almost uniform 
 deficiency of that grace which plays like a breeze of spring 
 round his father's steps. Yet they have high merit of another 
 sort ; the tale of creation and of thq loss of Eden, with its 
 first-fruits, the fratricide of Cain, is ably told and well con- 
 trasted with the Judgment, in which the Byzantine composi- 
 tion reappears in all its essential details ; the naked figures 
 are sometimes extremely good, but grief and passion are sadly 
 caricatured, and the Satan is contemptible. The happiest 
 innovation (anticipated indeed in the mosaics of Venice) is 
 the introduction of two angels attendant on Our Lord through- 
 out the work of Creation and his subsequent intercourse with 
 man ; their floating attitude may have suggested to Ghiberti 
 his exquisite amplification of this idea on the ' Gate of Paradise,' 
 the portal of the Baptistery of Florence. 1 
 
 The remaining sculptures of the facciata are admittedly the 
 work of Goro, Agostino and Agnolo, and other of Giovanni's 
 Sienese pupils ; they are not of transcendent merit. 
 
 Giovanni had returned to Tuscany before 1297, with the 
 
 1 That these bas-reliefs are by work, and which might well have been 
 
 Niccola Pisano is against all prob- devoted to the execution of the bas- 
 
 ability, as he died before September, reliefs in question, — in confirmation 
 
 1277, and the cathedral was not com- of which, Vasari, although attributing 
 
 menced till 1290. On the other hand, them to Niccola, intimates a visit of 
 
 they are much superior to the adjacent Giovanni to Orvieto shortly after his 
 
 sculptures by Goro, Agostino, and residence at Arezzo. We may con- 
 
 Agnolo, and Giovanni was the only elude, therefore, that they were begun 
 
 sculptor, then living, capable of exe- in, or shortly after, 1290, nearly at 
 
 cuting them ; we may safely there- the same moment with the cathedral 
 
 fore pronounce them his, — while, they were intended to adorn. Pos- 
 
 that they were early works, would sibly Niccola' s designs may have been 
 
 appear from the consideration that followed by Giovanni ; his spirit, at 
 
 the style of the pulpit at Pistoja, all events, presided over his son's 
 
 which occupied him from 1297 to chisel. They have been engraved, 
 
 1301, is much inferior, and that be- although inaccurately, in the folio 
 
 tween the completion of the shrine at atlas accompanying the history of the 
 
 Arezzo and the commencement of the Duomo by Dellavalle. See also Cicog- 
 
 said pulpit, a space of time intervenes, nara, torn. i. tav. 17. 
 unoccupied by any extant or recorded 
 
 VOL. I. 2 B 
 
37o 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 object, it is said, of examining the works of architecture and 
 painting with which Arnolfo and Giotto were then decorating 
 Florence. He does not however appear to have worked 
 there. His last great works were the pulpit of the Cathedral 
 at Pistoja, finished in 1301 after four years' labour, and that 
 of the Cathedral at Pisa, now taken to pieces ; both of them 
 are inferior to his earlier efforts, alike in originality and 
 execution. The latter, begun in 1302 and finished in 13 11, 
 was suspended for a year or two, on the death of Pope 
 Benedict XI., in 1304, when he was chosen to execute his 
 mausoleum for the church of S. Domenico, at Perugia, — a 
 work in which he was much more successful. 1 Giovanni 
 died in a good old age, but in what year is uncertain ; Vasari 
 says in 1320, but he elsewhere contradicts himself. He was 
 buried in his father's tomb in the Campo Santo, under the 
 arcades himself had reared, according to a graceful usage 
 which has ever since obtained in Italy, of burying the child- 
 ren of art in the principal scenes of their genius and their 
 fame. 
 
 After Giovanni's death the Pisan school split into two 
 principal branches, that of Florence, which held an undisputed 
 pre-eminence till the death of Orcagna, and that of Siena, 
 originally far inferior, but which took the lead during the 
 latter years of the fourteenth century, and only yielded it to 
 Ghiberti and Donatello at the beginning of the fifteenth. 
 The Neapolitan school must also be reckoned as a branch of 
 the Pisan, tracing its origin to Giovanni, and possibly even 
 higher ; it is interesting from its isolation, and from its partial 
 descent from the German architects who flourished at Naples 
 in the thirteenth century. I shall speak of each of these 
 three branches in succession, merely premising that of the less 
 distinguished pupils of Giovanni the only one worth mention- 
 ing (and for his good fortune rather than his merit) was 
 Giovanni di Balduccio, of Pisa. He was invited to Milan by 
 the Signor, Azzo Visconti, and spent many years in his service, 
 and a specimen of his talents may be seen in the shrine of 
 S. Peter Martyr in the church of S. Eustorgio, executed in 
 1333 and the six following years, and in which the legend of 
 the Saint is represented in a series of bas-reliefs, very rude 
 indeed, but life-like, and in some of the allegorical figures not 
 
 1 This tomb is engraved in Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 21. — It stands in the 
 north transept. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 37i 
 
 undeserving of praise. 1 The succession of this sculptor seems 
 to have endured for several generations in Western Lombardy, 
 and the magnificent tomb of Can-Signore della Scala, at 
 Verona, is a witness to their merit, although it be of an archi- 
 tectural rather than sculptural character, the bas-reliefs being 
 very inferior, when closely inspected. 2 
 
 Section 2. — Florence — Andrea Pisano and Orcagna. 
 
 We now enter upon a new period in the history of Italian 
 sculpture, correspondent with the lives of Andrea Pisano, the 
 ablest scholar of Giovanni, and of the one great pupil of 
 Andrea, the still more celebrated Orcagna. 
 
 Hitherto, you may have observed, neither Giovanni nor 
 Niccola had been employed at Florence, while every neigh- 
 bouring city had been vieing for their services. Political 
 hostility would only partially account for such apathy, but 
 one's surprise ceases on recollecting that Florence was the last 
 of the three Tuscan republics to take the lead in politics, and 
 that she was only commencing her grand works of architecture 
 when Pisa and Siena were completing theirs. Once, however, 
 entered on the field of art, she cultivated it with an industry 
 and talent which made speedy and ample amends, to herself 
 and Italy, for former neglect. At the period of which I speak, 
 Arnolfo had been for several years in her employ as public 
 architect, and at his death in 1300, S. Maria del Fiore, the 
 new Cathedral, was considerably advanced towards completion. 
 Giotto, a young man, but already the acknowledged prince of 
 painting, and of a genius which qualified him to excel indifferently 
 in either of the three sister arts, and thoroughly to appreciate 
 the relation they bear to each other, was appointed to design 
 the fagade in the richest Gothic magnificence — pinnacle and 
 
 1 See Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. 34. 
 The story begins at the back of the 
 shrine with the preaching of the saint 
 in the piazza of Milan, his visiting the 
 sick and giving speech to the dumb, 
 and is continued through his martyr- 
 dom, and the translation of his body, 
 to his funeral ceremony, and his ap- 
 pearance in succour to mariners in a 
 storm, the two latter subjects being 
 represented in front. 
 
 2 The sculptor of this tomb was 
 
 Boninus a Compigliono, or Da Cam- 
 pione, one of a whole family of scar- 
 pellini, stone-cutters or carvers, me- 
 chanics rather than artists, like those 
 of Fiesole, yet evidently men of taste 
 if not of genius, and who had flour- 
 ished in the Milanese, on the district 
 from which they derived their name, be- 
 tween the lakes of Como and Lugano, 
 since the close of the twelfth century. 
 See Cicognara, torn. i. pp. 371, 221, 
 etc. 
 
372 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 niche, statue and bas-relief ; his drawings were approved of, 
 but sculptors being scarce at Florence, and no one appearing 
 capable of suitably executing them in marble, Andrea, already 
 favourably known by some figures at Pisa, was summoned for 
 the purpose, then in the thirty-first year of his age. He set 
 to work immediately on the facade, and his first productions, 
 the statues of Boniface VIII. between S. Peter and S. Paul, 
 and some prophets, gave so much satisfaction that he seems 
 to have been indefinitely engaged as sculptor-general to the 
 city, to execute whatever works of importance might thence- 
 forward be needed in his peculiar walk of art. From this 
 time he adopted Florence as his country, and dwelt there for 
 the remainder of his days, the object of universal respect and 
 admiration. 
 
 Andrea's merit was indeed very great ; his works, compared 
 with those of Giovanni and Niccola Pisano, exhibit a progress 
 in design, grace, composition and mechanical execution, at 
 first sight unaccountable — a chasm yawns between them, deep 
 and broad, over which the younger artist seems to have leapt 
 at a bound, — the stream that sank into the earth at Pisa 
 emerges a river at Florence. The solution of the mystery lies 
 in the peculiar plasticity of Andrea's genius, and the ascendency 
 acquired over it by Giotto, although a younger man, from the 
 first moment they came into contact. Giotto had learnt from 
 the works of Niccola the grand principle of Christian art, im- 
 perfectly apprehended by Giovanni and his other pupils, and 
 by following up which he had in the natural course of things 
 improved upon his prototype. He now repaid to Sculpture, 
 in the person of Andrea, the sum of improvement in which he 
 stood her debtor in that of Niccola, — so far, that is to say, as 
 the treasury of Andrea's mind was capable of taking it in, for 
 it would be an error to suppose that Andrea profited by Giotto 
 in the same independent manner or degree that Giotto profited 
 by Niccola ; Andrea's was not a mind of strong individuality ; 
 he became completely Giottesque in thought and style, and as 
 Giotto and he continued intimate friends through life, the 
 impression never wore off ; most fortunate, indeed, that it 
 was so, for the welfare of Sculpture in general, and for that of 
 the buildings in decorating which the friends worked in con- 
 cert, to wit, the Duomo and its dependencies, to which, after 
 this necessary digression, I now return. 
 
 After finishing the prophets, Andrea sculptured various 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 373 
 
 other statues for the facade, but how shall I tell you that this 
 facade, so rich, so beautiful, exists no longer ? It was taken 
 down towards the close of the fourteenth century, when two- 
 thirds finished, to be replaced by another more magnificent, 
 but which was demolished, in its turn, in the sixteenth, to be 
 renewed no more except by the flat, meaningless, blank wall, 
 that repels the eye at present. Of the component parts of 
 Andrea's original structure, the greater portion has long been 
 destroyed ; some of the statues (whether by a happier or less 
 enviable doom) lie scattered in holes and corners throughout 
 Florence, and the four Doctors of the Church, in particular, 
 may still be seen at the foot of the ascent to Poggio Imperiale, 
 metamorphosed into poets, and christened Homer,- Virgil, 
 Dante and Petrarch. 1 
 
 Happily, Andrea's most important work, the bronze door 
 of the Baptistery, still exists, and with every prospect of preser- 
 vation. It is adorned with bas-reliefs from the history of S. 
 John, with allegorical figures of virtues and heads of prophets, 
 all most beautiful, — the historical compositions distinguished 
 by simplicity and purity of feeling and design, the allegorical 
 virtues perhaps still more expressive, and full of poetry in their 
 symbols and attitudes ; the whole series is executed with a 
 delicacy of workmanship till then unknown in bronze, a pre- 
 cision yet softness of touch resembling that of a skilful per- 
 former on the pianoforte. Andrea was occupied upon it for 
 nine years, from 1330 to 1339, and when finished, fixed in its 
 place, and exposed to view, the public enthusiasm exceeded 
 all bounds; the Signoria, with unexampled condescension, 
 visited it in state, accompanied by the ambassadors of Naples 
 and Sicily, and bestowed on the fortunate artist the honour 
 and privilege of citizenship, seldom accorded to foreigners 
 unless of lofty rank or exalted merit. The door remained in 
 its original position — facing the Cathedral — till superseded in 
 that post of honour by the ' Gate of Paradise,' cast by Ghiberti. 
 It was then transferred to the Southern entrance of the Bap- 
 tistery, facing the Misericordia. 2 
 
 While occupied on this great work, Andrea found time to 
 carve, in white marble, the tabernacle, or ciborium, for the 
 
 1 See Forster's ' Beitrage,' etc., p. 2 The bas-reliefs of this door have 
 152. The prospect is held forth this been engraved most beautifully by the 
 year (1845) of a restoration of the younger Lasinio, in the thin folio en- 
 facade in the spirit of the fourteenth titled ' Le tre porte del Battistero di 
 century. S. Giovanni di Firenze, ' 1821. 
 
374 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 interior of the building ; it was destroyed at a later period, 
 and replaced by the tawdry accumulation of cloud and tinsel 
 that disgraces the spot at present. A fragment or two serve 
 now as balustrades to the altar of the little chapel of S. Ansano, 
 below Fiesole, having been removed thither by the late, anti- 
 quarian Canon Bandini, along with many other ejected sculp- 
 tures and paintings of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 
 Lastly, Andrea sculptured the greater number of the bas- 
 reliefs which range round the basement of the Campanile, — 
 admirably executed, but of which, as the composition of Giotto, 
 I shall postpone speaking to a future moment. Whether the 
 three statues niched higher up in the Campanile, facing the 
 South, were also after Giotto's design, I cannot say. 
 
 From this extreme point of Andrea's career we may glance 
 back to the door of the Baptistery with a fairer chance than 
 we could otherwise expect of forming a reasonable opinion on 
 the disputed point, whether the design of its bas-reliefs be his 
 own or Giotto's. On the one hand Vasari asserts that Giotto 
 had made a "bellissimo disegno" for the door; and a still 
 older authority, the biographer of Brunellesco, who wrote 
 about 147 1, refers to his having done so as an admitted fact, 
 and still more specifically, speaking of the " quadri delle porte 
 che v' erano, di bronzo, che v' h la storia del Santo Giovanni, 
 che si feciono per maestri forestieri nel secolo passato, benche 
 '1 disegno delle figure, che si feciono di cera, fusse di Giotto 
 dipintore i" 1 On the other, Vasari's own testimony to Andrea's 
 fertility of invention, as himself possessing a series of illustra- 
 tions by his hand of the whole book of the Apocalypse,-— and 
 the supposed indignity that Andrea must have felt in executing 
 the designs of another artist, are urged in favour of their 
 originality — arguments, of which the latter is nullified by the 
 indisputable fact that two out of his three great works he did 
 so execute, while the former, if allowed its full value, merely 
 proves him a most accomplished imitator, the compositions 
 in question being thoroughly Giottesque, — for, in truth, his 
 genius had taken the hue of Giotto's more completely than 
 ever chamelion took that of the leaf he fed upon. I cannot 
 therefore think such presumptive pleading entitled to be heard 
 against the positive testimony of Vasari and his predecessor. 
 
 Andrea's plasticity extended, I fear, from his genius to his 
 
 1 Printed at the close of Baldinucci's life of Brunellesco, ed. Flor., 1812, 
 p. 149. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 375 
 
 moral character. It is painful to find the guest of Florence, 
 who had not merely enjoyed the love of her citizens but been 
 inscribed among their number and promoted to the highest 
 offices of the state, lending himself, at the close of his life, to 
 the schemes of her tyrant, Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, 
 and fortifying the public palace and the walls of the city 
 against her liberties. 1 He survived the Duke's expulsion two 
 years, dying in 1345, in his seventy-sixth year. 
 
 Andrea Pisano left two sons, both of them sculptors, but 
 one only worthy of mention — Nino, surnamed, like his father, 
 Pisano, but' who, having been his assistant through life, has 
 left few original works. The most remarkable are in the little 
 chapel of the Spina at Pisa, — three statues, of the Virgin and 
 child, attended to the right and left by S. Peter and S. Paul 
 (in one of whom he has represented his father Andrea, whose 
 face seems to have been disfigured by an enormous wen), and 
 a bas-relief of the Virgin suckling the infant Jesus, very coarse 
 and vulgar, but remarkable for a delicacy and waxen smooth- 
 ness of workmanship unequalled in his age except by his 
 fellow-pupil — so often mentioned already, and to be noticed 
 more especially hereafter, under his highest character, as a 
 painter — the illustrious Orcagna, — whose tabernacle in the 
 Orsanmichele may be reckoned, with the gate of S. Giovanni 
 and the shrine of S. Domenico, as the third among the 
 precious relics of the Pisan school. 
 
 During the early half of the fourteenth century the 
 Madonna, painted by Ugolino of Siena, and attached to a 
 pilaster in the loggia of Orsanmichele, as mentioned in the 
 preceding letter, had acquired the character of a miraculous 
 image, — crowds resorted to it for devotion, and it was 
 determined to convert the loggia into a chapel by filling iip 
 the arches with a continuous wall. This was done under the 
 superintendence of Taddeo Gaddi; and a Company 01 
 association was at the same time formed in honour of the 
 Madonna of Orsanmichele, — it speedily rose into the highest 
 veneration for charity and benevolence. At this juncture, the 
 great plague of 1348 rolled down on Italy; Florence suffered 
 fearfully; citizens without number, pest-stricken themselves, 
 after seeing their whole families die before them, bequeathed 
 their all to the Company for distribution to the poor in 
 
 1 The duke would not employ entine. — Vasari. The contrast is not 
 Taddeo Gaddi, being a native Flor- much in Andrea's favour. 
 
376 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 honour of the Virgin; the offerings of gratitude, after the 
 plague had ceased, were also considerable, and the total sum 
 thus accumulated was found, on final computation, to amount 
 to more than three hundred thousand florins. The captains 
 of the Company resolved to expend a portion of this treasure 
 in erecting a tabernacle or shrine for the picture to which it 
 had been offered, and which should exceed all others in 
 magnificence. They entrusted the execution to Orcagna, who 
 completed it in 1359, after ten years' labour, having sculptured 
 all the bas-reliefs and figures himself, while the mere archi- 
 tectural details and accessories were executed with equal care 
 by subordinate artists, under his own eye and direction. 1 
 
 And there it stands ! — lost, indeed, in that chapel -like 
 church, from which one longs to transport it to the choir of 
 some vast cathedral — but fresh in virgin beauty after five 
 centuries, the jewel of Italy, complete and perfect in every 
 way — for it will reward the minutest examination. It stands 
 isolated — the history of the Virgin is represented in nine bas- 
 reliefs, two adorning each face of the basement, and the ninth, 
 much larger, covering the back of the tabernacle, immediately 
 behind the Madonna ; one of the three Theological Virtues is 
 interposed between each couple of bas-reliefs, on the Western, 
 Northern, and Southern faces respectively, the corresponding 
 space at the East end, immediately below the large bas-relief, 
 being occupied by a small door ; while, laterally, in the 
 angles of each several pier that supports the roof, five small 
 figures are sculptured, a Cardinal Virtue in each instance 
 occupying the centre, attended, to the right and left, by a 
 virtue of sister significance, and by two apostles, holding 
 scrolls of prophecy or gospel — each series of five having re- 
 ference apparently to the peculiar merits exemplified by the 
 Virgin at the successive periods of her history, as commemo- 
 rated in the bas-reliefs, — the series of these bas-reliefs beginning 
 with her birth, on the North side of the basement, and running 
 round from left to right. I may mention her Marriage and 
 the Adoration of the Kings as peculiarly beautiful, and among 
 the single figures those of Obedience, Justice, and Virginity. 2 
 The character of these sculptures is that of dignity 
 
 1 See Vasari and Baldinucci, in North Face of the Basement. 
 their respective lives of Orcagna. I> The Birth of the Virgin> _ s _ 
 
 2 The following list of the subjects Anna stretches her hand from the bed, 
 may be found useful in examination : — and feebly caresses the new-born babe, 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 377 
 
 tempered by sweetness to a singular degree, and mingled with 
 
 a peculiar contemplative, abstractive expression, especially in 
 
 the female figures, as decidedly akin to that of the Sienese 
 
 and Semi-Byzantine schools of painting as the works of Andrea 
 
 Pisano are to the Giottesque. If Ugolino's Madonna was to 
 
 be enshrined in marble, Orcagna was assuredly the sole artist 
 
 fitted for the task — and were it not that he stood without a 
 
 rival in the art when selected for the purpose, I should have 
 
 imputed that selection to the same occult sympathy which 
 
 will almost invariably be found the rule of patronage in Italian 
 
 art. To the above characteristics truth of feeling, ease of 
 
 attitude, and breadth and dignity of drapery may be added, 
 
 though in design Orcagna is certainly inferior to Andrea. 
 
 The influence of the antique is, however, more visible here 
 
 than in his paintings. 
 
 which the nurse has just swathed 
 up :— 
 
 2. Faith, crowned, and holding 
 the cup : — 
 
 3. The dedication of the Virgin, 
 — her young, expectant companions 
 looking at her with curiosity, as she 
 ascends the steps of the temple : — 
 
 Angles of the N. W. pier. 
 
 4. An Apostle : — 
 
 5. Obedience, — her hand raised, 
 half opened, her head bowed in com- 
 pliance : — 
 
 6. Justice, — a beautiful figure, the 
 countenance very noble, crowned, 
 with her veil tightly bound round her 
 brows and under her chin, forming a 
 most graceful head-dress, — holding the 
 sword in her right hand and the 
 balance in her left : — 
 
 7. Devotion, pressing her hand on 
 her bosom : — 
 
 8. An Apostle or Prophet, — point- 
 ing towards the following compart- 
 ment, with an appropriate motto from 
 S. Luke :— 
 
 West Face of the Basement. 
 
 9. The Marriage of the Virgin, — 
 the High Priest joining their hands, 
 S. Joseph holding his rod, with the 
 dove resting on the flower, — -behind 
 him a suitor breaking his own, — much 
 grace in the Virgin's figure and dignity 
 in S. Joseph and the Priest : — 
 
 10. Hope, — seated, her hands 
 uplifted in expectation : — 
 
 1 1. The Annunciation, — the Angel 
 good, the Virgin not quite success- 
 ful :— 
 
 A ngles of the S. W. pier. 
 
 12. An Apostle : — 
 
 13. Patience : — 
 
 14. Fortitude, — holding the col- 
 umn and a shield marked with the 
 cross. 
 
 15. Perseverance, — with a wreath 
 of olive, the left arm concealed in her 
 mantle : — 
 
 16. An Apostle : — 
 
 South Face of the Basement. 
 
 17. Birth of our Saviour, — the 
 old traditional composition : — 
 
 18. Charity, — with her crown and 
 vase of flames, and a child on her 
 knee, to which she gives the breast : — 
 
 19. The Adoration of the Kings, — 
 graceful and beautiful, the composition 
 quite simple, admirably executed, and 
 with much feeling : — 
 
 A ngles of the S. E. pier. 
 
 20. An Apostle : — 
 
 21. Humility, — looking down : — 
 
 22. Temperance, — with her com- 
 passes : — 
 
 23. Virginity, — a sweet, graceful 
 figure, pressing her hand on her 
 bosom : — 
 
 24. An Apostle : — 
 
378 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 Nor is his mastery over the whole mechanism of the art, 
 as exhibited in this extraordinary shrine, less praiseworthy • 
 the general adjustment and the commettitura, or piecing of the 
 different parts, is wonderful ; he used no cement, but bound 
 and knit the whole together with clamps of metal, and it has 
 stood firm and solid as a rock ever since. In point of archi- 
 tecture too, the design is exquisite, unrivalled in grace and 
 proportion, — it is a miracle of loveliness, and though clustered 
 all over with pillars and pinnacles, inlaid with the richest 
 marbles, lapis -lazuli, and mosaic -work, it is chaste in its 
 luxuriance as an Arctic iceberg — worthy of her who was spot- 
 less among women. We cannot wonder, considering the 
 labour and the value of the materials employed on this 
 tabernacle, 1 that it should have cost eighty-six thousand of 
 the gold florins treasured up in the Orsanmichele — or hesitate 
 in agreeing with Vasari, that the eighty-six thousand florins 
 could not have been better spent. 
 
 I am not aware of any other works of Orcagna in marble. 
 
 East Face of the Basement. 
 
 25. The Purification, — simple and 
 noble ; engraved in Cicognara, torn, 
 i. tav. 22, and described at p. 462 : — 
 
 26. Above the small door a beauti- 
 ful figure of an Apostle, pointing 
 upwards to the large bas-relief : — 
 
 27. Gabriel presenting the palm- 
 branch to the Virgin, in token of her 
 approaching decease, — the Virgin is 
 of middle rather than extreme old 
 age ; some of the legendaries assert 
 that she died within a year after Our 
 Saviour : — 
 
 Angles of the S. IV. pier. 
 
 28. An Apostle : — 
 
 29. Docility, — an elderly woman, 
 holding an emblem, now broken, in 
 her two hands : — 
 
 30. Prudence, — double-faced and 
 crowned, holding a snake in her left 
 hand, the fingers of her right muffled 
 up in her robe : — 
 
 31. Caution, — with her finger on 
 her mouth : — 
 
 32. An Apostle : — 
 
 Centre of the Back' of the Tabernacle. 
 
 33. 34. The Death and Assump- 
 tion of the Virgin, in two compart- 
 
 ments ; in the lower, the body lies on 
 the bed, and Our Saviour appears on 
 the further side with the soul in his 
 arms ; the Apostles are gathered 
 round it, dignified and expressive 
 figures, though the grief is a little 
 caricatured, — in the upper, she is 
 carried up to heaven by angels, seated 
 in her throne and within the vesica 
 piscis. Below is inscribed the name 
 of the artist, ' 1 Andreas Cionis Pictor 
 Florentinus, " with the date 1359. 
 
 Besides these, many other little 
 statues are niched and pinnacled 
 throughout the pile. And, finally, 
 crowning the whole, the statue of S. 
 Michael the Archangel, with his drawn 
 sword in his right hand and the globe 
 in his left, attended to the right and 
 left (if I mistake not) by Gabriel and 
 Raphael, armed, with shields, and 
 looking south and north. The outer 
 rails too are of marble, with twisted 
 columns, and surmounted by angels 
 carrying tapers, — the columns re- 
 sembling those in the tomb of Niccola 
 Acciajuoli, presently to be mentioned, 
 at the Certosa. 
 
 1 Engravings of this tabernacle 
 were published a few years ago by the 
 celebrated Lasinio. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 379 
 
 The tomb of Niccola Acciajuoli, Grand Seneschal of Naples, 
 and a most interesting character, in the Certosa near Florence, 
 is ascribed to him, but is probably by some of his pupils, as 
 well as the three other monumental effigies of the family there 
 preserved. 1 None however of these pupils distinguished 
 themselves, 2 and after Andrea's death, which was before 1375, 
 Sculpture languished at Florence, at least in the hands of 
 Florentines, till the close of the century. 3 
 
 Section 3. — Siena. 
 
 The Sienese branch of the Pisan school was founded by the 
 brothers Agostino and Agnolo, to whose excellence as archi- 
 tects I have elsewhere paid my tribute of admiration. They 
 were placed under Giovanni Pisano in 1284, during a short 
 sojourn of that sculptor at Siena on his return from Naples, 
 and worked under him on the shrine of S. Donato at Arezzo, 
 and afterwards at Orvieto, and on the pulpits of Pistoja and 
 Pisa as his pupils and assistants, Agostino, especially, dis- 
 tinguishing himself by such superiority to his fellow-students as 
 to acquire the name of the ' right eye ' of his master. After 
 
 1 The general design of Niccola' s 
 tomb is very peculiar, Gothic certainly, 
 but (like the Loggia de' Lanzi) almost 
 transitional to the Cinquecento. It is 
 engraved in the ' Monumenti Sepol- 
 crali della Toscana, ' tav. 35. Niccola, 
 the Grand Seneschal and the founder 
 of the Convent, was a noble character ; 
 some of his letters are printed in the 
 first volume of Dr. Gaye's ' Carteggio 
 inedito degli Artisti. ' 1 The family, 
 originally from Brescia, and named 
 after the trade they rose by, attained 
 sovereignty n the person of Ranier, 
 nephew of the Seneschal, styled Duke 
 of Athens and Lord of Thebes, Argos 
 and Sparta. He was succeeded by his 
 bastard son Antony, and the latter by 
 two ( nephews, whom he invited from 
 Florence, Ranier and Antony Accia- 
 juoli ; the son of the latter, Francesco, 
 finally yielded Athens to Mahomet II, 
 
 in 1456, and was soon afterwards 
 strangled by his orders at Thebes. 
 
 2 The sculptures on the Loggia de' 
 Lanzi, representing Faith, Hope and 
 Charity, were executed, not by Or- 
 cagna but by Jacopo di Piero, probably 
 his pupil, as appears from documents 
 cited by Baldinucci, Notizie, etc. , torn, 
 ii. p. 142, ed. Manni. 
 
 3 Fiesole became at an early period 
 the head-quarters of a school of scar- 
 pellini, or stone-cutters, who scarcely 
 aspired to the dignity of Sculpture, 
 although they frequently showed great 
 taste ; their mechanical skill in working 
 marble was highly celebrated ; they 
 were constantly employed by the great 
 Tuscan sculptors in executing the 
 inferior portions of their works. 
 Andrea da Fiesole, who sculptured, in 
 1412, the tomb of Bartolommeo 
 Saliceti, in S. Domenico at Bologna, 
 
 1 A most valuable collection of original 
 documents — letters of artists, extracts from 
 public records, etc., published by Molini at 
 Florence, in 3 vols. 8vo., 1839. Dr. Gaye, 
 a Dane by birth, and a most ardent and 
 
 indefatigable student of early Italian art, 
 died prematurely at Florence in 1840. See 
 a very interesting review of the ' Carteggio' 
 in the Foreign Quarterly, No. 68, Jan. 
 
3 8o 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 parting from Giovanni, they settled at Siena as public archi- 
 tects, in which capacity they were fully occupied for many 
 years. They reappear as sculptors in 1327. Giotto, passing 
 through Orvieto that year on his. way to Naples, was pleased 
 with their performances, and recommended them to the brother 
 of the recently deceased chief of the Tuscan Ghibellines, 
 Guido Tarlati, Signor and Bishop of Arezzo, to sculpture his 
 tomb. They executed this important work in three years, 
 completing it in 1330. You will see it in the Cathedral there. 
 It exceeds in magnificence every previous monument of the 
 age, and yet disappoints one, — it wants relief: the proportions 
 of the Pisan type, so harmonious and so graceful, are quite 
 lost sight of ; the sarcophagus and recumbent effigy, and the 
 attendant angels drawing back the curtain, are diminished into 
 insignificance in order to give prominence to a series of bas- 
 reliefs delineating the principal events of the bishop's life ; 
 
 was the most celebrated of the race, 
 prior to Andrea Ferrucci and others, 
 whose works belong to the Cinque- 
 cento. 
 
 ' Cesellatura, ' or goldsmiths' work, 
 is one of those numerous departments 
 of art which I have refrained from 
 noticing except when they supply- 
 illustrations in which the more noble 
 branches are deficient. It deserves 
 indeed a history to itself, and its im- 
 portance may be estimated by the fact, 
 that numberless artists of the highest 
 celebrity — from Orcagna to Cellini — 
 spent their early years in apprentice- 
 ship to the goldsmiths, chasing chalices 
 and tabernacles for altars and churches. 
 It was, moreover, in experimenting in 
 his craft, that the goldsmith Maso 
 Finiguerra discovered the art of en- 
 graving. The silver ' Cassa, ' or 
 shrine, of S. James, in the cathedral 
 at Pistoja, executed chiefly by Flor- 
 entine goldsmiths during the fourteenth 
 century, and that of S. Giovanni, 
 belonging to the Baptistery of Flor- 
 ence, but preserved and shown at the 
 
 ' Opera of the Duomo, ' 1 are the most 
 interesting works of this class, belong- 
 ing to the period we are at present 
 reviewing. The latter was begun in 
 1366, but not finished till 1477, when 
 payments were made to Bernardo di 
 Bartolommeo Cenni, to Andrea del 
 Verrocchio, and to Antonio di Jacopo 
 del Pollajuolo, for its completion ; the 
 records of the Duomo probably con- 
 tain much more information respecting 
 the artists previously employed, — the 
 names, as given by Gori in his account 
 of the Baptistery, printed in 1756, and 
 now affixed on slips of pasteboard to 
 the respective bas-reliefs, are quite un- 
 trustworthy. The bas-reliefs seem to 
 have been very carelessly put together, 
 as respects chronological succession. 
 The Reproval of Herod by S. John is 
 one of the most striking compart- 
 ments ; his figure is full of dignity 
 and beauty. The silver statue of S. 
 John in the centre, dated 1452, is by 
 Antonio del Pollajuolo, according to 
 Vasari ; the figure is very skinny, but 
 fine. 
 
 1 The building, temporary at first, but 
 which frequently became permanent, at- 
 tached to every cathedral during the pro- 
 cess of erection, for the accommodation of 
 the Operajo, or chief architect, etc., and 
 which seems to have been an expansion of 
 the original simple wooden loggia, or lodge, 
 of the freemasons. Being generally of con- 
 
 siderable size, and of little use subsequent 
 to the completion of the several cathedrals, 
 they were often employed for occasional 
 purposes, and it would be interesting to 
 know whether the musical drama, com- 
 monly called the Opera, acquired its name 
 from having been originally performed in 
 them. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 38i 
 
 perhaps you may find compensation in them for the defects I 
 complain of, and which are certainly architectural rather than 
 sculptural; the composition is often very good, though the 
 execution is rude. Vasari ascribes the design of this monu- 
 ment to Giotto, but it is surely very unworthy of him. 1 
 
 Agostino and Agnolo died about 1344, leaving many 
 pupils, native and foreign. Of the latter, Lanfrani of Vicenza 
 and the brothers Jacobello and Pietro Paolo of Venice were 
 the most distinguished. Of Lanfrani the elegant tomb of 
 Taddeo Pepoli, governor of Bologna, in the church of S. 
 Domenico, in that city, 2 is the most remarkable production ; 
 while the ' Area/ or shrine, of S. Augustine at Pavia, 3 is attri- 
 buted by the best critics to the brothers of Venice, and with- 
 out a shadow of doubt belongs to the Sienese branch of the 
 Pisan school. It is rather heavy perhaps, but not the less a 
 most elaborate and beautiful piece of architectural sculpture. 
 The sarcophagus, on which the effigy is laid down by angels, 
 the canopy that overshadows it, the pillars that support the 
 canopy, each and all are covered with bas-reliefs, delineating 
 the life and miracles of the Saint, and interspersed with small 
 
 1 This monument is engraved in 
 the ' Monumenti Sepolcrali della Tos- 
 cana,' tav. 40. The subjects of the 
 bas-reliefs are as follow : — 1. Guido's 
 installation as Bishop ; 2. His election 
 as Lord of Arezzo, in 132 1 ; 3. An 
 allegory of the oppressions then pre- 
 valent at Arezzo, and which his election 
 was intended to relieve ; 4. The justice 
 executed by him on the part of Arezzo 
 against her oppressors ; 5. The re- 
 building of the walls of the town ; 6. 
 The reduction and capture of Lucig- 
 nano ; 7. The capture of Chiusi ; 8. 
 Of Fronzola ; 9. Of Castel Focognano ; 
 10. OfRondine; 11. Of Bucine ; 12. 
 Of Castello di Caprese ; 13. Of Later- 
 ina ; 14. Of Monte Sansovino ; 15. 
 The Coronation of the Emperor Louis 
 of Bavaria, Guido being one of the 
 three excommunicated bishops who 
 performed it, — and, 16. The death 
 of Guido in 1329. Tarlati and his 
 ancestors, an obscure but powerful 
 race, of Teutonic origin and inflexibly 
 Ghibelline principles, had. been lords 
 of Pietramala, the dreariest spot in the 
 Apennine, since the tenth century ; his 
 brother Saccone succeeded him, — in 
 
 spirit a Lombard of the days of Alboin, 
 scorning the soft civilisation of Italy, 
 and aspiring to be king over mountain 
 and forest, but as wily as he was 
 bold, daring and determined ; he ruled 
 over the whole of the central Apennine 
 for many years till death surprised him 
 in 1356, in his ninety-seventh year. 
 Perceiving the consternation of his 
 attendants — everything hanging on his 
 personal character and energy — he de- 
 spatched his son, Marco, to capture a 
 neighbouring castle, thinking that the 
 news that he was dying would have 
 lulled the vigilance of his enemies, and 
 that a blow struck at such a moment 
 would confirm his son's authority ; the 
 enterprise failed and he expired, 
 lamenting that fortune, hitherto so 
 favourable, had turned her back upon 
 him, — her flight was absolute; his 
 family were immediately stript of their 
 territories and sank back into obscurity, 
 and this monument is the sole surviving 
 memorial of the brief hour of their 
 greatness. 
 
 2 It is in the chapel ' del Rosario. ' 
 
 3 In the South transept of the 
 Duomo. 
 
3^2 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 statues of Apostles and Virtues ingeniously allegorised. These 
 single figures struck me as superior to the bas-reliefs, although 
 even in them there are many pleasing figures ; the soft con- 
 templative Sienese expression prevails throughout, and some 
 of the figures have even grace and dignity. 
 
 This Area was begun in 1362, and must have taken several 
 years to execute. Its style of sculpture is certainly much 
 superior to the undoubted works of Jacobello and Pietro Paolo 
 at Venice, of which the most remarkable are the statues of 
 Our Saviour, the Virgin, and the Apostles, on the screen of the 
 choir of S. Mark's, dated 1394. The sculpturesque posterity 
 of these brothers flourished in the North of Italy, and especially 
 at Venice, for nearly a century ; the churches there are full 
 of their productions, and if it interest you to make acquaint- 
 ance with the last decrepid degenerate descendant of this 
 transplanted race, you may do so in the person of Vellano, 
 author of the bronze bas-reliefs in the choir of S. Antonio at 
 Padua, dated as late as 1488, but in merit below the worst 
 productions of the preceding century. 
 
 Returning to Siena, the sculptor Goro, author of the 1 Urn 
 of S. Cerbone,' in the Cathedral of Massa, dated as early as 
 1323, 1 and of other works much later in the century, is the 
 only name worth remembrance ; and I may pass from him 
 without injustice to Niccolo Aretino and Giacomo della 
 Quercia, sculptors of far higher deserts and reputation, who 
 held during the last quarter of the fifteenth century that un- 
 disputed pre-eminence in their art to which no claimant had 
 appeared in Tuscany since the death of Orcagna. 
 
 Niccolo, after executing, in 1383, the Madonna della 
 Misericordia, on the facade of that institution at Arezzo, — a 
 composition in which the Virgin appears, sheltering the natives, 
 rich and poor, under her robe, and which he has invested with 
 much dignity of mien and expression 2 — settled at Florence, 
 where indeed he had originally studied, though under a 
 Sienese sculptor, of no great reputation, by name Moccio. 
 He worked for many years there ; an Evangelist seated, an 
 excellent statue, now in the Duomo, 3 and two little figures of 
 marble above Ghiberti's statue of S. Matthew at the Orsan- 
 michele, are his principal works. They bear much resemblance 
 
 1 I have not seen this urn ; it is 2 Engraved by Cicognara, torn. i. 
 described by Dellavalle, Lettere Sanesi, tav. 18. 
 
 torn. ii. p. 128. 3 See Cicognara, tom. i. tav. 32. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 383 
 
 to the style of Andrea Pisano, and during these latter years 
 he may almost be termed an adopted Florentine. 1 
 
 Giacomo, on the contrary, with all the merits of the 
 Florentine branch, retains the unmistakable characteristics of 
 his native Siena — grace and simplicity, and that peculiar 
 sweetness of expression which I have noticed as distinguishing 
 the school. The work which established his reputation was 
 an equestrian statue, larger than life, of the Sienese general, 
 Giovanni d'Azzo Ubaldini, carried in procession at his funeral 
 on a lofty pyramidal scaffold, and the first of the kind ever 
 made, — it has long since perished ; the horse was most 
 ingeniously fabricated with pieces of wood, jointed together 
 and coated with plaster. He executed it at the age of 
 nineteen, in the year 1390. 2 He was next employed on the 
 Fonte Gaja, on which he worked, at intervals, for many years, 
 and from which he derived the surname by which he was 
 usually known, of ' Giacomo della Fonte.' He also sculptured 
 some prophets on the facade of the Duomo. At Lucca, in S. 
 Frediano, he sculptured the tomb of Ilaria, wife of Paolo 
 Guinigi, a work of much elegance and simplicity, representing 
 on the basement genii, or children, supporting wreaths of fruit, 
 so strongly resembling those of Donatello, that it is difficult not 
 to suspect a relationship of art between them. He is also 
 supposed to be the author of the Assumption of the Virgin, 
 over the Northern door of the Duomo at Florence, commonly 
 called the ' Mandorla,' from the almond, or vesica piscis, 
 which surrounds her. In 1430 and the four following years 
 he executed the bas-reliefs around the door of S. Petronio at 
 Bologna, and, during occasional visits to his native city, two at 
 least of the three bronze bas-reliefs which ornament the font 
 in the Baptistery. In 1435 ne returned to Siena, on being 
 appointed Operajo, or Director of the works at the Duomo, 
 an office of high dignity and emolument, in which he spent 
 the last three years of his life, dying in 1438, worn out with 
 labour, at the age of sixty-seven,- lamented by the whole city, 
 for his noble personal qualities no less than his professional 
 ability. 3 
 
 Giacomo della Quercia was the last, strictly speaking, of 
 
 1 Niccolo died in 1417, aged mense hall of the Palazzo della 
 67. Ragione, at Padua. 
 
 2 It was probably constructed on 3 Seethe Lettere Sanest, torn. ii. pp. 
 the same principle as the celebrated 146 sqq., and Gaye's Carteggio Inedito, 
 horse of Donatello, now in the im- etc., torn. i. pp. 135, 365. 
 
384 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 the Sienese branch of the Pisan school. The stars of Ghiberti 
 and Donatello were in the ascendant during the last thirty 
 years of his life, but he cannot be reckoned as their pupil, for, 
 although he undoubtedly benefited by their influence, they too 
 had profited by his, in earlier years, and we cannot doubt that 
 he had contributed to prepare the way for their appearance. 
 I ought to have mentioned before this, that both Niccolo 
 Aretino and himself had unsuccessfully competed with Ghiberti 
 at the memorable concorso for the gate of S. Giovanni, in 
 1403. 1 
 
 Section 4. — Naples. 
 
 I have only now to sketch, and with a rapid pencil, the 
 fortunes of the Neapolitan branch of the Pisan school. 
 
 Masuccio the elder, or the First, as he is styled more regio 
 by the Neapolitans, is universally reckoned its founder. He 
 was educated by an aged artist of the Semi-Byzantine succes- 
 sion, who practised the three arts conjointly, and is said to 
 have been the sculptor of the miraculous crucifix preserved in 
 S. Domenico Maggiore, which spoke to S. Thomas Aquinas. 2 
 Losing his guidance at the period when he most required it, 
 Masuccio applied to a German architect, then resident at 
 Naples, who proved a most kind friend, communicating to 
 him all his own knowledge, and afterwards taking him with 
 him to Rome, where he devoted himself to the study of the 
 monuments of architecture and sculpture there preserved. 
 
 Pietro de' Stefani, brother of Tomaso, the reviver of paint- 
 
 1 Among Giacomo's disciples were 
 Niccolo, surnamed 'dell' Area, ' from 
 having added the operculum, or cover, 
 to the Area di S. Domenico, at 
 Bologna, and Matteo Civitali, whose 
 works are to be seen at Lucca, both 
 of them decidedly artists of the Cin- 
 quecento. Vecchietta, author of the 
 bronze tabernacle of the high altar in 
 the Duomo at Siena, was also his 
 pupil, retaining more of the elder 
 manner than the preceding artists, — 
 while in Neroccio, whose graceful 
 statue of S. Ansano (a Fra Angelico 
 in stone) may be seen in the chapel of 
 S. John the Baptist in the same cathe- 
 
 dral, the spirit of the earlier days of 
 art still most pleasingly predominates. 
 The designs of Antonio di Federigo, 
 too, for the pavement of the Duomo, 
 would appear to associate him with 
 Nerrocio and Giacomo, in contradis- 
 tinction to the prevailing tendency of 
 art at Siena towards the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. Antonio was a sculp- 
 tor, and I believe some of his statues 
 still exist at Siena. 1 
 
 2 The words are thus reported, 
 ' ' Bene scripsisti de me, Thoma ! 
 quam mercedem accipies ? ' 1 To which 
 S. Thomas answered, ' ' Non aliam 
 nisi te, Domine !" 
 
 1 Were it not that Ferri's Guide to Siena know nothing — as author of the S. Ansano, 
 names Neroccio— a sculptor of whom I I should have attributed it to Antonio. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 385 
 
 ing at Naples, had in the meanwhile been pursuing a course 
 of diligent self-instruction in sculpture, forming his taste on 
 two statues of Castor and Pollux, and some other fragments 
 of the antique then preserved there. 
 
 Neither Pietro nor Masuccio, however, would appear to 
 have particularly distinguished themselves previous to Giovanni 
 Pisano's visit to Naples in 1283, invited thither by Charles I. 
 of Anjou, to build the Castel Nuovo and the Franciscan 
 church of S. Maria Nuova. Masuccio, hearing of this, 
 returned to Naples in hopes of obtaining notice and employ- 
 ment from the King. Giovanni being anxious to return to 
 Tuscany, and having already considerably advanced the castle 
 and the church, Masuccio offered his assistance to superin- 
 tend their completion, which Giovanni, after making trial of 
 his abilities, accepted, and so went home. Thus introduced 
 to the King, Masuccio rapidly rose to eminence. A cathedral 
 was the next edifice contemplated by Charles ; he drew the 
 plan of one, which pleased the King so much that he com- 
 missioned him to erect it, and when ready for internal 
 decoration, employed at his recommendation the brothers de' 
 Stefani to sculpture and paint it, Masuccio confining himself 
 thenceforward to the profession of architecture. The tribune, 
 or Gothic altar, of the Minutoli chapel, with the crucifix and 
 the attendant figures of the Virgin and S. John, sculptured by 
 Pietro on this occasion, sufficiently show that he had become 
 a faithful adherent to the Pisan school. 
 
 A tender friendship subsisted between these three artists, 
 which was cemented by the virtual adoption of the son of 
 Pietro by Masuccio, who held him at the font, gave him his 
 own name, and devoted his latter days to his instruction in 
 the sister arts. Masuccio died in 1306, aged seventy-seven, 
 universally lamented, and his friend Pietro and his younger 
 namesake and protege sculptured his tomb. Pietro and 
 Tomaso, then very aged, continued working for five years 
 afterwards, ever sorrowing for his loss, and then they too 
 sank into the grave, aged about eighty, nearly at the same 
 moment. These details, and others I am about to give you, 
 are from the Lives of Bernardo de' Dominici, the Vasari of 
 Naples, and I must warn you not to give them too implicit 
 credence ; at the same time his account of these early artists 
 is so pleasing, that, with due caution, we cannot refuse to 
 listen to it, and may be permitted to hope that more may be 
 vol. 1. 2 c 
 
386 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 true than rigid criticism would allow. So far, at least, as the 
 works of these artists may be received as vouchers to their 
 personal character, that testimony is amply in favour of his 
 veracity, and probably the narrative, though suspiciously 
 circumstantial and certainly often incorrect, contains not a 
 little traditional truth. 1 
 
 To Pietro de' Stefani, or possibly to the elder Masuccio, I 
 am inclined to attribute the very curious sculptures of the 
 pulpit at S. Chiara, and the bas-reliefs now attached to the 
 gallery overhanging the Western entrance, and representing the 
 history of S. Catherine of Alexandria, — both series apparently 
 earlier in date than the church. The latter especially are well 
 worth examination. Extremely rude in point of execution, 
 they tell their story with simplicity and feeling, and if a proof 
 were wanting what a mine artists unheedingly possess in such 
 neglected relics of early art, it would be supplied here by the 
 example of the illustrious Florentine, Masaccio, who seems to 
 have borrowed from them the composition of more than one 
 of his beautiful frescoes in S. Clemente at Rome. 2 There are 
 fountains of all sorts, and some of the sweetest draughts I ever 
 
 1 The work is entitled, ' Vite de' 
 Pittori, Scultori ed Architetti Napole- 
 tani, ' Naples, 3 vols. 4to. 1742, 
 
 It 
 
 is extremely scarce, and but for the 
 kindness of friends both in Italy and 
 England, I should have been unable 
 to refer to it. The first volume of a 
 reprint appeared in 1840 ; I know not 
 whether any more have been issued. 
 The work is a storehouse of informa- 
 tion respecting the Neapolitan artists 
 of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies, and many citations are also 
 given verbatim from the MS. collec- 
 tions of the painters Giovanni Angelo 
 Criscuolo, Massimo Stanzioni, and 
 others, respecting the history of art at 
 Naples. The reprint alluded to is 
 quite void of notes, which are greatly 
 needed in consequence of the many 
 changes that have taken place since 
 De Dominici flourished. 
 
 2 The subjects of these bas-reliefs 
 are as follows : — 1. The Death and 
 Testament of King Costus, father of 
 S. Catherine ; 2. The Hermit deliver- 
 ing to her the tablet or image of Christ 
 and the Virgin ; 3. Her marriage to 
 Our Saviour ; 4. Her expostulation 
 
 with the Emperor ; 5. Our Saviour's 
 appearance to her in prison, promising 
 her protection in the approaching dis- 
 pute ; 6. Concealed, but without 
 doubt, her Dispute with the Doctors ; 
 
 7. The Martyrdom of the Doctors ; 
 
 8. The visit of Queen Faustina to S. 
 Catherine in prison, and the flagella- 
 tion of the latter, — she seems at least 
 to be leaning forward to receive blows ; 
 
 9. A repetition of her scourging ; 10. 
 Her exposure to the wheels, and rescue 
 by the angel ; 11. Her decapitation — 
 her soul carried away by an angel. 
 My reason for thinking that Masaccio 
 has studied thesebas-reliefs, is grounded 
 on the resemblance that exists between 
 No. 8 and the corresponding compart- 
 ment in the series at S. Clemente, — 
 with this peculiarity, that Masaccio 
 seems to have mistaken her attitude 
 and the employment of the executioner, 
 — here her head is not off, at Rome he 
 has represented it so, before her actual 
 decease. This misconception explains 
 what is very puzzling in the fresco. 
 In numbers 10 and 11, especially the 
 last, the composition is almost identi- 
 cal with Masaccio' s. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 387 
 
 quaffed have been from wells dug in the desert, filled with 
 sand and withered leaves when I approached them, but in 
 which, when cleared out, the water rose fresh and sparkling in 
 the sun. Traces of Byzantine influence are also visible in 
 these compositions, mingled, though faintly, with that of the 
 Pisan school. If by Pietro, they were probably executed in 
 his youth. 
 
 Masuccio, in the meanwhile, the Second of that name, had 
 been cultivating a talent which was destined not only to place 
 him at the head of the artists of his own country, but to give 
 him an honourable name among those of Italy at large. He 
 had long suppressed an anxious desire to study at Rome, in 
 consideration of the age and affection of his father and uncle ; 
 their death left him at liberty to follow his inclinations ; he 
 proceeded thither, and spent three years in assiduous study, 
 both of architecture and sculpture, probably (it may be 
 conjectured), under the Cosmati, who had been instructed by 
 Arnolfo, pupil of Niccola Pisano. 
 
 At this period, 1309, Robert, surnamed the Wise, the 
 patron, in after life, of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, 
 succeeded to the crown of Naples. Proposing to erect a 
 magnificent church in honour of the Corpus Christi, and 
 informed of the talent of the young Masuccio, he sent him 
 orders to return home immediately. But Masuccio, being 
 then occupied with an important work on which he had been 
 employed by a Cardinal, the nephew of the reigning Pope, 
 would not abandon it in this hasty manner, and requested the 
 King's permission to delay his return till he should have 
 fulfilled his engagement, promising to do his utmost to please 
 him afterwards. Robert, offended at his non-compliance, 
 applied to a foreign architect, then resident at Naples ; he 
 undertook the work, produced a model, and, with the elo- 
 quence of his words, built up (says De' Dominici) before the 
 eyes of the King and Queen the most stately church in the 
 world ; the commission was given him ; the first stone was laid 
 with great pomp, and the church was commenced forthwith. 
 
 But before it had risen many feet from the ground, reports 
 spread through Naples, and reached Masuccio at Rome, that 
 the foundations were insufficient, and that the architect was a 
 mere adventurer, utterly ignorant of the profession. By this 
 time the Cardinal's church was nearly completed, and Masuccio, 
 representing the urgency of the occasion, readily obtained his 
 
388 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO 
 
 LETTER 
 
 permission to return to Naples, He went immediately to 
 examine the new edifice, and found his arrival so opportune, 
 that much that had been misdone might still be rectified. He 
 demanded an audience of the King, and told him frankly his 
 opinion, explaining the reasons on which he grounded it ; the 
 King sent for the architect, heard in the presence of both 
 parties what each had to say, and the result of the conference 
 was the betrayal of the vaunting ignorance of the one artist 
 and of the superior skill of the other, the dismissal of the 
 foreigner and the instalment of Masuccio in his place. 1 The 
 building in Masuccio's hands soon assumed another aspect, 
 and after completion received the honour of decoration in 
 fresco from the hand of Giotto. Masuccio afterwards built a 
 convent contiguous to it, at the command of Queen Sancia, for 
 nuns of the Franciscan order of S. Chiara, by whose name the 
 church is now known. 
 
 But it is as a sculptor that Masuccio descends with most 
 honour to posterity, — though S. Chiara be a stately pile, the 
 tombs that he has left in it are its chief attraction, those, 
 namely, of King Robert and of his only son, Charles the 
 Illustrious, Duke of Calabria, who died in his father's lifetime, 
 in 1328, in the flower of his age. The young Prince, robed 
 in his royal mantle, semee with fleur-de-lys, and crowned, lies 
 recumbent on his sarcophagus, which is unveiled by two 
 angels ; a basrelief on the front represents him sitting in state, 
 receiving the homage of the barons and the ministers of the 
 kingdom, while his feet rest on a wolf and a lamb drinking at 
 the same fountain, emblematical of the peace and security 
 resulting from his justice. The sarcophagus rests on columns, 
 supported by lions and faced by Caryatides. The whole is 
 recessed, in the usual Pisan manner, within a lofty Gothic 
 arch. This tomb stands to the right of the high altar, as you 
 face it. That of King Robert was planned by Masuccio in 
 the lifetime of the monarch, who proposed the tribune 
 erected by Pietro in the Minutoli chapel as his model, wishing 
 it to serve alike as a monument for himself and an ornament 
 to the high altar. On presenting his design, the King was 
 much pleased, but thought it too magnificent for a man (as he 
 accounted himself) of little merit in the sight of God; it was 
 laid aside therefore, nor was it till many years after the King's 
 
 1 This story has a suspicious resemblance to a well-known incident in the 
 life of Michael Angelo. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 389 
 
 death that Masuccio executed it, at the command of his grand- 
 daughter, the unhappy Joanna. It rises, in Gothic glory, to 
 the height of perhaps thirty or forty feet, but is unfortunately 
 so concealed by the gaudy modern altar that it is seen with 
 difficulty. The King, like his son on the adjacent monument, 
 is represented both in life and death, — sitting on his throne in 
 his royal robes, and stretched on his sarcophagus in the habit 
 of the Franciscans, which he assumed eighteen days before his 
 death — angels unveiling it, and revealing him to the gaze of 
 the people. It would require pages to enumerate and particu- 
 larise the Apostles, Saints, and various emblematical personages 
 that adorn this noble sepulchre ; the attitudes are generally 
 simple and natural, the expression is dignified and noble, and 
 although I would not parallel it in excellence of execution 
 with the works of the contemporary Tuscans, it is in no 
 wise inferior to them in spirit, and nowhere can the Pisan 
 type of sepulchral architectural sculpture be seen in such 
 magnificence. 1 
 
 The other tombs attributed to Masuccio in S. Chiara, are of 
 inferior merit ; one of them, at least, that of the Queen Joanna, 
 is not by his own hand, but was sculptured by his pupils after 
 his designs. Masuccio was strongly attached to that ill-fated 
 princess, and a devout believer in her innocence, and after 
 her murder at Muro in the Basilicate, in a church dedicated 
 to S. Francis, which he (Masuccio) had built for her, and on 
 which he was still employed when the catastrophe occurred, 
 he sculptured her tomb secretly, under pretence of working 
 ornaments for the church, and afterwards, with the assistance 
 of some of her partisans, removed her body thither from 
 Naples, effecting the translation so quietly that it has become 
 a disputed point where her remains actually repose. 
 
 I need not enumerate the remaining works of Masuccio, 
 executed in architecture and sculpture during a long and busy 
 lifetime. He died, according to De' Dominici, towards the 
 close of the century, in his ninety-third year, of a violent fever, 
 which his frame, weakened by so many years' incessant labour, 
 was unable to resist, — full of honour, wealthy, and lamented 
 by every one, having never missed an opportunity of doing a 
 kindness, and having displayed, through a long life, all the 
 virtues that adorn, without apparently one of the vices that so 
 often sully, the career of genius. 
 
 1 The tomb of the Duke of Calabria is engraved in Cicognara, torn. i. tav. 40. 
 
39° 
 
 NICCOLA PISANO ' letter 
 
 He left several pupils, of whom the most distinguished 
 were Bamboccio (who sculptured the door of S. Giovanni 
 Vangelista, and inserted under the tribune of Pietro de' Stefani, 
 in the Minutoli chapel, the tomb of the Archbishop Filippo, of 
 that family 1 ), and Andrea Ciccione, his worthy successor on 
 the throne of Neapolitan architecture and sculpture, and not 
 less distinguished for his virtues and piety. His most import- 
 ant works are the Gothic tombs of Ladislaus of Hungary, 
 King of Naples, and of the celebrated Ser Gianni Caracciolo, 
 both at S. Giovanni a Carbonara. The former was erected on 
 the death of Ladislaus in 1414, by command of his sister and 
 successor, Joanna II, who is represented seated beside him 
 under the lofty arch that supports the sarcophagus, on which 
 he reappears, but stretched out in death. Four large Carya- 
 tides, Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence and Magnanimity, 
 support this immense structure, which is crowned by the 
 equestrian statue of the monarch, armed cap-a-pie, and holding 
 his drawn sword. It is a grand conception, but the execution is 
 of unequal merit, and the same may be said of the tomb of 
 Caracciolo, the favourite of Queen Joanna, which adorns the 
 extremity of the tribune or choir, behind the high altar. 2 
 
 1 The scene of a ludicrous story- 
 told by Boccaccio. The night after 
 the Archbishop was buried, one An- 
 dreuccio, a countryman of Perugia, 
 who had come to Naples to buy 
 horses, and had been tricked out of 
 his purse by a Sicilian courtezan who 
 pretended to be his sister, fell, after 
 two or three intervening misadventures, 
 into the company of a couple of mis- 
 creants, who, needing a confederate, 
 persuaded him to join in an attempt 
 to possess themselves of a ruby ring, 
 valued at fifty gold florins, which had 
 been buried with him. They came to 
 the chapel at midnight ; the two 
 robbers lifted and propped up the lid 
 of the sarcophagus, and then frightened 
 Andreuccio into entering it and strip- 
 ping the body. Andreuccio, however, 
 secreted the ring, and pretended that 
 he could not find it. Persisting in his 
 story, and feigning to continue a fruit- 
 less search, they lost patience, dropped 
 the lid upon him, and went their way, 
 leaving him stretched, half dead with 
 fright, on the Archbishop's body. 
 
 Presently, however, another party of 
 plunderers arrived with the same 
 object, guided by a priest, who after 
 lifting and propping up the lid as 
 before, stepped boldly into the sarco- 
 phagus. Andreuccio (personating the 
 dead Archbishop) caught him by the 
 leg, pulling him downwards ; the 
 priest yelled out in an agony of horror, 
 and freeing himself with a violent 
 effort, rushed out of the church, with 
 his accomplices at his heels, as if a 
 legion of devils were in pursuit, — 
 while Andreuccio quietly walked out 
 after them, with the ring in his pocket, 
 and quitting Naples the following 
 morning, made the best of his way 
 back to Perugia. — Decam. Giorn. ii. 
 nov. v. 
 
 2 An adjacent chapel, added to the 
 church in later times, is full of inter- 
 esting, though comparatively modern 
 monuments of that ancient and dis- 
 tinguished family, which claims descent 
 from Tancred de Hauteville, and one 
 of whose daughters gave birth to S. 
 Thomas Aquinas. 
 
III. 
 
 AND HIS SCHOOL. 
 
 39i 
 
 Ciccione died in 1455, and in him this Neapolitan branch 
 of the Pisan school may be considered extinct, his pupil 
 Agnolo Aniello Fiore (son of the painter Colantonio), having 
 transferred his allegiance to the Majani, sculptors of the new 
 Tuscan school, long resident at Naples, and whose influence, 
 through Agnolo, may be seen in the chef tTceuvre of the cele- 
 brated Giovanni di Nola, pupil of the latter, the tomb of Don 
 Pedro de Toledo in S. Giovanni degli Spagnuoli. 
 
 Travellers are usually little aware of the sepulchral wealth 
 of Naples ; her churches are literally crammed with sculptures 
 and monuments, works of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
 which are always worthy of attention. And, probably from 
 the successive and reiterated influence of the Normans, French 
 and Spaniards, more of the old chivalric and Gothic feeling 
 may be found among them than elsewhere in Italy, save in a 
 few districts comparatively remote from republican influence, 
 where a tincture of the ancient spirit has survived and mingled 
 with the Cinquecento. 1 
 
 I have thus traced the different lines of the Pisan school, as 
 founded by Niccola and Giovanni, and subsequently developed 
 in the distinct branches of Florence, Siena and Naples, to the 
 period when the influence of Ghiberti and Donatello became 
 predominant throughout Italy. But I wish you to observe, 
 that I by no means identify these last most admirable artists 
 with the tide of corruption which set in during their lifetime, 
 or, to speak more plainly, with the new Cinquecento Archi- 
 tecture originated by their contemporary, Brunellesco. On 
 the contrary, I look upon them as the legitimate heirs of 
 Niccola Pisano ; as those who carried Christian sculpture to its 
 perfection in adhesion to his principles, and in intimate alliance 
 
 1 I may cite the monumental effigy 
 in S. Cyriaco, at Ancona, of the good 
 knight Francesco Cognomento, who 
 died there, an exile from his native 
 Fermo, in 1530, — and that, more 
 especially, of Guidarello Guidarelli, 
 now preserved in the Academy at 
 Ravenna, a work apparently of the 
 latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 He reposes on his bed of stone, in 
 full armour, stretched on his back, his 
 sword between his legs, its cross-hilt 
 resting on his Jbreast, and his arms 
 
 crossed over it ; the visor is up, the 
 head falls to one side ; the features 
 are a little sunk, but full of fortitude, 
 courage and dignity. And the work- 
 manship is as beautiful as the spirit 
 is elevated and pure. According to 
 Ribuffi's Guide to Ravenna, it is the 
 work of Giacomello Baldini, a native 
 of the town, but neither Fiissli nor 
 Nagler, nor such of the historians of 
 Ravenna as I have consulted, mention 
 such an artist. 
 
392 NICCOLA PISANO AND HIS SCHOOL, letter hi. 
 
 < up 
 
 with that symbolical Gothic architecture, which, though in a 
 less perfect form, he had naturalised in Italy. It is as the 
 ruling spirits of a new era, as the parents of two distinct lines 
 of succession, both in Sculpture and Painting, by whom the 
 great battle of Christianity and resuscitated Paganism was 
 waged in European Art during the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries, that I place them at the head of the Second great 
 period or division in its history. 
 
 END OF VOL. I. 
 
 Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh. 
 
MM