MM Wii m h. tmV' wm ^^:> la ^JU' ', ?;->, ) r n. J? rA. h ^> BOOKsELLtR.NHWX OLD. Tr_r;.. P.r.j. ■• .V F ,': .c.t!. I ■111 M M M '111 '111 'Ail -JUI 'mAWM ■All '111 'III 'ill M M "111 'IJ V . Ex LiBRlS RAINERZIETZ LIMITED LONDON %' w i;y i,v i^- w try w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. i-tv. bv. w. 1-iV. w. w. i\ic * * * . . . A benefactor of the FitzTTJlliam Museum at Ccimbridge has announcefl his intention of presenting to the museum throe banners taken in 1857 from the Palace of Delhi, -where thej' hung b'-'side Bchadur Shah's throne in the Hall of Audience. — Midland Mail. ■ * • * * A beautiful series of f!int implements, such as were used by pre-historic man in Great Britain, have just, bicen plac-ed on view in th/^ Cen-tr-al Hall of the Natural History Mu!5.?um at South Kensington. » These roprosent 'the rude i-onls of these \^ prim.itivc men, and w.?-re fp.shio-ned into scra.pers, borers. hamnMr-hcaiis, arrow- heads, axe-heads, knives, aJid so on. The earlier, m.ore crudely fvi-shioncd of these tools have long been known as " Palaeo- lithic " implements, while beautifully wroug'ht tools of later generations of theso savage and ancient people are known as " Neolithic." But Sir Ray V y Lankester, to whom this s-eLection is due, V ^^s pointed out that the stone imple- m.onts from ihe high plateau gravels of the South of England arc far older than , "V th-e gravel terr-a-oes of existing river • ^ grave>1.3 whprein the PaJaiolithic imple- ments are found, and. accordingly, he suggests that the-y r,hould henceforth be > =^cnown las Protero'liths, sinoe they m.ust ^5 have been fa-shioned by peonies more '^ n.n<'ient than th-e users of thio Palreoliths. •vjj^his fine a-nd most insftructive series re- \**^ pre^,nts Sir Ray Lankester's last legacy ^V to the museum, his last T>\'^ce of ndminis- ■-^ trative work before relinquishing the div.xrtorship of the institution which he has guided so successfully during the past d-eoade. — Daily Graphic. " London Opinion " Curio V/orld section every week. Immense and in- creasing circulation* IVicnL Joii ^t e ANCIENT STONE IMPLEMENTS, ETC., OF GEEAT BEITAIN. THE ANCIENT STONE IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS AND ORNAMENTS, GREAT BRITAIN. SECOND EDITION, REVISED. SIR JOHN EYAJN^S, K.C.B., D.C.L., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., etc., etc. COEEESPONDAUT DE l'iNSTITXTT DE FEANCE. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39, PATERNOSTEH EOW, LONDON AND BOMBAY 1897 fAll ri(jhts reserved.) LONDON : PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED. CITV ROAD. THE GETT/ RESEARCH INSTITUTE LIBRARY PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. In presenting this work to the public I need say but little by way of preface. It is the result of the occupation of what leisure hours I could spare, during the last few years, from various and important; business, and my object in undertaking it is explained in the Introduction. What now remains for me to do is to express my thanks to those numerous friends who have so kindly aided me during the progress of my work, both by placing specimens in their col- lections at my disposal, and by examination of my proofs. Fore- most among these must be ranked the Rev. William Greenwell, F.S.A., from whose unrivalled collection of British antiquities I have largely drawn, and from whose experience and knowledge I have received much assistance in other ways. To Mr. A. W. Franks, F.S.A. ; Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S. ; Mr. W. Pengelly, F.R.S. ; Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A. ; Mr. E. T. Stevens, of Salisbury ; Messrs. Mortimer, of Fimber ; Mr. Joseph Anderson, the Curator of the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh ; and to numerous others whose names are mentioned in the following pages, my thanks must also be expressed. The work itself will, I believe, be found to contain most of the information at present available with regard to the class of antiquities of which it treats. The subject is one which does not readily lend itself to lively description, and an accumulation of facts, such as is here presented, is of necessity dull. I have, however, relegated to smaller type the bulk of the descriptive Tl PREFACE. details of little interest to tlie ordinan^ reader, who will probably find more than enough of dry matter to content him if he confines himself to the larger type and an examination of the illustrations. Whatever may be the merits or defects of the book, there are two points on which I feel that some credit may be claimed. The one is that the woodcuts — the great majority of which have been specially engraved for this work by Mr. Swain, of Bouyerie Street — give accurate representations of the objects ; the other is, that all the references have been carefully checked. The Index is divided into two parts ; the first showing the subjects discussed in the work, the second the locaKties where the various antiquities have been found. Now that 80 much more attention than formerly is being bestowed on this class of antiquities, there will, no doubt, be numerous discoveries made, not only of forms with which we are at present unacquainted, but also of circumstances calculated to throw light on the uses to which stone implements and weapons were applied, and the degree of antiquity to be assigned to the various forms. I will only add that I shall gladly receive any communications relative to such discoveries. JOHN EVANS. Nash Mills, Heinel IIem})stead, May, 1872. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The undiminished interest taken by many archaeologists in tho subject to which this book relates seems to justify me in again placing it before the public, though in an extended and revised form. I am further warranted in so doing by the fact that the former edition, which appeared in 1872, has now been long out of print. In revising the work it appeared desirable to retain as mucb of the original text and arrangement as possible, but having regard to the large amount of new matter that had to be incorporated in it and to the necessity of keeping the bulk of the volume within moderate bounds, some condensation seemed absolutely compulsory. This I have eifected, partly by omitting some of the detailed measurements of the specimens, and partly by printing a larger proportion of the text in small type. I have also omitted several passages relating to discoveries in the caverns of the South of France. I have throughout preserved the original numbering of the Figures, so that references that have already been made to them in other works will still bold good. The new cuts, upwards of sixty in number, that have been added in this edition are dis- tinguished by letters affixed to the No. of the Figure immediately preceding them. The additions to the text, especially in the portion relating to the Pakcolithic Period, are very extensive, and I hope that all the more important discoveries of stone antiquities made in this country during the last quarter of a century are here duly recorded, and references given to the works in which fuller details concerning them may be found. In some cases, owing to the character of the ■nil PREFACE. objects discovered being insufficiently described, I have not thought it necessary to cite them. I am indebted to numerous collectors throughout the country for having called my attention to specimens that they acquired, and for having, in many cases, sent them to me for examination. I may take this opportunity of mentioning that while the whole of the objects found by Canon Greenwell during his examination of British Barrows has been most liberally presented to the nation, the remainder of his fine collection of stone antiquities, so frequently referred to in these pages, has passed into the hands of Dr. TV. Allen Sturge, of Nice. The two Indices have been carefuUj^ compiled by my sister, Mrs. Hubbard, and are fuller than those in the former edition. They will afford valuable assistance to any one who desires to consult the book. For the new woodcuts that I have had engraved I have been so fortunate as to secure the services of Messrs. Swain, who so skil- {lUy cut the blocks for the original work. I am indebted for the loan of numerous other blocks to several learned Societies, and especially to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and to the Geological Society of London. Mr. Worthington Smith has also most liberally placed a number of blocks at my disposal. It remains for me to express my thanks to those who have greatly aided me in the preparation of this edition, the whole of the proofs of which have been kindly read by Mr. C. H. Eead, F.S. A., of the British Museum, as well as by some members of my own family. Dr. Joseph Anderson, of the National Museum at Edinburgh, has been good enough to read the parts relating to Scotland, while Professor Boyd Dawkins has gone over the chapter on Cave Implements, and Mr. AYilliam Whitaker has corrected the account of the discoveries in the River-drift. To each and all I am grateful, and as the result of their assistance I trust that, though not immaculate, the book may prove to be fairly free from glaring errors and inconsistencies. JOHN EVANS. li'aah Mills, Uemel Hempstead, May, 1897. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. . INTRODUCTORY. PACK The Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages — Bronze in use before Iron — Persistence oi Religious Rites — Use of Stone in Religious Ceremonies — Stone Autiquities not all of the same Age — Order of Treatment 1 CHAPTER II. ON THE MANTJFACTTJRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. Pyrites and Flint used for striking Fire— Strike -a-light Flints — The Gun- flint Manufacture — Gun-flint Production — Modes of producing Flakes — Pressigny Nuclei — Rough-hewing Stone-hatchets— Ancient Mining for Flint — Flint-mines at Grime's Graves and Spiennes— Production of Arrow- heads — Flaking Arrow-heads — Arrow-flakers — Grinding Stone Implements — Methods of 8awing Stone — Methods of Boring Stone — Boring by means of a Tube— Progress in Modes of Manufacture .14 IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD. CHAPTER III. CELTS, Belief in their Meteoric Origin — Regarded as Thunderbolts — Celt with Gnostic Inscriptions — Their Origin and Virtues — How regarded by the Greeks and Romans o5 CHAPTER IV. CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HET\T^ CELTS. The Kjiikken-MiJdding Type — Some possib'y Agricultural Implements— Some carefully Chipped — The Common Forms — Their abundance— Discoveries at Cissbury — Found in company with Polished Celts — Their probable Age 67 CHAPTER V. CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY. Pointed at the Butt-end— Of Elongated Form— Expanding at the Ends— Of Peculiar Forms — Their Occurrence in Foreign Countries . . . .87 CHAPTER VI. POLISHED CELTS. A Type common in the Eastern Counties— With the Siirface ground all over — Expanding at the Edge— Of other Materials than Flint — The Thin and Highly-polished Type— With Flat Sides— With Flat Sides and Narrow Butt- With Flat Sides and Pointed Butt -Of Rectangular Section— Chisel-like and of Rectangular Section — Of Oval Section — Of Oval Section with Conical Butt — Of a Form common in France — Of Oval Section pointed at the Butt — With a Cutting Edge at each End— Sharp at both Ends — Polished Celts narrowing in the iNIiddle — Used in the Hand without Rafting— Polished Celts of Abnormal types— Polished Celts with Depres- sions and Flutings — Circumstances under which they have been Found — X CONTENTS. PAGE Their Discovery with Objects of Later Date— Their Range in Time — Accompanying Interments— Manner in which Hat'ted — In their original Handles— Inserted in Sockets in the Hafts— Ilafted with Intermediate Sockets — Compared with Axes of modern Savages — Mounted in Forked Hafts— Mounted on Wooden Hafts— Compared with Adzes of modem Savages— ^lounted in Withes and Cleft Sticks — Modem methods of Hafting Axes .98 CHAPTER VII. PICKS, CHISELS, GOrCES, ETC. Small Hand Chisels — Gouges rare in Britain — Bastard Gouges . . .173 CHAPTER YIII. PERFORATED AXES. Sharp at both Ends— Expanding at one End— Pointed at one End— Adze-like in Character— Cutting at one End only — Used as Battle-axes— Ornamented on the Faces— Large and Heavy— A Large Form common in the North — Fluted on the Faces — Boring, the last Process— Axe-hammers hollowed on the Sides — Axe-hammers ornamented on the Faces — Frequently found in Barrows — But little used by modern Savages . . . . .183 CHAPTER IX. PERFORATED AND GEOOVED HAMMERS. Of Peculiar Forms— Some of them Weapons, not Tools— Conical, Rounded at each End— Made from Pebbles with Natural Holes— Of an Ornamented Character— Made from Quartzite Pebbles — Purposes to which Applied —Mauls for Mining Purposes— Of Wide Range — Net-sinkers . . .217 CHAPTER X. HAMMER-STONES, ETC. With Depressions on the Faces— With Cup-shaped Depressions— Ridged at the End— Made of Flint and Quartzite— Saddle-querns— Pestles and Mortars— From Shetland and Orkney — Various forms of Mortars — Hand- mills or Querns •••........ 238 CHAPTER XI. GRINDING-STONES AKD WHETSTONES. Uses for Sharpening Celts— Found in Barrows— Found with Interments Pebbles with Grooves in them . . . . . . . . .261 CHAPTER XII. FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. The Cone and Bulb of Percussion- Classification of Flakes— Polygonal Cores- Numerous in Ancient Settlements— Localities where Abundant— Not Confined to the Stone Period— The Roman Tribulum— In other parts of the World— The Uses of Flakes— Flakes ground at the Edg-e- Hafted Flakes— Flakes made into Saws— Serrated, as the Armature of Sickles . 272 CHAPTER XIII. SCRAPERS. Used in Dressing Hides— Horseshoe-shaped— Kite-shaped and Duok-bill- shaped- Some like Oyster Shells in Form- Double-ended and Spoon- shaped— Found with Interments— Evidences of Wear upon them- Found with Pyrites— The Modern form of Strike-a-light— Used with Pyrites for producing Fire— The Flat and Hollowed Forms 298 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XIV. BOEERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. I'AGi; Fouuil ill (litferetit Countries —Of Minute Dimensions ..... 321 CHAPTER XV. TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC. From different Countries — Some Trimmed Flakes, probably Knives — Knives from Barrows— Some pos.sibly Lauoe-heads — Knives with one Edii:e blunt — Of Oval Form — Sharpened by Grindingr— Of Circular Form— Of Semi- circular and Trianprular Form— The so-called "Plots' Knives"— Like those of the Eskimos— Daggers or Lance-heads— With Notches at the Sides — Kound in other Countries — Curved and Crescent-shaped Blades — Curved Knives, probably Sickles— Ripple-marked Egyptian Blades . . . 326 CHAPTER XVI. .TAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. Their earliest occurrence — Thought to fall from the Heavens— Superstitions attaching to them — Worn as Amulets — An Egyptian Aitow- Jaxelin- heads— Leaf -shaped Arrow-heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads pointed at both Ends — Lozenge-shaped Arrow-heads — Stemmed- Arrow-heads- Stemmed and Barbed Arrow-heads— Unusual Forms— Found in Scotland — Localities where found — The Triansi:ular Form— Single-barbed Arrow- heads—The Chisel-ended Type — Found in Barrows — Irish and French Types — From various Countries— African and Asiatic Types— South American Types— How attached to their Shafts— Bows in Early Times . 3G0 CHAPTER XVII. FABRICATORS, FLAKIXG TOOLS, ETC. Their probable Uses— Used for working in Flint 412 CHAPTER XVIII. SLING-STOXES A^TD BALLS. Sling-stones Roughly Chipped from Flint— Ornamented Balls principally from Scotland — The use of •' Bolas " . . . . . .117 CHAPTER XIX, BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE. Wrist-guards or Bracers of Stone— The use of Arm-guards — Bone Lance- heads and Pin.s — Needles of Bone — Hoes of Stag's Horn .... 425 CHAPTER XX. SPINDLE-WnORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS. Superstitions attaching to Whorls— Uses of Perforated Discs— Use of Slick- stones- Stones as Burnishers and M' eights — Stone Cups — Cups turned in a Lathe— Amber Cup — Vessels made of Stone 436 CHAPTER XXL PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. Buttons of Jet, Shale, and Stone — Buttons found in Barrows — Necklaces of Jet — Necklaces — Beads, Pendants, and Bracelets— Rings of Stone — Pebbles found in Burrows— Lucky Stones and Amulets — Conclusions as to the Neolithic Period ........... 4,52 XU CONTENTS. IMPLEMEXTS OF THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD. CHAPTER XXII. CAVE IJMPLEMENTS. PACK Compared with those from the River-drift — Formation of Caverns — Deposition of Stalagmite — Different Ages of Caverns— Chronological Sequence of Caverns — Fauna of the Caves — Dean Buckland's Researches— Kent's Cavern, Torquay— Alteration in Structure of Flint- Trimmed Flakes from Kent's Cavern — Scrapers from Kent's Cavern — Cores and Ilamnu-rs from Kent's Cavern — Bone Harpoon-heads from Kent's Cavern — Fauna of Kent's Cavern — Animal Remains associnted with Works of Art — Corre- lation of Kent's Cavern with Foreign Caves — Brixham Cave — Trimmed Flakes from the Brixham Cave — -The Wookey Hysena Den — The Gower and other Welsh Caves — The Caves of Creswell Crags— General Con- siderations ............ 473 CHAPTER XXIII. IMPLEMENTS OF THE KIVEE-DRIFT PERIOD. The Discoveries at Abbeville and Amiens — Discoveries on the Continent and in India — In the Valley of the Ouse— Biddenham, Bedford — Hitchin, Herts —Valleys of the Cam and the Lark — Bury St. Edmunds — Icklingham — High Lodge, Mildenhall— Eedhill, Thetford — Saiiton Downham— Brome- hiU, Weeting— Gravel Rill, Brandon— Lakenheath— Shrub Hill, Feltwell — Hoxne, Suffolk — Saltley, Warwickshire — Possibility of their occurrence in the North of England — Gray's Inn Lane, London — Highbury, London — Lower Clapton, Stoke Newington, &c. — Ealing and Acton — West Drayton, Burnham, Reading — Oxford and its Neighbourhood — Pease- marsh, Godalming — Valleys of the Gade and Colne — Caddington — No Man's Land, "Wheathampstead — Valley of the Lea— Valley of the Cray — Swanscomb and Milton Street — Ightham, Sevenoaks— Limpsfield, Surrey — Valley of the Medway — Reculver — Thanington, Kent — Canterbury and Folkestone — Southampton — Hill Head, Southampton Water- The Fore- land, Isle of Wight — Bemerton, Salisbury — Finherton and Milford Hill, Salisbury — Bournemouth and Barton Cliff— Valley of the Axe . . . 526 CHAPTER XXIV. FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RITER-DRIFT. Flint Flakes — Trimmed Flakes — Pointed Implements— Sharp-rimmed Imple- ments — Differ from those of Neolithic Age — Their occurrence in other parts of the World — Found in Africa and Asia— Their probable Uses — The Civilization they betoken — Characteristics of their Authenticity . 640 CHAPTER XXV. ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. Hypothetical case of River-action— Origin of River Systems — Amount of Solid Matter in Turbid Water — Nature of Flood-deposits- Effects of Ground-ice — Deposits left on the Slopes of Valleys during Excavation — Solvent power of Carbonic Acid — The results of the Deepening of Valleys — Actual Phenomena compared with the Hypothetical — The Denudation of the Fen Country — The Valley of the Waveney — The Vallej^ of the Thames — Deiiosits in the South of England — Deposits near Salisbury — The Origin of the Solent — Deposits at Bournemouth — Breach through the Chalk-range South of Bournemouth — The Question of Climate — Evidence as to Climate — Association of Implements with a Quaternary Fauna — Scarcity of Human Bones in the River-drift — Attempts to formulate Chronological Data — Data from Erosion — Conclusion .... 662 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 1. Egypt CHAPTER II. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. 2. Flint Core with Flakes replaced upon it 20 2a. Gun Flint, a vlona, Albania . 21 3. Nucleus — Pressigny .... 29 4. G. Flake 7. 8. Eskimo Arrow -flaker 9. * )> »> 10. >> >> 30 30 31 31 38 38 38 CHAPTER III. CELTS. 11.* Celt with Gnostic Inscription . 61 CHAPTER IV. CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. 12. Near Mildenhall 68 13. „ „ 68 14. NearThetford 69 15. Oving, near Chichester ... 70 16. Near Newhaven 71 17. Near Dunstable 72 18. Burwell Fen 72 19. MildenhaU 73 20. Bottisham Fen '■'> 21. Near Bournemouth . . FIG. I'AGK 22. Thetford 74 23. Reach Fen, Cambridge ... 75 24. Scamridge, Yorkshire ... 76 25.* Forest of Bere, near Horndean 76 25a.* Isle of Wight 77 26. Cissbury 81 27. „ 81 28. „ 82 29. „ 82 CHAPTER V. CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY. 30. Downs near Eastbourne ... 88- 31. Culford, Suffolk 88 32. Near Mildenhall. Suffolk . . 88 33. Saw don, North Yorkshire . . 89 34. Weston, Norfolk 90 35. Mildenhall 91 35a. Reach Fen 92 36. Burwell Fen 93 37. Thetford 93 38. Undley Common, Lakenheath . 94 38a. East Dean 95- 39. Ganton 95- 40. Swaffham Fen 95 41. Grindale, BridUngton ... 96 42. North Bui-ton 9& CHAPTER VI. POLISHED CELTS. 43. Santon Downham, Suffolk 99 44. Coton, Cambridge 101 45. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 102 46. Great Bedwin, Wilts . . . .102 47. Burradon, Northumberland . 103 48. Coton, Cambridge . . . .104 49. Ponteland, Northumberland . 105 50. Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire . .105 51. Oulston 106 ... 74 I 52. Burwell Fen 107 ' The cuts marked with an asterisk have been borrowed from various sources, ■which are duly- acknowledged in the body of the book. JSIV WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. FIO. TAGE 52a.* Ber'wickshire 108 53. Botesdalc, Suffolk . . . .111 64. Lackford. Suflblk . . . .112 55. Dalmeny, Linlithprow . . .113 56. Sproustou, near Kelso . . .114 57. Nunningtxm. Yorkshire . .115 58. Burradon, Northuiuberlaud . 116 59. Livermere. Sufifolk . . . .116 60. Ildertcn, Northumberland . .117 61. Near Pendle, Lancashire . .118 62. Ness 119 63. Gilling 120 64. Swinton, near Malton . . . 121 65. Scamridpre Dykes, Yorkshire . 121 66. WTiitwell, Yorkshire . . .122 67. Thames, London 123 68. Near Bridlington . . . .124 69. Lakenheath, Suffolk . . .125 70. Seamer, Yorkshire . . . .126 71. Guernsey 127 72. Wareham 127 73. Forfarshire 128 74. Bridlington 129 75. Caithness 129 76. Gilmerton, East Lothian . . 131 77. Stirlingshire 132 78. Harome 133 79. Daviot, near Inverness . . .134 80. Near Cottenham 135 81. Near Malton 135 82. Mennithorpe, Yorkshire . .136 83. Middleton Moor 137 83a. Keystone 137 84. Near Truro 138 84a.* Slains 138 85. Near Lerwick 139 86. Weston, Norfolk 139 87. AcklamWold 140 88. Fimber 140 89. Duggleby 141 90. Guernsey 141 90a. Wereham 142 91.* Solway Moss 151 92. Cumberland 153 93.* Monaghan 154 94. Axe from the Rio Frio . . .155 95.* War-axe — Gaveoii Indians, Brazil '. 156 96. Axe of Montezuma II. . . . 157 97. Axe — Nootka Soimd . . . 158 98. Axe in Stag's-hom Socket — Concise 159 99. Axe — Robenhausen . . . .159 99a. Penhouet 161 99b.* New Guinea 161 99c.* „ „ Adze. . . . 162 100. Axe — Robenhausen .... 163 101. Schraplau 163 102.* Adze— New Caledonia . . 164 103.* Adze— Clalam Indians . . 165 104.* South-Sea Island Axes . 16G 105.* Axe— Northern Australia . 168 106.* Hatchets Western Australia 170 CHAPTER VII. PICKS, CHISELS, GODGES, ETC. FIG. PACK 107. Great Easton 173 108. Bury St. Edmunds .... 174 109. Burwell 175 110. Near Bridlington 175 111. Dalton, Yorkshire .... 176 112. Helperthorpe 177 113. New Zealand Chisel . . .178 114. Burwell 179 114a. Westleton Walks .... 179 115. Eastbourne 180 116. Willerby Wold 181 117. Bridlington 181 CHAPTER VIII. PERFORATED AXES. lis. Hunmanby 185 119.* Hove 186 120. Llanmadock 188 121. Guernsey 189 122. Firebum Mill, Coldstream . . 190 123. Burwell Fen 191 124. Stourton 192 125. Bardwell 193 126. Potter Brompton Wold . . .194 137. Rudstone 195 128. Borrowash .196 129.* Crichie, Aberdeenshire . .197 130. Walsgrave-upon-Sowe . . . 199 131. Wigton 201 132. WollatonPark 203 133. Buckthorpe 204 134. Aldro' . 205 135. Cowlam 206 136. Seghill . 207 136a.* Wick, Caithness .... 208 137. Kirklington 209 138.* Winterboum Steepleton . . 210 139. Skelton Moors 211 140. Selwood Barrow 211 140a.* Longniddry 212 141. Upton Lovel 213 142. Thames, London 213 143. Pelynt, Cornwall . . . .214 CHAPTER IX. PERFORATED AKD GROOVED HAMMERS. 144. Balmaclellan 219 145. Thames, London 219 145a.* Kirkinner 220 146. Scarborough 221 147. Shetland 221 148.* Caithness 222 149. Leeds 222 150. Rockland 223 151. Heslerton Wold 224 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. XV^ FIG. PAGE 152. Birdoswald 22.5 153. Maesmore, Corvven .... 226 154. Normanton, Wilts .... 227 155. Redgrave Park 228 156. Redmore Fen 228 157.* Stifford 229 158. Sutton 231 169.* Ambleside 236 CHAPTER X. HAMMER-STONES, ETC. 160. Helmslev 239 161. Winterboum Bassett . . .240 161 A.* Goldcuoch 241 162. St. Botolph's Priory .... 242 Bridlington 242 243 243 Scamridge 246 167 & 168. Yorkshire Wolds . .248 168a.* Culbin Sands 249 169. Bridlington 249 170.* Holyhead .251 Ty Mawr 253 Holyhead 254 Pulborough 254 Shetland 256 256 256 256 256 257 163. 164. 165. 166. 171.' 172.^ 173.* 174.* 175.* 176.* 177.* 178.* 179.* 180.* Balmaclellan 260 CHAPTER XI. GRINDING-STOXES AND WHETSTONES. 180a.** Lamberton Moor .... 264 181. Dorchester 265 182. Rudstone 265 183. Fimber 266 184. Cowlam 267 185. Amesbury 2G7 186.* Hove 268 187.* TyMawr 270 CHAPTER XII. FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. 188. Artificial Cone of Flint . . .274 189. Weaverthorpe 276 190. Newhaven 278 191. Redhill, Reigate 278 192. Icklingham 278 193. Seaford 278 194.* Tribulum from Aleppo . . 285 195.* Admiralty Islands '. . . . 288 196. Charleston 291 FIG. PAOR 197. Nussdorf 292 198. Australia 293 199. WillerbyWold 295 200. Yorkshire Wolds 295 201. Scamridge 296 202. West Cranmore 296 CHAPTER XIII. SCRAPERS. 203.* Eskimo Scraper 298 204. Weaverthorpe 300 205. Sussex Downs 301 206. Yorkshire 302 207. Helpcrthorpe 302 208. Weaverthorpe 302 209. Sussex Downs 303 210. Yorkshire 303 211. ,, Wolds 303 212. „ „ 304 213. Sussex Downs 304 214. Yorkshire Wolds 304 215. Sussex Downs 305 216. „ ,, 306 217. ,, ,, 306 218. Bridlington 307 219. ,, 307 220. Yorkshire Wolds 307 221 ,. ,, 308 222. French " Strike-a-light " . . 314 223. Rudstone 316 224. Method of using Pyrites and " Scraper*' for striking a light 317 225. Yorkshire Wolds 319 226. ,, ,, 319 226a. North of Ireland .... 320 CHAPTER IV. BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. 227. Yorkshire Wolds 322 228. BridUngton 322 229. Yorkshire Wolds 323 230. Bridlington 323 231. Yorkshire Wolds .... 324 232. „ „ 324 232a. Hastings 325 232b. ,, 325 2320. ,, 325 232D.* Vindhya Hills 325 232e.* „ ,, 325 232F.* „ „ 326 CHAPTER XY. TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC. 233. Cambridge (?) 326 234. Yorkshire Wolds 328 XVi WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. iFlG. PAUK 235. Yorkfiliire 328 236. Bridlington 329 237. Yorkshire 329 238. Bridlington 329 239. Ca-stle Girrock 329 240. Ford, Northumberland . . 330 210a.* Etton 330 2-tl. Weaverthorpe 331 242. AVvkebam Moor 331 243. Potter Bromptou Wold . . 332 244. Snainton Moor 333 245. Ford 333 24G. Bridlington 334 247. Cambridge Fens 334 248. Scamridge 335 249. BurwellFen 336 250. Saffron Walden 33G 251. Fimber 337 252. Argyllshire 338 253. Glen Urquhart 338 254. Bridlington 339 255. Overton 339 256. Kempston 340 256a. Eastbourne 341 257. Kintore 342 258. Newhaven, Derbyshire . . 342 259. Harome, Yorkshire .... 343 260. „ „ .... 344 261. Crambe 345 262. Walls, Shetland 346 263. „ „ 347 264. Lambourn Down 349 265. Thames 350 266. Burnt Fen 350 267. Arbor Low 352 267a. Sewerby 355 268. Fimber 356 269. Yarmouth 356 270. Eastbourne 357 CHAPTER XVI. JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. 271.* Elf Shot 365 272. Egypt 369 273. Winterboum Stoke . . . .371 274. „ „ , . . . 371 275. „ ,,.... 371 276.* Calais Wold Barrow . . .372 -II. ,, ,, ,, . . . 356.* Isle of Skye 428 CHAPTER XX. SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICK- STONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS. 357. Scampston 438 358.* Holyhead 438 359.* ,, 438 360.* „ 438 361.* „ 442 362.* Scotland 444 363.* Sutherlandshire 444 364.* Faroe Islands 445 365.* Broad Down or Honiton . . 446 366.* Rillaton 448 367.* Hove 449 368.* Ty Mawr 450 CHAPTER XXI. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. 369. Buttervrick 453 370. „ 453 371. Rudstone 454 372. ,, 454 373. Crawfurd :\loor 454 374.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 455 375.* Assynt, Ross-shire .... 457 376.* Pen-y-Bonc 458 377.* Probable Arrangement of the Jet Necklace found at Pen- y-Bonc, Holyhead. . . . 459 378.* Fimber 461 379.* Yorkshire 462 380.* „ 462 381. Hungry Bentley 464 381a.* Heathery Bum Cave . . .464 382.* Jet — Guernsey 464 383.* Bronze — Guernsey .... 464 FIG. PAOB 384. Kent's Cavern 465 385.* Ty Mawr 466 CHAPTER XXII. CAVE IMPLEMENTS. 386. Kent's Cavern 387. 388. ,, „ 388a.* ,, 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. ,, ,, 396. „ 397. „ „ 398. ;399. „ „ 400. 401. ,, 402. „ ,, 403. 404. „ „ 405. ,, ,, 406. ,, 407. 408. 409. Brixham Cave 410. 411. 412. 413.* 413a, 413b. 413c. 413d 413e, 413f, 413g.* Church Hole Cave 413h.* „ CHAPTER XXIII. Wookey Hyaena Den * Robin Hood. Cave. 493 493 494 495 496 496 498 499 499 500 500 501 501 502 502 602 503 503 505 505 505 506 506 506 514 515 515 516 518 522 523 523 523 523 524 524 524 IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD. 414. Biddenham, Bedford . . .532 415. ,, ,, ... 533 416. „ „ ... 534 417. ,, „ ... 534 418. „ ,, ... 535 418a. Hitchin 537 419. Maynewater Lane, Bury St. Edmunds 540 419a. Grindle Pit, Bury St. Ed- munds 541 419b. Bury St. Edmunds . . . 642 419c. Nowton, near Bury St. Ed- munds 543 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 419d 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 426.\. 427. 42S. 429. 430. 431. 432, 433. 434. 43.5. 436. 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446. 447. 448. 449. 4a0. 4.50a. 4.51. 452. 453. Westley, near Bury St. Ed- mund!* Rampart Hill, Icklingham Ickliuarham High Lodge Redhill, Thetford ^VTiitehill, Thetford Santon Downham Bromehill, Brandon Gravel Hill, Valley of the Lark, or Little Ouse . Shrub HiU, Feltwell Hoxne Saltley . . . . Gray's Inn Lane . Hackney Down . Highbury New Paik of 544 545 .546 .546 547 548 548 549 549 552 5.53 554 555 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 564 565 .566 the .567 570 570 571 571 575 576 579 .582 583 585 KIO. 453a 453b. 453c. 4o3d 454. 455. 4o5a. 455b. 455c. 455d 455e 455f. 455g. 455h 456. 456a. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462. 463. 464. 464a. 464b. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. 472. 473. 474. 475. 476. 477. PAOK ,* Lower Clapton 587 * Stamford HiU 588 * Stoke Newiugton Common . 688 * M „ ,. . 689 Ealing Dean 590 Peasemarsh, Godalming . . 595 * Caddington 599^ 599 600 GOO 601 601 601 .* Wheathampstead .... 601 Dartford Heath 606 Bewley, Ightham . . . .009 Reculver 612 Near Reculver 614 fil-^ Eeculver 616 61& StudhiU 618 Thanington 619 Canterbury 620 * ,, 621 Folkestone 622 Southampton 623 Hill Head 625 The Foreland, Isle of Wight . 627 Lake 628 Bemerton 629 Highfield 629 Fishertou 630 Milford Hill, SaUsbury . . .633 Fordingbridge 634 Boscombe, Bournemouth . . 635 „ . . 636 Bournemouth 637 Broom Pit, Axminster . . . 638 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. TN the following pages I purpose to give an account of the -■- various forms of stone implements, weapons, and ornaments of remote antiquity discovered in Great Britain, their probable uses and method of manufacture, and also, in some instances, the cir- cumstances of their discovery. "While reducing the whole series into some sort of classification, as has been done for the stone antiquities of Scandinavia by TVorsaae, Montelius, and Sophus Miiller, for those of France by Messrs. Gabriel and Adrien de Mortillet, and for those of Ireland by Sir William Wilde, I hope to add something to our knowledge of this branch of Archaeology by instituting comparisons, where possible, between the antiqui- ties of England and Scotland and those of other parts of the world. Nor in considering the purposes to which the various forms were applied, and the method of their manufacture, must I neglect to avail myself of the illustrations afforded by the practice of modern savages, of which Sir John Lubbock and others have already made such profitable use. But before commencing any examination of special forms, there are some few general considerations on which it seems advisable to enter, if only in a cursory manner ; and this is the more neces- sary, since notwithstanding the attention which has now for many years been devoted to Prehistoric Antiquities, there is seemingly still some misapprehension remaining as to the nature and value of the conclusions based upon recent archaeological and geological investigations. At the risk therefore of being tedious, I shall have to notice once more many things already well known to archaeologists, but which, it would appear from the misconceptions so often evinced, even by those who speak and write on such matters, can hardly be too often repeated. Not the least misunderstood of these subjects has been the 2 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. 1. classification of the antiquities of "Western Europe, first practically adopted by the Danish antiquaries, under periods known as the Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages ; the Iron Age, so far as Denmark is concerned, being supposed to go back to about the Christian era, the Bronze Age to embrace a period of one or two thousand years previous to that date, and the Stone Age all previous time of man's occupation of that part of the world. These difierent periods have been, and in some cases may be safely, subdivided ; but into this question I need not now enter, as it does not affect the general sequence. The idea of the succession is this : — 1. That there was a period in each given part of ^Vestern Europe, say, for example, Denmark, when the use of metals for cutting-instruments of any kind was unknown, and man had to depend for his implements and weapons on stone, bone, wood, and other readily accessible natural products. 2. That this period was succeeded b}' one in which the use of copper, or of copper alloyed with tin — bronze — became known, and gradually superseded the use of stone for certain purposes, though it continued to be employed for others ; and 3. That a time arrived when bronze, in its turn, gave way to iron or steel, as being a superior metal for all cutting purposes ; which, as such, has remained in use up to the present day. Such a classification into different ages in no way implies any exact chronology, far less one that would be applicable to all the countries of Europe alike, but is rather to be regarded as significant only of a succession of different stages of civilization ; for it is evident that at the time when, for instance, in a country such as Italy, the Iron Age may have commenced, some of the more northern countries of Europe may possibly have been in their Bronze Age, and others again still in their Stone Age. Neither does this classification imply that in the Bronze Age of any country stone implements had entirely ceased to be in use, nor even that in the Iron Age both bronze and stone had been completely superseded for all cutting purposes. Like the three principal colours of the rainbow, these three stages of civilization overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one into the other ; and yet their succession, so far as Western Europe is concerned, appears to be equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours, though the proportions of the spectrum may vary in different countries.* 1 Some interesting remarks on the succession of the three periods and the THE IRON, 15R0NZE, AND STONE AGES. O The late Mr. James Fergusson, in his Rude Stone Monuments/ has analyzed the discoveries made by Bateman in his exploration of Derbyshire barrows, and on the analysis has founded an argu- ment against the division of time into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. He has, however, omitted to take into account the fact that in many of the barrows there were secondary interments of a date long subsequent to the primary. I have spoken of this division into Periods as having been first practically adopted by the Danish school of antiquaries, but in fact this classification is by no means so recent as has been commonly supposed. Take, for instance, the communication of Mahudel to the Academie des Inscriptions of Paris^ in 1734, in which he points out that man existed a long time in different countries using im- plements of stone and without any knowledge of metals ; or again, the following passage from Bishop Lyttelton's^ " Observations on Stone Hatchets," written in 1766 : — " There is not the least doubt of these stone instruments having been fabricated in the earliest times, and by barbarous people, before the use of iron or other metals was known, and from the same cause spears and arrows were headed with flint and other hard stones." A century earlier. Sir William Dugdale, in his " History of Warwickshire," ^ also speaks of stone celts as " weapons used by the Britons before the art of making arms of brass or iron was known." We find, in fact, that the same views were entertained, not only by various writers^ within the last two centuries, but also by many of the early poets and historians. There are even biblical grounds for argument in favour of such a view of a gradual development of material civilization. For all, including those who invest Adam with high moral attri- butes, must confess that whatever may have been his mental con- dition, his personal equipment in the way of tools or weapons could have been but inefficient if no artificer was instructed in brass and iron until the days of Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent from Adam's outcast son, and that too at a time when a gen- eration was reckoned at a hundred years, instead of at thirty, as now. possibility of abnormal variations from it will be found in a lecture to tbe Archaeological Institute delivered by the late Mr. E. T. Stevens in 1872. [Arch. Journ., vol. xxix., p. 393.) ' 1872, p. 11, et seq/j. • Mem., vol. xii., 163. ■' Arclueologia, vol. ii. p. 118. * p. 778. ^ I would especially refer to an excellent article by the Rev. Jolm Ilodfrson in Vol. I. of the Arc/tceohffia ^lUliana (a.d. 1816), entitled "An inquiry into the iera when brass was used in purposes to which iron is now applied." B 2 4 INTRODUCTORY. [cHAP. I. Turning, however, to Greek and Roman authors, we find Hesiod,^ about it.c. 850, mentioning a time when bronze had not been superseded by iron : — ToTc 5' Tjv xaXxta fiiv rtvxta, \a\Kioi Ss ri oiKOi XuXkui S' lipyd^ovTo, fi'sXag 5' ouk iax^ (jiStjpof;. Lucretius ^ is even more distinct in his views as to the successive Periods : — " Anna antiquii laanus, iing'ues, dentesque fuerunt Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragniiua rami — Posterius ferri vis est serisque reperta ; Sed prior tens erat quain f eni cognitus usus — JEre solum ten-ie tractabant, tereque belli jMiscebant fluctus et vulnera vasta ferebant." So early as the days of Augustus it would appear that bronze arms were regarded as antiquities, and that emperor seems to have commenced the first archccological and geological collection on record, having adorned one of his country residences " rebus vetustate ac raritate notabilibus, qualia sunt Capreis immanium belluarum ferarumque membra prsegrandia quae dicuntur gigan- tum ossa et arraa heroum." ^ We learn from Pausanias* what these arms of the heroes were, for he explains how in the heroic times all weapons were of bronze, and quotes Homer's description of the axe of Pisander and the arrow of Meriones. He also cites the spear of Achilles in the temple of Pallas, at Phaselis, the point and ferrule of which only were of bronze ; and the sword of Memnon in the temple of jEsculapius, at Nicomedia, which was wholly of bronze. In the same manner Plutarch^ relates that when Cimon disinterred the remains of Theseus in Scjtos he found with them a bronze spear- head and sword. There is, indeed, in Homer constant mention of arms, axes, and adzes of bronze, and though iron is also named, it is of far less frequent occurrence. According to the Arundelian marbles,^ it was discovered only 188 years before the Trojan war, though of course such a date must be purely conjectural. Even Virgil preserves the unities, and often gives bronze arms to the heroes of the -^neid, as well as to some of the people of Italy — " iEratteque micant peltje, mieat iereus ensis." ' > " Op. et Di.," I., 1.50. 2 Met., lib. vii. 2-28. •» Homer, 11., xxiii. 826. * Zeitsch.f. ^l-Ajijpt. Spmche, &e. 1870, p. 114. o Qong. Preh. BrnxeUes, 1872, p. 242. ' See a valuable paper by Dr. L. Beck, Arch.f. Anth., vol. xii. (1880) p. 293. 6 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. other purposes.* At the first introduction of iron the two metals were, no doubt, in use together, but we can hardly suppose them to have been introduced simultaneously ; and if they had been, the questions arise, whence did they come ? and how are we to account for the one not having sooner superseded the other for cutting pui poses? Another argument that has been employed in favour of iron having been the first metal used, is that bronze is a mixed metal requiring a knowledge of the art of smelting both copper and tin, the latter being only produced in few districts, and generally having to be brought from far, while certain of the ores of iron are of easy access and readily reducible,^ and meteoric iron is also found in the metallic state and often adapted for immediate use. The answer to this is, first, that all historical evidence is ag-ainst the use of iron previously to copper or bronze ; and, secondly, that even in Eastern Africa, where, above all other places, the con- ditions for the development of the manufacture of iron seem most favourable, we have no evidence of the knowledge of that metal having preceded that of bronze ; but, on the contrary, we find in Egypt, a country often brought in contact with these iron-pro- ducing districts, little if any trace of iron before the twelfth dynasty,^ and of its use even then the evidence is only pictorial, whereas the copper mines at iMaghara are said to date back to the second dynasty, some eight hundred years earlier. Agatharchides,^ moreover, relates that in his time, circa b.c. 100, there were found buried in the ancient gold mines of Egypt the bronze chisels (XaroiJLue^ y^ciXkcii) of the old miners, and he accounts for their being of that metal by the fact that at the period when the mines were originally worked the use of iron was entirely unknown. Much of the early working in granite may have been eflfected by flint tools. Admiral Tremlett has foimd that flakes of jasper readily cut the granite of Brittany.^ To return, however, to Greece and Italy, there can, as I have already said, be little question that even on historical grounds we must accept the fact that in those countries, at all events, the use of bronze preceded that of iron. We may therefore infer theoretically that the same sequence held good with the neighbour- ^ See De Rougemont, "L'Age du Bronze," p. 159. - See Percy's " Metallurgy," vol. i. p. 873. * De Rougemont, op. cit., p. 168. See " Ancient Bronze Imps.," p. 6, .seqq. * Photii " Bibliotheca," ed. 16o3, col. 1343. ■'' Jour. Anth. Inst., vol. xx. p. 330. PERSISTEN'CE OF REIJGIOUS RITES. 7 ing and more barbarous nations of Western Europe. Even in the time of Pausani.is^ (after a.d. 174) the Sarmatians are mentioned as being unacquainted with the use of iron ; and practically we have good corroborative archiDological evidence of such a sequence in the extensive discoveries that have been made of antiquities belonging to the transitional period, when the use of iron or steel was grad- ually^ superseding that of bronze for tools or weapons, and when the forms given to the new metal were copied from those of the old. The most notable relics of this transitional period are those of the ancient cemetery at Hallstatt, in the Salzkammergut, Austria, where upwards of a thousand graves were opened by Kamsauer, of the contents of which a detailed account has been given by the liaron von Sacken.^ The evidence afforded by the discoveries in the Swiss lakes is almost equally satisfactory ; but I need not now enter further into the question of the existence and succession of the Bronze and Iron Ages, on which I have dwelt more fully in my book on Ancient Bronze Implements.^ I am at present concerned with the Stone Age, and if, as all agree, there was a time when the use of iron or of bronze, or of both together, first became known to the barbarous nations of the West of Europe, then it is evident that before that time they were un- acquainted with the use of those metals, and were therefore in that stage of civilization which has been characterized as the Stone Age. It is not, of course, to be expected that we should discover direct contemporary historical testimony amongst any people of their being in this condition, for in no case do we find a knowledge of writing developed in this stage of culture ; and yet, apart from the material relics of this phase of progress which are found from time to time in the soil, there is to be obtained in most civilized countries indirect circumstantial evidence of the former use of stone implements, even where those of metal had been employed for cen- turies before authentic history commences. It is in religious cus- toms and ceremonies — in rites which have been handed down from generation to generation, and in which the minute and careful repetition of ancient observances is indeed often the essential religious element — that such evidence is to be sought. As has already been observed by others, the transition from ancient to venerable, from venerable to holy, is as natural as it is universal ; 1 Lib. i. c. 21. ^ " Das Grabfcld von Hallstatt iind dessen Alterthiimer." Vienna, 1868, 3 London, 1881. 8 INTRODUCTORY. [cHAP. I. and in the same manner as some of tlie festivals and customs of Christian countries are directly traceable to heathen times, so no doubt many of the religious observances of ancient times were relics of what was even then a dim past. Whatever we may think of the etymology of the word as given by Cicero/ Lactantius,^ or Lucretius,^ there is much to be said in favour of Dr. E. B. Tylor's'* view of superstition being " the standing: over of old habits into the midst of a new and changed state of things — of the retention of ancient practices for ceremonial purposes, long after they had been superseded for the common- place uses of ordinary life." Such a standing over of old customs we seem to discover among most of the civilized peoples of antiquity. Turning to Egypt and "vVestern Asia, the early home of European civilization, we hnd from Herodotus^ and from Diodorus Siculus,^ that in the rite of embalming, though the brain was removed by a crooked iron, yet the body was cut open by a sharp Ethiopian stone. In several European museums are preserved thin, flat, leaf-shaped knives of cherty flint found in Egypt, some of which will be men- tioned in subsequent pages. In character of work- manship their correspondence with the flint knives or daggers of Scandinavia is most striking. Many, however, are provided with a tang at one end at the back of the blade, and in this respect resemble metallic blades intended to be mounted by means of a tang driven into the haft. In the British Museum is an Egyptian dagger-like instrument of flint, from the Ilaj' collection, still mounted in its original wooden handle, apparently l)y a central tang, and with remains of its skin sheath. It is shown on the scale of one-fourth in Fig. 1. There is also a polished stone knife broken at the handle, which bears upon it in hieroglyphical cha- "^ racters the name of Ptahmes, an officer. Eu....-i.t,'. 1. Curiously enough the bodies of the chiefs or Menceys of the Guanches in Teneriffe^ were also cut open by particular persons set apart for the office with knives made of sharp pieces of obsidian. 1 De Nat. Deor., Lib. ii. c. 28. - Lib. iv. c. 28. 3 ^jb. i. v. 66. ' " Early History of Mankind," p. 218 ; 2nd edit. p. 221, q. r. '■ Lib. ii. 86. « Lib. i. 91. ■J Trans. Etlm. Soe., N. S., vol. vii. 112. USE OF STONE IN KELIGIOUS CEREMONIES. 9 The rite of civcumcision was among those practised by the Egyptians, but whether it was performed with a stone knife, as was the case with the Jews when they came out of Egypt, is not certain. Among the latter people, not to lay stress on the case of Zipporah,^ it is recorded of Joshua,'"' that in circumcising the children of Israel he made use of knives of stone. It is true that, in our version, the words U^yrJ: niinnn are translated sharp knives, which by analogy with a passage in Psaltn Ixxxix. 44 (43 e.v.), is not otherwise than correct ; but the Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, and Septuagint translations all give knives of stone ;^ and the latter version, in the account of the burial of Joshua, adds that they laid with him the stone knives (Tct? fxayalpa'; ra? Trerpiva^) with which he circumcised the children of Israel — " and there they are imto this day." Gesenius (v. r. i^'i) observes upon the passage, " This is a circumstance worthy of remark ; and goes to show at least, that knives of stone were found in the sepulchres of Palestine, as well as in those of north-western Europe."* In recent times the Abbe Richard, in examining what is known as the tomb of Joshua at some distance to the east of Jericho, found a number of sharp flakes of flint as well as flint instruments of other forms.^ Under certain circumstances modern Jews make use of a frag- ment of flint or glass for this rite. The occurrence of flint knives in ancient Jewish sepulchres may, however, be connected with a far earlier occupation of Palestine than that of the Jews. It was a constant custom with them to bury in caves, and recent discoveries have shown that, like the caves of "Western Europe, many of these were at a remote period occupied by those unac- quainted with the use of metals, whose stone implements are found mixed up with the bones of the animals which had served them for food.^ Of analogous uses of stone we find some few traces among classical writers. Ovid, speaking of Atys, makes the instrument with which he maimed himself to be a sharp stone, " Ille etiam saxo corpus laniavit acuto." The solemn treaties among the Romans were ratified by the 1 Exod. iv. '25. - Josh. v. '2. ^ lb. xxiv. 30. * See also Trior's "Early History of Mankind," 2Qd ed., p. 217. The entire chapter on the Stone Aj^e, Past and Present, is well worthy of careful perusal, and enters more fully into the whole question of the Stone Age throughout the world than conies within my province. 5 C. li. dn Co/Iff. I„t. dcs Sc. A)iih. 1878. Paris 1880, p. 280. Comptes liendus de VAcad. des Srienres, vol. Ixiii. August 28, 1871. ® Comptes llcndns, 1871, vol. Ixxiii. p. .540. 10 INTRODUCTORY. [cH. AP. I, Fetialis ' sacrificing a pig with a flint stone, which, however, does not appear to have been sharpened. " Ubi dixit, porcuni saxo silice percussit." The " religiosa silex"^ of Claudian seems rather to have been a block of stone like that under the form of which Jupiter, Cybele, Diana, and even Yenus were worshipped. Pausanias informs us that it was the custom among the Greeks to bestow divine honours on certain unahaped stones, and ZEY2 KA5I02 is thus represented on coins of Seleucia in Syria, while the Paphian Yenus appears in the form of a conical stone on coins struck in Cvprus. The Syrian god from whom Elagabalus, the Roman emperor, took his name seems also to have been an un- hewn stone, possibly a meteorite. The traces, however, of the Stone Age in the religious rites of Greece and Rome are extremely slight, and this is by no means remarkable when we consider how long the use of bronze, and even of iron, had been known in those parts of Europe at the time when authentic history commences. We shall subsequently see at how early a period different implements of stone had a mys- terious if not a superstitious virtue assigned to them. I need only mention as an instance that, in several beautiful gold neck- laces ^ of Greek or Etruscan workmanship, the central pendant consists of a delicate flint arrow-head, elegantly set in gold, and probably worn as a charm. Nor is the religious use of stone con- ^ fined to Europe.* In Western Africa, when the god Gimawong maizes his annual visit to his temple at Labode, his worshippers kill the ox which they offer, with a stone. To come nearer home, it is not to be expected that in this country, the earliest written history of which (if we except the slight account derived from merchants trading hither), comes from the pen of foreign conquerors, we should have any records of the Stone Age. In Caesar's time, the tribes with which he came in contact were already acquainted with the use of iron, and were, indeed, for the most part immigrants from Gaul, a country whose inhabitants had, by war and commerce, been long brought into close relation with the more civilized inhabitants of Italy and Greece. I have elsewhere shown ^ that the degree of civilization which must be conceded to those maritime tribes far exceeds what is accorded by popular belief. The older occupants of Britain, who 1 Livy, lib. i. c. 24. - Rapt. Proserp. I. 201. ^ "Horaj FeraleH," p. 136. Arch. Juurn., vol. xi. p. 169. * Arch, fib- Anthropol., vol. iii. 16. * •' Coins of the Ancient Britons," pp. 42, 263, et alibi. STONE ANTIQUITIES NOT AI-L OF THE SAME AGE. It had retreated before the Belgic invaders, and occupied the western and northern parts of the island, were no doubt in a more barbarous condition ; but in no case in which they came in contact with their Roman invaders do they seem to have been unac- quainted with the use of iron. Even the Caledonians,^ in the time of Severus, who tattooed themselves with the figures of animals, and went nearly naked, carried a shield, a spear, and a sword, and wore iron collars and girdles ; they however deemed these latter ornamental and an evidence of wealth, in the same way as other barbarians esteemed gold. But though immediately before and after the Christian era the knowledge of the use of iron may have been general throughout Britain, and though probably an acquaintance with bronze, at all events in the southern part of the island, may probably date many centuries farther back, it by no means follows, as I cannot too often repeat, that the use of stone for various purposes to which it had previously been applied should suddenly have ceased on a superior material, in the shape of metal, becoming known. On the contrary, we know that the use of certain stone weapons was con- temporary with the use of bronze daggers, and the probability is that in the poorer and more inaccessible parts of the country, stone continued in use for many ordinary purposes long after bronze, and possibly even iron, was known in the richer and more civilized districts. Sir William Wilde informs us that in Ireland ^ *' stone hammers, and not unfrequently stone anvils, have been employed by country smiths and tinkers in some of the remote country districts until a comparatively recent period." The same use of stone hammers and anvils for forging iron prevails among the Kaffirs ^ of the present day. In Iceland * also, perforated stone hammers are still in use for pounding dried fish, driving in stakes, for forging and other purposes ; " knockin'-stones " ^ for making pot-barley, have till recently been in use in Scotland, if not still emploj^cd ; and I have seen fruit-hawkers in the streets of London cracking Brazil nuts between two stones. With some exceptions it is, therefore, nearly impossible to say whether an ancient object made of stone can be assigned with ^ Herodian, lib. iii. c. 14. - "Cat. of Stone Ant. in R. I. A. Mus.," p. 81. 3 Wood's "Nat. Hist, of Man," i. p. 97. * Klemm, " Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft," part i. p. 86. Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. X. 360. 5 Mitchell' .s " Past in the Present," p. 10, 44. Prtc. Soc. Ant. Sc$t., vol. xii. p. 385, XX. p. 146, xxiii. p. 16. 12 INTRODrCTORY. [CHAP. I. absolute certainty to the Stone Period or no. Much will depend upon the circumstances of the discovery, and in some instances the form may be a guide. The remarks I have just made apply most particularly to the weapons, tools, and implements belonging to the period more immediately antecedent to the Bronze Age, and extending back- wards in time through an unknown number of centuries. For besides the objects belonging to what was originally known by the Danish antiquaries as the Stone Period, which are usually foimd upon or near the surface of the soil, in encampments, on the site of ancient habitations, and in tumuli, there are others which occur in caverns beneath thick layers of stalagmite, and in ancient alluvia, in both cases usually associated with the remains of animals either locally or entirely extinct. In no case do we iind any trace of metallic tools or weapons in true association with the stone implements of the old ossiferous caverns, or with those of the beds of gravel, sand, and clay deposited by the ancient rivers ; and, unlike the implements found upon the surface and in graves, which in many instances are ground or polished, those from the caves, and from what are termed by geologists the Qua- ternary gravels, are, so far as at present known, invariably' chipped only, and not ground, besides as a rule differing in form. This difference ^ in the character of the implements of the two periods, and the vast interval of time between the two, I pointed out in 1859, at the time when the discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes, in the Valley of the Somme, first attracted the attention of Fnglish geologists and antiquaries. Since then, the necessity of subdividing what had until then been regarded as the Stone Age into two distinct stages, an earlier and a later, has been universally recognized ; and Sir John Lubbock ^ has proposed to call them the Palaeolithic and the IN^eolithic Periods respec- tively, terms which have met with almost general acceptance, and of which I shall avail myself in the course of this work. In speaking of the polished and other implements belonging to the time when the general surface of the country had already received its present configuration, I may , however, also occasionally make use of the synonymous terra Surface Period for the Neolithic, and shall also find it convenient to treat of the Palaeolithic Period under two subdivisions — those of the River-gravels and of the ' Phil. Tram., ISGO, p. 311. ^irchaohgia, vol. xxxviii. p. 293. * " Prehistoric Times," (186.')), p. 60. ORDER OF TREATMENT. 13^ Caves, the fauna and implements of which are not in all cases identical. In passing the different kinds of implements, weapons, and ornaments formed of stone under review, I propose to commence with an examination of the antiquities of the Neolithic Period, then to proceed to the stone implements of human manufacture discovered imbedded with ancient mammalian remains in Caverns, and to conclude with an account of the discoveries of flint implements in the Drift or River-gravels in various parts of England. But before describing their forms and characters, it will be well to consider the method of manufacture by which th& various forms were produced. 14 CHAPTER 11. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. In seeking to ascertain the method by which the stone imple- ments and weapons of antiquity were fabricated, we cannot, in all probability, follow a better guide than that which is afforded us by the manner in which instruments of similar character are produced at the present day. As in accounting for the vast geological changes which we find to have taken place in the crust of the earth, the safest method of argument is by referring to ascertained physical laws, and to the existing operations of nature, so, in order to elucidate the manufacture of stone implements by the ancient inhabitants of this and other countries, we may refer to the methods employed by existing savages in what we must judge to be a somewhat similar state of culture, and to the recog- nized characteristics of the materials employed. We may even go further, and call in aid the experience of some of our own countrymen, who still work upon similar materials, although for the purpose of producing different objects from those which were in use in ancient times. So far as relates to the method of production of implements formed of silicious materials, there can be no doubt that the manufacture of gun-flints, which, notwithstanding the introduction of percussion-caps, is still carried on to some extent both in this and in neighbouring countries, is that best calculated to afford instruction. The principal place in England where the gun-flint manufacture is now carried on, is Brandon, on the borders of Norfolk and Suff'ulk, where I have witnessed the j)rocess. I have also seen the manufacture at Icklingham, in Suffolk, where thirty years ago, gun-flint factories existed, which have now I believe ^ This chapter was for the most part written in 1868, and communicated to the International Conj,'-res.s of Prehistoric /\arh;eolosry held at Norwich in that year. See Trans. Preh. Co)tf/., 1868, p. 191, where a short abstract is given. PYRITES AND FLINT USED FOR STRIKING FIRE. 15 been closed. They were also formerly manufactured in small numbers at Catton, near Norwich. At Brandon, in 1868, I was informed that upwards of twenty workmen were employed, who were capable of producinj^ among them from 200,000 to 250,000 gun-flints per week. These were destined almost entirely for exportation, principally to Africa. On July 18th, 1890, the Daily Neics^ gave the number of workmen at Brandon as thirty- five. Some other sites of the gun-flint manufacture in former times are mentioned by Mr. Skertchly, as for instance. Clarendon near Salisbury ; Gray's Thurrock, Essex ; Beer Head, Devon ; and Glasgow ; besides several places in Norfolk and Suffolk. In France the manufacture of gun-flints is still carried on in the Department of Loir et Cher,^ and various other localities are recorded by Mr. Skertchly.^ In proof of the antiquity of the use of flint as a means of pro- ducing fire, I need hardly quote the ingenious derivation of the word Silex as given by Vincent of Beauvais : — " Silex est lapis durus, sic dictus eo quod ex eo ignis exiliat."^ But before iron was known as a metal, it would appear that flint was in use as a fire-producing agent in combination with blocks of iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) instead of steel. Nodules of this substance have beea found in both French and Belg-ian bone-caves belong- ing to an extremely remote period ; while, as belonging to Neolithic times, to say nothing of discoveries in this country, which will subsequently be mentioned, part of a nodule of pyrites may be cited which was found in the Lake settlement of Robenhausen, and had apparently been thus used.^ In our own days, this method of obtaining fire has been observed among savages in Tierra del Fuego, and among the Eskimos of Smith's Sound.*^ The 1 N. and Q. 7th S., vol. x. p. 172. 2 jYat. 3me S., vol. ii. (I880) p. 61. 3 Op. cit., p. ;iS. * Spec. Naturae, lib. ix. sect. 13. * Morlot in liev. Arch., vol. v. (18G2), p. 216. Geologist, vol. v. p. 192. Engelhardt found several similar pieces of pyrites at Thorsbjerg, with iron and other antiquities of about the fourth century of our era. He says that steels for striking fire are not at present known as belonging to the Early Iron Age of Den- mark. This late use of pyrites affords strong e^ddence of iron and steel having been unknown to the makers of flint implements, for had they made use of iron hammers, the superior fire-giving properties of flint and iron would at once have been evident, and pyrites would probably soon have been superseded, at all events in countries where flint abounded. — Engelhardt, "Thorsbjerg Mosefund," p. 60 ; p. 65 in the English edit. The quartz pebbles with grooves in them which belong to the Iron Age seem, however, to have been used for producing fire by means of a pointed steel. ^ Weddell, " Voyage towards the South Pole," p. 167; Tvlor, "Early History of Mankind," 2nd edit., p. 249. Wood's " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 522. 16 MANUFACl'URE OF STONE IMPLEMENIS. [CHAP. 11. Fueo-ian tinder, like the modern German and ancient Roman, consists of dried fungus, which when lighted is wrapped in a ball of dried grass and whirled round, the head till it bursts into flames. Achates, as will shortly be seen, is described by Virgil as following the same method. The name of pyrites (from Trvp) is itself suflacient evidence of the purpose to which this mineral was applied in early times, and the same stone was used as the fire-giving agent in the guns with the form of lock known as the wheel-lock. Pliny ^ speaks of a certain sort of pyrites, "pluriniuni habens ignis, quos vivos appel- lamus, et ponderosissimi sunt." These, as his translator, Holland, says, " bee most necessary for the espialls belonging unto a campe, for if they strike them either with an yron spike or another stone they will cast forth sparks of fire, which lighting upon matches dipt in brimstone (su/phiiratis) drie puff's (fungis) or leaves, will cause them to catch fire sooner than u man can say the word." Pliny also'"^ informs us that it was Pyrodes, the son of Cilix, who first devised the way to strike fire out of flint — a myth which seems to point to the use of silex and pyrites rather than of steel. The Jews on their return to Jerusalem, under Judas Maccaboeus, "made another altar and striking stones they took fire out of them and offered a sacrifice."^ How soon pyrites was, to a great extent, superseded by steel or iron, there seems to be no good evidence to prove ; it is probable, however, that the use of flint and steel was well known to the Romans of the Augustan age, and that Virgil'* pictured the Trojan voyager as using steel, when — " silici scintillam excudit Achates, Suscepitque ignem foliis atque arida circuin Nutrimenta dedit, rapuitqtie in fomite flaoiniam." And again, where — " quperit pars semina Hammas Abstrusa in venis silicis." "' In Claudian'' we find the distinct mention of flint and steel — " Flagrat anhela silex et amicam saucia sentit Materiem, placidosque clialybs agnoscit amores." AtTJnter Uhldingen' a Swiss lake station where Roman pottery was present, was found what appears to be a steel for striking a ' Hist. Nat., lib. xxxvi. cap. 19. - Lib. vii. cap. 5G. 3 II. Mace. X. 3. * ^neid, i. v. 174. * yEneid, vi. v. 6. See also (Georg. I. 135) — "Ut silicis venis abstrusum excuderet ignem." Ou this passage Fosbroke remarks (Enc. Ant. i. 307), " A stone with a vein was chosen as now." « Eidyllia, v. 42. ' Keller, "Lake-dwellings," p. 119. STRIKE-A-LIGHT FLINTS. 17 Hg-ht. However the case may have been as to the means of pro- curing fire, it vi^as not until some centuries after the invention of gunpowder that flints were applied to the purpose of discharging fire-arms. Beckmann/ in his "History of Inventions," mentions that it w;is not until the year 1687 that the soldiers of Brunswick obtained guns with flint-locks, instead of match-locks, though, no doubt, the use of the wheel-lock vrith pyrites bad in some other places been superseded before that time. I am not aware of there beiug any record of flints, such as were in use for tinder-boxes,^ having been in ancient times an article of commerce : this, however, must have been the case, as there are so many districts in which flint does not naturally occui', and into which, therefore, it would have by some means to be introduced. Even at the present day, when so many chemical matches are in use, flints are still to be purchased at the shops in country places in the United Kingdom ; and artificially prepared flints continue to be common articles of sale both in France and Germany, and are in constant use, in conjunction with German tinder, or pre- pared cotton, by tobacco-smokers. At Brandon^ a certain number of " strike-a-light " flints are still manufactured for exportation, principally to the East and to Brazil — they are usually circular discs, about two inches in diameter. These flints are wrought into shape in precisely the same manner as gun-flints, and it seems possible that the trade of chipping flint into forms adapted to be used with steel for striking a light may be of considerable antiquity, and that the manufacture of gun-flints ought con- sequently to be regarded as only a modification and extension of a pre-existing art, closely allied with the facing and squaring of flints for architectural purposes, which reached great perfection at an early period. However this may be, it would seem that when gun-flints were an indispensable munition of war, a great mystery was made as to the manner in which they were prepared. Beck- mann'* says that, considering the great use made of them, it will hardly be believed how much trouble he had to obtain information on the subject. It would be ludicrous to repeat the various answers he obtained to his inquiries. Many thought that the stones were cut down by grinding them ; some conceived that » Vol. ii. p. 536. Bohn's edit., 1846. * An interesting paper on tinder-boxes will be found in The Reliquary, vii. p. 65. See also Mitchell's " Past in the Present," p. 100, and Arch. Camb., 5th 8., vol. vii. p. 294. » Stevens'. " Flint Chips," p. 5 Petrie, "Medum," 1892, PL xxix., p. 18, 34. « Nature, vol. xxv. p. 8. GUN-FLINT PRODUCTION. 21 and a skilful ^vorkman cuts the flake in two at a single stroke. The sections of flakes thus produced have a cutting edge at each end ; but the finished gun-flint is formed by chipping off the edge at the butt-end and slightly rounding it by means of the fixed chisel and knapping hammer, the blows from which are made to fall just within the chisel, so that the two together cut much in the same manner as a pair of shears. Considerable skill is required in the manufacture, more especially in the production of the flakes ; but Hacquet^ says that a fortnight's practice is sufficient to enable an ordinary workman to fashion from five hundred to eight hundred gun-flints in a day. According to him, an experienced workman will produce from a thousand to fifteen hundred per diem. Dolomieu estimates three days as the time required by a " caiUoidenr^^ to produce a thousand gun-flints; but as the highest price quoted for French gun-flints by Hacquet is only six francs the thousand, it seems probable that his calcula- tion as to the time required for their manufacture is not far wrong. Some of the Brandon flint-knappers are, however, said to be capable of producing sixteen thousand to eighteen thousand gun- flints in a week. Taking the lowest estimate, it appears that a practised hand is capable of making at least three hundred flint implements of a given definite form, and of some degree of finish, in the course of a single day. If our primitive forefathers could produce their worked flints with equal ease, the wonder is, not that so many of them are found, but that they do not occur in far greater numbers. An elegant form of gun-flint, showing great skill in surface flaking, is still pro- duced in Albania. A specimen, purchased at Avlona^ by my son, is shown in Fig. 2a. Some gun-flints and strike-a- lights are formed of chalcedony or agate, and cut and polished. The ancient flint-workers had not, however, the advantages of steel and iron tools and other modern appliances at their command ; and, at first sight, it would appear that the pro- Fig. 2a.— Oiin-flint, Avlona, Albania. i 1 P. 52. * "Bosnia and Herzegovina," 2nd ed. (1877), p. 153, B.A. Rep. 1885, p. 1216. 22 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. duction of flakes of flint, without havinf^ a pointed metallic hammer for the purpose, was a matter of great difliculty, I have, however^ made some experiments upon the subject, and have also employed a Suffolk flint- knapper to do so, and I find that blows from a rounded pebble, judiciously administered, are capable of producing well- formed flakes, such as, in shape, cannot be distinguished from those made with a metallic hammer. The main difficulties consist — first, in making the blow fall exactly in the proper place ; and, secondly, in so proportioning its intensity that it shall simply dislodge a flake, and not shatter it. The pebble employed as a hammer need not be attached to a shaft, but can be used, without any preparation, in the hand. Professor Nilsson tried the same method long ago, and has left on record an interesting account of his experience.^ In the neighbourhood of the Pfahl-bauten of Moosseedorf, in Switzerland, have been found numerous spots where flint has been worked up into implements, and vast numbers of flakes and splinters left as refuse. Dr. Keller^ says, that "the tools used for making these flint implements do not seem to have been of the same material, but of gabbro, a bluish-green and very hard and tough kind of stone. Several of these implements have been met with ; their form is very simple, and varies between a cube and an oval. The oval specimens were ground down in one or two places, and the most pointed part was used for hammering." There were nearly similar workshops at Wauwyl ^ and Bodmann, not to mention places where flint was dug for the purposes of manufacture. Closely analogous sites of ancient flint-workshops have been discovered both in France "* and Germany ^ as well as in Great Britain; such, for instance, as that at the confluence^ of the Leochel and the Don, in Aberdeenshire, where, moreover, flint is not native in the neighbourhood ; but proper attention has not, in all cases, been paid to the hammer- stones, which, in all probability, occur with the chippings of flint. The blow from the hammer could not, of course, be always administered at the right spot ; and I have noticed on some ancient flakes, a groove at the butt- end, the bottom of which is crushed, as if by blows from a round pebble, which, from having 1 "Stone Age," p. 6. 2 " Lake-dwellinge," p. 36. 3 /. c. pp. 86 and 97. •* Comptes liendus, 1867, vol. Ixv. p. 640. ^ Troyon, "Mod. de I'Antiquite," p. 52. * Pruc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 385. MODES OF PRODUCING FLAKES. 23 fallen too near the edge of tbe block, had at first merely bruised the flint, instead of detaching the flake. There are, moreover, a certain number of small cores, or nuclei, both English and foreign, from which such minute and regular flakes have been detached, that it is difficult to believe th^it a mere stone hammer could have been directed with sufl&cient skill and precision to produce such extreme regularity of form. I may cite as instances some of the small nuclei which are found on the Yorkshire wolds, and some of those from the banks of the Mahanuddy,^ in India, which, but for the slight dissimilarity in the material (the latter being usually chalcedony and the former flint), could hardly be distinguished from each other. Possibly in striking off the flakes some form of punch was used which was struck with the hammer as subsequently described. There are also some large nuclei, such as those from the neighbourhood of the Indus,^ in Upper Scinde, and one which I possess from Ghlin, in l^elgium, which are suggestive of the same difl&culty. In form they much resemble the obsidian cores of Mexico, and it seems not improbable that they are the result of some similar process of making flakes or knives to that which was in use among the Aztecs. Torquemada^ thus describes the process he found in use : — " One of these Indian workmen sits down upon the ground, and takes a piece of this black stone " (obsidian) " about eight inches long or rather more, and as thick as one's leg or rather less, and cylindrical ; they have a stick as large as the shaft of a lance^ and three cubits or rather more in length ; and at the end of it they fasten firmly another piece of wood, eight inches long, to give more weight to this part ; then, pressing their naked feet together, they hold the stone as with a pair of pincers or the vice of a carpenter's bench. They take the stick (which is cut off smooth at the end) with both bauds, and set it well home against the edge of the front of the stone [y ponenio avesar con el canto de la frente de la piedra), which also is cut smooth in that part ; and then they press it against their breast, and with the force of the pressure there flies off a knife, with its point, and edge on each side, as neatly as if one were to make them of a turnip with a sharp knife, ^ Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 38. 2 Geol. May., vol. iii. (1866) p. 433. 3 " Monarquia Indiana," lib. xvii. cap. 1, Seville, 1615, translated by E. B. Tylor, "Auahuac,"' p. 331. See a correction of Mr." Ty lor' s translation in the Cumptes Ittnclxs, vol. Ixvii. p. 1296. | 24 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. or of iron in the fire." Hernandez^ gives a similar account of the process, but compares the wooden instrument used to a cross-bow, 80 that it would appear to have had a crutch-shaped end to rest against the breast. So skilful were the ^ilexicans in the manu- facture of obsidian knives, that, according- to Clavigero, a single workman could produce a hundred per liour. The short piece of heavy wood was probably cut from some of the very hard trees of tropical growth. I much doubt whether any of our indigenous trees produce wood sufficiyntly hard to be used for splintering obsidian ; and flint is. I believe,' tougher and still more difficult of fvacLure. We have, however, in this Mexican case, an instance of the manufacture of flakes by sudden pressure, and of the employment of a flaking tool, which could be carefully adjusted into position before the pressure or blow was given to produce the flake. Mr. G. E. Sellers, in the Smithsonian Report for 1 885,^ has published some interesting " observations on stone chipping," and from the reporb of Mr. Catlin, who sojourned long among the Indians of North America, gives sketches of crutch-like flaking tools tipped with walrus tooth or bone which he had seen in use. He also describes a method of making flint flakes by the pressure of a lever. The whole memoir is worthy of study. The subject of the manufacture of stone implements is also discussed by^ Sir Daniel Wilson in an essay on the Trade and Commerce of the Stone Age. There appears to have been another process in use in Central America, for Mr. Tylor^ heard on good authority that somewhere in Peru the Indians still have a way of working obsidian by laying a bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it till the stone cracks. Catlin^ also describes the method of making flint arrow-heads among the Apaches in Mexico as being of the same character. After breaking a boulder of flint by me'ans of a hammer formed of a rounded pebble of horn-stone set in a handle made of a twisted withe, flakes are struck off, and these are wrought into shape while held on the palm of the left hand, by means of a punch made of the tooth of the sperm whale, held in the right hand, and struck with a hard wooden mallet by an assistant. Both holder and striker sing, and the strokes of the ' Tylor's " Anahuac," p. 332. * P. 871 I ^7"'- ^"^- '^'''^- ^''««'^«' 1889, p. 59. i Tylor'8 "Anahuac," p. 99 • , Last Kambles amongst the Indians," 1868, p. 188. The whole passage is re- printed in "Flint Chips," p. 82. MODES OF PRODUCING FLAKES. 25 mallet arc given in time with the music, the blow being sharp and rebounding, in which the Indians say is the great medicine or principal knack of the operation. The Cloud Eiver^ Indians at the present day use a punch made of deer's- horn for striking off obsidian flakes from which to make arrow-heads. Such a process as this may well have been adopted in this country in the manufacture of flint flakes ; either bone or stag's- horn sets or punches, or else small and hard pebbles, may have been applied at the proper spots upon the surface of the flints, and then been struck by a stone or wooden mallet I have tried some experiments with such stone sets, and have succeeded in producing flakes in this manner, having been first led to suppose that some such system was in use by discovering, in the year 1864, some small quartz pebbles battered at the ends, and associated with flint flakes and cores in an ancient encampment at Little Solsbury Hill, near Bath, of which I have already given an account else- where." I am, however, inclined to think that the use of such a punch or set was in any case the exception rather than the rule ; for with practice, and by making the blows only from the elbow kept fixed against the body, and not with the whole arm, it is extraordinary what precision of blow may be attained with merely a pebble hold in the hand as a hammer. The flakes of chert from which the Eskimos manufacture their arrow-heads are produced, according to Sir Edward Belcher,^ who saw the process, by slight taps with a hammer formed of a very stubborn kind of jade or nephrite. He has kindly shown me one of these hammers, which is oval in section, about 3 inches long and 2 inches broad, and secured by a cord of sinew to a bone handle, against which it abuts. The ends are nearly flat. This hammer is now in the Christy Collection at the British Museum and is figured by Ilatzel.'' Another from Alaska,^ and several siich hammers made of basalt from the Queen Charlotte Islands,^ have also been figured. It seems doubtful whether the proper use of these hammers was not for crushing bones.^ Among the natives of North Australia a totally different method ' B. B. Redding in Am. Xataralist, Nov., 1880. Nature, vol. xxi. p. 613. "* ^Transactions of the Ethnological Society, N. S., vol. iv. p. 242. 3 Op. cit., N. S., vol. i. p. 138. * " Volkerkundo," vol. ii. .1888), p. 748. •' Zeitsch. f. EthnoL, vol. ivi. p. 222. « Rep. of U.>S. Nat. Mus., 1888, Niblack, PI. xxii. ' Hep. of Bureau of Ethn., 1887-8, p. 95. 26 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. lU appears to have been adopted, the flakes being struck off the stone which is used as a hammer, and not off the block which is struck. In the exploring expedition, under Mr. A. G. Gregory, in 1855-6, the party came on an open space between the cliffs along one of the tributary streams of the Victoria Eiver, where the ground was thickly strewn with fragments of various stones and imperfectly- formed weapons. The method of formation of the weapons, accord- ing to Mr. Baines,^ was this," The native having chosen a pebble of agate, flint, or other suitable stone, perhaps as large as an ostrich egg, sits down before a larger block, on which he strik( s it so as to detach from the end a piece, leaving a flattened base for his subse- quent operations. Then, holding the pebble with its base down- wards, he again strikes so as to split off a piece as thin and broad as possible, tapering upward in an oval or leaf-like form, and sharp and thin at the edges. His next object is to strike off another piece nearly similar, so close as to leave a projecting angle on the stone, as sharp, straight, and perpendicular as possible. Then, again taking the pebble carefully in his hand, he aims the decisive blow, which, if he is successful, splits off another piece with the angle running straight up its centre as a midrib, and the two edges sharp, clear, and equal, spreading slightly from the base, and again narrowing till they meet the midrib in a keen and taper point. If he has done this well, he possesses a perfect weapon, but at least three chips must have been formed in making it, and it seemed highly probable, from the number of imperfect heads that lay about, that the failures far outnumbered the successful results. In the making of tomahawks or axes, in which a darker green stone is generally used, great numbers of failures must ensue ; and in these another operation seemed necesisaiy, for we saw upon the rocks several places were they had been ground, with a great ex- penditure of labour, to a smooth round edge." In the manufacture of flint flakes, whether they were to serve as knives or lance-heads without any more preparation, or whether they were to be subjected to further manipulation, so as eventually to become arrow-heads, scrapers, or any other of the more flnished implements, the form of the nucleus from which they were struck was usually a matter of no great importance, the chips or flakes being the object of the operator and not the resulting core, which was in most cases thrown away as worthless. But where very long ' Anihrop. Rev., vol. iv. p. civ. Mr. Baine»? has hIso conimunicated an iuterest- ing letter od this subject, with illustrations, to Mackie's "Geol. Reperloiy," vol. i. p. 258. PRESSIGNY NUCLEI. 27 flakes were desired, it became a matter of importance to produce nuclei of a particular form, specially adapted for the purpose. I have never met with any such nuclei in England, but the well- known livres-de-beurre chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Pres- signy-le-grand (Indre et Loire), France, are typical instances of the kind. I have precisely similar specimens, though on a rather smaller scale, and of a somewhat different kind of flint, from Spiennes, near Mons, in Belgium ; and a few nuclei of the same form have also been found in Denmark. The occurrence of flints wrought into the same shape, at places so far apart, might at first appear to countenance the view of this peculiar form being that of an implement intended for some special purpose, and not merely a refuse block. This, however, is not the case. I have treated of this question elsewhere,^ but it will be well here to repeat a portion, at least, of what I have before Avritten on this point. These large nuclei or Uvres-de-heurre are blocks of flint, usuallv 10 or 12 inches long and 3 to 4 inches wide in the broadest part, the thickness being in most cases less than the width. In general outline they may be described as boat-shaped, being square at one end and brought to a point — more or less finished — at the other. The outline has been given by striking a succession of flakes from the sides of a mass of flint, until the boat-like contour has been obtained, with the sides slightly converging towards the keel, and then the upper surface corresponding to the deck of the boat has been chipped into form by a succession of blows administered at right angles to the first, and in such a manner that the deck, as originally formed, was convex instead of flat. After this convex surface was formed, one, two, or even more long flakes were dis- lodged along its whole length, or nearly so, by blows administered at the part represented by the stern of the boat, thus leaving one or more channels along what corresponds to the deck. In rare instances, these long flakes have not been removed, in others of more frequent occurrence, one of the flakes has broken off short before attaining its full length. Strange as this boat-shaped form may at the outset appear, yet on a little consideration it will be seen that the chipping into such a form is in fact one of the necessities of the case for the production of long blades of flint. Where flakes only 8 or 4 inches long are required, the operator may readily, with his hammer, strike off from the outside of his block of flint a succession of chips, so as to ' Archcpologia, vol. xl. p. 381. See also Prof. Steeii!=trup and Sir John Lubbock im tli3 Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. v. p. 221. ^8 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. fcHAP. II. give it a polygonal outline, tlie projections of which will serve for the central ridges or back-bones of the first series of regular flakes that he strikes off. The removal of this first series of flakes leaves a number of projecting ridges, which serve as guides for the formation of a second series of flakes, and so on until the block is used up. But where a flake 10 or 12 inches in length is required, a different process becomes necessary. For it is nearly impossible with a rough mass of flint, to produce by single blows plane sur- faces 10 or I'i inches in length, and arranged at such an angle as to produce a straight ridge, such as would serve to form the back- bone, as it were, of a long flake ; and without such a back-bone, the production of a long flake is impossible. It is indeed this ridge (which need not, of course, be angular, but may be more or less rounded or polygonal) that regulates the course of the fissure by which the flake is dislodged from the matrix or parent flint ; there being a slight degree of elasticity in the stone, which enables a fissure once properly commenced in a homogeneous flint to pro- ceed at right angles to the line of least resistance in the dislodged flake, while at the same time exerting a nearly uniform strain, so that the inner surface of the flake becomes nearly parallel to the outer ridge. It was to obtain this outer ridge that the Pressigny cores were chipped into the form in which we find them ; and it appears as if the workmen who fashioned them adopted the readiest means of obtaining the desired result of producing along the block of flint a central ridge whenever it became necessary, until the block was so much reduced in size as to be no longer serviceable. For, the process of chipping the block into the boat-like form could be repeated from time to time, until it became too small for further use. The same process of cross-chipping was practised in Scandinavia in early times, and the obsidian cores from the Greek island of Melos, Crete, and other ancient Greek sites prove that it was also known there. The blocks are found in various stages, rarely with the central ridge still left on, as Fig. 3, and more commonly with one or more long flakes removed from them, like Figs. 4 and 5. The sections of each block are shown beneath them. Two of the flakes are represented in Figs. 6 and 7. All the figures are on the scale of one-half linear measure. The causes why the nuclei were rejected as useless are still sus- ceptible of being traced. In some cases they had become so thin that they would not bear re-shaping ; in others a want of unifor- PRESSIGNY NUCLEI. 2^ mity in the texture of tlie flint, probably caused by some in- cluded organism, had made its appearance, and caused the flakes to break off short of their proper length, or had even made it useless to attempt to strike them off. In some rare instances, when the striking off long flakes had proved unsuc- cessful on the one face, the attempt has been made to pro- cure them from the other. The abundance of large masses of flint near Pressigny — some as much as two or three feet across — has, however, rendered the workmen rather prodigal of their materials. The skill which has been brought to bear in the manufacture of these long flakes is marvellous, as the utmost precision is required in giving the blow by which they are produced. Generally speak- ing, the projecting ridge left at the butt-end of the nucleus between the depressions, whence two of the short flakes have been struck off in chipping it square, has been selected as the point of impact. Thej'^ appear to me to have been struck off by a free blow, and not by the intervention of a set or punch. No doubt the face of the flint at the time of the blow being struck was supported on some elastic body. A few flints which bear marks of having been used as hammer-stones are found at Pressigny. Section. *" Fig. 3.— Nucleus— Pressigny. 30 MANUFACTLRE (iF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II, An interesting lecture on the Flint Industry of Touraine Avas given on the occasion of the annual meeting of the Societe bectiOn. i i'ig.4. N uclei— Presagny . Section. Fig. 5. i Archeologique de Touraiae, in 1891, by M. J, de Saint- Venant. ROUGH-HEWING STONE-HATCHETS. 31 I have hitherto been treating of the production of flint flakes for various purposes. In such cases the flakes are everything, and the resulting core, or nucleus, mere refuse. In the manufacture of celts, or hatchets, the reverse is the case, the flakes are the refuse (though, of course, they might occasionally be utilized) and the resulting block is the main object sought. To produce this, how- ever, much the same process appears to have been adopted, at all events where flint was the material emplo^'^ed. The hatchets seem to have been rough-hewn by detaching a succession of flakes, chips, Fig. 6.— Flake— Pressigny. ■Flake— Prcssigny. or splinters, from a block of flint, by means of a hammer-stone, and these rough-hewn implements were subsequently worked into a more finished form by detaching smaller splinters, also probably by means of a hammer, previously to their being ground or polished, if they were destined to be finished in such a manner. In most cases, one face of the hatchet was first roughed out, and then by a series of blows, given at proper intervals, along the margin of that face the general shape was given and the other face chipped out. This is proved by the fact that in most of the roughly- 32 MAJs'UFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. chipped hatchets found in Britain, the depressions of the bulbs of percussion of the flakes struck oft' occur in a perfect state only on one face, having been partly removed on the other face by the subsequent chipping. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, and more especially among the implements found in our ancient river gravels. In some cases (see postea, Fig. 12) the cutting edge has been formed by the intersection of two convex lines of fracture giving a curved and sharp outline, and the body of the hatchet has been subsequently made to suit the edge. The same is the case with the hatchets from the Danish kjokken-moddings and coast-finds, though the intersecting facets are at a higher angle, and the resulting edge straighter, than in the specimens which I have mentioned. The edge is also, like that of a mortising chisel, at the extremity of a flat face, and not in the centre of the blade. The cutting edge has, however, in most of the so-called celts of the ordinary form, been fashioned by chipping subsequent to the roughing out of the hatchet ; and even in the case of polished hatchets, the edge when damaged was frequently re-chipped into form before being ground afresh. There hardly appears to be sufiicient cause for believing that any of the stone hatchets found in this coimtry were chipped out by any other means than by direct blows of a hammer; but in the case of the Danish axes with square sides, and with their corners as neatly crimped or puckered as if they had been made of pieces of leather sewn together, it is probable that this neat finish was produced by the use of some kind of punch or set. The hammer- stones used in the manufacture of flint hatchets appear to have been usually quartzite pebbles, where such are readily to be obtained, but also frequently to have been themselves mere blocks of flint. Many such hammer-stones of flint occurred in the Ciss- bury pits^ — of which more hereafter — and I have found similar hammer- stones ou the Sussex Downs, near Eastbourne, where also flint implements of various kinds appear to have been manufac- tured in quantities. Not improbably, these hammers were made of flints which had been for some time exposed on the surface, and which were in consequence harder than the flints recently dug from the pits. We have already seen that the gun-flint knappers of the present day are said to work most successfully on blocks of flint recently extracted, and those, too, from a particular layer in 1 Arch., vol. xlii. p. 68. Arch. Jour., vol. xxv. p. 88. Sms. Arch. Coll., vol. xxiv. p. 145. Joiir. Anth. Inst., vol. v. p. SS? ; vi. p. 263, 430 ; vii. p. 413. ANCIENT MINING FOR FLINT. 33 the chalk ; and it seems probable that the ancient flint-workers were also acquainted with the advantages of using the flints fresh from the quarry, and worked them into shape at the pits from which they were dug, not only on account of the saving in transport of the partly-manufactured articles, but on account of the greater facility of working the freshly-extracted flints. This working the flints upon the spot is conclusively shown by the examination of the old flint-quarry at Cissbury, Sussex, by General Pitt Rivers (then Colonel A. Lane-Fox) and others. A very large number of hatchets, more or less perfectly chipped out, were there found, as will subsequently be mentioned. That they were in some cases at great pains to procure flint of the proper quality for being chipped into form, and were not content with blocks and nodules, such as might be found on the surface, is proved by the interesting explo- rations at Grime's Graves, near Brandon, carried on by Canon GreenweU, F.R.S.^ In a wood at this spot, the whole surface of the ground is studded with shallow bowl-shaped depressions from 20 to 60 feet in dia- meter, sometimes running into each other so as to form irregularly shaped hollows. They are over 250 in number, and one selected for exj^loration was about 28 feet in diameter at the mouth, gradually narrowing to 12 feet at the bottom, which proved to be 39 feet below the surface. Through the first 13 feet it had been cut through sand, below which the chalk was reached, and after passing through one layer of flint of inferior quality, which was not quarried beyond the limits of the shaft, the layer known as the " floor-stone," from which gun-flints are manufactured at the present day, was met with at the bottom of the shaft. To procure this, various horizontal galleries about 3 feet 6 inches in height were driven into the chalk. The excavations had been made by means of picks formed from the antlers of the red-deer, of which about 80 were found. The points are worn by use, and the thick bases of the horns battered by having been used as hammers, for break- ing ofi portions of the chalk and also of the nodules of flint. Where they had been grasped by the hand the surface is polished by use, and on some there wasacoatingof chalky matter adhering, on which was still distinctly visible the impression of the cuticle of the old flint-workers. The marks of the picks and hammers were as fresh on the walls of the galleries as if made but yesterday. ' Journ. Etliuol. Soc, N. S., vol. ii. p. 419. See also Proc. Soc. A»i. Scot., vol. viii. p. 419. 34 MANUFACnjRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. It is to be observed that such picks as these formed of stag's horn have been found in various other places, but have not had proper attention called to their character. I have seen one from the neighbourhood of Ipswich/ Suffolk. Canon Greenwell mentions somewhat similar discoveries having been made at Eaton and Buckenham, Norfolk. One was also found by him in a grave under a barrow he examined at Rudstone, near Bridlington,^ and others occurred near Weaverthorpe and Sherburn. A polished hatchet of basalt had also been used at Grime's Graves as one of the tools for excavation, and the marks of its cutting edge were plentiful in the gallery in which it was discovered. There were also found some rudely -made cups of chalk apparently intended for lamps ; a bone pin or awl ; and, what is very remarkable, a rounded piece of bone 4| inches long and 1 inch in circumfer- ence, rubbed smooth, and showing signs of use at the ends, which, as Canon Greenwell suggests, may have been a^ punch or instru- ment for taking off the lesser flakes of flint in making arrow-heads and other small articles. It somewhat resembles the pin of rein- deer horn in the Eskimo arrow-flaker, shortly to be mentioned. The shaft had been filled in with rubble, apparently from neigh- bouring pits, and in it were numerous chippings and cores of flint, and several quartzite and other pebbles battered at the ends by having been used as hammers for chipping the flints. Some large rounded cores of flint exhibited similar signs of use. On the surface of the fields around, numerous chippings of flint, and more or less perfect implements, such as celts, scrapers, and borers were found. At Spiennes (near Mons, in Belgium), where a very similar manufacture but on a larger scale than that of Cissbury or even of Grime's Graves, appears to have been carried on, flints seem to have been dug in the same manner. Since I visited the spot, now many years ago, a railway cutting has traversed a portion of the district where the manufacture existed, and exposed a series of ex- cavations evidently intended for the extraction of flint. Mons. A. Houzeau de Lehaie, of Hyon, near Mons, has most obligingly fur- nished me with some particulars of these subterranean works, a detailed account of which has also been published.^ From this ' Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. i. p. 73. ^ Pennant describes a flint axe as having been found stuck in a vein of coal exposed to the day in Craig y Pare, Monmouthshire. ' " Rapport BUT les Decouvertes Geologiques et Archeologiques faites a Spiennes en 1867." Par A. Briart, F. Comet, et A. Houzeau de Lehaie. Mons, 1868. FLINT-MINES AT SPIENNES. 35 account it appears that shafts from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches in diameter were sunk throjgh the loam and sand above the chalk to a depth of 30 or even 40 feet ; and from the bottom of the shafts lateral galleries were worked, from 5 to 6 feet in height and about the same in width. Stag's horns which had been used as hammers, were found in the galleries, but it is doubtful whether they had been used as pick-axes like those in Grime's Graves. Among the rubble in the galleries, as well as on the surface of the ground above, were found roughly- chipped flints and splinters, and more or less rudely-shaped hatchets by thousands. There is one peculiar fe;iture among these hatchets which I have not noticed to the same extent elsewhere, viz., that many of them are made from the nuclei or cores which, in the first instance, had subserved to the manufacture of long flint flakes, the furrows left by which appear on one of the faces of the hatchets. Sometimes, though rarely, the Pressigny nuclei have been utilized in a similar manner. In France, pits for the extraction of flint have been discovered at Champignolles, Serifontaine (Oise) ^ and at Mur de Barrez (Aveyron).^ Professor J. Buckman ^ has recorded a manufactory of celts and other flint instrimients near Lyme Kegis. In these instances, especially at Cissbury and Grime's Graves in England, and at Pressigny and Spiennes on the Continent, and, indeed, at other places also,^ there appears to have been an organized manufactory of flint instruments by settled occupants of the different spots ; and it seems probable that the products were bartered away to those who were less favoured in their supply of the raw material, flint. At Old Deer,^ Aberdeenshire, thirtj'- four leaf-shaped flints, roughl}^ blocked out, were found together. The chipping out of celts and some other tools formed, not of flint, but of other hard rocks, must have been eflected in the same manner. The stone employed is almost alwaj^s of a more or less silicious nature, and such as breaks with a conchoidal fracture. Mnlaise, Bull. deV Ac. Roy. deBelg., 2" S. vols. xxi. and xxv., and Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 310. See also Cong. Preh. Bruxelles, 1872, p. 279 ; V Anthropologic, vol. ii. p. 326. Mat. 3me s. vol. i. (1884), p. G5, likewise ^«W. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. deBruxelles, torn, viii. 1889-90, PI. I. C. Engelhardt has described Spiennes and Grime's C4raves in the Aarb. for Oldhjnd., 1871, p. 327. What appears to have been a neolithic flint mine at Crayford, Kent, has been described by Mr. Spurrell, ^in-A Joum.. vol. xxxvii. p. 332. The Deneholes were probably dug for the extraction of chalk and not of flint. 1 V Anthropologie, vol. ii. (1891) 445. " j^^t., 3me s. vol. iv. (1887) p. 1. ^ Arch. Assoc. Joum., vol. xxviii. 220. * Cochet, "Seine Inf.," pp. 1(3, 528. Archivio per VAntropol., ^c, vol. i. p. 489. s Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxx. (1896) p. 346. d2 36 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. Dr. F. A. ForeP ckipped out a hatchet of euphotide or gabbro with a hammer formed of a fragment of saussurite. The process occupied an hour and ten minutes, and the subsequent grinding three hours more. He made and ground to an edge a rude hatchet of serpentine in thirty-five minutes. To return, however, to the manufacture of the flint implements of this country, and more especially to those which are merely flakes submitted to a secondary process of chipping. We have seen that in the gun-flint manufacture the flakes are finally shaped by means of a knapping or trimming hammer and a fixed chisel, whicli act one against the other, somewhat like the two blades of a pair of shears, and the process adopted by the ancient flint- workers for many purposes must have been to some extent analogous, though it can hardly have been precisely similar. One of the most common forms of flint implements is that to which the name of "scraper" or "thumb-flint" has been given, and which is found in abundance on the Yorkshire Wolds, on the Downs of Sussex, and in many other parts of England and Scotland. The normal form is that of a broad flake chipped to a semicircular edge, usually at the end farthest from the bulb of percussion, the edge being bevelled away from the flat face of the flake, like that of a round-nosed turning-chisel. The name of "scraper" or '^grattoir" has been given to these worked flints from their similarity to an instrument in use among the Eskimos ^ for scraping the insides of hides in the course of their preparation ; but I need not here enter upon the question of the purpose for which these ancient instruments were used, as we are at present concerned only with the method of their manufacture. I am not aware of any evidence existing as to the method pursued by the Eskimos in the chipping out of their scraping tools : but I think that if, at the present time, we are able to produce flint tools precisely similar to the ancient " scrapers " by the most simple means possible, and without the aid of any metallic appliances, there is every probability that identically the same means were employed of old. Now, I have found by experiment that, taking a flake of flint (made, I may remark, with a stone hammer, consisting of a flint or quartzite pebble held in the hand), and placing it, with the flat face up- wards, on a smooth block of stone, I can, by successive blows of the pebble, chip the end of the flake without any difficulty into the desired form. The face of the stone hammer is brought to 1 Mat., vol. X. (1875) p. 521. • Lartet and Christy's Eel, Aquit., p. 13. PRODUCTION OF ARROAV-HEADS. 37 bear a slight distance only within the margin of the flake, and, however sharp the blow administered, the smooth block of stone on which the flake is placed, and which of course projects beyond it, acts as a stop to prevent the hammer being carried forward so as to injure the form, and brings it up sharply, directly it has done its work of striking off a splinter from the end of the flake. The upper face of the flake remains quite uninjured, and, strange as it may appear, there is no difficulty in producing the evenly circular edge of the scraper by successive blows of the convex pebble. Some of the other ancient tools and weapons, having one flat face, seem to have been fashioned in much the same manner. In the case of arrow-heads and lance-heads, however, another process would appear to have been adopted. It is true that we know not exactly how " the ancient arrow-maker Made his arrow-heads of sandstone, Arrow-heads of chalcedony, Arrow-heads of flint and jasper, Smooth and sharpened at the edges, Hard and polished, keen and costly." And yet the process of making such arrow-heads is carried on at the present day by various half-civilized peoples, and has been witnessed by many Europeans, though but few have accurately recorded their observations. Sir Edward Belcher ^ who had seen obsidian arrow-heads made by the Indians of California, and those of chert or flint by the Eskimos of Cape Lisburne, states that the mode pursued in each case was exactly similar. The instrument employed among the Eskimos, which may be termed an " arrow-flaker," usually consists of a handle formed of fossil ivory, curved at one end for the purpose of being firmly held, and having at the other end a slit, like that for the lead in our pencils, in which is placed a slip of the point of the horn of a reindeer, which is found to be harder and more stubborn than ivory. This is secured in its place by a strong thong of leather or plaited sinew, put on wet, which on drying becomes very rigid. A representation of one of these instruments, in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, is given in Fig. 8. Another in the Christy Collection ^ is shown in Fig. 9. Another form of instru- ' Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N.S., vol. i. p. 139. See also Sev. Arch., vol. iii. (1861) p. 341. ^ ** Rel. Aquit.," p. 18. For the loan of this cut I am indebted to the executors of the late Henry Christy. The same specimen has been engraved by the Rev. J. G. Wood. " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 717. Another example from Greenland is figured in Mat., vol. vi. p. 140. 38 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. ment of this kind, but in which the piece of horn is mounted in a wooden handle, is shown in Fig. 10, from an original in the same collection from Kot/ebue Gulf. The bench on which the arrow- Fig. 8. — Eskimo Arrow-flaker. heads are made is said to consist of a log of wood, in which a spoon-shaped cavity is cut ; over this the flake of chert is placed. Fig. 9.— Eskimo Arrow-flaker and then, by pressing the " arrow-flaker " gently along the mar- gin vertically, first on one side and then on the other, as one would Fig. 10. — Eskimo Arrow-llakfr. set a saw, alternate fragments are splintered off until the object thus properly outlined presents the spear or arrow-head form, with two cutting serrated sides. FLAKING ARROW-HEADS. 39 Sir Edward Belcher some years ago kindly explained the process to me, and showed me both, the implements used, and the objects manufactured. It appears that the flake from which the arrow- head is to be made is sometimes fixed by means of a cord in a split piece of wood so as to hold it firmly, and that all the large surface flaking is produced either by blows direct from the hammer, or through an intermediate punch or set formed of reindeer horn. The arrow- or harpoon-head thus roughly chipped out is afterwards finished by means of the "arrow- flaker." The process in use at the present day among the Indians of Mexico in making their arrows is described in a somewhat different manner by Signor Craveri, who lived sixteen years in Mexico, and who gave the account to Mr. C. H. Chambers.^ He relates that when the Indians wish to make an arrow-head or other instrument of a piece of obsidian, they take the piece in the left hand, and hold grasped in the other a small goat's horn ; they set the piece of stone upon the horn, and dexterously pressing it against the point of it, while they give the horn a gentle move- ment from right to left, and up and down, they disengage from it frequent chips, and in this way obtain the desired form. M. F. de Pourtales^ speaks of a small notch in the end of the bone into which the edge of the flake is inserted, and a chip broken off from it by a sideways blow. Mr. T. R. Peale^ describes the manufacture of arrow-heads among the Shasta and North Cali- fornia Indians, as being effected by means of a notched horn, as a glazier chips glass. This has also been fully described and illustrated by Mr. Paul Schumacher^ of San Francisco. Major Powell confirms this account. The Cloud River Indians^ and the Fuegians,^ also fashion their arrow-heads by pressure. Mr. Cushing^ has described the process and claims to be the first civilized man who flaked an arrow-head with horn tools. This was in 1875. I had already done so and had described the method at the Norwich Congress in 1868. The late Mr. Christy,^ in a paper on the Cave -dwellers of ' Gastaldi's " Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy," translated and edited by C. H. Chambers, M.A. (Anth. Soc., 1865), p. 106. - Mortillet, Mat. pour I' Hist, de I'Homme, vol. ii. p. 517. '■' "Flint Chips," p. 78. * Arch.f. Anth., vol. vii.;p. 263. Bull. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Siirvetj, vol. iii. p. 547. •'■ Nat., vol. xxi. p. 615. "^ Nat., vol. xxii. p. 97. ^ Amer. Anthrop., 1895, p. 307. Nat., vol. xx. p. 483. " Tram. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. iii. p. 365. "Eel. Aquit.," p. 1". 40 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. Southern France, gave an account, furnished to him by Sir Charles Lyell, of the process of making stone arrow-heads by the Shasta Indians of California who still commonly use them, which slightly differs from that of Mr. Peale. This account by Mr. Caleb Lyon runs as follows: — "The Indian seated himself upon the floor, and, laying the stone anvil upon his knee, with one blow of his agate chisel he separated the obsidian pebble into two parts, then giving a blow to the fractured side he split off a slab a quarter of an inch in thickness. Holding the piece against his anvil with the thumb and finger of his left hand, he commenced a series of continuous blows, every one of which chipped off frag- ments of the brittle substance. It gradually seemed to acquire shape. After finishing the base of the arrow-head (the whole being little over an inch in length), he began striking gentle blows, every one of which I expected would break it in pieces. Yet such was his adroit application, his skill and dexterity, that in little over an hour he produced a perfect obsidian arrow-head. .... No sculptor ever handled a chisel with greater precision, or more carefully measured the weight and effect of every blow than did this ingenious Indian ; for even among them, arrow- making is a distinct profession, in which few attain excellence." Dr. Rau^ has, however, pointed out that this account of the manufacture requires confirmation ; but Mr. "Wyeth^ states that the Indians on the Snake River form their arrow-heads of obsidian by laying one edge of the flake on a hard stone, and striking the other edge with another hard stone ; and that many are broken when nearly finished and are thrown away. Captain John Smith,^ writing in 1606 of the Indians of Virginia, says, " His arrow-head he maketh quickly with a little bone, which he ever weareth at his bracert,^ of any splint of stone or glasse in the form of a heart, and these they glew to the end of their arrowes. With the sinewes of deer and the tops of deers' horns boiled to a jelly, they make a glue which will not dissolve in cold water." Beyond the pin of bone already mentioned, as having been found in one of the pits at Grime's Graves, I am not aware of any bone or horn implements of precisely this character, having ' " Articles on Anth. Sub.," 1882, p. 9. - Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 212. " Sixth voyage, "Pinkerton'e Travels," vol. xiii. p. 36, quoted also in "Flint Chips," p. 79. * Jiracer. a girdle or bandage. ARROW-FLAKERS. 41 been as yet discovered in Europe ; but hammers of stag's horn and detached tines have frequently been found in connection with worked flints, and may have served in their manufacture. I have, moreover, remarked among the worked flints discovered in this country, and especially in Yorkshire, a number of small tools, the ends of which present a blunted, worn, and rounded appear- ance, as if from attrition against a hard substance. These tools are usually from 2 to 4 inches long, and made from large thick flakes, with the cutting edges removed by chipping ; but occa- sionally, they are carefully finished implements of a pointed oval or a subtriangular section, and sometimes slightly curved longi- tudinally. Of these, illustrations will be given at a subsequent page. They are usually well adapted for being held in the hand, and I cannot but think that we have in them some of the tools which were used in the preparation of flint arrow-heads and other small instruments. I have tried the experiment with a large flake of flint used as the arrow- flaker, both unmounted and mounted in a wooden handle, and have succeeded in pro- ducing with it very passable imitations of ancient arrow-heads, both leaf-shaped and barbed. The flake of flint on which I have operated has been placed against a stop on a flat piece of wood, and when necessary to raise the edge of the flake I have placed a small blocking piece, also of wood, underneath it, and then by pressure of the arrow-flaker upon the edge of the flake, have detached successive splinters until I have reduced it into form. If the tool consists of a rather square- ended flake, one corner may rest upon the table of wood, and the pressure be given by a rocking action, bringing the other corner down upon the flake. In cutting the notches in barbed arrow-heads, this was probably the plan adopted, as I was surprised to find how easily this seemingly diflScult part of the process was effected. Serration of the edges may be produced by the same means. The edges of the arrow-heads made entirely with these flint arrow-flakers are, however, more obtuse and rounded than those of ancient specimens, so that probably these flint tools were used rather for removing slight irregularities in the form than for the main chipping out. This latter process, I find experimentally, can be best performed by means of a piece of stag's horn, used much in the same way as practised by the Eskimos, By supporting the flake of flint which is to be converted into an arrow-head against a wooden stop, and pressing the horn against the edge of the 42 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [f'HAP. II. flake, the flint enters slightly into the body of the horn ; then bringing the pressure to bear sideways, minute splinters can be detached, and the arrow-head formed by degrees in this manner without much risk of breaking. Not only can the leaf-shaped forms be produced, but the barbed arrow-heads, both with and without the central stem. The leaf-shaped arrow-heads are, how- ever, the most easy to manufacture, and this simple form was probably that earliest in use. The counterfeit arrow-heads made by the notorious Flint Jack are of rude work, and were probably made with a light hammer of iron. Of late years (1895) a far more skilful workman at Mildenhall has produced imitations which can hardly be distinguished from genuine arrow-heads. He keeps his process of manufacture secret. Among many tribes* of America, arrow-making is said to have been a trade confined to a certain class, who possessed the traditional knowledge of the process of manufacture ; and it can hardly be expected that a mere novice like myself should be able at once to attain the art. I may, therefore, freely confess that, though by the use of stag's horn the ordinary surface-chipping characteristic of ancient implements may be obtained, yet the method of pro- ducing the even fluting, like ripple-marks, by detaching parallel splinters uniform in size, and extending almost across the surface of a lance- or arrow-head is at present a mystery to me ; as is also the method by which the delicate ornamentation on the handles ef Danish flint daggers was produced. It seems, however, possible that by pressing the flint to be operated upon on some close-fitting elastic body at the time of removing the minute flakes, the line of fracture may be carried along a considerable distance over the surface of the flint, before coming to an end by reason of the dislodged flake breaking off or terminating. It is also possible that the minute and elegant ornaments may have been produced by the use of a pointed tooth of some animal as a punch. Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell,^ in an interesting article, has sug- gested that the final flaking was efiected after the blades had been ground to a smooth surface, in the same manner as the flaking on some of the most symmetrical Egyptian blades. His view appears to be correct, at all events so far as certain parts of some Danish blades are concerned. It seems, however, very doubtful whether any such general practice prevailed, I have seen a delicate lance-head 1 Schoolcraft, "Indian Tribes," vol. iii. p. 81 ; see also 467. ^ Arch. Journ., vol. liii. 1896, p. .51. GRINDING STONE IMPLEMENTS. 43 6 inclies long, of triangular section, with the broad face polished and the two other faces exquisitely fluted. In this case also the faces may have been ground before fluting. This blade was found in a cavern at Sourdes, in the Landes, and was in the collection of M. Chaplain-Duparc. With regard to the process of grinding or polishing flint and other stone implements not much need be said. I may, however, refer the reader to Wilde's Catalogue^ of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, for an account of the different processes. In all cases the grindstone on which they were polished was fixed and not rotatory, and in nearly all cases the striae running along the stone hatchets are longitudinal, thus proving that they were rubbed lengthways and not crossways on the grinding-bed. This is a criterion of some service in detecting modern forgeries. The grinding- stones met with in Denmark and Scandinavia are gene- rally of compact sandstone or quartzite, and are usually of two forms — flat slabs, often worn hollow by use, and polygonal prisms smallest in the middle, these latter having frequently hollow facets in which gouges or the more convex-faced hatchets might be ground, and sometimes rounded ridges such as would grind the hollow part of gouges. From the coarse striation on the body of most flint hatchets, especially the large ones, it would appear that they were not ground immediately on such fine-grained stones, but that some coarse and hard grit must have been used to assist the action of the grindstone. M. Morlot^ thought that some mechanical pressure was also used to aid in the operation, and that the hatchet to be ground was weighted in some manner, possibly by means of a lever. In grinding and polishing the hollowed faces of different forms of stone axes, it would appear that certain rubbers formed of stone were used, probably in conjunction with sand. These will be more particularly described in a subsequent page. The surface of hard rocks or of large boulders fixed in the ground was often used for the purpose of grinding stone implements. Instances will be given hereafter. Closely allied to the process of grinding is that of sawing stone. It is however rarely, if ever, that in this country any of the stone implements show signs of having been reduced into shape by this process. Among the small hatchets in fibrolite, so common in the Auvergne and in the south of France, and among the green- stone, and especially the nephrite celts found in the Swiss Pfahl- 1 P. 46. - Mortillet, Materiaux, vol. iL p. 353. 44 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II. bauten,* many show evident traces of having been partially fashioned by means of sawing. I have also remarked it on a specimen from Portugal, and on many librolite hatchets from Spain.^ Dr. Keller has noticed the process, and suggests that the incisions on the flat surface of the stone chosen for the purpose of being converted into a celt were made sometimes on one side, and sometimes on both, by means of a sharp saw-like tool. He has since ^ gone more deeply into the question, and has suggested that the stone to be sawn was placed on the ground near a tree, and then sawn by means of a splinter of flint fixed in the end of a staff, which at its other end was forked, and as it were hinged under one of the boughs of the tree sufficiently flexible to give pressure to the flint when a weight was suspended from it. The staff was, he supposed, to have been grasped in the hand, and moved backwards and forwards while water was applied to the flint to facilitate the sawing. The objection to this suggestion is, that in case of the flint being brought to the edge of the stone it M'ould be liable to be driven into the ground by the weight on the bough, and thus constantly hinder the operation ; nevertheless some such mechanical aids in sawing may have been in use. M. Troyon* considered that the blade of flint was used in connection with sand as well as water. This latter view appears, at first sight, far more probable, as the sawing instrmnent has in some instances cut nearly f of an inch into the stone, which, it would seem, could hardly have been accomplished with a simple flint saw ; and the sides of the saw-kerf or notch show, moreover, parallel striaj, as if resulting from the use of sand. The objection that at first occurred to my mind against regarding the sawing instrument as having been of flint was of a negative character only, and arose from my not having seen in any of the Swiss collections any flint flakes that had indisputably been used for sawing by means of sand. At one time I fancied, from the character of the bottom and sides of the notches, that a string stretched like that of a bow might have been used with sand in the manner in which, according to Oviedo,^ the American Indians sawed in two their iron fetters, and I succeeded in cutting off the 1 " Pfahlbauten, Iter Bericht," p. 71. " Lake-d-wellings," pp. 18, 125. See also Linden schmit, " Hohenz. Samml.," taf. xxvii. 2 Froc. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. vii. p. 47. 3 Anzeigerfiir Schweiz. jilterth., 1870, p. 123. * "Habit. Lacust.," p. 19. * See Comptes Itendus, vol. Ixvii. p. 1292, where a suggestion is made of some stone implements from Java haiing been sawn in this manner. METHODS OF SAWING STONE. 45 end of an ancient Swiss hatchet of hard steatite by this means. I found, however, that the bottom of the kerf thus formed was convex longitudinally, whereas in the ancient examples it was slightly concave. It is therefore evident that whatever was used as the saw must have been of a comparatively unyielding nature, and probably shorter than the pebble or block of stone it was used to saw, for even the iron blades used in conjunction with sand and water by modern masons become concave by wear, and, therefore, the bottom of the kerf they produce is convex longitudinally. I accordingly made some further experiments, and this time upon a fragment of a greenstone celt of such hardness that it would readily scratch window-glass. I found, however, that with a flint flake I was able to work a groove along it, and that whether I used sand or no, my progress was equally certain, though it must be confessed, very slow. I am indeed doubtful whether the flint did not produce most effect without the sand, as the latter to become effective requires a softer body in which it may become embedded ; while by working with the points and projections in the slightly notched edge of the flake, its scratching action soon discoloured the water in the notch. What was most remarkable, and served in a great measure to discredit the negative evidence to which I before referred, was that the edges of the flake when not used with sand showed but slight traces of wear or polish. On the whole, I am inclined to think that both the Swiss anti- quaries are in the right, and that the blocks of stone were sawn both with and without sand, by means of flint flakes, but princi- pally of strips of wood and bone used in conjunction with sand.^ The reader may consult Munro's Lake-Dwellings, 181)0, p. 505. Professor Flinders Petrie, in addition to the flint implements of the " New Pace," which he discovered near Abydos, found a number of stone implements at Kahun, and Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell has contributed to his^ book an interesting chapter on their character and the method of their manufacture. Most of the jade implements from New Zealand and N.W. America have been partially shaped by sawing, and in the British Museum is a large block of jade from the former country deeply grooved by sawing, and almost ready to be split, so as to be of the 1 An article by Dr. Rudolf Much on the preparation of Stone Implements is in the Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wieii, 2d. S., vol. ii. (18S;5;, p. S2 ; and one by Mr. J. D. McGuire, in the Amcr. Anthrnp., vol. v., 1892, p. 165. He has also Avi-itten on the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone, in a manner that has called forth a reply from Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., Amcr. Anthrop., 1893, p. 307 ; 1894. p. 997. * " lUahun, Kahun, and Gurob," 1891, p. 51. 46 MANTTFACTTRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP, II. ri^ht thickness for a mere. The natives ^ use stone hammers for chipping, flakes of trap or of some other hard rock for sawing, and blocks of sandstone and a micaceous rock for grinding and polishing. Obsidian is said to be used for boring jade. I have a flat piece of jade, apparently part of a thin hatchet, on one face of which two notches have been sawn converging at an angle of 135° and marking out what when detached and ground would have formed a curved ear-ring. It was given me by the late Mr. H. N. [Moseley, who brought it from New Zealand. There is another peculiarity to be seen in some of the green- stone hatchets and perforated axes, of which perhaps the most characteristic examples occur in Switzerland, though the same may occasionally be observed in British specimens. It is that the blocks of stone have been reduced into form, not only by chipping with a hammer, as is the case with flint hatchets, but by working upon the surface with some sort of pick or chisel, which was not improbably formed of flint. In some instances, where the hatchets were intended for insertion into sockets of stag's horn or other materials, their butt-end was purposely roughened by means of a pick after the whole surface had been polished. Instances of this rouD-hening are common in Switzerland, rare in France, and rarer still in England. The greenstone hatchet found in a gravel-pit near Malton^ (Fig. 81) has its butt-end roughened in this manner. The shaft-holes in some few perforated axes appear to have been worked out by means of such picks or chisels, the hole having been bored from opposite sides of the axe, and generally with a gradually decreasing diameter. In some rare instances the perforation is oval. The cup, or funnel-shaped depressions, in some hammer-stones seem to have been made in a similar manner. The inner surface of the shaft holes in perforated axes is also frequently ground, and occasionally polished. This has in most cases been effected by turning a cylindrical grinder within the hole ; though in some few instances the grinding instrument has been rubbed backwards and forwards in the hole after the manner of a file. M. Franck dc Truguet,^ of Treytel, in Switzerland, thinks he has found in a lake-dwelling an instru- ment used for finishing and enlarging the holes. It is a frag- ment of sandstone about 2| inches long, and rounded on one face, which is worn by friction. But, besides the mode of chipping out the shaft-hole in per- ' Fiecher in Arch.f. Anth., vol. xv., 1884, p. 4G3. 2 The Reliquary, vol. viii. p. 184. ^ Mattriaux, vol. iv. p. 293. METHODS OF BORING STONE. 47 forated implements, several other methods were employed, especially in the days when the use of bronze was known, to which period most of the highly- finished perforated axes found in this country are to be referred. In some cases it would appear that, after chipping out a recess so as to form a guide for the boring tool, the perforation was effected by giving a rotatory motion, either constant or intermittent, to the tool. I have, indeed, seen some specimens in which, from the marks visible in the hole, I am inclined to think a metallic drill was used. But whether, where metal was not employed, and no central core, as subsequently mentioned, was left in the hole, the boring tool was of flint, and acted like a drill, or whether it was a round stone used in conjunction with sand, as suggested by the late Sir Daniel "Wilson ^ and Sir W. "Wilde,^ so that the hole was actually ground away, it is impossible to say. I have never seen any flint tools that could unhesitatingly be referred to this use ; but Herr Grewingk, in his "Steinalter der Ostseeprovinzen," ^ mentions several implements in the form of truncated cones, which he regards as boring- tools [Bohrstcmpel) , used for perforating stone axes and hammers. He suggests the employment of a drill-bow to make them revolve, and thinks that, in some cases, the boring tools were fixed, and the axe itself caused to revolve. Not having seen the specimens, I cannot pronounce upon them ; but the fact that several of these conical pieces show signs of fracture at the base, and that they are all of the same kinds of stone (diorite, augite, porphyry, and syenite) as those of which the stone axes of the district are made, is suggestive of their being merely the cores, resulting from boring Avith a tube, in the manner about to be described, in some cases from each face of the axe, and in others where the base of the cone is smooth, from one face only. One of these central cores found in Lithuania is figured by Mortillet,^ and is regarded by him as being probably the result of boring by means of a metal tube ; others, from Switzerland, pre- sumably of the Stone Age, are cited by Keller.^ Bellucci ^ thinks that he has found them in Northern Italy. Worsaae^ has suggested that in early times the boring may have been effected with a pointed stick and sand and water ; and, ' "Prehist. Ann. of Scotland," 2nd edit., vol. i. p. 193. 2 "Cat. Stone Ant. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 78. ^ p_ 26. * Materiaux, vol. i. p. 463 ; vol. iii. p. 307. 5 Am.f. Schweiz. Alt., 1870, pi. xii. 18—20. ® Archivio per I'Ant. e la Etn., vol. xx. 1890, p. 378. ' "Primeval Ants, of Denmark," p. 16. 48 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. indeed, if any grinding process was used, it is a question whether some softer substance, such as wood, in which the sand or abra- sive material could become imbedded, would not be more effective than flint. By way of experiment I bored a hole through the Swiss hatchet of steatite before mentioned, and I found that in that case a flint flake could be used as a sort of drill ; but that for grinding, a stick of elder was superior to both flint and bone, inasmuch as it formed a better bed for the sand. Professor Rau, of New York, has made some interesting experi- ments in boring stone by means of a driRing-stock and sand, which are described in the " Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1868."^ He operated on a piece of hard diorite an inch and three-eighths in thickness, and employed as a drilling agent a wooden wand of ash, or at times, of pine, in conjunction with sharp quartz sand. Attached to the wand was a heavy disc, to act as a fly-wheel, and an alternating rotatory motion was obtained by means of a bow and cord attached at its centre to the apex of the drilling-stock, and giving motion to it after the manner of a "pump-drill," such as is used by the Dacotahs' and Iroq^iois ^ for producing fire by friction, or what is sometimes called the Chinese drill. So slow was the process, that two hours of constant drilling added, on an average, not more than the thickness of an ordinary lead-pencil line to the depth of the hole. The use of a drill of some form or other, to which rotatory motion in alternate directions was communicated by means of a cord, is of great antiquity. We find it practised with the ordi- nary bow by the ancient Egyptians ; ^ and Ulysses is described by Homer ^ as drilling out the eye of the Cyclops by means of a stake with a thong of leather wound round it, and pulled alternately at each end, "like a shipwright boring timber." The " fire-drill," for producing fire by friction, which is precisely analogous to the ordinary drill, is, or was, in use in most parts of the world. Among the Aleutian Islanders the thong-drill, and among the New Zealanders a modification of it, is used for boring holes in stone. Those who wish to see more on the subject must consult Tylor's "Early History of Mankind"^ and a "Study of the Primitive Methods of Drilling,"' by Mr. J. D. McGuire. 1 P. 392. Archirfiir A)tthrop., vol. iii. p. 187. - Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. iii. pp. 228, 466. 3 Tylor, "Early Hist, of Mankind," p. 248. * Wilkinson, " Anc. Egyptians," vol. ii. pp. 180, 181 ; vol. iii. pp. 144, 172. ^ Odyss., ix. 384. * 2nd ed., pp. 341 et aeqq. ; see also " Flint Chips," p. 96. ' Rep. U. S. Nat. Mm. fcr 1894, p. G23. BORING BY MEANS OF A TUBE. 49 Professor Carl Vogt ^ has suggested that the small roundels of stone (like Worsaae, " Af b." No. 86) too large to have been used as spindle-whorls, which are occasionally found in Denmark, may have been the fly-wheels of vertical pump-drills, used for boring stone tools. They may, however, be heads of war-maces. In the case of some of the unfinished and broken axes found in the Swiss lakes, and even in some of the objects made of stag's horn,^ there is a projecting core ^ at the bottom of the unfinished hole. This is also often seen in^ Scandinavian and German specimens. Dr. Keller has shown that this core indicates the employment of some kind of tube as a boring tool ; as indeed had been pointed out so long ago as 1832 by Gutsmuths,^ who, in his paper " Wie durchbohrte der alte Germane seine Streitaxt? " suggested that a copper or bronze tube was used in conjunction with powdered quartz, or sand and water. In the Klemm collec- tion, formerly at Dresden, is a bronze tube, five inches long and three quarters of an inch in diameter, found near Camenz, in Saxony, which its late owner regarded® as one of the boring tools used in the manufacture of stone axes. This is now in the British Museum, but does not appear to me to have been employed for such a purpose. The Danish antiquaries ^ have arrived at the same conclusion as to tubes being used for boring. Von Estorfi'* goes so far as to say that the shaft-holes are in some cases so regular and straight, and their inner surface so smooth, that they can only have been bored by means of a metallic cylinder and emery. Linden- schmit^ considers the boring to have been effected either by means of a hard stone, or a plug of hard wood with sand and water, or else, in some cases, by means of a metallic tube, as described by Gutsmuths. He engraves some specimens, in which the com- mencement of the hole, instead of being a mere depression, is a sunk ring. Similar specimens are mentioned by Lisch.^*^ Dr. Keller's translator, Mr, Lee, cites a friend as suggesting the ' " Guide ill. du Mas. des Ant. du Nord," 2nd edit. p. 8. * Ameigerf. Schweiz. Alt., 1870,pl. xii. 24. Monro's "Lake D\v.," fig. 24, No. I'i. ' Keller's " Lake-dwelling.s," p. 22. Iter Bericht, p. 74. See also Anzeiger fiir Schweiz. Alterth., 1870, p. 139. * Aarsb. Soc. Nor. Ant., 1877, pi. i. 5. Montelius, "Ant. Sued.," 1874, fig. 34. 5 Morgenblatt, No. 253. * "Allgemeine Culturwissenscliaft," vol. i. p. 80. See also Preusker, "Blicke iu die Vaterltindische Vorzeit," vol. i. p. 173. '' Mem. de la Soc. des Ant. du Nord, 1863, p. 149. " " Heidnisclie Alterthiimer," p. 66. 3 " Alterthiimer, u. h. V.," vol. i. Heft \'iii. Taf. i. *" " Frederico-Fraiu'iscpum," p. 111. 50 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. employment of a hollow stick, such as a piece of elder, for the boring tool. My experience confirms this ; but I found that the coarse sand was liable to clog and accumulate in the hollow part of the stick, and thus grind away the top of the core. If I had used finer sand this probably would not have been the case. Mr. Rose^ has suggested the use of a hollow bone ; but, as already observed, I found bone less effective than wood, in conse- quence of its not being so good a medium for carrying the sand. Mr. Sehested,^ however, who carried out a series of interesting experiments in grinding, sawing, and boring stone implements, found dry sand better than wet, and a bone of lamb better than either elder or cow's-horn for boring. Most of the holes drilled in the stone instruments and pipes of North America appear to have been produced by hollow drills, which Professor Rau^ suggests may have been formed of a hard and tough cane, the Arundinaria macro&perma, which grows abun- dantly in the southern parts of the United States. He finds reason for supposing that the Indian workmen were acquainted with the ordinary form of drill driven by a pulley and bow. The tubes of steatite, one foot in length, found in some of the minor mounds of the Ohio Valley,* must probably have been bored with metal. Dr. Keller, after making some experiments with a hollow bone and quartz-sand, tried a portion of ox-horn, which he found surprisingly more effective, the sand becoming embedded in the horn and acting like a file. He comments on the absence of any bronze tubes that could have been used for boring in this manner, and on the impossibility of making flint tools for the purpose. The perishable nature of ox -horn accounts for its absence in the Lake settlements.^ On the whole this suggestion appears to me the most reasonable. Experiments have also been made in boring v.'ith stag's-horn.^ M. Troyon^ considered that these holes were not bored by means of a hollow cylinder, inasmuch as this would not produce so conical an opening, and he thought that the axe was made to revolve in some sort of lathe, while the boring was effected by 1 Journal of the Anthrop. Snc, vol. vi. p. xlii. - " Arcliaiol. Undersot^el.ser," 1884. 3 " Smithson. Report,'' 18G8, p. 399. "Drilling in Stone without Metal." ^ Schoolcraft, " Indian Tribes," vol. i. p. 93. •'' Anzeiyer f. iSchiveiz. Alt., 1870, p. 143. " Milth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wien, vol. vii. (1878), p. 96. ' " Habitations Lacustres," p. C6. Rev. Arch., 1860, vol. i. p. 39. METHODS OF BORING STONE. 51 means of a bronze tool used in conjunction with sand and water. He mentions some stone axes found in Bohemia, and in the col- lection of the Baron de Neuberg, at Prague, which have so little space left between the body of the axe and the central cores, that in his opinion they must have been bored by means of a metal point and not of a hollow cylinder. Mortillet^ thinks that some of the Swiss axes were bored in a similar manner. The small holes for suspension, drilled through some of the Danish celts, he thinks were drilled with a pointed stone.^ Not having seen the specimens cited by M. Troy on, I am unable to offer any opinion upon them ; but it appears to me very doubtful whether anything in character like a lathe was known at the early period to which the perforated axes belong, for were such an appliance in use we should probably _find it extended to the manufacture of pottery in the shape of the potter's wheel, whereas the contemporary pottery is all hand-made. M. Desor,^ though admitting that a hollow metallic tube would have afforded the best means of drilling these holes, is inclined to refer the axes to a period when the use of metals was unknown. He suggests that thin flakes of flint may have been fastened round a stick and thus used to bore the hole, leaving a solid core in the middle. I do not however think that such a method is practicable. In some of the Swiss ■* specimens in which the boring is incom- plete there is a small hole in advance of the larger, so that the section is like that of a trif oliated Gothic arch. In this case the borer would appear to have somewhat resembled a centre-bit or pin- drill. In others ^ the holes are oval, and must have been much modified after they were first bored. The process of boring holes of large diameter in hard rocks such as diorite and basalt by means of tubes was in common use among the Egyptians. These tubes are supposed to have been made of bronze, and corundum to have been employed with them. Professor Flinders Petrie ^ has suggested that they had jewelled edges like the modern diamond crown .drill, and that they could penetrate diorite at the rate of one inch in depth for 27 feet of forward motion. I think, how- ever, that this is an over-estimate. Saws of the same kind were . also used. Kirchner,'^ the ingenious but perverse author of " Thor's Don- nerkeil," considers that steel boring tools must have been used ' Materiaux, vol. iii. p. 264. - Ibid., vol. iii. p. 294. ^ "Les Palafittes," p. 19. * Keller, " Lake Dwellings," xxv. 1, 7, p. 91. * Op. cit., xxvii. 11, 21, p. 110. 6 Brit. Assoc. Hep., 1881, p. 698. ^ "Thor'sDonnerkeil,"p. 13. E 2 52 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II. for the shaft-holes in stone axes ; and even Nilsson/ who com- ments on the rarity of the axes with the central core in the holes, is inclined to refer them to the Iron Age. He '"^ considers it an impossibility to bore " such holes " with a wooden pin and wet sand, and is no doubt right, if he means that a wooden pin would not leave a core standing in the centre of the hole. The drilling the holes through the handles of the New Zealand^ meres is stated to be a very slow process, but effected by means of a wetted stick dipped in emery powder. I have seen one in which the hole was unfinished, and was only represented by a conical depression on each face. In some stones, however, such holes can be readily bored with wood and sand ; and in all cases where the stone to be worked upon can be scratched by sand, the boring by means of wood is possible, given sufficient time, and the patience of a savage. To what a degree this extends may be estimated by what Lafitau ^ says of the North American Indians sometimes spending their whole life in making a stone tomahawk without entirely finishing it ; and by the years spent by members of tribes on the Rio Negro * in perforating cylinders of rock crystal, by twirling a flexible leaf-shoot of wild plantain between the hands, and thus grinding the hole with the aid of sand and water. The North American^ tobacco-pipes of stone were more easily bored, but for them also a reed in conjunction with sand and water seems to have been employed. On the whole, we may conclude that the holes were bored in various manners, of which the principal were — 1. By chiselling, or picking with a sharp stone. 2. By grinding wdth a solid grinder, probably of wood. 3. By grinding with a tubular grinder, probably of ox-horn. 4. By drilling with a stone drill. 5. By drilling with a metallic drill. Holes produced by any of these means could, of covirse, receive their final polish by grinding. With regard to the external shaping of the perforated stone axes not much need be said. They appear to have been in some ' "Stone Age," p. 79. The boring-tool ia, in the English edition, niistakenljr called a centre-bit. •^ " Stone Age," p. 80. » Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 167. * " Mceurs des Sauv. Amer.," 1724, vol. ii. p. 110. " Flint Chips." p. 525. ^ Tylor, "Early Hist, of Mankind," 2nd edit., p. 191. Wallace! "Travels on the Amazon and Eio Negro," p. 278. ' C. C. Abbott in Nature, vol. xiv. p. 154. PROGRESS IN MODES OF MANUFACTURE. 53 cases wrouglit into shape by means of a pick or chisel, and sub- sequently ground ; in other cases to have been fashioned almost exclusively by grinding. In some of the axe- hammers made of compact quartzite, the form of the pebble from which they have been made has evidently given the general contour, in the same manner as has been observed on some fibrolite hatchets, which have been made by sawing a flat pebble in two longitudinally, and then sharpening the end, or ends, the rest of the surface being left unaltered in form. This is also the case with some stone hatchets, to form which a suitable pebble has been selected, and one end ground to an edge. Such is a general review of the more usual processes adopted in the manufacture of stone implements in prehistoric times, which I have thought it best should precede the account of the implements themselves. I can hardly quit the subject without just mention- ing that here, as elsewhere, we find traces of improvement and progress, both in adapting forms to the ends they had to subserve, and in the manner of treating the stubborn materials of which these implements were made. Such progress may not have been, and probably was not, uniform, even in any one country ; and, indeed, there are breaks in the chronology of stone implements which it is hard to fill up ; but any one comparing, for instance, the exquisitely made axe-hammers and delicately chipped flint arrow-heads of the Bronze Age, with the rude implements of the PalaBolithic Period — neatly chipped as some of these latter are — cannot but perceive the advances that had been made in skill, and in adaptation of means to ends. If, for the sake of illustration, we divide the lapse of time embraced between these two extremes into four Periods, it appears — 1. That in the Palaeolithic, River-gravel, or Drift Period, im- plements were fashioned by chipping only, and not ground or polished. The material used in Europe was, moreover, as far as at present known, mainly flint, chert, or quartzite. 2. That in the Reindeer or CavernPeriod of Central France, though grinding was almost if not quite unused, except in finishing bone instruments, yet greater skill in flaking flint and in working up flakes into serviceable tools was exhibited. In some places, as at Laugerie - haute, surface-chipping is found on the flint arrow- heads, and cup-shaped recesses have been worked in other hard stones than flint, though no other stones have been used for cutting purposes. 54 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II. 3. That in the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period of "Western Europe, other materials besides flint were largely used for the manufacture of hatchets ; grinding at the edge and on the surface was generally practised, and the art of flaking flint by pressure from the edge was probably known. The stone axes, at least in Britain, were rarely perforated. 4. That in the Bronze Period such stone implements, with the exception of mere flakes and scrapers, as remained in use, were, as a rule, highly finished, many of the axes being perforated and of graceful form, and some of the flint arrow-heads evincing the highest degree of manual skill. The subsequent manufacture of stone implements in Roman and later times needs no further mention. Having said thus much on the methods by which the stone implements of antiquity were manufactured, I pass on to the consideration of their different forms, commencing with those of the Neolithic Age, and with the form which is perhaps the best known in all countries — the celt. 55 IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PEEIOD. CHAPTER III. CELTS. The name of Celt, which has long been given to hatchets, adzes, or chisels of stone, is so well known and has been so universally employed, that though its use has at times led to considerable misapprehension, I have thought it best to retain it. It has been fancied by some that the name bore reference to the Celtic people, by whom the implements were supposed to have been made ; and among those who have thought fit to adopt the modern fashion of calling the Celts " Kelts '* there have been not a few who have given the instruments the novel name of " kelts " also. In the same manner, many French antiquaries have given the plural form of the word as Celtce. Notwithstanding this misappre- hension, there can be no doubt as to the derivation of the word, it being no other than the English form of the doubtful Latin word Ccltis or Celtes, a chisel. This word, however, is curiously enough almost an uTra^Xeyofxevov in this sense, being best known through the Vulgate translation of Job,^ though it is repeated in a forged inscription recorded by Gruter and Aldus.^ The usual derivation given is d ccelando, and it is regarded as the equivalent of cwlum. The first use of the term that I have met with, as applied to antiqui- ties, is in Beger's " Thesaurus Brandenburgicus," ^ 1696, where a bronze celt, adapted for insertion in its haft, is described under the name of Celtes. I have said that the word celte, which occurs in the Vulgate, is ^ Oap. xix. V. 24. It also occurs in a quotation of tlie passage by St. Jerome, ia his "Epist. ad Pammachium." See Athenteum, June 11, 1870. - P. 329, 1. 2:5. -0 Vol. iii. p. 418. 56 CELTS. [chap. III. of doubtful authenticity. Mr. Knight Watson/ in a paper com- municated to the Society of Antiquaries, has shown that the reading in many MSS. is certe, and the question has been fully discussed by Mr. J. A. Picton,^ Mr. E. Marshall,^ Dr. M. Much," and others. X. v. Becker^ suggests that the error in writing celtc for certe originated between a.d. 800 and 1400, and he points out that Conrad Pickel, the poet laureate, who died in 1508, latinized his surname by Celtes. Treating the subject as one of probability, it appears much more unlikely that a scribe should place a new- fangled word cdte in the place of such a well-known word as certe, than that certe should have been substituted for a word that had become obsolete. I am, therefore, unwilling absolutely to con- demn the word, especially having regard to there being a recog- nized equivalent in Latin, Ccvhim. It has been suggested that there may originally have been some connection between the Latin celtis and the British or Welsh cellt, a flint ; but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous resemblance than of aflinity.^ A "Welsh triad says there are three hard things in the world — Maen Cellt (a flint stone), steel, and a raiser's heart. The general form of stone celts is well known, being usually that of blades, approaching an oval in section, with the sides more or less straight, and one end broader and also sharper than the other. In length they vary from about two inches to as much as sixteen inches. I do not, however, propose to enter at once into any description of the varieties in their form and character, but to pass in review some of the opinions that have been held con- cerning their nature and origin. One of the most universal of these is a belief, which may almost be described as having been held " semper, tdiqiie et ah omnibus," in their having been thunderbolts. " The country folks ^ of the West of England still hold that the 'thunder-axes ' they find, once fell from the sky." In Cornwall® they still have medical virtues assigned to them ; the water in which " a thunderbolt," or celt, has been boiled being a specific 1 Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S. vol. vii. p. 395. - N. and Q., oth S. vol. ix. p. 463. * Op. eit., X. p. 73. * Mitth. d. Antfi. Ges. in Wlen, vol. xxiv. (1894) p. 84. 5 Arch. J. Anth., vol. x. (1876) p. 140. * Barnes, "Notes on Ancient Britain," 1858, p. 15. ' Tylor, " Early Hist, of Man.," 2nd ed. p. 226, whicli also gee for many of the facts here quoted. See al-so Tvlor's "Prim. Culture," vol. ii. p. 237, &e. » Halliwell, " Rambles in West Cornwall," 1861, p. 205. Mev. Celt., 1870, p. 6. Polwhele's "Traditions, &c.," 1826, vol. ii. p. 607. Folk-lore Juiirn., vol. i. p. 191. BELIEF IN THEIR METEORIC ORIGIN. 57 for rheumatism. In the North of England, and in parts of Scotland, they are known as thunderbolts,^ and, like flint arrow- heads, are supposed to have preservative virtues, especially against diseases of cattle. In Ireland the same superstition prevails, and I have myself known an instance where, on account of its healing powers, a stone celt was lent among neighbours to place in the troughs from which cattle drank. In the British Museum is a thin highly polished celt of jadeite, reputed to be from Scotland, in form like Fig. 52, mounted in a silver frame, and with a hole bored through it at either end. It is said to have been attached to a belt and worn round the waist as a cure for renal affections, against which the material nephrite was a sovereign remedy. In most parts of France," and in the Channel Islands, the stone celt is known by no other name tlian " Coin de/oudre," or "Pierre de tonnerre "; and Mr. F. C. Lukis ^ gives an instance of a flint celt having been found near the spot where a signal-staff had been struck by lightning, which was proved to have been the bolt by its peculiar smell when broken. M. Ed. Jacquard has written an interesting paper on " Ceraunies ou pierres de tonnerre."^ In Brittany ^ a stone celt is frequently thrown into the well for purifying the water or securing a continued supply ; and in Savoy it is not rare to find one of these instruments rolled up in the wool of the sheep, or the hair of the goat, for good luck, or for the prevention of the rot or putrid decay. In Sweden ^ they are preserved as a protection against light- ning, being regarded as the stone-bolts that have fallen during thunderstorms. In Norway they are known as Tonderkiler, and in Denmark the old name for a celt was Torden-steen.^ The test of their being really thimderbolts was to tie a thread round them, and place them on hot coals, when, if genuine, the thread was not burnt, but rather rendered moist. Such celts promote sleep. In Germany ^ both celts and perforated stone axes are regarded ' Sibbald mentions two perforated cerauiiicc found in Scotland. " Pro now in mine. It in of grey flint, and has been formed from a large flake, a con.siderable portion of the flat face of which has been left untouciied by the subsequent working. All along the sides, however, as well as at the ends, it has been chipped on both faces to a sym- metrical form. The outer surface of the original flake has almost entirely disappeared during the process of manufacturing the adze, for such it appears to have been rather than an axe. The form is suggestive of the tool having been copied from one in metal, and is very like that of the flat bronze celts. It may belong to the transi- tional period, when bronze was coming into use, but was still too scarce to have superseded flint. TJie commonest form of tiie symmetrically-chipped but uuground celts is that shown in Fig. 2.3. The particular 'specimen engraved is in my own collection ; and. like so many other antiquities of this class, came from the Fen district, having been found in Eeach Fen in 1852. It is eqimlly convex on both faces, and, from its close re- semblance in form to so many of the polished celts, it was I^robably destined for grinding. I have another of the same form. 6i inches long, from the neighbourhood of Thetford. A magnificent specimen of this class, but wider in propor- tion to its length, found near Mildenhall, is preserved in the Christy Collection. I have a very fine specimen 9 inches long, from the Thames, and others 6^ and 5^^ inches long, of a wider form, and delicately chipped all round, from Burwell Fen. The late Mr. James Carter, of Cam- bridge, had one of the narrower kind, 9 inches long, found at Blunt's II ill, near Witham, Essex. The same form, with numerous modifications, -was found in the pits at Cissbury,^ which will shortly be described. One about 81 inches long, in outline like Fig. 20, was found in Angle- sea.^ Another 9^ inches long, was found near Farnham,'' Dorset. One of the most remarkable discoveries of celts of this character, is that of which I have seen a MS. memorandum in the hands of the late Mrs. Dickinson,* of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, who herself had four of the Fig. 23. — Reach Fen, Cambridge. ' Arch., vol. xlii., pi. viii. 17. * Arch. Jour., vol. xxxi., p. •* " Eic. on Cranborne Chase," vol. ii., pi. xc. * See alflo Chichester vol. of Arch. Inst., p. 61. 301. 76 CHIPPED OR KOUGH-HKWN CELTS. [CIIAV. IV Fig. 24. — Scaniridge, Yorkshire. implements. According to this account, a man digging- flints on, Clayton Hill, on the South Downs, Sussex, in ^jj^ ^ 1803, found near the windmill, just beneath the /-. -5k % sod, and lying side by side, eight celts of grey flint, chipped into form and not ground. One .^ a^ of these was as much as 13 inches long. Those r.-T^ in Mrs. Dicldnson's collection were — (1) llf long f -, ^ £ ■ by 3i broad and 2^ thick, (2) 9^ by SJ by IJ, mUH r • (■^) H "by 3i by 2^. and (4) 6^ by 3 by If. Four ^^^^^1 C iB ^uch. 7^ to 9 inches long, chipped only, were ^^^^^B \m found buried in a row at Teddington.' ^^^^^V |V These deposits seem to have been intentional. ^^^^ V <